Sanja Kiš uvela
Academy of Music, University of Zagreb
WHEN THE FIXED “DO” TENDS TO MOVE: THE AMBIGUITY OF THE
SOLFEGE SYLLABARY1
Izvirni znanstveni èlanek/ Original Scientific Article
Abstract
The aim of this study is to discuss the features of various systems of solfege syllables used in
professional music education and to determine the correlations between the participants’ hearing
system, the syllabic system used for denoting pitch, the perception of tonal relationships and other
relevant factors in order to improve the awareness of their impact within solfege-based ear-training
processes. A survey conducted among 196 students of music who participated in listening exercises
showed that most participants use solfege syllables in their everyday professional activities. Their
comprehension of tonal processes (such as modulation and mode mutation) in ambiguous contexts
relies as heavily on the nature of the solfege system they were exposed to in their previous music
education, as on the internal logic of the musical material as such.
Key words: solfege, solmization,2 absolute, relative, pitch, listening, cognition
Izvleèek
Ko se nepremièni (fiksni) “DO” zaène premikati: veèpomenskost intonanènih zlogov
Namen prièujoèega prispevka je razprava o znaèilnostih razliènih sistemov intonanènih zlogov, ki
se uporabljajo v glasbenem izobraevanju in doloèitev odnosov med subjektivnim slušnim
sistemom, sistemom zlogov za doloèanje višine tona, zaznavanjem tonalitetnih odnosov in drugih
relevantnih faktorjev, z namenom veèjega ozavešèenja procesov, ki se odvijajo med urjenjem
posluha in temeljijo na uporabi zlogov. Opravljena je bila empirièna raziskava na vzorcu 196
študentov glasbe, ki so sodelovali v slušnih vajah. Rezultati kaejo, da veèina njih uporablja
intonanène zloge v svojih vsakodnevnih dejavnostih. Njihovo dojemanje tonalitetnih procesov (kot
sta npr. modulacija in mutacija) v veèpomenskih kontekstih sloni v veliki meri na znaèilnostih
sistema intonanènih zlogov, ki so jim bili izpostavljeni v èasu dosedanjega glasbenega
izobraevanja, kot tudi na notranji logiki glasbenega materiala kot takšnega.
Kljuène besede: intonanèni zlogi, solmizacija, absolutno, relativno, višina tona, poslušanje,
kognicija
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Sanja Kiš uvela, WHEN THE FIXED “DO” TENDS TO MOVE: THE AMBIGUITY OF THE...
1 This chapter is an extended version of the paper presented at the 15th International Conference on Music
Perception and Cognition (ICMPC)/10th Triennial Conference of the European Society for the Cognitive
Sciences of Music held at the University of Graz, Austria, 23-28 July 2018. Its contents have not been
previously published nor submitted for publication. This survey is a part of a larger project involving the
research, classification and standardization of basic contemporary Croatian musical terminology,
Conmusterm (www.muza.unizg.hr/conmusterm/, 2014–2018), financially supported by the Croatian
Science Foundation (www.hrzz.hr).
2 Due to significant terminological variety in theoretical and practical usage, it should be brought to our
reader’s attention that the term ‘solmization’ within this study refers to all syllabaries indicating scale
degrees that are based upon Guidonian syllables, which will be described in detail later.
Introduction
Although ubiquitous in music pedagogy worldwide, the repercussions of various systems
of mnemonic syllables are rarely the subject of systematic empirical research in
professional music education. The same could be stated about the research of mnemonic
syllabaries in general. Even when these topics are addressed to, only a handful of surveys
involve musicians or students of music (e.g. Rogers 2007; Mikumo 1992 compared two
groups of students with different training levels), while others dealt with non–musicians
(e.g. Cassidy 1993). Let us briefly discuss selected results of the former research category
that could contribute to our topic.
An early comprehensive study (Silvey 1937) has shown that, according to the users’
opinions, solmization has no higher priority in their music education. Solmization has
been rated as only fourth, fifth or sixth factor that may contribute to music reading. Silvey
argues that the emphasis put onto solmization in general education cannot be justified by
its results. However, these results have not been verified by an external criterion and can
thus not be taken into account as definite.
The premise that verbal strategies could enhance melody processing was tested by
Mikumo (1992), who suggested that highly trained subjects could use verbal encoding
strategies (such as labelling tones by their names3) to enhance pitch discrimination in
‘high–tonality structures’ (tonal contexts). Verbal strategies, however, turned out to be
less useful in ‘low–tonality structures’ (atonal contexts). Expectingly, less well trained
subjects were unable to use verbal (or any other) encoding strategies in melody
processing.
In a series of sightsinging exercises Cassidy (1993) proved that subjects using solfege
scored significantly better than those using musical alphabet or a neutral syllable, which
again confirms the importance of solfege syllables as carriers of meaning in
conceptualizing music.
Rogers (2007) conducted a survey with university students enrolled in a high–levelled
course in music theory. The examinees, which did not possess absolute pitch, scored
significantly better when they employed verbal encoding in comparing two pitch series.
Rogers considers solfege syllables to be a part of the musical vocabulary together with
other musical terms (2007, 149). She also emphasizes that vocabulary training should
include careful observation of the cognitive function of syllabic systems as “a means for
recalling and recognizing music beyond the extremely brief limits of sensory memory”
(ibid.).
