............................................................................................................................................

Academica 
Turistica 


Tourism 
& 
Innovation 
Journal 
– 
Revija 
za 
turizem 
in 
inovativnost 


Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022, 
issn 
2335-4194 


https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.15_1 


5 
Editorial 
to 
the 
Special 
Issue 
‘Health, 
Sport 
and 
Tourism: 
Searching 
for 
Future 
Synergies’ 


Andreja 
Trdina 
and 
Miha 
Lesjak 


11 
Conceptualising 
Tourist 
Idleness 
and 
Creating 
Places 
of 
Otium 
in 
Nature-Based 
Tourism 


Jelena 
Farkic, 
Gorana 
Isailovic, 
and 
Miha 
Lesjak 


25 
Forest 
Therapy 
and 
Well-Being 
Tourism 
Literature 
Review 
– 
With 
Assessment 
of 
Potential 
for 
Slovenia 


Darija 
Cvikl 


43 
Evaluating 
the 
Direct 
and 
Indirect 
Impacts 
of 
Tourism 
on 
the 
Health 
of 
Local 
Communities 


Maksim 
Godovykh, 
Alan 
Fyall, 
Abraham 
Pizam, 
and 
Jorge 
Ridderstaat 


53 
Wellness 
Tourism 
Research: 
Bibliometric 
Study 
of 
the 
Scientific 
Field 


Milica 
Rancic 
Demir 
and 
Mila 
Zecevic 


65 
Active 
Leisure 
and 
Ageing 
in 
Rural 
Ireland: 
Exploring 
Perceptions 
and 
Motivations 
to 
Facilitate 
and 
Promote 
Meaningful 
Physical 
Activity 


Angie 
Hartnett 
and 
Catherine 
Gorman 


81 
Health 
Tourism 
and 
Physical 
Literacy: 
A 
Qualitative 
Exploration 
of 
Elderly 
Visitors’ 
Experiences 
after 
Rehabilitation 
at 
Slovenian 
Health 
Resorts 


Katja 
Kokot 
and 
Maja 
Turnšek 


95 
Changing 
Values 
Through 
Generations: 
The 
Case 
of 
Mountain 
Tourists 


Tomi 
Špindler, 
Miha 
Lesjak, 
and 
Mitja 
Gorenak 


111 
Sports 
Tourism 
and 
High-Performance 
Centres 
in 
the 
Portugal 
Central 
Region 


Rui 
Augusto 
da 
Costa, 
Inês 
Moleiro, 
and 
Maria 
Fernanda 
Brasete 



university 
of 
primorska 
press 



123 
Inspiring 
Breathwork 
Retreats 
in 
the 
Post-COVID-19 
Period 


Milan 
Hosta 
and 
Matej 
Plevnik 


135 
Sport-Tourism 
Running 
Events 
in 
the 
Post-COVID-19 
World: 
Any 
Sign 
of 
Change? 


Ana 
Chersulich 
Tomino 
and 
Marko 
Peric 


149 
COVID-19 
Public 
Health 
Strategy 
Implementation 
for 
the 
Hospitality 
Industry 
in 
Taiwan 


Heidi 
H. 
Chang 
and 
MiRan 
Kim 


163 
Abstracts 
in 
Slovene 
– 
Povzetki 
v 
slovenšcini 
163 
Instructions 
for 
Authors 



Executive 
Editor 
Marijana 
Sikošek 
Editor-in-Chief 
Gorazd 
Sedmak 
Associate 
Editors 
Metod 
Šuligoj, 
Emil 
Juvan, 


Helena 
Nemec 
Rudež, 
and 
Mitja 
Gorenak 
Technical 
Editors 
Mariana 
Rodela 
and 
Peter 
Kopic 
Production 
Editor 
Alen 
Ježovnik 


Editorial 
Board 


Rodolfo 
Baggio, 
University 
di 
Bocconi, 
Italy 
Štefan 
Bojnec, 
University 
of 
Primorska, 
Slovenia 
Dušan 
Borovcanin, 
Singidunum 
University, 
Serbia 
Dimitrios 
Buhalis, 
Bournemouth 
University, 
uk 
Célio 
Gonçalo 
Cardoso 
Marques, 
Polytechnic 
Institute 


of 
Tomar, 
Portugal 
Frederic 
Dimanche, 
Ryerson 
University, 
Canada 
JohanR. 
Edelheim, 
Hokkaido 
University, 
Japan 
Doris 
Gomezelj 
Omerzel, 
University 
of 
Primorska, 


Slovenia 
Sotiris 
Hji-Avgoustis, 
Ball 
State 
University, 
usa 
Jafar 
Jafari, 
University 
of 
Wisconsin-Stout, 
usa, 


University 
of 
Algarve, 
Portugal 
Sandra 
Jankovic, 
University 
of 
Rijeka, 
Croatia 
Sonja 
Sibila 
Lebe, 
University 
of 
Maribor, 
Slovenia 
Sari 
Lenggogeni, 
Andalas 
University, 
Indonesia 
Mara 
Manente, 
Ca’ 
Foscari 
University 
of 
Venice, 
Italy 
Yoel 
Mansfeld, 
University 
of 
Haifa, 
Israel 
Tanja 
Mihalic, 
University 
of 
Ljubljana, 
Slovenia 
Jasna 
Potocnik 
Topler, 
University 
of 
Maribor, 
Slovenia 
Ljudevit 
Pranic, 
University 
of 
Split, 
Croatia 
Hiroaki 
Saito, 
Ritsumeikan 
Asia 
Pacific 
University, 


Japan 
Vinod 
Sasidharan, 
San 
Diego 
State 
University, 
usa 
Marianna 
Sigala, 
University 
of 
South 
Australia 
Marios 
Sotiriadis, 
Ningbo 
University, 
China 
Mislav 
Šimunic, 
University 
of 
Rijeka, 
Croatia 
Andreja 
Trdina, 
University 
of 
Maribor, 
Slovenia 
Miroslav 
Vujicic, 
University 
of 
Novi 
Sad, 
Serbia 
Suosheng 
Wang, 
Indiana 
University-Purdue 


University 
Indianapolis, 
usa 


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issn 
1855-3303 
(printed) 
issn 
2335-4194 
(online) 


Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|3 



Editorial 
to 
the 
Special 
Issue 
‘Health, 
Sport 
and 
Tourism: 
Searching 
for 
Future 
Synergies’ 


Andreja 
Trdina 


University 
of 
Maribor, 
Slovenia 
andreja.trdina@um.si 


Miha 
Lesjak 


University 
of 
Primorska, 
Slovenia 
miha.lesjak@fts.upr.si 


https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.15.5-10 


Tourism 
has 
become 
a 
significant 
modality 
through 
which 
our 
social 
life 
is 
organized. 
While 
more 
and 
more 
research 
has 
been 
undertaken 
on 
sport 
tourism 
and 
well-being 
tourism, 
there 
is 
still 
a 
strong 
need 
to 
enrich 
tourism 
studies 
with 
social 
and 
cultural 
theories, 
providing 
an 
alternative 
to 
the 
‘existing 
positivist 
and 
managerially 
oriented 
material 
which 
predominates 
in 
the 
current 
literature 
in 
tourism’ 
(Franklin 
& 
Crang, 
2001, 
p. 
20). 
This 
Special 
Issue 
with 
the 
title 
‘Health, 
Sport 
and 
Tourism: 
Searching 
for 
Future 
Synergies’ 
thus 
approaches 
tourism 
as 
a 
social 
phenomenon 
and 
sets 
out 
to 
examine 
the 
relationship 
between 
tourism 
and 
related 
fields 
of 
social 
inquiry, 
those 
of 
health 
and 
sport, 
investigating 
what 
wider 
ramifications 
they 
carry 
for 
each 
other 
under 
today’s 
unsettling 
circumstances. 
Similar 
to 
participation 
in 
tourism,healthpromotionandsportengagementsare 
nowadays 
facing 
many 
significant 
challenges 
that 
are 
reflected 
in 
rising 
socio-economic 
inequalities, 
epidemiological 
pressures, 
and 
changes 
in 
patterns 
of 
communication 
and 
technological 
development, 
as 
well 
as 
in 
the 
shifting 
expectations, 
motivations 
and 
attitudes 
of 
local 
communities 
and 
tourists 
alike. 
By 
addressing 
these 
topics, 
the 
Special 
Issue 
seeks 
to 
broaden 
the 
existing 
knowledge 
and 
challenge 
the 
dominant 
views 
in 
order 
to 
enrich 
our 
understandings 
of 
(future) 
junctures 
of 
tourist 
practices, 
physical 
activity, 
and 
health 
and 
well-being. 


The 
idea 
for 
this 
Special 
Issue 
grew 
from 
the 
fruitful 
discussions 
at 
the 
Bet 
on 
Health 
online 
interna


tional 
conference 
2020, 
organized 
by 
the 
Faculty 
of 
TourismUniversityofMaribor,whichofferedaforum 
forleadingresearchersandexpertstosharetheirexperiences 
and 
research 
results 
on 
sports, 
well-being 
and 
healthissuesandtheroleoflocalcommunitiesinplanning,
implementingandevaluatingpublichealthpolicies 
and 
practices. 


Academica 
Turistica: 
Tourism 
and 
Innovation 
Journal 
(at-tij) 
kindly 
welcomed 
our 
initiative 
for 
inviting 
the 
most 
high-impact 
and 
compelling 
conference 
papers, 
in 
terms 
of 
theoretical 
richness 
and 
methodological 
rigorousness, 
to 
be 
considered 
for 
publication, 
whilst 
extending 
the 
call 
for 
papers 
and 
hoping 
to 
gatherafewadditionalinnovative 
contributionson 
the 
topic 
in 
order 
to 
put 
together 
a 
coherent 
issue. 
To 
thisend,theFacultyofTourismUniversityofMaribor 
teamed 
up 
with 
the 
Faculty 
of 
Tourism 
Studies 
– 
Turistica 
University 
of 
Primorska 
in 
editorial 
efforts 
and 
brought 
together 
the 
present 
issue. 


Mobilities 
scholars 
have 
been 
amongst 
the 
most 
convincing 
in 
suggesting 
that 
mobility 
is 
the 
defining 
feature 
of 
contemporarysocieties 
(Urry, 
2000; 
Sheller 
& 
Urry, 
2006; 
Larsen 
et 
al., 
2016). 
Diverse 
mobilities 
arebecomingofcrucialsignificanceinnegotiatingthe 
growing 
complexity 
of 
modern 
living 
and 
thus 
in 
understanding 
one’s 
relation 
to 
the 
world. 
As 
such, 
these 
are 
essentially 
indicative 
of 
material 
reconstruction 
of 
the 
‘social 
as 
society’ 
into 
the 
‘social 
as 
mobility,’ 
as 
suggested 
by 
Urry 
(2000, 
p. 
2). 
According 
to 
Cohen 
and 
Cohen 
(2012, 
p. 
2181), 
the 
progressive 
blur-

Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|5 



Andreja 
Trdina 
and 
Miha 
Lesjak 


ring 
of 
boundaries 
between 
different 
types 
of 
mobilities 
has 
provoked 
a 
de-differentiation 
of 
the 
domain 
of 
tourism 
from 
other 
mobilities, 
such 
as 
for 
example 
commuting, 
labour 
or 
retirement 
or 
lifestyle 
migration, 
second 
home 
visits, 
volunteering, 
and 
also 
sportingactivities. 
Theseaccountsdestabilizeconventional 
tourism 
scholarship 
by 
generating 
constructive 
insights 
into 
the 
complexities 
and 
variations 
of 
movements 
in 
contemporary 
societies. 
What 
is 
more, 
the 
basic 
dichotomies 
on 
which 
the 
sociological 
theories 
of 
tourism 
have 
been 
so 
far 
unreflectively 
formed 
havebeenamplyproblematizedtotheverypromotion 
of 
radical 
ideas 
about 
the 
‘end 
of 
tourism’ 
(Hannam 
2009). 
However, 
in 
their 
cutting 
polemic, 
Doering 
& 
Duncan 
(2016) 
argue 
that 
a 
more 
nuanced 
re-reading 
of 
philosophical 
assumptions 
of 
the 
new 
mobilities 
paradigm 
ultimately 
signals 
a 
return 
to 
tourism 
studies 
rather 
than 
moving 
beyond 
it. 
According 
to 
them, 
thinking 
through 
the 
mobilities 
paradigm 
means 
a 
critical 
return 
to 
tourism 
studies, 
this 
time 
by 
multiplying 
the 
meanings, 
uses, 
functions 
and 
movements 
of 
tourism(s). 


Tourismscholarshave 
beenusedtodemarcating 
tourism 
as 
the 
opposite 
to 
‘everydayness.’ 
Yet, 
many 
tourist 
endeavours 
are 
mundane 
and 
informed 
by 
everyday 
habits, 
thus 
not 
particularly 
dissimilar 
to 
our 
everydaylife.Or,toechoLarsen(2019),muchtourism 
is 
strikingly 
ordinary, 
no 
longer 
antithetical 
to 
routines 
and 
everyday 
life, 
as 
tourism 
practices 
are 
actually, 
in 
part, 
fuelled 
by 
our 
daily 
practices 
and 
everyday 
socialities. 
In 
general, 
the 
advanced 
blurring 
of 
boundaries 
between 
tourist 
practices 
and 
everyday 
practices 
has 
been 
likewise 
widely 
discussed. 
In 
this 
context, 
Franklin 
and 
Crang 
(2001, 
p. 
10) 
note 
‘the 
routinization 
of 
touristic 
sensibilities 
in 
everyday 
life’ 
in 
a 
globalizing 
society 
where 
people 
are 
becoming 
more 
routinely 
mobile, 
while 
Craik 
(1997, 
p. 
125), 
in 
her 
discussion 
of 
the 
culture 
of 
tourism, 
points 
out 
the 
trend 
towards 
de-differentiation 
among 
all 
sorts 
of 
social 
and 
cultural 
spheres, 
resulting 
also 
in 
‘a 
convergence 
or 
blurring 
between 
tourist 
and 
everyday 
leisure 
activities’ 
(p. 
125). 
This 
implies 
that 
tourism 
scholars 
should 
also 
become 
more 
sensitive 
to 
how 
tourism 
intersects 
with 
everyday 
leisure 
and 
sport 
activitiesaswellasomnipresentconcernsforone’shealth 


Editorial 


and 
wellbeing. 
Therefore, 
this 
Special 
Issue 
reiterates 
arguments 
about 
the 
de-differentiation 
of 
social 
life 
and 
the 
weakening 
of 
the 
conventional 
boundaries 
between 
distinct 
domains, 
such 
as 
work 
and 
leisure, 
study 
and 
entertainment, 
ordinary 
life 
and 
extraordinary 
holidays 
(Cohen 
& 
Cohen, 
2012). 
The 
main 
aim 
istopresentcurrentinsightsintothefieldsoftourism, 
health 
and 
sports, 
and 
address 
their 
significant 
intersections 
at 
the 
background 
of 
complex 
cultural 
and 
social 
processes. 


Current 
profound 
cultural, 
social, 
economic, 
and 
technologicaltransformationsundeniablybringabout 
weighty 
implications 
for 
travel 
and 
tourism 
as 
well. 
It 
is 
theresearch 
that 
can 
help 
us 
make 
senseof 
these 
transformationsforthelikelyfutureofscarcityandinsecurity, 
not 
necessarily 
by 
allowing 
us 
to 
foresee 
the 
future 
prospects 
in 
their 
totality 
but 
by 
equipping 
us 
withanalyticaltoolstocomprehendthecomplexityof 
the 
processes 
taking 
place. 
As 
emphasizedby 
Caletrío 
(2019), 
in 
light 
of 
the 
growing 
awareness 
about 
our 
impact 
on 
climate, 
significant 
segments 
of 
the 
population 
in 
western 
societies 
are 
relocating 
their 
activities 
around 
their 
home, 
which 
certainly 
also 
implies 
the 
resetting 
of 
coordinates 
of 
what 
is 
considered 
ordinary 
and 
extraordinary 
in 
tourism, 
leading 
to 
a 
re-
discoveryofholidaysnearhome 
(theso-called 
staycationphenomenon). 
Whatismore,withflightshaming 
discourse 
or 
the 
so-called 
Greta 
Thunberg 
effect, 
the 
normative 
discourses 
of 
what 
constitutes 
a 
legitimate 
(low-carbon) 
holiday 
thatstandsas 
a 
greencredential 
are 
changing, 
while 
desires 
to 
slow 
down 
the 
accelerated 
pace 
of 
life, 
or 
‘the 
culture 
of 
speed’ 
(Tomlinson, 
2007) 
we 
live 
in, 
spill 
over 
to 
our 
travel 
styles 
and 
vacation 
habits. 
According 
to 
Euronews 
Travel 
(2020), 
the 
point-to-point 
holiday, 
whereby 
travellers 
fly 
to 
a 
single 
location 
and 
then 
return 
home, 
will 
be 
rivalled 
by 
an 
emerging 
trend 
for 
trips 
that 
take 
in 
multiple 
domestic 
locations, 
occur 
at 
a 
slower 
pace, 
and 
are 
as 
muchaboutthejourneyandtheimmersiveexperience 
asthe 
ultimatedestination. 
Such 
analysesofprofound 
redefinitionsofholidaysandtourismtodayarethusof 
growingimportanceas(im)mobilitybecomesincreasingly 
significant 
to 
various 
ways 
of 
life. 


Within 
this 
context, 
we 
argue 
for 
the 
acknowledgment 
of 
the 
transformative 
role 
of 
tourism 
in 
global 


6| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Andreja 
Trdina 
and 
Miha 
Lesjak 


society. 
Unlike 
what 
the 
prevailing 
marketing 
logic 
sustains, 
by 
designing 
the 
offer 
the 
providers 
not 
only 
addressthe 
alreadyexisting 
needsand 
motives 
of 
tourists,butalsoco-createorconstructthem.Through 
tourism 
products, 
practices 
and 
travel 
styles 
that 
promote 
sustainable 
and 
healthy 
living, 
well-being 
and 
mindfulness, 
we 
as 
tourists 
practice 
sustainability, 
reinforce 
our 
environmentalawarenessand 
embody 
the 
so 
called 
‘return 
to 
nature.’ 
From 
this 
perspective 
of 
imagining 
tourism 
with 
its 
regenerative 
potency, 
we 
support 
a 
wider 
conceptualisation 
of 
tourism 
as 
a 
socialforceanditsroleintoday’sglobalcommunitythat 
goes 
beyond 
the 
hegemonic 
discourse 
of 
tourism 
as 
an 
industryonly 
(Higgins-Desbiolles, 
2006). 
It 
is 
thus 
urgent 
to 
revive 
and 
reinforce 
not 
only 
the 
idea 
of 
the 
restorative 
function 
of 
tourism 
for 
an 
individual 
(in 
terms 
of 
purposeful 
and 
meaningful 
activities 
restoringourwell-
being),butalsoitsbroadertransformative 
rolein 
today’s 
society. 
The 
reasonthatsuch 
anagenda 
is 
vital 
and 
promising 
might 
be 
seen 
in 
the 
power 
of 
tourism 
practices 
making 
important 
contributions 
to 
thevaluesofsocialandenvironmentaljustice,rebuildingtherenewedframeworkofourfuturesociety. 
This, 
in 
turn,assumesthat 
it 
isimperative, 
to 
borrow 
the 
concluding 
remarks 
of 
Hosta 
and 
Plevnik 
from 
their 
contribution, 
‘to 
support 
the 
efforts 
of 
the 
industry 
to 
realignitstrendstotheserviceofhumanityandnature 
as 
joint 
venture.’ 


Divided 
into 
3 
thematic 
sections 
below, 
the 
contributions 
in 
this 
Special 
Issue, 
authored 
by 
scholars 
from 
diverse 
scientific 
and 
geographical 
backgrounds 
(from 
Europe, 
Asia 
and 
North 
America), 
take 
different 
starting 
points 
to 
consider 
the 
interactions 
of 
tourist 
practices, 
health 
issues, 
and 
physical 
activity 
or 
sport 
engagement. 
This 
in 
turn 
allows 
each 
pa-
pertouniquelycontributetothe 
broadening 
under-
standingoftheseintersections,providingcomprehensive 
and 
rigorous 
examinations 
of 
many 
related 
issues 
and 
concepts, 
whether 
on 
the 
micro 
level 
of 
individuals, 
mezzo 
level 
of 
local 
communities 
or 
providers, 
or 
macrolevelof 
destinations.Groundedin 
theperspective 
that 
tourism 
today 
is 
performed 
and 
not 
experienced 
antithetically 
to 
our 
everyday 
life, 
and 
should 
thus 
be 
understood 
through 
a 
varietyof 
temporaland 
spatial 
frames, 
the 
different 
papers 
in 
this 
issue 
begin 


Editorial 


to 
articulate 
the 
dynamic 
nature 
of 
intersections 
between 
everyday 
sport/leisure 
activities, 
health 
issues 
andtouristpractices,withspecialattentionbeingpaid 
to 
the 
promising 
synergies 
resulting 
from 
these 
intersections. 
Whilst 
at 
times 
they 
may 
not 
be 
able 
to 
provide 
the 
full 
answer 
to 
the 
pressing 
questions 
posed, 
they, 
nevertheless, 
do 
offer 
alternative 
lenses 
and 
less 
conventional 
methods 
through 
which 
to 
consider 
the 
complexities 
of 
travel 
and 
tourism 
in 
relation 
to 
wellbeing, 
sport 
and 
health 
issues 
today. 


Complexity 
of 
Tourism’s 
Impacts 
on 
Well-Being 
and 
Health 


Mosttourismresearchhasnotsufficientlygraspedthe 
complexity 
of 
tourism’s 
impacts 
on 
health 
and 
wellbeing. 
The 
contributions 
in 
this 
first 
section 
address 
theurgent 
need 
to 
confront 
thematter 
moresubtly 
and 
within 
a 
number 
of 
different 
contexts 
to 
reveal 
rather 
more 
nuanced 
understandings 
of 
the 
interweaving 
of 
tourism 
practices, 
health 
and 
well-being. 
In 
their 
compelling 
and 
insightful 
conceptual 
paper 
that 
is 
grounded 
within 
the 
current 
cultural 
debates 
inpraiseofslownessintheotherwiseacceleratedpace 
of 
life, 
Farkic, 
Isailovic, 
and 
Lesjak 
argue 
that 
places 
of 
otium, 
where 
‘doing 
nothing’ 
is 
encouraged, 
may 
in 
many 
ways 
enhance 
tourist 
well-being. 
By 
employing 
in 
tourism 
studies 
the 
so-far 
neglected 
concept 
of 
idleness,theydiscussspatial,temporal,andexistential 
dimensions 
of 
tourist 
idleness, 
and 
ultimately 
expose 
the 
potential 
for 
the 
development 
of 
a 
new 
well-being 
experientialtourismproductinanaturalenvironment 
basedonthebenefitsofbeingidle.Inthismannerthey 
unsettle 
predominant 
conceptualisations 
of 
an 
active 
holiday 
in 
nature, 
arguing 
that 
‘doing 
less, 
not 
more’ 
can 
be 
an 
equally 
meaningful 
and 
restorative 
tourist 
activity. 
Their 
reflection 
on 
the 
topic 
is 
in 
line 
with 
the 
above 
argument 
about 
the 
transformative 
role 
of 
tourism 
in 
today’s 
accelerated 
society 
governedby 
the 
dictateoftime 
and 
theimperativeofbeing 
always 
ac-
tiveandperformanceorientated,andforthatreasonis 
ofimmeasurablevalueinthinkingabouttheredefined 
ways 
of 
being 
and 
living 
in 
the 
future 
society. 


Related 
to 
this, 
the 
next 
article 
similarly 
acknowledges 
the 
rising 
interest 
in 
nature-based 
experiences 
as 
an 
antidote 
to 
modern 
urban 
life, 
claiming 
that 
the 


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Lesjak 


quest 
for 
well-being 
and 
therapeutic 
tourism 
will 
essentially 
open 
new 
opportunities, 
especially 
for 
rural 
areas. 
In 
her 
in-depth 
discussion 
of 
forest 
well-being 
andforest 
therapy 
tourism, 
basedonan 
extensive 
re-
viewofliteratureandanoverviewofglobalgoodpractices, 
Cvikl 
proposes 
responsible 
use 
of 
socio-cultural 
forestvaluesintourismfortherapeuticandwell-being 
purposes, 
indicating 
high 
prospects 
for 
implementation 
of 
forest 
therapeutic 
tourism 
in 
Slovenia. 
According 
to 
Cvikl, 
the 
main 
problem 
in 
the 
practice 
of 
forest 
therapeutic 
tourism 
that 
still 
remains 
is 
how 
to 
capture 
‘empirical 
knowledge 
and 
horizontal 
integration 
in 
the 
field 
of 
different 
professions 
such 
as 
health,tourism,environment,andsocialscienceswith 
research 
groups 
from 
different 
disciplines 
and 
professions, 
such 
as 
forestry,psychology, 
and 
landscaping.’ 


Reverting 
the 
focus 
to 
local 
communities, 
Godovykh, 
Fyall, 
Pizam 
and 
Ridderstaat’s 
study 
aims 
to 
explore 
the 
direct 
and 
indirect 
effects 
of 
tourism 
development 
on 
residents’ 
health 
through 
income 
and 
environmental 
pollution 
in 
the 
case 
of 
three 
neigh-
bouring 
European 
countries: 
Slovenia, 
Croatia, 
and 
Hungary. 
The 
article 
clearly 
and 
convincingly 
proves 
that 
the 
effects 
of 
tourism 
on 
residents’ 
health 
might 
havedifferentvalenceandpowerintheshorttermand 
the 
long 
run. 
In 
addition 
to 
its 
significant 
contribution 
in 
the 
development 
of 
new 
composite 
metrics 
for 
tourism 
impacts 
on 
residents’ 
health 
and 
well-being 
that 
is 
based 
on 
the 
secondary 
data, 
the 
implications 
of 
the 
study 
are 
of 
equal 
importance 
and 
relate 
in 
particulartothereflectionaboutdeterminingthebalance 
between 
the 
negative 
short-termimpacts 
and 
positive 
long-term 
impacts 
of 
tourism 
development 
on 
residents’ 
health. 
According 
to 
the 
authors, 
long-term 
health 
impacts 
should 
be 
considered 
as 
more 
importantoutcomesoftourismdevelopmentandthustaken 
intoaccountbytourismstatistics,tourismbodies,and 
destination 
managementorganizations. 


Embeddedinbroaderdebatesonscientificproduction 
of 
knowledge, 
built 
dominantly 
around 
Knorr 
Cetina’s 
idea 
(1999) 
of 
epistemic 
cultures, 
the 
article 
of 
Rancic 
Demir 
and 
Zecevic 
provides 
a 
bibliometricanalysisof 
academicresearch 
coveringthe 
field 
of 
wellness 
tourism. 
Through 
understanding 
of 
past 
research 
undertakings 
and 
by 
mapping 
the 
areas 
that 


Editorial 


have 
been 
of 
special 
importance 
to 
researchers 
over 
time, 
they 
reveal 
the 
development 
of 
the 
wellness 
tourism 
research 
field, 
detecting 
important 
patterns 
and 
journals 
in 
this 
field. 
Therewith, 
Rancic 
Demir 
and 
Zecevic 
problematize 
the 
broader 
issue 
of 
knowledgeproductionthatoftenremainsunquestioned,
and 
convincingly 
demonstratea 
significant 
increase 
in 
the 
number 
of 
publications 
in 
wellness 
tourism 
in 
the 
last 
tenyears,whiledetectingfourthematicclusterswithin 
wellness 
tourism 
research. 
Their 
contribution 
highlights 
the 
importance 
of 
becoming 
more 
reflective 
of 
the 
ways 
and 
frameworks 
within 
which 
we 
produce 
and 
legitimize 
scientific 
knowledge. 


Meaningful 
Physical 
Activity 
in 
the 
Context 
of 
Values, 
Motivations, 
and 
Promotions 


The 
following 
section 
brings 
together 
discussions 
on 
issues 
relatedtophysical 
activity, 
especially 
with 
regard 
to 
either 
tourists’ 
perceived 
barriers 
inhibiting 
it 
on 
one 
side 
or 
their 
values 
informing 
it 
on 
the 
other, 
whileexamining 
also 
theroleofthe 
tourismsectorin 
promoting 
it. 
In 
their 
comprehensive 
conceptual 
pa-
per,HartnettandGormanaddresstheissueofanageing 
population 
and 
the 
significance 
of 
active 
leisure. 
Reflecting 
on 
these 
issues, 
they 
develop 
a 
framework 
of 
meaning-making 
to 
active 
leisure, 
focusing 
on 
perceptions 
and 
motivations 
of 
a 
rural 
based 
population 
in 
Ireland. 
Although 
their 
study 
is 
geographically 
and 
culturally 
situated 
in 
rural 
Ireland, 
their 
conclusions 
resonateglobally, 
as 
they 
highlight 
the 
significant 
role 
of 
various 
social 
categories 
(age 
groups, 
gender 
and 
rural-urban 
distinction) 
in 
structuring 
people’s 
activities,
amplifying 
eachother’seffectalsoontheperception 
of 
freedom 
in 
leisure, 
perceived 
subjective 
health 
and, 
thus, 
physical 
activity. 
Building 
on 
this, 
they 
further 
examine 
the 
impact 
of 
being 
physically 
active 
on 
participatingin 
tourism.Finally, 
at 
the 
background 
of 
theso-calledlongevityrevolutiontoday,theyarguefor 
the 
necessity 
of 
understanding 
perceived 
barriers 
to 
physical 
activity 
(in 
terms 
of 
motivation, 
social 
support,
and 
lack 
of 
time)havinganimpactonparticipationlevelsinordertodevelopmoreeffective‘
activeaging’strategiesthatwouldimprovethehealthandquality 
of 
life 
of 
people 
living 
an 
ever 
longer 
life. 


Grounding 
their 
research 
in 
a 
prominent 
concept 


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2022 



Andreja 
Trdina 
and 
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Lesjak 


ofphysicalliteracyascrucialforestablishingahealthy 
lifestyle, 
Kokot 
and 
Turnšek 
investigate 
the 
role 
of 
health 
resorts 
in 
increasing 
the 
physical 
literacy 
of 
their 
elderly 
patients 
undertaking 
medical 
rehabilitation. 
Employingaqualitativeapproach,theyanalyse 
the 
experiences 
of 
rehabilitation 
patients 
in 
Slovenian 
health 
resorts 
before, 
during, 
and 
after 
medical 
rehabilitation. 
The 
research 
opened 
an 
important 
question 
on 
how 
to 
extend 
the 
habits 
connected 
to 
physical 
activity 
to 
the 
period 
after 
the 
medical 
rehabilitation 
and 
addressed 
it 
systematically 
with 
reference 
to 
what 
precisely 
are 
the 
factors 
hindering 
or 
promoting 
this 
process. 
Their 
findings 
imply 
that 
the 
actions 
of 
health 
resorts 
target 
two 
dimensions 
of 
physical 
literacy 
in 
particular 
(the 
competence 
and 
the 
knowledge/
understandingdimension),whilethemotivation 
dimension 
of 
physical 
literacy 
is 
ignored 
and 
should 
thusbe 
addressed 
more 
in 
the 
future. 


Addressing 
the 
topic 
of 
outdoor 
activities 
and 
undertakingaquantitativestudyofSlovenemountaineer 
tourists, 
Špindler, 
Lesjak 
and 
Gorenak 
investigate 
the 
significant 
differences 
between 
groups 
of 
respondents 
of 
different 
generations, 
gender 
and 
membership 
in 
mountaineering 
associations 
in 
terms 
of 
their 
mountaineering 
values. 
On 
the 
basis 
of 
their 
results, 
they 
conclude 
that 
in 
order 
to 
increase 
the 
effectiveness 
of 
promoting 
sustainable 
tourist 
behaviour 
in 
mountains, 
a 
different 
approach 
for 
tourists 
with 
different 
characteristics 
is 
needed. 
By 
providing 
an 
in-depth 
understanding 
of 
the 
values 
of 
sports 
tourists, 
more 
precisely 
active 
sports 
tourists 
in 
the 
mountains, 
their 
research 
is 
of 
great 
value. 
Namely, 
the 
findings 
can 
certainly 
help 
in 
‘attracting 
new 
members 
to 
mountaineering 
organizations, 
mountaineering 
pedagogical 
work, 
preserving 
mountaineering 
culture 
and 
sustainable 
development 
of 
tourism 
in 
the 
mountains,’ 
as 
convincingly 
put 
by 
the 
authors. 


In 
order 
to 
understand 
the 
importance 
of 
high-
performance 
centres 
as 
a 
support 
for 
the 
development 
and 
growth 
of 
sports 
tourism 
in 
destinations, 
the 
article 
of 
Costa 
et 
al. 
takes 
the 
case 
of 
Portugal. 
It 
highlights 
the 
importance 
of 
infrastructure 
of 
recognized 
quality 
for 
international 
travel 
and 
stays 
of 
professional 
athletes 
(whether 
for 
sports 
internships, 
the 
maintenance 
and/or 
improvement 
of 
their 


Editorial 


performances 
or 
for 
participation 
in 
sports 
competitions/
events).Costaetal. 
usequalitativemethodology 
to 
highlight 
that, 
although 
there 
is 
a 
sport 
offer 
in 
the 
Central 
region 
of 
Portugal, 
the 
number 
of 
sports 
experiences 
or 
activities 
offered 
is 
limited, 
concluding 
that 
it 
is 
vital 
for 
the 
destination 
to 
diversify 
the 
types 
of 
sports 
offered 
to 
meet 
the 
needs 
of 
different 
visitors 
who 
seek 
sport, 
either 
as 
the 
main 
motivation 
for 
visiting 
a 
destination 
or 
as 
a 
secondary 
one. 


Imagining 
Healthy, 
Safe 
and 
Resilient 
Tourism 
Future(s) 


The 
finalthreecontributionsdealspecificallywith 
the 
implications 
of 
the 
covid-19 
pandemic 
for 
tourism, 
and 
from 
diverse 
perspectives 
follow 
a 
common 
centralideaofchartingaresilientandhealthytourismfuture. 
Using 
the 
very 
illustrative 
analogy 
of 
covid-19 
acute 
respiratory 
collapse 
and 
the 
concept 
of 
hyperventilationtodescribethehyperinflatedmasstourism 
boom 
in 
recent 
years, 
Hosta 
and 
Plevnik’s 
paper 
offers 
an 
organic 
interpretation 
of 
the 
crisis 
that 
hit 
the 
industry 
in 
the 
recent 
pandemic. 
Using 
a 
case 
study 
methodology 
and 
reasoning 
by 
the 
analogy, 
they, 
in 
a 
very 
unconventional 
and 
original 
manner, 
discuss 
a 
healthy 
and 
resilient 
future 
of 
the 
tourism 
sector. 
Proposing 
resilient 
solutions 
for 
tourism 
recovery 
in 
the 
post-covidperiod 
(comparable 
to 
the 
recovery 
of 
an 
organ 
within 
a 
living 
organism 
– 
society), 
their 
outcomes 
can 
be 
used 
in 
designing 
preventive 
and 
post-covidhealth 
regenerative 
retreats 
as 
innovative 
touristproducts, 
andasamodeltosupport 
the 
tourism 
industry 
with 
an 
organic 
understanding 
of 
sustainable 
niche-market 
solutions. 


Chersulich 
Tomino 
and 
Peric 
take 
a 
different 
approach 
as 
they 
deal 
with 
predicting 
future 
participationinthesport-
tourismeventindustryonwhichsignificantrestrictionshavebeenimposedbythe 
covid19pandemic.
Theirempiricalstudy,basedonasurvey 
among 
the 
running 
community 
in 
Croatia, 
investigate 
active 
runners’ 
intention 
to 
attend 
future 
running 
events, 
and 
their 
perception 
of 
the 
importance 
of 
safety-related 
protective 
measures 
at 
those 
events. 
The 
findings 
suggestthatthe 
safety-related 
measures 
arenotrecognisedasdistinctlyimportantforrunners; 
at 
the 
same 
time 
there 
are 
no 
major 
differences 
in 
atti-

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Andreja 
Trdina 
and 
Miha 
Lesjak 
Editorial 


tudes 
between 
the 
groups 
of 
runners, 
which 
supports 
optimismforthefutureofsporttourism.Nevertheless, 
the 
authors 
reasonably 
qualify 
the 
main 
findings 
and 
carefully 
place 
them 
in 
the 
context 
of 
safety 
concerns 
(for 
participants 
and 
organizers 
as 
well 
as 
host 
communities) 
being 
of 
utmost 
importance 
in 
any 
event 
planning. 


ThefinalcontributiondiscussespublichealthstrategiesinTaiwan’shospitalityindustry,
againinthecontextofthe 
covid-19pandemiccrisis.ChangandKim 
undertake 
an 
extensive 
empirical 
study 
in 
which 
they 
explore 
the 
public 
health 
strategies 
that 
hotel 
companies 
have 
been 
adopting 
to 
restore 
customer 
confidenceandtoprotectthehotelstaffandcustomers,
and 
investigate 
if 
these 
strategiesdiffer 
with 
respect 
to 
hotels’ 
different 
locations, 
customers, 
and 
performance. 
The 
paper 
concludes 
with 
important 
recommendations 
for 
crisis 
management 
and 
crisis 
preparation 
for 
the 
hospitality 
industry. 


In 
sum, 
the 
collection 
as 
such 
provides 
a 
unique 
and 
balanced 
view 
of 
both 
theoreticaldiscussions 
and 
empiricalstudiesfromdifferentculturalcontexts,thus 
offering 
a 
global 
perspective 
on 
issues, 
while 
at 
the 
same 
time 
undertaking 
very 
diverse 
methodological 
approaches. 
Overall, 
the 
diversity 
and 
interdisciplinary 
nature 
of 
the 
contributions 
within 
this 
issue 
inviteustore-examineourunderstandingsoftourism 
in 
relation 
to 
other 
social 
domains 
and, 
as 
Larsen 
ar-
gues(2019),encouragesustoremainattentivetomore 
mundane, 
trivial 
forms 
of 
tourism, 
and 
relate 
them 
to 
other 
fields 
of 
social 
inquiry, 
in 
our 
case 
that 
of 
wellbeing, 
health 
and 
physical 
activity 
in 
particular. 
Here, 
we 
thus 
maintain 
that 
tourism 
needs 
to 
be 
explored 
in 
relation 
to 
other 
types 
of 
mobilities 
as 
well 
as 
to 
everydayleisureactivitiesandhealthconcernsin 
general. 
All 
of 
these 
need 
to 
be 
brought 
together 
within 
research 
in 
order 
to 
better 
understand 
their 
complex 
interrelationships 
and 
the 
perplexities 
arising 
from 
it. 
We 
strongly 
believe 
that, 
by 
accentuating 
the 
ways 
in 
which 
ourtouristchoicescontributeto,andarerepresentative 
of, 
persistent 
processes 
of 
de-differentiation 
in 
present-day 
social 
life, 
this 
collection 
of 
papers 
is 
valuablereadingforstudents,researchers,andprofessionals 
in 
the 
fields 
of 
tourism, 
health 
and 
well-being, 
and 
sport. 


References 


Caletrío, 
J. 
(2019). 
The 
Tourist 
Gaze, 
by 
John 
Urry. 
Mobile 
Lives 
Forum. 
https://en.forumviesmobiles.org 
/publication/2019/03/25/tourist-gaze-john-urry-12911 


Cohen, 
E., 
& 
Cohen, 
S. 
A. 
(2012). 
Current 
sociological 
theories 
and 
issues 
in 
tourism. 
Annals 
of 
Tourism 
Research, 
39(4), 
2177–2202. 


Craik, 
J. 
(1997). 
The 
cultureoftourism.In 
C.Rojek 
&J. 
Urry 
(Eds.), 
Touring 
cultures: 
Transformations 
of 
travel 
and 
theory 
(pp. 
113–136). 
Routledge. 


Doering, 
A., 
& 
Duncan, 
T. 
(2016). 
Mobilities 
for 
tourism 
studiesand‘beyond:’ 
Apolemic. 
TourismAnalysis, 
21(1), 
47–59. 


EuronewsTravel.(2020).Travelafter2020:Whatwilltourism 
looklikeinournewreality,(TravelTrendReport).https:// 
static.euronews.com/website/pdf/euronews-trend 
-report-travel-after-Oct-2020.pdf 


Franklin, 
A., 
& 
Crang, 
M. 
(2001). 
The 
trouble 
with 
tourism 
and 
travel 
theory. 
Tourist 
Studies, 
1(1), 
5–22. 


Hannam, 
K. 
(2009). 
End 
of 
tourism? 
Nomadology 
and 
the 
mobilitiesparadigm.InJ.Tribe(Ed.),Philosophicalissues 
in 
tourism 
(pp. 
101–113). 
Channel 
View 
Publications. 


Higgins-Desbiolles, 
F. 
(2006). 
More 
than 
an 
‘industry:’ 
The 
forgotten 
power 
of 
tourism 
as 
a 
social 
force. 
Tourism 
Management, 
27(6), 
1192–1208. 


Knorr 
Cetina,K.(1999). 
Epistemiccultures: 
How 
the 
sciences 
make 
knowledge. 
Harvard 
University 
Press. 


Larsen,J.(2009). 
Ordinary 
tourismand 
extraordinary 
ev-
erydaylife:Rethinkingtourismandcities.InT.Frisch,C. 
Sommer,L.Stoltenberg, 
& 
N. 
Stors 
(Eds.), 
Tourism 
and 
everyday 
life 
in 
the 
contemporary 
city 
(pp. 
24–41). 
Rout-
ledge. 


Larsen, 
J., 
Urry, 
J., 
& 
Axhausen, 
K. 
(2016). 
Mobilities, 
networks, 
geographies. 
Routledge. 
Sheller,M., 
& 
Urry, 
J. 
(2006). 
The 
new 
mobilities 
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Environment 
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38(2), 
207–226. 
Tomlinson, 
J. 
(2007). 
The 
culture 
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speed: 
The 
coming 
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Urry, 
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10 
| 
Academica 
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15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Original 
Scientific 
Article 


Conceptualising 
Tourist 
Idleness 
and 
Creating 
Places 
of 
Otium 
in 
Nature-Based 
Tourism 


Jelena 
Farkic 


University 
of 
Greenwich, 
uk 
j.farkic@gre.ac.uk 


Gorana 
Isailovic 


Academy 
of 
Applied 
Studies, 
Serbia 
isailovic.gorana@gmail.com 


Miha 
Lesjak 


University 
of 
Primorska, 
Slovenia 
miha.lesjak@fts.upr.si 


Thispaperconceptualisestouristidlenessasatemporaryengagementinslow,slothfulandentirelyunstructuredholidayactivities.
Weaimtoextendthestudiesthatpri-
oritisethemodalitiesofholidaysinnaturethatencouragesimplified,slower,immersive 
experiences, 
and 
which 
celebrate 
mindfulness, 
slowness 
and 
stillness 
as 
part 
of 
atouristjourney. 
Inframingidlenessasarelaxing,creativeandrecuperativeholiday 
practice, 
we 
suggest 
that 
creating 
places 
of 
otium 
which 
encourage 
‘doing 
nothing’ 
caninmanywaysenhancetouristwellbeing.Tothisend,wediscussthesignificance 
of 
spatial, 
temporal 
and 
existential 
elements 
of 
tourist 
idleness, 
whilst 
arguing 
that 
this 
‘practice’ 
should 
be 
more 
celebrated 
in 
our 
modern, 
high-speed 
societies. 


Keywords: 
wellbeing, 
idleness, 
leisure, 
otium, 
slowness, 
nature-based 
tourism 
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.15.11-23 


Introduction 


We 
live 
in 
a 
busy 
world. 
It 
is 
characterised 
by 
digitalisation 
and 
acceleration 
in 
the 
pace 
of 
life, 
despite 
theexpectation 
thattechnologicaladvanceswouldin-
crease 
people’s 
free 
time 
and 
reduce 
working 
hours 
(Rosa, 
2013). 
Over-dependence 
on 
digital 
devices 
and 
constant 
connectivity 
has 
resulted 
in 
people 
seldom 
finding 
time 
to 
switch 
off 
and 
disengage 
from 
work. 
Instead, 
they 
use 
their 
leisure 
time 
to 
maintain 
being 
busy 
and 
overscheduled. 
Our 
free 
time 
is 
overloaded 
with 
activities, 
planning 
and 
achievement, 
so 
that 
it 
does 
not 
feel 
like 
free 
time 
at 
all, 
but 
evolves 
into 
one 
more 
stress 
factor, 
thus 
exacerbating 
peo-
ple’simpressionofalackoftimeandlackofrelaxation 
(Fludernik, 
2021). 
Packer 
(2021, 
p. 
1) 
opines 
that 
‘digital 
technologies 
do 
not 
only 
increase 
the 
pace 
and 


intensity 
of 
work 
but 
also 
allow 
the 
boundaries 
of 
the 
working 
week 
to 
expand.’ 
Things 
have 
become 
even 
worseduringthe 
covid-19pandemic.Socialdistancing 
has 
yielded 
new 
concepts 
of 
working 
which 
have 
led 
to 
the 
blurring 
of 
the 
boundaries 
between 
home 
and 
work 
environments, 
leading 
to 
de 
facto 
‘living 
at 
work’(Waizeneggeretal.,2020),whichhasresultedin 
digital 
distress 
and 
exacerbated 
various 
mental 
health 
issues 
(Xiao 
et 
al., 
2021). 


To 
escape 
their 
busy 
realities, 
people 
have 
long 
purchased 
holidays. 
Travel 
can 
‘fix’ 
us 
after 
long 
periods 
of 
repetitive 
work 
and 
allow 
space 
for 
engaging 
in 
restorative, 
purposeful 
and 
meaningful 
activities 
(Kieran, 
2012). 
And 
yet, 
even 
when 
they 
are 
on 
holiday, 
people 
bring 
along 
mindless 
speed, 
work, 
worriesandeverydayhabits,
whichinturnmakestourism 


Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|11 



Jelena 
Farki., 
Gorana 
Isailovi., 
andMiha 
Lesjak 
Conceptualising 
Tourist 
Idleness 


largely 
replete 
with 
the 
mundane 
(Cohen 
& 
Taylor, 
2003).Touristscreatefamiliarspacesthroughcarrying 
quotidian 
habits 
on 
their 
holidays 
whilst 
performing 
unreflexive,habitualandpracticalenactions(Edensor, 
2007,p. 
200).Coupled 
with 
theactivitychoice 
overload 
during 
holidays, 
which 
has 
been 
claimed 
to 
lead 
todemotivation,dissatisfactionandthediminishment 
of 
the 
tourist 
experience 
(Sthapit 
et 
al., 
2019), 
there 
is 
a 
danger 
of 
a 
person’s 
holiday 
becoming 
yet 
another 
busy 
day. 


Inrecentyears,tocombatthenegativeeffectsofacceleration 
and 
digitalisation, 
ever 
more 
emphasis 
has 
been 
placed 
on 
the 
enhancement 
of 
people’s 
health 
and 
wellbeing 
through 
tourism 
(Everingham& 
Chas-
sagne, 
2020; 
Prayag, 
2020). 
Although 
the 
restorative 
effects 
of 
holidays 
have 
been 
long 
explored 
(Packer, 
2021; 
Filep, 
2014; 
Smith 
& 
Diekmann, 
2017; 
Lehto 
& 
Lehto, 
2019; 
Molz, 
2009), 
people’s 
wellbeing, 
safety 
and 
peace 
of 
mind 
have 
become 
priorities 
in 
more 
recent 
times, 
particularly 
in 
the 
face 
of 
the 
covid-19 
pandemic. 
Innature-richspaces,touristscanrecreate, 
recuperate 
and 
rejuvenate 
after 
long 
periods 
of 
so-
cialisolationandtourismimmobility,withbluespaces 
(Kelly, 
2021) 
and 
greenspaces 
being 
increasingly 
‘prescribed.’ 
Facilitation 
of 
quality 
time, 
personal 
reflectionandrenewaloftheselfisseenaspivotalinthecontextofthetourismexperience. 
Tothisend,staycations 
(Bafadhal,2021),hyperlocalexperiences,microadventuresorslowadventureshavebeenprioritisedinorder 
toengagepeoplein 
slower,moremindfulandresponsible 
practices 
(Mackenzie 
& 
Goodnow, 
2020; 
Farkic 
et 
al., 
2020). 


In 
this 
conceptual 
paper, 
we 
suggest 
that 
idleness 
is 
a 
neglected 
concept 
in 
tourism 
studies. 
We 
argue 
that 
tourist 
connectivity, 
over-activity 
and 
hecticness 
should 
be 
un-mobilised 
in 
favour 
of 
mobilising 
idleness 
as 
part 
of 
a 
tourist 
journey. 
We 
therefore 
aim 
to 
extend 
the 
studies 
that 
prioritise 
the 
modalities 
of 
holidays 
in 
nature 
that 
encourage 
simplified, 
slower, 
immersive 
experiences, 
and 
which 
celebrate 
mindfulness, 
slowness 
and 
stillness. 
To 
this 
end, 
we 
add 
to 
these 
debates 
by 
suggesting 
tourist 
idleness 
as 
a 
holiday 
‘practice’ 
that 
can 
bring 
multiple 
wellbeing 
benefits 
for 
tourists. 
The 
purpose 
is 
not 
to 
counter 
the 
busynessandeventfulnessoftourism,buttopavenew 


avenues 
for 
understanding 
and 
thinking 
about 
idleness 
as 
an 
equally 
creative, 
rewarding, 
rejuvenating 
and 
fulfilling 
holiday 
pursuit, 
which 
can, 
in 
its 
own 
way, 
enhance 
people’s 
wellbeing. 


In 
joining 
the 
debates 
on 
the 
future 
of 
tourism, 
this 
study 
essentially 
explores 
what 
may 
encourage 
tourist 
idleness 
and 
how 
engaging 
in 
seeming 
‘nonevents’ 
can 
positively 
affect 
tourists 
emotionally, 
existentially 
and 
psychologically. 
We 
found 
inspiration 
in 
Löfgren’s 
andEhn’s(2010) 
workwhich 
soughtto 
redefine 
the 
act 
of 
doing 
nothing 
by 
explaining 
that 
structuredandroutinisedpractices,
whichrestrictidleness, 
greatlydiminishpeople’sinnatepotentialforimprovisation,
flexibility,spontaneityorcreativity.Unlearning 
busyness 
and 
learning 
how 
to 
(temporarily) 
do 
nothing 
should 
therefore 
become 
the 
priority 
in 
achievingwellbeing,
purposeandmeaninginmodern,high-
speed 
societies. 


Tourism 
has 
long 
been 
about 
doing 
something 
rather 
than 
nothing; 
doing, 
rather 
than 
being. 
This 
is 
reflected 
in 
tourism 
boards 
of 
countries 
worldwide 
normally 
promoting 
the 
eventfulness 
of 
a 
destination 
through 
offering 
programmed 
activities 
delivered 
by 
experts. 
To 
illustrate 
our 
ideas, 
we 
use 
the 
example 
of 
nature-rich 
areas, 
which 
can 
encourage 
being 
idle 
or 
‘doing 
nothing’ 
as 
yet 
another 
way 
of 
holidaying. 
Through 
the 
concept 
of 
idleness 
as 
a 
theoretical 
lens, 
we 
aim 
to 
lay 
the 
foundations 
for 
the 
discussion 
on 
how 
else 
natural 
spaces 
can 
be 
utilised 
by 
tourists. 
We 
thenmoveontosuggest 
the 
potential 
for 
the 
develop-
mentof 
a 
new 
wellbeing 
experiential 
tourismproduct 
based 
on 
the 
benefits 
of 
being 
idle. 
In 
doing 
so, 
we 
focus 
on 
the 
importance 
of 
the 
spatial, 
temporal 
and 
existentialdimensionsofidleness,asalessrecognised, 
yetincreasinglyimportant,aspectofholidayinginnature, 
aimed 
specifically 
at 
busy, 
stressed, 
time-poor 
urbanites. 


We 
argue, 
however, 
for 
tourists’ 
‘being;’ 
we 
suggest 
that 
tourists 
should 
do 
nothing 
(in 
abundance, 
eitherprogrammedorphysicallydemanding);instead 
they 
should 
minimise 
bodily 
movements 
as 
a 
way 
of 
recharging 
and 
re-energising 
the 
body, 
and 
more 
frequently 
practice 
being 
idle, 
an 
activity 
that 
is 
very 
much 
‘longed 
for 
and 
desired-and 
enjoyed 
for 
its 
own 
sake’ 
(Rantala 
& 
Valtonen,2014, 
p. 
19). 


12 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Jelena 
Farki., 
Gorana 
Isailovi., 
andMiha 
Lesjak 
Conceptualising 
Tourist 
Idleness 


Slowness, 
Stillness 
and 
Sleep 
in 
Tourism 


The 
notion 
of 
‘slowness’ 
is 
crucial 
in 
our 
understanding 
of 
tourist 
idleness. 
It 
gained 
importance 
in 
the 
tourism 
context 
as 
it 
represented 
a 
shift 
towards 
a 
simpler, 
less 
alienated(and 
alienating), 
and 
more 
sustainable 
way 
of 
life. 
The 
slow 
movement 
was 
a 
manifestation 
of 
the 
necessity 
for 
slowing 
down 
the 
accelerated 
tempo 
of 
living 
and 
countering 
globalisa-
tion,consumerism,andstandardisationofservices, 
as 
wellasfastandunhealthyfoodconsumption(Honore, 
2004). 
ItbeganinItalyastheslowfoodandslowcities 
movement, 
and 
was 
later 
expanded 
to 
include 
travel, 
incorporatingthesameprinciplesoflocalism,authenticity, 
connection, 
or 
interaction 
in 
tourism 
practices. 
Slow 
movements 
‘have 
found 
their 
niche 
within 
the 
material 
and 
cultural 
economy 
of 
western 
modernity’ 
(Tomlinson, 
2007, 
p. 
147), 
as 
an 
increasingly 
desired, 
and 
more 
considered 
and 
mindful 
form 
of 
consumption 
of 
material 
pleasures. 


Slow 
travel 
has 
greatly 
redefined 
the 
way 
we 
think 
about 
and 
‘do’ 
holidays. 
Essentially, 
it 
aims 
to 
address 
theissueoftime 
poverty 
andinstantaneous 
experiences 
through 
extending 
the 
time 
for 
people 
to 
feel 
the 
benefits 
of 
a 
holiday 
by 
making 
meaningful 
connections 
with 
people, 
places 
and 
life 
in 
general 
(Heitmann 
et 
al., 
2011). 
Slow 
travel 
does 
not 
only 
have 
the 
potential 
to 
enable 
meaningful 
immersion 
but 
also 
to 
encourage 
sustainable 
development 
of 
a 
destination 
by 
having 
multiple 
positive 
impacts 
on 
the 
local 
environment, 
society 
and 
economy 
of 
the 
region. 
Slow 
tourists 
are 
encouraged 
to 
linger 
in 
a 
destination 
for 
extendedperiodsoftime;theystayinlocalaccommodation, 
family-run 
hotels, 
or 
b&bs. 
Instead 
of 
racing 
to 
see 
the 
top 
sights 
before 
they 
return 
home, 
time 
is 
taken 
to 
explore 
the 
flavours, 
sounds 
and 
the 
lesserknownattractionsintheareainmoreconsideredways 
(Serdaneetal.,2020;Walkeretal.,2021;Fullagaretal., 
2012).Minimisingbodilymovementinfavourofmaximising 
engagement 
with 
the 
traditions 
of 
the 
land, 
natural 
landscapes, 
local 
foods 
and 
people, 
are 
suggestedasthemainpostulateofslowtourism,
whichwe 
found 
helpful 
in 
our 
conceptualising 
tourist 
idleness. 


In 
making 
stronger 
links 
between 
slowness, 
travel 
and 
idleness, 
Kieran 
(2012) 
proposed 
an 
idea 
of 
idle 
or 
deep 
travel 
as 
a 
particular 
philosophy 
of 
holiday


ing 
which 
in 
many 
ways 
resonates 
with 
slow 
travel. 
In 
this 
context, 
idleness 
has 
nothing 
to 
do 
with 
fun, 
entertainment, 
or 
a 
temporary 
escape 
from 
our 
ills; 
it 
is 
moretodowithaframeofmindandanattitudethata 
traveller 
is 
taking. 
The 
author 
suggests 
that 
‘we 
want 
to 
feel 
we 
have 
achieved 
something 
when 
we 
travel, 
but 
the 
structureweimpose 
seems 
to 
make 
that 
impossible 
[...]asmostofusherdourselves 
through 
an 
itinerary 
that 
includes 
the 
predictable 
sights’ 
(Kieran, 
2012, 
p. 
171).Inmanycases,peoplewanttoexperience 
the 
exotic 
and 
the 
unknown 
through 
familiarity 
and 
order. 
However, 
through 
defying 
clichés 
and 
a 
sense 
of 
order 
tourists 
might 
be 
able 
to 
deepen 
the 
connection 
with 
a 
place. 
In 
this 
vein, 
being 
slow, 
idle, 
or 
not 
doingmuchonholidaymayallowfordifferentwaysof 
experiencingandknowing.Itmaybeaproductiveway 
fortouriststoachievesomethinggoodforthemselves, 
includingtheirinnergrowth,spiritualtransformation, 
or 
self-actualisation 
(Sheldon, 
2020). 


Similarly, 
adventuretourism 
scholars, 
such 
as 
Var-
ley 
and 
Semple 
(2015), 
have 
built 
on 
the 
idea 
of 
slowness 
to 
conceptualise 
slow 
adventure, 
a 
way 
of 
slow 
bodily 
movement 
throughand 
embeddednessin 
wild 
nature. 
Whilst 
contrasting 
slow 
to 
fast 
adventure, 
the 
authors 
highlight 
the 
wider 
experiential 
dimension 
of 
slow 
journeys, 
explaining 
that 
this 
blend 
of 
slowness 
and 
outdoor 
adventure 
may 
appear 
counter-intuitive, 
as 
adventure 
is 
generally 
associated 
with 
thrill, 
adrenaline, 
and 
excitement. 
However, 
experiencing 
spatial, 
temporal 
and 
natural 
rhythms 
through 
slow, 
immersive 
bodily 
engagement 
with 
a 
place 
is 
claimed 
to 
be 
both 
the 
luxury 
and 
necessity 
of 
the 
urbanised 
21stcentury 
inhabitants 
(Farkic 
& 
Taylor, 
2019; 
Farkic 
et 
al., 
2020). 


Slowadventurehascomealongwayfromthenaturalconcepttoconsumerdesire,
aswellasamarketable 
and 
consumable 
tourism 
product 
which 
has 
been 
implementedinseveralEuropeancountriesthusfar.
Slow 
adventuremaybeaparticularlyusefulmarketingconcept 
in 
lightly 
populated 
areas, 
such 
as 
the 
Arctic 
circle, 
where 
tourism 
development 
may 
be 
somewhat 
more 
difficult 
to 
realise 
(Varley 
et 
al., 
2020). 
Despite 
this, 
it 
was 
recognised 
that 
in 
openness, 
vastness 
and 
remoteness 
lies 
the 
latent 
potential 
of 
these 
places, 
as 
‘their 
emptiness, 
the 
lack 
of 
development, 
where 
the 


Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|13 



Jelena 
Farki., 
Gorana 
Isailovi., 
andMiha 
Lesjak 
Conceptualising 
Tourist 
Idleness 


liveslived 
areimagined 
assimpler,closer 
tonature, 
less 
alienated 
[...] 
and 
slower’ 
(p. 
3) 
may 
represent 
a 
unique 
selling 
point 
of 
such 
destinations. 
The 
seeming 
‘nothingness’ 
is 
therefore 
seen 
as 
a 
competitive 
advantage 
rather 
than 
a 
problem, 
in 
which 
the 
manic 
busyness 
of 
everydaylife 
seems 
to 
be 
easily 
countered 
through 
engaging 
in 
(un)mediated 
slow 
adventures. 
Tourists 
may 
create 
their 
own, 
personalspace, 
experiencesolitudeorescapism,
andeasilybecomeoblivious 
of 
the 
passage 
of 
chronological 
time 
and 
distractions 
imposed 
by 
omnipresent 
digital 
technologies. 
Varley 
et 
al. 
(2020) 
propose 
that 
slow 
adventure 
experiences 
encourage 
feelings 
of 
oneness 
and 
connection 
with 
nature 
in 
wild 
places, 
and 
this 
ontological 
connection 
with 
place 
could 
potentially 
restore 
the 
broken 
ties 
between 
people 
and 
nature 
– 
but 
only 
if 
they 
move 
through 
spaces 
not 
at 
slow, 
nor 
fast, 
but 
at 
the 
right 
speed. 


Green 
spaces 
have 
been 
increasingly 
utilised 
for 
therapeuticpurposes.Inparticular,thewellbeingbenefits 
of 
arboreal 
environments 
have 
been 
highlighted 
(Konu, 
2015), 
with 
a 
particular 
focus 
on 
slow 
immersion 
and 
mindful 
utilisation 
of 
forests 
through 
the 
Japanese 
practice 
of 
forest 
bathing 
– 
shinrin-yoku. 
A 
structured, 
mediated 
forest 
walk 
combines 
forest 
medicine 
and 
traditions 
of 
the 
land, 
and 
for 
most 
of 
programme 
requires 
bodily 
and 
mental 
presence 
and 
continual 
attention 
to 
the 
senses 
(Farkic, 
Isailovic, 
& 
Taylor, 
2021). 
The 
aim 
of 
forest 
bathing 
is 
not 
to 
cover 
long 
distances 
while 
walking, 
but 
rather 
to 
engage 
in 
diverseactivitiesin 
moremindful,deeper, 
and 
spiritual 
ways, 
which 
enables 
self-treatment 
with 
the 
help 
of 
the 
healing 
properties 
of 
the 
forest 
(Forest 
Therapy 
South-Eastern 
Europe, 
2021). 


This 
relatively 
new 
tourism 
product 
– 
forest 
wellness 
–islargelypremisedonforesttherapy,suggesting 
the 
immense 
restorativepowersand 
anti-stresseffects 
of 
forests 
(Cvikl, 
2016; 
Isailovic 
et 
al., 
2014). 
In 
recognising 
that 
forests 
are 
ideal 
settings 
for 
therapeutic 
programmes, 
the 
spa 
concept 
of 
the 
Forest 
Spa 
was 
developedaroundthe 
idea 
of 
authenticTurkish 
ham-
mams. 
What 
is 
pivotal 
here 
is 
the 
slow 
movement 
of 
the 
sun 
across 
the 
hararet 
(the 
central 
place 
of 
ham-
mam) 
in 
which 
activities 
take 
place. 
While 
the 
sun’s 
rays 
filter 
through 
the 
treetops, 
they 
illuminate 
the 


space 
in 
which 
programmes 
take 
place. 
The 
interplay 
of 
shadows 
and 
light 
then 
becomes 
the 
indicator 
of 
time, 
a 
category 
that 
easily 
becomes 
relative, 
bent, 
extended, 
fluid, 
and 
subjectively 
negotiated. 
The 
activitiesfacilitatethepowerofpresencethroughmeditative 
practicesandnoticingwhatisinmotionbywalkingat 
a 
snail’s 
pace. 
They 
are 
usually 
followed 
by 
selfness 
workshops 
in 
which 
participants 
are 
free 
to 
unleash 
their 
creativity 
and 
innate 
need 
for 
play 
(Isailovic 
et 
al., 
2014). 


Tourism 
researchers 
have 
also 
moved 
beyond 
the 
slow-moving 
body, 
to 
explore 
the 
stilled 
body 
and 
the 
bodythatisasleepasamediumthroughwhichwecan 
learn 
about 
the 
human 
condition. 
By 
way 
of 
example, 
Rantala 
and 
Valtonen 
(2014) 
opined 
that 
regular, 
normative 
rhythms 
of 
everyday 
life, 
cities 
and 
big 
tourist 
centresaredisruptedonnatureholidays,whichallows 
touriststogetattunedtodifferentmodesofbeing 
with 
nature. 
To 
thisend,theyobservedtouristsaswaking 
and 
sleeping 
beings, 
arguing 
that 
this 
very 
existential 
human 
condition 
assumes 
a 
temporary 
absence 
from 
wakinglife.Inofferingnovelinsightsintobeingasleep 
anddoingsleepinnature,RantalaandValtonen(2014) 
illuminate 
the 
importance 
of 
lying 
down, 
a 
posture 
that 
is 
not 
particularly 
appreciated 
in 
industrialised, 
capitalistsocieties. 
Learninghowto 
‘do’ 
sleep 
requires 
skill 
and 
techniques 
that 
must 
be 
learned 
in 
accord 
withthesurroundingspaceandnaturalrhythms.This, 
in 
turn, 
assumes 
unlearning 
to 
sleep 
indoors, 
in 
the 
bedroom, 
in 
bed, 
on 
a 
pillow 
and 
under 
a 
blanket. 
Learning 
is 
a 
process 
that 
requires 
time; 
people 
need 
to 
understand 
how 
things 
work 
in 
hitherto 
unusual 
environmentsandto 
become 
comfortablewith 
differ-
entwaysofdoingthings. 
Doingsleep,similartodoing 
slowness, 
therefore 
requires 
time 
and 
commitment 
to 
beunderstood,attunedtoandmeaningfullypractised. 


It 
is 
here 
wherewecan 
begintounderstandthe 
wellbeing 
potential 
of 
slowing 
down 
the 
passage 
of 
time 
and 
stilling 
the 
tourist 
body 
in 
developing 
the 
idea 
of 
tourist 
idleness. 
To 
date, 
limited 
studies 
have 
argued 
against 
stillness 
as 
a 
moment 
of 
emptiness 
or 
missed 
productivity, 
as 
something 
that 
needs 
to 
be 
filled 
with 
productive 
work 
(Bissel 
& 
Fuller, 
2011). 
Rather, 
they 
observed 
it 
beyond 
the 
conditions 
of 
stasisand 
immobility, 
asa 
powerful 
‘activity’ 
that 
can 


14 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Jelena 
Farki., 
Gorana 
Isailovi., 
andMiha 
Lesjak 
Conceptualising 
Tourist 
Idleness 


meaningfully 
fulfil 
people’s 
leisure 
time. 
However, 
the 
significance 
of 
slowness 
and 
bodily 
inaction 
(such 
as 
stillnessorsleep)havebeensufficientlyexplored(Yang 
et 
al., 
2021; 
Valtonen 
& 
Veijola, 
2011; 
Rantala 
& 
Valtonen,
2014;Bissell&Fuller,2011;Löfgren&Ehn,2010); 
however, 
there 
is 
little 
understanding 
of 
the 
implications 
of 
idleness 
for 
tourism. 
The 
abovementioned 
studies 
have 
been 
useful 
for 
our 
conceptualisation 
of 
touristidlenessasawayofrest,recuperationandslow 
immersion 
in 
natural 
rhythms, 
and 
as 
a 
practice 
that 
allowsmodernurbanitesaspaceformuchyearned-for 
switching 
off 
and 
doing 
nothing, 
albeit 
temporarily. 


In 
aiming 
to 
addtothe 
existing 
conversation 
on 
achieving 
wellbeing 
through 
tourism, 
we 
therefore 
draw 
attention 
to 
the 
idle 
body 
which 
can 
be 
enacted 
through 
activities 
in 
natural 
spaces, 
sitting 
around 
the 
meadow, 
romanticised 
gazing 
at 
the 
surrounding 
landscapes, 
engaging 
in 
creative 
workshops, 
or 
aim-
lesswanderingsoverthepastures.Theseactivitiesmay 
be 
perceived 
as 
inefficient, 
un-ordered 
or 
irrational; 
however, 
they 
may 
be 
the 
non-verbal 
reaction 
to 
the 
regimented-ness 
of 
modern 
life 
and 
eventfulness 
of 
tourism. 
We 
propose 
that 
escaping 
the 
rules 
of 
everyday 
life 
and 
relocation 
to 
natural 
areas 
to 
‘do 
nothing’ 
on 
purpose 
may 
provide 
a 
compensatoryarenain 
which 
people 
can 
temporarily 
withdraw 
from 
hectic-
ness 
and 
busyness, 
and 
enter 
that 
recuperative 
space 
describedby 
Löfgren 
andEhn 
(2010, 
p. 
208) 
as 
‘a 
bohemian 
flipside 
of 
Western 
modernity.’ 


