Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, ISSN 1318-2269  69Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 2, 69–81 (2006)
Branko Škof1*
Dušica Boben2
Vlasta Zabukovec3
Saša Cecić Erpič1
ATTITUDES TO CONDITIONING 
ACTIVITIES IN PHYSICAL 
EDUCATION: A COMPARISON 
BETWEEN TEACHERS AND PUPILS 
STALIŠČA DO VZDRŽLJIVOSTNIH 
AKTIVNOSTI V ŠPORTNI VZGOJI: 
PRIMERJAVA MED UČITELJI IN UČENCI
Abstract
The purpose of the research was to ascertain physical
education (PE) teachers’ attitudes to conditioning 
activities and any differences in attitudes between
teachers and pupils. 
The questionnaires “Pupils’ Attitudes to Conditioning
Activities Questionnaire” and “Teachers’ Attitudes to 
Conditioning Activities Questionnaire” (Boben, Cecić 
Erpič, Škof & Zabukovec, 2005) were used to measure 
the attitudes of 89 PE primary and high school teachers 
and 1,152 pupils aged from 12 to 18 years. PE teachers 
have a highly positive attitude to the conditioning 
contents of PE, while teachers with more pedagogical 
experience perceive the pupils’ attitude to conditioning 
activities even more positively. ANOVA and MANOVA 
results showed that teachers perceive pupils’ attitudes 
to conditioning activities more critically than the pupils 
themselves. The teachers’ perception, however, does not
differentiate between genders and age groups of young
people. It can be concluded that the effectiveness of
pedagogical work in PE classes would be improved by 
increasing teachers’ sensitivity to perceptions of pupils’ 
interests and needs. 
Key words: attitudes, conditioning activities, physical 
education, teachers, pupils 
1Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
2Centre for Psycho-diagnostic Resources, Slovenia
3Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Corresponding author: 
Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana
Gortanova 22
SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Tel.: +386 15207783
Fax.: +386 15207730
E-mail: branko.skof@fsp.uni-lj.si
Izvleček
Namen študije je raziskati stališča učiteljev športne 
vzgoje do kondicijskih aktivnosti in ugotoviti ali 
obstajajo razlike v tovrstnih stališčih med učenci in 
učitelji. Za ugotavljanje stališč 89 osnovnošolskih in 
srednješolskih učiteljev športne vzgoje in 1152 učencev 
in dijakov, starih od 12 do 18 let, smo uporabili 
»Vprašalnik o stališčih učencev do kondicijskih 
aktivnosti« in »Vprašalnik o stališčih učiteljev športne 
vzgoje do kondicijskih aktivnosti« (Boben, Cecić Erpič, 
Škof & Zabukovec, 2005). Učitelji športne vzgoje imajo 
visoko pozitivna stališča do kondicijskih vsebin v okviru 
športne vzgoje, tisti z več pedagoškimi izkušnjami pa 
učenčeva stališča do kondicijskih aktivnosti zaznavajo 
še bolj pozitivno. Rezultati ANOVe in MANOVe so 
pokazali, da učitelji zaznavajo stališča učencev bolj 
kritično kot učenci sami. Spol in starost učencev ne 
vplivata na učiteljevo zaznavanje učenčevih stališč. Na 
podlagi rezultatov zaključujemo, da bi s povečanjem 
učiteljeve senzitivnosti zaznavanja stališč učencev 
lahko vplivali na povečanje učinkovitosti pedagoškega 
dela v okviru športne vzgoje.
Ključne besede: stališča, kondicijske aktivnosti, šport-
na vzgoja, učitelji, učenci
70 Attitudes to conditioning activities Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 2, 69–81 (2006) 
INTRODUCTION
Like in many European countries, one of the main aims of the Slovenian PE curriculum is 
to develop the physical fitness of young people as an element of a healthy lifestyle (Assche,
Auweele, Metlushenko & Rzewnicki, 1999; Kovač & Novak, 1998a, 1998b). Due to their wide 
spectrum of positive biological, health, psychosocial and educational influences, outdoor
aerobic sports activities and other conditioning activities (e.g., running, mountaineering, ski 
running, bicycling) have become some of the most important factors of human sports culture 
and thus comprise an important part of the physical education (PE) curriculum. 
