Jakob M e d v e d O GEOGRAFSKEM PROUČEVANJU SLOVENSKE PODEŽELSKE POKRAJINE Slovenija je v fizičnogeografskera pogledu ozemlje stikov in preho­ dov. V n jej najdem o skoraj vse glavne pokrajinske tipe Evrope. Na skromnem obsegu, ki zajem a samo dobrih 2 0 . 0 0 0 m2, se stikajo alpski, p redalpsk i, dinarski, subpanonski in subm editeranski svet. Nič m anjša kot v reliefu ni p ri tem pisanost v podnebnih in rastlinskih razm erah. Ta izredna raznolikost naravnih razm er nudi zelo različno m ateria l­ no okolje za življenje in delovanje človeka. Vsa ta raznoličnost p rih a ja do izraza tud i v videzu in s tru k tu ri podeželske pokrajine, ki je zato že dolgo vzbujala posebno zanim anje slovenskih geografov. Pregled p ro ­ učevanj te pokrajine p a je najbolje razdeliti na predvojno dobo, ko so še močno prevladovale poteze tradicionalne podeželske pokrajine in na najnovejšo dobo, ko je ta pokra jina v tem eljitem preoblikovanju. I. Že za p r e d v o j n o slovensko podeželsko pokrajino je bilo zna­ čilno, da je bilo zarad i prevlade gorskega in kraškega sveta na splošno jnalo zemljišč, p rim ernih za poljedelstvo. O b koncu preteklega stoletja, ko so bila obdelana vsa za to količkaj p rim erna zemljišča, so njive ob­ segale 17,09%, vinogradi 1,95%, vrtovi 1,03 %, travn ik i 15,95 %, pašniki 16,99% gozdovi 41,47% in nerodoviten svet 4,45 % celotne površine. R az­ nolikost naravnih razm er se kaže tud i v velikih razlikah p ri deležu obdelovalnih zemljišč (njive, vrtovi, vinogradi) po posameznih naravnih področjih. N ajn ižji delež obdelovalne površine z 0 —3 % je prevladoval v visokogorskih področjih in na najvišjih k rašk ih planotah , k jer so le red ­ ka naselja. Od 3—1 0 % obdelovalnega sveta so imela višja, nekoliko moč­ neje naseljena ozemlja v A lpah, na Krasu in vmes ležečih gorovjih. V večini sredogorskega sveta je obdelovalna zem lja zavzem ala od 1 0 — 2 0 % celotne povrišne. V k rašk ih predelih so imele tak delež najbolj ugodne, v rodovitni vzhodni Sloveniji pa neugodne izjeme. O d 2 0 —35 % obdelo­ valne površine so imeli k ra ji na n ižjih južnih pobočjih gora (zlasti med Pohorjem , D ravskim poljem in Posavskim hribovjem). V sredogorju in na kraških poljih pomeni tak odstotek že ugodno stanje, v terciarnem gričevju in na dnu dolin p a je nastopal le izjem no v močvirnejših predelih ali ol) drugih neugodnih ta ln ih razm erah. Delež s 35—50°/» obdelovalne zemlje je bil značilen za suhe, rodovitne ravnine L jubljanske in Celjske kotline, posebno p a za severovzhodna in jugovzhodna vinogradniška področja. V ravninskem subpanonskem svetu, ob M uri in D rav i te r v Slovenskih goricah, p a se je delež obdelovalne zemlje m arsik je dvignil nad 50 %. V m anjši m eri je bil tak delež zastopan še v ravnem svetu okrog Gorice te r v flišn ih gričih ob m orski obali od K opra do P irana. Delež travnikov je bil največji na kraškem področju (skoraj povsod nad 2 0 %), slede sredogorska področja, vlažnejše doline in deli nižin. R azširjenost pašnikov je šla precej vzporedno s travn ik i: največ jih je bilo na kraškem svetu na Prim orskem , N otranjskem in Kočevskem, pa tud i v Beli k ra jin i je ta delež presegal 50% skupnih površin. V gorskem svetu so pašn ik i zavzem ali (vštevši planinske) od 20—30 % površine. V dnu dolin in po kotlinah ter v nekaterih delih predgorskega sveta so pašn ik i zavzem ali od 15—20%. V drugih k ra jih Slovenije, zlasti v rodo- vitnejšem severovzhodnem delu, p a so pašn ik i obsegali znatno m anjše površine. V Sloveniji p a niso pestre samo naravne razm ere, temveč tudi k u l­ tu rn i vplivi, k i so soodločali p ri n asta jan ju in razvoju oblik poselitve, zem ljiške razdelitve, izgradnji naselij, usm erjenosti gospodarstva, sk ra t­ ka p ri celotnem oblikovanju podobe ku ltu rne pokrajine. T i m ateria ln i in nem aterialni dejavniki so tekom stoletij izobliko­ vali veliko pokrajinsko pestrost slovenskega podeželja. Poleg čistih me­ diteranskih, alpskih , k rašk ih , subpanonskih in panonskih tipov ku ltu rne pokrajine je mogoče ugotoviti še nekatere prehodne oblike kot odraz m ešanja različnih vplivov. Ni slučaj, da so profesor M elik in njegovi sodelavci svoje p rve raz­ iskave podeželske pokra jine usm erili v štud ij tradicionalne agrarne po­ kra jine z njenim i značilnim i naselbinskim i tip i. »V tej delovni smeri je prof. M elik spretno spojil pobude povzete iz ustrezne raziskovalne usm erjenosti Cvijičeve šole s pobudam i, ki so se tak ra t razrastle v Sred­ nji in Zahodni Evropi in ki so zlasti po delu nem ških in avstrijsk ih geografov deloma zajele tud i naša tla. Te pobude so se plodno združile s pobudam i, ki so jih za proučevanje naše agrarne zgodovine daja li t a ­ k ra tn i zgodovinarji na naši univerzi« (1 . str. 235). Ta kom binacija v p li­ vov zunanjih delovnih smeri je ustrezala tako potrebam razvijajoče se slovenske geografske znanosti kot družbenoekonom skim razm eram v no­ vo nastali državi. Slovenija je b ila ta k ra t še izrazito agrarna dežela, saj se je delež km ečkega p rebivalstva le polagom a zniževal, od 75,6%) leta 1S90 na 73,2 % leta 1900 te r na 60.35 % leta 1931. Socialnoekonomski p ro ­ blemi podeželske pokra jine p a so v tem obdobju, ko je tud i našo deželo zajela gospodarska kriza, postajali vedno bolj pereči. Kot odraz zuna­ njih znanstvenih pobud in stvarn ih razm er v domačem okolju so se raz­ vijale raziskovalne smeri, k i so skušale čim bolj osvetliti ak tualne p ro ­ bleme slovenske podeželske pokrajine. P ri raziskovalni dejavnosti sta že od vsega začetka razvoja slovenske agrarne geografije priso tni dve metodološki poti: m onografski p rikaz prostorsko omejenega dela pode­ želske pokra jine te r raziskava določenega elementa, pojava ali dejav­ n ika ter p rikaz njegove vloge in prostorske razširjenosti v celotni Slo­ veniji. Med p rv a pom em bnejša m onografska dela, ki obravnavajo sloven­ sko podeželje, spada M elikova »Kolonizacija Ljubljanskega barja« (2), ki poleg pregleda osuševanja, kultivacije zemljišča in naseljevanja p r i­ kazuje tud i tipe hiš, naselij, zem ljišča in socialno gospodarske razmere. Ta M elikova štud ija ni pom em bna samo zato, ker p rikazu je za sloven­ ske razm ere izjem en prim er pozne kolonizacije (v p rv ih desetletjih p re ­ teklega stoletja), temveč predvsem zaradi metodološke vrednosti, saj je dolga desetletja služila kot p rim er za kom pleksno obravnavo podeželske pokrajine. Vzporedno s tem so nastaja le študije, k i so obravnavale posamezne elem ente podeželske pokrajine ter njihovo prostorsko razširjenost na našem ozemlju. P ri tem moramo omeniti Melikova dela o gospodarskih poslopjih in km etskih naseljih (3) ter Ilešičeve študije o obdelovalni zemlji v Sloveniji (4), o agrarn i prenaseljenosti Slovenije (5) ter o km eč­ k ih naseljih in poljski razdelitv i v nekaterih predelih Slovenije (6 ). Med tem i deli je Melikovo delo »Kmetska naselja na Slovenskem« (3) p rv a sinteza raziskav slovenskih podeželskih naselij, k i podaja p re ­ gled čez osnovne tipe km etskih naselij na Slovenskem in njihovo p ro ­ storsko razširjenost (samotne km etije, razložena naselja, zaselki, gru­ časte vasi, kolonizacijske dolge vasi ali vasi v vrsti, obcestne vasi itd.). V osnovne značilnosti socialnoekonomske struk tu re predvojne slo­ venske podeželske pokrajine posega Ilešičeva štud ija o agrarni p ren a­ seljenosti Slovenije (5). Zasnovana je na statističnih podatk ih iz leta 1931, ko je živelo v tak ra tn i Sloveniji na km 2 km etijske površine 84,3 km ečkih prebivalcev, k a r je bilo znatno več kot