Idleness 
and 
Otiose 
Leisure 


Philosophers 
and 
writers 
have 
long 
celebrated 
and 
consistentlyconfigured 
the 
notion 
of 
idleness. 
For 
example, 
William 
Wordsworth 
(1995), 
having 
escaped 
fromthe 
vastcity 
wherehe 
longpined,comparedit 
to 
afeelingoflibertyandease. 
Kierkegaard(2004)advocated 
for 
idleness 
as 
a 
way 
of 
a 
truly 
divine 
life, 
as 
it 
‘brings 
liberty 
and 
a 
quiet 
enjoyment 
of 
rural 
scenes 
whicharethusframedastheseedsofcreativeproduction’ 
(Huber,2020, 
p. 
403). 
Similarly, 
BertrandRussell 
(2004) 
explored 
the 
virtues 
of 
being 
idle 
in 
modern 
society, 
arguingthathumanhappiness 
wouldincrease 
with 
the 
increase 
in 
leisure 
time, 
further 
resulting 
in 
increased 
involvement 
in 
arts, 
sciences 
and 
hobbies. 
This 
should 
encourage 
modern 
humans 
to 
think 
of 


the 
good 
life 
and 
accomplishment 
not 
only 
in 
terms 
ofachievingtangible,measurablegoals,but 
alsoin 
relation 
to 
unquantifiable, 
quality 
time 
that 
we 
spend 
doing 
things 
we 
enjoy, 
and 
which 
make 
us 
feel 
well, 
fulfilled, 
–andessentiallyhuman(Fendeletal.,2020). 


There 
are 
various 
cultural 
manifestations 
of 
idle-
ness.Bywayofexample,theGermanconceptofMuße, 
denoting 
leisure, 
signifies 
mental 
space 
for 
introspection 
and 
reflection 
(Gimmel 
& 
Keiling, 
2016). 
It 
was 
originally 
translated 
as 
an 
‘opportunity,’ 
not 
only 
to 
escape 
from 
work, 
but 
also 
to 
engage 
in 
meaningful 
leisure 
activities. 
In 
the 
state 
of 
Muße, 
the 
goal 
is 
not 
achievement 
and 
efficiency, 
but 
rather 
to 
be 
content 
with 
what 
is 
happening 
in 
the 
present 
moment. 
Similarly, 
the 
Dutch 
philosophy 
of 
Niksen 
advocates 
the 
pleasures 
of 
leisure 
time. 
It 
suggests 
the 
elysian 
pleasantness 
of 
performing 
idle 
activities, 
such 
as 
sitting 
in 
a 
chair 
and 
staring 
through 
the 
window, 
enjoying 
longmealtimesoraimlessperambulations.To‘doniks’ 
does 
not 
mean 
to 
work, 
perform 
emotional 
labour 
or 
be 
attentive 
and 
mindful 
(Mecking, 
2021). 
The 
idea 
is 
to 
take 
time 
to 
relax 
completely 
and 
contemplate 
nothing 
serious 
or 
thought-provoking 
(Alpert, 
2014). 
It 
is 
therefore 
suggested 
that 
entering 
the 
state 
of 
Niksen 
has 
wellbeing 
benefits 
for 
its 
power 
to 
en-
couragepeopletodogoodtothemselvesbynotdoing 
much 
(Tufvesson, 
2020). 
Likewise, 
the 
Italianconcept 
which 
strongly 
advocates 
for 
idleness 
is 
Il 
dolce 
far 
niente 
(literally 
translated 
as 
‘the 
sweetness 
of 
doing 
nothing’). 
It 
refersto 
the 
pleasure 
one 
getsfrom 
being 
idle, 
allowing 
for 
a 
celebration 
of 
time 
free 
of 
work, 
when 
the 
mind 
unwinds 
and 
the 
body 
rests 
(Carver, 
n.d.). 
The 
importance 
of 
letting 
the 
mind 
wander 
at 
will 
is 
acknowledged 
in 
this 
concept, 
as 
energy 
is 
thus 
replenished 
and 
priority 
is 
given 
to 
freedom, 
play 
and 
creativity. 


Tobetterunderstandidlenessasatourismpractice 
on 
holiday, 
we 
explore 
it 
here 
through 
the 
dialectic 
of 
the 
Ciceronian 
Latin 
concepts 
of 
otium/negotium. 
The 
origins 
of 
these 
two 
terms 
can 
be 
traced 
back 
to 
the 
Roman 
state, 
in 
which 
Cicero’s 
conceptualisation 
of 
otium 
was 
associated 
with 
the 
Roman 
political 
elite’s 
retreat 
to 
their 
country 
houses, 
as 
documented 
in 
Cicero’s 
works 
(Fludernik, 
2021). 
In 
the 
Roman 
state, 
otium 
was 
not 
meant 
for 
everyone, 
rather 
it 
was 


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Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
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1, 
April 
2022 
|15 



Jelena 
Farki., 
Gorana 
Isailovi., 
andMiha 
Lesjak 
Conceptualising 
Tourist 
Idleness 


only 
aimed 
at 
the 
privileged. 
Authors 
such 
as 
Bragova 
(2016) 
explored 
the 
ambiguous 
concept 
of 
‘cum 
dig-
nitate 
otium,’ 
suggesting 
that 
it 
needs 
to 
be 
studied 
in 
relation 
to 
the 
context 
in 
which 
Cicero 
used 
this 
term. 
It 
can 
therefore 
be 
understood 
as 
both 
a 
politicalandsocialconceptwithmultiplemeanings,
suchas 
‘peacewithdignity’or‘tranquillitywithhonour’(Rad-
ford, 
2002). 
By 
otium 
Cicero 
assumed 
both 
‘peaceful 
leisure 
full 
of 
studies’ 
and 
‘peace 
in 
private 
affairs.’ 
In 
ourstudy,however,wereferto 
otium 
asasocial 
space, 
which 
encourages 
leisure, 
relaxation, 
creativity 
and 
freedom. 


Otium/Negotium 
Dialectic 


The 
Latin 
term 
negotium 
(translated 
as 
business, 
employment, 
occupation, 
labour 
or 
difficulty) 
signifies 
chores; 
duties 
that 
need 
to 
be 
done 
within 
certain 
working 
hours 
or 
by 
a 
certain 
deadline. 
This 
is 
embodied 
in 
the 
concept 
of 
Homo 
Faber 
(Frisch, 
1959), 
which 
encapsulatespeople’s 
dependence 
on 
technologies 
and 
their 
urge 
to 
produce 
something 
by 
way 
of 
their 
labour 
(Ihde 
& 
Malafouris, 
2019). 
The 
capitalist 
ideology 
is 
largely 
premised 
on 
productivity 
and 
achievement 
of 
goals, 
and 
endorses 
motivation 
and 
initiative 
for 
work 
and 
production. 
It 
frames 
speed 
as 
positive 
and 
desirable 
whilst 
suppressing 
effortless 
activities 
like 
waiting, 
lying, 
or 
daydreaming. 
Waiting 
time 
is 
considered 
‘dead 
time’ 
which 
prevents 
the 
regular 
flow 
and 
development 
of 
modern 
life. 
Being 
idle 
is 
a 
moment 
of 
inactivity, 
that 
unproductive 
moment 
in 
between 
movements, 
a 
period 
when 
people 
‘do 
nothing’ 
but 
briefly 
recuperateand 
energise,inordertore-
engageinwork.Inourworkaholicsociety,an 
idle 
person 
is 
normally 
described 
as 
slothful, 
that 
is, 
wasting 
time 
by 
doing 
nothing 
of 
(economic) 
value, 
instead 
engaging 
in 
‘empty 
labour’ 
(Paulsen, 
2014). 
Unfortunately, 
modern 
humans 
have 
learned 
to 
deny 
stillnessanddismissidlenessastrivial,uneventful,unproductive,
unnoticed,and 
unimportant. 
Instead, 
the 
frenetic,dramatic,eventful,productive,laboriousway 
of 
life 
is 
privileged. 
Despite 
the 
more 
recent 
concerns 
for 
people’s 
healthandwellbeing, 
being 
idle 
continues 
tobeseenasanegativeandstillnesshasbeenregarded 
assomethingthatpunctuatestheflowanddisruptsthe 
frenetic 
motion 
of 
things. 


Otium, 
on 
the 
other 
hand, 
denotes 
the 
opposite 
– 
the 
non-working 
time, 
the 
time 
for 
leisure, 
inactivity, 
quietness, 
and 
recuperation 
from 
hard 
work. 
In 
the 
past, 
the 
time 
of 
otium 
was 
considered 
a 
leisure 
activity 
thatexcludes 
intensive 
physical 
activity 
and 
move-
mentinfavourofbodilystillnessandanactivemind.It 
was 
filled 
with 
simple 
habits, 
pleasures, 
pastimes, 
and 
hobbies, 
butitalso 
allowed 
time 
for 
nature 
appreciation,
research,intellectualactivity,meditation,orcontemplation 
(Vickers, 
1990). 
More 
recently, 
the 
ideal-
isation 
of 
the 
original 
meaning 
of 
otium 
(leisure) 
has 
beenunderstoodasareactiontoglobalisationanddigitalisationanditseffectsonthepostmoderndigitalsocieties 
who 
may 
have 
fewer 
opportunities 
for 
leisure, 
thus 
developing 
nostalgic 
feelings 
about 
the 
‘lost 
way 
of 
life.’ 


Theexperienceof 
otium 
can 
also 
be 
explained 
as 
a 
state 
of 
mind. 
In 
contemporary 
societies, 
idleness 
has 
mostly 
been 
seen 
as 
a 
luxury 
rather 
than 
a 
virtue, 
as 
rare 
moments 
of 
idleness 
allow 
us 
to 
find 
harmony 
within 
ourselves, 
and 
to 
appreciate 
the 
significance 
of 
contemplation, 
compassion, 
gratitude, 
or 
deep 
reflection.
Toembraceidlenessmeanstoenablethemindto 
wander 
– 
it 
is 
a 
conscious 
act 
of 
living 
that 
restores 
a 
sense 
of 
freedom 
and 
inspires 
creativity 
and 
imagination 
(Russell,2004).Duringaperiod 
of 
idleness, 
the 
mind 
wanders 
and 
resorts 
to 
its 
default 
mode, 
generatingstimulus-
independentthoughtsthataretypically 
internally 
oriented 
yet 
not 
specifically 
focused 
(Yang 
& 
Hsee, 
2019). 
Even 
while 
being 
bodily 
still, 
one 
can 
have 
a 
busy, 
active 
mind, 
which 
daydreams. 
Löfgren 
and 
Ehn 
(2010, 
p. 
2015) 
termthis 
as 
‘stationerymobility,’ 
the 
condition 
in 
which 
people 
are 
free 
to 
roambetweendifferentmentalworldsordisappearintomemories. 


Being 
idle 
is 
not 
a 
complete 
absence 
of 
activity, 
however. 
It 
may 
often 
involve 
both 
mental 
and 
physical 
processes. 
For 
example, 
Fludernik 
(2021) 
uses 
the 
term 
‘otiose 
leisure’ 
to 
explain 
the 
idea 
of 
Muße, 
suggesting 
that 
in 
these 
segments 
of 
leisure 
people 
can 
‘meditate 
or 
listen 
to 
music; 
relax 
while 
hiking, 
dancing, 
or 
swimming; 
one 
can 
also 
engage 
in 
a 
burst 
of 
musicalcompositionor 
in 
aworkflowof 
concentrated 
readingorwriting’(p.17).Mußemaythereforeassume 
anythingfromrelaxationanddoinglittleornothingto 


16 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Jelena 
Farki., 
Gorana 
Isailovi., 
andMiha 
Lesjak 
Conceptualising 
Tourist 
Idleness 


slightly 
more 
demanding 
activities, 
both 
physical 
and 
intellectual. 
What 
is 
crucial 
here 
is 
that 
otiose 
moments 
are 
largely 
determined 
by 
time 
and 
freedom 
to 
do 
something 
creative 
or 
to 
achieve 
a 
qualitatively 
differentexperience 
of 
that 
time. 
Fludernik 
(2021) 
explains 
that 
for 
one 
to 
enter 
the 
state 
of 
otium, 
they 
need 
to 
be 
liberated 
from 
imposed 
constraints 
(deadlines 
or 
schedules) 
and 
have 
the 
freedom 
to 
choose 
anactivitytheywishtoundertake. 
Fortheconsumers, 
theauthorstates,thepassageoftimeappearsslower,as 
people 
then 
do 
not 
worry 
about 
the 
measurable, 
cal-
culablegoalstheyneedtoachieve;insteadtheyengage 
inspendingtimeataslow,leisurelypace.Thisperception 
of 
deceleration 
becomes 
possible 
‘only 
when 
one 
withdrawsintoaboundedspaceortemporalslotwith-
out 
interruptions 
or 
outside 
interference’ 
(Fludernik, 
2021, 
p.17).Suchretreats 
allow 
onetoshutout 
potentialdisturbances,
obligationsanddistractions,tomore 
meaningfully 
engage 
in 
the 
act 
of 
being. 


The 
situations 
in 
which 
people 
express 
and 
enact 
idleness 
can 
in 
many 
ways 
be 
found 
liberating, 
purposeful 
and 
meaningful. 
People’s 
freedom, 
wellbeing 
and 
developmentoftheself 
couldthenbe 
encouraged 
by 
places 
of 
otium, 
in 
which 
they 
are 
free 
to 
do 
nothing, 
waste 
time, 
wait, 
fantasise 
or 
daydream 
in 
unfettered, 
fulfilling 
ways. 
To 
Löfgren 
and 
Ehn 
(2010, 
p. 
208),‘routinessinkintothebodyandbecomereflexes, 
daydreams 
drift 
past 
unnoticed, 
and 
waiting 
becomes 
a 
state 
of 
mind.’ 
Places 
of 
otium 
in 
nature 
surely 
have 
the 
power 
to 
encourage 
such 
states, 
and 
help 
people 
to 
take 
a 
differentperspectiveon 
life,to 
unwind,relax 
and 
ultimately, 
to 
feel 
well. 


Drawing 
on 
the 
extant 
literature 
that 
encapsulates 
the 
act 
of 
idleness 
as 
a 
way 
of 
living 
or 
being, 
we 
suggest 
that 
elements 
of 
these 
constructs 
could 
be 
implemented 
in 
the 
development 
of 
nature-based 
tourism. 
In 
framing 
idleness 
as 
the 
act 
of 
doing 
nothing 
which 
encourages 
bodily 
stillness, 
contemplation, 
freedom 
orcreativity,weechoVarley’sandSemple’s(2015)view 
that 
immersion 
in 
places 
of 
otium 
may 
be 
viewed 
beyond 
the 
escape 
from 
the 
frenetic, 
grinding 
hyper-
modernity;itcanalsobeunderstoodasthemetaphorical 
process 
of 
coming 
home. 
Although 
the 
choreography 
of 
doing 
nothing 
may 
resonate 
with 
emptiness 
andmaysoundlikeasetofoxymorons,such 
asactive 


Table 
1 
Dimensions 
of 
Places 
of 
Otium 


Spatial 
• 
Natural 
environment 


• 
Hospitality 
establishments 
in 
quiet/remote 
areas 
• 
Locally 
grown 
food 
•Traditions 
of 
the 
land 
Temporal 
• 
Undertaking 
unstructured 
activities 


• 
Attuning 
to 
circadian 
rhythm 
of 
living 
• 
Independence 
of 
clocked, 
chronoloogical 
time 
Existential 
• 
Self 
actualisation 
through 
engaging 
in 
creative, 
playful 
and 
hedonic 
activities 


• 
Achieving 
freedom 
through 
introspection, 
daydreaming 
or 
inquiry 
passivity, 
productive 
laziness, 
or 
contoured 
freedom 
(Fludernik, 
2021), 
it 
is 
undeniably 
rich, 
and 
may 
offer 
a 
quality 
experience 
through 
which 
humans 
come 
to 
self; 
reconnect 
with 
their 
inner 
beings, 
embark 
on 
in-
wardjourneys,relax, 
self-actualise, 
develop 
and 
grow. 


We 
now 
turn 
to 
discuss 
how 
places 
of 
otium 
can 
be 
created 
and 
consumed 
in 
nature-based 
tourism 
through 
the 
triumvirate 
of 
spatial, 
temporal 
and 
existential 
dimensions, 
which 
we 
argue 
can 
contribute 
to 
the 
constructionof 
the 
idleholiday 
experience 
(Table 
1). 


Places 
of 
Otium 
in 
Nature 


The 
Spatial 
Context 


Places 
of 
otium 
in 
nature-based 
tourism 
are 
designed 
in 
such 
a 
way 
to 
encourage 
tourist 
idleness. 
For 
example, 
rural, 
mountainous, 
forested 
or 
coastal 
areas 
are 
ideal 
settings 
for 
activities 
to 
be 
undertaken 
in 
a 
uniquely 
localised 
way 
and 
which 
tourists 
may 
experience 
with 
a 
pair 
of 
completely 
new 
eyes 
(Mackenzie 
& 
Goodnow, 
2020). 
Against 
the 
backdrop 
of 
natural 
landscapes, 
hospitality 
establishments 
(such 
as 
country 
houses, 
lakeside 
cabins, 
mountain 
huts, 
camping/
glamping 
units, 
or 
commercial 
farmhouses) 
have 
a 
competitive 
advantage 
due 
to 
their 
location 
in 
natural 
and 
relatively 
remote 
areas 
with 
less 
noise 
and 
pollution 
than 
in 
urban 
environs. 
Such 
environments 
could 
be 
termed 
as 
‘moorings’ 
(Hannam 
et 
al., 
2006), 
that 
is, 
spaces 
to 
settle 
in, 
to 
just 
be 
still 
and 
‘do 
nothing.’ 
What 
they 
have 
in 
common 
is 
their 
distinct 
spa-

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Turistica, 
Year 
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No. 
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April 
2022 
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Jelena 
Farki., 
Gorana 
Isailovi., 
andMiha 
Lesjak 
Conceptualising 
Tourist 
Idleness 


tiality 
that 
draws 
clear 
boundaries 
between 
noise 
and 
silence, 
activity 
and 
calm, 
easy 
access 
and 
seclusion. 
These 
places 
offer 
an 
atmosphere 
different 
from 
that 
found 
in 
urban 
environs 
and 
foster 
a 
different 
kind 
of 
attention,onethatdoesnotneedtobefocused,wonor 
retained; 
just 
what 
most 
modern 
urbanites 
need 
and 
searchfor(Figal,2014).Theslow,extendedimmersion 
in 
the 
landscapes 
and 
attentiveness 
to 
the 
dynamics 
different 
from 
busy, 
structured 
everydayness 
allows 
for 
the 
opportunities 
for 
creative 
absent-mindedness, 
learning, 
and 
deep 
appreciation 
of 
the 
traditions, 
the 
foods, 
the 
land, 
and 
people 
of 
that 
land. 


We 
can 
learn 
from 
the 
example 
of 
slow 
tourism, 
whichcelebratessimple, 
organic,local, 
traditional,affective 
and 
emotional 
dimensions 
of 
the 
experiences 
gained 
through 
immersion 
in 
the 
destination 
and 
local 
way 
of 
life 
(Dickinson 
& 
Lumsdon, 
2010). 
To 
this 
end,servicesincommercialhospitalityestablishments 
should 
be 
delivered 
in 
traditional, 
intimate, 
authentic 
ways, 
as 
is 
encouraged 
in 
any 
slow 
tourism 
context 
(Fullagar 
et 
al., 
2012). 
The 
meals, 
prepared 
according 
to 
old 
recipes 
and 
from 
homegrown 
ingredients, 
may 
deepen 
the 
connection 
with 
the 
history, 
culture 
and 
identity 
of 
the 
regions. 
For 
example, 
on 
the 
mountain 
plateaus, 
where 
herdsmen 
spend 
their 
summers 
grazing 
sheep, 
tourists 
can 
enjoy 
the 
flavours 
of 
corn 
porridge, 
or 
soup 
made 
by 
roasting 
and 
browning 
flour. 
Shepherds, 
while 
serving 
homemade 
cheese, 
tell 
their 
visitors 
the 
story 
of 
its 
production. 
Similarly, 
farmsteads 
could 
offer 
opportunities 
for 
encounters 
with 
tradition 
through 
slow 
food 
cooked 
on 
the 
old 
wood-
burning 
stove 
on 
the 
porch. 
Country 
housesnested 
in 
a 
rural 
ambience, 
and 
glamping 
in 
vineyards 
or 
wine 
cellarsalsoofferidealspots 
forescaping 
busy 
realities. 


Some 
of 
the 
props 
to 
encourage 
idleness 
in 
these 
places 
are 
comfortable 
hammocks 
spread 
between 
pine 
trees, 
hay 
bales, 
benches 
by 
the 
waterfall, 
deckchairs 
at 
the 
riverbank 
or 
mats 
laid 
out 
on 
the 
meadows. 
Whilst 
reclining 
in 
sofas 
in 
front 
of 
the 
fireplace, 
in 
ergonomic 
deckchairs 
or 
swaying 
in 
hammocks, 
sipping 
mulled 
wine 
or 
munching 
on 
home-
madecheese,tourists 
maylet 
their 
mindswanderand 
observe 
the 
dynamics 
of 
the 
natural 
world 
around 
them: 
the 
clouds 
forming 
in 
the 
sky, 
the 
ants 
crawling 
in 
the 
grass, 
the 
water 
flowing 
down 
the 
riverbed, 
the 


sheep 
grazing 
in 
the 
pastures. 
Such 
seemingly 
‘slothful’ 
activities 
represent 
the 
antidote 
to 
the 
prevalent 
workaholism 
in 
high-speed 
societies. 
Engaging 
in 
so-
called 
‘empty 
labour’ 
(Paulsen, 
2014) 
may 
encourage 
ustothinkaboutadifferentwayof 
being 
inthisworld, 
however. 
The 
value 
of 
idleness 
moves 
beyond 
its 
role 
in 
constructing 
the 
deeper, 
richer 
and 
more 
meaningful 
tourism 
experience, 
to 
also 
be 
considered 
as 
a 
way 
of 
relaxing 
the 
tense 
tourist 
body, 
shaped 
by 
the 
mechanical 
repetition 
of 
everydayness. 


Qualitative 
Time 


Being 
idle 
on 
holiday 
also 
means 
having 
the 
alternative 
concept 
of 
time 
in 
mind. 
We 
argue 
here 
that 
it 
is 
the 
kairological 
time 
of 
an 
idle 
holiday 
that 
renders 
it 
pleasurable 
and 
meaningful. 
The 
Greek 
term 
Chronos 
expresses 
a 
measure, 
a 
quantity 
of 
duration, 
whilst 
its 
counterpart, 
Kairos, 
is 
more 
qualitative 
and 
has 
a 
special 
temporal 
position. 
As 
Weber 
(2014, 
p. 
7) 
suggests, 
‘with 
Kairos 
we 
are 
always 
“on 
time,” 
naked 
in 
the 
timeliness 
of 
opportunity, 
as 
it 
were.’ 
In 
contrast 
to 
chronological 
time, 
qualitative 
time 
is 
what 
matters; 
there 
are 
no 
time 
constraints 
nor 
scheduled 
tourist 
itineraries. 
When 
we 
take 
out 
everyday 
life’s 
repetitionandpredictableroutines,ourconsciousness 
makes 
more 
space 
for 
new 
experiences; 
we 
are 
aware 
of 
new 
spaces, 
people 
and 
things, 
smells 
and 
flavours. 
Being 
in 
natural 
environments 
is 
recuperative 
per 
se; 
however, 
idling 
the 
body 
allows 
for 
different 
perspectives 
of 
observing 
and 
being 
in 
the 
world 
around 
us 
and 
within 
us, 
which 
can 
be 
additionally 
refreshing, 
rejuvenating 
and 
liberating. 


In 
places 
of 
otium, 
tourists 
have 
the 
freedom 
to 
consume 
activities 
in 
whatever 
order 
they 
want, 
and 
for 
however 
long 
they 
want 
(Fludernik, 
2021). 
Time 
is 
perceived 
differently, 
particularlyowing 
to 
the 
temporary 
independence 
from 
clocked 
time. 
There 
are 
no 
errands 
to 
run, 
tasks 
to 
complete, 
deadlines 
to 
meet. 
Time 
becomes 
decompressed 
(Varley 
& 
Semple, 
2015), 
and 
can 
be 
filled 
up 
in 
more 
kairological 
and 
meaningful 
ways 
(Farkic 
et 
al., 
2020). 
Places 
of 
otium 
have 
agency 
of 
their 
own 
and 
might 
influence 
the 
way 
tourists 
consume 
a 
place 
and 
where 
chronological 
time 
materialises 
only 
in 
the 
rhythms 
of 
natureandthedynamicsofthemore-
than-humanworld. 


18 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Jelena 
Farki., 
Gorana 
Isailovi., 
andMiha 
Lesjak 
Conceptualising 
Tourist 
Idleness 


Tourists 
may 
observe 
the 
movement 
of 
the 
orb 
across 
the 
horizonto 
tell 
thepart 
of 
the 
day; 
theymay 
follow 
the 
circadian 
rhythms 
of 
light 
and 
dark 
to 
wake 
up 
andgotosleep 
(Rantala 
&Valtonen,2014). 
Following 
the 
circadian 
clock 
means 
that 
the 
timing 
of 
biology 
is 
something 
that 
should 
be 
measured 
and 
managed, 
thus, 
aligning 
our 
inner 
clocks 
with 
the 
natural, 
cyclical 
shifts 
of 
dark 
and 
light 
may 
positively 
impact 
our 
wellbeing(GlobalWellnessSummit,n.d.). 
Touristsdo 
not 
need 
to 
go 
anywhere; 
rather 
they 
are 
grounded 
in 
place,while,ontheirownorinthecompanyofothers, 
they 
engage 
in 
daydreaming, 
deep 
wonder, 
aesthetic 
delight, 
silent 
talks, 
or 
reveries 
(Sinclair 
& 
Watson, 
2001; 
Schinkel, 
2017). 


Freedom, 
Liberty 
and 
Creativity 


Otium 
is 
not 
only 
a 
physical 
space, 
but 
also 
an 
approach 
to 
being; 
it 
is 
a 
way 
of 
human 
existence, 
a 
condition 
that 
enables 
freedom 
of 
the 
individual. 
In 
our 
capitalist, 
consumerist 
society, 
we 
can 
observe 
freedom 
as 
‘getting 
away 
from 
it 
all’ 
(Caruana 
& 
Crane, 
2011); 
leisure 
time 
spent 
away 
from 
work 
and 
daily 
chores 
becomes 
freedom 
in 
itself. 
To 
Carr 
(2017, 
p. 
139), 
leisure 
is 
‘a 
journey 
of 
self-exploration 
and 
development 
with 
the 
aim 
of 
enlightenment,’ 
a 
process 
which 
is 
simultaneously 
an 
expression 
of 
and 
search 
forfreedom.O’Connor(1966,p.35,citedinCarr,2017) 
suggested 
that 
‘in 
our 
leisure 
we 
may 
meet 
ourselves’ 
and 
that 
‘it 
is 
doubtful 
that 
you 
can 
live 
well 
in 
leisure 
ifyouhaveoverlookedthedevelopmentofself’(p.68). 
Therefore, 
delving 
deeper 
into 
the 
notion 
of 
freedom 
as 
central 
to 
leisure 
experiences 
can 
partially 
inform 
us 
what 
it 
may 
meanin 
the 
context 
of 
tourist 
idleness. 
Acquiring 
new 
existential 
experience 
through 
otiose 
leisure,favouringself-actualisationthroughmeaningful 
and 
creative 
activities, 
are 
the 
priorities 
of 
an 
idle 
holiday. 
The 
periods 
of 
idleness 
are 
bounded 
and 
in 
this 
context 
our 
observation 
of 
freedom 
is 
reduced 
to 
the 
holiday’s 
timeframe. 
However, 
despite 
this 
‘contoured 
freedom,’ 
tourists 
undertake 
activities 
at 
their 
own, 
slow 
pace 
(Fludernik, 
2021). 
For 
some, 
a 
simple, 
undisturbed 
stroll 
in 
the 
hills 
or 
sitting 
by 
the 
waterfall 
may 
be 
perceived 
as 
freedom 
after 
having 
spent 
months 
of 
being 
chained 
to 
the 
workplace 
in 
one 
of 
the 
world’s 
metropolises; 
they 
can 
feel 
more 


alive 
and 
closer 
to 
themselves, 
being 
focused 
on 
their 
ownthoughtsandtheimmediateenvironmentswhich 
unleash 
their 
creative 
potential. 


AsFludernik(2021)suggested,otioseleisureisem-
bodied 
in 
active 
passivity. 
Bodily 
grounding 
in 
places 
of 
otium 
may 
be 
achieved 
through 
creative 
activities 
such 
aswriting 
proseorpoetry, 
findingcontemplative 
siting 
spots, 
knitting, 
yogaorwalkingthe 
Muße 
trails. 
Green 
spaces 
offer 
opportunities 
for 
escape 
from 
the 
city 
in 
order 
to 
temporarily 
co-exist 
with 
the 
more-
than-human 
world, 
often 
in 
proximity 
to 
wildlife. 
An 
example 
of 
this 
could 
be 
wildlife 
watching 
in 
forests, 
in 
which 
tourists 
are 
required 
to 
sit 
in 
silence, 
while 
at 
thesame 
timetheycan 
savour 
theluxuryofbeing 
embeddedinpristinenature,enjoythehealingsounds 
of 
nature, 
and 
attune 
themselves 
to 
the 
extended 
process 
of 
waiting 
(Kocevsko, 
n.d.). 
In 
engaging 
in 
simplified 
activities 
afforded 
by 
the 
land 
and 
the 
season, 
bodily 
movement 
is 
to 
be 
minimised 
in 
favour 
of 
creating 
comfortable 
personal 
and 
physical 
space, 
which 
allows 
for 
extended 
periods 
of 
‘focused 
non-doing.’ 


To 
this 
end, 
relinquishing 
digital 
technologies 
can 
help 
us 
escape 
information 
overload 
which 
characterises 
the 
digital 
era 
in 
which 
we 
live. 
Big 
and 
small 
screens 
forever 
remind 
us 
of 
what 
else 
is 
there 
to 
be 
‘done,’ 
or 
that 
life 
happens 
elsewhere, 
in 
another 
tourist 
resort, 
at 
home 
or 
the 
workplace. 
In 
recent 
times, 
however, 
digital-free 
tourism 
(Li 
et 
al., 
2018) 
and 
the 
digital 
detox 
trend 
(Cai 
& 
McKenna, 
2021; 
Caietal.,2020)havegainedimportanceduetotheincreasingnumberofindividualswhochoosetodigitally 
disconnect 
on 
holiday. 
The 
abovementioned 
studies 
have 
shown 
that 
switching 
off 
digital 
devices 
has 
multiple 
benefits, 
one 
of 
them 
being 
a 
more 
frequent 
and 
immediate 
interactionamong 
travel 
companions, 
whichallowsforbondingandbuildingasenseofcommunity,
and,ultimately, 
overcoming 
social 
estrangement. 


Inencouragingtheexperienceofotium,hospitality 
establishments 
in 
natural 
areas 
should 
discourage 
the 
usage 
of 
smartphones, 
tv, 
or 
frequent 
influx 
of 
the 
news 
through 
digital 
media 
by 
limiting 
access 
to 
Wi-
Fi, 
orevenofferopportunities 
forlocking 
one’sphone 
away 
to 
completely 
unplug 
and 
recharge 
(Buzzoff-
ski, 
n.d.; 
Unplugged, 
n.d.). 
Tourists 
should 
not 
look 


Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|19 



Jelena 
Farki., 
Gorana 
Isailovi., 
andMiha 
Lesjak 
Conceptualising 
Tourist 
Idleness 


at 
their 
phones, 
sleep 
watches 
or 
other 
wearables 
to 
track 
their 
sleep 
patterns. 
Also, 
learning 
how 
to 
detach 
from 
artificial 
light 
and 
flickering 
screens 
in 
the 
evenings 
(for 
example 
Netflix, 
online 
games 
or 
social 
mediaatbedtime)infavourofenjoyingthemoonlight 
or 
flickering 
light 
of 
the 
campfire 
at 
dusk 
while 
chatting 
away 
with 
sojourners, 
may 
be 
liberating 
in 
itself, 
unlearning 
to 
use 
digital 
devices 
and 
acknowledging 
the 
fact 
that 
a 
meaningful 
event 
is 
actually 
unfolding 
right 
there 
and 
then,with 
usbeing 
the 
protagonistsof 
theidleholiday 
story. 


Therefore,toembraceidlenessmeanstoenablethe 
mind 
to 
do 
what 
it 
wants 
and 
attune 
to 
the 
simplicity 
of 
being 
– 
it 
is 
a 
conscious 
act 
of 
living 
that 
inspires 
creativity 
and 
imagination. 
Succour 
can 
be 
found 
in 
a 
simplified 
way 
of 
living, 
often 
afforded 
by 
natural 
and 
rural 
areas,away 
fromthe 
world 
of 
busy 
humans 
concerned 
with 
technologies, 
prestige, 
status 
or 
business 
attire. 
When 
we 
enter 
a 
place 
of 
otium, 
we 
can 
simply 
be 
– 
existentially, 
ontologically 
free. 
Through 
idle 
walkingandmeanderingthroughthelandscapes, 
takingontheroleofanabsent-
mindedflaneurcanafford 
us 
enough 
time 
to 
indulge 
in 
our 
favourite 
pastimes, 
such 
as 
the 
process 
of 
thinking. 
Moments 
of 
idleness 
allow 
us 
to 
find 
harmony 
within 
ourselves, 
and 
to 
appreciate 
the 
significance 
of 
deep 
reflection 
in 
the 
con-
textofourinnerpeaceandsubjectivewellbeing. 
More 
importantly, 
by 
becoming 
idle 
we 
empower 
our 
freedom 
todo 
sowithout 
feeling 
a 
sense 
ofpressure, 
nor 
within 
the 
constraints 
of 
the 
high-speed 
world. 


Conclusion 


Throughout 
thispaper, 
we 
aimed 
to 
extendthe 
works 
ofthetourismscholarsconcernedwithslow(er)forms 
of 
nature-based 
tourism 
through 
discussing 
idleness 
as 
a 
particular 
modality 
of 
holidaying, 
which 
can 
in 
many 
ways 
contribute 
to 
people’s 
wellbeing. 
We 
presented 
the 
act 
of 
idleness 
as 
a 
wrong, 
strange, 
or 
difficult-to-realise 
practice 
in 
contemporary, 
urban-
ised, 
digitalised 
societies, 
which 
are 
largely 
premised 
on 
speed, 
workaholism 
and 
productivity. 
To 
this 
end, 
we 
conceptualise 
tourist 
idleness 
as 
a 
temporary 
detachment 
from 
the 
structured 
and 
busy 
everyday 
life, 
and 
engagement 
in 
entirely 
unstructured 
holiday 
activities. 
Through 
‘doingnothing,’touristsshouldletgo 


of 
the 
guilt 
for 
not 
producing 
or 
measuring 
the 
success 
of 
the 
day 
by 
the 
achievement 
of 
economic 
goals. 
While 
on 
holiday, 
a 
new 
measuring 
system 
is 
to 
be 
considered:ratherthancountingthenumberofmuseums 
visited 
or 
photos 
taken 
and 
shared 
on 
social 
media, 
tourists 
should 
try 
to 
count 
the 
number 
of 
times 
theyhaveseenanewspeciesofbird,countthenumber 
ofsheepinaherd,breathstheytookwhilecrossingthe 
field, 
or 
smiled 
about 
nothing. 
Doing 
nothing 
is 
hard 
work, 
nevertheless. 
The 
first 
few 
days 
of 
their 
vacation, 
people 
normally 
find 
it 
difficult 
to 
decompress 
and 
let 
go 
of 
work, 
emails 
and 
a 
busy 
life. 
They 
have 
trouble 
breaking 
up 
with 
quotidian 
routines, 
such 
as 
checking 
emails 
or 
social 
media; 
however, 
this 
could 
graduallyshift 
towardsthe 
enjoyment 
and 
pleasureof 
being 
entirely 
unproductive 
and, 
dare 
we 
say, 
productively 
bored 
and 
lazy. 


Doing 
nothing, 
although 
it 
resonates 
with 
emptiness, 
is 
imbued 
with 
meaning. 
In 
defying 
servile 
activities 
and 
mindless 
speed, 
idleness 
widens 
the 
space 
of 
existence 
beyond 
utility, 
achievement 
and 
labour. 
It 
enables 
people 
to 
enter 
liberal 
activities 
in 
which 
they 
areinternally 
freefromthe 
chains 
of 
the 
necessities 
of 
life 
(Pieper, 
1950, 
p. 
420). 
In 
places 
of 
otium, 
peoplemaybracketthemselvesoutfrombusyness,organised 
work 
and 
frameworks, 
and 
immerse 
in 
the 
world 
where 
things 
they 
see, 
do 
and 
feel 
do 
not 
yet 
have 
names; 
where 
mystery 
and 
magic 
are 
bound 
to-
gether;wheretheuniversebecomesmoreintimateand 
personal 
(Jenkins, 
2000). 
It 
is 
argued 
here 
that 
people 
should 
recognise 
the 
reflective 
or 
restorativepotential 
ofbeingstillintheoutdoorsandembraceinactivityas 
aprocessofontogenictransformation(Bissell&Fuller, 
2011). 
Tourists 
should 
therefore 
embrace 
idleness 
as 
a 
noble 
holiday 
activity 
and 
as 
a 
way 
of 
revival 
and 
renewal 
of 
the 
self. 


In 
this 
paper, 
we 
used 
the 
example 
of 
natural 
environments 
to 
illustrate 
how 
idleness 
can 
be 
incorporated 
in 
the 
tourism 
offer, 
hoping, 
however, 
that 
tourismdestinationsworldwidecanrecognisethe 
potential 
of 
idleness 
for 
improving 
people’s 
wellbeing. 
National 
tourism 
boards 
normally 
promote 
events, 
recreationalactivities,oractivetourism,alongsideencouraging 
visitation 
of 
multiple 
destinations 
during 
tourists’ 
stay. 
However,non-events,inactivity 
andidle 


20 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Jelena 
Farki., 
Gorana 
Isailovi., 
andMiha 
Lesjak 
Conceptualising 
Tourist 
Idleness 


time 
have 
been 
less 
favoured 
categories, 
as 
they 
are 
considered 
less 
profitable, 
hospitable, 
productive 
or 
memorable 
(Fludernik, 
2021). 
In 
expanding 
the 
approach 
to 
marketing 
destinations 
through 
offering 
idleness, 
local 
destination 
management 
organisations 
and 
national 
tourism 
boards 
can 
offer 
novel 
ways 
of 
being 
on 
holiday. 
The 
product 
could 
potentially 
create 
possibilities 
for 
hitherto 
unknown 
experiences 
for 
modern-day 
Homo 
Faber 
(whether 
urban 
dwellers, 
millennials 
or 
any 
other 
time-deprived 
market 
segment), 
premised 
on 
inactive 
journeys 
or 
active 
non-
action. 


We 
suggestthatthe 
existing 
activity 
portfolioof 
nature-based 
destinations 
could 
be 
expanded 
to 
also 
includeidlenessasanequallymeaningfulandrestorative 
tourist 
activity. 
It 
is, 
however, 
distinct 
from 
other 
recreational, 
organised 
or 
expert-led 
outdoor 
activities,
suchashiking,kayaking,rafting,cyclingormountain 
biking, 
in 
that 
it 
is 
entirely 
unstructured, 
unguidedandrequiresminimalphysicaleffortandindependencefromchronologicaltime.
Learningfromthe 
Nordic 
countries, 
‘selling 
nothing’ 
to 
tourists 
should 
be 
seen 
as 
an 
opportunity 
for 
tourism 
development 
in 
nature-richdestinationsas 
it 
is 
largely 
premised 
on 
sustainability. 
Such 
an 
approach 
works 
towards 
the 
achievement 
of 
the 
United 
Nation’s 
Sustainable 
De-
velopmentGoalsthroughpromotingresponsible,sustainable 
and 
universally 
accessible 
tourism 
(unwto, 
n.d.). 


The 
paper 
adds 
to 
the 
literature 
that 
disrupts 
the 
conceptualisations 
of 
holidays 
in 
nature 
as 
an 
assemblage 
of 
active 
participation 
in 
recreational 
activities 
or 
consumption 
of 
high-octane 
experiences 
(e.g. 
Rantala 
& 
Valtonen, 
2014; 
Varley 
& 
Semple, 
2015; 
Far-
kic 
et 
al, 
2021). 
It 
does 
so 
by 
extending 
the 
studies 
which 
propose 
that 
minimal, 
slow-paced 
movement 
and 
idleness 
in 
natural 
settings 
may 
also 
account 
for 
tourism 
activities 
in 
their 
own 
right. 
More 
substantial 
research 
is 
needed 
into 
tourist 
idleness 
within 
the 
sustainability 
framework, 
and 
how 
it 
can 
contribute 
to 
people, 
the 
planet 
and 
prosperity 
of 
humankind. 
Our 
study 
opens 
the 
way 
for 
empirical 
explorations 
of 
the 
ways 
in 
which 
people 
perceive 
and 
experience 
idleness, 
and 
the 
plural 
effects 
doing 
nothing 
on 
holiday 
may 
have 
not 
only 
on 
our 
physical, 
mental 
and 


emotionalwellbeing,butalsoondeterminingourpersonal 
and 
social 
worlds. 
Happiness, 
creativity, 
meaningfulness 
and 
prosperity 
may 
therefore 
come 
from 
doing 
less, 
not 
more, 
on 
holidays. 
Idleness, 
by 
its 
nature, 
is 
both 
eudaimonic 
and 
hedonic, 
and 
should 
be 
savoured 
with 
delicacy. 


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J. 
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|23 



Review 
Article 


Forest 
Therapy 
and 
Well-Being 
Tourism 
Literature 
Review 
– 
With 
Assessment 
of 
Potential 
for 
Slovenia 


Darija 
Cvikl 


Vocational 
College 
for 
Hospitality, 
Wellness 
and 
Tourism, 
Slovenia 
darija.cvikl@vgs-bled.si 


In 
addition 
to 
the 
fact 
that 
in 
Slovenia 
we 
nurture 
sustainable 
development 
and 
are 
committedtoenforcingtheprinciplesofendogenouspolicy,wearealsoincreasingly 
striving 
for 
innovative 
development 
solutions. 
This 
opens 
up 
new 
opportunities 
for 
the 
development 
of 
forest 
well-being 
tourism 
and 
forest-therapy 
tourism. 
The 
research 
problem 
refers 
to 
the 
growing 
tourist 
use 
of 
socio-cultural 
forest 
values 
for 
therapeutic 
tourism 
purposes 
on 
the 
one 
hand 
and 
an 
insufficient 
amount 
of 
literatureontheother.
Theaimofthepaperistopresentaliteraturereviewthatdefinesthe 
beneficial 
effects 
of 
the 
forest 
on 
humans, 
and 
also 
to 
connect 
these 
findings 
with 
a 
tourismpracticeactivity.Wehighlightedthepotentialandimportanceofforesttherapy 
tourismandforestwell-beingtourism. 
Basedonthe29 
relevantpapersfromthe 
Scopus 
database 
and 
studied 
examples 
of 
good 
practices, 
we 
gave 
an 
assessment 
of 
the 
potential 
for 
the 
development 
of 
therapeutic 
forest 
tourism 
in 
Slovenia. 
Examples 
of 
good 
practice 
are 
given. 
Opinion 
on 
the 
applicability 
of 
the 
implementation 
of 
forest 
therapeutic 
tourism 
in 
Slovenia 
is 
included. 


Keywords: 
forest 
therapy, 
forest 
tourism, 
well-being 
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.15.25-41 


Introduction 


During 
the 
last 
decade, 
new 
and 
innovative 
sustainable 
development 
solutions 
in 
the 
field 
of 
traditional 
as 
well 
as 
non-traditional 
tourist 
use 
of 
nature, 
especially 
the 
forest, 
have 
been 
created. 
Sensual 
pleasures 
in 
audibleandvisualperceptionoftheforestaswellas 
ofwildbeehoneyandbeeswax(Sanesietal.,2010;Ohe 
etal., 
2017;Ikeietal.,2015; 
Nilssonetal.,2011, 
p. 
3) 
are 
consideredtobetraditionalrelaxingandleisureactivitiesaswellasbeekeeping,
huntingandphoto-hunting, 
gathering 
fruits, 
herbaceous 
plants, 
mushrooms, 
and 
wildanimals(Article5oftheZakonogozdovih,1993). 
On 
the 
other 
hand, 
new 
tourist 
forest 
practices 
have 
emerged, 
such 
as 
forest 
bathing, 
called 
shinrin-yoku. 
In 
Europe 
and 
the 
western 
world, 
it 
is 
a 
rather 
new 
touristexperience(but 
notinJapanandChina)which 
has 
increased 
the 
number 
of 
forest 
tourist 
well-being 
products 
(Farkic 
et 
al., 
2021). 
Forest 
selfness 
(Konu, 


2015), 
reflexology, 
naturopathic 
elements 
(Marselle 
et 
al., 
2021), 
etc., 
are 
considered 
to 
be 
non-traditional 
relaxing 
and 
leisure 
activities. 
They 
refer 
to 
physical, 
mental, 
and 
social 
well-being 
dimensions 
such 
as 
quality 
and 
performance 
of 
bodily 
functioning, 
both 
cognitive 
and 
emotional. 
A 
significant 
positive 
factor 
influencingthedevelopmentofnon-traditionaltourist 
and 
recreational 
forest 
use 
is 
also 
the 
rise 
of 
the 
green 
consumption 
movement 
(Collier 
et 
al., 
2004). 


Non-traditional 
relaxing 
and 
leisure 
activities 
are 
rapidly 
growing, 
and, 
in 
some 
places, 
they 
have 
even 
become 
a 
trend, 
such 
as 
restorative 
trips 
into 
areas 
rich 
in 
nature, 
which 
have 
become 
a 
leading 
wellness 
trend 
(Global 
Wellness 
Summit, 
2019). 
Furthermore, 
spending 
time 
in 
green 
space 
is 
suggested 
as 
an 
important 
adjunct 
therapy 
to 
clinical 
therapies 
(Koselka 
et 
al., 
2019). 
At 
thesametime, 
researchers 
and 
service 
providers 
have 
focused 
on 
the 
valuation 
of 
the 


Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|25 



Darija 
Cvikl 
Forest 
Therapy 
andWell-Being 
Tourism 
Literature 
Review 


tourist 
use 
of 
forests 
and 
the 
challenges 
posed 
by 
the 
increased 
extent 
of 
tourist 
activities 
in 
the 
forest 
alongwith 
sustainableand 
multi-purpose 
forest 
management, 
and 
tourism 
has 
finally 
been 
defined 
as 
a 
specific 
type 
of 
destination 
(Cvikl, 
2020). 
A 
greater 
understanding 
of 
the 
therapeutic 
potential 
of 
profound 
use 
of 
nature 
can 
contribute 
to 
the 
reduction 
of 
all 
sorts 
of 
modern 
diseases 
such 
as 
respiratory 
diseases, 
psychosomatic 
diseases, 
mental 
illnesses, 
cardiovascular 
diseases, 
lifestyle 
disorders, 
oncological 
diseases, 
neurological 
diseases 
and 
some 
orthopedic 
diseases, 
and 
preventively 
strengthens 
human 
physical 
and 
mentalhealth 
(Schuh 
&Immich, 
2019). 
There 
have 
been 
many 
beneficial 
effects 
of 
biodiversity 
on 
human 
health, 
such 
as 
reducing 
harm 
(e.g. 
provision 
ofmedicines,decreasingexposuretoairandnoisepollution), 
restoringcapacities 
(e.g. 
attentionrestoration, 
stress 
reduction) 
and 
building 
capacities 
(e.g. 
promoting 
physical 
activity, 
transcendent 
experiences) 
(Marselle 
et 
al., 
2021). 
As 
a 
result, 
new 
and 
innovative 
sustainabledevelopmentsolutionsinthefieldoftraditionalaswellasnon-
traditionaltouristuseoftheforest 
have 
emerged. 
It 
is 
claimed 
on 
the 
Forest-based 
Sector 
Technology 
Platform 
(2020) 
that 
the 
added 
value 
from 
new 
markets 
for 
non-wood 
forest 
goods 
such 
as 
mushrooms,berries,andcleanwateraswellasservices 
such 
as 
recreation, 
tourism, 
and 
climate 
change 
mitigation 
has 
increased 
tenfold. 
Non-wood 
forest 
products 
include 
food, 
decorative 
and 
ornamental 
plants, 
other 
plant 
products, 
extracts, 
dyes, 
raw 
materials 
for 
medicines, 
aromaticproducts,meatof 
wildforestanimals, 
wild 
honey 
and 
beeswax, 
tanned 
hides, 
and 
trophies. 
The 
market 
value 
of 
non-wood 
products 
in 
Europe 
is 
estimated 
at 
€ 
2.3 
billion 
and 
the 
value 
of 
social, 
ecological 
and 
biosphereservices 
at 
€ 
619 
million 
(Ministerial 
Conference 
on 
the 
Protection 
of 
Forests 
in 
Europe, 
2015, 
p. 
26). 


Thisshifthasbeeninitiatedbysignificantdevelopment 
documents 
(Ministerial 
Conference 
on 
the 
Protection 
of 
Forests 
in 
Europe, 
2015; 
Food 
and 
Agriculture 
Organizations 
of 
the 
United 
Nations, 
2015; 
Millennium 
Ecosystem 
Assessment, 
2005, 
8). 
They 
indicate 
the 
importance 
of 
sustainable 
development 
and 
management 
of 
natural 
resources 
which, 
in 
addition 
to 
economic 
indicators, 
also 
take 
into 
account 
other 


indicators 
such 
as 
environmental, 
social 
and 
climate. 
Furthermore, 
recent 
development 
documents 
drafted 
by 
some 
institutions 
and 
countries 
(European 
Com-
mission,n.d.;TheWorldBank,2016;MinisterialConference 
on 
the 
Protection 
of 
Forests 
in 
Europe, 
2015; 
GoS, 
2014) 
encourage 
development 
of 
non-wood 
forest 
products, 
innovative 
solutions 
(European 
Commission, 
n.d.), 
strengthening 
the 
multifunction 
value 
offorestsfromtheaspectofeconomicandsocialbenefits 
and 
ask 
managers 
to 
apply 
more 
up-to-date 
methods 
of 
forest 
management 
in 
the 
sense 
of 
exploiting 
all 
forest 
ecosystem 
services. 
Last 
but 
not 
least, 
there 
have 
been 
some 
big 
changes 
in 
the 
economic 
sector, 
especially 
in 
the 
tourism 
industry, 
due 
to 
restrictions 
caused 
by 
the 
covid-19 
pandemic. 
Turnšek 
et 
al. 
(2020) 
also 
find 
that 
the 
covid-19 
lockdown 
has 
changedSloveniantourists’ 
perceptions. 
They 
suggest 
that 
the 
recovery 
of 
tourism 
should 
focus 
on 
domes-
tictouristsandon 
local 
attractions. 
These 
changesare 
notonlycurrentbutshouldalsobetakenintoaccount 
in 
development 
plans 
as 
the 
effects 
of 
global 
change 
will 
require 
a 
transformation 
of 
sustainable 
tourism 
business 
(Gössling 
et 
al., 
2020). 


Ontheotherhand,duetorestrictedtravellingconditions 
since 
2020, 
destination 
management 
has 
been 
striving 
for 
the 
transformation 
of 
the 
activity. 
A 
regional 
approach 
has 
become 
more 
important, 
activities 
have 
been 
redirected 
from 
distant 
destinations 
to 
domestic, 
often 
underestimated, 
destinations. 
To 
this, 
wecanaddthefindingthattransformationstakeplace 
not 
only 
in 
terms 
of 
activities 
but 
also 
in 
terms 
of 
the 
perception 
of 
residents 
(Juvan 
et 
al., 
2021). 
Destination 
organisations 
and 
tourism 
providers 
should 
investigate 
which 
aspects 
of 
tourism 
lead 
to 
higher 
levels 
of 
contentment 
and 
enjoyment 
of 
hosts. 
Satisfied 
and 
happy 
residents 
may 
become 
an 
important 
destination 
attribute. 
Entrepreneurship 
has 
created 
completely 
new 
and 
innovative 
market 
approaches 
on 
the 
supplyaswellasonthedemandside(Brouder,2020,p. 
486).Thisisalsoreflectedinthe 
increasedtourist 
use 
of 
forests,as 
in 
the 
last 
18 
months 
public 
use 
of 
forests 
has 
increased 
substantially. 
On 
the 
one 
hand, 
spending 
time 
in 
the 
forest 
is 
a 
counterbalance 
to 
tiresome 
and 
fast 
everyday 
work 
and 
on 
the 
other 
as 
escapism, 
asaresultoftheepidemiologicmeasures.Forestspro


26 
| 
Academica 
Turistica,Year15, 
No.1,April 
2022 



Darija 
Cvikl 
Forest 
Therapy 
andWell-Being 
Tourism 
Literature 
Review 


videapassiveaswellasactiveexperience,andgivethe 
feelingofbeingconnectedwithourselvesandwiththe 
naturearoundus.Thosechangesarenotonlymomentary 
but 
alsohavetobe 
taken 
into 
accountin 
development 
plans 
as 
the 
effects 
of 
global 
changes 
will 
require 
sustainable 
tourism 
activities 
to 
be 
transformed 
(Gössling 
et 
al., 
2020). 


Forest 
well-being 
tourism 
and 
forest 
therapy 
tour-
ismbelongstothesenewtouristactivities,posingchallenges 
to 
researchers 
during 
last 
five 
years. 
They 
are 
bothbasedoninnovativeuse 
ofthoseforestattributes 
which 
have 
healing 
and 
beneficial 
effects 
on 
people: 
the 
non-wood 
potential 
of 
forest 
products, 
and 
on 
social 
and 
cultural 
resources, 
provided 
by 
ecosystem 
services. 
Some 
examples 
of 
good 
practice 
concerningthepotentialforthedevelopmentofforesttherapy 
and 
well-being 
tourism 
in 
Slovenia 
have 
been 
given. 
On 
the 
basis 
of 
the 
results 
obtained 
and 
the 
review 
of 
literature, 
we 
provide 
some 
avenues 
for 
the 
developmentofthisparticularformoftourismbasedonforest 
bathing. 


Forest 
Therapy 
Tourism 
and 
Well-Being 
Tourism 


Over 
the 
past 
ten 
years, 
researchers 
in 
various 
fields 
of 
expertise, 
such 
as 
environmentalists, 
geographers, 
psychologists, 
and 
public 
health 
professionals, 
have 
addressed 
in 
depth 
the 
beneficial 
effects 
of 
forests 
on 
humans 
(Marselle 
et 
al., 
2021). 
Nevertheless, 
very 
few 
articles 
have 
been 
published 
on 
the 
topic 
of 
therapeutic 
or 
well-being 
forest 
tourism. 
At 
first, 
the 
researchers 
studied 
nature 
as 
a 
unique 
attribute, 
which 
represents 
25. 
of 
the 
whole 
well-being 
experience 
(Konu 
et 
al., 
2011), 
but 
later 
on, 
they 
started 
to 
think 
aboutwhat 
aspectofnature 
makes 
it 
so 
specialand 
gives 
added 
value 
to 
tourists 
as 
a 
well-being 
destination,
andmentionthewholesomenessofforestberries 
and 
the 
health 
effects 
of 
exercising 
in 
forest 
areas 
(Konuetal.,2011).On 
theotherhand,manyresearchersfromthemedicalfieldstartedtostudyforestsfrom 
thetherapeuticpointofview.Amajornaturalresource 
and 
tourist 
capital 
source 
for 
the 
development 
of 
forest 
therapy 
and 
well-being 
tourism 
are 
phytoncides. 
They 
are 
also 
called 
natural 
antibiotics 
or 
air 
vitamins. 
During 
their 
evolution, 
trees 
have 
developed 
unique 
chemical 
defence 
systems 
which 
are 
based 


on 
advanced 
functional 
molecules. 
Therefore, 
they 
are 
extremely 
rich 
in 
bioactive, 
protective 
substances, 
which 
are 
found 
in 
antioxidants, 
anticanceroid 
substances 
and 
oestrogens,which 
have 
an 
extremely 
positive 
affect 
on 
the 
human 
immune 
system 
and 
mental 
well-being. 
They 
include 
bioactivecompounds,found 
in 
trees, 
and 
which 
contain 
flavonoids, 
lignans, 
stilbenes, 
terpenoids, 
phyitosterols, 
fatty 
acids 
and 
vitamins. 
Bioactive 
compounds, 
obtained 
from 
wood, 
are 
used 
as 
additivesor 
independentlyin 
the 
pharmaceutical 
and 
food 
industry; 
such 
products, 
derived 
from 
wood, 
are 
considered 
non-wood 
products 
(Nilsson 
et 
al., 
2011, 
p. 
7). 
Researchers 
discovered 
that 
forests 
are 
therapeutic 
and 
relieve 
numerous 
symptoms 
of 
respiratory 
diseases; 
psychosomatic, 
mental, 
and 
cardiovascular 
illnesses; 
disorders 
connected 
with 
lifestyle; 
oncological, 
neurological 
and 
some 
orthopaedic 
dis-
eases;andhaveapreventivefunctionofstrengthening 
physical 
and 
mental 
health 
(Schuh 
& 
Immich, 
2019). 
Li 
et 
al.(2007)was 
thefirstto 
prove 
thepositiveand 
healing 
effects 
of 
the 
forest 
on 
people 
by 
medically 
conducted 
physiological 
and 
psychological 
research. 


Thereasonwhyforesttherapeutictourismandthe 
well-being 
forest 
type 
of 
tourism 
have 
developed 
is 
because 
of 
relaxation 
in 
the 
forest 
as 
a 
respite 
from 
variousstressfactors.Itis 
a 
relatively 
new 
tourist 
activity, 
although 
therapeutic 
tourist 
activity 
has 
been 
a 
well-established 
practice 
in 
the 
last 
30 
years. 
Some 
countries,with 
JapanandChinabeing 
amongthefirst 
(Chen 
& 
Nakama, 
2013), 
and 
also 
Sweden 
(Nilsson 
et 
al., 
2011), 
promote 
public 
health 
in 
the 
forest 
in 
addition 
to 
forest 
tourist 
activities. 
Konu 
defined 
forest 
well-being 
tourism 
in 
2015, 
and 
six 
years 
later 
forest 
therapy 
tourism 
was 
defined 
by 
Ohe 
et 
al. 
(2017), 
and 
is 
becoming 
trendy. 


Forest 
therapy 
tourism 
originates 
from 
Japan, 
emerging 
when 
the 
providers 
of 
tourist 
activities 
included 
forest 
therapy. 
It 
is 
focused 
mainly 
on 
preventive 
medicine, 
and 
unlike 
well-being 
forest 
activities, 
it 
is 
based 
on 
medically 
conducted 
research 
and 
well-
founded 
evidence. 
It 
is 
a 
profitable 
tourist 
activity, 
focusedmainlyonrelaxationeffects, 
with 
theempha-
sis 
mostly 
on 
relaxation 
activities 
rather 
than 
healing 
(Ohe 
etal.,2017; 
Ochiai, 
Ikei,Song, 
Kobayashi,Miura 
etal.,2015;Ochiai,Ikei,Song,Kobayashi,Takamatsuet 


Academica 
Turistica, 
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15, 
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1, 
April 
2022 
|27 



Darija 
Cvikl 
Forest 
Therapy 
andWell-Being 
Tourism 
Literature 
Review 


al., 
2015). 
Foresttherapyprogrammesincludewalking 
in 
the 
forest, 
anti-stress 
exercises 
which 
stimulate 
all 
thesenses,visualisationandotherpsychologicaltechniques, 
music 
therapy, 
chromotherapy, 
climate 
therapy, 
heliotherapy, 
aromatherapy, 
eating 
organic 
food, 
art 
therapies 
and 
workshops, 
massage 
techniques 
and 
variousotheractivitieswhichbringusclosertonature, 
culture, 
and 
the 
tradition 
of 
the 
forest 
where 
forest 
therapies 
are 
provided. 


Examples 
of 
Good 
Practice 


In 
accordance 
with 
the 
World 
Health 
Organisation 
(who),1healthisregardedascompletephysical,mental, 
and 
social 
well-being 
and 
not 
only 
absence 
of 
ill-
nessorhelplessness.Consequently,agenuinerelation-
ship 
with 
naturehasto 
be 
establishedforahealthy 
life 
(Mlakar 
Mocilnik 
& 
Pirnat, 
2010, 
p. 
180). 
Japan 
offers 
a 
relatively 
new 
traditionof 
maintaining 
personal 
health 
and 
well-being, 
the 
so-called 
‘forest 
bath’ 
(or 
shinrin-yoku), 
a 
type 
of 
forest 
relaxation 
theory, 
combined 
with 
recreation 
(Li, 
2010; 
Konu, 
2015, 
p. 
6). 
It 
belongs 
to 
tourist 
products 
of 
well-being 
on 
the 
basis 
of 
forest. 
This 
theory 
explains 
how 
natural 
environments 
can 
help 
people 
renew 
exhausted 
capacities 
for 
focusing, 
mutual 
flexibility 
and 
merging 
(Nilsson 
et 
al., 
2011, 
p. 
9) 
and 
to 
eliminate 
or 
mitigate 
psychosomatic 
illnesses 
and 
mental 
stress. 
The 
forest 
is 
the 
first 
among 
green 
natural 
environments 
where 
people 
can 
relax 
most 
easily 
as 
connection 
with 
the 
forest 
increases 
the 
level 
of 
psychological 
well-being 
(pwb). 


The 
Medical 
Spa 
Association 
of 
Serbia2 
offers 
a 
product 
in 
well-being 
tourism, 
developed 
recently, 
called 
forest 
hamam. 
It 
is 
practiced 
in 
the 
form 
of 
workshops 
conducted 
in 
protected 
forest 
areas. 
The 
author 
attended 
one 
of 
those 
workshops 
in 
Serbia 
(Belgrade) 
on 
24 
and 
25 
May 
2016.3 
It 
was 
conducted 
by 
Amos 
M. 
Clifford, 
the 
founder 
and 
director 
of 
the 
Renovation 
Process 
Centre 
in 
California. 
He 
is 
a 
psychotherapist 
with 
40 
years’ 
experience 
in 
connecting 
people 
with 
nature. 
In 
Finland, 
Sweden 
and 
Norway 
theforestisincludedintheregularschoolcurriculum. 


1https://www.who.int/. 
2https://mspaasrbije.wordpress.com/. 
3https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CHkj-FlusNQ. 


In 
Sweden 
a 
network 
of 
therapeutic 
gardens 
has 
been 
developed 
over 
a 
long 
period 
of 
time 
(Nilsson 
et 
al., 
2011, 
p. 
3). 
A 
similar 
practice 
is 
also 
implemented 
at 
the 
Faculty 
of 
Forest 
Industry 
in 
Belgrade 
where 
students 
do 
a 
three-day 
practical 
work 
on 
the 
mountain 
meadow 
Goc 
at 
Kraljevo 
in 
order 
to 
learn 
about 
the 
protection 
of 
trees 
and 
strengthening 
humanity 
as 
a 
value 
(personal 
communication, 
June 
1, 
2016). 


Forest 
therapy 
and 
well-being 
tourism 
has 
also 
beendevelopingin 
theinstitutionalsense. 
In 
2007the 
International 
Association 
for 
studying 
the 
effects 
of 
forest 
on 
human 
health 
was 
founded 
within 
the 
international 
organisation 
iufro, 
followed 
by 
the 
In-
ternationalOrganisationforForest(infom),founded 
in 
2011. 
In 
the 
field 
of 
forest 
medicine, 
the 
International 
Society 
of 
Nature 
and 
Forest 
Medicine,4 
and 
International 
Society 
of 
Forest 
Therapy 
(isft),5 
have 
been 
founded. 
Within 
the 
programme, 
Public 
Health 
Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität 
from 
Munich 
opened 
a 
departmentfor 
medical 
climatology, 
medical 
spa 
medicine 
andprevention, 
andalsofounded 
aCompetency 
Centre 
for 
forest 
medicine 
and 
therapy 
in 
the 
natural 
environment.6 
Forest 
therapy 
and 
forest 
bathing 
are 
offered 
as 
forest 
tourist 
products, 
and 
certainforestareasalsoasforesthealthresorts.
Forexam-
ple,inthenorthofGermanyinthecoastalbeechforest 
Heringsdorf, 
the 
first 
certified 
European 
forest, 
offering 
the 
programmes 
of 
forest 
medicine, 
was 
opened 
in 
2016. 
The 
situation 
in 
Korea 
is 
similar. 
In 
2021 
the 
firsthealingforestforchildreninEurope7 
was 
opened 
due 
to 
the 
fact 
that 
in 
Germany 
more 
than 
30. 
of 
children, 
who 
spend 
too 
much 
time 
in 
the 
digitalised 
world, 
suffer 
from 
anthropogenic 
sleeping 
disorders, 
which 
has 
resultedin 
completelydifferent 
clinical 
images 
of 
children. 
Therapeutic 
forest 
activities 
which 
havealreadybeencarriedoutinclude 
naturopathicelementssuchaswaterimmersion(
e.g.Kneipptherapy) 
and 
climatotherapy 
(climatic 
terrain 
cure, 
heliotherapy, 
fresh-air 
rest 
cure) 
to 
enhance 
the 
health 
benefits 


4https://www.infom.org/aboutus/introduction.html. 
5https://www.natureandforesttherapy.org/. 
6https://www.komp-wald-natur.de/. 
7https://www.heilwald-heringsdorf.de/en/Children-s 


-Healing-Forest. 


28 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Darija 
Cvikl 
Forest 
Therapy 
andWell-Being 
Tourism 
Literature 
Review 


(Stier-Jarmer 
et 
al., 
2021, 
p. 
2), 
forest 
mindness 
mindfulness 
and 
nutritional 
therapy 
(p. 
29). 


We 
can 
also 
include 
atmospheric 
healing 
(Rikli 
& 
Zolam, 
1895; 
Schuh 
& 
Immich, 
2019, 
p. 
52) 
in 
therapeuticforestactivities,
aswellascolourandmusicfor-
est 
therapy 
(Vukin 
& 
Isailovic, 
2018) 
and 
the 
so-called 
boulder 
forest 
therapy 
within 
the 
Rehabilitation 
Center 
for 
the 
Treatment 
of 
Non-Chemical 
Addictions, 
which 
is 
currently 
still 
in 
the 
project 
phase 
(Lukovac, 
2020). 
All 
of 
the 
above 
can 
be 
considered 
as 
examples 
of 
forest 
therapeutic 
tourism 
activities. 


In 
Slovenia, 
there 
have 
been 
or 
were 
also 
some 
tourist 
practices 
which 
offer(ed) 
forest-oriented 
therapeutic 
tourist 
products 
andservices. 
Climatehealing 
and 
strengtheningof 
the 
body 
with 
natural 
attributes, 
which 
took 
place 
in 
forests 
for 
tourist-healing 
purposes, 
was 
startedin 
the 
19th 
century. 
In 
1854, 
Arnold 
Rikli 
(born 
in 
1823, 
died 
in 
1906) 
developed 
the 
first 
wellness 
spa 
for 
strengthening 
of 
health 
and 
healing 
illnesses 
with 
the 
help 
of 
forest, 
air, 
water 
and 
sun. 
In 
1857 
he 
wrote 
a 
book 
Aufruf 
an 
diekrankeMenschheit 
an 
Körper 
und 
Geist, 
nach 
den 
Gesetzen 
der 
Natur-
Heillehre 
zu 
genesen, 
oder 
leicht 
faßliche 
Darstellung 
der 
Natur. 
He 
founded 
and 
directed 
a 
Natural 
Healing 
Centre 
in 
Bled 
in 
Slovenia 
for 
helio-hydrotherapy 
climate 
healing 
in 
the 
heart 
of 
forests 
and 
other 
naturalcharacteristicsof 
theGorenjskaregion. 
Thetourist 
forestproductcalledforestselfnesshasreceivedalotof 
international 
attention 
in 
the 
last 
few 
years, 
including 
theawardSnovalec2014asthemostinnovativetourist 
idea;itisamongthefirsttoapplyaninnovativetourist 
approachinforestsinthefieldofwell-beingtourismin 
Slovenia.8 
The 
first 
presentation 
of 
the 
project 
abroad 
was 
at 
the 
conference 
of 
the 
Japan 
Society 
for 
Science 
PolicyandResearchManagementinKusatsu,Japanin 
October 
2014. 