Beside the mentioned examples, the existing research on the role of syllabary in music
perception and cognition is still considerably rare. None of the studies offers satisfying
answers on the question of syllabary in professional musical contexts. Most studies use
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3 The tone names Mikumo used were solmization syllables. In this study the syllables were used during a
spoken interference, i.e. they did not a priori bear either relative or absolute meanings.
short, context–deprived sequences of equal–length tones played on the piano or an
electronic instrument that included neither excerpts from musical literature nor
comparisons with external criteria (e.g. Mikumo 1992, Cassidy 1993 or Rogers 2007).
Furthermore, the number of examinees is often low (for instance, Mikumo 1992 used two
groups with n=26, and Rogers 2007 had a group with n=15 and another one with n=19)4.
Luckily, even if the existing research on the topic lacks correlation with real professional
situations and leaves many questions unanswered, there is still a certain corpus of findings
and results music pedagogy could rely upon. However, it seems that pedagogy somehow
missed the opportunity to seize the full potential of the results of experimental research so
far. The issue of choosing a suitable solfege syllabary too often remains a matter of
pedagogical tradition and is seldom examined experimentally, although even expert
subjects such as Huron (2006) confirm the importance of mnemonic syllables in
conceiving and understanding pitch relationships.
Huron also devised a theory of conscious interval recognition as a reconstruction from a
scale degree representation which includes verbal labels (i.e. relative solmization
syllables) as carriers of meaning (2006, 117–120). It is not surprising, though, that some
authorities even define solmization as “the use of syllables in association with pitches as a
mnemonic device for indicating melodic intervals” (Hughes and Gerson–Kiwi 2001).
A recent study (Kiš uvela 2017) has shown that mnemonic pitch syllables, especially
solmization, can play a major role in quotidian professional activities of music students
within high education. Almost three fourths of the examined students reported that they
spontaneously pronounce solfege syllables while listening to, playing, singing or reading
tonal music. Moreover, this research has shown high correlation of this phenomenon with
external criteria: the frequency of the spontaneous appearance of pitch syllables during
musical activities was positively related to the students’ last exam grade in their Ear
Training courses.
This paper is an attempt to establish a new approach to the research of the impact that
solfege systems used in the ear training of professional musicians have on their
understanding of music. It aims to give a critical insight in the state of art, to examine the
consequences of using a particular solfege syllabary used in ear training of professional
musicians on their ability to comprehend music played in real time, in a genuine context
(original recordings of symphonic music). Finally, the author hopes that this study could
open new avenues of research, as well as prepare ground for new, research–based
educational strategies.
Solfege syllables: terminology, definition and information value
Although often considered to be a device originating in Western music tradition, solfege
syllables (or solmization in a wider sense) have been used worldwide since the ancient
times as labels denoting tones “as single entities which form the basic material of music”
(Hughes and Gerson–Kiwi 2001). In a narrower sense, most contemporary authors
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Sanja Kiš uvela, WHEN THE FIXED “DO” TENDS TO MOVE: THE AMBIGUITY OF THE...
4 A rare exception in this respect is Silvey 1937, with a sample of 1804 subjects.
recognize the Guidonian system of mnemonic syllables to be the origin of solmization as
we know it today (e.g. Hughes and Gerson–Kiwi 2001). Guidonian system of syllables,
just like the earliest staff notations, did not determine absolute pitch values, but rather
intervallic relations within the system of hexachords. The Guidonian syllables were only
brought into connection with absolute pitch values centuries later, probably in 12th century
(ibid.), when the former started to be used as a substitute for notation. Parallel
development of systems of solfege syllables that included relative and absolute
solmization variants could be assumed to have appeared back then, introducing ambiguity
into the didactic syllabary. Martin (1978, 21) claims that movable Guidonian system has
replaced with a fixed–do system first in Italy, in the 17th century.
Solfege syllables: musical alphabet and solmization
Since there is no general consent on the scope and meaning of the terms ‘solfege syllables’
and ‘solmization’, the author will propose her own set of terms and their respective
definitions for the purpose of the present study.
Solfege syllables are any mnemonic syllables denoting pitch, either in absolute terms or in
terms of degrees of a musical scale. Contemporary systems of solfege syllables include the
musical alphabet and different systems of solmization. The musical alphabet is a syllabic
system based upon the names of the letters of the Latin alphabet which are used as the
labels for fixed, absolute pitches. The basic alphabetical set consists of the following
labels: A5, B, C, D, E, F and G. It can be expanded with further labels denoting pitch
alterations such as sharp (for an ascending alteration in reference to the basic pitch) or flat
(for a descending alteration).
On the other hand, the term solmization in this paper encompasses all syllabaries
indicating scale degrees that are based upon Guidonian mnemonic syllables (ut, re, mi, fa,
sol, la and si), together with their regional variants. This study will address several
variants of solmization based upon Guidonian syllables which are in use within the system
of professional music education in Croatia. Taking into account enormous terminological
variety in the field literature and local languages worldwide, the author proposes her own
explanation of basic terms related to systems of solmization which will be examined in this
paper.
As mentioned in the footnote 1, solmization can either be:
1) a relative or ‘movable–do’ system, where the syllable do always denotes the
tonic of a major key,6 or
2) an absolute or ‘fixed–do’ system (also known as fixed solmization), where the
syllable do always denotes the pitch C (as well as its altered versions like C
sharp, C flat etc.).
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5 The syllable A denotes the main reference tone in Western music tradition, the so–called concert pitch,
whose contemporary frequency standard is generally considered to be 440 Hz.
6 Some authors refer to relative systems of solmization as to ‘functional’, claiming that the position of the
labelled tone within the scale provides it with a specific function. As the function cannot be generalized
and considered to be inherent in the tone position, but is strongly influenced by tonal context, style and
other circumstances, the author will sustain from using this terminological solution.