It seems that the PE curriculum in Slovenia is not very successful in influencing pupils’ healthy
lifestyles. Research results show a decrease in the aerobic and strength endurance capabilities 
of Slovenian pupils in the last three decades (Strel, Kovač, Jurak & Leskošek, 2003; Šturm & 
Strel, 2002). The average 600-metre running time of 13-year-old pupils in 1970 was 2:26.4,
compared to 2:37.7 in 2002 – a decrease of 11.3 seconds or 7.7%. Similarly, results of the ‘chins’ 
hold-test, measuring the strength endurance of pupils in the 5th to 8th grades of primary school 
show a decrease of 17 seconds or 43% from 1970 to 2002. Similar trends in the fitness abilities of
primary and high school pupils have also been reported elsewhere in Europe and the USA (e.g., 
Bunc, Jansa & Kluka, 1997; Kuntzleman & Reiff, 1992; Rychtecky, Naul & Neuhaus, 1996).
This decrease in the aerobic endurance of children and teenagers in Slovenia is perhaps a
consequence of the decline in the amount of their physical activity (Strel, Kovač, Jurak & 
Leskošek, 2003) and is most likely also due to lower efficiency of programmes that seek to
develop the fitness of children and teenagers. Even though conditioning activities are given a
significant amount of time and importance in the Slovenian PE curriculum, it can be assumed
from test results that conditioning activities are in fact not being carried out very efficiently.
The main purpose of this study was therefore to find out possible reasons for the decline and
the relationship with the PE teaching process. 
Psychologists and sociologists have shown attitudes are an important predictor and generator 
of human behaviour (Ajzen, 1988; Biddle & Chatzisarantis, 1999). The theory of planned be-
haviour says that on the basis of self-motivation, which originates in one’s beliefs and attitudes 
and under the influence of the social environment (expectations of the school leadership,
parents) and one’s own private standards, the human (i.e., teacher) has intentions which lead 
to action – i.e., they behave and act in a certain way (Ajzen, 1988; Biddle & Chatzisarantis, 
1999). This means that the teacher may with their positive beliefs and attitudes to conditioning
contents and health successfully transmit these values to pupils. Given that conditioning 
contents in PE programmes are not always optimally executed, it is possible to posit that this 
is a consequence of some PE teachers having a lower appreciation of these contents. It is also 
possible that pupils resist being physically active. At the same time, it can be assumed that 
when choosing contents and work modes teachers do not sufficiently consider young people’s
particular interests and developmental needs.
Teachers’ beliefs, attitudes and values play an important part in accomplishing the specific
aims of the PE curriculum (Hodges Kulinna & Silverman, 2000). The education process is
always a result of pupils’ and teachers’ efforts and their co-operation. According to Grossman
(1995), a teacher’s effectiveness in the education process depends on their particular knowledge
(i.e., occupational, pedagogical and curricular knowledge, knowledge about pupils and learn-
The socialist challenge, Coubertin and the ideology of popular Olympism 71Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 2, 69–81 (2006)
ing) along with their personal beliefs, attitudes, values, personal goals and motivations for 
teaching.
When teaching a PE teacher’s value orientation also derives from their beliefs, attitudes and 
values. Value orientation is described through the teacher’s priority areas in the pedagogical 
process (which targets in the curriculum they favour, how they choose the contents and 
methods etc.). The relative importance of an individual value orientation and the consequent
efficiency in accomplishing the individual aims of PE also depends on the teacher’s system of
values (Ennis, 1994; Ennis & Zhu, 1991). Ennis (1994) observed that teachers plan and carry 
out their lessons according to their value orientation, whilst also believing that it is the best 
one in the given situation. 
Researches (Banville, Desrosiers & Genet-Volet, 2002; Chen, Liu & Ennis, 1997) have shown 
that what PE teachers identify as value orientations change in different cultural environments.
Further, the work environment also plays an important role in a teacher’s value orientation. 