The 
fact 
is 
that 
Slovenia 
has 
99.2. 
or 
1,237.40 
million 
hectares 
of 
forest 
area 
(measuring 
a 
total 
of 
1,184, 
526 
hectares 
of 
forest) 
accessible 
for 
recreational 
purposes 
and 
for 
the 
use 
of 
public 
benefit 
(Ministerial 
Conference 
on 
the 
Protection 
of 
Forests 
in 
Europe, 
2015, 
p. 
311). 
Of 
this, 
only2.2. 
or 
27,900 
hectareshave 
been 
originally 
designated 
and 
managed 
for 
recre-

8https://www.gozdni-selfness.si/en/home/ 


ational 
and 
leisure 
purposes. 
Slovenian 
forests 
provide 
a 
fairly 
good 
production 
capacity, 
which 
is 
also 
systematically 
recorded, 
while 
there 
is 
no 
recorded 
data 
on 
annual 
tourist 
visits 
in 
the 
entire 
tourist 
and 
recreational 
forest 
area 
in 
Slovenia. 
There 
are 
96 
forest 
learning 
trails 
registered 
in 
Slovenia, 
according 
to 
The 
Slovenia 
Forest 
Service, 
which 
performs 
public 
forestryservice 
in 
all 
Slovenianforestsof 
which 
16 
are 
directly 
included 
in 
the 
tourist 
offer. 
Two 
European 
footpaths 
(e6 
and 
e7) 
run 
through 
Slovenian 
forests. 
Within 
the 
register 
of 
immovable 
cultural 
heritage 
by 
type 
of 
unit, 
Slovenia 
also 
has 
226 
units 
of 
registered 
cultural 
landscapes, 
228 
units 
of 
garden-architectural 
heritage 
and 
23 
units 
of 
historical 
landscapes 
within 
the 
registerof 
immovable 
cultural 
heritage. 
By 
type 
of 
heritage, 
there 
are 
217 
units 
of 
registered 
immovable 
cultural 
heritage 
of 
parks 
and 
gardens 
and 
318 
registered 
cultural 
landscapes.9 


Methods 


Theresearchproblemreferstothegrowingtouristuse 
of 
socio-cultural 
forest 
values 
for 
therapeutic 
tourism 
purposes 
in 
practice 
on 
the 
one 
hand, 
and 
to 
the 
insufficient 
amount 
of 
literature 
that 
would 
link 
therapeutic 
forest 
practices 
with 
forest 
therapeutic 
tourism 
on 
the 
other. 
Despite 
the 
fact 
that 
many 
articles 
have 
already 
been 
published 
on 
the 
topic 
of 
the 
physiological 
and 
psychological 
effects 
of 
forest 
baths 
or 
forest 
therapy,wefindthatveryfewofthemarerelatedtothe 
tourism 
industry, 
although 
most 
of 
the 
findings 
point 
to 
the 
development 
of 
such 
leisure 
activities 
based 
on 
theperceptionandenjoymentofthenaturalresources 
of 
the 
forest. 
That 
is 
why 
we 
decided 
to 
create 
a 
literature 
review 
related 
to 
forest 
therapy 
or 
forest 
wellbeing 
effects 
with 
connection 
to 
tourism 
activity. 


We 
anticipated 
that 
forest 
therapy 
and 
the 
practice 
offorestbathingarejustifiablyassociatedwithtourism 
due 
to 
the 
growing 
trend. 
To 
this 
end, 
we 
first 
presented 
the 
definition 
of 
forest 
tourism, 
forest 
therapeutic 
tourism 
and 
well-being 
forest 
tourism. 
For 
this 
purpose, 
we 
looked 
for 
the 
literature 
that 
first 
defines 
the 
beneficialeffectsoftheforestonhumans,andalso 
the 
main 
literature 
dealing 
with 
healing 
and 
benefi


9http://www.zgs.si/eng/homepage/index.html 


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Turistica, 
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15, 
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1, 
April 
2022 
|29 



Darija 
Cvikl 
Forest 
Therapy 
andWell-Being 
Tourism 
Literature 
Review 


cial 
effects 
of 
the 
forest 
on 
people 
in 
connection 
with 
tourism 
practice 
activity. 
The 
study 
protocol 
for 
the 
selection 
of 
literature 
was 
designed 
to 
present 
some 
relevant 
findings 
from 
the 
field 
of 
medical 
research 
proving 
thehealingeffectsof 
the 
foreston 
humans.In 
the 
first 
place, 
we 
wanted 
to 
show 
the 
connection 
be-
tweenmedicalstudiesofforestbathing,andthenconnect 
them 
with 
tourist 
activity. 
In 
order 
to 
be 
able 
to 
connect 
the 
beneficial 
and 
healing 
effects 
that 
are 
ob-
tainedthroughforestbathing,wealsopresentedsome 
of 
the 
contributions 
that 
were 
amongthe 
first 
to 
actually 
recognise 
their 
tourist 
potential. 


Systematic 
review 
protocol 
was 
based 
on 
the 
fol-
lowingsteps.Thefirststepwastoformulatearesearch 
problem 
and 
define 
research 
objectives. 
The 
research 
problemreferstotheabsenceofliteraturedealingwith 
forest 
therapy 
in 
connection 
with 
tourism 
activity. 
Secondly, 
the 
relevant 
literature 
and 
search 
strategy 
are 
identified 
through 
the 
Scopus 
database, 
which 
is 
alsousedinseveralrelevantreviewedpapers,andpresented 
in 
results 
(Stier-Jarmer 
et 
al., 
2021; 
Doimo 
et 
al., 
2020; 
Grilli 
& 
Sacchelli, 
2020; 
Hansen 
et 
al., 
2017). 
Two 
other 
databases 
were 
also 
used 
for 
searching 
relevant 
articles 
at 
the 
beginning: 
Web 
of 
Science 
and 
ScienceDirect. 
However, 
due 
to 
a 
large 
number 
of 
irrelevant 
hits, 
we 
finally 
focused 
on 
Scopus 
hits 
as 
the 
most 
relevant 
ones. 
The 
review 
period 
from 
1998 
to 
2021 
is 
covered. 


Byusingthe 
Scopus 
database,currentliteratureon 
forest 
therapy 
tourism 
and 
forest 
well-being 
tourism 
hasbeenreviewed.First,weenteredkeywordsrelevant 
to 
our 
research 
area: 
forest 
‘and’ 
therapy 
‘and’ 
tourism 
and 
obtained 
11 
documents 
and 
4 
secondary 
documents. 
Then 
we 
entered 
the 
keywords: 
forest 
‘and’ 
wellbeing 
‘and’ 
tourism 
and 
received 
12 
scores 
and 
5 
secondary 
documents. 
16 
articles 
from 
the 
Scopus 
database 
were 
searched 
manually 
and 
1 
article 
from 
2021 
was 
found 
in 
Annals 
of 
Tourism 
Research 
Empirical 
Insights. 
We 
focused 
on 
contributions 
highlighting 
the 
positive 
psychological 
and 
physiological 
effects 
of 
the 
forest 
and 
the 
forest 
atmosphere 
on 
human 
health. 
Within 
these, 
we 
further 
searched 
those 
articles 
where 
findings 
are 
related 
to 
forest 
therapy 
or 
forest 
well-being 
effects 
with 
tourism 
activity. 


All 
together 
49 
paper 
abstracts 
from 
obtained 
hits 


were 
screened. 
After 
abstract 
screening, 
study 
data 
were 
consolidated 
and 
extracted 
in 
order 
to 
obtain 
three 
types 
of 
papers. 
The 
search 
identified 
and 
selected 
29 
relevant 
papers. 
We 
divided 
them 
into 
three 
different 
tables. 
In 
Table 
1, 
review 
articles 
are 
presented. 
Table 
2 
presents 
contributions 
with 
medical 
findings 
of 
psychological 
and 
physiological 
effects 
on 
human 
well-being. 
Table 
3 
provides 
an 
overview 
of 
contributionswhereforesttherapyorforestwell-being 
effects 
are 
related 
to 
tourism 
activity. 
Information 
about 
the 
author, 
year 
of 
publication, 
the 
examined 
parameter 
and 
main 
findings 
are 
given 
in 
each 
table. 
The 
connection 
of 
forest 
therapy 
with 
tourism 
and/or 
forest 
well-being 
with 
tourism 
potential 
is 
given. 


For 
the 
basic 
forest 
therapy 
tourism 
papers 
criterionselection,
wefollowedthedefinitiongivenbyOhe 
etal. 
(2017)andwerelookingonlyfortouristactivities 
withforesttherapyincluded.Wealsofollowedthedefinition 
given 
by 
Konu 
(2015) 
about 
well-being 
forest 
tourism 
activities. 


Oheetal.(2017,p. 
323)definedforest-therapytour-
ism 
as 
one 
of 
the 
emerging 
tourism 
activities. 
Forest-
therapytourism 
originatesfromJapan,and 
it 
was 
created 
with 
the 
emergence 
of 
the 
providers 
of 
tourist 
activities 
in 
combination 
with 
forest 
therapy. 
Forest 
therapy 
programmes 
are 
based 
on 
medically 
guided 
research 
and 
substantiated 
evidence 
and 
therefore 
should 
be 
accompanied 
by 
implemented 
protocols 
to 
confirm 
the 
effects 
of 
forest 
bathing. 
Forest-based 
well-beingtourism,accordingtoKonu(2015,p.6),can 
bedefinedasbasedontheforestsasthecore 
resource. 
Ittakesplace 
in 
or 
nearaforestenvironment. 
The 
aim 
of 
forest 
therapy 
tourismis 
to 
develop 
a 
rangeof 
wellbeing 
tourism 
products 
highlighting 
the 
special 
characteristics 
of 
forests 
and 
focusing 
on 
how 
to 
use 
natural 
resources 
for 
well-being 
purposes. 
Shinrin-yoku 
is 
the 
term 
originally 
created 
in 
Japan 
and 
it 
represents 
one 
of 
their 
traditionalforest 
relaxation 
practices. 
Literally 
translated, 
it 
means 
‘forest 
dive’ 
or 
‘diving 
into 
the 
forest 
atmosphere.’ 
It 
is 
a 
good 
example 
of 
using 
the 
socio-cultural 
values 
of 
the 
forest 
for 
tourism 
and 
relaxation 
purposes. 


The 
selection 
criteria 
for 
particular 
papers 
mentioned 
below 
is 
the 
connection 
between 
medical 
and 
well-beingfindingsandtheshinrin-yokumethodwith 


30 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Darija 
Cvikl 
Forest 
Therapy 
andWell-Being 
Tourism 
Literature 
Review 


forest 
tourist 
activity, 
especially 
therapy 
tourism 
and 
well-beingtourism.Therefore,thefirstarticleisplaced 
chronologicallyin2007,whentheconnectionbetween 
forestbathingandthebeneficialeffectsonhumanpsychophysicalwell-
beingbegan.Thereisahugeamount 
of 
literature 
on 
the 
healing 
effect 
of 
nature 
(not 
just 
the 
forest) 
on 
human 
public/environmental 
health, 
but 
Lee 
was 
the 
first 
to 
prove 
these 
effects 
based 
on 
shinrin-yoku 
practice. 
This 
information 
is 
important 
because 
shinrin-yoku 
is 
the 
basis 
on 
which 
international 
centres 
of 
restorative 
and 
therapeutic 
forest 
practices 
in 
the 
Western 
world 
have 
developed 
since 
then 
(they 
have 
existed 
in 
Japan 
and 
China 
for 
much 
longer). 
Those 
criteria 
were 
chosen 
because 
shinrinyoku 
practice 
is 
the 
link 
which 
stimulated 
Konu 
in 
2015 
and 
Ohe 
et 
al. 
in 
2017 
to 
connect 
these 
practices 
with 
new 
tourism 
products 
and 
point 
out 
the 
potential 
of 
the 
forest 
as 
a 
destination 
for 
therapeutic 
and 
well-being 
forest 
tourist 
activities 
and 
the 
tourist 
use 
ofnon-timberforestproductsingeneral.Itmeansthat 
we 
were 
looking 
for 
papers 
based 
on 
medically 
con-
ductedresearch,withmeasuringoftheeffectsofforest 
and 
the 
natural 
environment 
on 
the 
human 
immune 
system. 
As 
a 
result, 
29 
relevant 
papers 
were 
reviewed 
and 
presented. 
It 
includes 
information 
on 
the 
author, 
year 
of 
publication, 
the 
examined 
parameter 
of 
effect, 
main 
findings, 
and 
the 
connection 
of 
individual 
research 
with 
forest 
therapy 
tourism 
and/or 
forest 
wellbeing 
tourism. 


Results 


The 
results 
of 
browsing 
the 
Scopus 
database 
show 
that 
contributions 
where 
forest 
therapy 
is 
linked 
to 
tourism 
are 
derived 
from 
different 
subject 
areas, 
such 
as 
Forestry, 
Tourism, 
Leisure 
and 
Hospitality 
Management,
Public 
Health,Social 
Science,Medicine,Environmental 
and 
Occupational 
Health, 
General 
Arts 
andHumanities,NatureandLandscapeConservation, 
GeneralEnvironmentalScienceandPhysicalTherapy, 
Sports 
Therapy 
and 
Rehabilitation. 
The 
results 
of 
29 
papers 
are 
given 
in 
Table 
1, 
Table 
2, 
and 
Table 
3. 
7 
papers 
representreview 
papers 
(Stier-Jarmeret 
al., 
2021; 
Rovielloetal.,2021;Andersenetal.,2021;Doimoetal., 
2020; 
Rajoo 
et 
al., 
2020; 
Yau 
& 
Loke, 
2020; 
Hansen 
et 
al., 
2017). 
Medically 
conducted 
research 
with 
psycho


logical 
and 
physiological 
responses 
after 
a 
forest 
therapy 
programme 
was 
carried 
out 
in 
many 
papers, 
but 
we 
decided 
to 
present 
the 
most 
relevant 
9 
(Peterfalvi 
etal.,2021;Grilli&Sacchelli,2020;Bielinisetal.,2019; 
Schuh 
& 
Immich, 
2019; 
Korpela 
et 
al., 
2017; 
Ochiai, 
Ikei,Song, 
Kobayashi, 
Miuraetal.,2015; 
Ochiai,Ikei, 
Song,Kobayashi,Takamatsuetal.,2015;Lietal.,2009; 
Li 
et 
al., 
2007). 
13 
papers 
promote 
forest 
therapy 
or 
forest 
well-being 
tourism 
as 
new 
promising 
and 
dynamic 
types 
of 
forest 
tourism 
(Buckley 
et 
al., 
2021; 
Wajchman-Switalska 
et 
al., 
2021; 
Zhao 
& 
An, 
2021; 
Gurbey, 
2020; 
Sacchelli 
et 
al., 
2020; 
Wu 
et 
al., 
2019; 
Dzhabarova 
et 
al., 
2018; 
Huang 
& 
Xu, 
2018; 
Farkic 
et 
al., 
2021; 
Ohe 
et 
al., 
2017; 
Cvikl 
& 
Vodeb, 
2016; 
Konu, 
2015; 
Konuetal., 
2011). 
Inallthecases 
concerned,forest 
bathing 
or 
forest 
therapy 
is 
included. 


Papersdealingwithasystematicreviewofphysical 
activity 
as 
well 
as 
forest-bathing 
on 
the 
immune 
systems 
and 
general 
human 
well-being 
are 
given 
in 
Table 
1. 


However, 
some 
limitations 
have 
been 
underlined. 
Small 
sample 
sizes 
and 
skewed 
distributions 
in 
the 
age 
and/or 
gender 
of 
study 
participants 
were 
found. 
Secondly,someofthe 
results 
ofphysiological 
tests 
werenotstatisticallysignificant(Andersenetal.,2021). 
Also, 
it 
is 
insufficiently 
researched 
whether 
a 
particularforestortreespeciescompositionorenvironmental 
feature, 
such 
as 
microclimate, 
have 
specific 
benefits. 
Thereisalackofconsiderationforthesynergiceffects 
of 
the 
numerous 
features 
composing 
a 
forest 
ecosystemthataresimultaneouslyexperiencedbyallthefive 
senses.Also,thetiminganddurationofforestbathings 
were 
different, 
as 
well 
as 
the 
weather. 
A 
limitation 
of 
the 
research 
is 
also 
the 
fact 
that 
a 
systematic 
review 
of 
papers 
did 
not 
takeplace 
in 
several 
databases. 
We 
found 
that 
a 
huge 
number 
of 
hits 
were 
obtained 
when 
we 
browsed 
the 
posts 
on 
the 
phrase: 
forest 
‘and’ 
therapeutic 
‘and’ 
‘tourism’ 
and 
on 
the 
phrase: 
forest 
‘and’ 
well-being 
‘and’ 
‘tourism,’ 
but 
not 
many 
relevant 
ones. 
We 
also 
found 
that 
the 
relevant 
hits 
in 
both 
databases 
were 
identical 
to 
those 
obtained 
in 
the 
Sco-
pus 
database. 


Papers 
dealing 
with 
medically 
conducted 
research 
aregiveninTable2.Thehealingpowersofforestswere 
firstresearchedbyLietal.(2007).Itisprimarilydueto 


Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|31 



Darija 
Cvikl 
Forest 
Therapy 
andWell-Being 
Tourism 
Literature 
Review 


Table 
1 
Papers 
with 
Review 
of 
SystematicReview 
of 
Physical 
Activity 
as 
Well 
as 
Forest-Bathing 
on 
the 
Immune 
System’s 
and 
General 
Human 
Well-being 
with 
Some 
Healing 
and 
Beneficial 
Effects 
of 
Forest 
on 
People 


Paper 
Parameter 
examined 
Main 
finding 
Connection 


Stier-Jarmer 
et 
al. 
(....) 
‘The 
Psychological 
and 
Physical 
Effects 
of 
Forests 
on 
Human 
Health: 
A 
Systematic 
Review 
of 
Systematic 
Reviews 
and 
Meta-Analyses’ 


Systematic 
review 
of 
systematic 
reviews 
was 
conducted 
in 
eight 
databasesto 
identify, 
summarise, 
and 
synthesise 
the 
available 
evidence 
of 
systematic 
reviews 
(srs) 
and 
meta-analyses 
(mas) 
on 
the 
preventive 
and 
therapeutic 
psychological 
and 
physical 
effects 
of 
forest-based 
interventions. 


Authors 
argue 
that 
forest-
based 
interventions 
have 
a 
positive 
impact 
on 
the 
cardiovascular 
system; 
some 
immunological 
and/or 
inflammatory 
parameters; 
and 
mental 
health 
in 
the 
areas 
of 
stress, 
depression, 
anxiety, 
and 
negative 
emotions. 


Forest 
therapy; 
forest 
bathing; 
shinrin-yoku; 
forest 
medicine. 


Roviello 
et 
al. 
(....) 
‘Forest-The 
effects 
of 
particular 
Physical 
exercise 
in 
forests, 
Bathing 
and 
Physical 
Activity 
immune-strengthening 
ac-as 
well 
as 
‘forest-bathing,’ 
has 
as 
Weapons 
Against 
covidtivities 
performed 
in 
forest 
strengthening 
effects 
on 
the 
..: 
A 
Review’ 
areas 
have 
been 
reviewed. 
immune 
system’s 
ability 
to 
fight 
disease, 
especially 
as 
it 
relates 
to 
covid-... 


Some 
activities 
typical 
of 
outdoor 
tourism 
are 
recommended. 
Aerobic 
and 
resistance 
training 
like 
respiratory 
muscle 
gentle 
strengthening 
exercises, 
such 
as 
tai 
chi 
and 
yoga 
have 
been 
suggested 
as 
stress-reducing 
and 
immune-boosting 
exercises 
that 
should 
be 
practised 
in 
forestsfor 
individualswho 
are 
in 
good 
health, 
for 
the 
prevention 
of 
covid-... 


Andersen 
et 
al. 
(....) 
‘Nature 
Exposure 
and 
Its 
Effects 
on 
Immune 
System 
Functioning: 
A 
Systematic 
Review’ 


Systematic 
review 
of 
papers 
by 
measurements 
of 
physiological 
and 
psychological 
effects 
of 
forest 
on 
people, 
conducted 
in 
the 
period 
from 
....to 
..... 


General 
anti-inflammatory 
effects 
of 
volatile 
substances 
of 
plants 
in 
the 
selected 
forest 
ecosystemon 
people 
and 
strengthening 
of 
immune 
system 
have 
been 
proved. 


Some 
of 
the 
research 
concerned 
was 
conducted 
in 
the 
forest 
with 
a 
Japanese 
forest 
bath 
or 
shinrin 
yoku, 
identified 
as 
an 
anti-stress 
forest 
product. 


human 
exposure 
to 
phytoncides, 
a 
volatile 
substance 
emittedbyplants.Measurementsweremostlyfocused 
on 
stress 
markers. 
Results 
were 
obtained 
from 
physiological 
parameters 
that 
measured 
systolic 
and 
diastolic 
blood 
pressure, 
pulse 
rate, 
heart 
rate 
and 
heart 
rate 
variability, 
salivary 
or 
serum 
cortisol 
levels, 
cardiovascular 
and 
metabolic 
parameters. 
The 
psychological 
measurements 
included 
different 
parameters 
suchasmoodstate,depression,anxiety,negativeemotions, 
anxiety 
level, 
happiness 
level 
and 
quality 
of 
life. 
For 
example, 
physiological 
measurements 
included 
measuring 
systolic 
blood 
pressure 
(Peterfalvi 
et 
al., 


Continued 
on 
the 
next 
page 


2021), 
stress 
hormones, 
most 
often 
cortisol 
(Ochiai, 
Ikei,Song, 
Kobayashi, 
Miura 
et 
al.,2015; 
Ochiai, 
Ikei, 
Song, 
Kobayashi, 
Takamatsu 
et 
al., 
2015), 
and 
pulse 
andmovementofnaturalkiller(nk)cellactivity(Liet 
al., 
2007). 
The 
most 
common 
subject 
of 
psychological 
testing 
was 
measuring 
feelings, 
for 
example 
tension, 
anxiety, 
depression, 
anger, 
stress, 
hostility, 
tiredness, 
and 
confusion. 
Most 
often, 
medically 
conducted 
research 
measured 
the 
healing 
and 
beneficial 
effects 
of 
the 
volatile 
substances, 
phytoncides, 
on 
the 
human 
immune 
system 
and 
general 
well-being. 


Healingand 
beneficial 
effectsof 
forestbathingand 


32 
| 
Academica 
Turistica,Year15, 
No.1,April 
2022 



Darija 
Cvikl 
Forest 
Therapy 
andWell-Being 
Tourism 
Literature 
Review 


Table 
1 
Continued 
from 
the 
previous 
page 


Paper 
Parameterexamined 
Mainfinding 
Connection 


Doimo 
et 
al. 
(....) 
‘Forest 
An 
overview 
of 
existing 
liter-
and 
Wellbeing: 
Bridging 
ature 
on 
the 
emerging 
topic 
Medical 
and 
Forest 
Research 
of 
human 
well-being 
with 
for 
Effective 
Forest-Based 
forest 
contact. 
Initiatives’ 


Summary 
of 
results 
of 
the 
Findings 
provide 
a 
prelim-
literatureanalysisshowed 
inaryframeworkofusers’ 
that 
all 
papers 
have 
measured 
well-being 
in 
connection 
more 
than 
one 
health 
param-with 
forest 
contact. 
eter. 
The 
most 
mentioned 
effects 
are 
psychological 
(...), 
while 
physiological 
effects 
(.....) 
and 
social 
effects 
(.....) 
are 
followed. 
Medicine 
and 
forestry 
discipline 
are 
included 
in 
coding 
criteria, 
but 
tourist 
industry 
is 
not. 


Rajoo 
et 
al. 
(....)‘The 
Physiological 
and 
Psychosocial 
Effects 
of 
Forest 
Therapy: 
ASystematic 
Review’ 


Systematic 
review 
of 
literature 
of 
forest 
therapy 
physiological 
and 
psychosocial 
effects 
(....–....),such 
as 
cortisol 
level, 
systolic 
blood 
pressure, 
diastolic 
blood 
pressure 
and 
pulse 
rates. 


Based 
on 
the 
research 
data 
forest 
therapy 
plays 
an 
important 
role 
in 
preventive 
medicine 
and 
stress 
management 
for 
all 
age 
groups. 


The 
aim 
of 
the 
research 
is 
not 
only 
to 
evaluate 
the 
psychosocial 
and 
physiological 
effects 
but 
also 
to 
encourage 
healthcare 
professionals 
and 
the 
general 
public 
to 
fully 
utilise 
forest 
therapy 
as 
a 
form 
of 
preventive 
medicine. 


Yau 
& 
Loke 
(....) 
‘Effects 
of 
Forest 
Bathing 
on 
Pre-
Hypertensive 
and 
Hypertensive 
Adults: 
A 
Review 
of 
the 
Literature’ 


To 
explore 
the 
physiologically 
and 
psychologically 
therapeutic 
benefits 
of 
forest 
bathing 
on 
adults 
suffering 
from 
pre-hypertension 
or 
hypertension. 


The 
natural 
atmosphere 
of 
forestsisbeneficial 
to 
human 
health. 
Exposure 
to 
forest-
derived 
phytoncides 
could 
increase 
nk 
cell 
activity 
and 
improve 
overall 
immunity 
function. 


Hansen 
et 
al. 
(....) 
Athorough 
review 
of 
pa‘
Shinrin-yoku 
(Forest 
pers 
that 
evaluated 
the 
use 
Bathing) 
and 
Nature 
Ther-of 
shinrin-yoku 
for 
various 
apy: 
A 
State-of-the-Art 
Re-populations 
in 
diverse 
set-
view’ 
tings. 


Nature 
therapy 
as 
a 
health-Shinrin-yoku 
as 
a 
practice 
promotion 
method 
and 
to 
decrease 
undue 
stress 
and 
potential 
universal 
health 
potential 
burnout. 
model 
is 
implicated 
for 
the 
reduction 
of 
reported 
modern-day 
‘stress-state’ 
and 
‘technostress.’ 


socio-cultural 
valuesofforestsinconnectionwithfor-
est 
therapy 
tourism 
or 
well-being 
tourism 
is 
shown 
in 
Table 
3. 


To 
sum 
up, 
the 
findings 
show 
that 
on 
the 
basis 
of 
the 
healing 
and 
beneficial 
attributes 
of 
forests, 
forest 
therapy 
tourism 
and 
well-being 
forest 
tourism 
are 
developing 
rapidly 
(Zhao 
& 
An, 
2021). 
Forest 
tourism 
(Cvikl, 
2020; 
Chen 
et 
al., 
2019; 
Chen 
& 
Nakama, 
2013, 


p. 
2),forestwell-beingtourism(Konu,2015)andforest 
therapy 
tourism 
(Ohe 
et 
al., 
2017) 
are 
defined. 
Other 
touristforestproducts,suchastherapeuticforesttrails 
(Gurbey, 
2020; 
Ohe 
et 
al., 
2017), 
forest 
selfness 
and 
mindfulness 
(Farkicetal.,2021;Cvikl 
&Vodeb,2016), 
are 
developing 
extremely 
fast 
all 
around 
the 
world, 
even 
for 
disabled 
individuals 
(Wajchman-Switalska 
et 
al., 
2021). 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|33 



Darija 
Cvikl 
Forest 
Therapy 
andWell-Being 
Tourism 
Literature 
Review 


Table 
2 
Positive 
Physiological 
and 
Psychological 
Effects 
of 
Forest 
Climate 
on 
General 
Well-Being 
and 
on 
the 
Immune 
System 


Paper 
Parameter 
examined 
Main 
finding 
Connection 


Peterfalvi 
et 
al. 
(....) 
‘For-Systolic 
blood 
pressure. 
Forest 
baths, 
conducted 
in 
Forest 
bathing; 
forest 
walk-
est 
Bathing 
Always 
Makes 
late 
spring 
in 
May 
and 
in 
ing. 
Sense: 
Blood 
Pressure-winter 
in 
January, 
showed 
Lowering 
and 
Immune 
statistically 
significant 
deSystem-
Balancing 
Effects 
crease 
of 
systolic 
blood 
pres-
in 
Late 
Spring 
and 
Winter 
in 
sure. 
Central 
Europe’ 
Grilli 
& 
Sacchelli 
(....) 
Activities 
(‘walk’) 
and 
perfor-It 
appears 
that 
the 
tourism 
‘Health 
Benefits 
Derived 
mances 
(‘concentration’) 
are 
tendency 
of 
forest 
bathing, 
from 
Forest: 
A 
Review’ 
investigated 
in 
general 
terms 
i.e. 
shinrin-yoku, 
is 
em(‘
subject’) 
or 
for 
specific 
age 
phasised 
from 
the 
results, 
and 
status 
(‘student’). 
particularly 
for 
‘Japan.’ 
Bielinis 
et 
al. 
(....) 
‘The 
Effect 
of 
Recreation 
in 
a 
Snow-
Covered 
Forest 
Environment 
on 
the 
Psychological 
Wellbeing 
of 
Young 
Adults: 
Randomized 
Controlled 
Study’ 
The 
young 
adults 
were 
exposed 
to 
a 
snow-covered 
environment. 
Forest 
recreation, 
during 
winter 
and 
with 
snow 
cover, 
continues 
to 
have 
a 
significant 
influence 
on 
the 
psychological 
relaxation 
of 
young 
females. 
Findings 
contribute 
to 
seasonality 
elimination. 
Such 
therapy 
practice 
recreation 
could 
be 
successfully 
conducted 
during 
winter 
in 
a 
forest 
with 
snow 
cover, 
and 
there 
should 
still 
be 
a 
positive 
effect 
on 
psychological 
parameters. 


Schuh 
& 
Immich 
(....) 
Examination 
of 
healing 
and 
Definition 
of 
healing 
and 
Dealing 
with 
forest 
bathing 
Waldtherapie: 
Das 
Potenzial 
beneficialeffectsofforest 
therapeuticforestsandtheir 
andshinrinyokuasaglobal 
des 
Waldes 
für 
Ihre 
Gesund-climateonpeople. 
effectsonhumanhealth. 
trend. 
heit 


Korpela 
et 
al. 
(....) 
‘Enhancing 
Wellbeing 
with 
Psychological 
Tasks 
along 
Forest 
Trails’ 


Significant 
F-test 
values 
in 
the 
change 
in 
restorative 
experiences, 
overall 
satisfaction 
with 
the 
trail, 
willingness 
to 
recommend 
the 
trail 
to 
friends, 
and 
satisfaction 
with 
the 
number 
of 
signposts. 


Experience 
on 
a 
well-being 
theme 
trail 
showed 
positive 
and 
statistically 
significant 
changes 
in 
two 
measurements: 
restorative 
change 
and 
willingness 
to 
recommend 
the 
trail 
to 
friends. 


Well-being 
theme 
trails 
in 
different 
countries. 


Forest 
therapy 
is 
recognised 
as 
a 
mental 
health 
activity 
with 
beneficial 
effects 
on 
human 
well-being 
and 
a 
powerfultourism 
attraction 
and 
economic 
opportunity 
(Buckley 
et 
al., 
2021). 
For 
example, 
in 
Japan 
as 
many 
as 
59 
forest 
therapeutic 
bases 
in 
each 
of 
the 
provinces 
and 
6 
therapeutic 
trails 
have 
been 
registered 
since 
the 
foundation 
of 
the 
Forest 
Therapy 
Pro-
gramme 
in 
2004. 
China 
founded 
500 
forest 
therapeutic 
bases 
in 
the 
period 
from 
2015 
to 
2020 
(Wu 
et 
al., 


Continued 
on 
the 
next 
page 


2019; 
Gurbey, 
2020; 
Ohe 
et 
al., 
2017, 
p. 
326). 
South 
Korea, 
China, 
the 
usa, 
Finland, 
Sweden, 
Northern 
Ireland, 
England, 
Slovenia, 
Croatia, 
and 
Montenegro 
have 
also 
started 
developing 
forest 
therapeutic 
procedures 
and 
medical 
tourism. 


Findings 


Based 
on 
the 
findings 
of 
the 
literature 
review 
and 
in 
relation 
to 
what 
is 
already 
happening 
in 
Slove


34 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Darija 
Cvikl 
Forest 
Therapy 
andWell-Being 
Tourism 
Literature 
Review 


Table 
2 
Continued 
from 
the 
previous 
page 


Paper 
Parameterexamined 
Mainfinding 
Connection 


Ochiai, 
Ikei, 
Song, 
Kobayashi, 
Miura 
et 
al. 
(....) 
‘Physiological 
and 
Psychological 
Effects 
of 
a 
Forest 
Therapy 
Program 
on 
Middle-Aged 
Females’ 


Physiological 
and 
psychological 
parameters 
(pulse, 
level 
of 
cortisol 
in 
saliva 
and 
psychological 
indexes) 
were 
measured 
one 
day 
before 
the 
forest 
therapy 
and 
on 
the 
day 
of 
the 
forest 
therapy. 


Forest 
therapy 
resulted 
in 
significant 
decrease 
of 
pulse 
rate, 
decrease 
of 
the 
level 
of 
cortisol 
in 
saliva, 
increase 
of 
positive 
feelings, 
and 
decrease 
of 
negative 
feelings. 


Guided 
andcontrolledpro-
gramme 
of 
forest 
anti-stress 
therapy. 


Ochiai, 
Ikei, 
Song, 
Kobayashi, 
Takamatsu 
et 
al. 
(....) 
‘Physiological 
and 
Psychological 
Effects 
of 
Forest 
Therapy 
on 
Middle-Aged 
Males 
with 
High-Normal 
Blood 
Pressure’ 


Physiological 
and 
psychological 
parameters 
(pulse, 
level 
of 
cortisol 
in 
saliva 
and 
psychological 
indexes) 
were 
measured 
one 
day 
before 
the 
forest 
therapy 
and 
on 
the 
day 
of 
the 
forest 
therapy. 


Forest 
therapy 
resulted 
in 
decreasedsystolic 
and 
diastolic 
blood 
pressure 
(bp), 
adrenaline 
in 
urine 
and 
serum 
cortisol 
(p 
< 
....). 
Similarly, 
negative 
parameters, 
such 
as 
tension/anxiety, 
confusion, 
anger/hostility, 
and 
mood 
swings 
improved. 


Guided 
andcontrolledpro-
gramme 
of 
forest 
anti-stress 
therapy. 


Li 
et 
al. 
(....) 
‘Effect 
of 
The 
effect 
of 
inhaling 
vari-
Phytoncide 
from 
Trees 
on 
ous 
phytoncides 
– 
essential 
Human 
Natural 
Killer 
Cell 
oils 
of 
trees 
– 
on 
human 
im-
Function’ 
mune 
function, 
namely 
on 


enhancedhuman 
natural 


killer 
(nk) 
cell 
activity. 


The 
examined 
physiolog-Forest 
therapy 
tourism 
and 
ical 
test 
proved 
significant 
forest 
well-being 
tourism 
increase 
of 
natural 
killer 
deal 
with 
stress 
factors 
in 
(nk) 
cell 
activity, 
but 
without 
order 
to 
decrease 
their 
effects 
statistically 
significant 
re-on 
human 
spiritual 
well-
sults. 
The 
psychological 
test 
being 
(... 
citations). 
concerned 
(poms) 
showed 
decrease 
in 
tension, 
anxiety, 
depression, 
anger,hostility, 
tiredness, 
and 
confusion. 
Only 
statisticallysignificant 
were 
the 
results 
of 
the 
factor 
of 
tiredness. 


Li 
et 
al. 
(....) 
‘Forest 
Effects 
of 
the 
forest 
bath 
Bathing 
Enhances 
Human 
conducted 
on 
natural 
killer 
Natural 
Killer 
Activity 
and 
(nk) 
cell 
activity. 
Expression 
of 
Anti-Cancer 
Proteins 


Report, 
researching 
direct 
Forest 
bath 
as 
therapeutic 
effectofforestbathsonhu-activity(...citations). 
man 
activity. 
A 
physiological 
test, 
which 
showed 
substantial 
increase 
of 
natural 
killer 
(nk) 
cell 
activity 
and 
positive 
effect 
of 
forest 
bathing 
on 
the 
human 
immune 
system, 
was 
conducted 
for 
the 
first 
time. 


nia, 
we 
can 
conclude 
that 
forest 
therapy 
could 
pro-scapes 
and 
garden-architectural 
heritage 
units. 
Rich 
vide 
several 
benefits 
for 
the 
Slovenian 
tourism 
indus-Slovenian 
forests 
provide 
all 
of 
the 
above, 
as 
they 
try. 
Biodiversity-healthframeworkreferenceswithan 
haveexceptionalgeomorphological,atmospheric,and 
environmental 
and 
socio-cultural 
context 
are 
needed 
climatic 
conditions. 
On 
those 
bases 
nature 
therapy, 
(Marselle 
et 
al., 
2021) 
such 
as 
registered 
cultural 
land-nature-based 
rehabilitation 
and 
nature-based 
treat-

Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|35 



Darija 
Cvikl 
Forest 
Therapy 
andWell-Being 
Tourism 
Literature 
Review 


Table 
3 
Healing 
and 
Beneficial 
Effects 
of 
Forest 
Bathing 
in 
Connection 
with 
Forest 
Therapy 
Tourism 
or 
Well-being 
Tourism 


Paper 
Parameter 
examined 
Main 
finding 
Connection 


Buckley 
et 
al. 
(....) 
‘Mental 
Health 
Key 
to 
Tourism 
Infrastructure 
in 
China’s 
New 
Megapark’ 


Conflicts 
between 
road 
and 
roadless-access 
tourism 
in 
the 
Sanjiangyuan 
National 
Park, 
Qinghai, 
which 
offers 
jing 
hua 
xin 
ling 
to 
domestic 
tourists 
from 
eastern-
seaboard 
cities. 


In 
Western 
nations 
currently, 
there 
is 
widespread 
recent 
recognition 
of 
the 
value 
of 
nature 
for 
mental 
health 
and 
of 
digital 
detoxification. 
These 
factors 
create 
the 
health 
services 
value 
of 
parks 
and 
the 
resulting 
new 
opportunity 
for 
nature 
tourism. 


Mental 
health 
benefits 
provide 
a 
powerful 
tourism 
attraction, 
and 
hence 
economic 
opportunity, 
for 
the 
region 
around 
the 
park. 


Farkic 
et 
al. 
(....) 
‘Forest 
Bathing 
as 
a 
Mindful 
Tourism 
Practice’ 


Sensory 
ethnography 
was 
used 
to 
study 
the 
ways 
in 
which 
the 
senses 
were 
engaged, 
activatedand 
deepened 
through 
guided 
forest 
bathing 
walks, 
but 
also 
what 
theexperiencemeant 
in 
the 
broader 
context 
of 
the 
participants’ 
well-being. 


Findings 
suggest 
how 
forest 
practices 
that 
induce 
wellbeing 
states 
exhibit 
latent 
potential 
as 
touristic 
experiences. 


The 
processes 
of 
awareness, 
attentiveness, 
focus 
and 
reflection 
that 
were 
distilled 
in 
the 
analysis 
have 
ultimately 
led 
to 
conceptualise 
the 
Japanese 
practice 
of 
forest 
bathing 
as 
a 
mindful 
tourism 
practice. 


Wajchman-Switalska 
et 
al. 
(....) 
‘Recreation 
and 
Therapy 
in 
Urban 
Forests 
– 
The 
Potential 
Use 
of 
Sensory 
Garden 
Solutions’ 


.. 
gardens 
and 
one 
sensory 
path 
have 
been 
studied. 
The 
inventory 
was 
carried 
out 
on 
the 
basis 
of 
the 
features 
considered 
important 
in 
spatial 
orientation 
by 
blind 
and 
partially 
sighted 
people. 


The 
results 
showed 
that 
the 
solutions 
used 
were 
only 
partly 
adequate 
for 
the 
needs 
of 
selected 
users. 
We 
found 
neither 
tactile 
walking 
surface 
indicators 
(e.g. 
communication 
lines 
and 
terrain), 
spatial 
models, 
nor 
applications 
in 
mobile 
devices. 


Forest 
therapy 
leisure 
activity 
for 
disabled 
individuals. 


Zhao 
& 
An 
(....) 
‘Behavioural 
Intention 
of 
Forest 
Therapy 
Tourism 
in 
China: 
Based 
on 
Health 
Belief 
Model 
and 
the 
Theory 
of 
Planned 
Behaviour’ 


The 
study 
aimed 
at 
verifying 
anew 
behaviouralattitude 
pattern 
after 
the 
peak 
of 
the 
epidemic 
on 
the 
basis 
of 
the 
health 
belief 
model 
(hbm). 


This 
study 
expands 
the 
health 
belief 
model 
(hbm) 
with 
the 
variable 
of 
attitude. 
Practical 
implications 
are 
offered 
for 
the 
government 
suffering 
from 
the 
epidemic 
and 
for 
the 
tourism 
industry. 


The 
study 
provides 
the 
benefits 
of 
forest 
therapy 
in 
tourism. 


ment 
programmes 
can 
be 
developed 
(Schuh 
& 
Im-
mich,2019).Itisevidentfromfindingsthatsocialising 
in 
the 
forest 
not 
only 
increases 
natural 
killer 
(nk) 
cell 
activity, 
decreases 
tension, 
anxiety, 
depression, 
anger, 
hostility, 
tiredness, 
confusion, 
systolic 
and 
diastolic 
blood 
pressure 
(Peterfalvi 
et 
al., 
2021; 
Ochiai, 
Ikei, 
Song,Kobayashi,Miuraetal.,2015;Ochiai,Ikei,Song, 
Kobayashi, 
Takamatsu 
et 
al., 
2015) 
etc, 
but 
also 
that 


Continued 
on 
the 
next 
page 


forest 
habitat 
along 
with 
forest 
climate 
is 
one 
of 
the 
basic 
attributes 
for 
the 
development 
of 
forest 
therapeutic 
and 
well-being 
tourism. 
Furthermore, 
exercise 
inforestshasstrengtheningeffectsontheimmunesystem’sabilitytofightagainstviraldiseases,
especiallyas 
it 
relates 
to 
covid-19 
(Roviello 
et 
al., 
2021). 
Significant 
improvements 
in 
depressivesymptoms 
were 
also 
foundinalmostalltheprimarystudies(Stier-Jarmeret 


36 
| 
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Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Darija 
Cvikl 
Forest 
Therapy 
andWell-Being 
Tourism 
Literature 
Review 


Table 
3 
Continued 
from 
the 
previous 
page 


Paper 
Parameterexamined 
Mainfinding 
Connection 


Gürbey 
(....) 
New 
Trends 
in 
Ecotourism: 
Forest 
Therapeutic 
forest 
centres 
and 
trails 
in 
the 
world. 
Forest 
therapy 
provides 
benefits 
and 
beneficial 
effects 
Development 
of 
therapeutic 
forest 
trails 
and 
forest 
centres 
Bathing/Forest 
Therapy 
in 
the 
World 
and 
Turkey 
on 
physiological 
and 
psychological 
health, 
protects 
forest 
biodiversity 
and 
offers 
diversification 
of 
economic 
in 
the 
world. 
effects 
arising 
from 
tourist 
and 
recreational 
activities. 
Sacchelli 
et 
al. 
(....) 
‘Neuroscience 
Application 
for 
the 
Analysis 
of 
Cultural 
Ecosystem 
Services 
Related 
to 
Stress 
Relief 
in 
Forest’ 
In 
order 
to 
analyse 
stress 
relief, 
the 
study 
applies 
a 
Restoration 
Outcome 
Scale 
(ros) 
questionnaire 
and 
a 
neuroscientific 
technique 
grounded 
on 
electroencephalographic 
(eeg) 
measurement. 
Results 
show 
different 
outcomes 
for 
coniferous 
and 
broadleaf 
forests. 
The 
self-
assessed 
stress 
levels 
before 
and 
after 
exposure 
to 
different 
types 
of 
forest 
show 
that 
a 
forest 
with 
a 
high 
density 
of 
conifers 
and 
a 
low 
density 
of 
broadleaves 
seems 
to 
be 
the 
A 
categorisation 
of 
forest 
for 
health 
promotion 
and 
disease 
prevention, 
mindfulness 
and 
forest 
bathing, 
outdoor 
activities 
and 
tourism 
is 
needed. 
proper 
combination 
for 
stress 
recovery. 
Wu 
et 
al. 
(....) 
‘Assessing 
and 
Mapping 
Forest 
Landscape 
Quality 
in 
China’ 
Dzhabarova 
et 
al. 
(....) 
‘The 
medical-recreational 
and 
balneotherapeutic 
regions 
of 
the 
Krasnoyarsk 
Territory’ 
Assessing 
and 
mapping 
forest 
landscape 
quality 
in 
order 
to 
establish 
an 
evaluation 
index 
system. 
Systematisation 
of 
the 
available 
data 
characterising 
the 
balneotherapeutic 
and 
recreational 
conditions 
of 
the 
Krasnoyarsk 
Territory 
were 
studied. 
In 
...., 
the 
number 
of 
tourists 
to 
forest 
parks 
exceeded 
... 
billion 
in 
China, 
accounting 
for 
nearly 
... 
of 
the 
domestic 
tourist 
market. 
Comprehensive 
assessment 
of 
the 
landscape 
and 
climatic 
conditions 
of 
the 
medical-recreational 
regions 
of 
the 
southern 
part 
of 
the 
Krasnoyarsk 
Territory 
with 
favourable 
bioclimatic 
conditions 
and 
unique 
therapeutic 
resources. 
Forest 
tourism 
has 
become 
the 
most 
dynamic 
and 
promising 
sector 
in 
China. 
Balneotherapeutic 
regions 
represent 
great 
potential 
for 
the 
development 
of 
climatic 
spa 
and 
health 
resort 
facilities. 
Huang 
& 
Xu 
(....) 
‘Therapeutic 
Landscapes 
and 
Longevity: 
Wellness 
Tourism 
in 
Bama’ 
Conducted 
interviews 
concerning 
the 
therapeutic 
landscape 
theory. 
The 
results 
provide 
a 
multi-
scale 
interpretation 
of 
wellness 
tourism 
to 
explore 
how 
wellness 
tourists 
achieve 
health 
in 
healing 
places. 
Conceptualisation 
and 
interpretation 
of 
the 
therapeutic 
landscape 
within 
wellness 
tourism. 


Continued 
on 
the 
next 
page 


al.,2021). 
Tosumup,thephysiologicalandpsycholog-negativeaspectsandfindingshavetobementionedas 
ical 
relaxation 
effects 
of 
forest 
therapy 
and 
well-being 
well. 
The 
limitations 
mentioned 
in 
the 
results 
should 
tourism 
are 
verified. 
According 
to 
Ohe 
et 
al. 
(2017) 
be 
also 
taken 
into 
account, 
especially 
regarding 
the 
andLietal. 
(2007),theseeffectslastthreetofivedays. 
methodologicalapproachandtheprotocoloffurther 
Regardless 
of 
the 
identified 
advantages, 
certain 
researches. 
Although 
positive 
findings 
were 
reported 


Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|37 



Darija 
Cvikl 
Forest 
Therapy 
andWell-Being 
Tourism 
Literature 
Review 


Table 
3 
Continued 
from 
the 
previous 
page 


Paper 
Parameter 
examined 
Main 
finding 
Connection 


Ohe 
et 
al. 
(....) 
‘Evaluating 
Amultidisciplinary 
collab-The 
results 
verified 
physio-Forest 
therapy 
tourism 
defi-
the 
Relaxation 
Effects 
of 
orative 
approach 
was 
used 
logical 
and 
psychological 
re-nition. 
Emerging 
Forest-Therapy 
to 
conduct 
medical 
research 
laxation 
effects, 
which 
lasted 
Tourism: 
A 
Multidisciplinary 
of 
physiological 
and 
psycho-from 
three 
to 
five 
days 
after 
Approach’ 
logical 
relaxation 
effects 
of 
forest 
therapy. 
forest-therapy 
tourism. 


Cvikl 
&Vodeb 
(....) 
‘The 
Use 
of 
forest 
socio-cultural 
Social 
and 
cultural 
benefits 
Forest 
selfness 
as 
a 
tourist 
Potential 
of 
Non-Wood 
values 
as 
natural 
tourism 
of 
forest 
tourism. 
New 
green 
product. 
Products 
for 
Development 
capital 
for 
the 
development 
touristproduct 
– 
ForestSelf-
of 
Forest 
Tourism’ 
of 
forest 
tourism. 
ness. 
Konu 
(....) 
‘Developing 
a 
Forest-Based 
Wellbeing 
Tourism 
Product 
together 
with 
Customers 
– 
An 
Ethnographic 
Approach’ 
Case 
study 
of 
involving 
consumers 
in 
nds 
– 
new 
service 
development 
in 
tourism. 
Developing 
a 
forest-based 
well-being 
tourism 
product. 
Forest 
well-being 
tourism 
definition. 
Konu 
et 
al. 
(....) 
‘Wellbeing 
Tourism 
in 
Finland: 
Finland 
as 
a 
Competitive 
Wellbeing 
Tourism 
Destination’ 
Destination 
product 
features 
of 
the 
Nordic 
countries 
and 
Nordic 
Well-being 
concept. 
Definition 
of 
Nordic 
Wellbeing 
concept. 
Forest 
Nordic 
Well-being 
activity. 


inalmostallstudies,insome 
casestheresultsofphysiological 
tests 
were 
not 
statistically 
significant, 
sample 
sizesweretoosmalland 
therangeof 
exposuretimeto 
the 
forestatmosphere 
was 
verydifferent. 
In 
summary, 
forest-basedinterventionsarebeneficialtothecardiovascular 
system, 
immune 
system, 
and 
mental 
health 
in 
adults 
and 
to 
atopic 
dermatitis 
with 
children. 
To 
be 
able 
todevelopclimaticspaandhealthresortfacilities 
(Dzhabarova 
et 
al., 
2018), 
categorisation 
of 
forest 
for 
health 
promotion 
as 
well 
as 
conceptualisation 
and 
interpretation 
of 
the 
therapeutic 
landscape 
within 
wellness 
tourism 
(Huang 
& 
Xu, 
2018) 
is 
needed 
(Sacchelli 
et 
al., 
2020). 


Thepotentialforserviceprovidersandthetourism 
industry 
in 
Slovenia 
is 
huge 
as 
none 
of 
the 
abovementionedtypesofforesttourismactivityisdeveloped 
or 
systemically 
monitored 
at 
the 
institutional 
level. 
If 
adestinationwantsto 
systematicallydevelopthisspecific 
type 
of 
tourism, 
it 
has 
to 
make 
an 
assessment 
of 
the 
potential 
healing 
forest 
attributes 
and 
determine 
thesufficientinterestofproviderstocertifyforestsand 
develop 
a 
compatible 
destination 
offer. 
In 
addition, 
in 
order 
to 
start 
forest 
therapy 
tourism 
practice 
implementation 
in 
Slovenia, 
it 
is 
necessary 
to 
assure 
plan


ning 
and 
development 
of 
marketing 
activities, 
such 
as 
segmentation 
of 
target 
groups 
of 
tourists. 
Service 
providers 
can 
then 
develop 
products 
for 
a 
new 
innovative 
type 
of 
tourism 
and 
highlight 
the 
special 
characteristics 
and 
comparativeadvantagesof 
this 
specific 
type 
of 
tourism. 
As 
canbe 
seenfrom 
the 
findings, 
the 
use 
of 
forest 
socio-cultural 
values 
as 
the 
natural 
tourism 
capital 
for 
the 
development 
of 
forest 
tourism 
is 
highly 
applicative. 
With 
the 
development 
orientation 
towards 
therapeutic 
forest 
tourism, 
which 
is 
sustainable 
and 
based 
on 
ecoremediation 
principles, 
Slovenia 
can 
gain 
a 
completely 
new 
competitive 
advantage 
in 
the 
tourism 
market. 


Appropriatefundingforfurtherresearchunderthe 
auspices 
of 
the 
state 
institution 
is 
needed 
in 
order 
to 
reachanunderstandingofrelationsbetweenbiodiversity 
and 
health 
(Marselle 
et 
al., 
2021). 


Conclusion 


Based 
on 
the 
results 
of 
the 
review 
of 
literature, 
the 
healing 
and 
beneficial 
effects 
of 
the 
forest 
do 
affect 
people 
in 
a 
positive 
and 
healthy 
way. 
Also, 
the 
connection 
between 
forest 
therapy 
and 
well-being 
activity 
and 
tourism 
is 
evident. 
Medically 
conducted 


38 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Darija 
Cvikl 
Forest 
Therapy 
andWell-Being 
Tourism 
Literature 
Review 


researches 
usually 
measured 
the 
positive 
physiological 
(i.e. 
included 
measuring 
systolic 
blood 
pressure, 
stresshormones,mostoftencortisol,etc.)andpsycho-
logical 
(i.e. 
measuring 
feelings, 
for 
example, 
tension, 
anxiety, 
depression, 
anger, 
stress, 
hostility, 
tiredness, 
and 
confusion) 
effects 
of 
the 
forest 
climate 
on 
general 
well-being 
and 
on 
the 
immune 
system. 
However, 
better-designed 
studies 
with 
appropriate 
parameters 
areneeded.Sufficientexposuretotheforesthealingatmosphere, 
terpene 
concentration, 
microbial 
diversity, 
biodiversity, 
noise 
or 
quiet 
(psychoacoustics), 
light 
conditions, 
forest 
composition, 
and 
climatic 
factors 
should 
be 
included 
in 
studies. 


Slovenia 
provides 
the 
most 
suitable 
environment 
for 
the 
development 
of 
forest 
therapy 
and 
well-being 
tourism 
with 
anti-stress 
practices. 
With 
many 
registered 
cultural 
landscapes 
and 
garden-architectural 
heritage 
units 
for 
recreational 
and 
leisure 
purposes, 
Slovenia 
can 
develop 
a 
unique 
competitive 
advantage 
over 
other 
tourist 
destinations 
and 
countries 
whose 
attractivenessrelieson 
natural 
resources. 
Therefore,it 
wouldalsobe 
reasonable 
todevelop 
forest 
therapeutic 
tourism 
in 
Slovenia 
on 
the 
above-mentionedbasis. 
Practitioners 
should 
be 
involved 
in 
research 
because 
they 
are 
already 
implementing 
some 
good 
practices 
around 
the 
world, 
but 
it 
seems 
they 
are 
not 
aware 
that 
they 
could 
also 
be 
applied 
internationally. 
From 
the 
results 
in 
Table 
1, 
it 
is 
evident 
that 
there 
is 
a 
tourist 
foresttherapeutic 
potential, 
which 
can 
be 
said 
to 
have 
healing, 
therapeutic, 
or 
beneficial 
properties. 


The 
problem, 
associated 
with 
the 
practice 
of 
forest 
therapeutic 
tourism, 
refers 
to 
capturing 
empirical 
knowledge 
and 
horizontal 
integration 
in 
the 
fields 
of 
differentprofessions 
such 
as 
health,tourism, 
environment, 
and 
social 
sciences 
with 
research 
groups 
from 
different 
disciplines 
and 
professions, 
such 
as 
forestry, 
psychology,and 
landscaping. 
It 
can 
be 
concluded 
that 
forest 
therapy 
tourism 
it 
is 
a 
type 
of 
tourism 
which 
is 
in 
demand 
and 
that 
forest-therapeuticand 
well-being 
tourismhaveagreatdevelopmentpotential. 
Thefacilitatedopeningofforesttherapeuticbasesin 
Japanand 
China 
and 
Korea 
reflects 
high 
demand 
for 
therapeutic 
foresttouristproducts 
thatcould 
also 
be 
applied 
in 
Slovenian 
forests. 
By 
orienting 
towards 
the 
development 
of 
forest 
therapy 
and 
well-being 
tourism, 
Slovenia 
could 
achieve 
extreme 
advantages 
in 
comparison 


with 
other 
green 
outdoor 
destinations. 
By 
developing 
forest 
tourist 
infrastructure 
and 
competency 
centres 
for 
the 
verification 
of 
forest 
health 
tourism, 
Slovenia 
could 
become 
a 
leading 
destination 
for 
forest 
therapy 
tourismintheworld.Lastbutnotleast,itisobligatory 
to 
underline, 
in 
order 
to 
preserve 
the 
integrity 
of 
the 
ecosystem 
services, 
that 
forest 
managers 
must 
make 
tourism 
development 
and 
management 
an 
important 
part 
of 
their 
work. 


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review 
of 
the 
literature. 
Environmental 
Health 
and 
Preventive 
Medicine, 
25(1), 
23. 
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12199-02000856-
7 


Zakonogozdovih(zg).(1993).UradnilistRepublikeSlovenije,(
30).https://www.uradni-list.si/1/objava.jsp?sop=199301-
1299 


Zhao, 
J., 
& 
An, 
Y. 
(2021). 
Behavioural 
intention 
of 
forest 
therapy 
tourism 
in 
China: 
Based 
on 
health 
belief 
model 
and 
the 
theory 
of 
planned 
behaviour. 
Current 
Issues 
in 
Tourism, 
24, 
3425–3432. 


Academica 
Turistica,Year15, 
No.1,April 
2022 
|41 



Original 
Scientific 
Article 


Evaluating 
the 
Direct 
and 
Indirect 
Impacts 
of 
Tourism 
on 
the 
Health 
of 
Local 
Communities 


Maksim 
Godovykh 


University 
of 
Central 
Florida, 
usa 
maksim.godovykh@ucf.edu 


Alan 
Fyall 


University 
of 
Central 
Florida, 
usa 
alan.fyall@ucf.edu 


Abraham 
Pizam 


University 
of 
Central 
Florida, 
usa 
abraham.pizam@ucf.edu 


Jorge 
Ridderstaat 


University 
of 
Central 
Florida, 
usa 
jorge.ridderstaat@ucf.edu 


Tourismbringswithitbothpositiveandnegativehealthimpactsonlocalcommunities. 
Although 
the 
topic 
of 
health 
in 
tourism 
is 
traditionallyassociated 
with 
tourists’ 
health, 
there 
are 
potential 
opportunities 
to 
study 
the 
influence 
of 
tourism 
on 
residents’ 
health 
as 
well. 
This 
study 
aims 
at 
exploring 
the 
direct 
and 
indirect 
effects 
of 
tourism 
development 
on 
residents’ 
health 
through 
income 
and 
environmental 
pollution 
in 
the 
case 
of 
several 
European 
countries. 
The 
long-term 
and 
short-term 
relationships 
among 
tourism 
arrivals, 
emissions, 
residents’ 
income, 
and 
health 
were 
estimatedusingageneralizedleastsquares(gls)approach.Theresultsdemonstrate 
that 
tourism 
arrivals 
bring 
significant 
short-term 
and 
long-term 
impacts 
on 
residents’ 
health 
directly 
andindirectlythroughenvironmentalpollutionandresidents’ 
income. 
Several 
important 
theoretical 
and 
practical 
implications 
are 
related 
to 
con-
sideringthelong-termhealthimpactsasmoreimportantoutcomesoftourismdevelopmentandprovidingrecommendationsfordestinationmanagementorganizations 
and 
governmentalauthorities. 


Keywords: 
tourism, 
impacts, 
health, 
well-being, 
income, 
emissions 
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.15.43-52 


Introduction 
opportunities,investments,andlowerlevelsofpoverty 
Tourism 
brings 
with 
it 
both 
positive 
and 
negative 
im-(Johnson 
et 
al., 
1994; 
Seetanah, 
2011). 
pacts 
on 
tourist 
destinations. 
The 
traditionally 
de-However, 
the 
negativeimpacts 
areassociated 
with 
scribed 
domains 
of 
tourism 
impacts 
are 
economic, 
an 
increase 
in 
the 
cost 
of 
living, 
chronic 
stress, 
higher 
socio-cultural,andenvironmentaldimensions(Sharp-pricesofgoodsandservices,dependenceonseasonley, 
2018; 
Woo 
et 
al., 
2018). 
The 
economic 
impacts 
of 
ality, 
and 
economic 
inequality, 
as 
well 
as 
the 
socio-
tourism 
include 
higher 
revenues, 
new 
employment 
cultural 
and 
environmental 
costs 
of 
tourism 
develop-

Academica 
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15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|43 



Maksim 
Godovykh 
et 
al. 
Evaluating 
the 
Direct 
and 
Indirect 
Impacts 
of 
Tourism 


ment 
(Postma 
& 
Schmuecker,2017; 
Uysal 
et 
al., 
2016). 


At 
thesametime, 
themainvaluesinhuman 
life 
are 
described 
as 
health 
and 
well-being 
rather 
than 
income 
or 
welfare 
(Bowling, 
1995). 
The 
topic 
of 
health 
in 
tourism 
is 
traditionally 
associated 
with 
medical 
tourism 
experiences 
(Connell, 
2006). 
However, 
there 
arepotentialdirectandindirectavenuesofresearchon 
theeffectsoftourismonresidents’health.Tourismcan 
positively 
impact 
the 
health 
of 
local 
citizens 
through 
better 
access 
to 
medical 
services 
or 
better 
food, 
while 
thetransmissionofdiseasesfromtouriststoresidents, 
road 
accidents, 
poor 
working 
environments,or 
pollution 
brings 
about 
negative 
effects 
on 
local 
communities 
(Bauer, 
2008; 
Postma 
& 
Schmuecker, 
2017). 


Residents’ 
health 
can 
be 
also 
impacted 
by 
positive 
experiences, 
novelty, 
and 
social 
interactions 
with 
tourists, 
which 
also 
demands 
empirical 
attention 
in 
tourism 
research. 
Several 
studies 
in 
positive 
psychology 
and 
neuroscience 
suggest 
that 
positive 
emotions 
influence 
blood 
pressure 
and 
vagal 
tone, 
decrease 
the 
levelsofbloodsugar,andincreaselongevity(Fredrick-
sonetal.,2008). 
Atthesametime,theemotionalcomponents 
of 
tourism 
experiences 
are 
widely 
described 
in 
the 
previous 
tourism 
literature 
(e.g. 
Hosany 
et 
al., 
2015; 
Godovykh 
& 
Tasci, 
2020a; 
2020b). 
As 
tourism 
activities 
are 
inseparably 
connected 
with 
providing 
positive 
experiences 
and 
interaction 
between 
tourists 
and 
residents, 
tourism 
may 
bring 
better 
health 
and 
well-being 
outcomes 
for 
both 
tourists 
and 
residents. 


The 
effects 
of 
tourism 
development 
on 
residents’ 
health 
might 
have 
different 
valence 
and 
power 
in 
in 
the 
short 
and 
long 
run 
(Godovykh 
& 
Ridderstaat, 
2020). 
Although 
the 
short-term 
impacts 
may 
be 
associated 
with 
spreading 
viruses 
or 
increasing 
stress 
levels 
of 
local 
people, 
the 
long-term 
effects 
might 
be 
attributed 
to 
psychological, 
social, 
and 
physical 
re-
sourcesassociatedwithsocial 
interactions, 
novelty, 
and 
positive 
emotions 
(Fredrickson 
& 
Joiner, 
2018). 
This 
study 
aims 
at 
exploring 
the 
direct 
and 
indirect 
effects 
of 
tourism 
development 
on 
residents’ 
health 
through 
income 
and 
environmental 
pollution 
in 
the 
case 
of 
several 
European 
countries. 
Several 
importanttheoreticalandpracticalimplicationsofthestudy 
are 
related 
to 
determining 
the 
balance 
between 
the 
negative 
short-term 
impacts 
and 
positive 
long-term 


impacts 
of 
tourism 
development 
on 
residents’ 
health, 
consideringthelong-termhealthimpactsasmoreimportant 
outcomes 
of 
tourism 
development, 
and 
pro-
vidingrecommendationsfordestinationmanagement 
organizations 
and 
governmental 
authorities 
on 
developingnewprogrammesandpoliciesaimedatimproving 
the 
health 
and 
well-being 
of 
local 
communities. 


Literature 
Review 


Indirect 
Health 
Impacts 
of 
Tourism 


The 
health 
impacts 
of 
tourism 
can 
be 
associated 
with 
residents’ 
income 
and 
environmental 
concerns. 
On 
the 
one 
hand, 
increased 
revenues 
allow 
local 
peopleto 
afford 
medical 
careand 
better 
food 
(Bauer, 
2008). 
Tourismis 
traditionallydescribed 
asacontributor 
to 
Gross 
Domestic 
Product 
(gdp) 
that 
generates 
revenues, 
creates 
new 
employment 
opportunities, 
attracts 
investments, 
and 
reduces 
poverty 
(Sharpley 
& 
Telfer, 
2015). 
The 
traditionally 
applied 
evaluations 
of 
tourism 
economic 
impacts 
are 
collected 
from 
border 
statistics 
and 
tourist 
accommodation 
establishments 
for 
the 
number 
of 
tourist 
arrivals 
and 
expenditures. 
The 
secondary 
data 
on 
tourist 
arrivals, 
departures, 
nightsspent,expenditures,receipts,employment,and 
other 
indicators 
of 
tourism 
statistics 
can 
be 
collected 
fromtheUnitedNationsWorldTourismOrganization 
(unwto, 
2020), 
the 
World 
Bank 
Development 
Indi-
cators,1 
and 
oecdtourism 
statistics,2 
as 
well 
as 
from 
national 
tourism 
offices 
and 
other 
sources. 


The 
most 
widely 
applied 
measure 
of 
residents’ 
income 
is 
gross 
domestic 
product 
(gdp), 
which 
includes 
consumption 
expenditures, 
gross 
investment, 
and 
government 
spending. 
The 
annual 
residents’ 
income 
can 
be 
measured 
by 
gdp 
per 
capita 
from 
the 
World 
Bank 
Indicators 
and 
national 
statistics. 
The 
direct, 
indirect, 
and 
induced 
effects 
of 
tourism 
can 
be 
analysed 
by 
using 
Input-Output 
analysis 
and 
Tourism 
Satellite 
Account 
statistics 
based 
on 
all 
goods 
and 
services 
consumed 
by 
tourists 
(Baggio, 
2019). 
The 
economic 
impacts 
of 
tourism 
also 
include 
employment, 
whichcan 
be 
evaluatedbythe 
number 
of 
jobs 
in 
tourism 
or 
full-time 
equivalent 
employment. 
The 
pri


1https://data.worldbank.org 
2https://www.oecd.org/cfe/tourism/tourism-statistics.htm. 


44 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Maksim 
Godovykh 
et 
al. 
Evaluating 
the 
Direct 
and 
Indirect 
Impacts 
of 
Tourism 


marydatacollectioncanalsoincludesurveyquestions 
about 
residents’ 
income, 
as 
well 
as 
perceived 
positive 
and 
negative 
economic 
benefits 
from 
tourism. 


At 
thesametime, 
theincreased 
usage 
ofdesti-
nation 
resources 
brings 
negative 
environmental 
impacts 
that 
also 
influence 
residents’ 
health. 
The 
environmental 
outcomes 
include 
air 
pollution, 
wildlife 
destruction, 
water 
pollution, 
plant 
destruction, 
etc. 
(Andereck, 
1995; 
Postma 
& 
Schmuecker, 
2017). 
These 
environmental 
impacts 
of 
tourism 
can 
be 
quantitatively 
assessed 
through 
the 
data 
on 
greenhouse 
gas 
emissions, 
pm 
2.5 
pollution, 
air 
quality 
indexes, 
ecological 
footprint, 
human-wildlife 
conflict 
monitoring, 
landmanagementmetrics,andavarietyofothertechniques 
(Mikayilov 
et 
al., 
2019). 