takra tno poprečje v Jugoslaviji (78) ali p a v drugih evropskih državah (npr. Poljska 6 6 , M adžarska 59, Švica 43), razen v Ita liji (133), Bolgariji (90) in Grčiji. Velike p a so bile tud i razlike v agrarn i gostoti med posameznimi predeli Slovenije od zelo visokih številk na severovzhodu in vzhodu (okraja Lendava in L jutom er 128, Brežice 126) do podpoprečnih v osrednji in zahodni Sloveniji. D a so že predvojne študije slovenskih geografov n a­ kazovale tud i akutne socialnoekonomske problem e slovenskega pode­ želja, ki p a so s polno močjo izbruhnili na dan šele po vojni, dokazuje kolektivno zasnovana štud ija Geografskega in štitu ta univerze o gospo­ darski s tru k tu ri Slovenije v luči poklicne statistike in delavskega zava­ rovanja (7). Š tudij poljske razdelitve Slovenije, s katerim je Ilešič sistematsko začel pred vojno, p a je lahko dokončal in strn il v sintezo šele po vojni v delu »Sistemi poljske razdelitve na Slovenskem«, ki je pozneje doži­ velo tud i dopolnjeno izdajo v nemškem jeziku (8 ). V tem delu je o p re­ delil in razložil, v glavnem na osnovi š tud ija katastrsk ih m ap, glavne tipe poljske razdelitve (razdelitev na grude, razdelitev na nepravilne delce, na nepravilne ali grudaste delce, druge prehodne oblike med g ru­ dam i in delci, razdelitev na sklenjene proge, kom binacije sklenjenih prog in p rav iln ih delcev, samotne km etije s celki). D anašnjo prostorsko razširjenost posam eznih tipov je skušal razložiti kot rezu lta t součinko- van ja naravn ih (predvsem reliefa) in družbenih (kolonizacijskih, agrar- noekonomskih, socialnih) vplivov. To tem eljno delo o slovenskem pode­ želju je pomembno s teoretičnega in prak tičnega vidika. V teoretičnem pogledu pom eni pom em ben prispevek k razčiščevanju v p rašan j o n a­ stanku različnih tipov poljske razdelitve v Evropi. P ri tem po eni strani ovrže p re tirane razlage o nem škem vplivu na nastanek sistemov poljske razdelitve p ri nas in o etničnih vp liv ih na ta nastanek na splošno, po drugi stran i p a z ugotovitvijo številnih prehodnih oblik in s prikazom razvoja zem ljiških sistemov od srednjega veka do danes prispeva k splošnem u razčiščevanju v p rašan j geneze tradicionalne evropske ag rar­ ne pokrajine. H k ra ti p a iz dela spoznamo podedovano, p re tirano raz ­ drobljeno zemljiško struk turo kot elem ent antropogenega geografskega okolja, ki' povzroča današn jim težnjam za m odernizacijo km etijstva obi­ lo težav. 2 e pred vojno se je slovenska geografija lotila tudi proučevanja • p laninskega pašn ištva kot obdobnega, sezonskega dela podeželske po­ krajine. R ezultati teh štud ij so bili za slovensko Ziljsko dolino, za K ara­ vanke in za K am niške A lpe objavljeni že p red vojno ali tik po n jej (9) te r dopolnjeni še z Melikovo sintetično študijo o p lan inah v Julijskih A lpah (1 0 ) te r s proučitv ijo vzhodnega dela Savinjskih Alp (1 1 ). Te štud ije so bile p rav tako izhodišče za poznejše proučitve velikih spre­ memb, ki jih je tud i ta oblika agrarnega življenja doživela po vojni. i II. Zakaj v p o v o j n e m obdobju je doživelo slovensko podeželje v skladu s celotnim družbenogospodarskim razvojem velike in h itre spremembe, takšne, za kakršne so podeželske pokrajine v zahodno­ evropskih deželah potrebovale več desetletij. Delež km ečkega p reb i­ valstva v Sloveniji se je od predvojnih okrog 60 % znižal na dobrih 30 % leta 1961 in na 18% leta 1971. O rna zem ljišča so se v času 1954— 1967 zm anjšala za 14 %. K ljub temu, da njive povečini sprem injajo v travnike, se je skupna površina km etijskih površin zm anjšala za do­ brih 20.000 ha ali za 1,9 °/o. Č ista km ečka gospodarstva so se naglo sp re­ m in ja la v m ešana in nekm ečka gospodarstva. Tako je bilo leta I960 od skupnega števila (194.855) gospodarstev 49,1 % čisto km ečkih, 43,2 °/o m ešanih, 5,9 % nekm ečkih in 1 ,8 °/o gospodarstev brez delovne sile. H k ra­ ti se je znatno zm anjšalo tudi skupno število zasebnih km ečkih gospo­ darstev, od 199.000 leta 1947 na 183.000 leta 1969, torej za 8 %. Poprečna velikost zasebnega km ečkega gospodarstva se je od leta 1931 do leta 1969 zm anjšala od 8,27 ha na 6,2 ha. Iz teh podatkov odseva intenzivni razvoj, ki so ga sprožili v prvem povojnem obdobju predvsem nagla industrializacija dežele in s tem povezana potreba po delovni sili, v drugem obdobju p a prehod na tržno gospodarstvo, h itrejši razvoj terc iarn ih dejavnosti in odprtje m eja z od­ hajan jem na delo v tujino. Te nagle in korenite sprem em be na podeželju so raziskovalce usm erjale k proučevanju problem ov in pojavov, ki v predvojni Jugoslaviji še niso bili tako v ospredju. Že v posam eznih regionalnogeografskih delih o slovenskem podeže­ lju, ki so nastala v p rv ih desetletjih po vojni, so ti problem i in z njimi socialni in ekonomski vidiki stopali vedno bolj v ospredje. To se pozna že v Lebanovi š tud iji o Nanosu (12), ki ob obravnavi gospodarske pove­ zave tega predela s sosedstvom osvetljuje družbenogeografske vzroke za nastanek, razvoj in propad nekdanje tam kajšn je tranzim anse. Še bolj z v id ika današn jih problemov je Klemenčič obdelal pokrajino med Snežnikom in Slavnikom (13), k a r je bilo še posebno zanimivo, ker so­ cialne sprem em be na tem področju niso povezane samo z razvojem in propadom tranzim anse, temveč tud i z vplivom T rsta in Reke te r s p ro ­ blem atiko, ki je nastala, ko je z novo razm ejitvijo Trst p ripadel Italiji. Nove sprem em be so p rišle do izraza tud i v drugih podobnih študijah, tako v Vrišerjevi o Goriških Brdih (14), v Kokoletovi o zaostalem pode­ želju med Savo in Sotlo (15), v štud ijah o dolini Kokre, Spodnjem M ur­ skem polju, M ariborskih goricah in Šavrinskem gričevju, objavljenih v letih 1955/56 (16) ter v Gamsovi m onografiji o razvoju ku ltu rne po­ k ra jine v Pohorskem Podravju (17). Značilne spremembe v kulturni po­ krajin i K ranjskega polja v smeri ogozdovanja, ki se je začelo že v 19. stoletju, pa je pokazala štud ija Z. Seifriedove (18). Poseben m ejnik v razvoju geografije slovenskega podeželja pomeni ustanovitev In štitu ta za geografijo Univerze v L jubljani (1961), ki mu je pod vodstvom V. Klemenčiča in znanstvenega svetovalca S. Ilešiča uspelo poživiti in razširiti zanim anje za raziskovanje podeželske p o k ra­ jine. K temu je prispevalo tud i veliko število doktorskih d isertacij iz te problem atike, pa tud i študijsko delo sodclavcev Inštitu ta za geografijo Slovenske akadem ije znanosti in um etnosti (Meze), O ddelka za geogra­ fijo Filozofske fakulte te (Žagar) in posameznikov izven L jubljane (Sore^. A grarno problem atiko gorskih področij so v času po letu 1961 obravna­ vali J. Medved, D. Meze in M. Zgonik (19), spremembe v planinskem agrarnem gospodarstvu M. Vojvoda (2 0 ), subpanonska vinogradniška področja V. Bračič in B. Belec (2 1 ), nižinsko podeželsko pokrajino blizu industrijskega m esta M. P ak (2 2 ), problem atiko gospodarsko zaostalega podeželja M. Žagar in A. Sore (23), preoblikovanje podeželske p okra­ jine v tu rističn ih področjih in v okolici mest M. Jeršič in J. Lojk (24), problem e podeželske pokrajine v prim orju blizu T rsta J. T iti (25) in posebne problem e Ljubljanskega b arja A. Lah (26). Ustanovitev In štitu ta za geografijo Univerze v L jubljan i p a ne po­ m eni samo n ap redka v številu raziskovalcev in raziskav, temveč tudi začetek novega obdobja v odpiranju , povezovanju in sodelovanju slo­ venske agrarne geografije z drugim i znanstvenim i središči v Jugosla­ viji in v inozemstvu. Šele z ustanovitvijo in štitu ta je bila ustvarjena