Hodges, Kulinna & Silverman (2000) found that PE teachers teaching younger age groups (up 
to 12 years old) see the development of agility and social development as imperative, whereas 
high school teachers favour activities to develop health and fitness. Similarly, compared with
younger teachers more experienced teachers regard fitness activities and the development of
a healthy lifestyle as being more important. It can therefore be concluded that a PE teacher’s 
work accomplishments depend on the level of their positive attitudes, beliefs and values as 
regards the contents they implement in the educational process and, simultaneously, on their 
knowledge of and taking account of their pupils’ attitudes and interests.
Conditioning activities are important elements of PE programmes but their purpose will 
only be realised if their performance is more effective. So to improve the efficiency of PE 
programmes in terms of their contents, we must also recognise the orientation of PE teachers’ 
attitudes to these activities and their congruity with pupils’ attitudes.
Therefore, the goals of the research project are to identify whether:
a) there is a difference in attitudes to conditioning activities between teachers and pupils;
b) there is a difference in attitudes to these contents between primary and high school PE
teachers; 
c) there is a difference in attitudes to these contents between male and female PE teachers;
and 
d) there is a difference in attitudes to both conditioning activities and the importance of
education for a healthy lifestyle between novice and more experienced teachers.
Method
Participants
The sample of teachers in the study included 89 PE teachers. Forty teachers worked at primary
schools, 43 teachers worked at high schools while 6 teachers did not list their type of school. 
Thirty-nine female and 47 male teachers participated, and three teachers did not specify their
gender. The average age of the teachers included in the research was 39.5 year (SD = 8 years).
Twenty-seven teachers had more than 10 years’ work experience; 34 teachers had between 11 
72 Attitudes to conditioning activities Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 2, 69–81 (2006) 
and 20 years; whereas 21 teachers had more than 21 years’ work experience. The sample of
pupils in the study consisted of 1,148 pupils. The sample included 595 pupils (299 boys and
296 girls – 5th and 7th grades) from 12 primary schools and 533 pupils (222 boys and 331 girls 
– 1st and 3rd grades) from 10 high schools. The average age in the 5th grade of primary school is 
12 years and 14 years in the 7th grade; the average age in the 1st year of high school is 16 years 
and 18 years in the 3rd year. 
Instruments
The two questionnaires Pupils’ Attitudes to Conditioning Activities Questionnaire (PATCAQ) 
and Teachers’ Attitudes to Conditioning Activities Questionnaire (TATCAQ) were completed 
by the pupils and teachers, respectively. 
The Teachers’ Attitudes to Conditioning Activities Questionnaire (TATCAQ; Boben et al., 2005; 
Škof, Cecić Erpič, Boben & Zabukovec, 2000) was used to measure teachers’ attitudes to con-
ditioning activities (e.g., endurance running, cycling, trekking, training for muscular strength 
and endurance) in the physical education process. The questionnaire includes 21 statements
on a five-point Likert-type scale (with a score of 5 representing strong agreement and a score 
of 1 strong disagreement). The psychometric properties of this questionnaire have already
been established (Škof et al., 2000). A validation study (Boben, Škof, Zabukovec, Cecić Erpič 
& Marcina, 2001) showed that the instrument has satisfactory internal consistency (shown as 
Cronbach alphas). Factor analysis led to the formation of three dimensions of attitudes:
a) Teacher’s attitude to conditioning activities (TACA; α = 0.78). This consists of nine items
which represent a teacher’s attitude to fitness activities (e.g., I like endurance running). 
Individual statements include cognitive, connotative and emotional components of one’s 
attitude. 
b) Perception of a pupil’s attitude to conditioning activities (TPPA; α = 0.73). The scale consists of
seven items which show a teacher’s perception of a pupil’s attitude to conditioning activities 
in PE (e.g., Pupils like physically demanding contents of PE). Statements are mainly directed 
at the recognition of the pupils’ emotional and actional responses to selected contents. The
same statements were included in the PATCAQ questionnaire (emotionally-active dimen-
sion). 
c) Importance of education for a healthy lifestyle (IEHL; α = 0.61). The scale consists of five items
which describe a teacher’s attitudes to the importance of education for a healthy lifestyle 
(e.g., In PE pupils should acquire knowledge about the meaning of physical activities for their 
health). 