Relative systems can further be divided into two major categories: tonic do systems, where
the syllable do denotes the tonic in both major and minor keys,7 and tonic do–la systems,
where the tonic is solmized do in major and la in minor keys.
The information value of solfege syllables
Different syllabaries contain different semantic contents. A solfege syllable which
responds to all questions about the pitch in absolute terms, as well as in relative, contextual
terms does not exist, because the total number of such syllables in the 12–tone equal
temperament would be at least 144 (disregarding enharmonic variants!), and it is quite
unlikely that such a system could be of any use in teaching music. A music pedagogue is
thus usually forced to choose a single syllabary which would be his permanent teaching
tool while being aware of its inconsistency, or, even worse, a syllabary is a matter of
tradition or the school policy, and the teacher is unable to adjust his teaching tools to the
repertoire they want to approach. In order to shed light on special features of each syllable
system discussed in this study, Table 1 brings a short overview of the information values
they are capable of communicating.
Table 1: The information value of solfege syllables
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Sanja Kiš uvela, WHEN THE FIXED “DO” TENDS TO MOVE: THE AMBIGUITY OF THE...
7 In Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina this approach to solmization is colloquially addressed to as
functional solmization (a part of the approach called Funkcionalna muzièka pedagogija Functional
Music Pedagogy; for more details see Kaziæ 2013, 110–119). Please also cf. footnote 6.
Each system of syllables offers some semantic pitch information and lacks other; not a
single one contains all relevant meanings. Every possibility of multiple encoding of pitch
information, as well as its underdetermination due to the incapability of a syllable system
to encode certain information (such as the insensitivity to accidentals in the case of
absolute solmization), may contribute to the ambiguity of a musical passage, which can in
addition cause difficulties in the cognitive process. While relative solmization systems
offer most information on scale degrees and tonal centre changes, it lacks the information
on the absolute pitch values. The musical alphabet shows absolute pitch values, but
contains tonal information only encoded in (altered) syllables. The absolute solmization
offers no information on either alterations (accidentals) or tonal changes due to its fixation
to the “empty” staff, i.e. it offers only the information on the staff position of a note
denoting a particular tone. This is the reason why advocates of the absolute solmization
claim that this system enables easier transition towards singing with neutral (or any other)
syllables. However, its contribution in acquiring the fine intervallic structures and tonal
relationships is doubtful outside the realm of the diatonic C major.
A conscious teacher should be aware of the informational capacity of the chosen syllabary
while preparing their teaching strategies. Many authors debated about the advantages and
disadvantages of particular syllabic systems, but most of them did not rely upon any
empirical data except their own subjective teaching impressions. Moreover, they usually
advocated only one approach, without trying to compensate its disadvantages by using
different strategies for different musical contexts.
Systems of solmization: advantages and disadvantages
The advantages and disadvantages of both solmization systems are by no means a recent
or contemporary issue. Early examples of dispute could be traced back to the 19th century.8
An anonymous author (most probably the editor of the volume), writing in the Musical
Times and Singing Class Circular back in 1848, shared a doubt and an opinion that may
still be considered up–to–date (p. 3):
“We have had several letters from friends in reference to what they consider the proper
way of adapting the well–known syllables, do, re, mi, fa, so to vocal exercises. The
opinions are about equal as to whether Do should remain as the permanent representative
of C, or whether it should be considered as representing the key–note of the major scale
irrespective of pitch. To the latter opinion we decidedly adhere ourselves, because we
have generally found the firmest sight readers to be those who have studied upon this
method, which is prevalent in Lancashire and the west country of Yorkshire, and in these
counties good chorus singers especially abound. On the contrary, we have seldom found
the adherents to the fixed system are to be trusted out of the key of C.”
Most authors who advocate the use of relative solmization emphasize its significant role in
early stages of training. Studies such as Reifinger 2012 proved that even if used during a
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8 An inspiring overview of lively discussions on different systems of solmization and pitch notation
systems in 19th century America is offered in Eisenstadt Blum, B. (1971). Solmization and Pitch Notation
in Nineteenth–Century American School Music Textbooks, Journal of Research in Music Education
19(4), 443–452. Most topics are still relevant today.
limited period of time (only 16 teaching sessions), solmization may significantly improve
the accuracy of pitch–related musical activities. Furthermore, movable solmization
systems are valuable help in transposition, either in terms of shifts in tonal space (e.g. in
modulation or in scores with transposing parts), or in cases of frequent clef changes.
McPherson and Gabrielson (2002, 110) recommend the use of solfege to reinforce the
transition from mere memorization (e.g. singing to a neutral syllable with no inherent
meaning) to comprehension (singing using sol–fa syllables or using similar devices which
carried semantic content) as a useful prenotation phase activity. However, some studies
suggest that using solmization in advanced stages of music education could inhibit the
development of comprehensive listening abilities (e.g. Silvey 1937) and instead suggest
switching onto a more suitable syllable system when leaving tonality (c.f. More 1985,
17–18).
The musical alphabet (also known as the ‘letter names’ system) is a set of syllables
indicating absolute pitch, in spite of its main disadvantages, the dependence on the
standard Western notation and insensitivity to the internal tonal relations. The alphabet is
irreplaceable in non–tonal contexts, since any application of a relative, tonality adjusted
system would inhibit the user in acquiring non–tonal, pure intervallic relationships. Some
teachers avoid the usage of musical alphabet in ear training courses since some
combinations can be difficult to pronounce. However, in its German variant,9 which was
used by many authoritative teachers such as Kodály, the musical alphabet can be cordially
recommended to be used in a parallel manner together with a relative syllabic system in
order to capture more relevant meanings of musical materials from the very beginning. In
a later phase of musical education solmization is often being abandoned in favour of either
alphabet or neutral syllables when switching to a non–tonal material. Even then
solmization should not be completely excluded from training; it should be repeatedly
addressed to whenever it corresponds with the internal nature of the musical material.