Direct 
Health 
Impacts 
of 
Tourism 


Negative 
health 
impacts 
of 
tourism 
are 
mostly 
associated 
with 
the 
transmission 
of 
diseases 
from 
tourists 
to 
residents. 
The 
recent 
situation 
with 
the 
covid-19 
pandemic 
demonstrated 
the 
potentially 
harmful 
impacts 
of 
tourism 
on 
residents’ 
health. 
Other 
health 
risksforlocalcommunitiesfromtourismincluderoad 
accidents, 
poor 
working 
environments, 
substance 
use 
disorders,andotherphysicalhealthconditions(Bauer, 
2008;Doocyetal.2007;Godovykhetal.,2021;Walker 
&Page, 
2004). 


Atthesametime,humanhealthhasadynamicnature 
affected 
by 
the 
mix 
of 
biological, 
social, 
and 
psychological 
factors 
(George 
& 
Engel, 
1980; 
Sarafino 
& 
Smith, 
2014). 
Among 
the 
main 
psychological 
factors 
are 
social 
skills, 
family 
relationships, 
mental 
health 
state, 
self-esteem, 
etc., 
while 
social 
factors 
are 
related 
to 
social 
interactions 
with 
family 
members, 
peers, 
and 
other 
people 
(Bolton 
& 
Gillett, 
2019; 
Lehman 
et 
al., 
2017). 
The 
positive 
role 
of 
psychological 
factors 
affecting 
health 
can 
be 
also 
conceptualized 
within 
the 
broaden-and-build 
theory 
of 
positive 
emotions 
(Fredrickson,2001;Fredrickson&Joiner,2018).Based 
on 
the 
broaden-and-build 
theory, 
positive 
emotions 
bring 
physical, 
psychological, 
intellectual, 
and 
social 
resources 
that 
increase 
people’s 
well-being 
and 
contribute 
tohealthby 
regulating 
the 
levels 
of 
hormones, 
reducing 
autonomic 
nervous 
system 
activity, 
fostering 
immune 
responses, 
and 
eliminating 
negative 
out


comes 
of 
stress. 
Tourism 
activities 
are 
connected 
with 
positive 
experiences 
and 
interaction 
between 
tourists 
and 
residents. 
Therefore, 
tourism 
may 
bring 
better 
health 
outcomes 
for 
residents 
through 
positive 
emo-
tions,novelty,andsocialinteractionswithnewpeople. 
Considering 
the 
previously 
discussed 
health 
impacts 
of 
tourism 
on 
local 
communities 
together 
with 
the 
potential 
effects 
of 
psychological 
factors 
on 
residents’ 
health, 
thisstudy 
suggeststhat 
the 
number 
of 
tourism 
arrivals 
influences 
residents’ 
health 
directly 
and 
indirectly 
through 
environmental 
pollution 
and 
residents’ 
income. 


Methodology 


The 
study 
used 
data 
on 
national 
tourism 
arrivals, 
income, 
co2 
emissions, 
well-being, 
and 
health 
in 
three 
neighbouring 
countries, 
Slovenia, 
Croatia, 
and 
Hun-
gary,whicharemembercountriesofthe 
eu 
andhave 
common 
borders. 
The 
panel 
data 
on 
national 
tourism 
statistics, 
arrivals, 
income, 
co2 
emissions,well-being, 
andhealthwereusedinthestudy.Thedataontourism 
arrivals, 
departures, 
and 
receipts 
were 
obtained 
from 
theUnitedNationsWorldTourismOrganization(unwto, 
2020). 
Tourism 
arrivals 
are 
the 
number 
of 
touristswhotraveloutsidetheirusualcountryofresidence, 
for 
business, 
leisure, 
or 
other 
personal 
purposes, 
for 
less 
than 
12 
months 
for 
a 
purpose 
not 
related 
to 
em-
ployment(unwto,2010). 
Tourismdeparturesarethe 
number 
of 
departures 
people 
make 
from 
their 
countryofresidencetoanyothercountryforapurposenot 
related 
to 
earning 
money. 


ThedataonincomewerecollectedfromtheWorld 
Bank 
indicators 
in 
the 
form 
of 
gdp 
per 
capita. 
gdp 
per 
capita 
is 
the 
gross 
domestic 
product 
or 
a 
sum 
of 
gross 
value 
added 
by 
all 
a 
country’s 
residents, 
divided 
bythecountry’spopulation. 
The 
gdp 
percapitaisoftenapplied 
as 
a 
proxy 
forincome. 
The 
dataonco2 
emissions, 
which 
include 
carbon 
dioxide 
produced 
during 
consumption 
of 
liquid, 
solid, 
and 
gas 
fuelsand 
gas 
flaring, 
were 
collected 
from 
the 
World 
Bank 
indicators. 
The 
data 
on 
residents’ 
wellbeing 
were 
collected 
from 
the 
World 
Happiness 
Report 
(Helliwell 
et 
al., 
2021) 
that 
uses 
data 
from 
the 
Gallup 
World 
Poll. 
The 
data 
on 
health 
was 
represented 
as 
the 
life 
expectancy 
at 
birth, 
which 
is 
considered 
an 
impor-

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15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|45 



Maksim 
Godovykh 
et 
al. 
Evaluating 
the 
Direct 
and 
Indirect 
Impacts 
of 
Tourism 


tant 
indicator 
of 
health 
status 
on 
a 
national 
level. 


The 
data 
analysis 
consisted 
of 
several 
phases. 
The 
initial 
phase 
of 
the 
study 
provides 
descriptive 
statisticsofthecollecteddata. 
Thedatawerealsovisualized 
by 
using 
line 
charts 
and 
gis 
maps. 
Descriptive 
statistics 
and 
data 
visualization 
helped 
in 
understanding 
data 
trends 
and 
to 
conduct 
comparisons 
at 
different 
timepoints. 
In 
thesecondphase,theapplied 
variables 
were 
decomposed 
into 
trend 
and 
cycle 
components 
by 
using 
the 
Christiano-Fitzgerald 
filter 
(Christiano 
& 
Fitzgerald, 
2003). 
The 
logarithm 
transformation 
was 
used 
to 
control 
for 
data 
skewness 
and 
narrow 
the 
rangeofthedata.Inthethirdphase,thevariableswere 
tested 
for 
stationarity 
by 
using 
unit 
root 
tests. 
The 
final 
phase 
of 
data 
analysis 
applies 
a 
generalized 
least 
squares 
(gls) 
approach 
to 
estimate 
a 
set 
of 
structural 
equationssincethe 
gls 
estimatorisconsideredmore 
efficient 
than 
the 
ordinary 
least 
squares 
in 
the 
case 
of 
heteroscedasticity, 
aswellasserialand 
cross-sectional 
correlations(Bai 
et 
al., 
2021).The 
estimatedequations 
can 
be 
indicated 
as 
follows: 


healthit 
= 
a1 
× 
arrivalsit 


+ 
a2 
× 
emissionsit 
+ 
a3 
× 
incomeit 
+ 
e1it 
(1) 
emissionsit 
= 
a4 
× 
arrivalsit 
+ 
e2it 
(2) 
incomeit 
= 
a5 
× 
arrivalsit 
+ 
e3it, 
(3) 


where 
i 
=cross-section, 
t 
=time, 
a 
=coefficient, 
and 
e 
= 
error 
term. 


Results 


The 
recent 
data 
on 
tourism 
arrivals, 
departures, 
income,
health,andwell-beingforSlovenia,Croatia,and 
Hungaryin2018areprovidedinFigure1.Hungaryand 
Croatia 
demonstrate 
the 
highest 
numbers 
of 
international 
tourism 
arrivals 
(57.67 
million 
visitors 
in 
2018). 
The 
biggest 
number 
of 
international 
tourism 
departures 
is 
in 
Hungary(22.81 
million 
departuresin 
2018). 
At 
thesametime, 
Slovenia 
showsthe 
highestlevelsof 
gdp 
per 
capita 
(26,116 
usd), 
happiness 
score 
(6.25), 
and 
average 
life 
expectancy 
(81.4 
years). 


The 
graphical 
representation 
of 
the 
standardized 
panel 
data 
for 
1995–2019 
is 
shown 
in 
Figures 
2–4. 
The 
charts 
generally 
show 
increasing 
trends 
for 
tourism 


Figure1TourismArrivals,Departures,Income,Health,
andWell-BeinginSlovenia,Croatia,
andHungary


Figure 
2 
Tourism 
Arrivals, 
Health, 
Emissions, 
andIncomeinSlovenia 
in1995–2019 


arrivals 
in 
1995–2019. 
The 
level 
of 
health 
in 
Slovenia, 
Croatia, 
and 
Hungary 
is 
constantly 
growing 
between 
1995–2019. 
The 
level 
of 
income 
demonstrates 
an 
increasing 
linear 
trend 
in 
1995–2007 
with 
fluctuations 
after 
2007, 
which 
can 
be 
explained 
by 
the 
consequences 
of 
the 
economic 
and 
financial 
crisis. 
The 
levelsof 
co2 
emissionshavebeendecreasinginHungary 
from 
2004 
and 
in 
Slovenia 
and 
Croatia 
from 
2008, 
which 
can 
be 
associated 
with 
the 
eu 
legislation 
to 
reduce 
greenhouse 
gas 
emissions. 


The 
data 
were 
transformed 
into 
logarithms, 
and 
the 
Christiano-Fitzgerald 
decomposition 
approach 
was 
applied 
to 
estimate 
the 
trend 
and 
cyclical 
components 
of 
tourism 
arrivals, 
income, 
emissions, 
and 
health. 
The 
trend 
and 
cycle 
components 
for 
health, 
arrivals, 
emissions, 
and 
income 
in 
Slovenia, 
Croatia, 
and 
Hungary 
are 
presented 
in 
Figures 
5–8 
(pp. 
4849). 
While 
residents’ 
health 
and 
income, 
and 
tourist 


46 
| 
Academica 
Turistica,Year15, 
No.1,April 
2022 



Maksim 
Godovykh 
et 
al. 
Evaluating 
the 
Direct 
and 
Indirect 
Impacts 
of 
Tourism 


Figure3TourismArrivals,Health,Emissions,
andIncomeinCroatiain1995–2019


Figure 
4 
Tourism 
Arrivals, 
Health, 
Emissions, 
and 
Income 
in 
Hungary 
in 
1995–2019 


arrivalsshowed 
anincreasingpatternin 
the 
discussed 
timeframe(withvaryingcycledistributions),thetrend 
of 
co2 
emissionsshowedadecreasinglong-termshape, 
indicating 
that 
the 
co2 
releases 
were 
gradually 
reducing. 


The 
study 
applied 
the 
cross-sectional 
dependency 
(cd) 
test 
to 
evaluate 
the 
level 
of 
correlation 
of 
the 
units 
in 
the 
same 
cross-sections 
(Pesaran, 
2021). 
The 
test 
results 
provide 
enough 
evidence 
to 
reject 
the 
null 
hypothesis 
of 
the 
lack 
of 
cross-sectional 
dependence 
(Table 
1). 
The 
cross-sectional 
dependence 
means 
that 
units 
in 
the 
same 
cross-section 
are 
correlated, 
which 
can 
be 
caused 
by 
the 
effects 
of 
some 
unobserved 
factors 
common 
to 
all 
units, 
such 
as 
an 
economic 
or 
financial 
crisis. 
The 
literature 
suggests 
that 
the 
data 
should 
be 
demeaned 
to 
controlfor 
cross-sectional 
de-

Table 
1 
Test 
for 
Cross-Sectional 
Dependence 


Long-Run 
(trend) 
Short-Run 
(cycles) 


Arrivals 
....*** 
.... 
Income 
....*** 
....*** 
Emissions 
....*** 
....*** 
Health 
....*** 
.... 


Notes 
Underthenullhypothesisofcross-sectionindependence. 
The 
symbol 
*** 
indicates 
the 
1. 
significance 
level. 


pendence 
in 
the 
case 
of 
correlation 
across 
the 
panel 
(De 
Hoyos 
& 
Sarafidis, 
2006). 


The 
variables 
were 
tested 
for 
stationarity 
using 
both 
the 
Levin-Lin-Chu 
and 
the 
Harris-Tzavalis 
tests 
(Tables 
2 
and 
3 
on 
p. 
49). 
The 
null 
hypothesis 
in 
both 
testsis 
thatall 
thepanelscontain 
a 
unit 
root. 
Taking 
into 
account 
the 
cross-sectional 
dependency, 
the 
data 
were 
initially 
corrected 
for 
their 
cross-sectional 
mean 
in 
order 
to 
control 
for 
correlation 
(Levin 
et 
al., 
2002). 
The 
results 
demonstrate 
that 
all 
variables 
are 
stationary 
at 
the 
level 
forms, 
which 
means 
that 
they 
have 
a 
constant 
mean, 
variance, 
and 
covariance. 
Therefore, 
the 
study 
used 
the 
level 
forms 
of 
the 
variables 
for 
further 
analysis. 


The 
study 
estimatedthe 
long-term 
and 
short-term 
relationship 
among 
tourism 
arrivals, 
emissions, 
residents’ 
income, 
and 
health 
using 
a 
generalized 
least 
squares 
(gls) 
approach. 
The 
gls 
estimator 
is 
considered 
more 
efficient 
than 
the 
ordinary 
least 
squares 
in 
the 
case 
of 
heteroscedasticity 
and 
cross-sectional 
correlations 
(Bai 
et 
al., 
2021). 
The 
generalized 
least 
squares 
approach’s 
resultsaredemonstratedin 
Table 
4 
(p. 
49). 


Theresultsshowthattourismnegativelyinfluences 
residents’ 
healthin 
theshortterm. 
Morespecifically, 
a 
1. 
growth 
in 
tourism 
arrivals 
negatively 
impacts 
residents’ 
health 
by 
0.28.. 
At 
the 
same 
time, 
tourism 
arrivals, 
emissions, 
and 
residents’ 
income 
significantly 
influence 
the 
health 
of 
local 
people 
in 
the 
long 
run. 
A 
1.growthintourismarrivalsleadstoa0.19.increase 
inresidents’ 
health,whilea1.growthincreaseinresidents’incomehasa0.76
.increaseinhealth.However, 
emissionshavenegativelong-termeffectsonhealth.A 
1. 
growth 
in 
emissions 
leads 
to 
a 
0.77. 
decrease 
in 
residents’ 
health. 


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al. 
Evaluating 
the 
Direct 
and 
Indirect 
Impacts 
of 
Tourism 


Figure 
5 


Trend 
and 
Cycle 
Components 
of 
Residents’ 
Health 


Figure 
6 


Trend 
and 
Cycle 
Components 
of 
Tourism 
Arrivals 



Figure 
7 


Trend 
and 
Cycle 
Components 
of 
co2 
Emissions 


In 
addition 
to 
the 
direct 
impacts 
of 
tourism 
arrivals 
on 
residents’ 
health, 
the 
study 
revealed 
significant 
relationships 
between 
tourism 
arrivals 
and 
co2 
emissions, 
as 
well 
as 
between 
tourism 
arrivals 
and 
residents’ 
income. 
A 
1. 
growth 
in 
tourism 
arrivals 
leadstoa0.39.increasein 
co2 
emissionsintheshort 
term 
and 
a 
0.29. 
increase 
in 
co2 
emissions 
in 
the 
long 
term. 
At 
the 
same 
time, 
tourism 
arrivals 
have 
not 
demonstrated 
significant 
short-term 
impacts 
on 


residents’ 
income 
but 
showed 
significant 
impacts 
on 
income 
in 
the 
long 
term. 
A 
1. 
increase 
in 
tourists’ 
arrivalsleadstoa 
0.50. 
increasein 
residents’ 
income 
in 
the 
long 
run. 


Discussion 


The 
results 
indicate 
that 
tourism 
brings 
both 
short-
run 
and 
long-run 
impacts 
on 
residents’ 
health. 
The 
study 
found 
that 
tourism 
development 
negatively 
in


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Maksim 
Godovykh 
et 
al. 
Evaluating 
the 
Direct 
and 
Indirect 
Impacts 
of 
Tourism 


Figure8TrendandCycleComponentsofResidents’Income
Table 
2 
Stationarity 
Test 
Results 
for 
Trend 
Components 


Item 
llc 
ht 
Integration 
Level 
First 
difference 
Level 
First 
difference 


Arrivals 
–......*** 
–.....*** 
...... 
–.......*** 
I(.) 
or 
I(.) 
Income 
–......*** 
....... 
...... 
–.......*** 
I(.) 
Emissions 
–......*** 
...... 
–......* 
–.......*** 
I(.) 
or 
I(.) 
Health 
–......*** 
....... 
–......*** 
–.......*** 
I(.) 
or 
I(.) 


Table 
3 
Stationarity 
Test 
Results 
for 
Cyclical 
Components 


Item 
llc 
ht 
Integration 
Level 
First 
difference 
Level 
First 
difference 


Arrivals 
–.......*** 
–......*** 
–...... 
–...... 
I(.) 
or 
I(.) 
Income 
–......*** 
–.......*** 
...... 
–...... 
I(.) 
or 
I(.) 
Emissions 
–.......** 
–.......*** 
...... 
...... 
I(.) 
or 
I(.) 
Health 
–.......*** 
–.......*** 
–...... 
–....... 
I(.) 
or 
I(.) 


Table 
4 
The 
Influence 
of 
Tourism 
Arrivals 
on 
Health 


Item 
Health 
Income 
Emissions 
Long-term 
Short-term 
Long-term 
Short-term 
Long-term 
Short-term 


Arrivals 
......*** 
–......** 
......** 
–...... 
......* 
......*** 
Income 
......*** 
–...... 
Emissions 
–......*** 
...... 


Notes 
The 
symbols 
***, 
**, 
and 
* 
indicate 
the 
1., 
5., 
and 
10. 
significance 
levels. 


fluencesresidents’healthintheshortrunandhaspos-idents’ 
negative 
feelings 
and 
stress 
from 
overcrowd-
itiveimpactsinthelongrun.Theseshort-termresults 
ing, 
noise, 
environmental 
pollution, 
traffic 
conges-
are 
consistent 
with 
the 
previous 
studies 
by 
Godovykh 
tion, 
crime 
rates, 
etc. 
The 
recent 
situation 
with 
the 
and 
Ridderstaat 
(2020) 
and 
can 
be 
explained 
by 
res-covid-19 
pandemic 
also 
demonstrates 
that 
tourism 


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Godovykh 
et 
al. 
Evaluating 
the 
Direct 
and 
Indirect 
Impacts 
of 
Tourism 


mobilityisassociatedwiththespreadingofdisease.At 
the 
same 
time, 
the 
long-term 
positive 
health 
effects 
of 
tourismcanberelatedtopositiveexperiencesreceived 
by 
residents 
and 
the 
social 
interactions 
between 
residents 
and 
visitors 
(Chida 
& 
Steptoe, 
2008; 
O’Connor 
& 
Gartland, 
2019). 


In 
addition 
to 
the 
direct 
effects 
of 
tourism 
arrivals 
on 
residents’ 
health, 
tourism 
may 
haveindirect 
effects 
on 
the 
health 
of 
local 
people 
through 
environmental 
and 
economic 
impacts. 
The 
study 
found 
significant 
relationships 
between 
tourism 
arrivals 
and 
co2 
emissions,aswellasbetweentourismarrivalsandresidents’ 
income. 
The 
influence 
of 
tourism 
arrivals 
on 
carbon 
dioxide 
emissions 
can 
be 
explained 
by 
the 
in-
tensetransportationandincreaseddemandforenergy 
fromhotels,restaurants,andtouristattractions(Katircioglu 
et 
al., 
2014; 
Paramati 
et 
al., 
2017). 
The 
effects 
of 
tourism 
arrivalson 
residents’ 
income 
are 
consistent 
withthepreviousstudiesthatdescribethedirect,indirect, 
and 
induced 
economic 
impactsof 
tourismon 
lo-
caleconomies(e.g.Eeckelsetal.,2012;Chatziantoniou 
et 
al., 
2013; 
Qin 
et 
al., 
2018). 
Tourism 
brings 
new 
jobs, 
attractsinvestments,increasestaxrevenues,etc.which 
positively 
affects 
the 
welfare 
of 
local 
people 
(Comerio 
& 
Strozzi, 
2019). 


Theseresultsbringimportanttheoretical,methodological, 
and 
managerial 
implications. 
The 
recent 
situation 
with 
the 
new 
coronavirus 
disease 
reveals 
the 
negative 
health 
outcomes 
of 
tourism, 
while 
there 
are 
potential 
long-term 
benefits 
of 
tourism 
development 
for 
public 
health. 
Destination 
stakeholders 
should 
analyse 
the 
effects 
of 
tourism 
development 
on 
residents’ 
health 
and 
develop 
new 
programmes 
and 
policies 
aimed 
at 
improving 
the 
health 
and 
well-being 
of 
local 
communities. 
The 
balance 
between 
the 
negative 
short-term 
impacts 
and 
positive 
long-term 
impacts 
of 
tourism 
development 
on 
residents’ 
health 
can 
be 
determined 
to 
develop 
strategic 
plans 
for 
destination 
development. 
However, 
long-term 
health 
outcomes 
that 
are 
different 
from 
short-term 
impacts 
should 
be 
considered 
as 
more 
important 
effects 
of 
tourism 
and 
be 
taken 
into 
account 
by 
tourism 
statistics, 
tourism 
bodies, 
and 
destination 
management 
organizations. 
Theproposedmethodsand 
modelswillalso 
beuseful 
inincreasingtheresilienceandsustainabilityoftourist 


destinationsandallowcommunitydecision-makersto 
model 
and 
pretest 
sustainable 
interventions 
and 
policiesduringandafterthe 
covid-19outbreak.Thecur-
rent 
pandemic 
situation 
makes 
it 
possible 
to 
explore 
the 
impacts 
of 
tourism 
progressivelyat 
differentlevels 
of 
tourism 
development 
as 
tourism 
destinations 
will 
reopen 
and 
attract 
more 
visitors. 
The 
optimal 
level 
of 
tourism 
development 
for 
each 
type 
of 
destination 
can 
be 
determined 
based 
on 
the 
maximum 
positive 
impacts 
on 
residents’ 
quality 
of 
life, 
health, 
and 
wellbeing. 


Exploring 
both 
the 
long-term 
and 
short-term 
impactsoftourismmakesitpossibletobetterunderstand 
the 
impacts 
of 
tourism 
in 
comparison 
with 
considering 
undecomposed 
results. 
The 
decomposed 
trend 
and 
cycle 
components 
represent 
the 
long-term 
and 
short-term 
behaviour 
of 
the 
data 
on 
tourism 
arrivals, 
co2 
emissions, 
income, 
and 
health. 
The 
tourist 
destinations’ 
characteristics, 
tourist 
density 
and 
intensity, 
growth 
rate, 
tourism 
contribution 
to 
gdp, 
the 
intensity 
of 
transportation, 
etc. 
can 
also 
be 
included 
in 
the 
proposed 
models. 
In 
addition 
to 
measuring 
destination 
community 
residents’ 
outcomes, 
tracking 
techniquescanbepretestedtoreceiveinformationonvisitors’behaviourbasedongeopositioningdata,
geolocation 
devices, 
geo-referenced 
photos, 
and 
the 
analysis 
of 
specific 
sites 
in 
a 
tourist 
destination 
(Padrón-Ávila 
&Hernández-Martín,2020).Thenewcompositemetrics 
of 
tourism 
impacts 
on 
residents’ 
health 
and 
wellbeing 
can 
be 
developed 
based 
on 
the 
secondary 
data 
fromthenational,regional,andlocalstatisticsandprimarydatacollectedfromresidents’ 
surveysandsocial 
media 
analytics. 


The 
selection 
ofindependentvariablescanbe 
considered 
as 
a 
limitation 
of 
the 
study 
as 
it 
was 
limited 
by 
the 
availability 
of 
data. 
First 
of 
all, 
the 
average 
life 
expectancy 
does 
not 
represent 
the 
whole 
spectrum 
of 
health 
evaluations, 
including 
its 
physical, 
mental, 
so-
cial,andwell-beingcomponents.Futurestudiesofresidents’ 
health 
might 
include 
subjective, 
self-reported 
evaluations 
of 
residents’ 
general 
health, 
physical 
distress, 
and 
mental 
distress, 
as 
well 
as 
additional 
psychophysiologicalandpsychosocialindicators.
Second, 
the 
gdp 
index 
as 
a 
measure 
of 
income 
can 
be 
influenced 
by 
government 
policies, 
unemployment 
levels, 


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Godovykh 
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al. 
Evaluating 
the 
Direct 
and 
Indirect 
Impacts 
of 
Tourism 


inflation, 
and 
other 
causes 
(Aitken, 
2019). 
Therefore, 
the 
distribution 
of 
income 
can 
also 
be 
taken 
into 
account 
in 
the 
case 
of 
the 
availability 
of 
the 
data. 
Third, 
future 
studies 
can 
also 
investigate 
the 
effects 
of 
additional 
determinants 
of 
residents’ 
health, 
including 
access 
to 
health 
services, 
governmental 
policies, 
and 
residents’ 
healthy 
behaviours. 
It 
will 
also 
be 
useful 
to 
apply 
subjective 
self-reported 
indicators 
of 
residents’ 
healthandincomebyconductingsurveysoflocalpeople. 
Additionally, 
similar 
studies 
should 
be 
conducted 
in 
different 
countries 
and 
tourism 
destinations 
to 
explore 
the 
effects 
of 
destination 
types 
and 
cultural 
dimensions. 


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56(6), 
712–724. 


Pesaran, 
M. 
H. 
(2021). 
General 
diagnostic 
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panels. 
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Postma, 
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Schmuecker, 
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(2018). 
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(2015). 
Tourism 
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52 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Original 
Scientific 
Article 


Wellness 
Tourism 
Research: 
Bibliometric 
Study 
of 
the 
Scientific 
Field 


Milica 
Rancic 
Demir 


University 
of 
Maribor, 
Slovenia 
milica.rancic1@um.si 


Mila 
Zecevic 


University 
of 
Ljubljana, 
Slovenia 
mila.zecevic@ef.uni-lj.si 


Thepaperpresentstheresultsofabibliometricanalysisofacademicresearchcoveringthefieldofwellnesstourism.
Thepurposeofthearticleistoidentifythestructure 
of 
relationshipsbetweentopics 
that 
werecurrentin 
thepastand 
topics 
thatarecur-
rent 
now. 
The 
aim 
of 
the 
research 
was 
to 
better 
understand 
the 
development 
of 
the 
fieldofwellnesstourism,importantconstructs,authors,andresourceswiththehelp 
of 
bibliometric 
methods. 
For 
detailed 
research 
of 
the 
field 
of 
literature 
on 
wellness 
tourism, 
some 
two 
set 
bibliometric 
strategies 
were 
used: 
co-citation 
and 
keyword 
co-occurrence. 
In 
our 
bibliometric 
mapping 
of 
the 
wellness 
tourism 
research 
field, 
we 
have 
investigated 
the 
scientific 
production 
of 
articles 
over 
the 
years, 
the 
most 
important 
journals 
in 
the 
field, 
and 
keyword 
co-occurrence 
patterns. 
The 
obtained 
results 
of 
the 
study 
showed 
a 
significant 
increase 
in 
the 
number 
of 
publications 
related 
to 
wellness 
tourism. 
When 
it 
comes 
to 
the 
importance 
of 
individual 
journals, 
we 
have 
identified 
the 
20 
best 
journals 
that 
have 
published 
the 
most 
articles 
in 
this 
field. 
In 
wellness 
tourism 
research, 
we 
identified 
four 
clusters: 
health 
tourism 
research, 
tourism 
research, 
wellness 
topics, 
and 
wellness 
tourism 
research. 


Keywords: 
wellness 
tourism, 
bibliometrics, 
keyword 
co-occurrence, 
literature 


review 
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.15.53-63 


Introduction 


Themodern 
timethat 
we 
live 
inhas 
shaped 
wellness 
to 
be 
regardedas 
a 
part 
of 
niche 
tourism, 
where 
modern 
technologies 
are 
used 
to 
promote 
global 
awareness 
of 
wellness, 
and 
its 
main 
focus 
has 
become 
the 
bodyandthebraininordertoachievewellnessviathe 
tourism 
experience. 
The 
concept 
of 
wellness 
tourism 
has 
not 
always 
looked 
like 
it 
does 
today; 
its 
character-
isticshavechangedovertime(Smith&Puczkó,2008). 
With 
the 
very 
development 
of 
wellness 
tourism 
as 
an 
industry, 
the 
scientific 
research 
area 
that 
deals 
with 
thistopichasstartedtodevelopmoreandmore.Well


nesstourismresearchinrecentdecadeshasgainedrelevanceduetotheincreasedeffortsandsearchforwellbeing 
by 
tourists 
(Rancic 
Demir 
et 
al., 
2021). 
Nevertheless, 
the 
concept 
of 
wellnessin 
tourismis 
not 
completely 
novel. 
Basic 
ideas 
of 
wellness 
tourism 
were 
actually 
researchedin 
older 
studiesaswell, 
throughcertain 
elements 
of 
medical 
and 
health 
tourism. 
The 
increase 
in 
researchers’ 
interest 
in 
wellness 
tourism 
has 
caused 
changes 
in 
the 
terminology 
used. 


Theaimofthe 
researchisto 
betterunderstandthe 
developmentofthefieldofwellnesstourism,themost 
important 
constructs, 
and 
sources 
and 
authors, 
using 


Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|53 



Milica 
Ran.i. 
Demir 
andMila 
Ze.evi. 


bibliometric 
methods. 
In 
order 
to 
better 
understand 
thedevelopmentofresearchinwellnesstourismliterature, 
we 
have 
decided 
to 
apply 
science 
mapping 
methods 
while 
striving 
to 
answer 
the 
following 
questions: 


1. 
Haswellnesstourismresearchgrownovertime? 
2. 
Whicharethemostrelevantjournalsforpublishing 
wellness 
tourism 
research 
studies? 
3. 
Which 
fields 
of 
wellness 
tourism 
have 
mostly 
been 
exploredin 
the 
existing 
literature? 
Revealing 
the 
historical 
development 
of 
the 
wellness 
tourism 
research 
field 
is 
highly 
relevant 
for 
understandingpastresearchundertakings,
andtobeable 
to 
spot 
areas 
that 
have 
been 
of 
special 
importance 
to 
researchers 
over 
time. 
As 
tourism 
researchers 
often 
seek 
inspiration 
in 
tourist 
interests 
and 
behaviours, 
this 
field 
review 
also 
implies 
the 
areas 
that 
have 
been 
of 
interest 
to 
tourists 
as 
well 
and 
have 
as 
such 
motivated 
increased 
research 
efforts. 
To 
our 
knowledge, 
this 
is 
one 
of 
the 
first 
studies 
that 
aim 
at 
providing 
a 
bibliometricoverviewofthewellnesstourismresearch 
literature 
field. 


Thepaperfirstprovidesadetailedreviewoftheliterature,
whichdefinesthebasicconceptsrelatedtothe 
researcharea,suchaswellness,wellnesstourism,wellness 
tourists, 
wellness 
hotel, 
and 
wellness 
service. 
After 
that, 
a 
review 
of 
bibliometric 
studies 
in 
the 
field 
of 
tourism 
was 
performed.The 
scientific 
researchmethodsusedinthepaperaredescribedindetail,
andthen 
theresults,discussion,andconclusionbasedontheresults 
are 
presented. 


Literature 
Review 


Wellness 


Wellness 
used 
to 
be 
considered 
as 
an 
‘absence 
of 
sickness’ 
for 
a 
long 
time 
(Dunn, 
1957). 
Many 
scholars 
and 
organizations 
have 
provided 
definitions 
of 
wellness 
since 
the 
mid-20th 
century. 
While 
these 
definitions 
are 
heterogeneous, 
the 
majority 
of 
them 
centre 
on 
the 
following: 
how 
humans 
interact 
with 
wellness 
andthewellnessdimensionality(Chietal.,2020).The 
WorldHealthOrganization 
has 
always 
deemed 
wellness 
as 
‘the 
fulfilment 
of 
one’s 
role 
expectations 
in 
the 
family, 
community, 
place 
of 
worship, 
workplace, 
and 
othersettings,’andthishasbeenoneofthekeyfactors 


Wellness 
Tourism 
Research 


of 
wellness 
(World 
Health 
Organization, 
2006). 
It 
is 
rather 
challenging 
to 
provide 
a 
definition 
and 
explain 
the 
meaning 
of 
the 
word 
‘wellness’ 
even 
today 
owing 
tothefactthatitsnatureissosubjective.Therearedifferentdefinitionsforthistermandthereasonwhythis 
isthe 
case 
hasto 
do 
with 
who 
promotesthem 
(Rancic 
Demir 
et 
al., 
2021). 


Wellness 
is 
sometimes 
used 
as 
another 
word 
for 
well-beingbutisabroaderandmorecomplexconcept. 
According 
to 
the 
definition 
provided 
by 
the 
World 
Health 
Organization, 
health 
entails 
the 
following 
description: 
‘a 
state 
of 
complete 
physical, 
mental 
and 
social 
well-being 
and 
not 
merely 
the 
absence 
of 
disease 
or 
infirmity’ 
(World 
Health 
Organization,2006), 
and 
as 
such, 
involves 
both 
psychological, 
social, 
and 
physical 
health 
(Kahneman 
& 
Krueger, 
2006). 
Well-
being,ontheotherhand,denotesageneralsatisfaction 
whenitcomes 
tolife(uni-dimensionalmeasurement) 
or 
being 
satisfied 
with 
its 
different 
areas 
(a 
multidimensional 
approach). 
It 
should 
also 
be 
noted 
that 
well-being 
massively 
contributes 
to 
health 
(Nawijn, 
2010). 


The 
wellness 
model, 
developed 
by 
Dr. 
Bill 
Hettler 
(co-founder 
of 
the 
American 
National 
Wellness 
Institute) 
represents 
six 
dimensions 
of 
wellness: 
physical, 
intellectual, 
emotional, 
spiritual, 
social, 
and 
occupational. 
The 
emotional 
dimension 
is 
the 
level 
to 
which 
people 
are 
aware 
of 
their 
feelings 
and 
able 
to 
control 
them, 
including 
a 
realistic 
assessment 
of 
limitations. 
Thephysicaldimensionrepresentslifehabitsthathelp 
prevent 
disease, 
such 
as 
healthy 
food, 
physical 
activity, 
etc. 
The 
spiritual 
dimension 
is 
a 
constant 
effort 
in 
search 
of 
the 
meaning 
of 
human 
existence, 
which 
respects 
theforces 
ofnatureinthe 
universe. 
The 
intellectual 
dimension 
is 
the 
inclusion 
of 
thoughts 
in 
creative 
mental 
activities 
while 
sharing 
personal 
potentialwithothers.
Thesocialdimensionisacontribution 
to 
the 
collective 
well-being 
of 
the 
whole 
community, 
coexistencewithothers,andnature. 
Theoccupational 
dimension 
refers 
to 
personal 
life 
satisfaction 
through 
work 
(Hettler, 
1980). 


Wellness 
Tourism 


Not 
only 
are 
wellness 
and 
tourism 
old 
concepts, 
but 
they 
have 
also 
been 
connected 
with 
the 
stimulation 


54 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Milica 
Ran.i. 
Demir 
andMila 
Ze.evi. 
Wellness 
Tourism 
Research 


of 
tourism 
development 
for 
a 
very 
long 
time. 
Also, 
well-being 
and 
guest 
wellness 
were 
the 
centres 
of 
the 
development 
of 
spa 
tourism 
and 
the 
early 
stages 
of 
the 
evolution 
of 
inland 
and 
coastal 
tourism 
resorts 
in 
a 
great 
number 
of 
countries, 
which 
involved 
hydro-
pathic 
treatments(Page 
et 
al., 
2017). 


There 
are 
numerous 
ways 
to 
classify 
and 
define 
health 
andwellnesstourism.Healthtourism,in 
its 
broadest 
sense, 
involves 
healing, 
medical 
and 
wellness 
tourism. 
Healing 
tourism 
is 
connected 
to 
the 
act 
ofpreventing,treating,andrehabilitating. 
Medical 
tourism 
is 
about 
visiting 
another 
country 
so 
as 
to 
be 
subjected 
to 
a 
medical 
procedure. 
Wellness 
tourism, 
nevertheless, 
focuses 
on 
preserving 
good 
health 
using 
preventive 
activities, 
and 
these 
include 
a 
balanced 
diet,recreation,relaxation,etc.(Mueller&Kaufmann, 
2001). 


Mueller 
and 
Kaufmann 
(2001, 
p. 
7) 
provided 
the 
following 
definition 
of 
wellness 
tourism: 
‘The 
sum 
of 
all 
the 
relationships 
and 
phenomena 
resulting 
from 
a 
journey 
and 
residence 
by 
people 
whose 
main 
motive 
is 
to 
preserve 
or 
promote 
their 
health. 
They 
stay 
in 
a 
specialized 
hotel 
that 
provides 
the 
appropriate 
pro-
fessionalknow-how 
and 
individual 
care. 
Theyrequire 
a 
comprehensive 
service 
package 
comprising 
physical 
fitness/beauty 
care, 
healthy 
nutrition/diet, 
relaxation/
meditation, 
and 
mental 
activity/ 
education.’ 


Medicaltourismisnormallydefinedasgoingtoan-
other 
country 
in 
search 
of 
medical 
intervention 
so 
as 
to 
cure 
a 
sickness, 
which 
is 
very 
different 
from 
how 
wellness 
tourism 
is 
perceived. 
The 
latter 
is 
seen 
as 
a 
holisticwayofcontributingtowardsthebettermentof 
one’s 
health 
without 
using 
medicines; 
it 
involves 
both 
body 
and 
mind 
and 
takes 
place 
while 
one 
is 
on 
holiday. 
Healthy 
people 
who 
pursue 
a 
healthy 
lifestyle 
are 
its 
primary 
target, 
and 
are 
given 
the 
chance 
to 
enjoy 
treatments 
such 
as 
spas 
and 
other 
therapy 
establishments 
(Page 
et 
al., 
2017). 


Wellness 
Tourists 


The 
focus 
of 
wellness 
tourists 
is 
on 
different 
pro-
grammes 
and 
treatments 
which 
centre 
on 
the 
preservationandpromotionofhealth.
Thesecanalsoinvolve 
segments 
such 
as 
those 
related 
to 
spirituality 
and 
social 
interaction. 
This 
is 
why 
the 
wellness 
tourism 
as


pects 
can 
be 
rather 
versatile 
(Težak 
Damijanic, 
2020). 
Wellnesstouristsactivelyworkon 
findingways 
toim-
prove 
their 
health. 
They 
are 
often 
motivated 
by 
the 
desire 
to 
spend 
time 
outdoors, 
experience 
different 
cultures,customs,andcommunitiesorotheractivities 
offeredas 
partofthewellnessservices(Smith 
&Kelly, 
2006; 
Smith, 
2007). 


A 
report 
under 
the 
name 
of 
Global 
Wellness 
Tourism 
Economy 
which 
comes 
from 
the 
Global 
Wellness 
Institute 
(Florida, 
usa) 
states 
that 
the 
wellness 
tourism 
market 
can 
be 
divided 
into 
two 
categories 
of 
visitors: 
primary 
wellness 
visitors, 
who 
are 
driven 
to 
travel 
and 
select 
their 
destination 
because 
of 
what 
is 
offeredto 
them(e.g. 
they 
can 
visit 
a 
wellnessresortor 
take 
part 
in 
a 
yoga 
session); 
and 
secondary 
wellness 
visitors, 
whose 
goal 
is 
to 
maintain 
wellness 
or 
participatein 
its 
activitiesduringthecourseof 
anytravelling 
experience 
(e.g. 
a 
person 
visiting 
a 
gym, 
enjoying 
a 
massage, 
or 
choosing 
to 
focus 
on 
healthy 
food 
during 
atrip).Secondarywellnesstravellersmakeupthemajority 
of 
this 
kind 
of 
tourism, 
as 
many 
as 
89. 
of 
its 
trips 
and 
86. 
of 
funds 
spent 
in 
2017 
(Yeung 
& 
Johnston, 
2018). 
The 
wide 
definition 
of 
this 
type 
of 
wellness 
travel 
makesup 
the 
vast 
value 
placed 
on 
wellness 
travel 
in 
this 
report, 
and 
involves 
almost 
all 
healthy 
activities, 
e.g. 
swimming 
or 
indulging 
in 
healthy 
food 
which 
is 
seen 
as 
a 
peripheral 
portion 
of 
a 
trip 
(Yeung 
& 
Johnston, 
2018). 


Wellness 
Hotel 


The 
gwi(GlobalWellnessInstitute)reportstatesthat 
wellness 
visitors 
invest 
more 
moneyin 
everytrip 
than 
average 
tourists. 
In 
the 
year 
2017, 
international 
wellness 
visitors 
spent 
on 
average 
$1,528 
on 
every 
trip, 
53. 
more 
than 
the 
regular 
international 
visitor. 
The 
amount 
of 
money 
spent 
by 
domestic 
wellness 
visitors 
is 
greater, 
as 
they 
spend 
$609 
on 
every 
trip, 
which 
is 
178. 
more 
than 
the 
typical 
domestic 
visitor. 
The 
reportfurtherexplainsthatthefactthatwellnessvisitors 
are 
inclined 
to 
spend 
a 
lot 
of 
money 
on 
this 
industryprovidesit 
with 
manychances 
to 
‘infuse 
wellness 
into 
their 
offerings 
and 
capture 
spending.’ 
It 
lists 
examples 
that 
include 
airports 
and 
airlines, 
which 
offer 
spa 
treatments, 
wellness 
lessons 
and 
the 
possibility 
to 
select 
healthier 
food. 
In 
the 
meantime, 
‘healthy 
ho-

Academica 
Turistica,Year15, 
No.1,April 
2022 
|55 



Milica 
Ran.i. 
Demir 
andMila 
Ze.evi. 
Wellness 
Tourism 
Research 


tels’ 
have 
now 
become 
popular 
and 
accepted, 
with 
in-
room 
fitness 
equipment, 
healthy 
snacks 
and 
cooperation 
with 
wellness 
brands. 
We 
can 
see 
something 
very 
similar 
in 
the 
cruise 
department, 
with 
travels 
related 
towellness,accordingtothe 
gwi 
(Yeung&Johnston, 
2018). 


Although 
wellness 
tourism 
has 
been 
increasingly 
researched, 
the 
studies 
focusing 
on 
investigation 
of 
wellness 
in 
different 
tourist 
settings 
(e.g. 
hotels) 
are 
not 
frequent 
at 
all 
(Mueller 
& 
Kaufmann, 
2001). 
A 
wellness 
hotel 
centres 
on 
its 
guests 
who 
are 
primarily 
motivated 
by 
the 
prospect 
of 
improving 
and 
boosting 
theirhealthand 
waysof 
life. 
Italso 
providesanextensive 
service 
package 
in 
order 
to 
fulfil 
the 
needs 
of 
its 
visitors,whocravephysical,mental,andenvironment-
related 
wellness 
activities 
(Chi 
et 
al., 
2020). 


In 
the 
present 
hotel 
market, 
the 
number 
of 
hotels 
which 
maintain 
to 
be 
providing 
wellness-connected 
services 
is 
growing. 
Wellness 
hotels 
have 
received 
significant 
attention 
from 
this 
industry, 
which 
leads 
to 
the 
development 
of 
concrete 
products 
and 
services 
which 
would 
serve 
to 
meet 
the 
needs 
of 
wellness 
cus-
tomers.Thiscouldrefertosomethingsuchasin-room 
yoga 
equipment 
or 
things 
that 
tend 
to 
be 
more 
experimental; 
an 
example 
in 
point 
could 
be 
a 
sensory 
deprivation 
tank 
– 
an 
isolation 
tank 
used 
for 
restricted 
environmental 
stimulation 
therapy. 
Nevertheless, 
the 
occurrence 
of 
the 
wellness 
hotel 
has, 
to 
a 
large 
extent, 
not 
been 
neglected 
by 
scholars. 
Their 
attention 
is 
mainly 
focused 
on 
hotels 
in 
order 
to 
address 
the 
importance 
of 
wellness 
tourism 
generally,and 
not 
the 
hotels 
as 
units. 


Wellness 
Service 


Mueller 
and 
Kaufmann 
(2001) 
analysed 
the 
significance 
of 
wellness 
facilities 
and 
services 
in 
this 
area 
of 
tourism. 
The 
past 
several 
decades 
have 
seen 
a 
rise 
in 
thenumber 
ofpeopletravellingabroadforwellnessin 
the 
international 
tourism 
industry. 
It 
transpires 
that 
the 
wellness 
tourism 
market 
surpassed 
the 
tourism 
domainitselfinthelastseveralyears(Hanetal.,2017). 
This 
goes 
to 
show 
that 
interest 
in 
obtaining 
a 
healthy 
lifestyle 
hasbeen 
growing 
and 
wellnessis 
deemedas 
a 
vital 
partthatcan 
leadtoachievingthisverygoal(e.g. 
massage 
and 
spa) 
(Kiatkawsin 
& 
Han, 
2017). 


The 
past 
several 
decades 
have 
witnessed 
the 
rise 
and 
development 
of 
wellness 
spa 
tourism. 
This 
has 
all 
been 
a 
direct 
reactionto 
the 
needs 
of 
its 
travellersand 
their 
determination 
to 
contribute 
to 
their 
healthier 
lifestyles.Touristsofallageshavebeenmoreandmore 
willingtodowhatittakestoimprovetheirhealthusing 
the 
services 
provided 
by 
this 
branch 
of 
tourism. 
They 
aremotivatedbythefactthattheyaretheonesresponsiblefortheirownhealth.
Inordertofulfiltheseneeds, 
thefocusofthisdomainoftourismhasbeenonmaintaining 
both 
the 
physical 
and 
psychological 
health 
of 
theseindividuals,aswellasputtingastoptoanyhealth 
conditions. 
Nowadays, 
international 
visitors 
are 
more 
activewhenitcomestofindingspaandmassagetreatments 
and 
want 
to 
take 
part 
in 
these 
kinds 
of 
activities, 
somuch 
sothat 
ithas 
become 
the 
main 
part 
of 
how 
they 
experience 
tourism 
(Kucukusta 
& 
Guillet, 
2014). 


Wellness 
is 
equated 
with 
lifestyle, 
and 
it 
denotes 
‘a 
special 
state 
of 
health, 
incorporating 
the 
harmony 
of 
body, 
mind, 
and 
spirit.’ 
On 
the 
other 
hand, 
the 
term 
‘spa’ 
is 
seen 
as 
water/non-water-based 
facilities 
that 
provideonewithdifferentkindsoftreatments/carefor 
health, 
relaxation, 
and 
beauty 
(Hashemi 
et 
al., 
2015). 
Activities 
such 
as 
spa-visits 
and 
others 
are 
common 
and 
prevailing 
during 
the 
holiday 
season. 
This 
suggests 
that 
these 
activities 
are 
invariably 
connected 
to 
thewaytouristsactortotourismactivities(Hanetal., 
2017). 


Bibliometric 
Studies 
in 
the 
Tourism 
Research 
Literature 


Over 
the 
last 
decade, 
researchers 
have 
given 
extensiveefforttosystematizingandstructuringknowledge 
in 
tourism 
research. 
In 
this 
process, 
the 
use 
of 
quantitative 
literature 
reviews 
techniques 
and 
bibliometric 
methods 
was 
very 
common. 
In 
their 
recent 
study, 
Rodríguez-López 
et 
al. 
(2020) 
provided 
an 
extensive 
overview 
of 
studies 
that 
use 
bibliometric 
methods 
in 
researchingdifferentaspectsofleisure,sports,tourism 
and 
hospitality. 
They 
have 
identified 
over 
20 
studies 
conducted 
in 
the 
past 
20 
years. 
Those 
include 
studies 
conductedinthefieldofsportsresearch(e.g.Ciomaga, 
2013;Lindahletal.,2015),adventuretourism(Chenget 
al.,2018),sustainabilityintourism(e.g.Niñerolaetal., 


56 
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No.1,April 
2022 



Milica 
Ran.i. 
Demir 
andMila 
Ze.evi. 
Wellness 
Tourism 
Research 


2019) 
and 
ethics 
in 
tourism 
and 
hospitality 
(Köseoglu 
et 
al., 
2016). 


In 
their 
research 
efforts 
in 
bibliometric 
analysis 
and 
mapping 
of 
tourism 
research, 
authors 
have 
used 
different 
methods. 
Intellectual 
structure 
and 
research 
networks 
in 
tourism 
have 
been 
mapped 
using 
co-
citation 
analysis 
(e.g. 
Benckendorff 
& 
Zehrer, 
2013). 
Researchershavebibliometricallymappedtheareasof 
restaurant, 
food 
and 
gastronomy 
literature 
in 
tourism 
and 
hospitality 
(e.g. 
Rodríguez-López 
et 
al., 
2020; 
Okumus 
et 
al., 
2018), 
sustainable 
and 
eco-tourism 
(Shasha 
et 
al., 
2020; 
Ruhanen 
et 
al., 
2015), 
hospitality 
management 
(García-Lillo 
et 
al., 
2016) 
and 
strategic 
management 
in 
hospitality 
(Köseoglu 
et 
al., 
2019). 


To 
date, 
the 
authors 
of 
the 
current 
study 
have 
not 
encountered 
a 
specific 
study 
that 
applies 
the 
biblio-
metrics 
approach 
to 
wellness 
tourism 
literature. 
Nevertheless, 
bibliometric 
studies 
have 
been 
undertaken 
in 
theliteratureareas 
close 
towellnesstourism.De 
la 
Hoz-Correa 
et 
al. 
(2018) 
researched 
past 
medical 
tourism 
research 
and 
identified 
the 
future 
trends 
in 
this 
area, 
focusing 
on 
co-word 
analysis. 
In 
this 
study, 
the 
authors 
have 
identified 
a 
strong 
interconnection 
between 
research 
in 
wellness 
tourism 
and 
medical 
tourism. 
The 
additional 
study 
provided 
a 
deeper 
field 
investigation 
of 
health 
tourism 
(Del 
Río-Rama 
et 
al., 
2018), 
focusingonspas,thalassotherapy,andthermal-
ism 
in 
the 
health 
tourism 
context. 


Methodology 


Bibliometric 
methods 
are 
commonly 
used 
to 
analyse 
established 
information 
in 
a 
research 
area, 
as 
well 
as 
hidden 
trends 
and 
associations, 
and 
to 
measure 
(to 
some 
extent) 
descriptive 
knowledge 
available 
in 
the 
literature. 
These 
approaches 
are 
well 
known 
for 
using 
bibliographic 
data 
from 
current 
databases 
of 
publications 
(e.g. 
Scopus, 
WoS). 
In 
view 
of 
this 
information, 
bibliometric 
strategies 
are 
primarily 
used 
to 
evaluate 
and 
better 
understand 
elements 
and 
connections 
between 
and 
within 
the 
research 
fields 
(Župic 
& 
Cater, 
2015).Inthisinteraction,thesestrategiesuncoverhid-
den 
connections 
of 
creators, 
the 
significance 
and 
effectofdistributions,
aspatternsandimportantthemes 
in 
logical 
zones. 
The 
capacity 
to 
bring 
quantitative 
meticulousness 
into 
subjective 
writing 
and 
its 
assess


ment 
have 
made 
these 
techniques 
established 
and 
extremely 
pertinent 
in 
logical 
field 
surveying. 
As 
well 
as 
organizing 
the 
current 
information 
and 
field 
qualities 
(creators, 
fundamental 
discourses, 
coordinated 
efforts, 
and 
so 
on), 
bibliometric 
techniques 
are 
generally 
utilized 
for 
recognizable 
proof 
of 
hidden 
spaces 
of 
examination, 
uncovering 
subjects 
as 
well 
as 
areas 
of 
interest 
and 
patterns 
in 
research 
fields 
(Pritchard, 
1969). 


Visual 
bibliometric 
maps 
use 
charts 
and 
organizations 
to 
portray 
the 
associations 
existing 
among 
things. 
Hubs 
(i.e. 
nodes) 
and 
edgesare 
utilized 
to 
picture 
the 
organizations’ 
fundamental 
fields 
of 
writing. 
Hubs 
address 
the 
things 
of 
significance 
(for 
example, 
articles, 
books, 
journals, 
authors, 
or 
keywords), 
while 
edges 
show 
the 
relations 
between 
the 
hubs. 
The 
size 
of 
the 
hub 
demonstrates 
its 
recurrence 
of 
appearance 
in 
the 
dataset 
(bigger 
hubs 
show 
that 
the 
given 
item 
was 
more 
regularly 
referenced 
in 
the 
dataset 
and 
as 
such 
has 
more 
weight 
in 
data 
organization 
and 
presentation), 
while 
the 
thickness 
of 
an 
edge 
shows 
the 
strength 
of 
a 
connection 
between 
two 
hubs. 
The 
distance 
between 
the 
hubs 
and 
bunches 
they 
structure 
(generally 
set 
apart 
by 
shading) 
shows 
the 
recurrence 
of 
their 
common 
presence 
in 
research 
introduced 
by 
hubs 
(Van 
Eck 
& 
Waltman, 
2014). 


Forourinvestigationofthewellnesstourismliteraturefield,
acoupleofbibliometricstrategieshavebeen 
applied: 
co-citation 
and 
keyword 
co-occurrence. 
In 
writing, 
co-citation 
investigationis 
clarified 
andcharacterized 
as 
the 
recurrence 
with 
which 
two 
units 
are 
referred 
to 
together 
(Small, 
1973). 
The 
bigger 
number 
of 
things 
in 
which 
the 
two 
units 
are 
referred 
to 
to-
gether(co-cited)suggestsamoregroundedco-citation 
connection 
between 
the 
two 
units 
(Small 
& 
Griffith, 
1974). 
This 
examination 
(its 
subtypes) 
can 
be 
utilized 
for 
estimating 
likeness 
or 
more 
referenced 
recurrence 
betweenauthors,sources,anddocuments.Whiledocument 
co-citation 
investigation 
makes 
associations 
between 
explicit 
distributed 
reports 
(articles, 
books, 
or 
other 
distributed 
material), 
sources 
reference 
examination 
recognizes 
inert 
relations 
between 
logical 
journals 
(sources) 
referred 
to 
in 
the 
dataset 
(Župic 
& 
Cater, 
2015). 


Keyword 
co-occurrence 
is 
a 
procedure 
that 
aims 


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April 
2022 
|57 



Milica 
Ran.i. 
Demir 
andMila 
Ze.evi. 


at 
building 
a 
theoretical 
construction 
of 
the 
field 
by 
setting 
up 
connections 
between 
the 
words 
in 
articles. 
While 
co-citation 
utilizes 
meta-information 
(references, 
authors, 
sources, 
and 
so 
on) 
of 
articles 
to 
make 
associations 
between 
them, 
keyword 
co-occurrence 
is 
a 
technique 
that 
utilizes 
the 
real 
substance 
of 
the 
archivetoquantifysimilitudeandmakeanetworkbetween 
pertinent 
catchphrases. 
The 
primary 
point 
of 
this 
examination 
is 
to 
make 
an 
organization 
of 
topics 
andtheirconnections,addressingtheappliedspaceof 
a 
logical 
field 
(Župic 
& 
Cater, 
2015). 


Bibliometric 
Examination 
of 
the 
Field: 
Process 
Portrayal 


Duringtheprocessofgatheringmaterialsandmaking 
adatasetforwellnesstourismbibliometricstudy,afew 
standardstepsinbibliometricswerecarriedout(Župic 
&Cater, 
2015): 


1. 
Data 
assortment: 
• 
Selectingpublicationsdatabase.Togatherdistributionsandtheirmetadataforbibliometric 
investigationforthisstudy,theScopusdataset 
was 
consulted 
because 
of 
its 
exhaustiveness. 
Scopus 
is 
an 
electronic 
scientific 
database. 
It 
isevaluatedasanappropriateandcomprehensivesourceofarticlesforsciencemappingand 
bibliometricanalysis(Mishraetal.,2017). 
Additionally, 
the 
Scopus 
database 
is 
more 
extensiveincomparisonwithothersimilardatasets. 
• 
Identification 
of 
significant 
articles. 
In 
order 
to 
collect 
bibliographic 
records 
on 
wellness 
tourism, 
searches 
in 
Scopus 
were 
conducted 
in 
August 
2020. 
Based 
on 
the 
previous 
usage 
of 
keywords 
in 
previous 
wellness 
tourism 
studies, 
we 
have 
selected 
6 
combinations 
of 
keywords 
for 
research 
item 
identification 
in 
Scopus: 
‘Wellness 
hotel*,’ 
‘Wellness 
service*’ 
andhotel*, 
‘Wellness 
service*’ 
andtouris*, 
‘Wellnesscenter*’ 
andhotel*, 
‘Wellness 
center*’ 
andtouris*, 
and 
‘Wellness 
touris*.’ 
For 
the 
purpose 
of 
this 
research, 
only 
articles 
and 
reviewswrittenin 
Englishweretakenintoac-
count. 
All 
titlesand 
abstractswerereviewed 
forrelevanceandrelationtowellnesstourism. 
Wellness 
Tourism 
Research 


Articleswithexplicitorcausalrelationtowellness 
tourism 
were 
taken 
into 
account 
for 
the 
final 
database, 
which 
consisted 
of 
212 
items. 


2. 
Data 
investigation 
and 
visualization: 
• 
Creatingandsavingthemeta-information.To 
conduct 
further 
analysis, 
we 
downloaded 
articles’ 
metadata 
(titles, 
authors, 
abstracts, 
references, 
etc.) 
in 
Bibtex 
and 
csv 
format, 
and 
used 
it 
in 
the 
bibliometric 
analysis. 
In 
order 
to 
analyse 
the 
given 
dataset, 
we 
used 
the 
programs 
vosviewer 
and 
biblioshiny 
package 
in 
R, 
both 
of 
which 
are 
frequently 
used 
in 
such 
studies. 
• 
Cleaningandchanginginformation.Savedin-
formation 
was 
screened 
and 
rectified 
for 
possible 
duplicate 
values 
or 
irregularities 
(for 
example, 
utilization 
of 
both 
journal 
abbreviations 
and 
complete 
names). 
• 
Conducting 
investigation 
and 
obtaining 
results. 
After 
saving 
and 
adjusting 
steps, 
the 
dataset 
was 
imported 
in 
the 
programs 
and 
the 
calculations 
of 
desired 
analysis 
were 
conducted. 
Results 


Wellness 
Tourism 
Literature: 
Annual 
Scientific 
Production 


The 
developmentof 
wellness 
tourism 
literature 
shows 
an 
increase 
in 
the 
number 
of 
publications 
over 
the 
years. 
The 
first 
articles 
were 
published 
in 
the 
80s 
and 
90s, 
where 
the 
focus 
of 
the 
research 
was 
on 
medical 
characteristicsofwellnesstourismand 
health 
rehabilitation 
(e.g. 
Spivack, 
1998). 
Publications 
in 
the 
early 
2000s 
extensively 
researched 
wellness 
and 
spa 
offers 
specificallyfordifferentregions,dominantlyinEurope 


(e.g. 
Magdalini 
& 
Paris, 
2009; 
Lebe, 
2006). 
A 
larger 
increase 
in 
the 
number 
of 
articles 
published 
in 
wellness 
tourism 
literature 
can 
be 
noticed 
from 
2010 
onwards 
(Figure 
1). 
Under 
the 
influence 
of 
the 
increase 
in 
general 
publicity 
of 
wellness 
and 
its 
beneficial 
effects 
on 
health 
and 
well-being, 
scientific 
research 
interests 
flourished. 
In 
the 
last 
decade, 
attention 
has 
been 
increasingly 
paid 
to 
researching 
the 
impact 
of 
wellness 
tourism 
on 
holistic 
consumer 


58 
| 
Academica 
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No. 
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April 
2022 



Milica 
Ran.i. 
Demir 
andMila 
Ze.evi. 


Number 
of 
publications 


.. 


.. 


.. 


.. 


.. 


. 
. 
.... 
.... 
.... 
.... 
.... 
.... 
.... 
.... 
.... 



Figure 
1 
Evolution 
in 
the 
Number 
of 
Publications 


wellness 
(Dillette 
et 
al., 
2021) 
and 
spiritual 
character-
isticsofwellnesstourism(Öznalbant&Alvarez,2020; 
Alkhmisetal.,2020),aswellasthe 
connection 
to 
sustainability 
(Wang, 
Hu 
et 
al., 
2020). 


Most 
Prominent 
Journals 


When 
it 
comes 
to 
the 
relevance 
of 
individual 
journalsforpublishingwellnesstourismresearch,
wehave 
identifiedthetop20journalswhichhavepublishedthe 
highest 
number 
of 
articles 
in 
the 
field 
(Table 
1). 
Journals 
from 
tourism 
dominate 
in 
this 
list, 
which 
is 
not 
surprisingtakingintoaccounttheresearchareaofthis 
bibliometricstudy.Someofthejournalsaregeographically 
determined 
and 
publish 
studies 
specific 
for 
particular 
regions 
(e.g. 
Scandinavia, 
Africa). 


Outofthe 
top20journals 
that 
publish 
wellness 
tourismresearchmanuscripts, 
Tourism 
Recreation 
Research 
is 
the 
journal 
with 
the 
most 
wellness 
tourism-
related 
publications 
(11), 
followedby 
Journal 
of 
Hospitality 
and 
Tourism 
Management 
and 
Journal 
of 
Travel 
and 
Tourism 
Marketing 
(9 
publications 
each). 
The 
lowest 
number 
of 
publications 
in 
the 
top 
20 
journals 
was 
2. 


Keyword 
Co-Occurrence 
Analysis 


Analysisof 
themost 
frequentlyused 
keywordsidentified 
22 
keywords 
that 
were 
marked 
by 
authors 
as 
relevant 
for 
their 
research 
in 
5 
or 
more 
publications. 
Ac-
cordingtokeywordco-occurrenceanalysis,thesekey-
words 
can 
be 
classified 
in 
four 
clusters 
(Figure 
2). 


Inthe 
first, 
the 
biggest 
cluster, 
we 
can 
observe 
keywords 
that 
are 
specific 
for 
wellness 
tourism 
research 
in 
general.Thesekeywordsarethefollowing:wellness 
tourism, 
rural 
tourism, 
lifestyle, 
health, 
well-being, 


Wellness 
Tourism 
Research 


Table 
1 
Top 
20 
Journals 
that 
Publish 
Wellness 
Tourism 
Research 
Manuscripts 


Journal 
Number 
of 
publications 


Tourism 
Recreation 
Research 
.. 
Journal 
of 
Hospitality 
and 
Tourism 
Management 
. 
Journalof 
Traveland 
TourismMarketing 
. 
Tourism 
Review 
. 
African 
Journal 
of 
Hospitality 
Tourism 
and 
Leisure 
. 
Asia 
Pacific 
Journal 
of 
Tourism 
Research 
. 
International 
Journal 
of 
Hospitality 
Management 
. 
Journal 
of 
Vacation 
Marketing 
. 
Tourism 
Management 
. 
Scandinavian 
Journal 
of 
Hospitality 
and 
Tourism 
. 
Current 
Issues 
in 
Tourism 
. 
Journal 
of 
Destination 
Marketing 
and 
Management 
. 
Tourism 
. 
Tourism 
Management 
Perspectives 
. 
Tourismos 
. 
International 
Journal 
of 
Tourism 
Research 
. 


Journal 
of 
Quality 
Assurance 
in 
Hospitality 
and 
Tourism 
. 
Sustainability 
. 
Tourism 
Analysis 
. 
Acta 
Clinica 
Croatica 
. 


and 
quality 
of 
life. 
This 
cluster 
briefly 
represents 
several 
relevant 
constructs 
in 
wellness 
tourism 
literature 
such 
as 
well-being, 
quality 
of 
life, 
health, 
and 
lifestyle. 


The 
second-largest 
cluster 
contains 
keywords 
that 
stronglyconnect 
totourism 
researchin 
wellnesstour-
ism 
literature. 
The 
keywords 
tourism, 
lifestyle 
segmentation, 
cluster 
analysis, 
motivation, 
satisfaction, 
andpersonalhealthbelongtothiscluster,thatstrongly 
connectswellnessresearchto 
consumer 
research,as 
it 
captures 
research 
that 
aims 
at 
better 
understanding 
the 
motivation 
and 
satisfaction 
of 
tourists, 
as 
well 
as 
their 
segmentation 
(Lee 
et 
al., 
2020; 
Chrobak 
et 
al., 
2020; 
Thawornwiriyatrakula 
& 
Meepromb, 
2020). 


The 
third 
cluster 
represents 
wellness 
tourism 
research 
focusing 
on 
health 
and 
medical 
tourism. 
Keywords 
from 
this 
cluster 
are 
health 
tourism, 
medical 
tourism, 
health 
and 
wellness 
tourism, 
spa, 
and 


Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|59 



Milica 
Ran.i. 
Demir 
andMila 
Ze.evi. 
Wellness 
Tourism 
Research 



Figure 
2 
Map 
of 
Keyword 
Co-Occurrence 
in 
Wellness 
Tourism 
Research 


spa 
tourism. 
The 
importance 
of 
physical 
health 
for 
overall 
individual 
well-being 
is 
well 
known 
and 
re-
searchinghealthtourismfromtheperspectiveofwellness 
tourism 
is 
therefore 
somewhat 
expected. 
In 
this 
branchofwellnessresearch,spasandspatourismtake 
one 
of 
the 
most 
important 
places 
due 
to 
their 
connection 
with 
wellness 
and 
relaxation 
treats 
in 
general 
(Chrobak 
et 
al., 
2020; 
Dryglas 
& 
Salamaga, 
2018). 
Spa 
facilitiesareimportantfortourists’ 
well-being,loyalty, 
and 
overall 
positive 
feeling 
in 
health 
tourism 
(Huang 
et 
al., 
2019). 


Finally, 
the 
fourth 
cluster 
accounts 
for 
wellness 
tourism 
research 
specific 
for 
wellness 
elements 
of 
this 
branch 
of 
tourism. 
The 
keywords 
wellness, 
innovation, 
yoga, 
and 
spiritual 
tourism 
imply 
that 
this 
cluster 
is 
among 
the 
newest 
ones, 
as 
these 
as 
these 
topics 
have 
become 
heavily 
researched 
in 
the 
past 
five 
years. 
Researchers 
are 
extensively 
trying 
to 
elaborate 
on 
the 
concepts 
of 
yoga, 
spiritual 
elements 
and 
the 
holistic 
approach 
to 
vacation 
(including 
stress 
relievers 
and 
mind 
relaxation) 
necessary 
for 
achieving 
wellness 
in 
tourism 
(Kim 
et 
al., 
2020; 
Dillette 
et 
al., 
2021; 
Telej 
& 
Gamble, 
2019). 


Discussion 
and 
Conclusion 


Wellness 
tourism 
has 
recently 
managed 
to 
draw 
the 
attention 
of 
researchers 
due 
to 
its 
fast 
development. 
Whenitcomestothesupplyside,thefocusofresearch 
has 
been 
on 
the 
potential 
limitations 
and 
strategies 
of 
development 
for 
the 
wellness 
tourism 
industry. 
On 


the 
other 
hand, 
when 
it 
comes 
to 
the 
demand 
side, 
the 
focus 
has 
been 
on 
the 
socio-demographic 
and 
be-
havioural 
aspects, 
the 
drive 
and 
the 
expectations 
of 
visitors, 
and 
also 
elements 
that 
boost 
their 
well-being 
andaffectthewaydecisionsaremade(Wang,Xuetal. 
2020). 


There 
usedtobe 
stressonthe 
recovery 
and 
relax-
ationofour 
body, 
whichwasnormallyachievedbyattendingspasorgoingtotheseaside.
Theemphasiswas 
verysmallwhenitcametootheraspectsofourhealth, 
suchasthemental,spiritual,andemotionalones.Even 
though 
medieval 
pilgrimagemightbe 
seen 
asanearly 
form 
of 
spiritual 
tourism, 
it 
was 
founded 
on 
concrete, 
organized 
religions, 
and 
its 
destinations. 
Modern 
so-
cietiesare 
much 
differentand 
aregraduallystartingto 
be 
attractedto 
options 
enabling 
themtoengagein 
ac-
tivitiescharacterizedbyphysical,spiritual,andmental 
balance 
and 
integration 
(Smith 
& 
Puczkó, 
2008). 