The Pupils’ Attitudes to Conditioning Activities Questionnaire (ATCAQ; Boben et al., 2005; Škof 
et al., 2000) was used to assess the attitudes of primary and high school pupils to conditioning, 
namely physically demanding sports activities (e.g., endurance running, cycling, trekking, 
training for muscular strength and endurance), in the physical education process. The in-
strument was formed on the basis of a theoretical construct (Martens, 1975; Rot, 1983) that 
considers an attitude to be an individual phenomenon, comprehended as a multi-dimensional 
category that includes cognitive, emotional and action components. This questionnaire was
specifically developed to assess attitudes to conditioning activities held by pupils aged 12
to 18 years. The validation study showed that the instrument has satisfactory psychometric
properties (Cronbach alphas are cited in the parentheses) (Boben et al., 2001 (Škof et al., 2000, 
The socialist challenge, Coubertin and the ideology of popular Olympism 73Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 2, 69–81 (2006)
2001). The questionnaire includes 19 items on a five-point Likert-type scale (with a score of
5 representing strong agreement and a score of 1 strong disagreement). The questionnaire has
two dimensions:
a) The emotionally-active dimension (EMO.B; α = 0.85) includes 11 items which refer to the 
emotional relationship of young people with conditioning sports activities in the context 
of physical education (e.g., I like the physically demanding contents of PE (e.g., strength 
exercising or endurance running). This dimension also includes statements reflecting the
activity performed in various physical education contents. Seven items were the same as 
in the TATCAQ (TPPA dimension).
b) The cognitive dimension (COG; α = 0.78) includes seven items which represent beliefs about 
the positive effects of conditioning activities as well as young people’s knowledge of physical
education contents (e.g., People stay healthy and feel well by exercising regularly). 
Procedure
Teachers, pupils and their parents were previously informed in writing about the purpose 
of the study and the questionnaire’s general content. After the parents’ written consent was
obtained the primary and high school pupils were given the questionnaires to complete. The
testing session took part in the classroom and was supervised by a psychologist. There was no
time limit for completing the questionnaires. Participation in the study was voluntary and 
anonymous. Pupils completed the questionnaires in the classrooms. The inclusion of teachers
in the research was also voluntary and anonymous. 
Descriptive statistics for each individual attitude dimension were calculated for all teachers and 
then separately regarding gender, work environment (i.e., type of school – primary or high) 
and work experience (three groups: up to 10 years’ work experience, from 10 to 20 years, more 
than 20 years’ work experience). In order to allow a comparison of attitudes between teachers 
and pupils, relative values (M and SD) of individual dimensions were used. We divided the 
values of a dimension by the number of items which represent this dimension. Values for all 
dimensions range from 1 to 5. Frequency distributions of responses to each statement in the 
questionnaire for the teachers and pupils were also calculated. 
To determine the influence of gender, work environment and work experience on expressed
attitudes about the conditioning activities, a multi-variant analysis of variance (MANOVA) 
was used. The MANOVA was also used to determine the effect of interactions (gender, work
environment and work experience) on the attitudes. To determine the impact of different
genders, various work environments and differing work experience on an individual’s attitude
dimension, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used. A post-hoc test was used to examine 
any statistically significant differences between individual attitude dimensions for the different
groups.
RESULTS
Analysis of teachers’ attitudes to conditioning activities
The descriptive results and frequency distribution for each statement in the TATCAQ question-
naire demonstrate the very positive attitudes of teachers to the conditioning contents of PE 
(TACA: M = 39.20; SD = 3.8) out of a maximum 45 and 4.36, respectively, on a scale from 1 to 
74 Attitudes to conditioning activities Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 2, 69–81 (2006) 
5 – average value regarding the number of included items). The majority (from 87% to 100%)
of questioned teachers answered with a very positive answer (4 and 5) those statements which 
define the meaning of conditioning activities. They also live a healthy life as 92% of them
have a settled life pattern allowing them to have time for regular sports-recreational activity. 