Absolute solmization, as used in music pedagogy, is the least determined syllabic system.
With a high level of ambiguity, absolute solmization can barely be used for any purpose
except as a “shortened” substitution for the alphabetic names (and, when so, there is no
reason for not using the alphabet, which is completely determined, itself). The semantic
underdetermination of the ‘absolute’ solmization syllables, as well as its inconsistency
(homonymy originating in labelling different tones such as F, F# and Fb with the same
name, fa) may discourage possessors of absolute pitch ability, while those with relative
hearing will be likely to use the ‘absolute’ alphabet in a relative manner anyway (if they do
not consult the reference tone). In that case a syllable tends to lose any meaning because it
cannot operate as a referent to recall a suitable meaning in all contexts.
The following experiment will shed more light on the relation between the hearing system,
syllabary used and the cognitive results in music dictation.
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Sanja Kiš uvela, WHEN THE FIXED “DO” TENDS TO MOVE: THE AMBIGUITY OF THE...
9 Unlike the one used in English speaking countries (where heightened and lowered tone names are created
by adding the word sharp and flat), German variant of the musical alphabet (where the altered tone names
are created by adding suffixes –is for an ascending alteration and –es for a descending one) consists
almost exclusively of monosyllabic tone names (except the ones bearing double accidentals, which are
rare) and is definitely not too difficult to pronounce.
Empirical research
The research was conducted between the 11 and 17 October 2016 among the students of
the Academy of Music at the University of Zagreb who participated in two listening
exercises.
Aim
The aim of the survey was to determine correlation between the participants’ hearing
system (absolute or relative pitch), the syllabic system used (relative or absolute
solmization, alphabet), the perception of tonal relationships (parallelism, relatedness etc.)
and other variables (general data) in order to increase awareness of the consequences of
solfege–based ear–training processes in professional music education.
Participants
The sample consisted of 196 undergraduate students of the Academy of Music in Zagreb,
Croatia. The participants filled in a general data questionnaire at the beginning of the
procedure. The general data collected were age, sex, year of high–level study, last exam
grade achieved in Ear Training course, and self–estimated perfect pitch ability.
The structure of the sample roughly corresponded with the general structure of students at
the Zagreb Academy of Music. Among the total n=196 there were 120 female (61.23 %)
and 79 male students (38.77 %) with an average age of 21.3 years. Their average Ear
Training grade was 3.86 (very good) out of 5 (excellent), and the average duration of their
parallel music education10 together with their professional music education was 12.2 years
(the span was between 3 and 24 years). The structure of the participants by the study
major, year of study, the self–estimated absolute pitch ability, the last achieved grade in
Ear Training courses and the syllabic system mostly used in their previous education is
given in tables 2–6.
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10 In the Republic of Croatia there is a state–funded system of parallel music education, independent of the
mandatory, general education system. Within the system of parallel music education pupils and students
are, among other things, being prepared for professional music education on a high school level.
Table 2: The structure of participants by their study program major
study program major n %
composition 4 2.04
conducting 1 0.51
guitar 5 2.55
harp 3 1.53
musicology 23 11.73
pedagogy 35 17.86
percussion 4 2.04
piano, organ,
harpsichord 29 14.80
string instruments 34 17.35
theory 7 3.57
vocal performance 17 8.67
wind instruments 34 17.35
Table 3: The structure of the sample by years of high–level education in music
year of high
education n %
1st 24 12.25
2nd 65 33.16
3rd 45 22.96
4th 26 13.26
5th 36 18.37
Table 4: The structure of participants by the possession of absolute pitch (self–estimated)
absolute pitch
(self–estimated) n %
yes 12 6.12
partially 26 13.27
no 142 72.45
doesnt’t know 16 8.16
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Sanja Kiš uvela, WHEN THE FIXED “DO” TENDS TO MOVE: THE AMBIGUITY OF THE...
Table 5: The structure of participants by their last exam grade in Ear Training
last achieved exam grade n %
excellent (5) 71 36.22
very good (4) 52 26.53
good (3) 50 25.51
sufficcient (2) 21 10.71
insufficcient (1) 2 1.02
Table 6: The structure of participants by the syllabic system mostly used in their previous
education
syllabic system used n %
relative solmization tonic do–la 96 48.98
relative solmization tonic do 21 10.71
absolute solmization 29 14.80
musical alphabet 44 22.45
other 1 0.51
none 5 2.55
Testing procedure
Following the collection of general data, the participants were asked to recognize and
write down the didactic syllables which appeared in their mind while listening to excerpts
of the recordings of tonal, common–practice symphonic literature.
The excerpts were the following:
A: Tchaikovsky, Symphony No 5 in E minor, Op. 54:
– 1st theme of the 2nd movement (bars 8–16)
B: Beethoven, Violin Concerto in D major, Op. 61:
– 2nd theme of the 1st movement (bars 43–64)
The recordings were performed in their full symphonic setting, and the participants were
asked to concentrate on the leading melody.
The listening experiment consisted of two stages: self–observation and musical dictation.
1. Self–observation consisted of notating the spontaneous appearance of
mnemonic syllables while listening to the excerpts of recordings. Each
recording was played three times, and the participants had to notate the
appearance of the syllables in real time. The results of this stage were
published earlier in a separate study (Kiš uvela 2017).