It 
is 
evident 
that 
wellness 
is 
a 
concept 
involving 
multipledimensionsandthatit 
involvesbothphysical 
andmentalhealth,alongwithsocialandenvironmental 
elements. 
Before, 
what 
was 
more 
important 
was 
to 
cureproblemsconnectedtohealthusingconventional 
or 
traditional 
medicine 
that 
would 
be 
prescribed 
by 
a 
doctor, 
while 
now, 
it 
has 
become 
more 
normal 
to 
at-
tempttohavea 
healthylife 
andprecludemedical 
con-
ditionsby 
takingmeasuresinto 
our 
own 
hands 
without 
the 
help 
of 
a 
medical 
professional 
and 
thus 
being 
independent. 
The 
growing 
wellness 
business 
allows 
people 
the 
opportunity 
to 
use 
all 
kinds 
of 
activities 
that 
put 
our 
body, 
mind, 
and 
soul 
in 
balance. 


The 
Global 
Wellness 
Tourism 
Economy 
report 
maintains 
that 
in 
2015–2017, 
the 
department 
of 
wellness 
tourism 
increased 
by 
6.5. 
yearly 
from 
2015–2017 
(which 
is 
more 
than 
double 
the 
increase 
rate 
for 
general 
tourism). 
Visitors 
went 
on 
830 
million 
wellness 
trips 
in 
2017, 
139 
million 
more 
than 
in 
2015 
(Yeung 
& 
Johnston, 
2018). 


Considering 
the 
fact 
that 
the 
interest 
in 
wellness 
tourism 
has 
been 
growing 
by 
the 
year, 
it 
is 
not 
surprising 
that 
the 
same 
can 
be 
said 
for 
researchers 
in 
this 
field. 
This 
is, 
of 
course, 
directly 
connected 
to 
naturalandsocial 
changes.A 
rapidwayoflifemeansthat 
there 
is 
a 
need 
to 
rest 
and 
relax, 
which 
is 
most 
effectively 
achieved 
by 
engaging 
in 
wellness 
trips 
and 
ex


60 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Milica 
Ran.i. 
Demir 
andMila 
Ze.evi. 
Wellness 
Tourism 
Research 


periences. 
Also, 
the 
money 
gained 
through 
this 
type 
of 
tourism 
has 
grown 
significantly. 
In 
order 
to 
maintain 
and 
improve 
this 
trend, 
there 
needs 
to 
be 
a 
constant 
need 
for 
researching 
natural, 
social, 
economic, 
cultural 
and 
other 
elements, 
which 
have 
an 
effect 
on 
thecourseofwellness 
tourism. 


Our 
study 
results 
show 
an 
evident 
increase 
in 
the 
number 
of 
publications 
related 
to 
wellness 
tourism. 
Analysis 
of 
the 
annual 
scientific 
production 
of 
articles 
in 
the 
field 
of 
wellness 
tourism 
shows 
a 
significant 
increase 
in 
the 
number 
of 
publications 
in 
the 
last 
ten 
years. 
Over 
80. 
of 
the 
articles 
from 
this 
research 
field 
have 
been 
published 
in 
the 
last 
decade. 
This 
increasing 
trend 
is 
evident 
from 
the 
field’s 
beginnings 
in 
the 
late 
90s. 
The 
rise 
of 
the 
importance 
of 
wellness 
and 
well-being 
in 
the 
lives 
of 
tourists 
is 
followed 
by 
enlarged 
research 
efforts 
by 
academics, 
resulting 
in 
a 
larger 
number 
of 
wellness 
tourism 
research 
items 
being 
published. 
Apart 
from 
this, 
we 
can 
observejournalsfrom 
both 
tourism 
and 
hospitality 
in 
the 
top 
20 
most 
important 
journals 
in 
the 
field, 
implying 
that 
the 
research 
is 
extensively 
gathering 
both 
perspectives 
of 
wellness 
tourism. 
Co-occurrence 
of 
keywords 
analysis 
detected 
the 
patterns 
of 
connections 
between 
author 
keywords. 
We 
have 
identified 
four 
clusters 
within 
wellness 
tourism 
research: 
health 
tourism 
research, 
tourism 
research, 
wellness 
topics, 
and 
wellness 
tourism 
research. 
Health 
tourism 
re-
searchcoversbothhealthandmedical-relatedtourism 
topics, 
while 
tourism 
research 
keywords 
mostly 
focus 
onconsumerresearch(e.g.motivationforavisit,satisfaction). 
Wellnesstopicsmostlyrefertopersonalwellness 
(e.g. 
yoga, 
spiritual 
tourism), 
while 
the 
biggest 
cluster, 
wellness 
tourism, 
depicts 
many 
relevant 
keywords 
in 
this 
research 
field 
(e.g. 
well-being, 
quality 
of 
life). 


Implications 
and 
Research 
Limitations 


The 
findings 
of 
this 
wellness 
research 
bibliometric 
study 
have 
several 
implications 
for 
both 
academics 
and 
practitioners. 
Implications 
of 
this 
study 
for 
academics 
can 
be 
seen 
in 
answering 
some 
of 
the 
important 
issues 
researchers 
should 
take 
into 
account 
when 
researchingwellnesstourismandaidingresearchersin 
understanding 
and 
detecting 
important 
patterns 
and 


journals 
in 
this 
research 
field. 
When 
it 
comes 
to 
the 
practical 
point 
of 
view, 
this 
research 
identifies 
several 
areasinwellnesstourisminwhich 
attentionis 
needed 
from 
practitioners 
as 
well. 
Keyword 
analysis 
showed 
multiple 
aspects 
of 
wellness 
that 
are 
provided 
specifically 
from 
practice 
(e.g. 
venues 
like 
spas). 


While 
we 
aimed 
at 
conducting 
rigorous 
research, 
this 
study 
is 
not 
without 
limitations. 
First, 
the 
dataset 
was 
created 
using 
a 
single 
database 
(Scopus) 
in 
the 
English 
language. 
This 
is 
a 
usual 
procedure 
in 
such 
studies, 
but 
it 
brings 
certain 
limitations 
with 
it. 
The 
inclusion 
of 
additional 
sources 
and 
articles 
in 
local 
languages 
could 
identify 
differentpatterns 
of 
research 
and 
contribute 
to 
broader 
applicability 
and 
generalization 
of 
the 
results 
obtained. 


Additionally,thisstudyconductedaone-timeanalysisofthewellnesstourismresearchfield.
Replications 
or 
repetitions 
of 
this 
study 
at 
different 
points 
in 
time 
mightbeabletoidentifynewphenomena,researchinterests, 
and 
issues 
that 
are 
appearing 
in 
this 
research 
topic. 


Finally, 
this 
study 
aimed 
at 
providing 
an 
overview 
of 
the 
wellness 
tourism 
research 
field. 
Future 
studies 
might 
benefit 
from 
in-detail 
studies 
of 
sub-fields 


(e.g. 
spiritual 
wellness 
tourism, 
well-being 
in 
wellness 
tourism). 
Such 
future 
research 
endeavours 
could 
enable 
us 
to 
more 
deeply 
understand 
the 
chronological 
development 
of 
this 
research 
field, 
as 
well 
as 
to 
understand 
trends 
and 
their 
shifts 
and 
emergence 
over 
time. 
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Academica 
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April 
2022 
|63 



Original 
Scientific 
Article 


Active 
Leisure 
and 
Ageing 
in 
Rural 
Ireland: 
Exploring 
Perceptions 
and 
Motivations 
to 
Facilitate 
and 
Promote 
Meaningful 
Physical 
Activity 


Angie 
Hartnett 


Technical 
University 
Dublin, 
Grangegorman, 
Ireland 
d16127666@mytudublin.ie 


Catherine 
Gorman 


Technical 
University 
Dublin, 
Grangegorman, 
Ireland 
catherine.gorman 
@tudublin.ie 


The 
life 
expectancy 
of 
the 
world 
population 
is 
increasing 
and 
the 
art 
of 
aging 
well 
is 
of 
global 
interest 
(European 
Commission, 
n.d.). 
In 
Ireland, 
the 
number 
of 
people 
over 
the 
age 
of 
60 
will 
increase 
from 
1.1 
million 
currently, 
to 
2.44 
million 
by 
2041, 
constitutingnearlyonethirdofitstotalpopulation(InstituteofPublicHealth,2018). 
Despite 
the 
benefits 
of 
regular 
physical 
activity 
(pa), 
particularly 
with 
the 
frail 
(=65 
years 
and 
requiring 
a 
walking 
aid), 
rates 
of 
participation 
remain 
low 
(Colley 
et 
al., 
2011).Healthconcernsraised,suchassmokingandweightissues,aremoreprevalent 
in 
this 
cohort 
(Witcher 
et 
al., 
2016). 
Currently, 
when 
they 
reach 
a 
certain 
age, 
pa 
is 
not 
seen 
as 
beneficial 
and 
older 
adults 
refrain 
from 
participating 
in 
pa 
(Witcher 
et 
al., 
2016), 
particularly 
post-retirement 
(Chaudhury 
and 
Shelton, 
2010). 
Education 
oftheolderpopulationconcerningthebenefitsofpa 
iscritical,andpa 
perceptions 
andbehavioursmustbe 
examinedbothcontextuallyandhistorically(Witcher 
etal., 
2016)toprovidegreaterclarityandunderstanding. 
Inordertodevelopamorecomprehensive, 
inclusive 
policy 
for 
active 
ageing 
in 
Ireland, 
particularly 
rural 
Ireland, 
we 
need 
to 
reflect 
on 
the 
research 
to 
date. 
This 
conceptual 
paper 
develops 
a 
frame-
workofmeaning-makingtoactiveleisure,focusingonperceptionsandmotivations 
ofaruralbasedpopulation.Italsoexaminestheimpactofbeingphysicallyactiveon 
participatingintourisminthispopulationandhowIrelandistargetingthisgrowing 
older 
market 
for 
various 
forms 
of 
tourism 
activity. 
An 
unhealthy 
population 
brings 
a 
financial 
burden 
to 
the 
country. 
Encouraging 
a 
healthier 
lifestyle 
which 
includes 
moremeaningfulactiveleisure,facilitatinganengagementwithtourism,isrequired 
to 
enable 
this 
cohort 
to 
age 
healthily 
and 
well 
and 
thus 
reduce 
the 
cost 
associated 
with 
an 
ageing 
population. 


Keywords: 
ageing 
population, 
rural, 
physical 
activity, 
perceptions, 
motivations, 
tourism 


https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.15.65-80 


Introduction 
Atlantic. 
The 
Republic 
of 
Ireland 
measures 
70,273 
Irelandisasmallislandsituatedonthenorth-western 
squarekilometreswhilstNorthernIrelandmeasures 
edge 
of 
Europe 
on 
the 
north-eastern 
fringe 
of 
the 
approximately14,136squarekilometres(IrishGeneal-

Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|65 



Angie 
Hartnett 
andCatherine 
Gorman 
Active 
Leisure 
andAgeing 
in 
Rural 
Ireland 


ogy 
Toolkit, 
n.d.). 
In 
April 
2021, 
Ireland 
had 
an 
estimated 
population 
of 
5.01 
million, 
which 
is 
the 
first 
timesincethe1851censusthatthepopulationhasrisen 
above 
5 
million 
(Central 
Statistics 
Office, 
n.d.b). 
The 
industry 
is 
broken 
down 
into 
agriculture 
(0.9.), 
industry 
(35.18.) 
and 
services 
(56.72.) 
(Statista, 
n.d.) 
and 
the 
current 
minimum 
wage 
is 
estimated 
to 
be 
€1,755 
(Eurostat, 
2022). 


TheStatePension(Contributory),oftenreferredto 
as 
the 
old-age 
pension, 
is 
paid 
to 
people 
from 
the 
age 
of 
66 
who 
have 
enough 
Pay 
Related 
Social 
Insurance 
(prsi) 
contributions. 
Most 
employers 
and 
employees 
(over16yearsofageandunder66)payprsi 
contributionsintothenationalSocialInsuranceFund,
whichis 
generally 
accepted 
as 
a 
compulsory 
contribution, 
and 
the 
weekly 
State 
Pension 
payable 
to 
eligible 
individuals 
is 
€248.30 
per 
week 
(Citizen 
Information 
Board, 
n.d.). 
Inaddition,65.ofworkersinemploymentaged 
20–69 
years 
have 
occupational 
and 
personal 
pension 
coverofsomeformoutsideoftheStatePensiontosupplement 
this 
income 
(Central 
StatisticsOffice, 
n.d.a). 


The 
profile 
of 
the 
Irish 
population 
is 
changingand 
becoming 
more 
aged. 
The 
number 
of 
people 
over 
the 
ageof65,willincreasefromanestimatedoneinseven 
(14.), 
totalling 
696, 
300 
in 
2019, 
to 
one 
in 
4 
(26.), 
doubling 
to 
almost 
1.6 
million 
by 
2051 
(Sheehan 
and 
O’Sullivan, 
2020). 


In 
the 
Republic 
of 
Ireland, 
44. 
of 
rural 
dwellers 
areovertheageof65(Walshetal.,2012),andthereisa 
stark 
difference 
in 
distribution 
between 
men 
(44,040 
or 
18.8.) 
and 
women 
(190,217 
or 
81.2.), 
which 
contrasts 
significantly 
between 
the 
general 
population 
distribution 
of 
2,354,428 
men 
(49.44.) 
and 
2,407,437 
(50.56.) 
womenrecordedin 
the2016 
census 
(Central 
Statistics 
Office, 
2017). 


Lack 
of 
studiesofphysicalactivity 
andolderadults 
inaruralcontextmakesthisareaofresearchchallenging. 
The 
studies 
to 
date 
either 
focus 
on 
active 
leisure 
or 
sports 
participation 
of 
the 
older 
adult 
in 
an 
urban 
context(Etmanetal.,2016; 
Sugimoto 
et 
al., 
2014) 
or 
retirement 
community 
(Vaitkevicius 
et 
al., 
2002), 
or, 
where 
the 
study 
takes 
place 
in 
a 
rural 
setting, 
the 
participants 
are 
either 
not 
older 
adults, 
or 
over 
the 
age 
of 
65 
(Mitchell 
et 
al., 
2014), 
or 
the 
studies 
do 
not 
test 
or 
assess 
leisure 
and 
sport 
activity 
programmes, 
tending 


rather 
to 
focus 
on 
factors 
contributing 
to 
exercise 
or 
the 
lack 
thereof 
(Boehm 
et 
al., 
2013). 
Where 
studies 
occur 
in 
a 
mixed 
population 
of 
both 
urban 
and 
rural 
older 
adult 
dwellers, 
the 
studies 
focus 
on 
identifying 
correlates 
of 
sport 
participation 
(Murtagh 
et 
al., 
2015; 
Yamakita 
et 
al., 
2015). 


Definitions 
differ 
between 
the 
different 
scientific 
disciplines 
and 
need 
to 
be 
considered. 
Most 
research 
papers 
refer 
to 
the 
elderly 
as 
being 
65 
years 
and 
over 
(Yamakita 
et 
al., 
2015), 
with 
the 
Japanese 
further 
cat-
egorising 
this 
group 
into 
young 
old 
(65–74 
years 
old) 
(Sugimoto 
et 
al., 
2014), 
old 
(over 
75 
years) 
(Ouchi 
et 
al.,2017)andthoseabove80yearsofagereferredtoas 
old-old(Asher,2013).InIrelandtheterm‘olderpeople’ 
washistoricallyappliedtoindividualsofstatepensionable 
age 
(Walsh 
& 
Harvey, 
2011), 
which 
increased 
to 
66 
years 
in2018(CitizenInformation 
Board, 
n.d.)as 
a 
means 
of 
coping 
with 
the 
ageing 
population. 
As 
the 
Central 
Statistics 
Office 
uses 
5-year 
age 
increments 
in 
Irelandwenow 
class 
those 
over 
theage 
of 
65 
yearsas 
‘elderly,’whichisline 
with 
thesystememployedin 
the 
rest 
of 
Europe 
(Walsh 
& 
Harvey, 
2011). 


AfurtherclassificationbytheNationalCouncilfor 
Ageing 
and 
Older 
People 
in 
Ireland 
describes 
those 
over 
theage 
of 
80 
yearsas‘olderelderly’or‘frailelderly’ 
(Walsh 
& 
Harvey, 
2011). 
However, 
studies 
do 
vary 
with 
definitions 
of 
=60 
years 
(Roh 
et 
al., 
2015; 
Murtagh 
et 
al., 
2015; 
Asher, 
2013) 
being 
referenced. 
Discrepancy 
exists 
as 
to 
the 
definition, 
with 
older 
adultsreferredtoinAustralianresearch(Boehmetal., 
2013) 
as 
50 
years 
or 
over 
whilst 
in 
Finland, 
Sarvimäki 
andStenbock-Hult(2000)describeoldageas75years 
and 
older 
– 
a 
difference 
of 
25 
years. 


Despite 
the 
definition 
of 
‘elderly’ 
varying 
between 
countries,theWorldHealthOrganisation(who)uses 
65yearsofagetodescribe 
theolderperson,andthisis 
the 
most 
commonly 
accepted 
definition. 


Language 
is 
also 
of 
the 
utmost 
importance 
when 
describinganolderpopulationwithtermslike‘elderly,’ 
‘old’ 
or 
‘aged’ 
seen 
as 
discriminatory 
or 
offensive 
and 
alternativeslike 
‘seniors,’‘older’ 
or 
‘mature’ 
adults 
recommended 
(Flinders 
University, 
n.d.). 
Older 
adults, 
65 
years 
and 
over, 
will 
be 
used 
to 
describe 
this 
cohort 
going 
forward. 


Terminology 
is 
also 
a 
limiting 
factor 
with 
lack 
of 


66 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Angie 
Hartnett 
andCatherine 
Gorman 


cleardefinitionsoftermsresultingin 
theinterchangeableuseofideasorconceptslikephysicalactivity(
pa), 
leisure 
time 
physical 
activity 
(ltpa) 
and 
sport 
participation. 
Definition 
of 
pa 
across 
studies 
vary 
which 
makescomparisonof 
data 
difficult 
accordingtoa 
sys-
temicreviewof 
pa 
inolderpeopleby(Sunetal.,2013). 
Thedefinitionandmeaningoftheterm 
pa 
needtobe 
clarified 
in 
regard 
to 
individuals 
as 
currently 
a 
broad 
definition 
is 
accepted 
to 
include 
a 
variety 
of 
activities 
outside 
of 
the 
definition 
of 
pa, 
where 
being 
active 
and 
busy 
is 
deemed 
to 
be 
synonymous 
with 
pa 
(Witcher 
et 
al., 
2016). 
‘Physical 
activity 
is 
defined 
as 
any 
bodily 
movement 
produced 
by 
skeletal 
muscles 
thatrequiresenergyexpenditure’andphysicalinactivity 
(lack 
of 
physical 
activity) 
hasbeen 
identifiedas 
the 
fourth 
leading 
risk 
factor 
for 
global 
mortality 
(World 
Health 
Organization, 
n.d.). 


Thisdefinitionispurposefullybroadtoencompass 
allmodesofpa.‘Alltypesof 
pa 
areofinterest,includingactiveplay,
walkingorcyclingfortransport,dance, 
traditional 
active 
games 
and 
recreational 
games, 
gardening 
andhousework,aswellassport 
or 
deliberate 
exercise’ 
(Get 
Ireland 
Active!National 
PhysicalActivity 
Plan 
for 
Ireland, 
n.d.,p.5). 
Sun 
etal. 
(2013) 
assert 
that 
pa 
comprises 
leisure-time 
pa 
(ltpa), 
occupational 
pa, 
household 
pa 
and 
transport 
pa 
and 
yet 
studies 
in 
Ireland 
do 
not 
focus 
on 
ltpa, 
focusing 
rather 
on 
participation 
in 
sport, 
recreational 
walking, 
cycling 
for 
transportand 
walking 
for 
transport 
(Sport 
Ireland 
ipsos 
& 
mrbi,2019).Thismakes 
analysis 
of 
pa 
engagement 
difficult. 


In 
order 
to 
develop 
a 
more 
comprehensive, 
inclusive 
policy 
for 
active 
ageing 
in 
Ireland, 
particularly 
rural 
Ireland, 
we 
need 
to 
reflect 
on 
the 
research 
to 
date. 
This 
conceptual 
paper, 
by 
examining 
existing 
data 
(secondary 
research), 
develops 
a 
frame-work 
of 
meaning-making 
to 
active 
leisure 
in 
a 
rural, 
older 
(65 
yearsandolder),Irishpopulation, 
by 
focusing 
onperceptions 
and 
motivations 
to 
exercise. 
Furthermore, 
it 
examines 
the 
impact 
of 
being 
physically 
active 
on 
participating 
in 
tourism 
in 
this 
population 
and 
how 
Ireland 
is 
targetingthis 
growing 
older 
market 
for 
various 
forms 
of 
tourism. 
This 
has 
been 
highlighted 
in 
a 
recent 
report 
conducted 
by 
Golden 
Ireland 
(Irish 
travel 
website 
exclusively 
for 
the 
actively 
retired) 
ex-

Active 
Leisure 
andAgeing 
in 
Rural 
Ireland 


Table 
1 
Estimated 
pafs, 
Calculated 
with 
Adjusted 
Relative 
Risks, 
for 
Coronary 
Heart 
Disease,Type 
2 
Diabetes, 
Breast 
Cancer, 
Colon 
Cancer, 
and 
All-Cause 
Mortality 
Associated 
with 
Physical 
Inactivity, 
by 
who 
Region 
and 
Country 


Disease 
Global 
European 
Ireland 
average 
average 


Coronary 
Heart 
Disease 
... 
... 
... 
Type 
. 
Diabetes 
... 
... 
.... 
Breast 
Cancer 
.... 
... 
.... 
Colon 
Cancer 
.... 
... 
.... 


Notes 
In 
percent. 
Adapted 
from 
Lee 
et 
al. 
(2012). 


aminingtheseniorstravelmarketbetweenSeptember 
2020 
and 
June 
2021; 
75. 
of 
those 
surveyed 
planned 
to 
travel 
in 
Ireland 
during 
this 
period 
and 
75. 
take 
2–3 
leisure 
trips 
per 
annum, 
61. 
in 
Ireland 
and 
14. 
abroad 
(McGlynn, 
n.d.). 


Importance 
of 
PA 
and 
Irish 
Participation 
Levels 


Ageingencompassesboththebiologicalchanges(molecular 
and 
cellular 
damage) 
and 
life 
transitions 
(retirement, 
experience 
of 
death) 
as 
one 
advances 
in 
age 
(World 
Health 
Organization, 
2021). 
An 
aging 
population 
makes 
increased 
demands 
on 
the 
government 
in 
terms 
of 
healthcare. 
Prince 
et 
al. 
(2015) 
have 
reported 
that 
23. 
of 
the 
total 
global 
burden 
of 
disease 
canbeattributedtothoseaged60andaboveandthese 
challenges 
are 
heightened 
by 
a 
lack 
of 
pa 
(Murtagh 
et 
al., 
2015). 
Being 
physically 
active 
maintains 
health 
and 
reduces 
the 
decline 
in 
physical 
function 
(Etman 
et 
al., 
2016) 
which 
in 
turn 
reduces 
health 
costs. 
Dis-
turbingly,Irishstatisticsareworsethanboththeglobal 
and 
the 
European 
average 
for 
coronary 
heart 
disease, 
type 
2 
diabetes, 
breast 
cancer 
and 
colon 
cancer, 
with 
lack 
of 
pa 
deemed 
responsible 
(Lee 
et 
al., 
2012). 
This 
ishighlightedinTable1,whichusesthepopulationattributable 
fraction 
(paf), 
a 
measure 
used 
by 
epidemiologists 
to 
estimate 
the 
effect 
of 
a 
risk 
factor, 
in 
this 
case 
lack 
of 
pa, 
on 
disease 
incidence 
in 
a 
population 
(Lee 
et 
al., 
2012). 


Numerous 
benefits 
to 
pa 
have 
been 
explored 
by 
TheIrishLongitudinalStudyonAgeing(tilda).Irish 
adults 
who 
report 
high 
levels 
of 
pa 
have 
higher 
levels 


Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|67 



Angie 
Hartnett 
andCatherine 
Gorman 
Active 
Leisure 
andAgeing 
in 
Rural 
Ireland 


of 
self-rated 
health, 
enjoy 
better 
quality 
of 
life 
(qol), 
displayclinicallydepressivesymptomslesscommonly, 
have 
lower 
loneliness 
scores, 
engage 
more 
frequently 
in 
active 
and 
social 
activities 
and 
volunteer 
more 
in 
comparisontoadultswithlowlevelsofpa 
(Donoghue 
et 
al., 
2016, 
p. 
16). 
There 
are 
also 
numerous 
social, 
physical 
and 
psychological 
benefits 
to 
enjoying 
an 
active 
lifestyle 
and 
there 
is 
a 
direct 
link 
between 
pa 
and 
life 
expectancy, 
with 
physically 
active 
individuals 
or 
populations 
living 
longer 
than 
inactive 
or 
sedentary 
ones 
(eu 
Physical 
Activity 
Guidelines, 
2008, 
p. 
3). 


Participation 
rates 
are 
influenced 
by 
age 
as 
can 
be 
observed 
by 
the 
significant 
difference 
in 
activity 
levels 
between 
those 
aged 
50–64 
years 
classed 
as 
highly 
active 
(31.) 
compared 
to 
18. 
of 
the 
=65 
year 
olds 
(Perceptive 
Insight, 
2015). 
Rural 
and 
urban 
discrepancies 
in 
pa 
have 
also 
been 
highlighted 
(Van 
Dyck 
et 
al.,2010;Witcheretal.,2016),demonstratingthatirrespectiveofageandlifeexperiences,
ruraldwellerstend 
to 
walk 
or 
exercise 
less 
than 
urban 
dwellers. 
In 
rural 
communities 
particularly, 
where 
pa 
has 
been 
largely 
showntobeatitslowestintheolderpopulation,health 
concerns 
are 
also 
raised 
as 
smoking 
and 
weight 
issues 
aremoreprevalentinthiscohort(Witcheretal.,2016). 


Lack 
of 
Knowledge 


Despite 
the 
benefits 
of 
regular 
pa, 
particularly 
with 
the 
frail 
and 
rural 
populations, 
rates 
of 
participation 
remain 
low 
(Colley 
et 
al., 
2011). 
This 
could 
possibly 
be 
explained 
by 
the 
fact 
that 
despite 
acknowledging 
the 
benefits 
of 
pa, 
when 
the 
seniors 
reach 
a 
certain 
agetheyfeelthattherewouldbelimitedimprovement 
in 
their 
physical 
strength 
or 
ability, 
and 
subsequently 
refrain 
from 
participating, 
feeling 
that 
it 
would 
be 
‘pointless’ 
for 
them 
(Witcher 
et 
al., 
2016). 
Broderick 
et 
al. 
(2015) 
echoed 
this 
sentiment, 
determining 
that 
outcome 
experiences 
were 
directly 
related 
to 
age 
and 
that 
those 
aged 
between 
79 
and 
85 
years 
deemed 
exercise 
to 
be 
something 
beneficial 
for 
younger 
people, 
rather 
than 
for 
themselves, 
who 
were 
seen 
to 
be 
beyond 
it. 
It 
could 
also 
be 
due 
to 
a 
lack 
of 
knowledge 
on 
what 
constitutes 
adequate 
pa 
for 
their 
age 
group. 


Guidelines 
for 
adults 
aged 
18–64 
years 
are 
at 
least 
30minutesadayofmoderateactivityon5daysaweek 
(or 
150 
minutes 
a 
week) 
which 
is 
consistent 
with 
that 


recommendedforadults=64,withanadditionalfocus 
tobe 
placedonaerobicactivity,muscle-strengthening 
andbalance(TheDepartmentofHealthandChildren, 
HealthService 
Executive,2009,pp. 
13, 
15). 
Of 
concern 
isthatnotevenhalfoftheIrishindividuals(=50years) 
surveyedby 
PerceptiveInsight 
(42.) 
had 
heardof 
the 
NationalPhysicalActivityGuidelinesandofthosethat 
had 
heard 
of 
them, 
only 
13. 
could 
cite 
them 
correctly 
(Perceptive 
Insight, 
2015, 
p. 
5). 
There 
is, 
therefore, 
an 
urgent 
need 
to 
educate 
the 
Irish 
population 
as 
to 
the 
recommended 
levels 
of 
pa 
per 
week 
and 
the 
benefits 
of 
this 
regular 
engagement 
to 
promote 
and 
enhance 
our 
national 
pa 
levels. 
In 
wave 
1 
of 
the 
tilda 
study 
(Donoghue 
et 
al., 
2016, 
p. 
6), 
2009–2011 
results 
show 
thatonly33.oftheIrishpopulationovertheageof50 
are 
meeting 
the 
required 
levels 
of 
high 
activity 
with 
men 
(41.) 
achieving 
substantially 
greater 
standards 
than 
women(26.). 
Whencomparing 
Ireland’s 
levels 
of 
pa 
to 
fifteen 
European 
countries, 
Pi.atkowska 
and 
Pilsudski 
(2012) 
determined 
that 
Ireland 
ranked 
9th 
outof16countriesinhigh 
pa 
levels(29.vs31.3.Europeanaverage)
and 
11th 
(34.7.) 
compared 
to 
the 
Europeanaverageof31
.whenexamininglow 
pa 
levels. 
In 
both 
instances 
Ireland 
is 
performing 
below 
the 
European 
average. 


Perceptions 
of 
Active 
Leisure 
and 
PA 


pa 
is 
influenced 
by 
our 
own 
views 
and 
perceptions 
of 
ageing 
and 
the 
older 
adult. 
‘Perception 
is 
the 
process 
by 
which 
individuals 
select, 
organize, 
and 
interpret 
stimuli 
into 
a 
meaningful 
and 
coherent 
picture 
of 
the 
world’ 
(Schiffman 
& 
Wisenblit, 
2015), 
and 
differsamong 
individuals 
as 
each 
person 
processes 
these 
stimulibased 
ontheir 
ownpersonalneeds,valuesand 
expectations.Individualsthencarrybiasedpicturesin 
their 
minds 
of 
the 
meanings 
of 
various 
stimuli, 
which 
aretermed 
stereotypes(Schiffman 
& 
Wisenblit, 
2015). 


The 
Oxford 
English 
Dictionary 
defines 
a 
stereotype 
asa 
‘widelyheldbutfixedandoversimplifiedimageor 
ideaofaparticulartype 
of 
person 
orthing.’Whenage 
stereotypesbecomedirectedatoneselfinoldage,they 
can 
be 
classified 
as 
self-perceptions 
of 
ageing 
(Levy, 
2009). 


Stereotypes 
and 
how 
we 
perceive 
ourselves 
and 
othersinfluence 
if 
and 
how 
we 
exercise. 
Negativeper


68 
| 
Academica 
Turistica,Year15, 
No.1,April 
2022 



Angie 
Hartnett 
andCatherine 
Gorman 
Active 
Leisure 
andAgeing 
in 
Rural 
Ireland 


ceptions 
of 
the 
older 
adult 
can 
be 
internalised 
from 
a 
young 
age 
so 
that 
thesebeliefs 
areseento 
be 
trueof 
themselvesastheyage.Negativestereotypesoriginally 
aboutothersthenbecomenegativeself-perceptionsof 
aging 
in 
later 
life 
(Robertson 
et 
al., 
2015) 
and 
the 
effect 
of 
self-perceptions 
increases 
with 
age 
(Levy 
et 
al., 
2002). 


How 
the 
older 
adult 
perceives 
they 
are 
viewed 
in 
society 
also 
impacts 
on 
their 
pa 
behaviour. 
Egan 
et 
al. 
(2014) 
reported 
that 
negative 
public 
perceptions 
of 
olderpeople,influenced 
by 
stereotypicalviews 
of 
age-
ing, 
created 
a 
barrier 
to 
participation. 


Misconceptions 
regarding 
the 
effects 
of 
pa 
on 
illness 
or 
functional 
limitations 
hinder 
participation 
as 
some 
individuals 
deem 
pa 
to 
be 
contra-indicated 
for 
conditions 
like 
arthritis 
and 
joint 
or 
heart 
problems 
when 
actually 
the 
converseistrueand 
pa 
is 
strongly 
recommended 
for 
older 
adults 
with 
chronic 
diseases 
or 
functional 
limitations 
(Nelson 
et 
al., 
2007). 


Sargent-Coxetal.(2012)haveprovidedinsightinto 
the 
dynamic 
relationship 
between 
expectations 
regarding 
health 
and 
resultant 
physical 
function, 
with 
generalnegativeperceptionsofageingassociatedwith 
a 
decline 
in 
physical 
function. 
This 
phenomenon 
was 
also 
observed 
by 
Robertson 
et 
al. 
(2015), 
who 
deter-
minedthatmiddleagedandolderpeoplewho 
express 
strongerbeliefsregardingnegativeperceptionsofageingandlack 
ofcontrolintheprocess,exhibit 
agreater 
decline 
in 
walking 
speed 
over 
a 
2-year 
period 
than 
thosewithamorepositiveoutlook.Wurmetal.(2008) 
takethisonestepfurtheranddemonstratehowanoptimistic 
view 
of 
ageing 
has 
a 
positive 
effect 
on 
subjective 
health 
and 
life 
satisfaction, 
even 
in 
the 
face 
of 
a 
serious,unexpected 
healthevent.The 
authorsexplain 
this 
observation 
as 
a 
result 
of 
the 
older 
adult’s 
acceptance 
of 
a 
serious 
health 
event. 
They 
possibly 
see 
it 
is 
an 
inevitable 
and 
concomitant 
part 
of 
the 
ageing 
pro-
cess,whichthuscausesthemtobeimpactedfarlessby 
the 
event 
than 
younger 
individuals 
may 
be, 
for 
whom 
a 
sudden 
worsening 
of 
health 
may 
be 
unexpected. 


Burke 
et 
al. 
(2012) 
found 
co-morbidity 
to 
be 
a 
predictor 
of 
perceived 
health 
status, 
indicating 
that 
subjective 
health 
is 
dependent 
on 
physical 
health, 
making 
self-assessed 
health 
a 
good 
predictor 
of 
objective 
health. 
Interestingly, 
in 
this 
sample 
of 
60–92 
year-old 


Irish 
participants, 
functional 
health 
or 
instrumental 
activities 
of 
daily 
living 
(iadl) 
was 
the 
strongest 
predictor 
of 
self-assessed 
health. 
Murtagh 
et 
al. 
(2014), 
when 
examining 
the 
relationship 
between 
pa 
participation 
and 
health 
status, 
found 
that 
individuals 
who 
had 
poor 
perceptions 
of 
their 
health 
and 
ability 
to 
be 
active 
were 
far 
less 
likely 
to 
meet 
pa 
guidelines 
than 
those 
with 
more 
favourable 
perceptions 
about 
theirhealth.ThishasalsobeenobservedbyStewartet 
al. 
(2012), 
who 
noted 
that 
the 
more 
an 
individual 
attributed 
age 
to 
the 
onset 
of 
illness, 
the 
less 
likely 
they 
would 
be 
toengagein 
routinehealth 
maintenancebehaviours 
(pa, 
nutritious 
diet, 
adequate 
sleep) 
and 
that 
mortality 
rates 
more 
than 
doubled 
(36 
vs. 
14.) 
between 
individuals 
who 
ascribed 
old 
age 
to 
an 
illness, 
to 
those 
who 
did 
not. 


Janke 
et 
al. 
(2011) 
have 
determined 
that 
whilst 
life 
eventsmayshapeandalterourbehaviourwithregards 
to 
leisure 
in 
order 
to 
accommodate 
such 
events, 
our 
actual 
attitudes 
and 
perceptions 
remain 
fairly 
stable 
over 
time. 
However,an 
adult’slife 
experiences 
do 
also 
havetheabilitytochangeperceptionsofleisure.Moreover, 
factors 
influence 
perceived 
freedom 
in 
leisure, 
particularly 
among 
women, 
where 
reduced 
responsibility 
for 
children 
as 
they 
enter 
adulthood 
allows 
them 
more 
time 
for 
personal 
leisure. 
Thus, 
it 
seems 
that 
leisure 
attitudes, 
both 
for 
individuals 
and 
society 
as 
a 
whole, 
are 
influenced 
more 
by 
life 
experiences, 
whilstlifestructureorinterpretationofeventsis 
more 
influentialwhenconsideringperceptionoffreedomin 
leisure 
or 
perceived 
ability 
to 
engage 
in 
leisure 
(Janke 
et 
al., 
2011). 
Previous 
participation 
within 
a 
plan 
or 
structuredprogrammeby 
the 
frailolderadult 
seemed 
to 
influence 
their 
current 
perception 
of 
exercise 
and 
how 
they 
defined 
exercise, 
with 
those 
taking 
part 
in 
a 
rehabilitation 
or 
exercise-therapy 
programme 
having 
apositiveperceptionofexerciseasaresultofperceived 
positive 
outcomes. 
However, 
those 
who 
participated 
in 
sports 
or 
the 
military 
whentheywereyoungerwith 
perceived 
high 
levels 
of 
fitness, 
had 
negative 
perceptions 
of 
their 
current 
exercise 
levels 
as 
they 
defined 
exercise 
in 
terms 
of 
the 
vigorous 
activities 
of 
the 
past 
(Broderick 
et 
al., 
2015). 


In 
a 
study 
exploring 
the 
perceptions 
and 
expectations 
of 
exercise 
in 
frail 
and 
pre-frail 
older 
adults 
in 


Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|69 



Angie 
Hartnett 
andCatherine 
Gorman 
Active 
Leisure 
andAgeing 
in 
Rural 
Ireland 


Ireland, 
this 
theme 
of 
exercising 
for 
purpose 
was 
also 
highlighted 
(Broderick 
et 
al., 
2015). 
This 
population 
felt 
exercise 
to 
be 
incidental 
to 
a 
particular 
type 
of 
an 
activity, 
be 
it 
necessary,like 
manuallabour, 
or 
forfun, 
like 
dancing 
or 
riding 
their 
bikes. 
Although 
pa 
was 
acknowledged 
to 
have 
benefits 
in 
maintaining 
one’s 
health, 
promoting 
confidence 
and 
enhancing 
moods, 
exercise 
was 
perceived 
as 
a 
by-product 
of 
purposeful 
activities 
and 
occurred 
incidentally 
rather 
than 
being 
undertaken 
as 
a 
health-related 
activity 
(Broderick 
et 
al., 
2015). 
The 
benefits 
to 
pa 
in 
this 
generation 
seem 
not 
to 
be 
understood 
and 
pa 
was 
not 
valued 
for 
its 
ownsake.Thisposesachallengetopromotingexercise 
in 
the 
rural, 
older 
adult 
population 
as 
ltpa 
is 
completely 
alien 
to 
them. 


Motivation 
to 
Engage 
in 
PA 


‘Motivation 
is 
the 
driving 
force 
that 
impels 
people 
to 
act’ 
(Schiffman 
& 
Wisenblit, 
2015). 
As 
described 
by 
Homans’ 
Rational 
Choice 
Theory 
(rct), 
individuals 
are 
motivated 
by 
personal 
preferences 
and 
goals 
that 
express 
these 
preferences, 
and 
base 
their 
decisions 
on 
whatwillprovidethemwiththegreatestbenefit,satisfaction 
or 
fulfilment 
(De 
Guzman 
et 
al., 
2015). 
Whilst 
an 
individual’s 
disposition 
provides 
a 
signature 
for 
personality, 
a 
motivational 
agenda 
is 
established 
by 
one’s 
life 
goals 
or 
strivings 
and 
illustrates 
what 
a 
person 
aims, 
dreams 
or 
hopes 
to 
achieve 
in 
the 
future, 
with 
purpose 
and 
direction 
(McAdams, 
2015). 


Genderandageareoftenconsideredwhen 
exploring 
motivation 
to 
exercise. 
In 
later 
years, 
goals 
are 
more 
prevention-focused 
and 
outcomes 
are 
geared 
towards 
avoiding 
negative 
outcomes 
such 
as 
physical 
decline 
(McAdams, 
2015). 
Older 
men 
expressed 
awareness 
and 
managementof 
their 
aging 
bodies 
and 
overcoming 
physical 
challenges 
as 
motivation 
to 
engage 
in 
intentional 
pa, 
as 
a 
result 
of 
the 
value 
they 
placed 
on 
health 
(Liechty 
et 
al., 
2014). 
Participation 
in 
pa 
was 
also 
guided 
or 
motivated 
by 
the 
desire 
to 
maintainor 
improvetheability 
toengagein 
enjoyable 
activities 
or 
pastimes 
as 
well 
as 
for 
the 
sense 
of 
identity 
acquired 
through 
participation 
and 
being 
a 
physically 
active 
person 
in 
later 
years 
(Liechty 
et 
al., 
2014). 
This 
desire 
to 
be 
independent 
and 
not 
be 
a 
burden 
on 
family 
members 
was 
also 
echoed 
as 
a 
prominent 
mo


tivator 
for 
pa 
by 
frail 
older 
adults 
(Belza 
et 
al., 
2004; 
Broderick 
et 
al., 
2015), 
who 
also 
identified 
a 
sense 
of 
enjoyment 
and 
personal 
fulfilment 
as 
a 
driving 
force 
to 
exercise 
(Broderick 
et 
al., 
2015). 


Despitetheawarenessofthebenefitsofpa 
andthe 
possible 
positive 
physical 
changes 
that 
may 
have 
occurred 
as 
a 
result 
of 
the 
exercise, 
unless 
an 
individual 
has 
enjoyed 
the 
experience, 
they 
will 
be 
unlikely 
to 
continue. 
Conversely, 
when 
a 
positive 
affect 
is 
experienced, 
individuals 
are 
far 
more 
likely 
to 
negotiate 
possibleconstraintsorbarrierstoexercise,thusensuringcontinuedparticipationandthehealthbenefitsassociatedwithit. 
Involvementatayoungeragealsopre-
disposes 
people 
to 
engage 
in 
certain 
activities 
as 
they 
age, 
therefore 
the 
exposure 
to 
pa 
skills 
and 
enjoyable 
activitiesisparamountinformingpositiveattitudesto 
pa 
andincreasingthelikelihoodofcontinuedinvolvement 
as 
we 
age 
(Henderson 
& 
Ainsworth,2002). 


Older 
adults 
invest 
more 
in 
intrinsically 
valued 
ends,andplace 
greateremphasisongoalsfocusingon 
their 
health 
and 
social 
connections,particularly 
those 
related 
to 
family 
and 
close 
friends, 
rather 
than 
goals 
that 
promisefuturerewards 
(McAdams,2015). 
They 
choose 
activities 
they 
enjoy 
and 
not 
those 
they 
see 
as 
exercise 
(Liechty 
et 
al., 
2017). 


Breheny 
and 
Stephens(2017) 
explored 
the 
concept 
oftimeasamotivatingfactorfor 
pa 
intheolderadult 
(63–93 
year-olds). 
Although 
these 
individuals 
are 
encouraged 
to 
use 
their 
time 
‘productively’ 
by 
participating 
in 
sports 
activities 
in 
order 
to 
age 
healthily 
and 
contribute 
to 
society, 
this 
form 
of 
engagement 
can 
be 
excluding 
when 
they 
can 
no 
longer 
maintain 
thelevelofhealthrequired.‘Personaltime,’incontrast 
to 
the 
productive 
ageing 
concept 
where 
long-term 
activity 
plans 
promoted 
health 
and 
well-being, 
constructs 
the 
notion 
of 
time 
as 
short 
and 
uncertain 
and 
as 
such 
activities 
that 
brought 
immediate 
enjoyment 
to 
the 
individual 
were 
prioritised 
in 
recognition 
of 
mortalityandinevitable 
decline(Breheny&Stephens, 
2017). 
The 
‘personal 
time’ 
discourse 
is 
‘an 
available 
resource 
that 
incorporates 
the 
inevitability 
of 
decline 
and 
supports 
participation 
and 
pleasurewhile 
there 
is 
still 
time’ 
(Breheny 
& 
Stephens,2017), 
and 
this 
notion 
can 
also 
be 
broadened 
to 
incorporate 
leisure 
time 
and 
tourism 
with 
‘bucket 
lists’ 
and 
‘30 
things 
to 
do 
before 


70 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Angie 
Hartnett 
andCatherine 
Gorman 
Active 
Leisure 
andAgeing 
in 
Rural 
Ireland 


youdie’ 
(TheTravelBucketList:30ThingsToDobefore 
You 
Die, 
n.d.)asanincentivetotravelandseekimmediatefulfilment.
Thissentimentofinstantgratification 
hasbeen 
echoedby 
Lenneis 
andPfister(2017)in 
their 
exploration 
of 
the 
motivation 
of 
middle-aged 
(45–55 
years) 
women 
to 
play 
a 
team 
sport 
(floorball), 
where 
cooperationwithothersandexperiencesofimmediate 
success 
are 
motives 
to 
participate. 


The 
motivation 
to 
initially 
commence 
a 
pa 
pro-
gramme 
and 
then 
maintain 
it, 
are 
often 
quite 
different. 
Seekamp 
et 
al. 
(2016) 
determined 
that 
the 
physical 
benefits 
of 
walking, 
as 
well 
the 
accountability 
(reportingback)
andpedometers(increasingstepcount), 
prompted 
rural, 
inactive 
Australians 
(40–65 
years) 
to 
engage 
in 
a 
six-week 
walking 
intervention 
pro-
gramme, 
whilst 
the 
mental 
benefits, 
in 
conjunction 
with 
positive 
self-talk 
and 
focusing 
on 
personal 
goals, 
motivated 
them 
to 
continue 
walking. 
pa 
self-efficacy 
and 
social 
support 
are 
considered 
to 
be 
key 
factors 
when 
adopting 
and 
maintaining 
a 
pa 
regime. 
‘Physical 
activity 
and 
self-efficacy 
refers 
to 
an 
individual’s 
confidence 
in 
his/her 
ability 
to 
engage 
in 
physical 
activity, 
even 
when 
encountering 
barriers, 
whereas 
social 
support 
encompasses 
various 
types 
of 
encouragement 
and 
assistance 
for 
engaging 
in 
pa’ 
(Becofsky 
et 
al., 
2014). 
Mode 
of 
delivery 
of 
an 
intervention 
is 
an 
important 
consideration 
as 
group 
programmes 
foster 
and 
increase 
both 
self-efficacy 
and 
social 
support, 
whereasone-on-onefeedbackmerelyfacilitatesanin-
creaseinself-efficacy.Itisnoteworthythatself-efficacy 
mediates 
programme 
effects 
and 
is 
vital 
in 
pa 
adoptionregardlessofhowtheprogrammeisdelivered(
Becofsky 
et 
al., 
2014). 


According 
to 
social 
cognitive 
theories, 
the 
most 
important 
factor 
determining 
whether 
an 
individual 
will 
engage 
in 
exercise, 
is 
whether 
or 
not 
they 
believe 
they 
can 
perform 
the 
activity, 
even 
in 
adversity, 
and 
whether 
they 
deem 
there 
to 
be 
sufficient 
rewards 
or 
benefits 
from 
participating, 
e.g. 
fitness 
gains 
or 
fun 
(Warner 
et 
al., 
2011). 
‘Perceivedself-efficacy 
is 
defined 
as 
people’s 
beliefs 
about 
their 
capabilities 
to 
produce 
designated 
levels 
of 
performance 
that 
exercise 
influenceovereventsthataffecttheirlives’(
Bandura,1994). 
Warner 
et 
al. 
(2011) 
highlight 
the 
synergistic 
relationship 
between 
self-efficacy 
and 
social 
support. 
Older 


(=65years)individuals 
withlowself-efficacywereun-
likely 
to 
be 
active 
even 
if 
they 
had 
social 
support, 
and 
individuals 
with 
low 
social 
support 
were 
less 
likely 
to 
be 
physically 
active 
even 
if 
they 
had 
high 
self-efficacy. 
This 
emphasizes 
the 
need 
to 
consider 
both 
resources 
when 
moderating 
behaviour 
change 
as 
the 
likelihood 
of 
engaging 
in 
exercise 
is 
dependent 
on 
support 
from 
friends,coupledwithastrongself-beliefinone’sability 
to 
succeed 
(Warner 
et 
al., 
2011). 


Gender 
Differences 


Davis 
et 
al. 
(2012) 
have 
determined 
that 
gender, 
age 
and 
level 
of 
education 
influence 
the 
type 
and 
level 
of 
participation 
in 
rural 
areas, 
with 
women 
more 
regularly 
engaging 
in 
social 
activity, 
with 
the 
exception 
of 
sport 
which 
is 
favoured 
by 
men. 


Kozakai 
et 
al. 
(2012) 
have 
noted 
gender 
differences 
in 
popular 
activities 
throughout 
the 
life 
course, 
with 
men 
preferring 
ball 
sports 
and 
women 
favouring 
dance 
or 
gymnastics. 
This 
gender 
difference 
has 
also 
beenobservedbyGiulietal.(2011), 
whonoteaerobics 
as 
a 
popular 
choice 
of 
pa 
in 
women, 
with 
interest 
or 
preferences 
for 
different 
activities 
varying 
from 
culture 
to 
culture. 
Whilst 
running, 
swimming 
and 
exercise 
arethe 
mostpopular 
activities 
amongstboth 
men 
and 
women 
in 
Ireland, 
differences 
in 
pa 
preference 
then 
emerge 
with 
team 
based 
sports 
(rugby, 
soccer, 
hurlingandGaelicfootball)favouredbymenandyoga 
or 
Pilates 
preferred 
by 
women. 
Younger 
women 
are 
alsonowspendingmoretimeindoors,withgymbased 
(weights) 
and 
class 
activities 
(Pilates) 
the 
preference 
forthe25–34year-oldagebracket.Intheolderpopulation, 
golf 
(men) 
and 
dancing 
(men 
and 
women) 
is 
the 
preference 
for 
those 
aged 
=65 
years 
which 
highlights 
gender 
differences 
in 
pa 
throughout 
the 
life 
course 
(Sport 
Ireland 
& 
Ipsos 
mrbi, 
2015, 
pp. 
18, 
21). 


Initiatives 


Despite 
numerous 
national 
initiatives 
to 
promote 
Active 
Leisure 
(al) 
and 
pa 
in 
the 
older 
population, 
uptake 
and 
participation 
rates, 
particularly 
in 
the 
frail 
andruralpopulations,remainlow(Colleyetal.,2011). 
Thereisanissuewithengagementwiththiscohortand 
previous 
studies 
examiningthebarriersand 
exclusion 
ofolderadultsincommunity 
initiativesnotedthatthe 


Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|71 



Angie 
Hartnett 
andCatherine 
Gorman 
Active 
Leisure 
andAgeing 
in 
Rural 
Ireland 


most 
commonly 
cited 
risk 
factor 
was 
the 
mind-set 
of 
theolderpeoplethemselves(O’Sheaetal.,2012).Local 
Sports 
Partnerships 
(lsps) 
work 
in 
conjunction 
with 
SportsIreland, 
‘the 
authority 
taskedwith 
thedevelopment 
of 
sport 
in 
Ireland’ 
(Sport 
Ireland, 
n.d.a), 
yet 
the 
programmesarenottargetedforourolderpopulation, 
but 
rather 
geared 
towards 
all 
adults 
over 
the 
age 
of 
55. 
Communication 
of 
programmesis 
also 
limited 
as 
it 
is 
directed 
online 
via 
newsletters 
or 
websites 
which 
the 
majority 
of 
this 
cohort 
would 
not 
access, 
which 
contributes 
to 
the 
lack 
of 
knowledge 
of, 
and 
thus 
engage-
mentwith,localinitiatives.Programmesarealsooften 
far 
too 
generic 
and 
aimed 
at 
‘older 
adults 
of 
all 
abilities’ 
(Sport 
Ireland, 
n.d.b) 
rather 
than 
catering 
for 
a 
wider 
range 
of 
age 
groups, 
fitness 
abilities 
and 
physical 
health. 


Tourism 
and 
the 
Older 
Adult 


Developed 
by 
the 
economist 
Max-Neef 
in 
1991, 
the 
Human 
Scale 
Development 
identifies 
idleness 
time 
or 
leisure 
as 
one 
of 
the 
fundamental 
needs 
of 
human 
beings 
(Max-Neef, 
1992,p.32).Leisure 
has 
been 
described 
as 
‘activity 
– 
apart 
from 
the 
obligations 
of 
work, 
family 
and 
society 
– 
to 
which 
the 
individual 
turnsatwill,foreitherrelaxation,diversion,orbroadening 
his 
knowledge 
and 
his 
spontaneous 
social 
participation, 
the 
free 
exercise 
of 
his 
creative 
capacity’ 
(Veal, 
1992). 
As 
we 
get 
older, 
the 
ability 
to 
engage 
in 
leisure 
time 
is 
determined 
by 
our 
ability 
to 
function 
bothphysicallyandmentally. 
Aphysicallyactiveolder 
person 
can 
engage 
far 
more 
than 
one 
who 
has 
limitations. 


‘Individualsbecometouristswhentheyvoluntarily 
leavetheirnormalsurroundings,wheretheyreside,to 
visitanotherenvironment’(Camilleri,2018,p. 
3). 
This 
physical 
and 
mental 
requirement 
of 
‘being 
a 
tourist’ 
acts 
as 
a 
stimulus, 
thus 
providing 
an 
adventure 
and 
a 
time 
for 
leisure 
and 
relaxation 
in 
surroundings 
different 
to 
one’s 
own. 


Harper(2014)describesfuturegenerationsofolder 
adults 
as 
having 
‘higher 
levels 
of 
human 
capital 
in 
terms 
of 
education, 
skills, 
and 
abilities 
and 
better 
health 
profiles, 
and 
this 
will 
enable 
them 
to 
remain 
active,productiveandcontributoryforfarlonger.’Patterson 
and 
Balderas 
(2020) 
assert 
that 
travel 
provides 


the 
means 
to 
achieve 
a 
better 
health 
profile, 
adjust 
to 
retirement 
and 
improve 
quality 
of 
life, 
and 
seniors, 
defined 
as 
empty 
nesters 
(55–64 
years), 
young 
seniors 
(65–79 
years) 
and 
seniors 
(80+ 
years), 
now 
constitute 
a 
prime 
market 
segment 
as 
they 
tend 
to 
have 
more 
spare 
time, 
more 
capital 
and 
be 
more 
independent 
than 
younger 
adults 
(Nimrod 
& 
Rotem, 
2010; 
Gu 
et 
al., 
2016; 
Patterson 
& 
Balderas, 
2020). 


Numerous 
benefits 
in 
an 
older 
population 
can 
be 
attributed 
to 
tourism. 
Gu 
et 
al. 
(2016) 
found 
while 
researching 
an 
older 
Chinese 
population 
that 
those 
that 
engaged 
in 
tourism 
reported 
better 
self-rated 
health 
which 
is 
a 
valid 
indicator 
of 
their 
overall 
health 
condition. 
They 
advocate 
that 
tourism 
participation 
may 
improve 
cognitive 
function 
through 
new 
learning 
opportunities 
and 
encourage 
a 
positive 
psychological 
state 
with 
reduced 
depression, 
increased 
social 
con-
nectionandspiritual 
well-being.Theamountofphysical 
activity 
(e.g. 
walking) 
during 
a 
trip 
may 
also 
be 
sufficient 
to 
promote 
and 
improve 
the 
physical 
health 
ofolderadults,highlightingtheimportanceoftourism 
inpromotinghealthyageing(Guetal.,2016). 
Theparticipation 
in 
nature-based 
tourism, 
activities 
with 
a 
focus 
on 
enjoying 
natural 
attractions 
(e.g. 
bird 
watching, 
fishing 
and 
walking 
in 
forests), 
may 
promote 
the 
health 
of 
active 
tourists 
as 
they 
involve 
pa 
(Chang, 
2014). 
They 
can 
also 
promote 
relaxation, 
thereby 
relieving 
stress, 
through 
exposure 
to 
natural 
environments 
(Chang, 
2014) 
which 
in 
turn 
promotes 
general 
well-being. 


Nimrod 
and 
Rotem 
(2010) 
have 
described 
the 
heterogeneity 
of 
the 
older 
adults’ 
tourism 
segment, 
with 
significant 
variability 
between 
subgroups, 
based 
on 
motivations, 
in 
this 
older 
cohort. 
They 
described 
associations 
between 
destination 
activities 
and 
benefits 
gained, 
with 
the 
‘physical 
destination 
activity 
factor’ 
(exercise 
and 
wellness 
activities) 
correlating 
highly 
with 
the 
benefit 
of 
‘relaxation’ 
(restful, 
healthful 
and 
the 
feeling 
of 
being 
relaxed). 


In 
Ireland, 
a 
recent 
2021 
campaign 
aimed 
specifically 
at 
the 
older 
market, 
‘Golden 
Ireland,’ 
seeks 
to 
attractthe 
over55sto 
various 
formsof 
soft 
(active 
and 
passive)tourism.AsidentifiedbyPatterson&Balderas 
(2020), 
theseniors 
orolderadultmarketisonethatin 
many 
cases 
has 
experienced 
travel 
and 
knows 
what 


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Hartnett 
andCatherine 
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Active 
Leisure 
andAgeing 
in 
Rural 
Ireland 


they 
want 
in 
terms 
of 
experience. 
This 
is 
a 
growing 
market, 
with 
the 
Central 
Statistics 
Office 
in 
Ireland 
predicting 
that 
those 
aged 
over 
65 
will 
increase 
to 
almost 
1.6 
million 
by 
2051 
(Central 
Statistics 
Office, 
2017). 
An 
older 
person’s 
decision 
and 
ability 
to 
participate 
in 
tourism 
requires 
a 
degree 
of 
independence 
that 
can 
be 
enhanced 
by 
remaining 
physically 
active. 
Thus, 
pa 
opens 
up 
or 
rather 
keeps 
open 
the 
world 
of 
leisure 
and 
tourism, 
contributing 
to 
better 
quality 
of 
life 
(qol). 


Discussion 


Perceived 
barriers 
to 
pa, 
in 
terms 
of 
motivation 
(lack 
of 
enjoyment), 
social 
support 
(neighbourhood 
safety, 
opportunities 
for 
socialising) 
and 
lack 
of 
time 
(poor 
time 
management, 
access 
to 
facilities, 
lack 
of 
family 
support) 
have 
a 
huge 
impact 
on 
participation 
levels, 
and 
understanding 
these 
influences 
may 
contribute 
to 
more 
effective 
strategies 
in 
removing 
barriers 
in 
different 
social 
groups 
and 
modifying 
pa 
behaviour, 
thusincreasingparticipationlevels(Cerinetal.,2010). 
When 
examining 
the 
barriers 
and 
exclusion 
of 
older 
Irish 
adults 
in 
community 
initiatives, 
stakeholders 
noted 
that 
the 
most 
commonly 
cited 
risk 
factor 
was 
the 
mind-set 
of 
the 
older 
people 
themselves 
(O’Shea 
et 
al., 
2012). 
They 
offeredthree 
possible 
explanations 
for 
the 
lack 
of 
engagement 
in 
local 
activities: 
older 
people 
not 
wanting 
to 
accept 
what 
may 
be 
construed 
as 
charitableassistance 
due 
to 
a 
negative 
stigma, 
feelings 
of 
being 
unworthy 
of 
public 
assistance 
due 
to 
perceptions 
of 
having 
more 
than 
previous 
generations, 
and 
simplypreferringtoliveinisolation,allofwhichcombine 
to 
keep 
them 
marginalised 
and 
outside 
of 
public 
and 
social 
spheres 
of 
influence 
(O’Shea 
et 
al., 
2012). 
It 
mustalsobenotedthanwhenthispopulationarepresentedwithanopportunitytocontributetoresearchin 
thisarea,they 
choose 
largelyto 
abstain, 
as 
was 
theexperience 
of 
the 
researcher 
when 
conducting 
a 
refinement 
exercise 
with 
a 
rural, 
active 
retirement 
group. 
Only 
25. 
of 
respondents 
to 
a 
survey, 
conducted 
to 
narrowdownaPhDresearchquestion,volunteeredto 
be 
contacted 
for 
future 
research 
into 
the 
respondents’ 
preferred 
area 
of 
research, 
highlighting 
their 
general 
ambivalence 
to 
contributing 
to 
a 
possible 
solution. 


Sargent-Cox 
et 
al. 
(2012) 
advocate 
that 
the 
ageing 


stereotypes 
informing 
our 
expectations 
surrounding 
health 
outcomes 
in 
old 
age 
tend 
to 
be 
negative, 
focusing 
on 
frailty, 
disability 
and 
dependence, 
yet 
normal 
ageing 
is 
not 
characterised 
by 
declining 
mobility 
or 
physical 
function. 
When 
targeting 
the 
older 
adult 
in 
terms 
of 
interventions 
to 
foster 
and 
encourage 
pa, 
it 
mustbeacknowledgedthattheage-relatedstereotypes 
of 
participants 
may 
actually 
undermine 
the 
efforts 
to 
modify 
behaviour, 
thus 
necessitating 
an 
initial 
challengeofnegativebeliefs 
about 
ageingin 
order 
to 
optimise 
the 
health 
promotion 
(Stewart 
et 
al., 
2012). 
Pro-
grammes 
that 
challenge 
and 
combat 
ageing 
misconceptions 
may 
be 
an 
important 
strategy 
to 
counteract 
negativeageexpectationsandself-fulfillingprophecies 
(Sargent-Cox 
et 
al., 
2012). 
Yet 
Liechty 
et 
al. 
(2014) 
determined 
that 
participation 
in 
pa 
is 
not 
undertaken 
to 
challenge 
ageing 
stereotypes 
or 
to 
change 
the 
discourse 
of 
ageing, 
but 
rather 
for 
the 
individual’s 
own 
agenda 
of 
reducing 
age-related 
decline 
in 
health 
and 
ability. 


A 
study 
by 
Witcher 
et 
al. 
(2016) 
exploring 
pa 
perceptions 
and 
influences 
among 
older, 
rural 
adults 
in 
Nova 
Scotia 
found 
that 
patterns 
of 
activity 
were 
related 
to 
participants’ 
earlier 
life 
experiences. 
Activity 
was 
confined 
more 
to 
work 
and 
productive 
tasks, 
with 
leisure-time 
activity 
participation 
(ltpa) 
a 
relatively 
new 
concept. 
People 
walked 
for 
a 
purpose, 
notjustfor 
‘the 
sake 
of 
things.’ 
Alackofawareness 
as 
to 
what 
constituted 
exercise 
and 
facilities 
was 
also 
highlighted. 
Previously 
no 
place 
to 
exercise 
existed 
in 
this 
population 
with 
walking 
and 
running 
being 
the 
norm, 
although 
these 
activities 
were 
not 
perceived 
as 
exercise. 
Historical 
context 
is, 
therefore, 
a 
huge 
factor 
when 
considering 
pa 
in 
any 
given 
population 
and 
seems 
to 
determine 
current 
experiences 
and 
perceptions 
ofexercise(Witcheretal.,2016).These 
adults 
placed 
a 
value 
on 
work-related 
activity, 
often 
continuing 
this 
ethic 
into 
their 
current 
lives, 
with 
leisure 
ac-
tivitylackingpurposeorusefulness.Thisposesachallenge 
to 
promoting 
exercise 
in 
the 
rural, 
older 
population, 
prompting 
the 
exploration 
of 
exercise 
pro-
grammes 
focusing 
on 
functional 
outcomes, 
such 
as 
community 
gardens 
and 
dog 
walking, 
as 
more 
suitable 
for 
this 
population. 


The 
Local 
Sports 
Partnerships 
(lsps) 
categorised 


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Hartnett 
andCatherine 
Gorman 
Active 
Leisure 
andAgeing 
in 
Rural 
Ireland 


the 
primary 
effect 
of 
each 
of 
their 
initiatives 
under 
thepillarsofthe 
com-b 
BehaviourChangeModel,in 
order 
to 
determine 
the 
effect 
of 
their 
programmes 
in 
increasing 
participation 
in 
sport 
and 
pa 
(Sport 
Ireland, 
2019, 
p. 
22). 
This 
model 
suggests 
that 
an 
individual 
should 
have 
Capability 
(Physical 
and 
Psychological), 
Opportunity 
(Physical 
and 
Social) 
and 
Motivation 
(Reflective 
and 
Automatic) 
in 
order 
to 
change 
behaviour. 
lsp 
initiatives 
to 
date 
have 
largely 
targetedPhysicalCapability(skilldevelopment–55.), 
with 
Psychological 
Capability 
(knowledge 
development 
– 
6.), 
Physical 
Opportunity 
(facilities, 
access, 
discounts, 
etc. 
– 
13.), 
Social 
Opportunity 
(development 
of 
pa 
culture 
– 
10.), 
Reflective 
Motivation 
(pa 
goals 
– 
6.) 
and 
Automatic 
Motivation 
(habit 
development 
– 
7.) 
making 
up 
the 
remaining 
43. 
(2. 
not 
stated), 
highlighting 
the 
need 
for 
increased 
focus 
on 
these 
latter 
five 
pillars 
if 
behaviour 
is 
to 
be 
modified 
(Sport 
Ireland, 
2019, 
p. 
22). 


Despite 
the 
success 
of 
the 
lsp 
initiatives 
in 
targeting 
the 
correct 
individuals, 
with 
8 
out 
of 
10 
participants 
not 
meeting 
the 
National 
Physical 
Activity 
Guidelines 
at 
registration 
and 
more 
than 
25. 
being 
classed 
as 
inactive, 
the 
participant 
figures 
for 
our 
Go 
For 
Life 
(national 
programme 
for 
sport 
and 
physical 
activity 
for 
older 
adults 
in 
Ireland 
– 
2,746) 
and 
Older 
Adult 
Initiatives 
(9,168) 
are 
quite 
low, 
yet 
it 
must 
be 
acknowledgedthatolderadultsmayhaveparticipated 
in 
other 
programmes 
offered 
by 
the 
lsps 
(Sport 
Ireland, 
2019, 
p. 
21). 
This 
could 
perhaps 
be 
explained 
by 
thedifficultiesexpressedbythe 
lsp 
networkinbuilding 
awareness 
of 
opportunities 
amongst 
the 
hard-to-
reach 
target 
groups, 
like 
the 
rural, 
older 
population. 
This 
challenge 
will 
be 
addressed 
by 
the 
provision 
of 
Building 
Awareness 
and 
Promotional 
Guidelines 
by 
Sport 
Ireland 
to 
the 
lsps 
and 
the 
support 
to 
implement 
them, 
in 
order 
to 
ensure 
‘the 
broadest 
possible 
participation 
ensuring 
quality 
and 
accessibility 
for 
all 
groups’ 
in 
line 
with 
the 
National 
Sports 
Policy 
(p. 
67). 


Choice 
has 
been 
shown 
to 
make 
activity 
rewarding 
and 
meaningful 
(Davis 
et 
al., 
2012), 
highlighting 
a 
need 
for 
a 
range 
of 
leisure 
time 
physical 
activities 
(ltpas) 
that 
cater 
for 
a 
wide 
variety 
of 
needs, 
abilities 
and 
preferences 
(Nimrod 
& 
Rotem, 
2010). 
This 
hasalsobeenhighlightedinthetourismliteraturewith 


motivationstoparticipateintourismvaryingbetween 
older 
adults 
based 
on 
their 
interests 
and 
preferences. 
According 
to 
Rowinski 
et 
al. 
(2017), 
health 
conditions 
associatedwithagingmightberelatedtodisabilityand 
lead 
to 
decreased 
independence. 
pa 
assists 
in 
maintaining 
independence 
throughout 
life 
as 
well 
as 
improving 
quality 
of 
life. 
In 
a 
study 
conducted 
on 
older 
people 
of 
over 
65 
years 
in 
Poland 
both 
with 
and 
without 
disabilities, 
the 
most 
frequently 
indicated 
barrier 
to 
participation 
in 
sport 
pa 
and 
tourism 
were 
health 
conditions. 
They 
suggest 
common 
strategies 
and 
pro-
grammes 
to 
increase 
pa 
among 
older 
people 
may 
be 
utilized 
for 
both 
individuals 
with 
and 
without 
a 
dis-
ability,thusincreasingolderadults’ 
independenceand 
ability 
to 
participate 
in 
both 
tourism 
and 
sport 
physical 
activities. 