organizacijska možnost za sodelovanje s poljskim i in drugim i vzhodno­ evropskim i agrarnim i geografi, za katero je dala pobudo m ednarodna konferenca za štud ij izrabe tal v deželah vzhodne Srednje Evrope, ki jo je organiziral In štitu t za geografijo Poljske akadem ije znanosti v V aršavi leta I960. P rav tako so se odprle možnosti za stike s socialno agrarno-geografsko šolo v M ünclniu, ki so se zarodili ob p rilik i m edna­ rodnega sim pozija o agrarn i geografiji in zgodovini v N ancyju (1957) in p riš li p rv ič do izraza v nem ški izdaji Ilešičevega dela o poljski razde­ litv i (8 ). V okviru vzhodnoevropskega sodelovanja so razen s poljskim i bili živalm i stiki s češkoslovaškimi, m adžarskim i in vzhodnonemškim i agrarn im i geografi. Im eli so zelo različne oblike od m edsebojnih obiskov in izm enjave m nenj ter študijskega izpopolnjevanja do organizacije skupnih raziskovanj in posvetovanj. Slovenski, poljski in m adžarski ter delom a hrvatski, srbski in m akedonski ag rarn i geografi so skupno raz­ iskovali izrabo zem ljišča v različnih k ra jih Slovenije in Jugoslavije, p a tud i na Poljskem in M adžarskem . P ri tem sodelovanju so slovenski geo­ grafi spoznavali sodobno problem atiko podeželja v različnih evropskih deželah in se seznanjali z različnim i raziskovalnim i smermi in metodami. T ujih teoretskih in m etodoloških izhodišč p a niso nekritično p renašali v svoje raziskovalno delo, temveč so jih uporab lja li le v kolikor je taka smer resnično ustrezala in omogočila spoznavanje in raziskavo stvarne problem atike določenega dela podeželske pokrajine ali določenega ele­ m enta v pokrajin i. Zaradi tega v slovenski ag rarn i geografiji težko go­ vorimo o čisti genetični, socialni ali gospodarskogeografski smeri. Kot smo že omenili, se vse tr i smeri prep le tajo , k a tera smer p a je v ospredju, je odvisno od stvarnih problem ov v določeni podeželski pokrajin i. Tako na prim er Medved v svojih štud ijah (27) o gorskih km etijah p rikazu je odraze sodobnih socialnoekonomskih procesov v gorskem svetu. P revred­ notenje naravn ih razm er in napredek tehnike se v teh predelih odražata v nagli depopulaciji, opuščanju m anjših samotnih km etij ter v nagli eks- tenzifikaciji izrabe zem ljišča: pašn ike in travn ike p re rašča gozd, nek­ danje njive p a se sprem injajo v travn ike in pašnike. Intenzivnost teh sprem em b je socialno pogojena: velike km etije se hitro p rilaga ja jo no­ vim razm eram , m edtem ko m orajo m ale km etije vztra ja ti p ri stari usm e­ ritv i ali p a se prešlojiti. V času od 1900 do 1962 so se v Pohorskem Po­ drav ju skrčile njive za 22,6 °/o, pašn ik i za 29%>, m edtem ko so travnik i narasli za 20,7 %. P ri ugotav ljan ju možnosti za n ad a ljn ji obstoj in raz­ voj km etijstva v gorskem svetu Medved p ri svojih sondnih štud ijah izhaja tako iz podrobnega k a rtira n ja nagiba zem ljišča glede na mož­ nost uporabe m ehanizacije in rentabilnosti gojitve k u ltu r kot iz velikosti strn jen ih km etijskih zemljišč. D a je p ri p re j navedenih m onografijah, ki obravnavajo gospodar­ sko zaostala in gosto naseljena področja severovzhodne in vzhodne Slo­ venije v ospredju socialnogeografski vidik, je odraz ak tualne življenjske stvarnosti. Ko V. Bračič v svojem delu »Vinorodne Haloze« (2 1 ), B. Belec v delu »Ljutomersko-ormoške gorice« (2 2 ) in M. Žagar v delu »Kozjan­ sko« (23) prikazujejo razvoj teh pokrajin , izhajajo iz soialnoekonomske problem atike, saj je ta v tem okolju tisti vodilni dejavnik, k i je dal osnovni pečat k u ltu rn i pokrajin i. V izrazitih v inogradniških področjih, zlasti v H alozah, se je v preteklosti razvilo viničarstvo kot svojstvena oblika socialnih odnosov, ki ga ne poznajo vinorodne pokra jine drugih dežel. P rv i v in ičarji so bili služabniki, k i so jih prem ožni m eščani po­ šilja li na delo v svoje vinograde in jih polagom a tam stalno naselili. V iničarski odnosi so se širili vzporedno s prehajan jem zemlje v m eščan­ sko posest. Leta 1935 je bila skoraj polovica vinogradov v lasti tu jih posestnikov in to 35,4% v lasti meščanov in 13,1 % v lasti km etov iz drugih krajev. Dom ačini so im eli m ala posestva s poprečno okrog 30 arov vinograda. Z ukinitvijo viničarskih odnosov po drugi svetovni vojni je zem lja tu jih meščanov p rešla v družbeno posest. Leta 1963 je K m etijski kom binat P tu j posedoval 79 °/o vseh vinogradov. Z boljšim i agrotehničnim i ukrep i so znatno dvignili pridelek (kmečki vinogradi so p re j dajali poprečno I 6 hl/ha, družbena posest 71 hl/ha) ter z uvedbo teras zm anjšali potrebo po delovni sili od 2200—2500 leta 1964 na okrog 270 delovnih moči. Med regionalnim i proučitvam i močneje urbaniziranega podeželja je še posebno dragocena proučitev transform acije B istriške ravnine severovzhodno od L jubljane, ki zajem a tud i v p rašan ja neposrednega sosedstva tradicionalne kmečke in nove socialistične agrarne izrabe tal (28). V zadnjih letih p rehaja slovenska agrarna geografija od podrobnih regionalnih raziskav k raziskavam določenega problem a za celotno slo­ venijo. Med prvim i tak im i raziskavam i je Vrišerjeva štud ija »Sistemi agrarnega izkoriščanja ta l v Sloveniji (29). N a osnovi površinskega raz­ m erja med posam eznimi ku ltu ram i je določil naslednje sisteme: krm ni z dvem a podtipom a, žitni sistem z dvema podtipom a, okopavinski sistem z dvem a podtipom a, žitno-okopavinski-krm ni te r posebne sisteme kot so sadjarski, vinogradniški in hm eljarski. Vrišer v svoji študiji ugotav­ lja, da se sistemi izrabe zem ljišča v veliki m eri teritorialno grupirajo , česar bi glede na velike razlike v naravn ih razm erah ne pričakovali Te ugotovitve po trju je tud i M edvedova k arta izrabe zemljišča v Sloveni­ ji leta 1969. Č eprav med Vrišerjevo in Medvedovo karto ni mogoča p rava prim erjava, saj določanje tipov p ri p rv i k a rti tem elji na površinah, ki jih zavzamejo posam ezne kulture, p ri drugi p a na denarni vrednosti posameznih pridelkov, nas vendar opozarjata, da je terito rialna g rupa­ cija posam eznih sistemov posredno povezana z naravnim i razm erami. Toda ne z današnjo vrednostjo naravnih razm er za km etijsko izrabo tal, temveč z vrednostjo iz časov, ko so se oblikovale oblika poselitve, zem ljiška razdelitev in posestna struk tu ra. Ti elementi preteklosti v po ­ k ra jin i im ajo še danes močan vpliv na izrabo zemljišča v lasti zasebnih posestnikov, zlasti v gospodarsko bolj zaostalih področjih. Te značilnosti so razvidne tud i iz M edvedovih štud ij »Spremembe v izrabi zem ljišča in preseljevanje km ečkega prebivalstva v Sloveniji v zadnjih dveh deset­ letjih« in »Izraba zem ljišča v Sloveniji s posebnim ozirom na tržne viške« (30). V p rv i štud iji obravnava razvoj posestne struk tu re v povoj­ nem obdobju, razvoj družbene posesti (ki je leta 1966 zavzem ala 31 % celotne površine Slovenije), vpliv velikosti km etij na presla jan je km eč­ kega preb ivalstva in sprem injanje izrabe zemljišča. V drugem delu p ri izrabi zem ljišča ugotavlja, da je Slovenija predvsem živinorejska de- 7 G eo g ra fsk i vestn ik 97 § ° y 2 -* I* 8 3 l? - ^ ^ < l S U | l l J j J J U I X 2 O I » f tw 2 < ® ° u •° Q o o o : : 2 = J ^ - . 