2. Musical dictation: Following the procedure described in no. 1 (above), each
recording was played three times with a four–bar intermission between the
repetitions. The participants were asked to notate the leading melody of the
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theme using solfege syllables they felt most comfortable with. A fully correct
notation of each excerpt was awarded with 8 points (16 points total for both
excerpts), regardless of the notational system used.
Each category of results was analysed separately in qualitative and distributional terms.
Linear regression analysis was performed with the variables of the participants’ age, sex,
the duration of musical training, major subjects, solfege systems they were exposed to and
the most recent grades achieved in their ear–training courses. The listed variables were
considered to be possible predictors of the notation accuracy. Two statistical models were
fitted to the listed data: a model for normal distribution and the Poisson model (since the
dependent variable is in fact a counting variable). The models were tested using adequate
ANOVA tests: the F–test in case of normal distribution and the Chi Square test in the case
of Poisson model. The dependence of the acquired data was first examined on each
predictor separately. After fitting the data to the model, the significance test was
conducted in order to determine the statistical significance of the influence of each
predictor. Finally, the optimal model was found by adding one by one variable. The choice
between reduced and wider model was again made by performing the adequate ANOVA
test.
Results and discussion
In quest of an optimal statistical model
The results indicated that the following variables were statistically irrelevant for the
accuracy of the notational test: sex, age, study program and the solfege system the
participants were exposed to in their previous education11. They have been excluded from
our model.
The relevant variables, i.e. predictors of the accuracy of notation, were the following: the
duration of musical training, the syllabary used during the test, the possession of absolute
pitch, and the last achieved Ear Training grades as an external criterion. Their estimated
probability values are listed in Table 7.
Table 7: The probability values of the notation accuracy predictors
predictor p
syllabary used during the test 0.0440
possession of absolute pitch 0.0347
duration of musical training 0.0272
last achieved Ear Training grades 0.0003
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Sanja Kiš uvela, WHEN THE FIXED “DO” TENDS TO MOVE: THE AMBIGUITY OF THE...
11 The relevance of the solfege system the participants were exposed to in their previous education was
probably rejected as irrelevant due to the high share of erroneous answers achieved by the subjects that do
not possess absolute pitch, but were using absolute solmization in a relative manner; see Table 11.
The external criterion, the last achieved Ear Training grades, turned out to be the
strongest predictor of notation accuracy. The model consisting of the predictors ‘the
possession of absolute pitch’ and ‘the syllabary used during the test’ showed low
probability value, p=0.358. The combination of ‘the syllabary used…’ and the ‘Ear
Training grades’ showed a high probability value, p=0.0015. By inclusion of the predictor
‘duration of musical training’ together with ‘the syllabary used…’ and ‘the Ear Training
grades’ the estimated probability value was p=0.09073. To conclude, the accuracy of
notation can best be predicted by examining ‘the syllabary used during the notation test’
and the ‘Ear Training grades’ as an external criterion.
Hearing ambivalence
As mentioned in paragraph 3, the participants were asked to notate two examples from the
common practice period using solfege syllables by their own choice. If applicable, they
were recommended to use the system of syllables that appeared in their mind involuntarily
while listening to music.12
Modulation or tonicization?
In case of example A the participants were asked to notate an excerpt of the leading
melody taken from the 1st theme of the 2nd movement of Tchaikovsky’s Symphony No 5 in
E minor, Op. 54, bars 9–16. Picture 1 displays possible correct notations of the melody
using four sets of syllables most common in the Croatian professional music education:
the musical alphabet, the absolute solmization and two sorts of relative solmization, tonic
do–la and tonic do.
Picture 1: Possible correct encodings of an excerpt of the 1st theme of the 2nd movement of
Tchaikovsky’s Symphony No 5 in E minor, Op. 54, bars 8–16
13
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12 The results of the test of involuntary appearance of mnemonic syllables during musical activities were
discussed in Kiš uvela 2017.
13 Pictures 1 and 2: The author uses German musical alphabet note names since it is commonly used in
Croatia, where the survey was performed.
The theme is a period which begins with a D major antecedent, but it changes its tonal
centre in the second bar of the consequent (bar 15) and proceeds towards F# minor.
Without listening to the rest of the piece (from bar 16 on), a listener can perceive the tonal
change either as modulation (a permanent tonality change confirmed by a final cadence),
or tonicization (a brief, temporary establishment of a tonal centre other than the tonic).
Almost a half of all examinees (n=97, 49.74%) did not notate anything. Another 8
examinees (4.10%) provided answers that could not be brought into relation with the
music heard; their answers were discarded as unusable. The rest of the answers contained
enough information to reconstruct the subjects’ attitude towards the inherent tonal change
(Table 8).
Table 8: The distribution of positive answers to the tonal change in bars 14–16
tonal content in bars 14–16 n % syllabaries used
modulation 41 45.56
relative solmization:
tonic do–la (n=34); tonic do (n=7)
tonicization 39 43.33
relative solmization:
tonic do–la (n=34); tonic do (n=5)
absolute syllable values 9 10.00 alphabet (n=5), absolute solmization (n=4)
modulation and tonicization14 1 1.11 tonic do–la (n=1)
Nine absolute pitch possessors completed the task successfully using the alphabet and
absolute solmization syllables in an approximately even rate (5:4). It should be mentioned
that, even in case of correct notation, both syllable systems leave the tonal context
undetermined. The alphabet provides the information on pitch alteration in the consequent
(G#, bar 15, compared with a G in bar 11), which indicates change of the tonal centre, but
the syllables do not reveal if the listener experienced this change as a modulation or a
tonicization. The absolute solmization does not have capacity to show any alteration
between the bars 11 and 15 (both G and G# are pronounced sol) and it is quite likely that
the subject using such syllabary experiences a certain cognitive dissonance.