In 
an 
Irish 
context, 
Egan 
et 
al. 
(2014) 
highlighted 
the 
fact 
that 
meaningful 
pa 
engagement 
at 
both 
ends 
ofthe 
age 
spectrum 
(12–18 
years;65 
years 
and 
over) 
as 
well 
as 
for 
individuals 
with 
physical, 
intellectual 
and 
sensory 
disabilities, 
is 
hindered 
by 
structural 
factors 
and 
public 
unawareness 
of 
the 
Irish 
population’s 
diversity,
emphasizingtheimportanceoftailoring 
pa 
to 
differentagegroupsandspecificneedsthroughoutthe 
life 
course. 


Whilst 
the 
health 
benefits 
of 
exercise 
may 
initially 
motivate 
individuals 
who 
do 
not 
exercise 
regularly 
to 
engagein 
pa 
orleisureactivities,unlesstheyenjoythe 
experience 
they 
are 
unlikely 
to 
change 
this 
inherent 
behaviour.Negativeexperiencesofpa 
inthepasthave 
resulted 
in 
abstinence 
from 
leisure 
time 
exercise 
as 
they 
age. 
Facilitating 
opportunities 
to 
find 
and 
participate 
in 
enjoyable 
activities 
is 
paramount 
in 
ensuring 
thatbarrierstoexercisearenegotiatedandhealthyliving 
for 
the 
entire 
family 
and 
community 
is 
promoted 
(Henderson 
& 
Ainsworth, 
2002). 


Liechty 
etal. 
(2017) 
highlighted 
thatwhilst 
retirees 
valued 
physically 
active 
leisure 
and 
intended 
to 
be 
active 
in 
retirement, 
incorporating 
it 
into 
daily 
life 
and 
maintainingroutineswasnotalwayseasy,particularly 
if 
the 
activity 
was 
disliked. 
This 
highlights 
the 
importance 
of 
making 
pa 
meaningful 
and 
enjoyable 
for 
older 
people 
as 
preferences 
for 
casual, 
unstructured 
activities 
that 
were 
driven 
by 
goals 
other 
than 
health 
and 
fitness 
(e.g. 
gardening) 
were 
identified. 
Liechty 


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2022 



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Hartnett 
andCatherine 
Gorman 
Active 
Leisure 
andAgeing 
in 
Rural 
Ireland 


et 
al. 
(2017) 
suggested 
that 
participants 
valued 
pa 
as 
part 
of 
ageing 
well 
and 
selected 
meaningful 
activities 
that 
would 
contribute 
to 
physical 
well-being 
in 
later 
life, 
provided 
those 
activities 
were 
enjoyable 
and 
did 
not 
interfere 
with 
other 
valued 
activities. 
Participants 
require 
more 
from 
leisure 
than 
health 
benefits 
and 
will 
exchange 
pa 
activities 
for 
less 
active 
ones 
if 
they 
are 
deemed 
to 
bring 
more 
pleasure 
and 
fun, 
therefore 
the 
vast 
range 
of 
personal 
preferences 
and 
sources 
of 
meaning 
and 
value 
in 
leisure 
experiences 
needs 
to 
be 
considered 
(Liechty 
et 
al., 
2017). 


As 
described 
by 
Arnadottir 
et 
al. 
(2009) 
in 
Cassarino 
and 
Setti 
(2015), 
location 
of 
residence 
may 
dictate 
thetype 
of 
activity 
individuals 
engagein, 
with 
urbandwellersparticipatinginmoreleisure-
orientedactivity,
versustheincreasedworkormanual-relatedactivity, 
like 
farming, 
performed 
by 
their 
rural 
counterparts. 
Witcher 
et 
al. 
(2016) 
and 
Broderick 
et 
al. 
(2015) 
havealsohighlightedtheeffectsoflifeexperiencesand 
exercisingforpurposeasachallengetopromoting 
pa 
in 
rural 
populations 
with 
a 
need 
to 
either 
educate 
this 
population 
as 
to 
the 
benefits 
of 
ltpa, 
or 
instigate 
initiatives 
like 
community 
gardens 
where 
patterns 
of 
activity 
would 
be 
work-related 
or 
purposeful. 
Activity 
wouldbe 
thusbe 
meaningfulfor 
ruraladultsandthey 
would 
be 
far 
more 
likely 
to 
engage. 


The 
ideology 
of 
positive 
ageing 
was 
advocated 
by 
the 
World 
Health 
Organisation 
(who) 
in 
their 
Active 
Ageing 
Policy 
framework 
that 
embraced 
the 
opportunitiesforhealthparticipationandsecuritytoenhance 
quality 
of 
life, 
whilst 
continuing 
to 
be 
productivemembersofsociety 
througheconomic,social 
and 
cultural 
contributions 
(Boyes, 
2013). 


Active 
ageing 
is 
described 
as 
‘the 
process 
of 
optimizing 
opportunities 
for 
health, 
participation 
and 
security 
in 
order 
to 
enhance 
quality 
of 
life 
as 
people 
age’ 
(World 
Health 
Organization, 
2002). 
There 
are 
4 
pillars 
of 
active 
ageing 
viz. 
health 
(enhancing 
physical 
and 
mental 
health 
and 
reducing 
health 
inequalities), 
lifelong 
learning 
(to 
remain 
relevant 
and 
engaged 
in 
society), 
participation 
(engagement 
in 
work 
or 
pursuits 
that 
bring 
fulfilment) 
and 
security 
(physical 
and 
social 
protection) 
that 
underlie 
and 
guide 
the 
definitions 
and 
policies 
(International 
Longevity 
Centre 
Brazil, 
2015). 
Itisconceptualised 
asamultidimen


sional 
phenomenon 
which 
was 
supported 
by 
Rowe 
and 
Kahn 
(1987) 
who 
proposed 
that 
successful 
ageing 
includednotonlythephysical 
factorssuchaslifestyle, 
habits,ageandhealthbutthepsychosocialfactorslike 
feelings 
of 
autonomy 
and 
social 
support. 


Activeageingstimulatesandpromotestheongoing 
participationofolderadultsduringtheoldestphaseof 
life, 
rather 
than 
equating 
it 
with 
rest 
(Boudiny, 
2013) 
and 
is 
also 
supported 
by 
Liechty 
et 
al. 
(2017) 
who 
maintain 
that 
‘successful 
ageing’ 
occurs 
when 
older 
adultsengageinavarietyofactivities,including 
being 
atourist. 


Conclusion 


Older, 
rural 
adults 
are 
not 
aware 
of 
the 
benefits 
of 
pa 
andperceiveit 
assomethingmeanteitherforyounger 
people 
or 
to 
fulfil 
a 
particular 
function 
(Broderick 
et 
al., 
2015; 
Witcher 
et 
al., 
2016). 
Current 
initiatives 
to 
promote 
pa 
in 
this 
population 
are 
not 
working. 
Perhaps 
the 
focus 
of 
future 
initiatives 
should 
rather 
be 
placed 
on 
the 
social 
aspect 
and 
enjoyment 
of 
the 
activity 
rather 
than 
the 
health 
benefits 
as 
enjoyment 
of 
pa 
has 
been 
shown 
to 
be 
a 
primary 
motivator 
in 
engagement 
(Henderson 
& 
Ainsworth, 
2002; 
Broderick 
et 
al., 
2015) 
and 
activities 
that 
brought 
immediate 
enjoyment 
to 
the 
individual 
were 
prioritised 
in 
recognition 
of 
mortality 
and 
inevitable 
decline 
(Breheny 
& 
Stephens,2017). 
Tourismoffersafurtheralternativeto 
promoting 
activity 
as 
it 
has 
been 
shown 
to 
improve 
the 
health 
of 
older 
adults, 
even 
the 
oldest 
old, 
and 
is 
thusaneffectivewayofstimulatinghealthyageing(Gu 
et 
al., 
2016). 
Choice 
has 
also 
been 
shown 
to 
make 
activity 
rewarding 
and 
meaningful 
(Davis 
et 
al., 
2012), 
highlightinganeedforarangeof 
ltpas 
thatcaterfor 
a 
wide 
variety 
of 
needs, 
abilities 
and 
preferences. 
It 
is 
also 
important 
to 
be 
aware 
that 
the 
meaning 
of 
an 
active 
life 
may 
change 
over 
the 
life 
course 
and 
that 
this 
dynamicprocessneedstobebothadaptableandaccessibleinorderforadultstoageactivelyandsuccessfully 
(Boudiny, 
2013). 


The 
factors 
that 
hinder 
pa 
in 
older 
adults 
also 
impact 
tourism 
participation. 
Stereotyping 
of 
older 
adults 
may 
prevent 
them 
from 
participating 
in 
social 
activities 
like 
tourism 
as 
they 
tend 
to 
disengage 
from 
society, 
and 
ruralolder 
adultsare 
lesslikely 
than 


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April 
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Hartnett 
andCatherine 
Gorman 
Active 
Leisure 
andAgeing 
in 
Rural 
Ireland 


their 
urban 
counterparts 
to 
engage 
in 
tourism 
(Gu 
et 
al., 
2016). 
Tourism 
has 
also 
been 
negatively 
associated 
with 
poor 
self-rated 
health, 
which 
is 
impacted 
by 
pa,as 
Irish 
adults 
whoreport 
highlevels 
of 
pa 
havehigherlevelsofself-ratedhealth(Donoghueetal. 
2016, 
p. 
7) 
and 
tourism 
promotes 
relaxation 
(Nimrod 
&Rotem,2010)whichinturndecreasesstressandthus 
increasesself-rated 
health. 
Menhave 
alsobeenshown 
to 
participate 
in 
tourism 
more 
thanwomen 
(Gu 
et 
al., 
2016) 
which 
is 
consistent 
with 
the 
significantly 
higher 
levels 
of 
pa 
reported 
by 
older 
men 
than 
women 
(Sun 
et 
al., 
2013; 
Nolan 
et 
al., 
2014). 


Despitedifferingmotivationsfortravel,olderadults 
seem 
to 
choose 
a 
combination 
of 
activities 
that 
yield 
similar 
benefits 
(Nimrod 
& 
Rotem, 
2010). 
Due 
to 
the 
growth 
in 
the 
older 
market, 
the 
motivations 
for 
travel 
by 
seniors 
will 
have 
to 
be 
accommodated 
by 
all 
stakeholders 
in 
order 
to 
meet 
their 
travel 
needs. 
Further 
research 
needs 
tobe 
undertaken 
toexplore 
the 
types 
ofchoicesseniortouristswantinthefuture,inorderto 
accountforthesechangesinaproactivewayandspecifypracticalimplicationsfortheindustry(
Patterson& 
Balderas, 
2020). 


Further 
research 
and 
evidence 
of 
pa 
in 
older 
people 
is 
needed,so 
that 
public 
health 
sectors 
can 
formulate 
initiatives 
and 
strategies 
to 
extend 
the 
lives 
and 
health 
of 
this 
population 
(Sun 
et 
al., 
2013). 
A 
lack 
of 
input 
from 
our 
senior 
population 
to 
date 
highlights 
the 
importance 
of 
recommending 
that 
awareness 
and 
information 
should 
precede 
any 
future 
research. 
This 
would 
ensure 
that 
this 
cohort 
take 
responsibility 
for 
their 
ageing 
and 
willingly 
participatein 
the 
formation 
of 
a 
solution 
or 
national 
framework 
to 
guarantee 
the 
likelihood 
of 
all 
older 
adults 
in 
rural 
Ireland 
participating 
in 
pa 
initiatives, 
and 
having 
the 
means 
and 
ability 
to 
age 
successfully 
in 
place. 


In 
order 
to 
explore 
older 
populations 
a 
dynamic 
approach 
is 
required. 
Future 
research 
will 
be 
under-
pinnedbyResponsibleResearchandInnovation(rri): 
‘a 
dynamic, 
iterative 
process 
by 
which 
all 
stakeholders 
involved 
in 
the 
r&i 
practice 
become 
mutually 
responsive 
and 
share 
responsibility 
regarding 
both 
the 
outcomes 
and 
process 
requirements’ 
(Kupper 
et 
al., 
2015). 
The 
concepts 
of 
meaning-making 
to 
leisure, 
focusing 
on 
perceptions 
and 
motivations 
of 
a 
rural 


based 
population, 
is 
a 
gap 
that 
needs 
to 
be 
explored 
further. 
Collaborating 
with 
a 
stakeholder 
group, 
the 
Men’s 
Health 
Forum 
in 
Ireland 
(an 
organisation 
that 
principally 
‘seeks 
to 
promote 
and 
enhance 
all 
aspects 
of 
the 
health 
and 
well-being 
of 
males 
on 
the 
island 
of 
Ireland’ 
yet 
also 
promotes 
the 
education 
of 
the 
general 
Irish 
population 
with 
regards 
to 
health 
and 
wellbeing) 
and 
the 
local 
community, 
and 
using 
rri 
as 
a 
methodology, 
the 
research 
outcome 
will 
provide 
engaged 
depth 
and 
realism. 
The 
four 
key 
themes 
of 
rri 
are: 
diversity 
and 
inclusion 
(researching 
the 
older 
cohort 
that 
is 
largely 
excluded), 
openness 
and 
transparency 
(communication 
and 
dissemination 
plan 
to 
increase 
involvement, 
encourage 
input 
and 
inform), 
anticipation 
and 
reflection 
(reflections 
from 
all 
stakeholders 
are 
incorporated 
to 
pursue 
a 
common 
goal 
andpotentialchallengesidentified) 
andresponsibility 
and 
reflective 
change 
(adaptability 
to 
changing 
societalneedsandevaluationstrategiesimplementedcontinuously) 
(Kupper 
et 
al., 
2015). 


Thelegacyofthe20thcenturyisthegiftofalonger 
life, 
an 
unprecedented 
privilege 
that 
can 
be 
viewed 
in 
the 
form 
of 
a 
revolution, 
a 
longevity 
revolution 
(International 
Longevity 
Centre 
Brazil, 
2015). 
In 
order 
to 
embracealongerlife,itisimperativethatolderpeople 
remainphysicallyactivesotheymaystayindependent 
and 
productive, 
which 
will 
then 
enable 
them 
to 
participate 
in 
tourism 
and 
enjoy 
the 
new 
adventures 
and 
experiences 
it 
brings, 
to 
the 
full. 


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80 
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Academica 
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April 
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Original 
Scientific 
Article 


Health 
Tourism 
and 
Physical 
Literacy: 
A 
Qualitative 
Exploration 
of 
Elderly 
Visitors’ 
Experiences 
after 
Rehabilitation 
at 
Slovenian 
Health 
Resorts 


Katja 
Kokot 


University 
of 
Maribor, 
Slovenia 
katja.kokot1@um.si 


Maja 
Turnšek 


University 
of 
Maribor, 
Slovenia 
maja.turnsek@um.si 


The 
promotion 
of 
physical 
literacy 
is 
an 
opportunity 
to 
multiply 
significant 
health 
benefits 
in 
an 
ageing 
society. 
In 
Slovenia, 
health 
resorts 
are 
one 
of 
the 
most 
common 
prime 
areasfor 
health 
enhancement,offering 
numerous 
services 
for 
individualstoimprovetheirhealthandforminganimportantpillarofthesocialtourismand 
healthcare 
sector. 
The 
aim 
of 
this 
research 
is 
to 
explore 
the 
role 
of 
medical 
rehabilitation 
at 
Slovene 
health 
resorts 
in 
the 
processes 
of 
increasing 
the 
physical 
literacy 
of 
their 
patients. 
Twenty-one 
semi-structured 
interviews 
were 
conducted 
with 
previous 
guests 
of 
Slovene 
health 
resorts 
who 
have 
undertaken 
medical 
rehabilitation. 
The 
analysis 
indicates 
that 
the 
most 
common 
approach 
is 
providing 
lectures 
about 
physical 
activity 
followed 
by 
group 
or 
individual 
physical 
regimesorganised 
for 
pa-
tientswithsimilarhealthconcerns.Theseactionstargettwodimensionsofphysical 
literacy: 
the 
competence 
and 
the 
knowledge/understanding 
dimension. 
However, 
the 
eventual 
omission 
of 
prescribed 
physical 
activity 
following 
the 
rehabilitation 
is 
anissueconcerningthemotivationdimensionofphysicalliteracy,whichshouldthus 
be 
addressed 
more 
in 
the 
future. 
The 
findings 
contribute 
to 
understanding 
the 
role 
of 
medical 
rehabilitation 
at 
Slovene 
health 
resorts 
by 
applying 
the 
physical 
literacy 
modelforolderadults.Thestudyprovidesvaluableinsightsregardingthelong-term 
benefitsofrehabilitationatthehealthresortsonindividuals’levelofphysicalliteracy. 
The 
results 
are 
helpful 
for 
both 
the 
tourism 
and 
medical 
sectors. 


Keywords: 
health 
resorts, 
physical 
literacy, 
health 
tourism, 
rehabilitation, 
health 


literacy, 
elderly 
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.15.81-94 


Introduction 
cognitive 
impairments, 
a 
resulting 
decline 
in 
existing 
As 
health 
resorts 
are 
an 
essential 
part 
of 
the 
Slovene 
motor 
skills 
and 
a 
negative 
impact 
on 
motor 
learn-
tourist 
industry, 
and 
also 
owing 
to 
the 
ageing 
of 
the 
ingofnew 
skills.As 
of2014, 
Slovenia 
wasbelow 
the 
European 
population, 
it 
is 
essential 
to 
learn 
more 
average 
of 
the 
Active 
Ageing 
Index 
for 
the 
European 
aboutthefuturerolehealthresortsmayplayintheac-Union(unece&dgempl,2015). 
AsEurope’spoputiveageingprocess.
AccordingtoGerlingetal. 
(2010), 
lationisgettingolder,Sloveniafacesasimilarproblem; 
ageingaffectsthequalityoflifeinthreedifferentways: 
forexample,only42.ofSlovenesbetween65and74 


Academica 
Turistica,Year15, 
No.1,April 
2022 
|81 



Katja 
Kokot 
andMaja 
Turnšek 
Health 
Tourism 
andPhysical 
Literacy 


years 
do 
not 
have 
mobility 
problems, 
and 
only 
26.1. 
aged 
75 
years 
or 
more 
(Ministrstvo 
za 
javno 
upravo 
Republike 
Slovenije, 
n.d.a). 
When 
creating 
physical 
exercise 
programmes 
for 
seniors, 
it 
is 
vital 
to 
address 
the 
fact 
that 
54.5. 
of 
Slovenes 
aged 
55 
or 
more 
never 
exercise 
or 
play 
sport, 
and 
50. 
do 
not 
even 
participate 
in 
light 
physical 
activity 
such 
as 
gardening 
(European 
Commission, 
2018). 
The 
term 
‘physical 
literacy’ 
describes 
the 
motivation, 
confidence, 
physical 
competence, 
knowledge, 
and 
understanding 
that 
individuals 
develop 
to 
maintain 
physical 
activity 
at 
an 
appropriate 
level 
throughout 
their 
lives 
(Whitehead, 
2010). 
Physical 
activity 
has 
been 
consistently 
demonstrated 
to 
generate 
considerable 
health 
benefits, 
such 
as 
reducing 
the 
likelihood 
of 
cardiovascular 
disease, 
diabetes, 
and 
cancer 
(Warburton 
et 
al., 
2006). 
Developing 
and 
maintaining 
physical 
literacy 
is 
consistent 
with 
the 
goal 
of 
healthy 
ageing 
and 
optimises 
opportunities 
for 
good 
health 
at 
all 
stages 
of 
life. 
Hence, 
the 
promotionof 
physical 
literacy 
has 
been 
identifiedas 
a 
pivotalopportunitytogeneratesignificanthealthbenefits 
in 
adults 
(Almond, 
2013). 
Furthermore, 
improving 
individuals’ 
physical 
literacy 
may 
have 
the 
potential 
to 
reducefinancial 
expensesin 
healthcaresystems 
(Wang 
et 
al., 
2005). 


Healthresortsaresuitablelocationsforphysicalliteracy 
improvement 
during 
medical 
rehabilitation. 
In 
addition, 
a 
thermal 
environment 
is 
an 
optimal 
place 
for 
promoting 
health 
education 
and 
patients’ 
wellbeing 
in 
a 
comfortable 
setting. 
Many 
countries 
in 
the 
eu, 
including 
Slovenia, 
have 
already 
emphasised 
the 
potentialhealthresortshaveforactiveageingofthelocal 
community(Blainetal.,2016;Lindneretal.,2021). 
InSlovenia,certifiedhealthresortsarenotonlypartof 
theeconomicsectorbut 
alsopartofthe 
public 
health-
caresector.Therefore,healthresortshaveapotentially 
significant 
role 
in 
increasing 
the 
physical 
literacy 
of 
the 
older 
Slovene 
population, 
predominantlythrough 
publicly 
financed 
rehabilitation 
treatment. 
However, 
research 
surrounding 
the 
question 
of 
whether 
rehabilitation 
services 
and 
the 
corresponding 
information 
exchangewithmedicalpersonnelinfluencethelevelof 
physical 
literacy 
among 
the 
visitors 
has 
not 
yet 
been 
conducted.Furthermore,researchingphysicalliteracy 
in 
the 
health 
tourism 
sector 
can 
offer 
great 
potential 


regarding 
the 
necessary 
innovative 
changes 
in 
future 
offers 
of 
the 
health 
resorts. 


Combining 
the 
Tourism 
Industry 
with 
the 
Public 
Health 
Care 
Sector 


According 
to 
Mueller 
and 
Kaufmann 
(2001), 
health 
tourismisthesumofrelationsandphenomenaresultingfromthechangeoflocationandstayofpeople,
undertaken 
to 
provide 
support, 
achieve 
balance, 
and 
re-
storephysical, 
mental,andsocial 
comfortthroughthe 
use 
of 
health 
services. 
For 
this 
research,the 
definition 
proposed 
by 
Rulle 
(2004, 
p. 
20) 
is 
the 
most 
suitable: 
‘This 
form 
of 
tourism 
is 
characterised 
by 
the 
aspect 
of 
health. 
The 
restoration 
or 
maintenance 
of 
personal 
health 
is 
in 
the 
foreground. 
The 
decision 
to 
take 
the 
journey 
may 
be 
influenced 
by 
constraints 
such 
as 
ill-
nessortheneedforrehabilitationorby 
adoctor’srecommendation.’
Healthresorttherapyinvolvesallmedical 
activities 
originating 
and 
employed 
in 
health 
resorts 
and 
aims 
at 
health 
promotion, 
prevention, 
ther-
apy,andrehabilitation(Gutenbrunneretal.,2010).Rehabilitation 
can 
be 
defined 
as 
‘a 
set 
of 
interventions 
designed 
to 
optimise 
functioning 
and 
reduce 
disabilityinindividualswithhealthconditionsininteraction 
with 
their 
environment’ 
(World 
Health 
Organization, 
2021). 
The 
medical 
treatment 
in 
health 
resorts 
combinestheeffectofnaturalhealingresourceswithmedical 
care 
to 
facilitate 
the 
rehabilitation 
process. 


In 
Slovenia, 
health 
resorts 
offer 
treatments 
that 
use 
the 
healing 
effects 
of 
thermal 
waters 
and 
mineral 
waters, 
followed 
by 
seawater 
and 
brine, 
aerosols 
for 
inhalation, 
healing 
muds 
and 
mineral 
peloids, 
peat, 
and 
the 
different 
micro-climates 
(Horvat, 
2014). 
Certifiedhealthresorts 
arepart 
of 
the 
healthcare 
sector 
as 
theHealth 
Insurance 
InstituteofSlovenia 
enables 
and 
covers 
medical 
rehabilitation 
expenses. 
A 
similar 
funding 
mechanism 
is 
also 
present 
in 
other 
European 
countries 
with 
a 
strong 
health 
tourism 
sector 
such 
as 
Poland 
(Wozniak-Holecka 
et 
al., 
2017), 
Ger-
many(Pforr 
&Locher, 
2013), 
Romania(Surugiuetal., 
2020), 
the 
Czech 
Republic 
(Attl 
& 
Certík, 
2011) 
and 
Slovakia 
(Derco, 
2014). 
The 
Health 
Insurance 
Institute 
of 
Slovenia 
often 
covers 
the 
cost 
of 
overnights 
andfoodforaparticularnumberofSloveneresidents, 
which 
is 
regulatedyearly. 


82 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Katja 
Kokot 
andMaja 
Turnšek 


In 
the 
year 
2017, 
Slovene 
health 
resorts 
realised 
rehabilitations 
that 
totalled 
351,960 
overnights 
(Skupnost 
slovenskih 
naravnih 
zdravilišc, 
2018) 
with 
an 
av-
eragedurationofthetotalstayof15.1days(Ministrstvo 
za 
javno 
upravo 
Republike 
Slovenije, 
n.d.b), 
which 
is 
11.4.ofallovernightsinSlovenehealthresorts(Skupnostslovenskihnaravnihzdravilišc,
2018).MedicalrehabilitationisanimportantsegmentofSlovenehealth 
resorts 
due 
to 
financial 
benefits; 
for 
example, 
Thermana 
Laško, 
one 
of 
the 
oldest 
health 
resorts 
in 
Slovenia, 
generated 
35.76. 
revenue 
from 
sales 
due 
to 
the 
contract 
with 
the 
Health 
Insurance 
Institute 
of 
Slovenia 
in 
2019 
(Thermana 
Laško, 
2020). 


Physical 
Literacy 
and 
Health 
Resorts 


Physical 
literacy 
has 
become 
an 
increasingly 
influential 
concept 
in 
the 
past 
few 
decades 
and 
is 
woven 
into 
education, 
sport, 
and 
recreation 
policy 
and 
practice. 
Whitehead 
(2013, 
p. 
29) 
proposed 
the 
definition 
of 
physical 
literacy 
as 
‘the 
motivation, 
confidence, 
physical 
competence, 
knowledge 
and 
understanding 
to 
value 
and 
take 
responsibility 
for 
maintaining 
purposeful 
pursuits/activities 
throughout 
the 
life 
course.’ 
According 
to 
Whitehead 
(2010), 
the 
con-
ceptof 
physical 
literacycan 
be 
depicted 
by 
six 
dimensions: 
(1) 
motivation 
(desire 
to 
be 
active 
and 
to 
persist 
withtheactivity),(2)competence(movementcapabilities), 
(3) 
environment 
(having 
an 
appropriate 
every-
daysetting),(4)senseoftheself(perceivesoneselfasa 
physicallyactivepersonwith 
appropriateexperience), 


(5) 
expressionand 
interaction(being 
capable 
offluent 
self-expressionandempathiclisteningtoothersabout 
and 
through 
physical 
activity)and 
(6)knowledge 
and 
understanding(regardingall 
otherabove 
dimensions, 
and 
including 
a 
clear 
understanding 
of 
the 
benefits 
of 
physical 
movement 
regarding 
the 
quality 
of 
life). 
Intheliterature,physicalliteracyitselfisfrequently 
seenastheoutcomeorendpoint,withaprimaryfocus 
on 
fundamental 
movement 
skills 
in 
school-age 
children, 
rather 
than 
as 
a 
unique 
and 
individual 
process 
thatevolvesacrossthelifecourseasconceivedinitially 
by 
Whitehead(2013) 
(Youngetal.,2020).Mostarticles 
pertaining 
to 
physical 
literacy 
in 
the 
scientific 
literature 
havesharedinformationrelativeto 
thesectors 
of 
youth 
sports 
and 
childhood 
education 
(Roetert 
& 


Health 
Tourism 
andPhysical 
Literacy 


Policy.Themodelisarecommendedpolicyelementforactiveandhealthyaginginitiativesacrosspan-governmentalandmulti-sectorallevels,andnon-governmentalorganizations.
Community.Contextinwhichphysicalactivitytakesplace.
Includingconsiderationsofhowtheindividualissociallyconnected,influencedbysocio-culturalnormsandexpectations,andtheindividual‘sinteractionwithbuiltandnaturalenvironments.
Organizational.Programs,resourcesandservicesthatofferpersonallymeaningful,culturallyrelevant,andaccessibleopportunitiesforphysicalactivity.
Interpersonal.Aspectrumofformalandinformalpersonalrelationshipsthatinfluencephysicalactivityparticipation.
Intrapersonal.Themotivation,confidence,physicalcom-
petence,knowledgeandunderstanding,andengagementinphysicalactivitiesasanintegralpartofone‘slifestyle.
LifecourseContinuum–Cyclinginandout.
Figure1PhysicalLiteracyModelforOlderAdults(adaptedfromJonesetal.,2018,p.10)
Ortega,2019).Thusfar,physicalliteracyhasnotbeenextensivelyinvestigatedamongtheolderadultpop-
ulation,andconsequently,olderadultsareoftenanoverlookedaudienceoftheprogrammesthatpromotephysicalliteracy.Fromaphysicalliteracyperspective,
successfulagerscompensateandmodifytheiractiv-
itybyoptimisingchoices,therebymaximisingsuccessandmaintaininghigherlevelsoffunctioningacrossalldimensions(Roetert&Ortega,2019).Aphysicalliter-
acymodelforolderadults(seeFigure1)hasbeende-
velopedbyJonesetal.(2018),pointingtotheneedtoadapttheintrapersonal,interpersonal,organisational,
communityandpolicyelementstothespecificsoftheolderadultpopulation(Jonesetal.,2018,seeFigure1).
Themodelisoneofthefewthattakeintoaccounttheindividualororganisationallevelandapproachestheissueofphysicalliteracyofolderadultsfromabroaderholisticperspective,alsoincorporatingthecommu-
nityandnationalpolicylevel.Whilethisisprimarilyatheoreticalmodeldevelopedforthewholerangeofelderlyexperienceandsocialcontext,itisausefulana-
lyticaltoolforanalysingandprovidingrecommenda-
tionsabouttheroleofhealthresortsinimprovingthephysicalliteracyoftheirelderlypatients.
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|83 



Katja 
Kokot 
andMaja 
Turnšek 
Health 
Tourism 
andPhysical 
Literacy 


A 
limited 
amount 
of 
research 
has 
investigated 
the 
role 
of 
health 
resorts 
in 
increasing 
the 
physical 
lit-
eracyoftheir 
elderlypatients. 
Stevens 
etal. 
(2014) 
reported 
that 
physical 
activity 
counselling 
and 
prescriptionsdeliveredinthehealthcaresettingaremore 
effective 
if 
they 
include 
an 
assessment 
of 
individual 
needs, 
motivation 
and 
preferences 
and 
if 
social 
supports 
are 
available. 
A 
study 
in 
French 
health 
resorts 
(Maitre 
et 
al., 
2017) 
investigated 
the 
level 
of 
physical 
activity 
after 
three 
weeks 
of 
thermal 
treatment 
with 
additional 
physical 
education 
sessions. 
The 
main 
results 
indicated 
that 
the 
participants’ 
volume 
of 
physical 
activity 
was 
significantly 
higher 
at 
two 
weeks, 
two 
months, 
six 
months, 
and 
one 
year 
after 
the 
end 
of 
theiractivethermaltreatmentthantheirbaselinelevel. 
Even 
oneyear 
after 
theend 
of 
thethermal 
healthcare, 
64. 
of 
the 
participants 
still 
had 
a 
higher 
volume 
of 
physical 
activity 
than 
at 
baseline. 
The 
participants 
improved 
their 
physical 
fitness 
components 
(i.e. 
bmi, 
flexibility), 
psychological 
parameters 
(i.e. 
global 
self-
esteem, 
physical 
self-worth, 
intrinsic 
motivation, 
and 
mood 
states) 
and 
the 
intrinsic 
regulation 
of 
exercise 
behaviour. 
It 
is 
likely 
that 
the 
physical 
and 
psychological 
status 
of 
participants 
at 
the 
end 
of 
the 
intervention 
was 
better 
and 
may 
further 
support 
their 
engagement 
in 
an 
active 
lifestyle 
(Kamioka 
et 
al., 
2006; 
Kamioka 
etal.,2009;Zijlstra 
etal.,2005). 
Thestudy 
byMaitreetal. 
(2017) 
impliesthatcombiningphysical 
education 
sessions 
with 
thermaltreatment 
could 
positively 
and 
longitudinally 
affect 
the 
levels 
of 
physical 
activity 
of 
patients 
and 
consequently 
could 
serve 
as 
anexampleforimplementingsuchactivitiesintherehabilitation 
process. 
Previous 
research 
by 
Carpentier 
and 
Satger 
(2009) 
similarly 
stresses 
that 
balneotherapy 
treatments 
combined 
with 
educative 
workshops 
impact 
patients’ 
quality 
of 
life 
in 
the 
long 
term. 
How-
ever,thestudyfromGayetal. 
(2020)showedalimited 
effectofaself-managementexerciseprogrammewhen 
addedtospatherapyforincreasingphysicalactivityin 
patients. 


These 
previous 
studies, 
however, 
were 
limited, 
all 
focusedonquantitativeassessmentoftheeffect,either 
with 
self-administered 
questionnaires 
and/or 
physical 
fitness 
tests 
(measuring 
bmi, 
walk 
test, 
and 
other 
physicalmeasures/exercises).Stillmissingarequalita


tive, 
phenomenological 
insights 
into 
the 
participants’ 
experiencesandmemoryofthethermaltreatmentand 
their 
understanding 
of 
the 
longitudinal 
effects 
of 
the 
treatments. 
An 
in-depth 
understanding 
of 
these 
ex-
periencesisavaluableinputregardingtestingandimprovingthephysicalliteracymodelforolderadultsfor 
health 
resorts. 


Considering 
these 
facts, 
it 
is 
necessary 
to 
research 
this 
issue; 
therefore, 
the 
main 
objective 
of 
the 
research 
is 
to 
explore 
the 
personal 
experiences 
of 
patients 
who 
have 
previously 
undertaken 
medical 
rehabilitation 
at 
a 
health 
resort, 
focusing 
on 
the 
health 
resort 
services 
that 
affect 
their 
physical 
literacy 
levels. 
Theanalysiswillserveforfutureresearchasitisanticipatedthathealthresortswill 
havea 
prominent 
role 
in 
post-pandemictimes,asthe 
covid-19pandemicwill 
change 
the 
role 
of 
health 
resorts, 
strengthening 
their 
preventive, 
therapeutic, 
rehabilitative, 
educative, 
and 
social 
role 
(Masiero 
& 
Maccarone, 
2021). 


Methodology 


In 
order 
to 
understand 
the 
experiences 
of 
rehabilitation 
patients 
in 
Slovene 
health 
resorts, 
we 
employed 
semi-structured 
interviews 
with 
21 
previous 
guests 
of 
Slovene 
health 
resorts. 
The 
condition 
was 
that 
they 
had 
undertaken 
at 
least 
one 
medical 
rehabilitation 
in 
the 
last 
four 
years. 
The 
interviews 
were 
conducted 
in 
June 
and 
July 
2020. 
Snowball 
sampling 
or 
chain-
referral 
sampling 
was 
used 
to 
identify 
potential 
subjects. 
The 
sample 
consists 
of 
7 
males 
and 
14 
females, 
primarily 
seniors, 
that 
have 
stayed 
at 
a 
total 
of 
11 
out 
of 
14 
accredited 
Slovene 
health 
resorts, 
either 
once 
or 
multipletimes.Detailedinformationaboutthesample 
is 
presentedin 
Table 
1. 


All 
the 
interviewees 
stayed 
at 
the 
health 
resort 
hotels 
during 
rehabilitation, 
and 
most 
of 
them 
stayed 
there 
for 
14 
days. 
The 
description 
of 
the 
average 
day 
spentatthe 
health 
resort 
didnot 
vastly 
differ 
among 
the 
interviewees. 


The 
interviews 
included 
questions 
about 
the 
stay 
at 
the 
health 
resorts 
(health 
condition, 
duration, 
time 
of 
stay), 
description 
of 
their 
stay 
(daily 
routine 
at 
the 
health 
resort, 
medical 
treatments 
carried 
out, 
accommodation 
and 
amenities), 
satisfaction 
with 
the 
health 
resort 
(amenities 
and 
personal) 
and 
still-memorised 


84 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
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No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Katja 
Kokot 
andMaja 
Turnšek 


Table 
1 
Sample 
Characteristics 


(.)Thermalresort 
Healthproblems 


A 
Ptuj 
Thermal 
Spa 
Leg 
fracture 


BOlimia 
Podcetrtek 
Thermal 
Spa 
Spine 
surgery 
Dolenjske 
Toplice 
Thermal 
Spa 
Hip 
replacement 
Šmarješke 
Toplice 
Thermal 
Spa 


C 
Terme 
Zrece 
Leg 
fracture 


D 
Catež 
Thermal 
Spa 
Knee 
surgery 


ECatež 
Thermal 
Spa 
Knee 
surgery 
Thermana 
Laško 
Hip 
replacement 


F 
Terme 
.... 
Moravske 
Toplice 
Spine 
surgery 


G 
Radenci 
Thermal 
Spa 
Heart 
surgery 


HPtuj 
Thermal 
Spa 
Spine 
surgery 


I 
Terme 
Zrece 
Leg 
fracture 


JTerme 
Zrece 
Spine 
surgery 
Talaso 
Strunjan 
Arthritis 


K 
Ptuj 
Thermal 
Spa 
Leg 
fracture 


L 
Terme 
.... 
Moravske 
Toplice 
Spine 
surgery 


MTerme 
Zrece 
Knee 
surgery 
Terme 
.... 
Moravske 
Toplice 
Hip 
replacement 
Radenci 
Thermal 
Spa 
Heart 
surgery 


NTermeZrece 
Kneesurgery 


O 
Catež 
Thermal 
Spa 
Knee 
surgery 


P 
Dolenjske 
Toplice 
Thermal 
Spa 
Hip 
replacement 
Q 
Ptuj 
Thermal 
Spa 
Hip 
replacement 


ROlimia 
Podcetrtek 
Thermal 
Spa 
Knee 
surgery 
Terme 
.... 
Moravske 
Toplice 
Spine 
surgery 
Radenci 
Thermal 
Spa 


STerme 
Zrece 
Aseptic 
necrosis 
Thermana 
Laško 


TMedical 
center 
Rogaška 
Colorectal 
surgery 
Ptuj 
Thermal 
Spa 
Spine 
surgery 


U 
Terme 
.... 
Moravske 
Toplice 
Arthritis 


Notes 
(1) 
Interviewee. 


received 
information 
about 
their 
health 
condition 
(knowledge, 
daily 
routine, 
and 
restrictions 
at 
home). 


A 
suitable 
method 
for 
analysing 
the 
transcripts 
seemed 
to 
be 
thematic 
qualitative 
content 
analysis 
(Mayring,2014).For 
thepresent 
qualitativecontent 
analysis, 
structuring 
and 
filtering 
the 
relevant 
content 
out 
of 
the 
material 
as 
a 
whole 
and 
analysingit 
re-

Health 
Tourism 
andPhysical 
Literacy 


garding 
the 
categories 
specified 
in 
advance 
(thematic 
blocs) 
seemed 
to 
be 
themost 
appropriateway.Defining 
the 
categories 
serves 
to 
filter 
the 
interviews 
for 
statements 
fitting 
into 
the 
categories. 
The 
categories 
were 
developed 
inductively, 
guided 
by 
the 
conducted 
data. 
For 
qualitative 
content 
analysis, 
Atlas.ti 
8 
computer 
software 
was 
used, 
which 
is 
commonly 
used 
for 
coding 
and 
analysing 
transcripts. 
In 
the 
discussion, 
each 
quotation 
islabelledwithaletter 
that 
indicates 
the 
interviewee. 


Results 
and 
Discussion 


The 
findings 
from 
the 
transcript 
analysis 
and 
corresponding 
discussion 
are 
divided 
into 
three 
parts 
following 
the 
natural 
narrative 
progression 
of 
the 
par-
ticipants’stories:experiencesbeforetherehabilitation, 
experiencesduringtherehabilitation,andphysicalexperiencesaftertherehabilitation.
Thediscussionofthe 
results 
in 
this 
section 
interconnects 
the 
findings 
with 
Jones 
et 
al.’s 
(2018) 
physical 
literacy 
model 
for 
older 
adults 
to 
provide 
recommendations 
for 
further 
developmentofhealthresortsasanactivepartnerinthesocietalstriving 
forincreasingphysicalliteracyoftheelderly. 


Experiences 
before 
the 
Rehabilitation 


Themajorityoftheintervieweeshaveundergonemedical 
rehabilitation 
as 
part 
of 
the 
post-surgical 
pro-
gramme 
of 
re-establishing 
joint 
motion, 
developing 
muscle 
strength 
and 
restoring 
joint 
function. 
Many 
have 
had 
prescribed 
sessions 
with 
physiotherapists 
before 
undergoing 
rehabilitation 
at 
the 
health 
resort; 
however,theypreferredthetreatmentatthehealthre-
sort: 
‘After 
the 
surgery, 
before 
I 
went 
to 
the 
spa, 
I 
had 
eight 
sessions 
with 
the 
physiotherapist 
in 
the 
health 
centre.[...]However,theyshowyoumoreexercisesat 
the 
spa; 
everything 
is 
more 
holistic 
I 
would 
say, 
better 
definitely.’ 
(L) 


Health 
literacy 
is 
a 
concept 
connected 
to 
an 
individual’s 
responsibilitytounderstandandactonhealth 
information 
in 
everyday 
environments 
(Sørensen 
et 
al., 
2012). 
It 
is 
perceived 
as 
one 
of 
the 
significant 
componentsinthepreparationsofindividualsintakingresponsibility 
fortheirhealth.Althoughthetermsphysical 
and 
health 
literacy 
differ 
in 
their 
focus, 
develop-

Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|85 



Katja 
Kokot 
andMaja 
Turnšek 
Health 
Tourism 
andPhysical 
Literacy 


ing 
literacy 
skills 
is 
key 
in 
ensuring 
that 
individuals 
have 
the 
skills 
to 
adopt 
a 
healthy 
lifestyle. 
The 
analysis 
has 
indicated 
lower 
health 
literacy 
levels 
among 
the 
respondents 
as 
their 
knowledge 
about 
whether 
they 
have 
the 
right 
to 
rehabilitation 
at 
a 
health 
resort 
varies. 
Some 
do 
not 
know 
they 
are 
entitled 
to 
rehabilitation 
unless 
their 
physician 
mentions 
it 
to 
them: 
‘I 
do 
not 
know 
about 
these 
laws 
and 
if 
you 
are 
entitled 
or 
not. 
Even 
before, 
when 
I 
had 
my 
ovaries 
removed, 
I 
did 
not 
go 
anywhere. 
However, 
supposedly 
I 
was 
entitled 
to 
rehabilitation 
because 
I 
was 
talking 
with 
my 
doctor 
about 
the 
upcoming 
rehabilitationfor 
my 
hip. 
She 
said 
that 
I 
should 
know 
how 
it 
is 
during 
the 
rehabilitation, 
and 
I 
told 
her 
that 
I 
have 
yet 
not 
been 
at 
any 
spa 
rehabilitation. 
And 
she 
was 
surprised 
by 
this 
fact.’ 
(P) 
Limited 
health 
literacy 
is 
also 
shown 
through 
limited 
knowledge 
about 
the 
procedures 
of 
the 
medical 
commission, 
which 
is 
responsible 
for 
the 
assessment 
of 
people’s 
applications 
for 
rehabilitation 
at 
health 
resorts: 
‘When 
I 
had 
a 
hip 
replacement, 
my 
surgeon 
wrote 
that 
he 
advises 
rehabilitation 
in 
Terme 
3000 
thermal 
spa, 
which 
was 
written 
in 
my 
report. 
ButI 
gotthe 
rehabilitationat 
ThermanaLaško. 
When 
I 
came 
back, 
my 
surgeon 
was 
angry 
about 
why 
I 
went 
there 
if 
he 
advised 
another 
spa. 
I 
said 
that 
Laško 
is 
what 
I 
got. 
And 
when 
I 
had 
knee 
surgery,my 
surgeon 
advisedthatIgotoCatežThermalSpa,andIagaingot 
Thermana 
Laško. 
And 
then 
I 
thought 
that 
something 
wasnotright. 
Icalledthecommissiontoaskwhythey 
wouldnotsendmetothespathatthesurgeonadvised. 
Then 
I 
got 
the 
instructions 
on 
how 
to 
write 
the 
com-
plaint.So, 
Isentacomplaintand 
got 
Catež 
Thermal 
Spa 
as 
I 
should 
have 
at 
the 
beginning.’ 
(E) 


Experiences 
during 
the 
Rehabilitation 


Physical 
literacy 
is 
arguably 
an 
antecedent 
of 
physical 
activity, 
while 
also 
being 
developed 
through 
physical 
activity 
(Giblin 
et 
al., 
2014). 
Physical 
exercises 
during 
rehabilitation 
are 
crucial 
in 
affecting 
physical 
literacy 
levels. 
However, 
the 
physical 
exercises 
at 
the 
health 
resort 
areadapted 
to 
thepatients’ 
physical, 
cognitive, 
andsensorylimitations. 
Adaptedphysicalactivity 
was 
executeddailybyparticipatingintheobligatorygroup 
exercisesinthethermalpoolorthegymsupervisedby 
the 
head 
physician. 
The 
medical 
personnel 
not 
only 


demonstratetheexercisebutalsosupervisetheexecution 
and 
warn 
about 
possible 
injuries: 
‘In 
the 
morning, 
from 
nine 
to 
twelve, 
there 
are 
also 
physiotherapistswithyouthatshowyouhowtocorrectlyperform 
the 
exercises, 
and 
they 
always 
warn 
you 
if 
you 
are 
doing 
something 
wrong. 
Your 
every 
move 
is 
supervised, 
basically.’ 
(N) 


Depending 
on 
their 
health 
condition, 
some 
of 
the 
intervieweeshadindividualised 
physicalregimeswith 
thephysiotherapists,whichwasgenerallyseenasbeneficial 
for 
their 
rehabilitation 
process: 
‘When 
you 
arrive, 
you 
get 
your 
therapistfor 
the 
entireperiod. 
I 
had 
ayoung 
woman;we 
hadalreadybecome 
colleaguesin 
thosefourteendays,andwewereabletotalkabouteverythingin 
a 
completelyrelaxed 
way. 
I 
find 
this 
better 
thanhaving 
a 
different 
physiotherapist 
every 
day.’ 
(C) 


Medicalpersonnelatthehealthresortoftenstronglyadvisethepatientstoperformthephysicalexercises 
intheirfreetimeatthehealthresortaswell: 
‘Intheafternoon 
we 
had 
individual 
exercises. 
Everything 
that 
we 
did 
in 
the 
morning, 
we 
had 
to 
repeat 
in 
the 
afternoon 
alone; 
there 
was 
no 
physiotherapist 
to 
guide 
us. 
One 
of 
them 
was 
there 
on 
duty, 
usually 
the 
head 
of 
physiotherapy, 
and 
he 
sometimes 
came 
to 
see 
us, 
but 
we 
were 
mainly 
alone. 
Usually, 
I 
was 
there 
from 
four 
to 
seven 
in 
the 
evening. 
So, 
I 
was 
in 
the 
gymnasium 
or 
fitness 
untilseven 
pm.’ 
(D)The 
aim 
isthusthatthe 
patientstakeadvantageoftheinfrastructureandstrive 
for 
regular 
physical 
exercise 
to 
become 
a 
part 
of 
the 
patients’ 
lifestyle 
as 
it 
is 
expected 
that 
after 
repetitive 
exercise,patientsrealiseitsimportancenotonlyforrehabilitation 
but 
overall 
health 
as 
well. 


After 
the 
medical 
treatments, 
which 
usually 
occur 
in 
the 
morning, 
the 
patients 
have 
free 
time 
to 
schedule 
as 
they 
will. 
The 
analysis 
indicates 
that 
most 
patients 
try 
to 
remain 
active 
in 
their 
free 
time 
by 
being 
active 
in 
the 
natural 
environment 
or 
using 
other 
services 
available 
to 
hotel 
guests: 
‘There 
I 
went 
on 
short 
hikes 
several 
times. 
Every 
day 
probably. 
I 
have 
borrowedthepolesforNordicwalkingthere.’(
B)Previous 
researchhas 
shown 
that 
visitorswith 
improvedhealth 
asanexpectedbenefitaremorelikelytoengageinsuch 
activities 
(Koh 
et 
al., 
2010; 
Kucukusta 
et 
al., 
2013). 
We 
might 
stipulate 
here 
that 
the 
expected 
health 
benefits 
were 
also 
the 
main 
motivational 
factor 
for 
their 
activ


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Turistica, 
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No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Katja 
Kokot 
andMaja 
Turnšek 
Health 
Tourism 
andPhysical 
Literacy 


ity 
in 
their 
free 
time. 
However, 
the 
interpersonal 
context 
seemed 
to 
have 
played 
the 
most 
important 
role 
here. 


It 
is 
important 
to 
stress 
that 
the 
patients 
who 
had 
many 
social 
contacts 
during 
their 
rehabilitation 
were 
more 
likely 
to 
engage 
in 
physical 
exercise 
in 
their 
free 
time.Thisconfirmspreviousresearchconclusionsthat 
social 
capital 
has 
an 
important 
impact 
on 
the 
physical 
activity 
of 
older 
adults 
(Chen 
et 
al., 
2019): 
‘I 
had 
freetime 
inthe 
afternoon,but 
luckily, 
Ifound 
agroup 
of 
women, 
my 
roommateamongthem,and 
we 
always 
went 
to 
the 
pool 
in 
the 
afternoon, 
and 
we 
always 
did 
additional 
exercises 
in 
the 
pool.’ 
(P) 


One 
of 
the 
processes 
of 
increasing 
the 
physical 
literacy 
levels 
of 
the 
patients 
is 
also 
the 
lectures 
organ-
ised 
for 
all 
rehabilitation 
patients. 
Patients 
see 
these 
lectures 
as 
educative 
and 
the 
information 
as 
applicable 
in 
everyday 
life. 
Lectures 
cover 
vastly 
different 
topics, 
such 
as 
common 
medical 
procedures, 
healthy 
diet, 
medical 
conditions, 
and 
suitable 
exercise 
for 
the 
patients: 
‘There 
they 
tell 
which 
sports 
are 
most 
suitable 
for 
you, 
which 
sports 
are 
the 
biggest 
burden 
for 
knee 
joints, 
what 
they 
advise 
you 
to 
do, 
which 
sports 
are 
not 
advised, 
and 
so 
on.’ 
(N) 
With 
these 
lectures, 
health 
resorts 
try 
to 
directly 
increase 
the 
physical 
lit-
eracyleveloftheirpatients;previousresearchhasalso 
indicated 
the 
efficiency 
of 
combining 
patient 
education 
with 
a 
spa 
treatment 
on 
the 
health 
status 
of 
the 
patients 
(Kamioka 
et 
al., 
2006; 
Kamioka 
et 
al., 
2009; 
Maitre 
et 
al., 
2017; 
Zijlstra 
et 
al., 
2005). 


All 
the 
patients 
stated 
that 
they 
received 
an 
exercise 
programme 
at 
the 
spa 
with 
the 
most 
suitable 
exercises 
to 
perform 
at 
home: 
‘We 
always 
receive 
an 
exercise 
programmeat 
the 
spa. 
A 
singlepaper,whereall 
the 
exercises 
are 
written 
and 
shown 
with 
pictures 
as 
well, 
the 
ones 
that 
we 
should 
do 
at 
home.’ 
(S) 
Medical 
personnelalsoprovideinformationconcerningeverydayactivitiesthatareimportantforsuccessfulrehabilitation, 
especially 
about 
how 
patients 
should 
behave 
after 
rehabilitation: 
‘I 
could 
say 
that 
I 
learned 
at 
the 
health 
resort 
what 
and 
how 
I 
should 
do, 
how 
to 
stand 
up 
from 
the 
bed, 
how 
to 
lift 
things,which 
movements 
I 
can 
make, 
which 
I 
should 
avoid. 
[...] 
The 
physician 
had 
said 
that 
I 
should 
avoid 
the 
movements 
that 
do 
notmakemefeelwell. 
Andthat 
I 
wasnot 
allowed 
to 


lift 
things. 
And 
that 
I 
should 
avoid 
cycling, 
the 
most 
recommended 
is 
walking 
and 
the 
exercises 
they 
had 
given 
me.’ 
(F) 


Experiences 
after 
the 
Medical 
Rehabilitation 


Analysis 
of 
the 
transcripts 
revealed 
that 
interviewees 
could 
be 
divided 
into 
two 
groups: 
those 
who 
continuedwithexercise,
whichhasbeenadaptedduetotheir 
health 
concerns, 
and 
those 
who 
omitted 
the 
exercise 
once 
the 
pain 
had 
receded. 
It 
is 
assumed 
that 
the 
first 
group 
already 
had 
high 
levels 
of 
physical 
literacy 
before 
the 
rehabilitation; 
however, 
their 
knowledge 
has 
expanded, 
which 
is 
visible 
by 
their 
appropriate 
modification 
of 
the 
exercises 
after 
the 
rehabilitation. 


Patientsareinstructedto 
keepperformingsuitable 
physical 
exercise 
at 
home 
after 
leaving 
the 
health 
resort. 
Some 
interviewees, 
especially 
those 
that 
had 
recently 
returned 
from 
the 
health 
resorts 
or 
those 
that 
still 
endure 
pain 
due 
to 
their 
health 
condition, 
followtheseinstructionsastheyseehowregularexercise 
benefits 
their 
health 
condition: 
‘The 
most 
I 
remember 
are 
the 
exercises, 
I 
still 
perform 
them, 
and 
this 
is 
visible 
on 
my 
muscle 
mass.’ 
(N) 


Alarming 
information 
is 
that 
quite 
a 
few 
interviewees 
have 
admitted 
neglecting 
the 
physical 
exercise, 
especially 
those 
whose 
rehabilitation 
took 
place 
a 
longer 
period 
ago: 
‘I 
must 
admit, 
and 
I 
think 
that 
the 
same 
things 
can 
be 
said 
for 
other 
people 
as 
well, 
that 
I 
do 
these 
exercises 
for 
maybe 
three 
weeks 
and 
then 
they 
go 
to 
oblivion.’ 
(S) 
The 
reasons 
for 
discontinuing 
the 
physical 
exercise 
are 
usually 
lack 
of 
time, 
equipment, 
or 
motivation: 
‘I 
have 
many 
steps 
at 
work, 
andthatisenoughforme.[...]Theyhavealsoadvised 
going 
to 
fitness 
to 
perform 
the 
exercises, 
but 
I 
do 
not 
have 
money 
or 
time 
for 
it.’ 
(D) 
These 
findings 
implicate 
that 
the 
motivation 
dimension 
did 
not 
develop 
to 
such 
an 
extent 
as 
it 
did 
for 
some 
patients, 
and 
the 
strength 
of 
the 
habit 
of 
physical 
exercise 
diminishes 
overtime.Whilepatientswerestayingatthehealthre-
sort, 
they 
were 
engaging 
in 
physical 
exercise 
because 
it 
was 
expected 
of 
them; 
therefore, 
the 
rehabilitation 
served 
as 
external 
regulation. 
The 
environment 
also 
plays 
a 
vital 
role 
in 
continuing 
the 
exercises 
once 
the 
patients 
leave 
the 
resort 
as 
people 
at 
home 
usually 
do 
not 
have 
suitable 
equipment. 
Additionally, 
the 
home 


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andMaja 
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Health 
Tourism 
andPhysical 
Literacy 


environment 
is 
not 
as 
motivating 
as 
the 
healing 
envi-
ronmentatthehealthresort.Itis,however,visiblethat 
the 
interviewees 
are 
aware 
of 
the 
need 
for 
performing 
thephysical 
exerciseandthebenefitstheywouldgain. 
Thus, 
the 
knowledge 
and 
understanding 
dimension 
hasevolvedduringthe 
rehabilitation: 
‘I 
am 
awarethat 
I 
should 
perform 
these 
exercises 
as 
they 
specifically 
target 
the 
knee, 
but 
so 
far 
there 
is 
no 
need 
for 
this’ 
(D). 


The 
analysisrevealedthatpaincouldalsobeamotivator 
for 
starting 
to 
exercise 
again: 
‘When 
it 
strains 
me, 
then 
I 
exercise 
[...] 
Even 
if 
I 
go 
for 
a 
walk 
in 
the 
morning, 
it 
is 
a 
little 
better. 
Now, 
when 
I 
feel 
that 
it 
startstohurtmeagain,Idosomeexercise,andithelps.’ 
(D). 
In 
contrast, 
the 
absence 
of 
pain, 
which 
is 
the 
primarygoalofmedicalrehabilitation,
affectsthecontinuance 
of 
physical 
activity 
as 
it 
was 
before 
the 
medical 
procedure: 
‘Iamalso 
a 
swimmer. 
Beforetheproblems 
with 
my 
knee 
started, 
I 
went 
swimming 
every 
day 
for 
the 
last 
six 
years. 
I 
have 
really 
missed 
it. 
I 
couldn’t 
go 
swimmingforalongtime.ButIhavetobecarefulnow 
asIamnotallowedtobendmylegs;Imustswimwith 
straight 
legs.Itwas 
a 
little 
harder 
atfirst, 
but 
eventu-
ally,Igotusedtothis.’ 
(N) 


Furthermore, 
the 
analysis 
revealed 
that 
only 
one 
healthresortinvitesthepatientstoanadditionalmedical 
examination 
after 
the 
rehabilitation. 
The 
purpose 
of 
this 
examination 
is 
the 
observance 
of 
their 
rehabilitation 
process 
over 
a 
more 
extended 
period. 
‘When 
youfinishyourrehabilitation,afteronemonth,Ithink 
[...] 
I 
even 
had 
an 
appointment, 
you 
could 
go 
back 
there 
for 
a 
check-up 
[...] 
As 
I 
heard, 
they 
put 
you 
in 
one 
room, 
and 
then 
they 
force 
you 
to 
perform 
some 
exercises 
to 
see 
your 
improvement 
in 
comparison 
to 
the 
results 
when 
you 
first 
came 
there.’ 
(E) 


Manyintervieweesadmittedthateventhoughthey 
discontinuedtherecommendedphysicalexercise,they 
remainedphysicallyactiveinotherways.However,the 
choice 
of 
sports 
that 
they 
perform 
has 
changeddue 
to 
theirhealthcondition:‘Ialsochangedthesportsactivities,
nowIcycleandplaytenniswhilepreviouslyIwas 
playing 
basketball 
and 
football, 
but 
now 
these 
two 
are 
too 
straining 
for 
me.’ 
(L) 
Encouraging 
is 
the 
fact 
that 
especiallythepeoplewhohavealreadybeenphysically 
active 
before 
the 
rehabilitation 
continued 
this 
habit 


and 
also 
included 
the 
new 
exercisesthatthey 
received 
at 
the 
health 
resort 
and 
incorporated 
them 
into 
their 
daily 
exercise 
regime 
that 
targets 
other 
parts 
of 
the 
body: 
‘I 
have 
also 
been 
previously 
going 
to 
the 
work-
outforosteoporosisandcoronarydiseases,soInotdo 
only 
exercises 
for 
the 
knee 
but 
also 
for 
the 
upper 
part 
ofthebody. 
Itrytocombinetheseexercisesintheway 
I 
feel 
it 
has 
the 
most 
positive 
effect 
on 
my 
condition.’ 


(O) 
This 
behaviour 
indicates 
the 
high 
levels 
of 
physical 
literacy 
among 
some 
patients. 
For 
the 
execution 
of 
combining 
different 
exercises, 
high 
levels 
of 
almost 
alldimensionsofhealthliteracyareneeded,especially 
the 
high-level 
competence 
and 
well-established 
sense 
of 
self. 
Limitations 


The 
first 
limitation 
of 
the 
study 
is 
the 
reflection 
of 
the 
smallsampleandasnowballsamplingtechnique.Secondly, 
due 
to 
the 
characteristics 
of 
the 
sample, 
which 
consisted 
mainly 
of 
older 
adultsthat 
haveundertaken 
medicalrehabilitationatthehealthresort,thefindings 
and 
proposed 
improvements 
may 
be 
relevant 
only 
to 
this 
particular 
population. 
Additionally, 
most 
of 
the 
patientsofthehealthresortsdonothavehighmedical 
knowledge 
levels, 
which 
may 
reflect 
the 
biased 
opinions,
whichcouldhavebeenexpressedintheintervie-
wees. 


During 
the 
time 
of 
the 
research, 
the 
Slovene 
tour-
ismindustrywassignificantlyimpactedbythe 
covid19crisis.
Consequently,theremightalsobealimitation 
in 
the 
potentially 
greater 
focus 
of 
the 
interviewees 
towards 
more 
socially 
desirable 
answers 
in 
the 
form 
of 
expressing 
one’s 
concern 
for 
health 
and 
physical 
activity 
due 
to 
the 
general 
concern 
over 
health 
in 
the 
covid-19 
crisis.Future 
researchshouldconsiderhow 
thesetrendswill 
shift 
and 
the 
roleof 
interpersonalinfluence,
forexample,viafocusgroupsinspecifichealth 
resorts,whichwaspreventedduetocurrent 
covid-19 
measures. 


Future 
Recommendations 
and 
Research 


Encompassing 
all 
findings 
from 
this 
study, 
the 
physical 
literacy 
model 
for 
older 
adults 
was 
applied 
to 
the 
case 
of 
medical 
rehabilitation 
at 
Slovenian 
health 
resorts 
(see 
Figure 
2). 
As 
rehabilitation 
at 
the 
health 


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No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Katja 
Kokot 
andMaja 
Turnšek 
Health 
Tourism 
andPhysical 
Literacy 


PolicyCommunityOrganizationalInterpersonalIntrapersonalLifecourseContinuumHealthInsuranceInstituteofSloveniaasfundingmechanism.
Naturalandbuiltenvironmentatthehealthresort.
Physicaleducationaspartofrehabilitation.
Socialcontactsatthehealthresort(personnel,family,otherpatients).
Improvedmotivation,competence,
knowledgeandunderstanding.
Activeageingpolicy(cooperationbetweenHealthInsuranceInstituteofSloveniaandhealthresorts).
Localenvironmentthatencouragesphysicalexercise(e.g.,
opengyms)andpromotinglocalhealthpromotionevents.
Obligatoryandtailoredphysicaleducationatallhealthresorts.
Organizedpublicgroupactivitieswithtailoredpromotionforolderadults.
Additionalfollow-upexaminations,healthcoachingandgamificationforolderadults.
Possiblefutureinnovationdirections
Figure 
2 
Physical 
Literacy 
Model 
for 
Older 
Adults 
by 
Jones 
et 
al. 
(2018) 
Applied 
to 
the 
Rehabilitation 
Processes 
at 
Slovene 
Health 
Resorts 


resort 
is 
not 
enough 
to 
improve 
physical 
literacy, 
it 
is 
crucial 
to 
highlight 
possible 
solutions 
for 
positive 
long-term 
benefits 
after 
the 
rehabilitation 
experience. 
This 
issue 
should 
be 
the 
objective 
of 
interjoining 
the 
efforts 
of 
stakeholders 
from 
the 
tourism, 
healthcare 
and 
local 
development 
sector. 
Innovative 
solutions 
that 
will 
target 
the 
implementing 
of 
exercise 
in 
daily 
habits, 
taking 
into 
consideration 
the 
difficulties 
of 
the 
older 
generation, 
are 
needed. 
Here 
we 
discuss 
five 
in-
terrelatedareasconnectedtothedomainsofthephysical 
literacy 
model 
for 
older 
adults 
for 
the 
future 
of 
innovative 
development 
of 
health 
resorts 
in 
collaboration 
with 
the 
public 
health 
care 
system 
and 
local 
governance. 


First, 
intrapersonal 
elements 
of 
the 
model 
are 
related 
to 
the 
definition 
of 
physical 
literacy 
by 
Whitehead 
(2010). 
The 
analysis 
of 
transcripts 
indicates 
that, 
primarily,thecompetencedimensionofphysicalliteracy 
is 
targeted 
as 
patients 
learn, 
practice, 
and 
participate 
in 
physical 
activities 
that 
are 
beneficial 
for 
their 
rehabilitation, 
and 
additionally, 
the 
participants 
receive 
information 
about 
suitable 
exercise 
and 
sports 
options. 
The 
educational 
lectures 
also 
target 
the 
motivation 
and 
understanding 
dimension 
since 
the 
benefits 
of 
physical 
exercise 
are 
heavily 
implied 
(Whitehead, 
2010). 


The 
fact 
that 
many 
intervieweesgradually 
omitted 
their 
physical 
activities 
in 
their 
everyday 
lives 
repre


sents 
animportant 
challengeto 
furthertargetthe 
mo-
tivationdimensionofphysicalliteracy.Aspatients,the 
interviewees 
saw 
physical 
exercise 
as 
an 
obligation 
as 
part 
of 
the 
rehabilitation 
process. 
At 
the 
health 
resort, 
it 
was 
associated 
with 
a 
part 
of 
the 
routine 
prescribed 
by 
aphysician, 
and 
therewas 
astrong 
social 
element 
to 
participation. 
In 
contrast, 
physical 
activity 
at 
home 
wasseenasa 
work 
or 
personal 
care 
experience,and 
there 
were 
various 
negotiating 
constraints. 


A 
possible 
solution 
for 
extending 
the 
motivation 
that 
could 
lead 
to 
implementing 
an 
exercise 
habit 
is 
additional 
follow-up 
examinations 
that 
would 
inform 
the 
person 
about 
the 
results 
of 
their 
rehabilitation. 
If 
the 
participation 
in 
this 
examination 
was 
somewhat 
connected 
to 
the 
additional 
offer 
of 
the 
health 
resorts 
(for 
example, 
a 
short 
package 
including 
some 
therapies), 
the 
health 
tourism 
industry 
would 
benefit 
from 
this 
as 
well. 


A 
possible 
future 
solution 
is 
also 
the 
introduction 
of 
extensive 
health 
coaching 
otherwise 
used 
to 
promote 
healthy 
behaviour 
and 
achieve 
health-related 
goals 
(Palmer 
et 
al., 
2003). 
Health 
coaching 
can 
be 
used 
in 
both 
a 
rehabilitative 
(Kivelä 
et 
al., 
2014; 
De-
jonghe 
et 
al., 
2017) 
and 
preventive 
setting 
(Olsen 
& 
Nesbitt, 
2010). 
Some 
patients 
expressed 
satisfaction 
with 
individual 
physical 
regimes, 
especially 
when 
the 
same 
therapist 
supervised 
themduring 
the 
rehabilitation. 
Therefore, 
the 
individual 
approach 
is 
preferred 


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April 
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Kokot 
andMaja 
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Health 
Tourism 
andPhysical 
Literacy 


among 
the 
elderly 
population. 
Health 
coaching 
has 
alsoadaptedtothedigitalera,meaningthatthecoaching 
is 
executed 
through 
mobile 
apps, 
often 
with 
the 
option 
for 
users 
to 
choose 
their 
health 
coaches 
based 
on 
personality 
matching 
and 
expertise 
from 
health 
coachbiographies(Duscha 
etal.,2018) 
andsupported 
by 
remote 
activity 
monitoring 
with 
technology 
solutions 
(Kitsiouetal.,2017).Tailoring 
coaching 
strategies 
is 
crucial 
for 
the 
long-term 
effect 
of 
coaching 
as 
many 
factors 
influence 
an 
individual’s 
motivation 
(Beinema 
et 
al., 
2021). 