5 i 5 i 2 i ^ x _ i _ » _ i _ i _ ) _ i _ i _ ) _ j _ » _ j S l 3 2 z z o Q . a . « i . o : o : Q : o : i n i / > i / > « / > i/>»t/i**/> *-*- 0N I30H CNIMinoSM SlN V T d SNIAVdOMO CDtO 05 UJ>o _ ito Li. O a: U) CD Z ) CL LLIer H—LO - J < to c_) oU) > X »U 2 LU 3 8 LU O N < UJ CD < er E £ ISdOüD-) S IN V Id iVIDBdS 3nnnnx BNaasod S 1V 3M3 D s s S £ 33I8VXI? A A A A S iN V Id yaa ao d tf S 8 V V _ 3NMÜM Ü ° s £ 8 A 5? A A P R P R 8' 8' Š* 8 Mui O H = 5 E d F _=L Tfi s or > 07-foZ 05- 1OZ OC-ISl - lO i Oi-lOS žela, saj krm ne rastline dajejo več kot polovico (65,2 %) celotne vrednosti poljedelskih pridelkov, tem slede okopavine (14,6%) ter žitarice in indu­ strijske rastline. V skladu s tem je tud i stopnja tržne usm erjenosti km e­ tijstva največja p ri živinoreji, sledita sadjarstvo in vinogradništvo, m ed­ tem ko gre p ri vseh drugih skupinah pridelkov na trg m anj kot 12 % pridelkov. Velika pozornost je bila posvečena razvoju planinskega gospodar­ stva in vinogradništva. S prvim vprašanjem se je ukvarja l M. Vojvoda (31), ki si je zadal nalogo, da prikaže za celotni alpski svet vse tiste spremembe, ki jih je v tradicionalno planinsko gospodarjenje že pred desetletji začela p rin aša ti industrializacija, ki so se še posebno stopnje­ vale po drugi svetovni vojni in po naši družbeni preobrazbi. Med nepo­ srednim i razlogi za nazadovanje planinskega pašn ištva so predvsem presla jan je prebivalstva, pom anjkanje pastirjev in prepoved trad ic io ­ nalne gozdne paše iz leta 1960, ki je tud i močno skrčila pašne površine (npr. v občini Bohinj 6.700 ha, v občini Bled 4.800 ha v občini Radovljica 2.200 ha itd.). U krep o prepovedi gozdne paše je bil brez dvoma utem e­ ljen, usoden pa je bil, ker gozdne paše še ni utegnila nadom estiti zadost­ na m odernizacija planinskih obratov. Skupno je bilo na Slovenskem 530 planin , od teh jih je bilo do druge svetovne vojne opuščenih 34 ali 6,4 °/o, po drugi svetovni vojni, do leta 1966, pa še nadaljn jih 91 ali 17,2 °/'o. S tem delom se je dopolnila in ak tualiz ira la slika, ki so jo o našem p la ­ ninskem gospodarjenju podale že omenjene dotedanje študije (9, 10, 11. 1 2 , 13). D rugi problem , razvoj vinogradov v Sloveniji, proučuje B. Be­ lec (32). G re za razvoj od p rv ih desetletjih preteklega stoletja do danes, pri čemer se ugotavljajo tip i tako glede na vrsto t r t kot na tehniko obdelave in se poskuša, na osnovi različnih skupnih meril, z regionaliza­ cijo vinorodnih področij v Sloveniji. S populacijskega vidika, z v id ika deagrarizacijskih procesov te r struk tu re gospodinjstev in km ečkih gospodarstev proučuje socialno- grafske problem e slovenskega podeželja V. Klemenčič v štud ijah , ob­ javljenih v domačem in tujem geografskem tisku. V njih se osvetljujejo procesi izraženi v s tru k tu ri in dinam iki prebivalstva ob naglem prehodu iz zaostale agrarne v moderno industrijsko družbo. S transform acijo podeželja, ki jih p rin aša ta deagrarizacija in urbanizacija, se ukvarja jo še druge raziskave, ki jih v tem »Geografskem vestniku« navaja tudi V rišerjev prispevek o »Geografskem proučevanju slovenskih mest«. Med njim i je za geografijo našega podeželja posebej omeniti študijo V ladi­ m irja in Vere Kokole o urbanizaciji podeželja v Sloveniji (34). Vse naštete smeri geografskega raziskovanja podeželja s strani slovenskih in drugih jugoslovanskih geografov so lepo prišle do izraza na prvem jugoslovanskem sim poziju o agrarni geografiji, k i je bil v Ma­ riboru leta 1964 in o katerem je izšel poseben zbornik (35). Om eniti pa je še, da je S. Ilešič poskušal podati m ednarodnem u in domačemu stro­ kovnemu svetu sintetičen pregled vseh transform acij slovenske trad icio­ nalne podeželske pokrajine v toku 19. in 20. stoletja (36). Naš pregled nam je pokazal, da so slovenski geografi v vsem zad­ njem petdesetletju živeli s slovensko podeželsko pokrajino te r v vsakem obdobju raziskovali tiste pojave in problem e, k i so bili v ospredju do­ gajan ja , še posebno tiste, ki so postali ovira za n ad a ljn ji razvoj. Tako s svojimi p rispevk i niso samo prispevali k teoriji te smeri geografskih proučevanj ter se s tem enakovredno uvrstili med druge evropske n a­ rode, tem več so p rispevali tud i k prak tičnem u reševanju ustrezne p ro­ blem atike v Sloveniji. ' Jakob M e d v e d GEO G RA PH IC A L RESEARCH ON THE RURAL AREAS O F SLOVENIA From the view -point of physical geography Slovenia is a territo ry of contrasts and transitions. Most broad types of landscape of Europe are represented in th a t territory . The alpine, tlie subalpine, the dinaric, the subpannonian and the pannonian landscapes meet in an area which h a rd ly exceedes 2 0 . 0 0 0 square kilometres. There is no less varie ty if conditions of clim ate and vegetation are taken into consideration. These extrem ely varied circum stances in the n a tu ra l endowment of the coun­ try provide also a very d ifferen tiated m ateria l base for M an’s life and action. All this varie ty is m anifest also in the physionom y and in the s tructu re of the ru ra l landscape and, as a result of this, has been arousing the interest of Slovenian geographers since long. I t seems ap ­ p rop ria te to deal w ith research 011 the ru ra l areas in Slovenia in two sections. The first is concerned w ith the p rew ar era when the characte­ ristic tra its of the trad itional ru ra l landscape were still dom inant and the second deals w ith the m odern period when the ru ra l areas are unde rgoing a thorough transform ation. I. It was characteristic of the ru ra l landscape of p r e w a r Slovenia th a t the am ount of arable land was ra ther lim ited because of the p re ­ dom inance of m ountainous and karst areas. A t the end of the nineteenth century, when all land in any w ay suitable for agriculture was already brought under cultivation, the arable land represented only 17.09% of the to tal land area of the country, vineyards 1.95%, gardens 1.03%, meadows 15.95%, pastures 16.99%, woodland 1.47% and the unproduc­ tive land 4.45%. The varie ty of the natu ral conditions are reflected in the share of the cultivated categories of land (i. e. arable, vineyards gardens) in p articu la r types of na tu ra l areas. The lowest share 0—3 %, was typ ical of the high m ountains and karst plateaus w here only a few settlem ents exist. The share rises to 3—1 0 % in other m ountainous areas: in the A lpine area and in the K ras region as well as in the m ountains ly ing in between w here settlem ents occur more often. In most uplands the cultivated land covered 1 0 —2 0 % of the surface. In karst areas such a share is the highest possible whereas in the more fertile eastern Slo­ venia it is an unfavourable exception. The figure rises to 20—35% on the southern slopes, in p articu la r in the area between Pohorje m ounta­ ins, the Sava m ountains and the D rava plain. The la tte r percentage m ay be considered quite satisfactory for up land and karst poljes, w hereas such a share appears in the te rtia ry hills and valleys only w here considerable parts are either water-logged or w here the soils are poorer. The share of 35—50% of the cultivated land is characteristc of d ry , fertile p lains in the L jub ljana and Celje basins and, in particu lar, of the northeastern and southw estern vine-groving areas. The share rises to over 50% in the subpannonian plains along the M ura and D rava rivers as well as in the low hills of Slovenske gorice between both rivers. Sm aller areas w here the share exceeds one h a lf of the surface are also found m ore patch ily in the low land around G orica and in the flysch hills in the coastal belt between Koper and P iran . The share of the meadows was highest in the karst areas (where it exceeded 2 0 %) and decreased in other up lands and in the w etter p arts of the m ajor valleys and plains. A sim ilar d istribution wTas cha­ racteristic of pastures (or