Most of them (90%) also include in their recreational programme aerobic and other physically 
demanding activities. Therefore, it was also logical to expect that they would identify the high
level of importance of education for a healthy lifestyle (IEHL: M = 23.91; SD = 1.48 out of a 
maximum of 25 and 4.76, respectively, on a scale from 1 to 5).
Contrary to these highly positive teacher attitudes to conditioning contents and the impor-
tance of education for a healthy lifestyle, their perception of pupils’ attitudes to these contents, 
especially the perception of the popularity of conditioning contents among pupils is much 
more negative (TPPA: M = 22.82; SD = 4.1 out of a maximum of 45 and 2.53, respectively, on 
a scale from 1 to 5). For example, 80% of the teachers claimed that their pupils do not like 
physically demanding activities. 
The influence of gender, work environment and teachers’ work experiences on their attitudes to
education about a healthy lifestyle, conditioning activities and the importance of pupils’ own 
attitudes to these activities are presented in Table 1. The MANOVA results show that the only
differences in PE teachers’ opinions on conditioning activities came from the differences in
their work experience (R = 2.18, p < 0.05). The univariate follow-up analysis, however, showed
that a different level of teachers’ work experience only has a statistically significant (F (2.84) 
= 2.85, p < 0.05) effect on the TPPA. The attitudes of PE teachers to conditioning activities,
their perception of their pupils’ attitudes to these contents and their views of the importance 
of education to a healthy lifestyle did not differ significantly between genders or between
primary and high school teachers.
Table 1: Descriptive statistics (M and SD) for each dimension of teachers’ attitudes to condi-
tioning activities separately for gender, work environment and work experience
TACA TPPA IEHL
M SD M SD M SD
GENDER
Male (n = 47)
Female (n = 39)
40.09
38.31
4.19
4.84
23.23
22.42
4.78
4.49
23.67
24.15
1.88
1.08
WORK ENVIRONMENT
Primary school (n = 40)
High school (n = 43)
38.88
39.52
4.30
3.62
23.00
22.65
4.74
3.67
24.01
23.81
1.78
1.11
WORK EXPERIENCE
Up to 10 years (n = 27)
10 – 20 years (n = 34)
20 + years (n = 21)
38.77
40.08
38.75
3.73
4.02
6.25
23.10
22.65
23.73
4.10
5.26
5.36
23.94
23.40
24.38
1.28
1.91
1.16
Legend: TACA = teacher’s attitude; TPPA = teacher’s perception of pupils’ attitudes; IEHL = importance of education 
for a healthy lifestyle 
The post-hoc tests suggested that teachers with 20 or more years of work experience rate their
pupils’ relationship to conditioning contents significantly more positively (t2,53 = -2.583; p < 
The socialist challenge, Coubertin and the ideology of popular Olympism 75Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 2, 69–81 (2006)
0.05) than teachers with work experience of between 10 and 20 years. Statistically significant
differences (t2.46 = -2.214; p < 0.05) can also be noted between teachers with 20+ years of work 
experience and those with less than 10 years. In the other two dimensions of attitude there 
were no significant differences among the teacher experience groups.
Pupils’ attitudes to conditioning activities
The results assessed with PATCAQ point to large differences between the EMO.B and COG
dimensions. Along with the very positive cognitive dimension of attitudes (COG: M = 32.20; 
SD = 4.02, on a 1 to 5 scale), the emotional component is neutral (EMO.B: M = 31.27; SD = 
2.84, on a 1 to 5 scale). Both dimensions of attitudes to conditioning activities become more 
negative with age. The attitudes of young people to fitness activities also vary according to
gender. Boys mainly manifest a higher emotional attitude dimension to endurance sports 
activities, whereas girls manifest a higher cognitive dimension (see Table 2).
Table 2: Descriptive statistics for separate groups of schoolchildren regarding gender and age 
– mean values (M) and standard deviation (SD)
EMO.B COG
M SD M SD
Gender
Boys (n = 521) 32.92 (2.99) 10.67 (0.97) 31.49 (3.94) 5.35 (0.67)
Girls (n = 627) 29.87 (2.71) 10.41 (0.95) 32.78 (4.10) 5.15 (0.64)
Age
12–14 years (n = 595) 33.50 (3.04) 10.92 (0.99) 33.12 (4.14) 4.66 (0.58)
16–18 years (n = 533) 28.81 (2.62)  9.69 (0.88) 31.60 (3.95) 5.17 (0.65)
Legend: 
COG = Cognitive dimension
EMO.B = Emotionally-active dimension
Relative values are stated in the parenthesis. 