Another 
future 
direction 
is 
increasing 
intrinsic 
motivation 
via 
various 
elements 
of 
making 
the 
exercise 
a 
fun 
activity, 
such 
as 
gamification 
in 
the 
health 
tourism 
industry. 
Gamification 
reinforces 
and 
improves 
behaviours 
and 
user 
capacities, 
focusing 
on 
learning 
and 
health 
(Kasurinen 
& 
Knutas, 
2018). 
In 
the 
context 
of 
digital 
health, 
gamification 
is 
typically 
employed 
in 
health 
and 
wellness 
apps 
related 
to 
self-
management, 
disease 
prevention, 
medication 
adher-
ence,medicaleducation-relatedsimulations,andsome 
telehealth 
programmes. 
Gamification 
could 
positively 
affect 
health 
and 
well-being, 
especially 
when 
applied 
in 
a 
skilled 
way(Johnsonet 
al.,2016), 
evenonseniors 
(Koivisto&Malik, 
2020;Martinho 
etal.,2020).Although 
gamification 
is 
a 
possible 
solution 
for 
engaging 
people 
in 
physical 
activity, 
it 
is 
important 
to 
adapt 
games 
to 
the 
older 
population’s 
needs, 
the 
predominant 
segments 
of 
users 
at 
the 
health 
resorts 
(Gerling 
& 
Masuch, 
2011). 


Second,interpersonalelementsthatinfluencephysicalliteracyareformalandinformalpersonalrelationshipsoftheelderlypopulation,
bothformedwithinthe 
rehabilitation 
experience 
and 
before 
and 
after. 
Social 
benefits 
were 
a 
significant 
element 
for 
participants 
to 
engage 
in 
physical 
activity 
at 
the 
health 
resort 
during 
their 
free 
time. 
The 
majority 
of 
participants 
in 
this 
study 
were 
visiting 
health 
resorts 
with 
their 
family 
or 
friends 
or 
have 
developed 
a 
social 
relationship 
with 
other 
people 
also 
undertaking 
the 
rehabilitation. 


Enjoyment 
and 
social 
interaction 
or 
enabling 
people 
to 
perceive 
their 
physical 
activity 
experiences 
as 
leisure 
might 
be 
the 
key 
to 
increasing 
participation 
in 
physical 
activity. 
Facilitatingincidental 
physical 
activity 
associated 
with 
but 
not 
the 
focus 
of 
a 
pursuit 


appears 
to 
be 
an 
essential 
dimension 
in 
achieving 
this 
(Sibson 
et 
al., 
2010). 
Consequently, 
local 
and 
regional 
communities 
should 
further 
aim 
to 
provide 
multiple 
social 
gatherings 
that 
connect 
elders 
and 
at 
the 
same 
time 
incorporate 
physical 
activity 
tailored 
to 
their 
needs, 
such 
as 
public 
group 
exercises 
and 
organised 
hikes 
(Ward 
et 
al., 
2020). 
Many 
associations 
organise 
such 
activities 
in 
Slovenia, 
yet 
the 
older 
population 
often 
does 
not 
know 
about 
these 
options, 
especially 
those 
with 
lower 
technological 
literacy 
levels. 
Therefore, 
the 
goal 
should 
be 
creating 
such 
activities 
and 
finding 
the 
right 
promotion 
channel 
to 
reach 
the 
desired 
audience. 
This 
could 
also 
be 
an 
opportunity 
to 
establish 
fruitfulcooperations 
between 
healthresorts, 
thehealthcaresystemandlocalmunicipalitiesinaway 
that 
each 
partner 
provides 
suitable 
resources 
(for 
example, 
knowledge 
or 
financial 
resources). 


Third, 
the 
organisational 
component 
of 
the 
medicalrehabilitationatthehealthresortistheeducational 
lectures 
organised 
for 
all 
the 
patients. 
Our 
findings 
currently 
indicate 
that 
some 
health 
resorts 
do 
not 
offer 
these 
lectures 
at 
all, 
while 
others 
provide 
lectures 
thatcovervastlydifferenttopics.Someofthemaretargetedtothegeneralpublic,
andtheprovidedinformation 
tends 
to 
be 
directly 
helpful 
for 
all 
the 
listeners, 
while 
others 
may 
not 
be 
helpful 
for 
all 
of 
the 
visitors 
even 
though 
it 
expands 
their 
general 
health 
knowledge(
forexample,apersonwithaskindisorderlisteningtoalectureabout 
thereplacementofheartvalves). 
Thesolutiontothis 
issue 
could 
be 
changing 
thesubject 
according 
to 
the 
current 
audience 
(such 
as 
contentspecificallydesignedforpatientswithlocomotory 
problems) 
or 
putting 
more 
focus 
on 
content 
applicable 
for 
all 
guests 
(such 
as 
a 
healthy 
diet). 
Despite 
the 
factthateducationisoneofthebasicservicesincluded 
in 
rehabilitation 
treatment, 
and 
as 
such, 
should 
be 
a 
mandatorycomponentofanytreatment,itiscurrently 
considered 
only 
as 
a 
supplement 
to 
the 
basic 
services. 
Therefore, 
medical 
treatment 
with 
a 
focus 
on 
health 
promotionmight,andshouldbe,acrucialcomponent 
of 
the 
continuum 
of 
medical 
therapy 
(Gutenbrunner 
et 
al., 
2010). 


Fourth, 
community 
elements 
of 
the 
health 
resorts 
related 
to 
the 
physical 
literacy 
model 
for 
older 
adults 
are 
the 
built 
and 
natural 
environment. 
A 
healing 
and 


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No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Katja 
Kokot 
andMaja 
Turnšek 
Health 
Tourism 
andPhysical 
Literacy 


easily 
accessible 
environment 
was 
a 
vital 
contributor 
to 
participating 
in 
physical 
activity 
during 
rehabilitation 
at 
the 
resort. 
The 
options 
for 
physical 
activity 
in 
the 
health 
resorts 
were 
accessible, 
and 
they 
were 
easy 
and 
convenient 
for 
people 
to 
use 
and 
engage 
in 
physical 
activity. 
The 
natural 
landscape 
and 
its 
developed 
components(i.e. 
availabilityofwalkingpoleshire,use 
of 
walking 
paths, 
availability 
of 
walking 
tours) 
and 
their 
promotion 
at 
the 
health 
resort 
were 
all 
managed 
to 
encourage 
physical 
activity. 


To 
extend 
the 
habits 
connected 
to 
physical 
exercise 
to 
theperiodafterrehabilitation,the 
community-
level 
government 
should 
focus 
on 
providing 
a 
local 
environment 
that 
encourages 
physical 
exercise, 
and 
is 
readily 
available 
and 
appropriate 
for 
older 
adults. 
Building 
open 
gyms 
and 
other 
similar 
facilities 
and 
health 
programmes 
that 
would 
be 
free 
for 
everybody 
could 
stimulate 
the 
older 
population 
to 
use 
these 
facilities. 
First, 
they 
would 
be 
close 
to 
their 
home, 
and 
second,usagedoesnotmeananyadditionalexpenses. 
Additionally, 
such 
facilities 
are 
often 
already 
suitable 
for 
the 
needs 
of 
elders 
and 
allow 
them 
to 
adjust 
the 
intensity 
to 
their 
condition. 


Finally, 
as 
medical 
rehabilitation 
is 
funded 
by 
the 
Health 
Insurance 
Institute 
of 
Slovenia, 
it 
is 
a 
vital, 
if 
not 
the 
most 
important, 
part 
of 
the 
policy 
domain 
of 
the 
physical 
literacy 
model. 
The 
findings 
of 
our 
study 
suggest 
that 
certain 
services 
that 
are 
part 
of 
medical 
rehabilitation 
at 
the 
health 
resort 
contribute 
to 
the 
higherphysicalliteracylevelsofthepatients.However, 
thisisnottheprimarygoalofrehabilitation.Whilethis 
system 
is 
beneficial 
and 
has 
existed 
in 
Slovenia 
for 
a 
long 
time, 
it 
is 
highly 
strained 
due 
to 
the 
larger 
share 
of 
the 
olderpopulation. 
Application 
of 
the 
procedures 
of 
curative 
medicine 
in 
the 
health 
system 
due 
to 
the 
lengthening 
of 
life 
expectancy 
might 
not 
be 
enough. 
For 
that 
reason, 
applying 
a 
wide 
range 
of 
health 
promotion 
activities 
on 
this 
basis 
appears 
to 
be 
an 
essential 
element 
of 
the 
national 
health 
policy 
to 
limit 
the 
risk 
of 
disease. 
Most 
importantly, 
health 
resorts 
might 
prove 
highly 
beneficial 
in 
the 
promotion 
of 
active 
ageing 
long 
before 
there 
is 
the 
need 
for 
curative 
medical 
rehabilitation 
– 
an 
area 
where 
the 
Health 
Insurance 
Institute 
of 
Slovenia 
and 
Slovenian 
health 
re-
sortsshouldbuildstrongcooperationinthefuture.An 


important 
direction 
might 
be 
the 
new 
innovative 
approach 
of 
the 
so-called 
‘tourism 
coupons’ 
introduced 
by 
the 
Slovenian 
Ministry 
of 
Economic 
Development 
andTechnologyasoneofthemeasuresforsupporting 
thetourismindustryatthetimeofthe 
covid-19pandemic. 
In 
2020, 
adult 
Slovenian 
citizens 
received 
200 
eur 
coupons 
to 
spend 
at 
tourism 
facilities, 
health 
resorts 
included; 
in 
2021, 
each 
adult 
was 
eligible 
for 
100 
eur. 
Future 
analysis 
of 
the 
role 
of 
these 
coupons 
for 
Slovenian 
health 
resorts 
is 
needed. 


Conclusion 


Overall, 
this 
study 
provided 
many 
insights 
into 
the 
perception 
of 
rehabilitation 
at 
Slovene 
health 
resorts. 
Thefindings 
canbeapplicableto 
the 
field 
of 
health 
tourism 
and 
can 
be 
used 
in 
the 
medical 
and 
healthcare 
fields 
of 
research. 
Furthermore, 
these 
results 
can 
also 
be 
applied 
to 
rehabilitation 
patients 
and 
self-paid 
servicesofhealthresorts(suchasvarioushealthpackages)
asthetargetpopulationdoesnotvastlydifferentiate. 
The 
covid-19 
pandemic 
affected 
the 
perceived 
health-related 
risk 
of 
travelling 
(Turnšek 
et 
al., 
2020) 
andcausedredefining 
priorities 
of 
the 
population 
andhighlightedhealth-relatedissues. 
Theongoingre-
search 
by 
the 
Slovenian 
National 
Institute 
of 
Public 
Healthshowsthatthe 
covid-19pandemicnegatively 
influences 
the 
daily 
physical 
activity 
of 
Slovene 
citizens 
(National 
Institute 
for 
Public 
Health, 
2021). 
The 
findingsofthisresearchsignificantlycontributetothe 
understandingofphysicalliteracy,whichwillbe 
more 
actual 
in 
thenear 
futureasindividuals’ 
physicalliteracylevelsarecrucialforestablishingahealthylifestyle. 


This 
research, 
conducted 
qualitatively, 
provided 
insights 
into 
the 
phenomenon 
of 
medical 
rehabilitation 
at 
health 
resorts 
and 
its 
long-term 
effectiveness. 
Consequently,its 
findingscould 
serveasthe 
basisfor 
creatinga 
questionnaireas 
a 
quantitative 
method 
that 
would 
allow 
us 
to 
gather 
information 
from 
a 
large 
audience 
and 
perform 
statistical 
correlation 
analyses. 
Furthermore,togainmoreinsightfulresultsaboutthe 
researched 
phenomenon, 
a 
future 
study 
should 
further 
involve 
the 
longitudinal 
aspect, 
for 
example, 
via 
thediarystudymethod,inordertogainmoreaccurate 
informationasinthepresentstudy,theaccuracyofthe 
results 
heavily 
relies 
on 
the 
memory 
of 
the 
guests. 


Academica 
Turistica,Year15, 
No.1,April 
2022 
|91 



Katja 
Kokot 
andMaja 
Turnšek 
Health 
Tourism 
andPhysical 
Literacy 


Theresearchhashighlightedmanyopenquestions 
thatshouldbeaddressedinthefuture. 
Thefirstishow 
to 
secure 
the 
individualisation 
of 
physical 
education 
at 
the 
healthresorts 
basedon 
patients’ 
health 
conditions. 
The 
current 
findings 
imply 
that 
some 
patients 
received 
information 
that 
cannot 
be 
applied 
in 
their 
everyday 
lives 
due 
to 
their 
health 
status. 
Additional 
research 
is 
needed 
to 
be 
able 
to 
fully 
understand 
the 
role 
and 
effect 
of 
the 
lectures 
received. 
Another 
open 
questionhasarisenafteranalysisofthetranscriptindicated 
that 
the 
patients’ 
level 
of 
physical 
literacy 
before 
the 
rehabilitation 
might 
affect 
their 
physical 
activity 
after 
returning 
to 
the 
home 
environment. 
While 
this 
research 
has 
not 
measured 
their 
level 
of 
physical 
literacy 
before 
the 
rehabilitation, 
it 
would 
be 
suitable 
to 
include 
this 
measurement 
in 
future 
research 
to 
make 
more 
reliable 
conclusions. 
Finally, 
the 
role 
of 
the 
so-
called 
‘tourism 
coupons’ 
for 
the 
Slovenian 
health 
resort 
visitors 
should 
be 
analysed, 
and 
the 
study 
of 
their 
future 
implementation, 
with 
potential 
cooperation 
of 
the 
Health 
Insurance 
Institute 
of 
Slovenia. 


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Wang,F.,McDonald,T.,Reffitt,B.,&Edington,D.W.(2005). 
bmi, 
physical 
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and 
health 
care 
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among 
Medicare 
retirees. 
Obesity 
Research, 
13(8), 
1450– 
1457. 


Warburton,D.E.,Nicol,C.W.,&Bredin,S.S.(2006).Health 
benefitsofphysicalactivity:Theevidence. 
cmaj,174(6), 
801–809. 


Ward, 
K., 
Pousette, 
A., 
& 
Pelletier, 
C. 
A. 
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‘Not 
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athlete, 
but 
they 
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Facilitators 
of 
physical 
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maintenance 
in 
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Physical 
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28(6), 
854–863. 


Whitehead, 
M. 
(2010). 
Physical 
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Throughout 
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Whitehead, 
M. 
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Definition 
of 
physical 
literacy 
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clarification 
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icsspe 
Bulletin, 
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29– 
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November 
10). 
Rehabilitation. 
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/detail/rehabilitation 


Wozniak-Holecka, 
J., 
Romaniuk, 
P., 
Holecki, 
T., 
Fr.aczkiewicz-
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Perspectives 
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the 
European 
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Poland’s 
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Frontiers 
in 
Pharmacology, 
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/fphar.2017.00029 


Young,L.,O’Connor,J.,&Alfrey,L.(2020).Physicalliteracy: 
Aconcept 
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Sport, 
Education 
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Society, 
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Zijlstra, 
T.R., 
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Zakraoui, 
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94 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Original 
Scientific 
Article 


Changing 
Values 
Through 
Generations: 
TheCaseofMountain 
Tourists 


Tomi 
Špindler 


University 
of 
Maribor, 
Slovenia 
tomi.spindler@um.si 


Miha 
Lesjak 


University 
of 
Primorska, 
Slovenia 
miha.lesjak@fts.upr.si 


Mitja 
Gorenak 


University 
of 
Maribor, 
Slovenia 
mitja.gorenak@um.si 


Mountain 
tourism 
is 
becoming 
an 
increasingly 
important 
part 
of 
tourism 
in 
the 
Alpine 
countries, 
so 
research 
among 
mountain 
tourists 
is 
necessary. 
The 
changing 
values 
of 
different 
generations 
of 
tourists 
play 
a 
major 
role 
in 
their 
behaviour 
in 
a 
high-altitudeenvironmentandconsequentlyaffectthecondition 
of 
theseareas. 
Therefore, 
the 
purpose 
of 
this 
study 
is 
to 
determine 
the 
values 
of 
different 
generations 
of 
mountain 
tourists, 
different 
genders 
of 
tourists 
and 
among 
members 
and 
non-members 
of 
mountaineering 
associations. 
To 
achieve 
this 
purpose, 
a 
quantitative 
approachwasused. 
The 
datawascollectedthrougha 
self-completion 
questionnaireinphysicalformatlocationsof1stcategorymountainhutsinSlovenianmountains 
during 
the 
2020 
summer 
mountaineering 
season. 
As 
part 
of 
the 
research, 
the 
sample 
was 
divided 
into 
four 
groups 
according 
to 
the 
year 
of 
birth 
of 
participants. 
With 
multivariate 
analysis, 
the 
existence 
of 
significant 
differences 
between 
groups 
of 
respondentsof 
different 
ages,gender 
and 
membership, 
according 
to 
their 
values, 
was 
determined. 
The 
results 
of 
the 
research 
demonstrate 
the 
correlation 
between 
prevailingmountaineeringvaluesofmountaintouristsandtheircharacteristics.The 
research 
helps 
us 
to 
understand 
the 
mountaineering 
values 
of 
tourists 
who 
visit 
the 
mountains 
and 
fills 
the 
knowledge 
gap 
in 
the 
field 
of 
the 
differences 
between 
the 
values 
of 
different 
generations 
of 
mountain 
tourists, 
different 
genders 
and 
among 
membership 
in 
mountaineering 
associations. 
As 
outdoor 
activities 
are 
also 
gaining 
in 
popularity 
during 
the 
Covid-19 
pandemic, 
the 
results 
of 
thisresearch 
can 
be 
use-
fulforattractingnewmemberstomountaineeringorganizations,preservingmountaineering 
culture 
and 
sustainable 
development 
of 
tourism 
in 
the 
mountains. 
Keywords: 
mountain 
tourism, 
values, 
generations 


https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.15.95-109 


Introduction 
attractionfacilitatinganauthenticexperienceofadesInthemodernwayoflife,
tourismiscloselyconnected 
tinationforatourist(Takata&Hallmann,2021).Comwithsports(
Gorelski,2019)assportcanfunctionasan 
paredtoothertypesoftourism,sportstourismisone 


Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|95 



Tomi 
Špindler, 
Miha 
Lesjak, 
and 
Mitja 
Gorenak 
Changing 
Values 
Through 
Generations 


ofthedrivingforcesofeconomicdevelopment.Dueto 
its 
nature 
and 
strong 
involvement 
in 
society, 
culture, 
the 
economy 
and 
environment, 
sports 
tourism 
has 
become 
an 
important 
factor 
in 
shaping 
the 
tourism 
industry, 
as 
it 
represents 
and 
enables 
many 
development 
opportunitiesin 
thisfield 
(Lesjak, 
2014). 
Just 
as 
tourism 
can 
contribute 
to 
sustainable 
development 
andtheachievementofsustainabledevelopmentgoals 
if 
properly 
developed 
and 
managed, 
so 
can 
sports 
tourism 
as 
a 
segment 
of 
tourism 
also 
help 
to 
achieve 
sustainabledevelopmentinawaythatderivesfromits 
characteristics. 
Thanks 
to 
these 
characteristics, 
sports 
tourism 
can 
play 
an 
important 
role 
in 
achieving 
the 
various 
goals 
of 
sustainable 
development 
(unwto, 
2019). 


Sportstourismisoftencarriedoutoutdoors,innature,
insensitiveandprotectedareas.Today,tourismis 
widelyrecognisedasastrongfactorinruralareadevelopment.
Touristactivitiesnotonlyaffecttheeconomy, 
but 
also 
have 
impacts 
on 
the 
spatial 
development 
of 
thedestination,itssocialstructure,sociallife,andpsychological 
imprint 
(Rangus 
et 
al., 
2018). 
Therefore, 
if 
a 
tourist 
destination 
changes 
over 
the 
course 
of 
time 
in 
accordance 
with 
changes 
in 
all 
the 
environments 
forming 
it 
(Žibert 
et 
al., 
2017), 
and 
if 
protected 
areas 
around 
the 
world 
are 
seeing 
a 
growing 
public 
interest 
in 
visiting 
them, 
many 
places 
of 
valuable 
natural 
andlandscapefeaturesareunderthreatfromanoverly 
heavy 
tourist 
burden 
(Pachrová 
et 
al., 
2020). 


One 
of 
the 
most 
dynamic 
components 
of 
outdoor 
recreationis 
adventuretourism 
(Hall, 
1992). 
Adventure 
tourism 
combines 
travel, 
sport 
and 
outdoor 
recreation 
(Beedie 
& 
Hudson, 
2003) 
and 
represents 
a 
wide 
range 
of 
outdoor 
tourism 
activities 
that 
are 
often 
commercialized 
and 
involve 
interaction 
with 
the 
natural 
environment 
outside 
the 
participants’ 
home 
environment 
and 
contain 
elements 
of 
risk 
(Hall 
& 
Weiler, 
1992). 
Academic 
interestin 
adventuretourism 
has 
increased 
in 
recent 
years 
given 
the 
exponential 
growth 
of 
this 
sector. 
The 
core 
dimensions 
of 
adventure 
tourism 
are 
risk 
and 
danger, 
the 
natural 
environment, 
thrill 
and 
excitement, 
challenge, 
and 
physical 
activity 
(Janowski 
et 
al., 
2021). 
Therefore, 
adventure 
tourism 
benefits 
are 
positively 
related 
to 
subjective 
well-being 
(Hung 
& 
Wu, 
2021). 


Mountaineering 
is 
a 
long-established 
adventure 
sport 
based 
on 
physical 
activity, 
challenges 
and 
risk. 
It 
has 
long 
been 
reserved 
for 
experienced 
individuals, 
but 
today 
the 
social 
boundaries 
separating 
mountaineersfromtouristsareincreasinglyblurred(
Beedie 
& 
Hudson, 
2003). 
Mountaineering 
therefore 
represents 
a 
popular 
form 
of 
adventure 
tourism 
(Pomfret, 
2006), 
which 
is 
considered 
a 
growing 
industry 
and 
exploits 
traditional 
mountaineering 
spaces 
(Beedie, 
2003). 
unwto 
(n.d.) 
defines 
mountain 
tourism 
as 
a 
type 
of 
tourism 
activity 
that 
takes 
place 
in 
a 
definedandlimitedgeographicalarea.
Thisareaincludes 
hillsormountainswithadistinct 
topography,climate, 
biodiversity 
(flora 
and 
fauna), 
local 
community 
and 
other 
characteristics 
and 
attributes 
that 
are 
specific 
to 
this 
particular 
landscape. 
It 
includes 
a 
wide 
range 
of 
leisure 
and 
outdoor 
sports 
activities. 
Tourists 
are 
attracted 
to 
mountain 
destinations 
for 
a 
number 
of 
reasons, 
including 
climate, 
clean 
air, 
unique 
landscapes 
and 
wildlife, 
natural 
beauty, 
local 
culture, 
history 
and 
heritage, 
and 
the 
opportunity 
to 
participate 
in 
snow 
activitiesorothernature-relatedactivities(UnitedNations 
Environment 
Programme, 
Conservation 
International, 
& 
Tour 
Operators’ 
Initiative, 
2007). 
Mountain 
tourism 
is 
currently 
understood 
as 
a 
broad 
term 
that 
includes 
alpine 
skiing, 
mountaineering 
(hiking), 
climbing 
and 
other 
forms 
of 
activities 
such 
as 
cycling 
tours, 
canyoning, 
horseback 
riding, 
rafting, 
etc. 
In 
recent 
years, 
mountain 
tourism 
has 
been 
gradually 
increasing 
among 
tourism 
preferences 
at 
the 
international 
level. 
The 
main 
reason 
is 
the 
strong 
relationship 
to 
nature, 
more 
specifically 
with 
mountainous 
areas, 
as 
they 
are 
becoming 
destinations 
with 
a 
large 
tourist 
influx 
(Rio-Rama 
et 
al., 
2019). 
People 
are 
continuallysearchingfornewformsofrecreationandsettings 
for 
it, 
and 
mountains 
have 
often 
provided 
suitable 
areas 
for 
such 
activities. 
Mountain 
destinations 
have 
commonly 
evolved 
as 
local 
recreation 
grounds 
and 
have 
become 
a 
magnet 
for 
all 
types 
of 
tourist 
and 
amenity 
migrants. 
Given 
global 
trendsintourism 
andrecreation,new 
mountain 
destinationswill 
be 
explored 
and 
developed 
in 
the 
future, 
as 
many 
mountain 
communities 
are 
looking 
for 
opportunities 
to 
develop 
their 
tourism 
industry 
(Nepal 
& 
Chipeniuk, 
2005). 


96 
| 
Academica 
Turistica,Year15, 
No.1,April 
2022 



Tomi 
Špindler, 
Miha 
Lesjak, 
and 
Mitja 
Gorenak 
Changing 
Values 
Through 
Generations 


Strojin 
(1999) 
states 
that 
values 
are 
a 
central 
point 
in 
mountaineering, 
but 
it 
depends 
on 
how 
one 
conceives, 
treats 
them 
in 
practice 
and 
maintains 
them. 
Values 
influence 
the 
ways 
in 
which 
individuals 
behave, 
and 
the 
formation 
of 
values 
is 
influenced 
by 
the 
circumstances 
in 
which 
the 
individual 
finds 
themself 
at 
a 
certain 
moment 
(Gorenak, 
2014). 
Thus, 
values 
change 
due 
to 
changes 
in 
the 
environment 
(Gorenak, 
2019), 
therefore, 
values 
are 
changing 
through 
generations 
(Ovsenik 
& 
Kozjek, 
2015). 
Regarding 
mountaineering, 
Strojin 
(1999, 
p. 
131) 
notes 
that 
it 
is 
necessarytotakeintoaccountintergenerationaldifferences. 
The 
older 
generation 
has 
settled 
on 
its 
views 
and 
the 
younger 
is 
still 
experimenting. 
Musa 
et 
al. 
(2015) 
say 
that,fromatheoreticalpointofview,changingvalues, 
attitudes,andotherpsychologicalaspectsofmountain 
tourism 
experiences 
deserve 
constant 
attention. 


Different 
profiles 
of 
tourists 
go 
to 
the 
mountains. 
Theycanbedistinguishedbyage,gender,membership 
in 
a 
mountain 
organization 
and 
other 
characteristics. 
Basedontheliterature,wecanseethattherearedifferencesinthevaluesofdifferentgenerations(
Ovsenik& 
Kozjek, 
2015; 
Gorenak, 
2014; 
2019) 
and 
gender 
(Beu-
tel&Marini,1995;DiDio 
et 
al.1996; 
Giacomino 
& 
Eaton, 
2003; 
Boohene 
et 
al., 
2008). 
However, 
these 
differences 
have 
not 
yet 
been 
researched 
in 
regard 
to 
mountaineering 
values 
of 
mountain 
tourists. 
According 
to 
Strojin 
(1999), 
the 
values 
of 
mountaineering 
are 
associated 
with 
both 
culture 
and 
sports. 
They 
cover 
values 
such 
as 
mountaineering 
tradition, 
patriotism, 
the 
message 
of 
important 
mountaineering 
people, 
sense 
of 
responsibility, 
and 
cultural 
attitude 
towards 
nature 
and 
nature 
conservation, 
as 
well 
as 
the 
impact 
of 
mountaineering 
on 
health, 
experience 
in 
the 
mountains, 
social 
adaptability, 
ingenuity, 
helpfulness, 
etc. 
Tourists 
have 
different 
views 
on 
mountaineeringvalues. 
Therefore,thepurposeofthispaper 
is 
to 
explore 
the 
importance 
of 
mountaineering 
val-
uesamongtouristswithdifferentcharacteristics.With 
this 
in 
mind, 
the 
goals 
of 
this 
paper 
are 
mainly 
to 
determine 
mountaineering 
values 
of 
different 
(1) 
generations 
of 
mountain 
tourists; 
(2) 
genders 
of 
mountain 
tourists;and(3)amongmembersandnon-membersof 
mountaineering 
associations. 
Therefore, 
this 
research 
contributesto 
theoryand 
practice 
by 
analysingvalues 


of 
mountain 
touristsand 
presentingthe 
differencesin 
values 
among 
mountain 
tourists. 


Itisthereforeestablishedthatthevaluesofindividualsareanimportantpartofmountaineeringandthus 
alsomountaintourism.Ithasalsobeenfoundthatdifferent 
generations 
of 
tourists 
come 
to 
the 
mountains 
with 
different 
characteristics 
and 
beliefs. 
In 
the 
con-
tinuationoftheliteraturereview,thepreviousfindings 
ofthe 
authorsin 
the 
fieldofvaluesin 
connection 
with 
mountain 
tourism, 
and 
the 
characteristics 
of 
generations 
in 
connection 
with 
mountain 
tourism 
are 
presented. 


Values 
and 
Mountain 
Tourism 


A 
value 
is 
the 
enduring 
belief 
that 
a 
particular 
course 
of 
action 
or 
ultimate 
state 
of 
existence 
is 
personally 
or 
socially 
better 
than 
the 
opposite 
or 
reverse 
mode 
of 
behaviour 
or 
ultimate 
state 
of 
existence. 
A 
value 
system 
representsa 
permanentorganizationof 
beliefs 
that 
consolidates 
priority 
behaviours 
or 
final 
states 
of 
existence 
along 
a 
continuum 
of 
relative 
importance 
(Rokeach,1973).Values 
are 
considered 
to 
guideactions, 
attitudes, 
and 
judgments 
and 
thus 
may 
be 
seen 
as 
the 
determinants 
of 
attitudes 
as 
well 
as 
behaviour 
(Moore 
& 
Asay, 
2017). 
Values 
can 
differ 
among 
different 
generations 
(Ovsenik 
& 
Kozjek, 
2015; 
Gorenak, 
2014;2019) 
andalsogender(Beutel&Marini,1995;Di 
Dio 
etal.,1996;Giacomino 
&Eaton,2003; 
Boohene 
et 
al., 
2008). 
Females 
are 
more 
likely 
to 
express 
concern 
and 
responsibility 
for 
well-being 
of 
others, 
less 
likely 
than 
males 
to 
be 
concerned 
with 
materialism 
and 
competition, 
and 
more 
likely 
than 
males 
to 
indicate 
that 
finding 
purpose 
and 
meaning 
in 
life 
is 
extremely 
important 
(Beutel 
& 
Marini, 
1995). 
Also 
ac-
cordingtoGiacominoandEaton(2003),femaleswere 
more 
oriented 
to 
serving 
others 
(versus 
serving 
self) 
and 
using 
moral 
(versus 
competence) 
means. 


Values 
can 
also 
differ 
according 
to 
members 
or 
non-membersofanassociation.SuterandGmür(2018) 
statethatexpectationsofassociation 
memberschange 
over 
time 
depending 
on 
age 
and 
length 
of 
membership. 
During 
membership, 
the 
bonds 
between 
the 
member 
and 
association 
become 
stronger 
and 
the 
services 
provided 
by 
the 
association 
are 
increasingly 
appreciated. 
By 
joining 
the 
Slovenian 
Mountaineer-

Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|97 



Tomi 
Špindler, 
Miha 
Lesjak, 
and 
Mitja 
Gorenak 
Changing 
Values 
Through 
Generations 


ing 
Association 
(pzs), 
members 
support 
the 
activities 
of 
mountaineering 
associations, 
mountaineering, 
sport 
climbing 
and 
other 
clubs 
united 
within 
the 
Mountaineering 
Association 
of 
Slovenia. 
pzs 
members 
are 
insured 
for 
performing 
numerous 
mountaineering 
activities. 
The 
insurance 
also 
covers 
rescue 
costs 
abroad 
with 
24-hour 
assistance 
and 
medical 
assistance 
abroad, 
as 
well 
as 
private 
liability 
insurance. 
In 
Slovenianmountainhuts 
theycan 
spend 
the 
night 
with 
a 
50. 
or 
30. 
discount. 
They 
also 
have 
discounts 
in 
more 
than 
1,250 
huts 
of 
partner 
organizations 
in 
Europe 
and 
Canada. 
Numerous 
mountaineering, 
climbing 
and 
excursion 
guides, 
together 
with 
mountaineeringmapsandprofessionaland 
liter-
aryliterature,publishedbyPlaninskazaložba 
pzs,are 
more 
affordable. 
The 
oldest 
published 
Slovene 
magazine, 
Planinski 
vestnik, 
can 
be 
ordered 
at 
a 
quarterly 
discount 
for 
the 
whole 
year. 
As 
members 
of 
pzs, 
they 
also 
receive 
many 
benefits 
in 
many 
shops 
with 
mountaineering 
and 
climbing 
equipment 
(Planinska 
zveza 
Slovenije, 
n.d.). 
For 
associations, 
it 
is 
important 
to 
knowwhatvaluesareimportanttomembersandhow 
these 
values 
will 
change 
in 
the 
future 
(Suter 
& 
Gmür, 
2018). 


Personal 
values 
can 
significantly 
affect 
tourism 
and 
the 
environment, 
attitudes 
toward 
conservation, 
and 
sustainable 
tourism 
(Xu 
& 
Fox, 
2014). 
According 
toMrak(2009), 
themotives 
andethical 
values 
of 
mountaineers 
and 
mountain 
tourists 
play 
a 
major 
rolein 
theirbehaviour 
inahigh-altitudeenvironment 
and 
consequently 
influence 
its 
condition. 
The 
high-
altitude 
environment 
is 
specific, 
and 
at 
the 
same 
time 
humanactivitiesarespecifictoit,sotheestablishment 
of 
an 
appropriate 
system 
of 
values 
and 
perceptions 
is 
of 
key 
importance 
and 
can 
significantly 
contribute 
to 
the 
realization 
of 
sustainable 
development. 


Values 
can 
be 
considered 
from 
many 
perspectives. 
The 
definitions 
by 
scholars 
agree 
on 
personal 
values’ 
key 
features: 
(1) 
an 
individual’s 
values 
reflect 
a 
belief 
on 
a 
particular 
end-state’s 
desirability; 
(2) 
an 
individual’s 
values 
transcend 
a 
particular 
situation 
since 
they 
are 
generally 
abstract; 
and 
(3) 
an 
individual’s 
values 
are 
ordered 
in 
a 
value 
priorities 
system 
(Kim, 
2020). 
Similarly, 
Strojin(1999) 
explains 
that 
valuesin 
mountaineering 
canbe 
capturedinthree 
groups: 
(a) 
per


sonal 
values 
(nobility, 
social 
sensitivity, 
upbringing, 
etc.); 
(b) 
interpersonal 
values 
(belonging 
to 
a 
group, 
connection, 
elimination, 
camaraderie, 
disaster 
relief, 
etc.); 
and 
(c) 
superpersonal 
values 
(patriotism, 
belonging 
to 
tradition, 
nature 
protection, 
etc.). 


Slovenia 
is 
a 
country 
with 
a 
rich 
history 
of 
mountaineering, 
therefore 
in 
his 
writings, 
Strojin 
(1999) 
focuses 
on 
Slovenia 
and 
draws 
attention 
to: 
(a) 
The 
tradition 
of 
Slovene 
mountaineering, 
(b) 
Patriotism, 
whichbeganwithadefensiveresistancetode-Germanization, 
and 
continued 
and 
was 
upgraded 
with 
a 
reference 
to 
tradition. 
(c) 
The 
message 
of 
the 
tradition 
ofimportantpeopleof 
Slovenianmountaineering. 
(d) 
A 
sense 
of 
responsibility 
for 
a 
comrade 
and 
a 
person 
in 
the 
mountains, 
whose 
ethically 
most 
valuable 
act 
wastheestablishmentoftheMountainRescueService 
of 
Slovenia. 
Although 
disaster 
response 
is 
a 
general 
civilizational 
duty, 
it 
is 
especially 
emphasized 
in 
the 
mountains. 
(e) 
Cultural 
attitude 
towards 
nature 
and 
its 
valuesasa 
duty 
that 
binds 
everyonewho 
walks 
in 
the 
mountains, 
regardless 
of 
whether 
they 
are 
a 
member 
or 
a 
non-member 
of 
a 
mountaineering 
organization; 
cultural 
attitude 
is 
reflected 
in 
respect 
for 
natural 
values, 
in 
the 
study 
of 
guide 
and 
other 
litera-
ture,self-educationinmountaineering,etc. 
(f)Nature 
conservation 
in 
the 
active 
behaviour 
of 
people, 
which 
is 
reflected 
in 
the 
educational 
impact 
and 
teaching 
of 
those 
younger 
and 
less 
experienced 
than 
themselves, 
in 
the 
participation 
in 
cleaning 
campaigns, 
waste 
disposal 
in 
the 
valley, 
etc. 


Among 
the 
values 
of 
mountaineering, 
which 
are 
thesameasvaluesofanintangiblenature, 
Strojin 
(1999, 
p. 
128) 
mentions: 
(a) 
The 
impact 
of 
mountaineering 
on 
health, 
on 
strengthening 
physical 
abilities, 
perseverance 
and 
strength. 
(b) 
The 
ability 
to 
ex-
perienceoneselfinthemountainsintheformofmeditation, 
relaxation, 
thinking 
and 
mental 
stabilization. 


(c) 
Increasing 
working 
capacity 
after 
an 
active 
trip. 
(d) 
Greatersocial 
adaptability, 
understandingat 
home 
and 
at 
work, 
in 
society 
and 
anywhere. 
(e) 
Life 
optimism 
with 
views 
and 
plans 
for 
the 
future, 
in 
short, 
in 
the 
impetus 
of 
life 
and 
nature. 
(f) 
Ingenuity 
and 
flexibility 
in 
life 
situations, 
finding 
ways 
out 
of 
problems 
and 
social 
mobility 
in 
life 
and 
society. 
(g) 
Helpfulness 
in 
social 
situations, 
whichrequirestheresponsiveness 
98 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Tomi 
Špindler, 
Miha 
Lesjak, 
and 
Mitja 
Gorenak 
Changing 
Values 
Through 
Generations 


of 
a 
fellow 
human 
being 
and 
self-sacrifice 
in 
dealing 
with 
an 
accident. 


Generations 
and 
Mountain 
Tourism 


Generations 
have 
been 
treated 
as 
a 
subject 
of 
research 
throughout 
history 
to 
understand 
the 
psychology 
of 
individuals 
and 
keep 
their 
behaviour 
under 
control. 
Understanding 
the 
generational 
phenomenon 
and 
its 
chronological 
differences, 
and 
the 
characteristics 
of 
membersofgenerationsisimportant,asdifferentgenerations 
with 
different 
characteristics 
work 
together 
and 
coexist 
(Berkup, 
2014). 
Members 
of 
a 
generation 
share 
experiences 
that 
affect 
their 
thoughts, 
values, 
behaviours,andreactions. 
Individualsbringtheirpersonalities, 
influences, 
and 
special 
backgrounds 
from 
their 
cultural 
background, 
class, 
gender, 
region, 
family, 
religion, 
and 
the 
like, 
but 
some 
broader 
generalizations 
about 
those 
born 
at 
about 
the 
same 
age 
are 
possible 
(Abrams 
& 
Frank, 
2014). 
Through 
sharedexperiences,
cohortsorgenerationsdevelop.Peopleborn 
within 
a 
few 
years 
of 
one 
another 
are 
likely 
to 
experience 
similar 
economic, 
political, 
historical, 
and 
technological 
changes 
throughout 
the 
life 
course 
(Moore 
&Asay, 
2017). 


Dimock(2019),GravettandThrockmorton(2007), 
aarp 
(2007)and 
amwa 
(2012)definetheBabyBoomersasthose 
born 
between1946and 
1964. 
For 
thecase 
ofthisresearch,theBabyBoomgenerationwillberep-
resented 
by 
individuals 
born 
between 
1946 
and 
1964. 
Tulgan 
(1997) 
defines 
the 
Gen 
Xers 
as 
those 
born 
between 
1963 
and 
1977. 
On 
WJSchroer 
(n.d.), 
Generation 
Xisdefinedasindividuals 
born 
between 
1966 
and 
1976. 
Some 
authors 
define 
Generation 
X 
as 
those 
born 
between 
1965 
and 
1980 
(aarp, 
2007; 
Valueoptions, 
n.d.a). 
In 
this 
case, 
Generation 
X 
will 
include 
individuals 
born 
between 
1965 
and 
1979. 


Shroer 
(n.d.) 
defines 
Generation 
Y 
as 
individuals 
bornbetween1977and1994. 
aarp(2007)definesthe 
Millennial 
Generation 
as 
those 
born 
between 
1980 
and 
2000. 
Website 
Valueoptions 
(n.d.b) 
has 
defined 
Generation 
Y 
as 
individuals 
born 
between 
1980 
and 
1994. 
In 
the 
case 
of 
this 
study, 
Generation 
Y 
will 
be 
defined 
as 
individuals 
born 
between 
1980 
and 
1994. 
Further, 
Dimock 
(2019) 
defines 
Generation 
Z 
(also 
Gen 
Z, 
Post-Millenials 
etc.) 
as 
individuals 
born 
from 


1997 
onwards. 
Schroer 
(n.d.) 
defines 
Generation 
Z 
as 
individuals 
born 
between 
1995 
and 
2012. 
In 
this 
study, 
Generation 
Z 
will 
be 
defined 
as 
individuals 
born 
between 
1995 
and 
2009. 


It 
was 
shown 
that 
the 
alternation 
of 
generations 
implies 
a 
certain 
continuity 
in 
various 
indicators: 
values, 
perceptions, 
behaviour, 
collective 
memory, 
information, 
discourses. 
The 
construct 
is 
a 
very 
mobile 
formation. 
The 
boundaries 
of 
generations 
cannot 
be 
less 
than 
10 
years, 
since 
the 
formation 
of 
basic 
values 
takes 
place 
in 
adolescence 
(Pishchik, 
2020). 
The 
turbulent 
developments 
as 
a 
result 
of 
industrialization, 
modernization 
and 
globalization 
has 
created 
differences 
between 
generations 
(Bejtkovský, 
2016). 
New 
generations 
profess 
a 
different 
lifestyle 
from 
that 
of 
the 
generations 
before 
(Grencíková 
& 
Vojtovic, 
2017); 
also, 
each 
generation 
has 
its 
own 
source 
of 
happiness 
(Abror 
et 
al., 
2020). 
The 
findings 
show 
that 
differences 
in 
cohort-induced 
lifestyles 
and 
values 
permeate 
into 
vacation 
experience 
and 
activity. 
It 
would 
be 
unwise 
to 
assume 
that 
people 
in 
similar 
chronological 
age 
and 
life 
stages 
will 
always 
have 
similar 
travel 
preferences 
from 
generation 
to 
generation 
(Lehto 
et 
al., 
2008). 
Differences 
in 
behaviour 
between 
generations 
are 
becoming 
increasingly 
apparent. 
The 
young 
generation 
of 
the 
moment, 
also 
known 
as 
Generation 
Z, 
is 
distinguished 
by 
many 
elements 
from 
the 
previous 
generations. 
There 
is 
a 
clear 
gap 
between 
the 
older 
and 
younger 
generations 
in 
their 
view 
toward 
tourism 
consumer 
behaviour 
(Baltescu, 
2019). 
Generation 
Z 
seems 
to 
have 
the 
ability 
to 
discern 
the 
environment 
and 
decipher 
the 
role 
tourism 
plays. 
Their 
criticalimpressionsofplaceintermsofinfrastructure, 
sustainability,beauty,etc.,forcearethinkoftraditional 
tourist 
typologies 
(Wee, 
2019). 
However, 
tourism 
activitiescanstillhavepositiveeffectsonvariousaspects 
of 
the 
life 
of 
elderly 
generations(Medaric 
et 
al., 
2016). 
Therefore, 
the 
value 
of 
travel, 
as 
an 
entire 
concept, 
changes 
among 
generations. 
Personally, 
individuals 
value 
travel 
experiences 
differently 
as 
they 
age 
and 
participate 
in 
the 
workforce 
(Moore 
& 
Asay, 
2017). 


Understanding 
the 
generation 
phenomenon 
and 
the 
characteristics 
of 
the 
members 
of 
generations 
is 
of 
importance 
for 
tourism 
providers 
as 
they 
need 
to 
knowtheirguestsinordertoadjusttheoffer(Špindler, 


Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|99 



Tomi 
Špindler, 
Miha 
Lesjak, 
and 
Mitja 
Gorenak 
Changing 
Values 
Through 
Generations 


2018). 
This 
also 
applies 
to 
the 
planning 
of 
sustainable 
tourist 
activities 
in 
the 
mountains. 
In 
Slovenia, 
awareness 
of 
sustainable 
development 
concepts 
in 
tourism 
is 
rapidly 
gaining 
momentum 
(Sasidharan 
& 
Križaj, 
2018). 
The 
Mountaineering 
Association 
of 
Slovenia, 
which 
dedicated 
the 
International 
Day 
of 
Mountains 
2019 
to 
young 
people 
and 
runs 
under 
the 
slogan 
‘Mountains 
are 
important 
for 
young 
people,’ 
also 
strives 
to 
encourage 
younger 
generations 
to 
visit 
the 
mountains 
and 
behave 
sustainably 
in 
the 
mountains. 
Ponebšek 
(2019) 
says 
that 
the 
mountain 
world 
is 
changing 
and 
is 
intentionally 
or 
unintentionally 
alreadylargelyimbued 
withmasstourism.He 
addsthat 
‘if 
wefocus 
on 
theSlovenian 
mountains, 
we 
cansee 
that 
they 
still 
offer 
young 
people 
many 
opportunities 
for 
life 
and 
sports 
in 
the 
mountain 
world, 
of 
course 
awareoftheneedtoconstantlyseekharmonybetween 
nature 
and 
man.’ 


Areviewofthe 
literature 
showsthat 
there 
is 
agap 
in 
the 
research 
of 
mountaineering 
values 
of 
different 
generations 
of 
sports 
tourists 
in 
the 
mountains. 
Through 
the 
research 
and 
its 
results, 
this 
gap 
will 
be 
filled, 
which 
will 
help 
to 
better 
understand 
the 
characteristics 
of 
tourists 
in 
the 
mountains. 


Methodology 


Based 
on 
the 
literature 
review 
the 
following 
key 
research 
question 
was 
set: 
Are 
mountaineering 
values 
of 
mountain 
tourists 
statistically 
significantly 
influenced 
bygeneration,genderandmembershipinmountaineering 
association 
of 
individuals? 


Threehypothesesweretested 
in 
thisstudy: 


h1 
There 
are 
statistically 
significant 
differences 
in 


importance 
of 
mountaineering 
values 
of 
differ


ent 
generations 
of 
tourists 
in 
mountains. 


h2 
There 
are 
statistically 
significant 
differences 
in 


importance 
of 
mountaineering 
values 
of 
differ


ent 
genders 
of 
tourists 
in 
mountains. 


h3 
There 
are 
statistically 
significant 
differences 
in 


importanceofmountaineering 
values 
oftourists 


inmountainsthataremembersornon-members 


of 
a 
mountaineering 
association. 


A 
quantitative 
approach 
is 
often 
used 
in 
researching 
tourist 
values 
(Wen 
et 
al., 
2019; 
Kim 
et 
al., 
2006; 


Woosnam 
et 
al., 
2007), 
so 
the 
research 
in 
this 
study 
is 
also 
based 
on 
a 
quantitative 
approach. 
Data 
was 
obtained 
on 
the 
basis 
of 
a 
convenience 
sample, 
which 
is 
a 
type 
of 
non-probability 
sampling 
in 
which 
we 
in-
cludethoseunitsofferedbytheopportunity(e.g.place, 
access) 
(Terminološki 
slovar 
vzgoje 
in 
izobraževanja, 
n.d.).Thispatternisoftenusedintourismforresearch 
conducted 
with 
the 
participation 
of 
groups 
of 
tourists 
on 
a 
tourist 
trip 
(Kneževic 
& 
Bizjak, 
2009). 
The 
data 
collection 
method 
was 
a 
survey 
that 
represents 
an 
established 
data 
collection 
method 
for 
researching 
the 
values 
of 
tourists 
(Wen 
et 
al., 
2019; 
Kim 
et 
al., 
2006; 
Woosnam 
etal.,2007).The 
data 
collection 
tool 
was 
a 
questionnaire 
that 
was 
also 
used 
in 
similar 
surveys 
(Wen 
et 
al., 
2019; 
Kim 
et 
al., 
2006; 
Woosnam 
et 
al., 
2007). 


Thesurveywasdesignedbasedonthereviewedliterature 
and 
previously 
conducted 
research. 
With 
the 
help 
of 
a 
designed 
survey, 
data 
on 
the 
predominant 
mountaineering 
values 
of 
an 
individual 
respondent 
was 
obtained. 
Tourists 
were 
invited 
to 
participate 
in 
the 
research 
at 
the 
locations 
of 
mountain 
huts 
of 
the 
1st 
category. 
The 
criteria 
for 
mountain 
huts 
of 
the 
1st 
category 
are 
(Planinska 
zveza 
Slovenije, 
2017): 
(a) 
the 
locationofthemountainhutisintheareaoftheJulian 
Alps,Karavanke,Kamnik-SavinjaAlpsorSnežnik;(b) 
walking 
time 
from 
the 
nearest 
starting 
point, 
accessible 
by 
public 
road, 
is 
at 
least 
one 
hour; 
(c) 
the 
mountainhutisnot 
accessiblebypublicroadorbycable 
car 
for 
the 
transport 
of 
persons 
for 
the 
purpose 
of 
public 
transport;(d)thehutcannotbesuppliedwithvehicles 
on 
the 
roads, 
but 
the 
supplies 
are 
carried 
by 
people, 
pack 
horses, 
a 
freight 
cable 
car 
or 
helicopters. 


By 
including 
tourists 
in 
the 
locations 
of 
category 
1 
mountain 
huts 
in 
the 
research, 
we 
meet 
the 
criteria 
for 
defining 
sports 
tourists, 
as 
the 
travel 
of 
these 
persons 
includes 
sports 
activities, 
and 
we 
will 
also 
check 
overnight 
stays 
outsidethe 
placeoftheir 
residence. 
Thecategoryof1stcategoryhutsincludes31mountain 
hutsinSlovenia.Amongthesehuts, 
Kocbek’s 
home 
in 
KorošicaandFrischauf’shomearecurrentlyoutofoperation. 
The 
population 
of 
the 
research 
is 
defined 
as 
personswhospendthenightoutsidetheirplaceofresidence 
and 
visit 
a 
mountain 
hut 
of 
the 
1st 
category 
in 
theareaofSloveniainthe2020summermountaineer


100 
| 
Academica 
Turistica,Year15, 
No.1,April 
2022 



Tomi 
Špindler, 
Miha 
Lesjak, 
and 
Mitja 
Gorenak 
Changing 
Values 
Through 
Generations 


ing 
season, 
from 
June 
to 
September. 
Mountain 
hut 
visitors 
were 
approached 
by 
the 
researcher 
and 
asked 
to 
participate 
in 
the 
survey. 
The 
researcher 
explained 
the 
purpose 
of 
the 
survey, 
stated 
that 
the 
survey 
was 
anonymous, 
and 
handed 
out 
a 
self-completion 
questionnaire 
in 
the 
appropriate 
language. 


Mountaineering 
values 
were 
measured 
using 
a 
5point 
Likert 
scale 
ranging 
from 
very 
unimportant 
(1) 
to 
very 
important 
(5). 
The 
respondents 
were 
asked 
to 
indicate 
to 
what 
extent 
the 
values 
are 
important 
to 
them. 
Values 
from 
the 
field 
of 
mountaineering,which 
were 
included 
in 
the 
questionnaire, 
were 
taken 
from 
theworkofStrojin(1999),asit 
is 
one 
ofthefewworks 
that 
dealswith 
or 
definesmountaineeringvalues. 
The 
research 
of 
values 
was 
carried 
out 
as 
part 
of 
a 
broader 
research,which 
also 
included 
researchon 
themotivation 
and 
lifestyle 
of 
tourists 
in 
the 
mountains. 


Thedataobtainedwiththehelpofthesurveyquestionnaire 
was 
processed 
with 
the 
statistical 
package 
spss 
for 
Windows. 
According 
to 
the 
obtained 
data, 
a 
series 
of 
statistical 
analyses 
were 
performed. 
For 
nonnumerical 
data, 
base 
frequencies, 
percentages 
in 
individual 
categories, 
and 
cumulative 
percentages 
were 
calculated.Inthefirstphase,adescriptiveanalysiswas 
performed 
to 
present 
the 
characteristics 
of 
tourists 
in 
the 
mountains. 
As 
part 
of 
the 
research, 
the 
sample 
was 
divided 
into 
five 
groups 
and 
compared 
with 
each 
other. 
These 
groups 
are 
the 
Baby 
Boomer 
generation, 
Generation 
X, 
Generation 
Y 
and 
Generation 


Z. 
Individuals 
wereclassifiedinto 
anindividual 
group 
according 
to 
the 
year 
of 
birth. 
To 
gauge 
the 
reliability 
of 
measure 
(Cronbach 
& 
Shavelson, 
2004) 
of 
mountaineering 
values, 
Cronbach’s 
alpha 
was 
used. 
Further, 
to 
reduce 
the 
number 
of 
variables 
(values) 
into 
fewer 
numbers 
of 
factors, 
factor 
analysis 
was 
used 
(Lawley 
& 
Maxwell, 
1962). 
The 
Kruskal-WallisHtestwasperformed,asitis 
used 
to 
determine 
if 
there 
are 
statistically 
significant 
differences 
between 
different 
generations 
and 
mountaineering 
values 
(Kruskal 
& 
Wallis, 
1952). 
To 
measurethestrengthanddirectionofassociationbetween 
generations 
and 
mountaineering 
values, 
Spearman’s 
rank-order 
correlation 
was 
used 
(Bishara 
& 
Hittner, 
2012). 
Next,aMannWhitneyUtestwasperformedto 
compare 
gender 
and 
mountaineering 
values. 
A 
Mann 


Table 
1 
Demographic 
Data 


Variable 
N 
. 


Gender 
Male 
... 
.... 
Female 
... 
.... 


Age 
according 
to 
generations 
Baby 
Boom 
Generation 
Generation 
X 
Generation 
Y 
Generation 
Z 
... 
... 
... 
.. 
.... 
.... 
.... 
.... 
Education 
Primary 
or 
incomplete 
primareducation 
Secondary 
vocational 
educatio(. 
years 
of 
secondary 
school) 
Secondary 
education 
(. 
years 
of 
secondary 
education) 
Higher 
or 
university 
education 
Specialization, 
master’s 
degree 
or 
PhD 
y 
. 
n 
.. 
... 
... 
.. 
... 
... 
.... 
.... 
... 


Members 
of 
Yes 
... 
.... 
mount. 
assoc. 


No 
... 
.... 


WhitneyUtestwasalsoperformedtofindoutifthere 
arestatisticallysignificantdifferencesinmountaineeringvaluesratingbetweenmembersandnon-
members 
of 
mountaineering 
associations 
(Mann 
& 
Whitney, 
1947). 


Results 


Together,407respondersfromSloveniawereincluded 
in 
theanalysis 
(Table 
1). 
Theproportion 
ofmaleresponders 
(58.7.) 
was 
higher 
than 
that 
of 
female 
re-
spondents(41.3.).TheBabyBoomGeneration(1946– 
1964) 
represents 
26. 
of 
the 
responders, 
31.4. 
were 
GenerationX(1965–1979),25.8.GenerationY(1980– 
1994) 
and 
14.7. 
Generation 
Z 
(1995–2009). 
Most 
of 
them 
hadobtainedsecondary 
education(47.3.) 
or 
higher/universityeducation(39.3.).Therewere63.0. 
of 
members 
and 
37.0. 
of 
non–members 
of 
a 
mountaineering 
association. 


To 
measure 
the 
scale 
reliability 
of 
our 
research 
in 
mountaineering 
values, 
Cronbach’s 
alpha 
test 
was 
used. 
For 
the 
list 
of 
16 
values, 
Cronbach’s 
alpha 
is 
calculatedat0.836 
whichrepresents 
anacceptable 
reliability 
coefficient 
(Cortina, 
1993). 
According 
to 
the 
performed 
Shapiro-Wilk 
test 
of 
normality, 
the 
variables 
are 
not 
normaly 
distributed 
in 
population 
that 
has 
beensampled(p 
= 
0.000). 
Tomeasurehow 
suited 


Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|101 



Tomi 
Špindler, 
Miha 
Lesjak, 
and 
Mitja 
Gorenak 
Changing 
Values 
Through 
Generations 


Table 
2 
Factor 
Analysis 


Variable 
(.) 
(.) 
(.) 


f. 
Themessage 
of 
thetradition 
of 
important 
people 
in 
mountaineering 
..... 
..... 
..... 
Nobility 
..... 
..... 
..... 
Belonging 
to 
a 
group, 
expedition 
..... 
..... 
..... 
Patriotism 
..... 
..... 
..... 
Social 
adaptability 
..... 
..... 
..... 
Mountaineering 
tradition 
..... 
..... 
..... 
f. 
Health 
..... 
..... 
..... 
Life 
optimism 
..... 
..... 
..... 
f. 
Experiencing 
yourself 
in 
the 
mountains 
..... 
..... 
..... 
Ingenuity 
and 
flexibility 
in 
life 
situations 
..... 
..... 
..... 
Working 
capacity 
(after 
an 
active 
trip) 
..... 
..... 
..... 
f. 
Helpfulness 
in 
social 
situations 
–..... 
..... 
..... 
Comradeship 
–..... 
..... 
..... 
Cultural 
attitude 
towards 
nature 
–..... 
..... 
..... 
Nature 
protection 
–..... 
..... 
..... 
Upbringing 
–..... 
..... 
..... 


Notes 
Factors: 
f1 
– 
tradition 
values 
(26.6. 
of 
variance), 
f2 
– 
health 
values 
(8.4. 
of 
variance), 
f3 
– 
personality 
values 
(5.0. 
of 
variance), 
f4 
– 
upbringing 
values 
(3.4. 
of 
variance). 
Rotation 
Method: 
Oblimin 
with 
Kaiser 
Normalization. 
Column 
headings 
are 
as 
follows: 
(1) 
factor 
loading, 
(2) 
mean,(3) 
standard 
deviation. 


the 
data 
is 
for 
factor 
analysis, 
the 
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin 
(kmo) 
Test 
was 
performed. 
The 
kmo 
value 
of 
0.822 
indicated 
that 
the 
sampling 
is 
adequate. 
That 
a 
factor 
analysis 
is 
useful 
with 
the 
data, 
indicated 
also 
the 
Bartlett’s 
test 
of 
sphericity, 
with 
significance 
of 
0.000 
(Tobias 
& 
Carlson, 
1969). 


Further, 
to 
reduce 
the 
number 
of 
variables 
(values) 
into 
fewernumbers 
of 
factors, 
factor 
analysiswas 
used. 
Table2showsfactorloadingsforthefactoranalysis. 
The 
minimum 
factor 
loading 
was 
set 
to 
0.25, 
so 
the 
final 
model 
includes 
16 
items. 
The 
four 
factors 
explained 
43.4. 
of 
the 
total 
variation. 
The 
items 
in 
the 
table 
are 
sortedaccording 
to 
the 
size 
ofthe 
loadingon 
each 
of 
the 
factors. 
The 
first 
factor 
was 
labelled 
‘Tradition 
values,’ 
based 
on 
the 
first 
three 
items 
with 
the 
highest 
loadings 
on 
this 
factor. 
The 
second 
factor 
was 
labelled 
‘Health 
values,’ 
the 
third 
factor 
‘Personality 
values’ 
and 
the 
fourth 
factor 
‘Upbringing 
values.’ 


Table 
3 
Kruskal-Wallis 
H 
test 


Generations 
(.) 
(.) 
(.) 
(.) 
(.) 


f. 
Baby 
Boom 
Gen 
X 
Gen 
Y 
Gen 
Z 
Total 
... 
... 
... 
.. 
... 
...... 
...... 
...... 
...... 
...... 
. 
..... 
f. 
Baby 
Boom 
Gen 
X 
Gen 
Y 
Gen 
Z 
Total 
.. 
... 
.. 
.. 
... 
...... 
...... 
...... 
...... 
..... 
. 
..... 
f. 
Baby 
Boom 
Gen 
X 
Gen 
Y 
Gen 
Z 
Total 
... 
... 
... 
.. 
... 
...... 
...... 
...... 
...... 
..... 
. 
..... 
f. 
Baby 
Boom 
Gen 
X 
Gen 
Y 
Gen 
Z 
Total 
... 
... 
... 
.. 
... 
...... 
...... 
...... 
...... 
...... 
. 
..... 


All 
Baby 
Boom 
.. 
...... 
...... 
. 
..... 
Gen 
X 
... 
...... 
Gen 
Y 
.. 
...... 
Gen 
Z 
.. 
...... 
Total 
... 


Notes 
Column 
headings 
are 
as 
follows: 
(1) 
N,(2) 
mean 
rank, 
(3) 
Kruskal-Wallis 
H, 
(4) 
degrees 
of 
freedom, 
(5) 
asymptotic 
significance. 


Given 
that 
the 
calculated 
values 
by 
mountaineering 
values 
are 
abnormally 
distributed, 
nonparametric 
tests 
were 
used 
below. 
A 
rank-based 
nonparametric 
test 
– 
the 
Kruskal-Wallis 
H 
test 
– 
was 
performed, 
as 
it 
is 
used 
to 
determine 
if 
there 
are 
statistically 
significant 
differencesbetweentwo 
or 
moregroups 
of 
an 
in-
dependentvariableonacontinuousorordinaldepen-
dent 
variable. 
In 
this 
case, 
different 
generations 
and 
mountaineering 
values 
were 
included 
in 
the 
test 
(Table 
3). 


The 
Kruskal-Wallis 
H 
test 
showed 
that 
there 
was 
a 
statistically 
significant 
difference 
in 
importance 
of 
mountaineeringvalues 
betweendifferentgenerations, 
.2 
= 
29.209, 
p 
= 
0.000. 
However, 
if 
one 
looked 
more 
deeply 
into 
factors 
of 
values, 
a 
statistically 
significant 
differenceinimportanceofmountaineeringvaluesbe


102 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Tomi 
Špindler, 
Miha 
Lesjak, 
and 
Mitja 
Gorenak 
Changing 
Values 
Through 
Generations 


Table 
4 
Spearman’s 
Rho 


Item 
f. 
f. 
f. 
f. 


Correlation 
Coefficient 
–.....** 
–..... 
–..... 
–..... 
Sig. 
(.-tailed) 
..... 
..... 
..... 
..... 
N 
... 
... 
... 
... 


Notes 
**Correlation 
is 
significant 
at 
the 
0.01 
level 
(2-tailed). 


tweendifferentgenerationsisseenonlywithTradition 
values 
and 
Upbringing 
values 
(Table 
3). 


Further, 
to 
measure 
the 
strength 
and 
direction 
of 
association 
between 
generations 
and 
mountaineering 
values,Spearman’srank-ordercorrelationwasused,as 
it 
is 
a 
nonparametric 
measure 
(Table 
4). 


A 
Spearman’s 
rank-order 
correlation 
was 
run 
to 
determine 
the 
relationship 
between 
generations 
and 
mountaineering 
values. 
There 
was 
a 
moderate, 
negative 
correlation 
between 


Generations 
and 
Tradition 
values, 
which 
was 
statistically 
significant 
(rs 
= 
–0.388, 
p 
= 
0.000). 
This 
in-
dicatesthatastheagedecreases,theimportanceoftradition 
values 
decreases. 


Next, 
differences 
in 
gender 
of 
tourists 
were 
tested 
usingaMannWhitneyUtest,asitisanon-parametric 
test 
that 
is 
used 
to 
compare 
two 
sample 
means 
that 
come 
from 
the 
same 
population, 
and 
used 
to 
test 
whether 
two 
sample 
means 
are 
equal 
or 
not. 
In 
this 
case,genderandmountaineeringvalueswereincluded 
in 
the 
test 
(Table 
5). 


ItisevidentfromtheMann-WhitneyUtestresults 
that 
there 
are 
statistically 
significant 
differences 
be-
tweengenderwhen 
rankingthe 
importance 
of 
mountaineering 
values. 
Female 
respondents 
rated 
values 
more 
favourably 
than 
men 
(p 
=0.029). 
However, 
as 
Table 
5 
shows, 
statistically 
significant 
differences 
appearonlybyTraditionvalues(
p 
=0.032)andUpbringing 
values 
(p 
= 
0.002). 
The 
results 
show 
that 
females 
are 
ranking 
traditional 
and 
upbringing 
values 
statistically 
significantly 
higher 
than 
males. 


AMannWhitneyUtestwasalsoperformedtofind 
out 
if 
there 
are 
statistically 
significant 
differences 
in 
mountaineering 
values 
rating 
between 
members 
and 
non-members 
of 
mountaineering 
associations 
(Table 
6). 


It 
is 
evident 
from 
the 
results 
that 
there 
are 
statis-

Table 
5 
Mann 
Whitney 
U 
Test: 
Gender 


Gender 
(.) 
(.) 
(.) 
(.) 
(.) 
(.) 


f. 
f. 
Male 
Female 
... 
Total 
Male 
Female 
... 
Total 
... 
... 
... 
... 
...... 
........ 
........ 
...... 
...... 
........ 
........ 
...... 
–..... 
..... 
–..... 
..... 
f. 
Male 
Female 
... 
Total 
... 
... 
...... 
........ 
........ 
...... 
–..... 
..... 
f. 
Male 
Female 
... 
Total 
... 
... 
...... 
........ 
........ 
...... 
–..... 
..... 


All 
Male 
... 
...... 
........ 
........ 
–..... 
..... 
Female 
... 
...... 
Total 
... 


Notes 
Column 
headings 
are 
as 
follows: 
(1) 
N,(2) 
mean 
rank,(3) 
Mann-Whitney 
U, 
(4) 
Wilcoxon 
W, 
(5) 
Z, 
(6) 
asymptotic 
significance 
(2-tailed). 


Table 
6 
Mann 
Whitney 
U 
Test: 
Membership 
in 
Mountaineering 
Association 


Memb. 
(.) 
(.) 
(.) 
(.) 
(.) 
(.) 


f. 
Yes 
No 
Total 
... 
... 
... 
...... 
......... 
......... 
...... 
–..... 
..... 
f. 
Yes 
No 
Total 
... 
... 
... 
...... 
......... 
......... 
...... 
–..... 
..... 
f. 
Yes 
No 
Total 
... 
... 
... 
...... 
......... 
......... 
...... 
–..... 
..... 
f. 
Yes 
No 
Total 
... 
... 
... 
...... 
......... 
......... 
...... 
–..... 
..... 


All 
Yes 
... 
...... 
......... 
......... 
–..... 
..... 
No 
... 
...... 
Total 
... 


Notes 
Column 
headings 
are 
as 
follows: 
(1) 
N,(2) 
mean 
rank,(3) 
Mann-WhitneyU,(4)WilcoxonW,(5)Z,(6)asyptoticsignificance 
(2-tailed). 


tically 
significant 
differences 
between 
members 
and 
non-membersofmountaineeringassociationsregardingallvalues(
p 
=0.012).TheresultsshowthatsignificantdifferencesoccurinTradition(
p 
= 
0.001),Health 


Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|103 



Tomi 
Špindler, 
Miha 
Lesjak, 
and 
Mitja 
Gorenak 
Changing 
Values 
Through 
Generations 


(p 
= 
0.027) 
and 
Upbringing 
(p 
=0.041)values. 
Mean 
Ranksbyallmentionedvalues(Tradition,Health,Upbringing) 
are 
higher 
for 
members 
of 
mountaineering 
associations,whichmeansthatmembersareratingthe 
values 
higher 
than 
non-members. 


Basedontheresults,thesethypothesesweretested. 
In 
measuring 
the 
strength 
and 
direction 
of 
association 
between 
generations 
and 
mountaineering 
values 
it 
is 
evident 
that 
there 
was 
a 
moderate, 
negative 
correlation 
between 
Generations 
and 
Tradition 
values, 
which 
indicates 
that 
as 
the 
age 
decreases, 
the 
importance 
of 
tradition 
values 
also 
decreases. 
According 
to 
the 
differences 
in 
generations 
the 
hypothesis 
was 
h1: 
There 
arestatisticallysignificant 
differencesinimportance 
of 
mountaineering 
values 
of 
different 
genera-
tionsoftouristsinmountains.Basedontheresults,we 
can 
confirm 
this 
hypothesis 
and 
conclude 
that 
there 
are 
statistically 
significant 
differences 
in 
importance 
of 
mountaineering 
values 
of 
different 
generations 
of 
tourists 
in 
mountains. 
These 
differences 
are 
visible 
mainly 
in 
Tradition 
and 
Upbringing 
values. 