grazing land). They are most common in the karst areas of W estern Slovenia, of Inner C arniola and Kočevje upland bu t also on the low karst p lateaus of Bela K rajina. The share in these areas is everyw here above 30%. In the high m ountains the pastures (including those above tree-line) cover some 20 to 30 °/o of the surface. In the valleys and basins, bu t also in some p arts of the hills, the p astu ­ res represent between 15 and 2 0 % of the surface. In the more fertile parts of Slovenia, in p articu la r in the N ortheast, the pastures cover a considerably lower percentage of the surface. Not only the varied n a tu ra l conditions bu t also the cu ltu ra l in flu ­ ences were responsible for the evolution and forms of the settlem ent p a tte rn in ru ra l areas of Slovenia, of the field-patterns, of the types of settlem ents and of the types of ru ra l economy: for the evolution of the ru ra l cu ltura l landscape in general. These m aterial and im m aterial fac­ tors were, during the centuries long evolution, responsible for the great varie ty of the landscape in the ru ra l areas of Slovenia. Pure types of the m editerranean, alpine, karstic, pannonian and subpannonian lan d ­ scapes m ay be discerned as w ell as some transitional types resulting from the in te rp lay of various influences. It was not by accident th a t professor Melik and his disciples focu­ sed their first research efforts on the study of the agricu ltu ral land­ scape in the p re-w ar period on the trad itional aspects and on the types of settlem ents. »In his research in this direction Melik has skillfully responded to stim ulations jo in tly both from C vijic and his school and from the contem porary research orientation in the W est, w hich had also been present in the w ork of some G erm an and A ustrian geographers who studied the ru ra l areas of Slovenia. These stim ulations have been h ap p ily combined w ith the com tem porary in itiatives of the historians at the U niversity of L jub ljana concerned w ith agricu ltu ral history (1 , p. 235). This com bination of ex ternal im pulses corresponded w ith the needs of the emerging geographical science in Slovenia and w ith the socio­ economic background of the new state into w hich Slovenia was included a fte r W orld W ar I. A t th a t tim e Slovenia was still a predom inantly ag ricu ltu ra l country w here the share of the agrarian population was decreasing, bu t only slowly: it fell from 75.6% in 1890 to 73.2% in 1900 and to 60.35 °/o in 1931. The socioeconomic problem s in the ru ra l areas were getting more and more burn ing in th a t period of the w orld econo- jnic crisis w hich has h it Slovenia hard. Several lines of research were picked up as a result of the ex ternal scientific im pulses and of the concrete m ateria l conditions at home in order to throw as m uch new light as possible on the problem s of ru ra l areas of Slovenia. In this research two m ethodological approaches were present in the evolving geography of ru ra l areas from the very beginning. The first was cha­ racterised by the m onographs on p articu la r areas and the second by the analysis of a p articu la r element, phenomenon or factor, and of the distribution and role played by them in general. One of the first m onographs on ru ra l areas of Slovenia was th a t by Melik on the »Colonisation of the M arsh of L jubljana« (2 ). In this study the draining of the m arsh, its iand-use and methods of cultivation as well as the origin and types of the settlem ents, types of houses and the utilization of the land and the other socioeconomic conditions in general were studied The study is im portan t not only because an exceptional case of late settlem ent was examined (first decades of the 1 9 th century!) bu t p rim arily because of the valuable methodological approach: it served for m any decades as a model for comprehensive analyses of ru ra l areas in Slovenia. P arale l studies, dealing wiili particu la r elements of the ru ra l areas or of the ru ra l landscape and of their spatia l distribution in Slovenia were also started a t th a t time. Among the first were those by Melik 011 farm buildings and settlem ents (3) and by Ilešič on the cultivated land in Slovenia (4), on ru ra l over-population (5) as well as on ru ra l settle­ ments and fie ld-patterns in some regions of Slovenia (6 ). The study by M elik on the »rural settlem ents in Slovenia« (3) is the first a ttem pt at the synthesis of the research on m ain types of the settlem ent patterns in ru ral areas of Slovenia (isolated m ountain farm s, »dispersed« settle­ ments, ham lets, nucleated villages, row colonization villages) and their spatial distribution. The basic features of the socioeconomic comoditions of ru ra l areas in Slovenia are dealt w ith in the study on the agrarian overpopulation by Ilešič (5). In 1931 the density of agricultural population per square kilom etre of agricu ltu ral land in Slovenia was 83. This is higher figure than th a t for Yugoslavia (78) or of m any other European states (e. g. Poland 6 6 , H ungary 59, Sw itzerland 43) w ith only some exceptions (Italy 133. B ulgaria 90). There were, however, great differences between various p a r t of Slovenia. The density of the agricu ltural population was on the whole m uch greater in the northeastern and eastern p arts of the country (former d istricts of Lendava and Ljutomer) while it was considerably lower in the cen tral and western Slovenia. The proof th a t Slovenian geographers were aw are of the burning socioeconomic problem s of ru ra l areas in Slovenia, which were however fully felt only a fte r the Second W orld W ar, was a collective publication of the p re-w ar D epartm ent of G eography a t the University of L jubljana on the economic structure of Slovenia in the light of the statistics of em ploym ent and social insurance (7). Several studies by Ilešič on the field-patterns started even before last w ar (6 ) led to a synthesis in his publication »The Systems of Field- pa tte rns in Slovenia, (8 , revised edition in Germ an language). The study was based on the detail analysis of cadastral m aps and of published historical sources and has enabled Ilešič to discern the following m ain types of fie ld-patterns: field division into irregu lar blocks, division into irregu la r strips, regular and irregular openfields, continued strips-pat- tern, enclosures and m any transitional patterns. The contem porary spa­ tia l d istribution of p articu la r types of fie ld-patterns was explained to be a jo in t result of the n a tu ra l conditions and of various social factors related to the process of the settlem ent of the land and to the socioecono­ mic structure, Ilešič basic study about the origins of the ru ra l landscape of Slovenia is of great im portance both because of the theoretical and the practical po int of view. As fa r as theory is concerned the study is a valuable contribution to the analysis of the origins of field-patterns in Europe. The explanation about the strong influence of the m edieval G erm an social structure on the origin on the fie ld-patterns is rejected both for Slovenia and some other p a rts of C en tra l Europe. Also, by iden­ tify ing m any transitional forms and by tracing the evolution of the sy­ stems of fie ld -patterns since they came into existence in the early M iddle Ages the study is a significant contribution tow ards the elucidation of related problem s and thus to the geographical science in general. A