The MANOVA results show the statistical significance of Rao’s R for gender and age, which
means that the diversity in attitudes to conditioning activities derives from the age differences
(R = 39.44, p< 0.001) and the gender of the subjects (R = 11.12, p < 0.001). Statistically significant
differences between boys and girls were shown for both dimensions of attitudes (see Table
2). The positive value of the EMO.B dimension was significantly higher for boys [F(1,1129) 
= 15.54, p < 0.001], whereas the value of the COG dimension was significantly higher for
girls [F(1,1129) = 24.98, p < 0.001]. Schoolchildren have different attitudes to the contents
of conditioning activities in different age periods. The ANOVA results show significantly
more positive attitudes of younger pupils in both emotional [F(3,1129) = 22.47, p < 0.001] and 
cognitive dimensions [F(3,1129) = 5.66, p < 0.001] when compared to their older peers.
Analysis of teacher-pupil differences in responses to individual statements about conditioning
activities
The values of EMO.B and TPPA cannot be compared due to the different number of items in
each dimension. A comparison can only be made for the relative values of both dimensions. 
In this case, we found that the mean value of EMO.B (M = 2.84; SD = 0.96) is significantly (p 
< 0.001) higher than the mean value of TPPA (M = 2.53; SD = 0.97). Significant differences
between teachers’ perceptions of pupils’ attitudes to conditioning activities and the attitudes 
76 Attitudes to conditioning activities Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 2, 69–81 (2006) 
of children to these contents of PE also reveal statistically significant differences between the
mean values of teachers’ and pupils’ answers on seven similar items (see Table 3).
Table 3: Differences in responses to individual statements about pupils’ attitudes to condition-
ing activities between teachers and pupils
Item
Teachers
M SD
Pupils
M SD
t P
Pupils (I) like the contents of PE where they get tired. 2.47 1.07 3.18 1.01 15.243 0.000
Pupils (I) like physically demanding contents of PE. 2.67 0.97 3.04 1.05 11.721 0.000
Pupils (I) do not like conditioning activities because 
they require a lot of effort (R). 2.17 0.98 2.75 1.19 6.244 0.000
Pupils (I) like endurance running. 2.44 0.90 2.80 1.06 3.012 0.002
Pupils (I) get bored while running. 2.69 1.06 2.54 1.08 1.122 0.330
Endurance running competitions are too difficult for
pupils (for me). 2.46 1.27 2.96 1.24 3.563 0.001
Pupils (I) like competing in endurance running. 2.42 0.93 2.55 0.01 -0.197 0.427
Note. R = inversion value
Teachers’ perceptions of pupils’ attitudes are significantly different from pupils’ attitudes in all
statements, apart from statements numbered 5 and 7. Further, teachers’ perceptions of pupils’ 
attitudes to conditioning, that is physically more demanding contents, are fairly different
from the pupils’ actual attitudes. Sixty-nine percent of teachers are convinced that pupils do 
not like physically demanding sports activities. Contrary to this, 49% of pupils agreed (score 
4) or entirely agreed (score 5) with the statements: ‘I like the contents of PE where I get tired’. 
Only 17% of the teachers believed that pupils like outdoor running, whereas 39% of the pupils 
gave a positive answer to the same statement. Eighty percent of teachers and just 37% of pupils 
answered affirmatively in response to the statement ‘Pupils do not like physically demanding 
contents of PE’.
Descriptive results for the teachers
Analysing the answers to each statement also confirms the finding that among teachers of
different genders and teachers who teach in primary and high schools there are no statistically
significant differences. Only for statement 4 (‘Pupils like endurance running’) were the male 
teachers’ responses (F = 2.097; p < 0.05) typically higher than those of the female teachers.