The examinees that employed relative solmization syllables were also evenly distributed.
Out of 80 correct notations, 41 participants recognized the tonal change as modulation,
while the rest of them (39) experienced tonicization. The theme turned out to be highly
ambiguous, and the share of examinees using different syllabaries (tonic do–la and tonic
do) was almost equal, which confirms that their decision did not depend upon the chosen
syllabary. Even if the listeners could hear the rest of the theme, one could expect different
answers depending on a subject’s experience, theoretical background or subjective
judgment.
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Sanja Kiš uvela, WHEN THE FIXED “DO” TENDS TO MOVE: THE AMBIGUITY OF THE...
14 This participant provided two different correct answers.
Modulation or mode mutation?
In the next exercise the participants were asked to notate the leading melody of an excerpt
of the 2nd theme of the 1st movement of Beethoven’s Violin Concerto in D major, Op. 61,
bars 43–64. Picture 2 shows possible encodings using four different syllabaries.
Picture 2: Possible correct encodings of an excerpt of the 2nd theme of the 1st movement of
Beethoven’s Violin Concerto in D major, Op. 61, bars 43–64
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The theme is also a period with an antecedent in D major. The consequent (bar 51)
surprisingly begins with a strong modal contrast, with an F in the tonic chord, instead of
the previous F#. Other scale degrees remain unchanged (i.e. the same as they were in the
diatonic D major antecedent) until the appearance of the subdominant chord in bar 57 (the
introduction of B flat instead of a B). Various mode changes follow till the end of this
section. The modal change can be interpreted as either a modulation to the key of D minor
(which is obvious when one employs the tonic do–la syllabary, because the name of the
tonic, D, changes from a do to a la, together with the rest of the syllables), or a mode
mutation (which would be more typical for a tonic do approach, because the tonic would
keep the same syllable, do, and the changes would be evident as alterations of scale
degrees). Again, both musical alphabet and absolute solmization lack information on this
ambiguity, and the absolute solmization does not even record the modal change between
the bars 43–48 and 51–56 (which are otherwise the same in terms of scale degrees, but
differ in accidentals).
This example, which is even more complex that the first one (because the tonal centre
remained the same, only one tone changed, and in spite of that the change was far more
radical), left a majority of examinees astonished. A hundred of them did not provide an
answer, and further 32 responded too incorrectly to be taken into account. The structure of
the correct answers follows in Table 9.
Table 9: The structure of positive answers to the tonal change in bar 51
tonal content from bar 51
onwards n % syllabaries used
modulation 39 61.90
relative solmization:
tonic do–la (n=37); tonic do (n=2)
mode mutation 14 22.22
relative solmization:
tonic do–la (n=5); tonic do (n=9)
absolute syllable values 8 12.70 alphabet (n=7), absolutesolmization (n=1)
modulation and mode
mutation15 2 3.17
relative solmization:
tonic do–la (n=2)
In this example the syllabary experienced in previous education substantially influenced
the cognitive processes of the examinees. Expectingly, those who were trained using tonic
do–la syllabary mostly (37:42 = 88.09%) changed the tonic syllable from do to la,
although its pitch remained unchanged, and shifted the syllabary by an ascending third. On
the contrary, the majority (9:11 = 81.82%) of those trained in tonic do system recorded the
change as mutation by altering the syllable ma into nja without shifting the tonic syllable.
However, there were exceptions in both groups, and two participants recorded both
modulation and mutation using the tonic do syllabary.
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Sanja Kiš uvela, WHEN THE FIXED “DO” TENDS TO MOVE: THE AMBIGUITY OF THE...
15 These participants provided two different correct answers.
The structure of the notation test: ‘absolute’ aspects of hearing and solmization
The results of the notation tests brought to attention some interesting features that shed
light on the nature of melody comprehension in a tonal context.
First, the subjects that displayed possession of absolute pitch used various syllabaries to
notate the given melodies, as shown in Table 10. All of them achieved fairly high scores,
but interestingly enough, those using relative solmization syllables notated the given
melodies with an accuracy of 100%.
Table 10: The structure of answers provided by the possessors of absolute pitch
system of syllables used n % average score (notation accuracy) %
musical alphabet 6 50 95.8
relative solmization 4 33.3 100
absolute solmization 2 16.7 93.75
The statistics revealed further interesting facts about the limitations of systems of absolute
solmization discussed in the paragraphs 2.2 and 2.3. Most students trained with absolute
solmization used their syllabary in a relative manner: although both excerpts begun in D
major, they notated them as if they were in the C major key. Only the subjects possessing
absolute pitch used the absolute solmization syllables accurately in terms of the absolute
pitch values.
Table 11: The use of the absolute solmization syllables during listening tasks
the use of the ‘absolute’ solmization syllables n %
absolute (fixed do) 4 10.81
relative (movable do) 33 89.19
Such an outcome discredits a fallacy pretty common among music pedagogues, i.e. the
surmise that the use of fixed–do systems of syllables in music education encourages the
acquisition of perfect pitch. Table 11 shows that vast majority of highly skilled students of
music trained in absolute solmization failed to develop absolute pitch ability, and even for
those who really used the syllables as expected from an absolute pitch possessor, one
cannot claim that the use of a certain syllabic system played a decisive role in developing
absolute pitch ability.16
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16 Deutsch (2013) leaves the question of the role of the pedagogical approach in ear training unanswered,
offering some pros and cons extracted from the existing research on the topic. Other factors that might
encourage the acquisition of absolute pitch are an early age of onset of musical training, the toneness of
the mother tongue, relationships between language and music, some neuroanatomical features, as well as
genetics. Whatever the case might be, not a single factor has been explored in terms of more ‘musical’
material (such as the recordings of symphonic music, which are the object of this study); most researchers
avoid resemblance of their material to the one present in real musical activities, insisting on ‘ecologically
valid conditions’. The question of the relevance of such ecological research for musical practice thus
remains open, reviving the old rivalry between the so–called psychology of tone and the so–called
psychology of music.