t the same time the study is a presentation of the extrem e fragm entation of the p riv a te landholdings, w hich is the result of a long evolution in the past and is an element of m an-m ade geographical environm ent th a t causes a lot of trouble in present efforts of m odernizing the agriculture. Even before the last w ar the geographers have started also w ith studies 011 the high m ountains p astu re areas (»planine«) w hich are a m arg inally and seasonally occupied p a rt of the agricu ltu ral domaine. The results of studies on such areas along the lower Zilja valley (Carin- tliia), in the K aravanke m ountains and in the K am nik A lps were p u b li­ shed ju st before the w ar (9). The synthetic study by Melik on alp ine p a ­ stures in the Ju lian A lps (1 0 ) and th a t b y F ajgelj on m ountain pastures of the Savinja A lps (1 1 ) have com pleted this series of studies. They were the basis of la ter research w hich was concerned w ith great changes w hich the grazing and land utilization in the high m ountains underw ent in the years following the Second W orld W ar. II. D uring the p o s t - w a r p e r i o d the ru ra l areas of Slovenia un ­ derw ent great changes in accordance w ith the general evolution on the social and economic planes, w hich, in the W est European countries, oc- cured only w ith in five or more decades. The share of the agricu ltu ral population was g reatly reduced to about 30 °/o in 1961 and fell again in the last decade to only 18°/o in 1971. The arable land surface has sh runk by 14 % between 1954 and 1967, or by about 1 % each year. Although arable land was m ostly converted to meadows, the to tal area used for agriculture has dim inished by more than 2 0 . 0 0 0 hectars or by 1.9% . P ure peasants ' landholdings are being quickly changed into the m ixed landholdings or even to non-agricultural landholdings. In 1960 there were 194.855 landholdings in Slovenia, of which 49.1 % were still pure agricu ltu ral landholdings, whereas the share of the m ixed lan d ­ holdings was 43.2 °/o. The percentage for the non-agricultural landhold­ ings was 5.9% w hile 1.8°/owere those w ith no m ember of the household being em ployed in agriculture. The num ber of p rivate landholdings was reduced from 199.000 in 1947 to 183.000 in 1969, i. e. by 16.000 or by 8 %. The average size of the agricultural landholding was dim inished from 8.27 hectars in 1931 to 6.2 hectars in 1969. These da ta reflect the intensive evolution which was m ade possible because of several reasons. Among them were, first of a ll,rap id industria­ lization in the im m ediate post-w ar period and the connected dem and for labour-force and, later, transition to a m arket economy; quicker deve­ lopm ent of the te rtia ry em ploym ent; opening of the boundaries for em m igration and for seasonal em ploym ent abroad. These rap id changes have induced researchers to study the problem s and phenom ena which, in p re-w ar Yugoslavia, were not yet in the foreground. Since the w ar the social and economic aspects in regional geographi­ cal studies became more and more prom inent. Leban, in his study on Nanos and its economic links w ith neighbouring areas showed how the alp ine pastures on th a t m ountain were com plem entary to the farm s in the A ipava valley or in the Kras region (1 2 ). He analysed the socioeco­ nomic reasons of the origin, evolution and la ter decline of the »trans- humance« as a specific form of economic links between two differen t natural geographical areas. Present day problem s are also even more in the foreground in a monograph by Klemenčič (1 2 ) on the area between Snežnik and Slavnik mountains. The social geographical evolution of the ru ra l landscape was not related only to the evolution and decay of the »transhum ance«, bu t also to the economic links w ith Trieste and Rijeka. These as well as the problem s th a t have emerged because of the new Italo-Yugoslav boundary since W orld W ar II w hich severed Trieste from its h in terland, are exam ined in the study. New changes in the structu re of ru ral areas are evident also from some others regional studies: in the study by Vrišer on the region of Go­ riška B rda (14), by Kokole on the underdeveloped ru ra l area between the Sava and Sotla rivers (15), in the studies on the K okra valley, the lower M ura plain, the M aribor hills and the Koper hills published in the years 1955/56 (16) and in a m onograph by Gams on the D ravaland of Pohorje (17). The study by Z. Seifried (18) was concerned w ith the changes in the cu ltura l landscape of the p lain of K ranj during the 19th century. The establishm ent of a research Institu te of G eography at the U ni­ versity of L jub ljana (1961) was an im portan t milestone in the evolution of the ru ra l geography in Slovenia. I t was possible, under the leader ship of professors Klemenčič and Ilešič, to revive and to expand the interest in the research on the ru ra l areas. Several geographers joined in this endeavour in a series of doctoral dissertations on various ru ra l areas in Slovenia. The research done along these lines was also carried out by the Institu te of G eography a t the Slovenian Academ y of A rts and Sciences (Meze), a t the D epartm ent of G eography a t the F acu lty of A rts (Zagar) and also by some individuals out of L jub ljana (Sore). The agricu ltural problem s of the m ountainous areas were dealt w ith by J. Medved, D. Meze and M. Zgonik (19) ancl those on the alp ine pastures by M. Voj­ voda (2 0 ). V. Bračič and B. Belec dealt w ith the problem s of the vine- growing subpannonian areas (2 1 ) and M. P ak w ith those of the agricul­ ture on the subpannonian plains (22). The problem s of the economically backw ard areas of the eastern fringe of Slovenia were studied by M. Zagar and A. Sore (23). T ransform ations on the ru ra l areas near tourist centres or around resort towns were studied by M. Jeršič and J. Lojk (24). Special problem s of the ru ra l landscape of the agriculture in the m editerranean coast of Slovenia were studied by J. T itl (25) and in the M arsh of L jub ljana by A. Lah (26). The creation of the research Institu te of G eography a t the U niversity of L jub ljana did not m ean only an increase in the num ber of researchers and of the studies undertaken bu t also the opening of a new era of cooperation w ith others research centres concerned w ith agricu ltural geography, both in Yugoslavia and abroad. The first stim ulus came from the firs t in ternational conference on land utilization studies in countries of C en tral and E astern Europe (organized by the Institu te of G eography of the Polish Academ y of Sciences in W arsaw in I960) but it was the newly founded Institu te w hich has provided the organizational facilities for cooperation w ith Polish and other geographers in E ast-C entral E uro­ pe. In a sim ilar w ay the in ternational sym posium on agricu ltu ra l geo­ g raphy and history (held in N ancy in 1957) was the s ta rt of close con­ tacts w ith geographers of the »social geography« school a t Munich. One of the firs t results was the publication in G erm an language of the re­ vised study by Ilešič on the field-patterns in Slovenia (8 ). The in ter­ national contacts have been quite lively also w ith agricu ltu ral geogra­ phers in Czechoslovakia, H ungary and E ast G erm any. These contacts had various forms: m utual visits and exchanges of opinion as well as organization of jo in t research projects and symposia. The