Descriptive results for the pupils
On the contrary, the results according to the pupils’ level and gender reveal significant differ-
ences. Primary school pupils (12 to 14 years) indicated a preference for more difficult physical
education contents (items 2, 3, and 5) compared to high school pupils (F2 = 3.861; F3 = 4.656; 
F5 = 7.540;  p < 0.000). The younger ones also prefer (F = 5.448; p < 0.000) competing in these 
activities. Comparisons of male and female answers to selected questionnaire statements show 
that boys (F1 = 5.653; F2 = 4.998; F3 = 3.109; p < 0.000) appreciate conditioning contents 
(items 1, 2, and 3) more than girls. For the girls, running competitions are the most unpopular 
because for them (F6 = 6.624; p6 < 0.000; F7 = 2.832; p7 < 0.000) they are more difficult than
for the boys (items 6 and 7).
The socialist challenge, Coubertin and the ideology of popular Olympism 77Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 2, 69–81 (2006)
DISCUSSION
The most important findings are:
1. PE teachers’ attitudes to conditioning activities and to education for a healthy lifestyle are 
highly positive. 
2. PE teachers perceive pupils’ attitudes to conditioning activities significantly more criti-
cally than the children themselves. Teachers also do not recognise differences in attitudes
between different genders and age groups.
3. Teachers with more pedagogical experience perceive the attitude of pupils to conditioning 
activities more positively.
Teachers have a very positive attitude to conditioning activities and they value highly the 
importance of education for a healthy lifestyle. Similar conclusions about the importance 
of physical preparation and the need to develop a healthy lifestyle can also be seen in other 
studies (Bocket, 1994; Hodges Kulinna & Silverman, 2000). 
The positive attitudes of teachers to examined contents suggest that the teachers are emotion-
ally driven to succeed in their primary and most important role – helping with the socialisation 
of children and teenagers for the role of active participants in physical activities. Consequently, 
teachers whose beliefs and attitudes to physical conditioning and health are positive may be 
successfully transferring these values to their pupils.
Teachers perceive pupils’ attitudes to physically demanding PE content as lower and are more 
critical of them than the pupils themselves. Many teachers are convinced that their pupils do 
not like physically demanding sports activities. Contrary to this, 49% of pupils agreed (score 
4) or entirely agreed (score 5) with statements: ‘I like PE contents where I get tired’. Further, 
69% of teachers and just 37% of pupils agreed with the statement ‘Pupils do not like physically 
demanding contents of PE’, which confirms the big differences between teachers and pupils.
Differences in the identification of pupils’ interests hardly contribute to the success of a PE
teacher’s pedagogical work, as the recognition, respect and consideration of interests, wishes 
and attitudes of pupils to individual contents of the programme are important foundations 
of the planning and execution of the PE process.
If pupils do not have a choice of different PE contents, it is possible that those who like physically
demanding activities may be deprived of their favourite contents. This could negatively affect
their otherwise highly positive attitude to PE. Pupils with positive attitudes to conditioning 
activities have a higher level of intrinsic motivation, they wish to have more difficult physical
education lessons, they want to improve their sports results and confirm their own abilities.
They are more persistent and work harder than pupils with negative attitudes to conditioning
activities (Marcina, Škof, Cecić Erpič, Zabukovec & Boben, 2002). The attitudes of Slovenian
adolescents to physically demanding activities are very ambivalent (Kukovič, 2001; Škof et al., 
2001). The greater dispersion of attitudes indicates very different responses to these activities
within groups of pupils of different ages and genders.
Unfortunately, the results demonstrate that teachers teaching different age groups and genders
do not differentiate in their perceptions of pupils’ attitudes to physically demanding activities.
Among other things, this means that despite various needs and interests pupils of different
age groups and genders may be subjected to the same demands, contents and pedagogical 
78 Attitudes to conditioning activities Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 2, 69–81 (2006) 
approaches. This leads to the equal treatment of the unequal. Further research is needed to
investigate if greater sensitivity on the part of the PE teacher in recognising pupils’ opinions 
and interests, along with a modification of types of work and motivational procedures to meet
the specific demands of the pupils of different ages and genders, might contribute to the better
acceptance of conditioning activities and more efficient PE.