The accuracy and nature of the answers corresponded closely with the nature of the
applied solfege system and the internal logic of the musical material heard in the excerpts.
On the one hand, relative hearers could not develop absolute pitch and have thus employed
their ‘absolute’ solmization in a relative manner. On the other hand, even absolute pitch
possessors showed better results if their training included relative solfege systems in tonal
contexts. It is thus appropriate to call into question common attitudes towards methods of
relative intonation such as Hallam’s who claims that “teaching practices which encourage
relative pitch with a tonic that changes but retains the same name – for example, Solfa –
are likely to discourage the acquisition of perfect pitch.” (2006, 42–43) Deutsch
challenges such attitude by listing controversial results of studies in different countries,
concluding that “the argument in favour of fixed–do training based on prevalence of AP in
a few selected countries where fixed–do training is quite common is a problematic one”
(2013, 149). The present research also refutes the preference for fixed–do methods of ear
training. The participants with relative pitch displayed significantly poor results in music
dictation tasks if trained by methods based upon absolute solmization syllables. A
majority of them, while declaring to be using absolute solmization, actually used the
syllables in a relative manner (referring to the tonic as to do and changing the position of
the do while notating modulating melodies), unconsciously. In addition, even if the
melody was notated correctly using absolute solmization syllables (which was most
frequent with subjects who possessed absolute pitch), the evaluator was not able to
discriminate whether they noticed alterations within a passage they perceived as
non–modulating (because they used the same syllable, e.g. sol for both G and G#).
It is worth mentioning that Hallam (2006, 43) continues her discussion with a doubtful
thought “whether it is desirable to promote the acquisition of absolute pitch” as an
education goal at all. The author of the present study stands by the opinion that it should
not be treated as priority in music education. The low percentage of students possessing
absolute pitch in this sample (which is composed exclusively of future music
professionals) also indicates that this extraordinary ability should not be regarded as a
prerequisite for any professional (or amateur) music activity. The share of the possessors
of absolute pitch among the participants of the present study, who are mostly going to
become professional musicians, amounts at 6.12% (n=12 / 196). If one choses to include
the participants with only partial (or border) absolute pitch ability, the total share would
not be higher than 19.39 % (n=38 / 196). Harris (1918, 190) mentions a study from 1889
which included 340 students of the Royal Academy of Music in London; “only 50 – one in
seven – had anything but a remote idea of absolute pitch. Obviously”, Harris concluded,
“therefore, the vast mass of people can sing only by some form of relative pitch – the
Movable Doh, or Intervals” (ibid.). The share of these students who, “being embryo
professionals, represented far more that the average capacity for music”, was about 14.7%
(n=50 / 340). The phenomenon seems to be (at least according to these two examples),
global and has not undergone substantial changes in the last 130 years. Both shares, low in
percentage, speak in favour of the attitude that, to paraphrase Hallam, it should not be
desirable to promote absolute pitch acquisition as an educational goal, even within
professional music education. There is at least no evident reason for such practice.
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Sanja Kiš uvela, WHEN THE FIXED “DO” TENDS TO MOVE: THE AMBIGUITY OF THE...
Conclusions
The present study revealed several levels and aspects of ambiguity hidden in different
solfege syllabaries commonly used in the Croatian music pedagogy and worldwide.
Generally, the results of this investigation speak in favour of relative approaches to
intonation when dealing with tonal repertoire. Subjects who were exposed to relative
solmization systems in their previous music education displayed superiority in pitch
discrimination in tonal contexts regardless of their hearing system (absolute or relative
pitch). Their understanding of tonal processes such as modulation and mode mutation
relies heavily on the nature of the solfege system they were exposed to in their earlier
music education.
However, this is an isolated example of a survey in this field in terms of method,
instrument and aims; it is confined to simple tonal contexts and does not answer any
questions about the nature of music perception and cognition in the posttonal age. An
experimental study with more complex tonal and non–tonal repertoires could be a possible
avenue for further research.
In spite of the numerous advantages of relative solmization, especially in early stages of
ear training, one should keep in mind that the intensive use of relative pitch syllables might
discourage users in their approach to non–tonal repertoires, where relative solmization
obviously loses any substantial meaning. On the other hand, one should not forget that
both historical and contemporary tonal repertoire still exists and gets performed regularly.
Relative approaches to solmization thus still deserve their honourable place within
professional musical education.
However, even tonal music cannot be encoded equivocally; users of different solmization
systems will respond differently to the same sample, as was the case with tonal change in
Beethoven (4.2.2), which could be encoded with either minor or major changes of
syllabary. This study has shown that dealing with ambiguous material demands a
combination of multiple approaches order to reveal its full semantic potential, which
should have repercussions not only for perception and cognition of music, but also for its
interpretation.