geographers from Slovenia, Poland and H ungary have jo in tly studied agricultural land-u tilization in d iffe ren t p a r t of Slovenia and Yugoslavia, but also in Poland and in H ungary. This cooperation has enabled the Slovenian geographers to get acquainted w ith contem porary problem s of rural areas in various parts of Europe and w ith d iffe ren t methods and direc­ tions of research. They did not, however, uncritica lly transfer the foreign theoretical and m ethodological starting points into their w ork, but have ra th e r used the acquired experience only inasm uch as a certain aproach proved to be adequate in order to exam ine the objective problem s of a p a rticu la r p a r t of the ru ra l environm ent or landscape or a certain ele­ ment ol it. I t is, therefore, hard ly possible to say th a t the geographical research of ru ra l areas in Slovenia has been biased either tow ards the genetical or the social or the economic geography. The three directions are really in tertw ined and it depends on the objective problem of a p a r­ ticu lar ru ra l area w hich of the three directions is in the foreground. Medved in his studies (27) for instance illustrates the im pact of the so­ cioeconomic processes in the m ountainous areas. The evaluation of the na tu ra l conditions and the technological progress in such areas has led to rap id depopulation, to abandoning of sm aller farm s and to a generally more extensive use of land as exem plified in the change of meadows and pastures into woodland and of the arable land into meadows and p astu ­ res. The in tensity of change depends on social circumstances. Larger farm s liave to siick to the old orientation or have to abndon farm ing as the main occupation. In the m ountains along the D rava river the area under the arable has decreased by 22.6 °/o and th a t of the pastures by 29 %>, while th a t of the meadows has increased by 20.7 °/o. Medved has also assessed possibilities for fu rth e r existence and eventual developm ent of the agri­ culture in the m ountains. He based his evaluation — in some sam ple areas — on the am ount of the land surface on slopes of d ifferen t incli­ nation (which were m apped in detail) viz. on the possibilities of the use of m odern equipm ent as well as on the profitableness of various crops under such conditions and, also, on the size of the contiguous stretches of cultivable land. The fact th a t the social geographical aspect is in the foreground in studies dealing w ith economically backw ard and densely populated parts of the northeastern and eastern Slovenia is an expression of the objective realities of the life in those areas. V. Bračič in his study of the vine-growing Haloze hills to the south of P tu j (2 1 ), B. Belec in his study of the area between Ormož and Ljutom er (2 2 ), M. Zagar in his study of the environm ents of Kozje in eastern Slovenia (23) describe the evolution in their study areas and all of them consider the socioeconomic problems and conditions as determ inant factors in the shaping of the cu ltura l land­ scape. In the vine-growing areas and in Haloze in p articu la r a special form of social relations has developped in the past, th a t of »viničarji« (i. e. agricu ltu ral labourers working for absentee landowners), w hich does not exist in the vine-growing areas in other countries. O riginally, the »viničarji« were servants to rich townspeople who were sent out to w ork in the vineyards and had eventually settled there for good. This form of social relations was getting more common when more and more land passed into the hands of the bourgeoisie. In the year 1935 almost one half of the vineyards in Haloze was in the hands of people who did not possess land they were cultivating (35.4% in the hands of towns­ people and 13.1 °/o in the hands of peasants form other areas). The ave­ rage size of the vineyards owned by local farm ers did not exceed 30 ars. The institution of »viničarji« was abolished afte r the last w ar and the land owned by absentee landowners was passed to the socialist sector. By the year 1963 the big agricu ltural enterprise in P tu j owned 29 % of all v ineyards in Haloze. As a result of the better agricu ltural technology th a t was introduced the yields have im proved considerably. (Peasants’vi- neyards yielded about 16 hectolitres per hectar whereas the yields were as m uch as 71 hectolitres per hectar in the socialist sector). I t was also possible, by terracing the slopes in order to enable m odern equipm ent to be used, to reduce the need of labour-force from some 2200 to 2500 to only about 270. Among regional studies concerned w ith more urbanized p arts of Slovenia the analysis of the transform ation of the B istrica p la in (north of L jubljana) by Klemenčič and Jeršič (28) has to be singled out since the problem s of coexistence of the trad itional peasant agricu lture and of the new socialist enterprises have also been dealt w ith. D uring the last decade researchers in the field of the geography of ru ra l areas have also switsched their in terest from detailed regional studies to the analyses of a certain problem throughout Slovenia. One of the first studies of this kind was th a t by Vrišer of »the systems of agricu ltural land utilization in Slovenia« (29). By analysing the relation between d if­ ferent land-use (crops) the au thor discerned the following types or systems the fodder system (w ith two sub-systems), the grain system (w ith two sub-types), the system based on growing of potatoes and other sim ilar p lan ts (with two sub-types), the system based on grain, fodder and po­ tato and sim ilar crops as well as some special systems such as the fru it­ growing and the hop-grow ing systems. V rišer has found out th a t d if­ ferent systems of land-use tend to be grouped in the territo ria l sense w hat was not expected considering the great variations of the na tu ra l conditions. His findings w ere confirm ed by the m ap of the land-uses of Slovenia p rep ared by M edved in 1969 (30). A lthough a d irect com parison of his m ap w ith Vrišer s m ap is not possible since the first of them used the cropped surface as an indicator and the second used the money value of p articu la r crops, the sim ilarities on both m aps call a ttention to the fact th a t the territo ria l g rupp ing of p a rticu la r systems reveals depen- dance on the n a tu ra l conditions. This dependance, however, is not in re­ lation to the existing value of the n a tu ra l assets for agriculture bu t is related to their value at the tim e when the settlem ent patterns, the field- p a tte rn s and the structu re of land tenure came into existence. These elements of the past still exercise a pow erful influence on the land-use pa tte rns in the surfaces cultivated by p riva te farm ers, in p articu la r in the economically more backw ard areas. The above m entioned charac te­ ristics are presented in two studies by Medved: of »the changes in land utilization in relation to the social stratifica tion of the agricu ltu ra l po­ pulation in Slovenia during the last two decades« and of »the land u tili­ zation in Slovenia w ith p articu la r reference to m arketable surplusses« (50). In the first study Medved deals w ith the evolution of the size struc­ tu re of the p riva te landholdings in the post-w ar period as well as w ith the evolution in the socialist sector (in 1966 as m uch as 31 %> of the land area of Slovenia was m anaged by the enterprises of th a t sector); also, the role