Studies of motivation in sport and physical education have shown that, in order to strengthen 
humanity in education and the development of human values in sport and education, the use of 
task orientation is very important (meaning that goals directed to contents and adapted to each 
individual are more important than normative goals) as well as the utilisation of internal mo-
tives for reaching goals (Deci & Ryan, 1991; Duda, Olson & Templin, 1991; Vallerand & Losier, 
1994). Motivation derives from the fulfilment of basic psychological needs: being accepted,
being recognised, having fun and freedom (Glasser, 1994). In different people various needs
are manifested differently and their priority can also change over time. The “empty tanks”
of one or more needs, especially in the long run, will lead to a decrease in pupils’ motivation 
and a reluctance to accept a teacher.
Not all types of leadership work for all pupils in all situations. It often happens that the teacher
views the pupils from their (subjective) aspect. They thinks that they know what a pupil needs
and what is the most important for them (in the short and long term). In reality, with their 
actions they do not contribute to increasing a pupil’s psychological capacities. In addition, 
due to the ever present teacher-pupil (class) interaction the teacher often forgets that each
pupil has their own priority of needs and view of how to best fulfil these needs. Therefore, it
is important that the teacher tries to establish the conditions to fulfil different needs in any
given situation. Thus each pupil will be able to find something for themselves; something that
works for one pupil is not necessarily beneficial to the other.
Compared to their younger colleagues, teachers with more than 20 years’ work experience 
perceive pupils’ attitudes to physically demanding activities more positively. The question is
whether teachers with longer work experience develop a better classroom mood and produce 
satisfied pupils in PE, or do they just view them less critically? A teacher has many social roles
(in relation to the pupils, headmaster, parents, environment etc.) which quite specifically define
thier socially expected actions. Frequently these actions are in contradiction with expecta-
tions and quite often the teacher experiences a so-called conflict of roles. This leads to them
continuously compromising with pupils, school leadership, the incomplete school system etc. 
Conflicts of teachers’ roles and continuous compromising are a cause of various neuroses
which are manifested in atypical behaviour: inactivity or numbness, obsession with accuracy, 
demanding too much etc., or lead to the transformation from an idealist to an ‘attuned virtuoso 
in practise’ (Cankar, 1994; Liebhart, 1970). 
The socio-psychological theory of teaching emphasises the importance of the communication
process which enables the transfer of knowledge and experience from the teacher to the 
pupils. The core of this process is an exchange of ideas, beliefs, attitudes etc. This dimension
of a teacher’s work is even more important in the PE subject. Cankar (1994) found that girls 
rank open communication as the highest virtue in a female PE teacher, whereas boys consider 
methods of class organisation and teaching as the most important criteria of a teacher’s quality. 
In addition, Cankar (1985) found that 7th year primary school pupils value their teacher highly 
if they are included in the organisation and implementation of work and their interests are 
considered. 
The socialist challenge, Coubertin and the ideology of popular Olympism 79Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 2, 69–81 (2006)
Liebhart’s theory (1970) that practice makes the teacher and that experience develops leader-
ship techniques and communication is being confirmed by the theory of the professional
development of teachers. Berliner (1995) indicated five developmental stages of a teacher:
complete novice; novice with some experience; competent teacher; proficient teacher; and
expert teacher. A characteristic of an expert teacher (with 10 to 15 thousand hours of teaching) 
is intuitive work. They solve problems in their own way, very efficiently and with ease.
Conclusions 
Based on the results of this study, it may be concluded that teachers highly value the impor-
tance of education for a healthy lifestyle. However, the difference seen in attitudes and their
inability to recognise the individual needs of pupils of different ages and genders leads to the
conclusion that the lower level of efficiency of PE programmes with conditioning activities is
also a result of less efficient pedagogical approaches being used by PE teachers.
Greater sensitivity when recognising the opinions and interests of pupils, together with the 
adaptation of working methods and motivational procedures to the specific needs of each
gender and age group, is needed in order to improve the efficiency of PE teachers’ pedagogi-
cal approaches and bring about the more efficient delivery of programmes with endurance
contents. 
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