Greater awareness of the consequences of choosing a solfege system in music education
could contribute significantly to students’ understanding of both tonal and non–tonal
repertoires. Only an attempt of a systematic ear–training program which would include
several different approaches to solfege syllabaries in separate, combined and control
groups of students could provide reliable answers to the question of repercussions of the
use of different syllabaries. A flexible combination of approaches in accordance with the
implicit logic of concrete musical material could prevent difficulties originating in the
limitations of individual solfege systems and raise the level of comprehension of pitch
relationships in general.
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References
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Majors’ Pitch Accuracy, Journal of Research in Music Education, 41 (4), 293–302.
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Deutsch, D. (2013). Absolute pitch. In Deutsch, D. (Ed.), The psychology of music
(3rd ed.), 141–182. San Diego, CA: Elsevier.
Hallam, S. (2006). Music Psychology in Education. London: Institute of Education,
University of London.
Harris, C. A. (1918). The War between the Fixed and Movable Do, The Musical
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Sarajevu, Institut za muzikologiju.
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Silvey, C. (1937). A study of the solmization method of teaching music reading,
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Povzetek
Posledice uporabe razliènih sistemov didaktiènih zlogov pri pouèevanju solfeggia so le
redko predmet empiriènih raziskav na podroèju glasbenega izobraevanja profesionalnih
glasbenikov (npr. Mikumo, 1992; Rogers, 2007). Veèina tovrstnih raziskav je bila
izvedena na populaciji neglasbenikov. V predhodnih študijah se je pri raziskovanju
uporabljalo predvsem kratke dekontekstualizirane serije tonov enakega trajanja, ki so bili
zaigrani na klavirju, ali na elektronskem inštrumentu, brez primerov iz glasbene literature
ali primerjav z zunanjimi kriteriji. Zdi se, da je vprašanje izbire primernega sistema
intonanènih zlogov še vedno primarno vprašanje pedagoške tradicije, ki le redko izhaja iz
sodobnih znanstveno–raziskovalnih dognanj, èeprav tudi strokovnjaki, kot je Huron
(2006) potrjujejo pomen didaktiènih zlogov pri zaznavanju in razumevanju tonskih
odnosov. Naš prispevek predstavlja poskus vzpostavitve novega odnosa do vpliva
sistemov intonanènih zlogov, ki se uporabljajo pri izobraevanju posluha profesionalnih
glasbenikov, do njihovega razumevanja glasbe.
Namen prièujoèega prispevka je razprava o znaèilnostih razliènih sistemov intonanènih
zlogov, ki se uporabljajo v glasbenemu izobraevanju profesionalnih glasbenikov, in
doloèitev odnosov med subjektivnim slušnim sistemom (absolutni ali relativni posluh),
sistemom zlogov za doloèanje višine tona (intonanènih zlogov – glasbene abecede in
razliènih vrst solmizacije), zaznavanja tonalitetnih odnosov (vzporedne, sorodne, isto
zveneèe tonalitete itd.) in drugih relevantnih dejavnikov. Cilj našega prispevka je poveèati
zavest o kognitivnih procesih, ki se odvijajo med urjenjem posluha in temeljijo na uporabi
zlogov pri glasbenem urjenju profesionalnih glasbenikov.
V raziskavi je sodelovalo 196 študentov glasbe, ki so bili udeleeni v slušnih vajah,
sestavljenih iz samoopazovanja in glasbenega diktata. Udeleenci so morali prepoznati in
zapisati didaktiène zloge, ki so se jim pojavili v mislih med poslušanjem odlomkov
posnetkov tonalitetne klasiène simfoniène glasbe. Vsako kategorijo rezultatov smo
analizirali loèeno v kvalitativnem in distribucijskem smislu. S pomoèjo linearne
regresijske analize smo skušali ugotoviti napovedno vrednost starosti in spola
udeleencev, skupnega števila let njihovega glasbenega izobraevanja, glavnih študijskih
predmetov, intonanènih sistemov, ki so jim bili študenti izpostavljeni, in najnovejših ocen,
doseenih pri predmetu solfeggio, na uspešnost pri glasbenem diktatu.
Rezultati kaejo, da veèina študentov glasbe uporablja intonanène zloge v svojih
vsakodnevnih dejavnostih. Njihovo dojemanje tonalitetnih procesov (kot sta npr.
modulacija in mutacija) v veèpomenskih kontekstih v veliki meri sloni na znaèilnostih
sistema intonanènih zlogov, ki so jim bili izpostavljeni v èasu dosedanjega glasbenega
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GLASBENOPEDAGOŠKI ZBORNIK, 28. zvezek
izobraevanja, kot tudi na notranji logiki glasbenega materijala kot takšnega. Tudi
poslušalci z absolutnim posluhom so pokazali boljše rezultate, èe je njihovo glasbeno
izobraevanje vkljuèevalo relativne sisteme intonanènih zlogov v tonalitetnih kontekstih,
medtem ko so osebe z relativnim posluhom pokazale znatno slabše rezultate, èe so bile
pouèevane z metodami absolutne intonacije.
Naša raziskava je pokazala, da obdelava veèpomenskih glasbenih materialov zahteva
kombinacijo razliènih pristopov, da bi razkrila svoj poln semantièni potencial. Ta
kombinacija razliènih pristopov nima posledic le za percepcijo in kognicijo glasbe,
temveè tudi za njeno interpretacijo. Veèja ozavešèenost o posledicah izbire ustreznih
intonanènih sistemov v glasbenemu izobraevanju bi študentom znatno olajšala
razumevanje tonalitetnih in atonalitetnih repertoarjev. Fleksibilna kombinacija pristopov
v skladu z implicitno logiko konkretnega glasbenega materiala bi lahko prepreèila teave,
ki izvirajo iz omejitev posameznih sistemov pouèevanja intonanènih zlogov.
49