of the size of farm s in the social transform ation of the peasant po­ pulation and on the changes in land utilization. In the second study M edved analyses the land utilization and comes to the conclusion th a t Slovenia is p rim arilly a cattle-raising country since fodder crops rep re­ sent more than h a lf of the to tal value (65.2 %) of agricu ltu ral produce. Second in im portance are potato and sim ilar crops (14 8 °/o); grains and other crops follow. In accordance w ith this situation the anim al husban­ d ry is most m arkedly m arket oriented, followed by fruit-grow ing and vine-growing. In all other groups of agricu ltural produce less than 12% of the production is m arketed. G reat attention has been paid to the developm ent of the grazing in the high m ountains on alp ine pastures and of the vine-growing. The firs t was an object of analysis by M. Vojvoda (31). His purpose was to dem onstrate, for the entire alpine area of Slovenia, all those changes th a t were introduced — even before the last w ar and increasingly since the w ar — into the trad itional use of the high alp ine pastures through increased industrialization. The shrinking use of alpine pastures is a result of the social transform ation of the agricultural population, of the lack of shepards and of the fact th a t trad itional grazing in the forests along the tree-line was forbidden since I960. Thus the acreage of the grazing land has been greatly reduced (6.700 hectars in the former com­ m une of Bohinj, 4.800 hectars in th a t of Bled. 2 . 2 0 0 hectars in that of Radovljica). The la tter m easure forbidding grazing in the forests un ­ doubtedly was well founded, bu t it was fa ta l for grazing because suffici­ ent m odernization of agricultural equipm ent of the alp ine pastures could not yet com pensate the abandoned forest-pastures. There were 53!) a l­ pine grazing units (»planine«) belore the w ar in Slovenia; 34 (or 6.4%) of them were abandoned even before the w ar and another 91 (or 17.2%) were abandoned till the year 1966. The study by Yojvoda provides sup­ plem entary and up-to-date inform ation about the alpine grazing econo­ m y w hich was also dealt w ith before in detail in the studies by Melik, Ilešič, Jordan, Cerček. Fajgelj, Klemenčič, Leban and others (9, 1 0 , 1 1 , 1 2 , 13). The other problem , th a t of the evolution in the vine-growing areas in Slovenia, was studied by Belec (32). He traced the developm ent of the vineyards from the first decades of the 19th century to the p re ­ sent day. Several types are discerned both w ith regard to the kind of vines and to the technology of cultivation. On the basis of various joint indicators a regionalization of the vine-growing areas of Slovenia was worked out in outline. Social geographical problem s of the ru ral areas related to popula­ tion grow th and population structure, to the evolution of the household structu re and the landholdings structure, to the share of the total and active agricultural population were studied by Klemenčič. His studies, published both in Slovenia and abroad, shed much new light on problems and processes w hich are reflected in the structure and in the dynam ics ol ru ra l population in a period of transition from a backw ard peasant society to a m odern industrial society (33). O ther studies also deal w ith the transform ation in rural areas that was induced through deagrarization and urbanization. Some are re fer­ red to in this volume of »Geogralski vestnik« by V riser in his artic le on U rban G eography. Among them a study by V ladim ir and Vera Kokole concerning the »urbanization ol the countryside« should be mentioned because of the special im portance for geography of the ru ra l areas of entire Slovenia (34). All directions in the geographical research of the ru ra l areas per- sued by Slovenian geographers and by other Yugoslav geographers have found an expression in the firs t Yugoslav symposium on agri­ cu ltura l geography th a t was held in 1964 in M aribor. The papers th a t were presented were published in a special book (35). I t should be also m entioned th a t essays by S. Ilešič of a synthesis on the transfo r­ m ation of the trad itional ru ra l landscape and of its socioeconomic com­ ponents during the 19th and 20lh centuries, were also published (36). The purpose of this overview was to show th a t the Slovenian geograp­ hers had been, during the last f if ty years, in close contact w ith realities of the ru ra l areas and were studying the phenom ena and problem s that were in the foreground a t any p articu la r tim e and notably those that have become obstacles to fu rth e r progress. Thus they did not only made a contribution to the theory in this b ranch of geographical research but also to the solution of practical problem s concerning the developm ent of ru ral areas in Slovenia. Literatura — References 1. Ilešič S., G eografija . P e tdese t le t slovenske un iverze v L ju b ljan i. L ju b ­ lja n a 1969, p. 231—242. 2. M elik A., K olonizacija L ju b ljan sk eg a b a r ja . L ju b lja n a 1927. 3. M elik A., Kozolec n a Slovenskem (Resume: Le »kozolec« en pays Slo­ venes). »R azprave Znanstvenega d ru štv a v L jub ljan i« 10, E tnografsko-geo- g rafsk i odsek, L ju b lja n a 1931. M elik A., K m etska n ase lja na S lovenskem (Resume: L 'h ab ita t ru ra l dans les pays slovenes), »G eografski vestnik«, L ju b ljan a , IX, 1933, p. 129—165. 4. Ilešič S., O b ra d je n a zem lja u S loveniji (Zusam m enfassung: D as A ck e r­ land in S lovenien). »G lasnik G eografskega D ruštva«, Beograd, XX, 1935, p. 29—39. 5. S. Ilešič, A g ra rn a p ren ase ljen o st S lovenije. »Tehnika in gospodarstvo«, L ju b ljan a , VI, 1940. p. 60—70. 5. Ilešič, A g ra rn a ob ljudenost na K oroškem (Resume: La densite de la popu la tion ru ra le en C arin th ie). »G eografski vestnik«, L ju b ljan a , XVIII, 1946, p. 22—36. 6. S. Ilešič, P rv o tn a k m etsk a nase lja v obm očju V elike L ju b ljan e (Resume: Les hab ita ts ru ra u x p rim aires sn r le te rr ito ire de la G rande L ju b ljan a), »Geo­ grafsk i vestnik«, L ju b ljan a , V—VI, 1929—1930, p. 154—160. S. Ilešič, K m etska n ase lja n a vzhodnem G oren jskem (Zusam m enfassung: D ie ländlichen S iedlungen im östlichen O b erk ra in ), »G eografski vestnik«, L ju b ljan a , IX, 1933, p. 3—94. S. Ilešič, Vasi n a L ju b ljan sk em po lju in n jegovem obrob ju (Resume: Les v illages sur la p la ine de L ju b lja n a e t ä ses environs). »G eografski vestnik«, L ju b ljan a , X, 1934, p. 88—102. S. 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P o la jna r, D olina K okre (Sum m ary: The K okra valley , a Regional M onography), p. 209—262. — B. Belec, A n tropogeografija vasi na Spodnjem M urskem po lju (Resume: La geographie hum aine de la p a rtie in ferieu re du M ursko polje), p. 132—175. — A. B riški. A g ra rn a geografija Š avrinskega g ričev ja (Sum m ary: A gricu ltu ra l G eography of northw esten p art of Istria), »Geografski zbornik SAZU« (»Acta G eographica«), IV., L ju b ljan a 1956, p. 221—271. 17. I. Gams, Pohorsko P odrav je. Razvoj k u ltu rn e p o k ra jin e (Resume: P o­ horsko P odrav je . D eveloppem ent du paysage cultu rel). »Dela« SAZU, In stitu t za geografijo 5, L ju b lja n a 1959. 18. Z. Šeifried. Gozdovi na K ranjsko-soršk i ravn in i (Sum m ary: F orests on th e p lain of K ranjsko-sorško polje), »Geografski vestnik«, L jub ljana . XXXIII. 1961, p. 25—59. 19. D. 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