Whenresearchingtheimportanceofmountaineering 
values 
according 
to 
the 
gender 
of 
participants 
the 
hypothesis 
was 
h2: 
There 
are 
statistically 
significant 
differencesinimportanceofmountaineeringvaluesof 
differentgendersof 
touristsin 
mountains. 
The 
participantsweredividedintotwogroupsaccordingtotheir 
gender. 
First, 
the 
Mann-Whitney 
U 
test 
results 
shows 
that 
there 
are 
statistically 
significant 
differences 
be-
tweengenderwhenrankingthe 
importanceofmountaineering 
values. 
Regarding 
that, 
female 
respondents 
ingeneralrankmountaineeringvaluesasmoreimportant. 
When 
observing 
in 
more 
detail, 
it 
is 
evident 
that 
statistically 
significant 
differences 
occur 
especially 
in 
Tradition 
values 
and 
Upbringing 
values. 
The 
results 
show 
that 
female 
respondents 
rank 
the 
importance 
of 
traditional 
and 
upbringing 
values 
statistically 
significantly 
higher 
than 
men. 
Based 
on 
the 
results 
we 
can 
confirm 
h2 
and 
conclude 
that 
there 
are 
statistically 
significant 
differences 
in 
importance 
of 
mountaineering 
values 
of 
different 
genders 
of 
tourists 
in 
mountains. 
These 
differences 
are 
seen 
mainly 
in 
Tradition 
and 
Upbringing 
values. 


The 
third 
hypothesis 
referred 
to 
importance 
of 
mountaineering 
values 
between 
members 
and 
non


members 
of 
mountaineering 
organizations. 
It 
is 
evident 
from 
the 
Mann 
Whitney 
U 
test 
results 
that 
there 
are 
statistically 
significant 
differences 
between 
members 
and 
non-members 
of 
mountaineering 
associations 
regarding 
mountaineering 
values. 
The 
results 
show 
that 
significant 
differences 
occur 
in 
Tradition, 
HealthandUpbringingvalues. 
Byallthesevalues,importance 
ratings 
of 
members 
of 
mountaineering 
organizations 
are 
higher 
than 
of 
non-members. 
From 
these 
results 
we 
can 
understand 
that 
the 
members 
of 
a 
mountaineering 
organization 
accept 
or 
approve 
of 
mountain 
values 
to 
a 
greater 
extent 
than 
non-members. 
Therefore, 
if 
the 
hypothesis 
was 
h3: 
There 
are 
statistically 
significant 
differences 
in 
importance 
of 
mountaineering 
values 
of 
tourists 
in 
mountains 
that 
are 
members 
or 
non-members 
of 
a 
mountaineering 
association, 
we 
can 
confirm 
thishypothesisaccording 
to 
the 
results. 
We 
can 
conclude 
that 
there 
are 
statistically 
significant 
differences 
in 
importance 
of 
mountaineering 
values 
of 
tourists 
in 
mountains 
that 
are 
members 
or 
non-members 
of 
a 
mountaineering 
association. 
These 
differences 
are 
mainly 
seen 
in 
Tradition, 
Health 
and 
Upbringing 
values, 
where 
members 
rate 
these 
values 
higher 
thannon-members. 


Discussion 


In 
this 
study 
a 
total 
of 
16 
mountaineering 
values 
were 
included 
in 
the 
research. 
With 
the 
use 
of 
factor 
analysis, 
four 
factors 
were 
formed. 
In 
the 
first 
factor, 
called 
Tradition 
values, 
six 
variables 
(mountaineering 
values) 
were 
included. 
Those 
were: 
‘The 
message 
of 
the 
traditionofimportantpeopleinmountaineering,’‘Nobility,’ 
‘Belonging 
to 
a 
group, 
expedition,’ 
‘Patriotism,’ 
‘Social 
adaptability’ 
and 
‘Mountaineering 
tradition.’ 
Strojin 
(1999) 
also 
mentions 
the 
emphasis 
on 
values 
related 
to 
the 
history 
and 
tradition 
of 
mountaineering 
in 
his 
work. 
The 
next 
factorwascalled 
Health 
val-
ues,asthevariables(‘Health,’‘Lifeoptimism’)included 
in 
this 
factor 
are 
connected 
to 
health 
and 
well-being. 
The 
third 
factor 
includes 
variables 
or 
values 
relating 
to 
oneself 
(‘Experiencing 
yourself 
in 
the 
mountains,’ 
‘Ingenuity 
and 
flexibility 
in 
life 
situations,’ 
‘Working 
capacity(afteranactivetrip)’),thereforeitwasnamed 
Personalityvalues. 
Thelastfactorreferstoupbringing 
and 
behaviour 
in 
mountains, 
therefore 
it 
was 
named 


104 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Tomi 
Špindler, 
Miha 
Lesjak, 
and 
Mitja 
Gorenak 
Changing 
Values 
Through 
Generations 


Upbringing 
values. 
It 
includes 
the 
variables 
‘Helpfulness 
in 
social 
situations,’ 
‘Comradeship,’ 
‘Cultural 
attitude 
towards 
nature,’ 
‘Nature 
protection,’ 
and 
‘Upbringing.’
WeseethatinHealthandPersonalityvalues 
factors,thevaluesaremorelinkedtooneself,totheindividual 
person. 
In 
Upbringing 
values, 
the 
emphasis 
ison 
interpersonalconnectionsandbehaviour 
values. 
In 
Tradition 
values, 
the 
emphasis 
is 
on 
values 
that 
are 
beyond 
the 
personal 
and 
which 
connect 
to 
the 
tradition 
and 
history 
of 
mountaineering. 
Similar 
to 
this, 
Strojin 
(1999) 
also 
mentions 
personal, 
interpersonal 
and 
superpersonal 
groups 
of 
mountaineering 
values. 


Asitisstatedintheliterature,thatvaluesarechanging 
through 
generations 
(Gorenak, 
2014; 
Ovsenik 
& 
Kozjek, 
2015; 
Gorenak, 
2019), 
this 
study 
researched 
if 
this 
is 
also 
the 
case 
among 
mountain 
tourists. 
The 
samplewasdividedinto4generations(BabyBoomers, 
GenerationX,GenerationY,GenerationZ) 
according 
to 
the 
year 
of 
birth. 
It 
is 
evident 
that 
there 
are 
statistically 
significant 
differences 
in 
importance 
of 
mountaineering 
values 
between 
different 
generations. 
According 
to 
the 
Mean 
Rank, 
we 
can 
see 
that 
the 
elderly 
generation 
in 
general 
rank 
mountaineering 
values 
as 
more 
important 
than 
younger 
generations. 
These 
differences 
are 
particularly 
evident 
in 
Tradition 
values 
and 
Upbringing 
values. 
In 
Tradition 
values, 
the 
older 
thegeneration,thehighertheyratethe 
importance 
of 
tradition 
values. 
However, 
in 
Upbringing 
values, 
the 
highest 
ratings 
of 
importance 
are 
evident 
in 
Generation 
Baby 
Boom 
and 
GenerationZ. 
Since 
the 
younger 
generation 
today 
is 
interested 
in 
nature 
protection, 
and 
education/upbringing 
is 
also 
important 
to 
them, 
such 
a 
result 
is 
recorded 
here. 
If 
personal 
values 
significantly 
affect 
tourism 
and 
the 
environment, 
attitudes 
toward 
conservation 
of 
nature, 
and 
sustainable 
tourism 
(Xu 
& 
Fox,2014),the 
results 
of 
this 
study 
can 
be 
an 
encouraging 
indicator 
that 
the 
younger 
generation 
will 
strive 
for 
the 
preservation 
of 
mountain 
areas 
and 
their 
sustainable 
development. 
Fostering 
this 
way 
of 
thinking 
and 
behaving 
in 
the 
mountains 
is 
important 
for 
both 
younger 
and 
older 
generations. 


Regardinggender 
differences, 
Female 
respondents 
ingeneralrankmountaineeringvaluesasmoreimportant. 
Theresultsshow 
thatfemalerespondentsmainly 
rank 
the 
importance 
of 
traditional 
and 
upbringing 


values 
higher 
than 
males. 
These 
results 
are 
consistent 
with 
previous 
research 
that 
females 
are 
more 
oriented 
to 
serving 
othersand 
caring 
for 
their 
well-being 
(Giacomino 
& 
Eaton, 
2003; 
Boohene 
et 
al., 
2008). 
Female 
respondents,comparedtomales,mainlydescribedsocialadaptability,
helpfulnessinsocialsituations,camaraderie, 
mountaineering 
tradition 
and 
nature 
protectionasmoreimportant. 
Fromthiswe 
canassume 
that 
women 
in 
the 
mountains 
will 
be 
more 
willing 
to 
help 
indifficultsituations,aremorereceptivetothemountaineering 
tradition 
and 
will 
put 
more 
emphasis 
on 
nature 
conservation 
in 
the 
mountains. 


We 
can 
conclude 
that 
there 
are 
differences 
in 
importanceofmountaineeringvaluesoftouristsinmountains 
that 
are 
members 
or 
non-members 
of 
a 
mountaineering 
association. 
These 
differences 
are 
mainly 
seeninTradition,HealthandUpbringingvalues,where 
members 
rate 
these 
values 
higher 
than 
non-members. 
Similar 
resultswerepresentedby 
Suter 
and 
Gmür 
(2018), 
where 
survey 
data 
from 
members 
of 
a 
Swiss 
hiking 
trail 
association 
revealed 
that 
there 
are 
significant 
positive 
relationships 
with 
all 
member-value 
dimensions: 
enjoyment, 
affection, 
identity, 
power, 
par-
ticipation,understanding,andsafety. 
However,length 
of 
membership 
showed 
stronger 
effects 
than 
age. 
We 
see 
that 
the 
members 
of 
the 
mountaineering 
organization 
accept 
mountaineering 
values 
to 
a 
greater 
ex-
tent,thereforewecanassumethattheirvaluesarealso 
builtthroughmembershipinmountaineeringassociations. 
Promoting 
awareness 
of 
mountaineering 
values 
is 
largely 
in 
the 
hands 
of 
the 
mountaineering 
organization 
itself, 
which, 
through 
activities, 
promotion 
andprogrammes,bringsmountaineeringclosertothe 
people. 


Conclusion 


This 
study 
explores 
mountaineering 
values 
and 
how 
they 
differ 
according 
to 
different 
characteristics 
of 
touristsinthemountains.Thecharacteristicsincluded 
in 
this 
study 
were 
generation 
of 
tourists, 
gender 
and 
membership 
inmountaineeringassociations.According 
to 
the 
key 
researchquestion 
of 
this 
study, 
whether 
there 
are 
statistically 
significant 
differences 
in 
importance 
of 
mountaineering 
values 
of 
tourists 
with 
different 
characteristics, 
we 
can 
conclude 
that 
there 
are 


Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|105 



Tomi 
Špindler, 
Miha 
Lesjak, 
and 
Mitja 
Gorenak 
Changing 
Values 
Through 
Generations 


differences. 
The 
differences 
are 
seen 
in 
different 
generations 
of 
tourists, 
gender 
and 
(non)membership 
in 
a 
mountaineering 
association. 
For 
Generation 
Z, 
the 
most 
important 
values 
are 
oriented 
to 
upbringing, 
helpingothersinsocialsituationsandculturalattitude 
towards 
nature. 
GenerationY 
is 
most 
oriented 
to 
preserving 
nature, 
experiencing 
themself 
in 
the 
mountains 
and 
health. 
The 
most 
important 
values 
for 
Generation 
X 
are 
working 
ability 
(after 
an 
active 
trip), 
be-
longingtoagroupandthetraditionofimportantpeopleinmountaineering.
Valuesthataremostimportant 
fortheBaby 
Boom 
generationarelife 
optimism,ingenuity 
and 
flexibility 
in 
life 
situations, 
mountaineering 
tradition, 
social 
adaptability, 
nobility 
and 
patriotism. 
Regardinggender,onlyworkabilityafteranactivetrip 
and 
patriotism 
are 
more 
important 
to 
men 
than 
to 
women. 
All 
the 
other 
values 
are 
of 
higher 
importance 
for 
women. 
Working 
ability 
after 
an 
active 
trip 
is 
also 
the 
only 
value 
more 
important 
to 
non-members 
than 
members 
of 
a 
mountaineering 
association. 


The 
results 
of 
the 
research 
provide 
new 
information 
on 
the 
demographic 
profile 
of 
mountain 
visitors 
and 
their 
predominant 
mountaineering 
values. 
Based 
on 
the 
results, 
it 
is 
evident 
that 
the 
mountains 
are 
visited 
by 
tourists 
with 
different 
values, 
which 
differ 
according 
to 
age, 
gender 
and 
membership 
in 
a 
mountaineering 
organization. 
As 
a 
result, 
a 
different 
approach 
for 
tourists 
with 
different 
characteristics 
is 
neededto 
increase 
theeffectivenessof 
promoting 
sustainable 
tourist 
behaviour. 
Therefore, 
these 
findings 
have 
certain 
implications 
for 
the 
development 
of 
sustainabletourism 
in 
mountains. 
A 
similar 
researchcan 
be 
transferred 
to 
other 
areas 
in 
Slovenia 
and 
abroad, 
and 
the 
research 
will 
also 
be 
able 
to 
serve 
as 
a 
basis 
for 
researching 
the 
values 
of 
different 
generations 
of 
tourists 
in 
the 
field 
of 
sports 
tourism. 
In 
further 
re-
search,it 
isalsopossible 
tocompare 
values 
in 
differ-
entareas.Theidentifieddifferencesintheimportance 
of 
mountaineering 
values 
of 
tourists 
with 
different 
characteristics 
can 
contribute 
to 
the 
development 
of 
programmesofmountaineeringorganizationsandthe 
design 
of 
various 
sustainable 
activities 
in 
the 
mountains. 
With 
in-depth 
knowledge 
of 
the 
characteristics 
of 
mountain 
visitors, 
tourism 
organizers 
will 
be 
better 
equipped 
to 
create 
and 
advertise 
mountaineering 


opportunities 
with 
certain 
combinations 
of 
attributes 
offered 
by 
mountain 
tourism 
destinations. 
This 
research 
on 
the 
example 
of 
Slovenian 
mountains 
will 
contribute 
to 
the 
theory 
of 
understanding 
the 
values 
of 
sports 
tourists, 
more 
precisely 
active 
sports 
tourists 
in 
the 
mountains. 


There 
are 
certain 
limitations 
of 
this 
study 
and 
also 
opportunitiesforfutureresearch.Thelimitationisthat 
the 
researchwith 
themethodologyusedis 
carriedout 
on 
the 
example 
of 
sports 
tourists 
who 
spend 
the 
night 
outside 
their 
place 
of 
residence 
and 
visit 
a 
1st 
category 
hut 
in 
the 
Slovenian 
mountains. 
Future 
research 
could 
also 
include 
conducting 
surveys 
in 
Category 
2 
and 
3 
huts. 
With 
the 
help 
of 
these 
results, 
we 
could 
identify 
the 
differences 
between 
tourists 
visiting 
different 
categories 
of 
huts. 
A 
limitation 
is 
also 
the 
area 
of 
research. 
The 
survey 
was 
conducted 
on 
a 
sample 
of 
respondents 
in 
the 
mountains 
in 
Slovenia. 
Future 
re-
searchcould 
extend 
the 
scope 
ofthe 
researchtoother 
countries.Thiswouldprovideanopportunitytocom-
pare 
the 
importance 
of 
values 
in 
different 
countries. 
In 
the 
research, 
we 
limited 
ourselves 
to 
the 
summer 
season 
(June, 
July, 
August, 
September) 
within 
which 
the 
survey 
was 
conducted. 
Future 
research 
could 
extend 
the 
survey 
to 
other 
parts 
of 
the 
year, 
allowing 
us 
toidentifydifferencesbetween 
touristsheading 
to 
the 
mountains 
at 
different 
times 
of 
the 
year. 
The 
limitation 
of 
the 
research 
also 
refers 
to 
the 
characteristics 
of 
tourists. 
We 
used 
generations, 
gender 
and 
membership 
in 
a 
mountaineering 
organization 
in 
the 
research. 
Future 
researchcouldinclude 
othercharacteristicssuchassocialstatus,
materialstatus,frequencyof 
trips 
to 
the 
mountains, 
and 
the 
part 
of 
the 
year 
when 
theymostoftengotothemountains.Inthisway,inthe 
future 
we 
could 
obtain 
even 
more 
detailed 
information 
about 
tourists 
in 
the 
mountains 
and 
get 
to 
know 
them 
better. 
With 
in-depth 
knowledge 
of 
mountain 
tourists, 
tourism 
organizers 
will 
be 
better 
equipped 
to 
create 
and 
advertise 
sustainable 
mountain 
tourism 
products 
with 
certain 
combinations 
of 
attributes 
of-
feredby 
mountain 
destinations. 


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Academica 
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April 
2022 
|109 



Original 
Scientific 
Article 


Sports 
Tourism 
and 
High-Performance 
Centres 
in 
the 
Portugal 
Central 
Region 


Rui 
Augusto 
da 
Costa 


University 
of 
Aveiro, 
Spain 
rui.costa@ua.pt 


Inês 
Moleiro 


University 
of 
Aveiro, 
Spain 
i.moleiro@ua.pt 


Maria 
Fernanda 
Brasete 


University 
of 
Aveiro, 
Spain 
mbrasete@ua.pt 


Tourism 
and 
sports 
are 
both 
the 
fastest 
and 
largest 
growing 
sectors, 
and 
sports 
tourismhasapositiveimpactonthedevelopmentoftourism. 
Consideringtheover-
all 
potential 
of 
sports 
tourism, 
this 
research 
aims 
to 
understand 
the 
importance 
of 
High-Performance 
Centres 
as 
a 
support 
for 
the 
development 
and 
growth 
of 
sports 
tourismindestinations.Aqualitativemethodologywasdeveloped,structuredinthe 
following 
stages: 
(i) 
a 
characterisationof 
the 
High-Performance 
Sports 
Centres, 
(ii) 
a 
swot 
analysisanda 
tows 
analysisofthistypeofinfrastructure,followedby(iii) 
six 
interviews 
carried 
out 
with 
the 
managersof 
seven 
High-PerformanceCentres 
of 
theCentralRegionofPortugal.Itispossibletoseethattourismhasapositiverolein 
theCentralRegionintermsofemploymentandinimprovingthelivingconditionsof 
thelocals,contributingtoincreasedemploymentintheregionwhich,consequently, 
leads 
to 
an 
increase 
in 
per 
capita 
income 
and 
an 
improvement 
in 
the 
quality 
of 
life 
of 
the 
population. 
The 
main 
conclusions 
have 
shown 
that 
sports 
tourism 
can 
be 
a 
differentiating 
product 
that 
meets 
the 
new 
needs 
of 
the 
visitor 
that 
no 
longer 
wants 
onlypassiveholidays, 
but 
demandsactiveones, 
seekingtobe 
emergedin 
differentiated 
experiences 
during 
a 
trip. 
In 
this 
way, 
it 
is 
crucial 
that 
tourism 
stakeholders 
be 
aware 
of 
the 
new 
visitor’s 
profile, 
adapting 
its 
services 
to 
meet 
the 
tourist 
needs. 


Keywords: 
tourism, 
High-Performance-Centres,tourism 
destinations,Central 


Region 
of 
Portugal 
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.15.111-121 


Introduction 
century 
and 
currently 
holds 
very 
significant 
impor-
Tourism 
and 
sport 
have 
been 
intertwined 
in 
history 
tance. 
Sports 
tourism 
emerged 
at 
the 
time 
when 
the 
formanycenturies(Redmond,1991)sincetheOlympic 
points 
of 
contact 
between 
sports 
and 
tourism 
grew 
Games 
of 
Ancient 
Greece 
or 
the 
games 
held 
in 
the 
significantly. 
Roman 
Empire. 
However, 
as 
it 
is 
understood 
today, 
Thus, 
tourism 
and 
sport 
ended 
up 
intersecting 
sports 
tourism 
had 
its 
genesis 
in 
the 
mid-twentieth 
with 
common 
activities, 
contexts, 
and 
practices, 
and 


Academica 
Turistica,Year15, 
No.1,April 
2022 
| 
111 



Rui 
Augusto 
da 
Costa 
et 
al. 
Sports 
Tourism 
and 
High-Performance 
Centres 


from 
this 
connection 
sports 
tourism 
was 
then 
born 
(Redmond, 
1991), 
a 
term 
which 
began 
to 
be 
used 
in 
sports-related 
travel 
(Carvalho 
& 
Lourenço, 
2009; 
Gibson, 
2008). 


Sports 
tourism 
has 
a 
positive 
impact 
on 
the 
development 
of 
tourism 
(Soedjatmiko, 
2015). 
Sport 
influences 
the 
life 
cycle 
of 
destinations 
and 
can 
be 
a 
form 
of 
rejuvenation 
of 
tourist 
destinations, 
and 
the 
same 
occurs 
in 
relation 
to 
tourism 
which 
influences 
the 
life 
cycleofsports(Hinch&Higham,2001;2011).Tourism 
and 
sports 
activities 
are 
important 
sources 
of 
income 
and 
employment 
for 
many 
countries. 
Sport 
generates 
tourism 
flows 
in 
the 
destination 
(Higham, 
1999), 
generates 
income 
(Yu, 
2010), 
creates 
employment 
opportunities(
Nezakatietal.,2013) 
andgeneratesdynamics 
at 
the 
territorial 
level, 
namely 
through 
the 
improve-
mentofthedestinationtourismofferin 
termsoffacilities 
or 
infrastructure 
(Nordin, 
2008; 
Nezakati 
et 
al., 
2013; 
Quintas 
et 
al. 
2021). 
Sports 
tourism 
uses 
the 
ex-
istingfacilities 
andinfrastructuresin 
the 
destinations, 
likeHigh-PerformanceCentres(hpcs)thatcanthem-
selves 
generate 
attraction, 
contribute 
to 
visitor 
loyalty 
and 
increase 
the 
competitiveness 
of 
destinations. 


Therefore, 
to 
develop 
the 
sports 
and 
tourism 
sector, 
various 
studies 
should 
be 
performed 
within 
the 
scope 
of 
sports 
tourism. 
This 
research 
aims 
to 
under-
standtheimportanceofHigh-PerformanceCentresas 
a 
support 
for 
the 
development 
and 
growth 
of 
sports 
tourism 
in 
destinations. 
To 
achieve 
the 
intended 
goal, 
a 
qualitative 
methodology 
was 
developed. 
Six 
inter-
viewswerecarriedoutwiththemanagersoftheHighPerformance 
Centres 
of 
the 
Central 
Region 
of 
Portu-
gal,tounderstandtheimportanceofthesetypesofinfrastructures 
in 
visitor 
attraction, 
seasonality 
reduction, 
income 
generation 
and 
increase 
in 
the 
competitiveness 
of 
tourism 
destinations. 


This 
paper 
is 
organisedin 
eight 
sections. 
After 
the 
introduction, 
the 
second 
and 
the 
third 
section 
review 
the 
literature 
addressingthe 
main 
topics 
under 
analysis,
namely,sportsandtourismandhigh-performance 
sports. 
The 
fourth 
section 
presents 
the 
definition 
of 
High-Performance 
Centres 
and 
its 
importance 
to 
the 
development 
of 
destinations. 
The 
fifth 
section 
is 
dedicated 
to 
the 
methodology 
used 
in 
the 
collection 
and 
treatment 
of 
information. 
The 
sixth 
section 
analy


sesthe 
High-PerformanceCentres,theirgeographical 
distribution 
and 
swot 
analysis. 
The 
seventh 
section 
discusses 
the 
results 
obtained, 
and 
finally, 
the 
main 
conclusions 
are 
presentedin 
the 
eight 
section. 


Sports 
and 
Tourism: 
Conceptual 
Framework 
and 
Dimensions 


Until 
the 
1990s, 
sport 
was 
only 
addressed 
as 
a 
general 
or 
even 
incidental 
context 
in 
tourism 
research, 
rather 
than 
as 
its 
central 
focus 
(Hinch 
& 
Higham, 
2001). 
Tourism 
and 
sport 
have 
walked 
side 
by 
side 
in 
his-
toryformanycenturies(Redmond,1991),forexample, 
the 
Olympic 
Games 
in 
Ancient 
Greece 
or 
the 
Roman 
Games. 
But 
the 
origin 
of 
this 
concept 
is 
associated 
with 
the 
mid-20th 
century. 
Pigeassou 
et 
al. 
(2003, 
p. 


6) 
argue 
that 
sport 
is 
a 
complementary 
activity 
which 
differentiates 
the 
tourist 
supply, 
thus 
becoming 
beneficial 
for 
tourism. 
However, 
the 
points 
of 
contact 
between 
sports 
and 
tourism 
have 
grown 
dramatically 
and 
it 
has 
become 
essential 
to 
create 
a 
concept 
that 
conceptualises 
their 
junction 
(Redmond, 
1991). 
Thus, 
we 
have 
witnessed 
the 
emergence 
of 
Sports 
Tourism, 
which 
comes 
to 
fill 
the 
need 
for 
a 
more 
detailed 
description 
of 
the 
sport 
practiced 
in 
leisure 
travel 
(Gibson, 
1998; 
Kurtzman 
& 
Zauhar, 
2003; 
Pigeassou, 
2004), 
whose 
demand 
has 
been 
increasing 
over 
the 
years 
(Hinch 
& 
Higham, 
2011). 


Gibson 
(1998) 
defines 
sports 
tourism 
as 
the 
travels 
that 
people 
make 
from 
the 
place 
of 
their 
permanent 
residencetomonitororparticipateinsportsactivities. 
The 
concept 
of 
sports 
tourism 
thus 
implies 
a 
dynamic 
flowoftravelthathashithertobeenlargelyignoredby 
thoseinterestedinthefieldoftourismandsports.But, 
in 
turn, 
it 
does 
not 
go 
unnoticed 
by 
the 
public, 
nor 
by 
the 
industry 
which 
must 
respond 
quickly 
to 
every 
demand 
(Hinch 
& 
Higham, 
2001). 


As 
noted, 
sports 
tourism 
is 
a 
broad 
concept, 
and 
thereisstillnoconsensualdefinitionofsportstourism 
(Sofield,2003). 
Table 
1systematisestheconceptsmost 
used. 


According 
toCarvalhoand 
Lourenço 
(2009,p. 
123), 
four 
factors 
can 
be 
listed 
that 
are 
essential 
to 
understand 
the 
importance 
in 
society 
of 
the 
synergies 
between 
sports 
and 
tourism: 
(i) 
the 
increase 
in 
the 


112 
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1, 
April 
2022 



Rui 
Augusto 
da 
Costa 
et 
al. 


Table 
1 
Definitions 
of 
Sports 
Tourism 


Definition 
Author 


Travelling 
away 
from 
home 
to 
watch 
or 
participate 
in 
a 
sports 
activity 
Hall 
(....) 
Where 
the 
tourist 
is 
a 
temporary 
visitor, 
Nogawa 
et 
who 
stays 
for 
at 
least 
twenty-four 
hours 
al. 
(....) 
around 
a 
sports 
event, 
with 
the 
purpose 
of 
participating 
The 
tourist 
comes 
with 
the 
intention 
of 
Goidanich 
practising 
sport 
for 
leisure 
or 
for 
training 
&Moletta 
without 
the 
intention 
of 
competing, 
in 
a 
(....) 
place 
where 
physical 
availability 
is 
characterised 
A 
set 
of 
activities 
where 
sport 
is 
the 
basis 
of 
Pigeassou 
et 
the 
tourism 
project 
al. 
(....) 


All 
sports 
activities 
in 
which 
tourists 
take 
Lourenço 
part, 
either 
as 
participants 
or 
spectators 
(....) 


A 
leisure-based 
trip 
that 
temporarily 
re-Weed 
(....; 
moves 
individuals 
from 
their 
local 
commu-....) 
nity 
to 
participate 
in 
physical 
activities, 
to 
attend 
physical 
activities 
or 
to 
venerate 
attractions 
associated 
with 
physical 
activities 


durationof 
leisure 
time; 
(ii) 
the 
concentration 
of 
populations 
around 
urban 
centres; 
(iii) 
the 
evolution 
of 
means 
of 
transport; 
and 
(iv) 
the 
increase 
in 
purchasing 
power. 


Sports 
Tourism 
as 
a 
Support 
for 
the 
Development 
and 
Growth 
of 
Tourism 
in 
Destinations 


Overtime,therehavebeenmoreandmorestudiesand 
research 
about 
sports 
tourism. 
This 
growing 
interest, 
in 
the 
opinion 
of 
Kurtzman 
and 
Zauhar 
(1993) 
and 
Gammon 
and 
Robinson 
(2003), 
is 
essentially 
due 
to 
five 
reasons: 
(1) 
increased 
popularity 
of 
major 
sports 
events; 
(2) 
greater 
awareness 
of 
the 
benefits, 
in 
terms 
ofhealth,linkedtoactiveparticipationinsportsactivities; 
(3) 
the 
value 
given 
by 
government 
and 
tourism 
authoritiestosport,foritspositiveimpactontheeconomy 
and 
international 
relations; 
(4) 
a 
more 
varied 
sports 
calendar, 
with 
a 
tourist 
offer 
of 
eventsthrough-
out 
the 
year, 
free 
for 
participants 
and 
spectators; 
and 


(5)easeofcommunicationandtravelofpeople,dueto 
the 
advancement 
of 
new 
technologies 
and 
infrastructures. 
Sports 
Tourism 
and 
High-Performance 
Centres 


Although 
sports 
literature 
does 
not 
focus 
on 
des


tinations, 
it 
has 
nevertheless 
explored 
sustainability 


issues, 
which 
at 
the 
local 
level 
can 
be 
categorised 
in 


a 
holistic 
three-pronged 
approach, 
incorporating 
en


vironmental, 
socio-cultural, 
and 
economic 
impacts 


(Andersson&Lundberg,2013).Focusingonthesocio-

cultural 
realm,namelythe 
forms 
of 
sustainability 
that 


can 
be 
addressed 
by 
sport 
development 
programmes 


(Lindsey, 
2008, 
p. 
2), 
suggests 
that 
sustainability 
‘has 


becomeubiquitousinthepoliticsandpracticeofsport 


development,’suchasintheroleofparticipatorysport 


programmes 
in 
community 
promotion 
(Schulenkorf, 


2012). 


This 
ability 
of 
sport 
to 
be 
a 
way 
to 
counteract 


the 
seasonality 
patterns 
of 
tourist 
destinations 
is 
fun


damental 
since 
it 
can 
create 
heterogeneous 
demand 


flows 
in 
tourist 
destinations 
(Garau-Vadell 
& 
Borja-

Solé, 
2008; 
Higham, 
2005; 
Hinch 
& 
Higham, 
2001; 


2011). 
Through 
strategies 
it 
is 
possible 
to 
counter


act 
these 
seasonal 
fluctuations 
in 
demand, 
and 
sport, 


forHigham 
(2005,p.159), 
canbeaway 
tochange 


or 
improve 
seasonality 
patterns. 
Furthermore, 
sports 


tourism 
has 
the 
capacity 
to 
bring 
tourists 
to 
more 
in


land 
areas 
of 
the 
country. 
For 
example, 
nature 
sports 


tourismattractstouriststolesspopulated 
areas, 
but 


with 
footpaths 
and 
other 
factors 
of 
interest 
to 
prac


titioners. 
This 
allows 
less 
developed 
areas, 
through 


sports 
tourism, 
to 
grow 
and 
become 
more 
attractive 


to 
domestic 
and 
foreign 
visitors. 


Sports 
tourism 
may 
also 
constitute 
a 
means 
of 
us


ing 
already 
existing 
facilities 
and 
infrastructures 
and 


may 
contribute 
towards 
visitor 
loyalty 
which 
is 
an


other 
positive 
impact 
to 
be 
highlighted 
and 
which 


leads 
to 
an 
increase 
at 
destination 
competitiveness 


level(Podovšovnik&Lesjak2016).Muchoftheimage 


and 
atmosphere 
of 
a 
destination 
results 
in 
part 
from 


thetangibilityassociatedwiththedestinationandthat, 


inturn,stemsfromthepresenceofinfrastructuresthat 


can 
themselves 
generate 
the 
attraction. 


To 
be 
recommended, 
a 
destination 
must 
build 
a 


favourableimage,offeringinfrastructuresandservices 


that, 
at 
first, 
facilitate 
access 
to 
it 
and, 
subsequently, 


enhance 
the 
experience 
of 
differentiated 
experiences 


(Carvalho 
& 
Lourenço, 
2009; 
Waskowski, 
2016). 
This 


isinlinewiththeopinionofHigham(1999,p.83)when 


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No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|113 



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Augusto 
da 
Costa 
et 
al. 
Sports 
Tourism 
and 
High-Performance 
Centres 


he 
states 
that 
sports 
tourism 
can 
stimulate 
the 
image 
of 
a 
destination 
and 
promote 
the 
territory 
as 
a 
tourist 
destination, 
especially 
due 
to 
the 
media 
coverage 
that 
many 
of 
them 
manage 
to 
accomplish. 


Thus,sporthascometoplayaleadingroleinterms 
of 
marketing 
and 
is 
used 
in 
advertising 
in 
which 
visitorscan 
beseen 
watchingorplaying 
a 
sportat 
thedestinationaswellasvisitingtouristattractions(
Hinch& 
Higham, 
2001; 
2004; 
Redmond, 
1991). 
Sports 
tourism 
can 
also 
contribute 
to 
the 
identity 
of 
the 
destination. 
Several 
authors 
agree 
that 
sport 
is 
one 
of 
the 
elements 
thatconstitutethecultureofanationandhelpstoform 
its 
identity, 
reflecting 
and 
influencing 
the 
culture 
of 
a 
countryandactingin 
certaincases 
asasymbol 
ofthat 
culture 
(Hinch 
& 
Higham, 
2001; 
2004; 
2011; 
Torkild-
sen, 
2005; 
Yu, 
2010). 


In 
relation 
to 
negative 
impacts, 
it 
is 
worth 
men-
tioningthe 
coststhatit 
bringsormay 
bringtothe 
destination. 
Some 
individuals 
also 
address 
the 
issue 
of 
managing 
and 
safeguarding 
the 
destination’s 
resources, 
both 
natural 
and 
for 
local 
communities, 
preservingits 
authenticityandattractiveness,in 
linewith 
thatindicatedbyHinchandHigham(2001,p. 
55),who 
argue 
that 
the 
dependence 
of 
sports 
on 
the 
destination’s 
physical 
resources 
must 
be 
taken 
into 
consideration, 
as 
well 
as 
the 
impact 
of 
sports 
tourism 
on 
the 
tourist 
landscape. 


High-Performance 
Centres 


AHigh-PerformanceCentreis‘an 
operationalunit 
which 
combines 
a 
specificanddiversifiedset 
ofsports 
facilitiesandmultidisciplinarysupportservices,whose 
purpose 
is 
the 
improvement 
of 
sports 
performance, 
providing 
high 
performanceathletesor 
those 
who 
are 
part 
of 
national 
teams 
with 
adequate 
conditions 
for 
sports 
preparation’ 
(Marcolino 
& 
Baganha, 
2011, 
p. 
5). 
Itsmissionisprimarilytomeettheneedsofsportsfederations 
and 
it 
aims 
to 
pursue 
objectives 
such 
as 
detecting 
and 
enhancing 
sports 
talent, 
enabling 
internships, 
evaluating, 
controllingandoptimising 
training, 
scientific 
research 
and 
monitoring 
results 
(Fundação 
do 
Desporto, 
n.d.). 


Böhlke 
and 
Robinson 
(2009, 
p. 
81) 
argue 
that 
the 
results 
derived 
from 
the 
High-Performance 
Sports 
of 
a 
country 
are 
in 
line 
with 
the 
sports 
system 
of 
that 


same 
country 
aswellasappropriatetoits 
specific 
reality. 
This 
is 
because 
a 
top 
sports 
model 
can 
only 
be 
defined 
with 
the 
presence 
of 
infrastructures 
and 
processes 
to 
identify, 
develop 
and 
train 
athletes 
for 
international 
sports 
success. 


The 
European 
Charter 
for 
Sport 
(Conselho 
da 
Europa, 
1992, 
p. 
7), 
mentions 
that 
‘since 
the 
practice 
of 
sport 
depends 
in 
part 
on 
the 
number 
and 
diversity 
of 
facilities 
and 
on 
their 
accessibility, 
it 
is 
up 
to 
public 
authorities 
to 
make 
their 
overall 
implementation, 
taking 
into 
account 
national, 
regional 
and 
local 
requirements, 
as 
well 
as 
existing 
public, 
private 
and 
commercial 
facilities.’ 
Infrastructure 
investment 
and 
critical 
consideration 
of 
civic 
investment 
in 
sports 
facilities 
will 
continue 
to 
be 
important 
(Scherer 
& 
Sam, 
2008). 
To 
achieve 
the 
differentiation 
of 
the 
national 
tourist 
supply, 
investment 
has 
been 
made 
in 
the 
creationofspecialisedinfrastructureswithexcellentconditionsforthepracticeofsportsforsegmentsofHighPerformance 
Sport. 


The 
existence 
of 
High-Performance 
Sports 
Centres, 
withrecognised 
quality,isassociatedwithinternational 
travel 
and 
stays. 
The 
implementation 
of 
sportseventsinnationalterritoryattractsparticipants, 
but 
also 
tourists 
who 
are 
fans 
of 
the 
sport 
in 
question. 
Thisleadstoaflowofpeoplederivedfromsports 
tourism. 
Dwyer 
et 
al. 
(2000, 
p. 
185) 
consider 
that 
the 
intangible 
economic 
impacts 
are 
the 
long-term 
promotional 
benefits, 
such 
as 
awareness 
of 
the 
destination 
and 
the 
creation 
of 
a 
positive 
image. 
The 
presence 
of 
High-Performance 
Sports 
Centres, 
associated 
with 
sports 
systems 
of 
recognised 
quality, 
motivates 
trips 
and 
stays 
of 
international 
segments, 
whether 
for 
the 
implementation 
of 
sports 
internships, 
aiming 
at 
the 
maintenance 
and/or 
improvement 
of 
their 
performances,
orforthecompetitioninherenttotheparticipationinsportsevents.
Sportseventshavebeenwidely 
used 
as 
a 
strategic 
tool 
for 
the 
economic 
development 
of 
cities 
and 
regions 
(Jones, 
2005; 
Ritchie 
et 
al., 
2009; 
Ziakas 
& 
Costa, 
2011). 


Methodology 


This 
research 
has 
as 
its 
main 
objective 
to 
understand 
the 
importance 
of 
sports 
tourism 
and 
High-Performance 
Centres 
for 
the 
growth 
and 
development 
of 


114 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Rui 
Augusto 
da 
Costa 
et 
al. 
Sports 
Tourism 
and 
High-Performance 
Centres 


tourismindestinations.Tothisend,aqualitativemethodology 
was 
developed, 
structured 
in 
the 
following 
stages:(1) 
Aliteraturereviewwascarriedoutbasedon 
the 
importance 
of 
sports 
tourism 
in 
the 
development 
and 
growth 
of 
tourism 
in 
destinations 
and 
its 
future 
implications. 
The 
development 
of 
the 
empirical 
part 
was 
based 
on 
(2) 
a 
characterisation 
of 
the 
High-Performance 
Sports 
Centres 
in 
Portugal, 
and 
(3) 
a 
swot 
analysis 
and 
a 
tows 
analysis 
of 
this 
type 
of 
product 
and 
the 
existing 
infrastructures 
in 
the 
Central 
Region 
of 
Portugal. 
Furthermore 
(4) 
six 
interviews 
were 
carried 
out 
with 
the 
managers 
of 
the 
High-Performance 
Centres 
of 
the 
Central 
Region 
of 
Portugal. 


Analysis 
of 
High-Performance 
Centres 
in 
Portugal 


Geographical 
Distribution 


In 
Portugal, 
there 
are 
14 
High-Performance 
Centres, 
distributedfromtheNorthtotheSouthofthecountry. 
There 
are 
already 
sixteen 
sports 
disciplines 
in 
High-
Performance 
within 
the 
national 
High-Performance 
Centres: 
Athletics; 
Badminton; 
Canoeing; 
Cycling; 
Equestrian 
sports; 
Fencing; 
Gymnastics; 
Judo; 
Swim-
ming;ModernPentathlonRowing;Surfing;Taekwon-
do; 
Tennis; 
Table 
tennis 
and 
Triathlon. 
Six 
of 
the 
14 
High-Performance 
Centres 
in 
Portugal 
are 
located 
in 
the 
Central 
Region, 
which 
shows 
that 
the 
region 
is 
committed 
to 
developing 
infrastructures 
that 
enable 
sports 
to 
be 
played 
at 
the 
highest 
level. 


swot 
Analysis 


A 
swot 
analysis 
was 
conducted 
and 
is 
presented 
in 
Table 
2. 
The 
main 
strengths 
of 
the 
High-Performance 
Centres 
in 
Portugal 
are 
the 
infrastructures 
and 
equipment; 
the 
variety 
of 
the 
offer, 
as 
they 
cover 
different 
sports; 
and 
the 
country’s 
capacity, 
in 
terms 
of 
hospitality 
and 
safety, 
which 
allows 
for 
attracting 
various 
markets. 
Regardingthe 
weak 
points, 
we 
can 
high-
light:thedifficultyininternationalisationoftheHighPerformance 
Centres, 
which 
is 
described 
in 
several 
aspects, 
from 
communication 
to 
the 
lack 
of 
knowledgeaboutthem;
andtheoutdatedinfrastructure.The 
opportunities 
are 
essentially 
related 
to 
the 
strong 
reputation 
of 
Portugal; 
the 
national 
achievements 
related 
to 
sport;and 
the 
growthofsportseventsandactivities 


held 
in 
Portugal, 
due 
to 
the 
country’s 
strong 
capacity 
to 
host 
them. 
The 
threats 
are 
essentially 
related 
to 
competition 
fromotherHigh-PerformanceCentresat 
worldlevel,withmoremoderninfrastructures. 


From 
the 
perspective 
of 
the 
High-Performance 
Centres, 
with 
the 
aim 
to 
understand 
the 
importance 
they 
consider 
to 
have 
in 
the 
development 
of 
the 
Central 
Region, 
several 
interviews 
were 
conducted 
with 
some 
of 
the 
directors/managersof 
High-Performance 
Centres 
of 
the 
Central 
Region 
of 
Portugal. 
The 
questions 
aimed 
at 
understanding 
the 
differences 
between 
the 
various 
High-Performance 
Centres 
in 
the 
region, 
but 
mainly 
to 
analyse 
their 
role 
in 
the 
development 
and 
growth 
of 
the 
territories. 


In 
the 
Central 
Region, 
there 
seems 
to 
have 
been 
a 
positive 
evolution 
in 
terms 
of 
attractiveness 
given 
its 
growing 
prominence. 
However, 
there 
are 
still 
several 
markets 
where 
it 
is 
necessary 
to 
invest 
in 
the 
promo-
tionofthe 
destination. 
Thus,it 
is 
possible 
to 
conclude 
thatthisdestinationcanstillincreaseitsattractiveness 
inseveralkey-marketsegments,whichwillcontribute 
in 
a 
positive 
way 
to 
the 
evolution 
of 
the 
Central 
Re-
gion’simageandtotheincreaseofitscompetitiveness. 
The 
capacity 
for 
innovation 
and 
differentiation 
of 
the 
supplyofa 
touristdestinationiscrucial,sincethisdifferentiationisvitalfortheattractivenessofagivendestination.
Atouristdestinationmustbeabletoinnovate 
and 
differentiate 
its 
tourism 
products 
to 
attract 
other 
market 
segments 
to 
the 
destination 
and 
invest 
in 
an 
improvementofitstourismsupplythroughdifferentiation. 
It 
is 
precisely 
through 
the 
importance 
of 
differentiation 
within 
the 
competitiveness 
of 
tourist 
destinations 
that 
the 
relevance 
of 
sport 
as 
a 
tourism 
product 
is 
highlighted 
since, 
as 
indicated 
by 
Ritchie 
and 
Crouch 
(2003), 
it 
can 
strengthen 
the 
tourism 
industry 
and 
increase 
the 
competitiveness 
of 
tourist 
destinations. 


Discussion 
of 
Results 


This 
sectionwill 
analyseanddiscussthequestionsthe 
issues 
addressed 
in 
the 
interviews, 
based 
on 
the 
opinionsofthemanagersoftheHigh-
PerformanceCentres 
regardingthe 
importance 
ofthis 
type 
ofequipment 
in 
attracting 
visitors, 
generating 
income, 
and 
increasing 
the 
competitiveness 
of 
the 
destinations. 


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1, 
April 
2022 
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Costa 
et 
al. 
Sports 
Tourism 
and 
High-Performance 
Centres 


Table 
2 
swot 
Analysis 


Strengths 


• 
Infrastructures 
and 
equipment 
of 
the 
hpc 
Portugal 
Network; 
• 
Multidisciplinarity 
of 
the 
joint 
offer 
resulting 
from 
the 
herd 
of 
the 
different 
High-Performance 
Centres 
of 
the 
hpc 
Portugal 
Network; 
• 
Complementarity 
resulting 
from 
the 
modalities 
offered 
by 
the 
different 
hpc 
Network 
Centres; 
• 
Existence 
of 
a 
leading 
organisation 
responsible 
for 
the 
joint 
promotion 
of 
all 
the 
High-Performance 
Centres 
in 
the 
hpc 
Portugal 
Network; 
• 
Geographical 
location 
of 
the 
hpcs; 
• 
Use 
of 
maritime 
and 
river 
resources 
with 
high 
added 
value 
for 
water 
sports; 
•Safety; 
•Hospitality; 


• 
Accessibility; 
•Presenceofinternationallyrenownedathletesbasedatthe 
hpc 
Portugal 
Network 
hpcs. 
Weaknesses 


• 
Financial 
sustainability 
of 
the 
hpcs; 
• 
Low 
international 
awareness 
of 
the 
hpcs; 
• 
Reduced 
promotion 
and 
advertising 
of 
the 
hpc 
inexternalmarkets; 
• 
Lack 
of 
adequate 
marketing 
strategies 
to 
promotethenational 
hpcs 
inforeign 
markets; 
•Little 
knowledge 
of 
foreign 
markets; 
• 
Heterogeneity 
of 
the 
supply 
of 
services 
directed 
towards 
High-Performance 
Sport; 
• 
Deteriorated 
or 
outdated 
equipment; 
• 
Scarce 
human 
resources 
with 
the 
necessary 
qualifications. 
Opportunities 


• 
Growing 
notoriety 
of 
the 
Portugal 
brand; 
• 
Portugal 
as 
a 
tourist 
destination 
of 
excellence; 
• 
Portugal’s 
cultural 
links 
with 
various 
nations, 
namely 
the 
cplp; 
• 
Socio-economic 
stability 
of 
the 
country; 
•Modern 
health 
systems; 
• 
Location 
– 
gateway 
to 
Europe 
and 
markets 
in 
South 
America 
and 
Africa; 
• 
Notoriety 
of 
nationalsport 
for 
having 
won 
the 
.... 
European 
Football 
Championship; 
• 
Possibility 
of 
integrating 
a 
large 
number 
of 
quality 
infrastructures 
and 
complementary 
equipment 
with 
potential 
for 
internationalisation; 
• 
Natural 
heritage 
of 
excellence; 
• 
Climatic 
conditions 
very 
propitious 
to 
the 
practice 
of 
sports; 
• 
High 
number 
of 
international 
sports 
events 
held 
in 
Portugal; 
• 
Availability 
of 
various 
support 
and/or 
complementary 
infrastructures 
to 
sports 
activities, 
of 
high 
quality, 
namely 
accommodation, 
restaurants 
and 
various 
services; 
•Growth 
of 
activities 
related 
to 
the 
sports 
economy; 
• 
Complementarity 
of 
sport 
with 
tourism 
activities. 
Threats 


• 
Internationalcompetition 
from 
strong 
and 
well-positioned 
markets; 
• 
European 
and 
global 
socio-economic 
instability; 
• 
Procedural 
and 
bureaucratic 
barriers 
to 
access 
internationalmarkets; 
• 
Rapid 
technological 
evolution, 
making 
national 
hpc 
infrastructures 
and 
equipment 
obsolete 
and 
outdated; 
•Difficulty 
in 
providing 
national 
hpcs 
with 
state-of-the-art 
equipment; 
• 
Building 
of 
hpcs 
in 
other 
countries, 
namely 
in 
the 
Mediterranean 
basin; 
• 
Instability 
in 
the 
development 
of 
the 
economy 
caused 
by 
adverse 
socioeconomic 
conditions. 
Importance 
of 
the 
HPCs 
for 
the 
Growth 
of 
the 
Sports 
Tourism 
Sector 


The 
sports 
tourism 
sector 
is 
growing 
both 
worldwide 
and 
nationally. 
It 
is 
an 
increasingly 
visible 
sector 
both 
by 
the 
increase 
in 
the 
number 
of 
sports 
practitioners, 
and 
by 
the 
potential 
associated 
with 
the 
various 
aspects 
of 
tourism. 
The 
hpcs 
are 
recognised 
as 
fundamental 
to 
this 
growth, 
‘by 
providing 
periods 
of 
stay 
that 
usually 
extend 
beyond 
one 
night, 
[and] 
by 


the 
need 
for 
services 
associated 
with 
these 
stays 
in 
the 
territories,’ 
argues 
hpc 
1. 
Allied 
to 
the 
practice 
of 
sports, 
there 
is 
also 
the 
mass 
of 
fans 
who, 
most 
of 
the 
time, 
seek 
in 
the 
regions 
the 
necessary 
services 
to 
be 
able 
to 
follow 
the 
sports 
activity. 
For 
the 
regions, 
this 
is 
an 
opportunity 
to 
attract 
new 
markets. 
This 
vision 
is 
also 
shared 
by 
hpc 
2, 
which 
sum-
marises 
it 
‘as 
the 
primary 
focus 
of 
attracting 
athletes 
and 
sports 
fans 
in 
general, 
being 
able 
to 
promote 
the 


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No.1,April 
2022 



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Augusto 
da 
Costa 
et 
al. 
Sports 
Tourism 
and 
High-Performance 
Centres 


territoryasa 
“sports 
tourism” 
destination’ 
throughout 
the 
year. 
In 
short, 
and 
sharing 
the 
idea 
of 
hpc 
3, 
the 
quality 
service 
offered 
by 
hpcs 
‘will 
be 
a 
factor 
of 
attraction 
of 
national 
and 
international 
tourists 
to 
the 
destination.’ 


The 
Increase 
in 
Demand 
for 
the 
HPC 
Associated 
with 
the 
Growth 
in 
Tourism 


Although 
the 
growth 
of 
tourism 
boosts 
the 
demand 
forsportsandspecificallyforthe 
hpcs,therearesome 
particularities 
when 
analysing 
the 
answers 
of 
the 
interviews. 
The 
individual 
characteristics 
of 
each 
hpc 
allow 
us 
to 
say 
that 
there 
is 
a 
growing 
interest 
in 
the 
use 
of 
these 
infrastructures. 
This 
fact, 
combined 
with 
the 
quality 
and 
specificity 
of 
the 
hpcs, 
allows 
hpc 
2 
to 
statethat 
asitis‘a 
facilitywithcharacteristics 
essentially 
devoted 
to 
high 
performance 
and, 
therefore, 
infullconditionsforthepracticeofhigh-performance 
sport,thereiscurrentlya 
greatdemandfromathletes.’ 
Similarly, 
it 
is 
clear 
that 
the 
level 
of 
demand 
of 
athletes 
is 
increasing 
and 
the 
facilities 
have 
to 
meet 
their 
requirements, 
which, 
according 
to 
hpc 
3, 
is 
also 
related 
to 
the 
‘wannabes 
(people 
who 
pay 
to 
have 
a 
certainlifestyle)’
thatplay 
a 
majorrolein 
thedemandfor 
hpcs. 


However, 
hpc 
1 
has 
a 
different 
and 
quite 
interesting 
perspective, 
pointing 
out 
that 
the 
growth 
in 
demand 
for 
the 
hpc 
leads 
to 
the 
growth 
of 
tourism, 
arguing 
that 
‘the 
growth 
of 
internationalisation 
of 
the 
hpc, 
relatedtothe 
impulse 
ofthe 
digitalconnectivity 
era 
where 
the 
sharing 
of 
experiences 
and 
access 
to 
information 
are 
instantaneous, 
has 
triggered 
the 
demand 
for 
tourism 
in 
the 
areas 
surrounding 
these 
Sports 
Centres.’ 


Strategies 
for 
the 
Promotion 
of 
Sports 
Tourism, 
and 
in 
Particular 
the 
HPC 


The 
need 
for 
support 
from 
public 
and 
private 
entities 
for 
the 
promotion 
of 
the 
hpcs 
is 
at 
the 
base 
of 
all 
the 
strategies 
suggested 
by 
the 
interviewed 
hpcs, 
either 
by 
‘contributinginanorganized 
wayto 
animprovement 
of 
the 
existing 
supply,’ 
according 
to 
hpc 
1, 
or 
by 
‘responding 
to 
several 
modalities, 
where 
the 
distancesbetweenthemarereduced,allowingtheefficientmanagementoftherequiredtechnicalresources,’ 


emphasises 
hpc 
2. 
This 
lack 
of 
diversity 
of 
services 
is 
pointedoutforimprovementduetotheimpactitmay 
havebothineconomicandsocialterms.Fromanother 
pointofview, 
hpc 
3mentionstheneedto 
‘createspecific 
legislation, 
which 
allows 
the 
regulation 
of 
teaching 
and 
practice 
of 
some 
modalities.’ 


Economic 
Impact 
of 
the 
HPC 
on 
the 
National 
and 
Regional 
Economy 


The 
hpcs 
haveapositiveimpactonthenationaland 
regional 
economy 
and, 
as 
stated 
by 
hpc 
1 
‘the 
fact 
that 
most 
of 
the 
hpcs 
have 
been 
implemented 
in 
areas 
other 
than 
the 
large 
metropolitan 
centres, 
has 
increased 
their 
impact 
on 
the 
regions 
where 
they 
are 
located.’ 
It 
is 
clear 
that 
the 
implementation 
of 
events 
and 
competitions 
in 
these 
infrastructures 
allow 
for 
increasing 
‘the 
flow 
of 
consumers 
of 
all 
kinds 
of 
services 
[...] 
benefiting 
local 
trade, 
but 
also 
generating 
opportunities 
for 
various 
service 
providers, 
individual 
or 
collective, 
which 
operate 
or 
consequently 
appeared 
in 
the 
region.’ 
Likewise, 
and 
as 
indicated 
by 
hpc 
3, 
these 
infrastructures 
are 
‘centres 
of 
job 
creation, 
[and] 
qualification 
of 
employees.’ 
In 
short, 
and 
referringto 
hpc 
2, 
‘withtheinternationalisation[...] 
inthenationalhigh-performancecentres,itispossible 
to 
capture 
national 
and 
international 
internships 
and 
international 
sports 
events 
and, 
ultimately, 
to 
capture 
sports 
tourism.’ 


HPC’s 
Perspective: 
SWOT 
Analysis 


With 
the 
analysis 
of 
the 
interviews, 
where 
each 
hpc 
respondedindividually,itispossibletoverifythateach 
one 
can 
identify 
its 
strengths,weaknesses,opportunities 
and 
threats. 
However, 
it 
is 
possible 
to 
find 
a 
similar 
factor 
in 
all 
of 
them: 
the 
natural 
features 
existing 
in 
each 
region 
where 
the 
hpc 
is 
located, 
are 
for 
all 
of 
them, 
a 
strength. 


Atthesametime,theyallseethegrowthintourism 
demand 
as 
an 
opportunity, 
but 
on 
the 
other 
hand, 
hpc 
3 
mentions 
‘more 
supply 
and 
with 
quality 
[...] 
is 
a 
threat 
for 
the 
hpcs.’ 
The 
weakness 
mentioned 
by 
hpc 
1, 
the 
‘lack 
of 
coordinated 
interdisciplinarity 
in 
decision 
making 
regarding 
the 
operation 
and 
service 
supplyofthe 
hpcs’isinlinewiththeneedforspecific 
legislation, 
mentioned 
above. 


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Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
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Augusto 
da 
Costa 
et 
al. 
Sports 
Tourism 
and 
High-Performance 
Centres 


HPCs’ 
Differentiating 
Factors 


Each 
High-Performance 
Centre 
can 
clearly 
identify 
the 
factors 
that 
differentiate 
them 
within 
the 
tourism 
supply,either 
bytheir 
qualityinfrastructures, 
bythe 
diversity 
of 
disciplines 
or 
by 
the 
fundamental 
natural 
resources 
for 
the 
practice 
of 
sports. 
However, 
common 
to 
all 
of 
them 
is 
the 
importance 
of 
the 
internationalrecognitionthatthe 
hpc 
hasforattractingathletes.
Withacompletelydifferentsupply,allthe 
hpcs 
canidentifythattheinternationalmarketbringsthem 
great 
visibility 
and 
translates 
into 
a 
tool 
to 
promote 
new 
markets. 
At 
the 
same 
time, 
the 
diversity 
of 
the 
supplyismentionedby 
hpc 
1,which 
‘respondstofive 
sports, 
all 
with 
different 
competitive 
calendars,’ 
and 
alsoby 
hpc 
3,whichhas 
‘aclearfocusonotherwater 
sports, 
which 
has 
allowed 
[us] 
to 
diversify 
the 
supply.’ 


HPCs’ 
Strategies 
for 
Constant 
Demand 


A 
factor 
influencing 
demand 
is 
seasonality, 
and 
from 
thepointofviewofthe 
hpcs,itisessentialtocomeup 
with 
strategiesthat 
allow 
the 
infrastructureto 
operate 
all 
year 
round. 
The 
main 
strategies 
include 
promoting 
international 
training 
camps, 
promoting 
activities 
with 
local 
clubs, 
and 
attracting 
markets 
that 
do 
not 
have 
conditions 
for 
sports 
practice 
in 
certain 
times 
of 
the 
year. 


Prospects 
and 
Strategies 
for 
Growing 
the 
Role 
of 
the 
HPC 
in 
Tourism 


Finally,forthe 
hpcs 
itisessentialtoimplementsome 
strategies 
that 
allow 
their 
development 
for 
local 
and 
regional 
tourism. 
These 
strategies 
include, 
according 
to 
hpc 
1, 
‘combining 
stays 
in 
the 
centres 
with 
tourist 
itineraries 
that 
allow 
visitors 
to 
get 
to 
know 
the 
region 
in 
cultural, 
historical, 
gastronomic, 
and 
scenic 
terms.’ 
There 
is 
a 
greater 
demand 
for 
complementary 
services 
to 
the 
stay 
in 
the 
hpc, 
which 
should 
also 
be 
used 
by 
municipalities 
to 
promote 
their 
tourism 
products. 
This 
promotion 
should 
also 
consider 
‘the 
development 
of 
promotional 
material 
and 
presence 
in 
newspapers 
and 
magazines 
of 
national 
and 
inter-
nationalrelevance,’argueshpc 
2.Aspreviouslymentioned,
itwouldalsobeessentialtoinvestinlegislation 
capable 
of 
making 
entities 
cohesive. 
In 
the 
same 
way, 
thevisionisunanimousthatthehpcs 
shouldbeopen 


to 
the 
local 
community, 
monitoring 
the 
growth 
of 
future 
high-performance 
athletes, 
from 
school 
sports 
onwards,aswellashavingthesupportoflocal 
entities 
for 
a 
greater 
diversity 
of 
supply. 
In 
conclusion, 
and 
making 
reference 
to 
hpc 
3, 
‘hpcs 
should 
be 
considered 
as 
a 
partner 
and 
a 
player 
for 
municipalities 
and 
all 
local 
and 
national 
agents 
in 
the 
development 
of 
strategies 
for 
the 
sector.’ 


Considering 
the 
results 
obtained 
from 
the 
analysis 
oftheinterviews,a 
tows 
analysiswasdeveloped(Table 
3), 
supported 
by 
the 
swot 
analysis, 
allowing 
us 
to 
construct 
strategies 
for 
the 
development 
of 
sports 
tourism 
in 
destinations. 


Tourism 
seems 
to 
reveal 
itself 
as 
one 
of 
the 
sectors 
thatpresentsahighlevelofpotentialinthedestination 
under 
analysis, 
being 
considered 
a 
strategic 
sector 
in 
the 
region 
and 
even 
in 
the 
country, 
which 
revealsthat 
itisseenasakeyindustryinterritories.Itispossibleto 
see 
that 
tourism 
has 
a 
positive 
role 
in 
the 
Central 
Re-
gionintermsofemploymentandinimprovingtheliving 
conditions 
of 
the 
locals, 
contributing 
to 
increased 
employment 
in 
the 
region 
which, 
consequently, 
leads 
to 
an 
increase 
in 
per 
capita 
income 
and 
an 
improvement 
in 
the 
quality 
of 
life 
of 
the 
population. 
It 
is 
perceptible 
that 
there 
is 
already 
an 
evolution 
in 
this 
directionwith 
anincrease 
in 
thelevelofarrivalsandincome;
however,itcanbeperceivedthattheregioncan 
further 
increase 
its 
competitiveness 
at 
this 
level,especially 
regarding 
tourism 
expenditure, 
and 
should 
rethink 
its 
strategy. 
Ritchie 
and 
Crouch 
(2003), 
in 
their 
study, 
address 
the 
issue 
of 
destination 
image 
in 
key 
marketsegments. 


In 
the 
Central 
Region, 
there 
seems 
to 
have 
been 
a 
positive 
evolution 
in 
terms 
of 
attractiveness 
given 
its 
growing 
prominence. 
However, 
there 
are 
still 
several 
markets 
where 
it 
is 
necessary 
to 
invest 
in 
the 
promo-
tionofthe 
destination. 
Thus,it 
ispossible 
to 
conclude 
thatthisdestinationcanstillincreaseitsattractiveness 
in 
several 
key 
marketsegments,which 
will 
contribute 
positivelytotheevolutionoftheregions’ 
imageandto 
the 
increase 
of 
its 
competitiveness. 


The 
ability 
to 
innovate 
and 
differentiatethe 
supply 
of 
a 
tourist 
destination 
is 
crucial, 
since 
this 
differentiation 
is 
vital 
to 
the 
attractiveness 
of 
a 
given 
destination.
Atouristdestinationmustbeabletoinnovateand 


118 
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Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Rui 
Augusto 
da 
Costa 
et 
al. 
Sports 
Tourism 
and 
High-Performance 
Centres 


Table 
3 
tows 
Analysis 


Strengths 
Weaknesses 


Opportunities 


Maxi-maxi 
strategy 


• 
Take 
advantage 
of 
the 
infrastructure 
of 
the 
hpcs 
to 
host 
sports 
events 
of 
great 
national 
impact; 
• 
Combine 
excellent 
natural 
conditions 
with 
the 
ability 
to 
generate 
value 
in 
water 
sports, 
through 
attraction 
strategies 
in 
these 
areas; 
• 
Taking 
advantage 
of 
the 
growth 
in 
tourism 
in 
Portugal, 
to 
stimulate 
the 
growth 
of 
activities 
related 
to 
sports 
tourism. 
Maxi-mini 
strategy 


•Associate 
the 
hpcs 
with 
the 
Portugal 
brand, 
for 
the 
international 
market; 
• 
Enhance 
tourism 
activities 
linked 
to 
the 
hpcs, 
to 
create 
better 
financial 
sustainability. 
Threats 
Mini-maxi 
strategy 


• 
Take 
advantage 
of 
the 
infrastructure 
capacity, 
hospitality, 
safety 
and 
accessibility 
of 
the 
hpcs 
to 
keep 
up 
with 
international 
competition; 
• 
Benefit 
from 
the 
existence 
of 
an 
organism 
responsible 
for 
the 
promotion 
of 
all 
the 
hpcs, 
to 
overcome 
the 
procedural 
and 
bureaucratic 
barriers 
to 
internationalmarkets. 
Mini-mini 
strategy 


• 
Invest 
in 
the 
promotion 
and 
dissemination 
of 
the 
hpc 
in 
external 
markets, 
through 
the 
construction 
of 
these 
in 
countries 
in 
the 
Mediterranean 
Basin; 
• 
To 
study 
knowledge 
of 
foreign 
markets 
by 
analysingthe 
internationalcompetition 
of 
the 
hpcs; 
• 
Promote 
the 
financial 
sustainability 
of 
the 
hpc 
in 
order 
to 
empower 
national 
hpcs 
with 
state-of-
the-art 
equipment. 
differentiateits 
tourismproductsto 
attractothermarket 
segments 
to 
the 
destination 
and 
invest 
in 
an 
improvement 
of 
its 
tourism 
supply 
through 
differentiation.
Itispreciselythroughtheimportanceofdifferentiation 
within 
the 
competitiveness 
of 
tourist 
destinationsthattherelevanceofsportasatourismproductis 
highlighted 
since, 
as 
indicated 
by 
Ritchie 
and 
Crouch 
(2003), 
it 
could 
strengthen 
the 
tourism 
industry 
and 
increase 
the 
competitiveness 
of 
tourist 
destinations. 


Main 
Conclusions 


One 
of 
the 
major 
conclusions 
of 
this 
research 
shows 
that 
sports 
tourism 
can 
be 
a 
differentiating 
product 
that 
meets 
the 
new 
needs 
of 
the 
tourist 
demand 
that 
nolongerwantsonlypassiveholidays,butactiveones, 
seeking 
to 
be 
immersed 
in 
differentiated 
experiences 
during 
a 
trip. 
It 
is 
crucial 
that 
the 
tourism 
supply 
has 
informationaboutthenewvisitor’sprofile,adaptingits 
servicestomeetthetouristneeds,namelyinthesports 
supply,something 
that 
is 
already 
possibleto 
beverified 
by 
the 
tourism 
supply 
in 
the 
sports 
area. 
In 
this 
sense, 
the 
importance 
that 
sports 
tourism 
has 
for 
the 


tourism 
sector 
and 
for 
the 
competitiveness 
of 
tourist 
destinations 
is 
visible. 


Thus,thesupplyofsportstourismhas,infact,been 
growing 
in 
the 
Central 
Region, 
which 
already 
has 
a 
specific 
supply 
of 
sports 
activities, 
with 
sport 
being 
seen 
as 
an 
important 
element 
in 
the 
region’s 
tourism 
supply.However,itisimportanttofocusontheorganisation,
development,andpromotionofsportstourism 
and 
to 
increase 
the 
number 
of 
sports 
experiences 
and 
activities 
in 
the 
region, 
since 
although 
there 
is 
a 
sport 
offer 
in 
the 
Central 
Region, 
the 
number 
of 
sports 
ex-
periencesoractivities 
offered 
isreduced. 
Itisalsorelevantthatthedestinationseekstoofferexperiencesto 
audiencesofanyagegroup,adaptingitssportstourism 
offer 
and 
diversifying 
the 
types 
of 
sports 
offered 
to 
meet 
the 
needs 
of 
any 
visitor 
who 
seeks 
sport 
at 
the 
destination,eitherasthe 
mainmotivationforvisiting, 
or 
as 
a 
secondary 
one. 


The 
growth 
of 
tourism 
stimulates 
the 
demand 
for 
the 
hpcs, 
and 
the 
development 
and 
investment 
in 
hpcs 
canalsobeakeyfactorforthegrowthoftourist 
destinations. 
Thisevidenceshouldalsoserveasanin-

Academica 
Turistica, 
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2022 
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Rui 
Augusto 
da 
Costa 
et 
al. 


centive 
to 
municipalities 
to 
develop 
a 
strategy 
side 
by 
side 
with 
the 
High-Performance 
Centres, 
which 
aims 
not 
only 
to 
collaborate 
with 
the 
financing 
of 
infrastructures,
butalsowiththeirpromotioninthenational 
andinternationalmarket.With 
differentstrategiesfor 
different 
audiences, 
the 
High-Performance 
Centres 
need 
legislation 
that 
stimulates 
them 
to 
comply 
with 
fundamentalrequirementsthat,later,willbeusefulfor 
planning 
new 
actions. 


In 
an 
increasingly 
competitive 
market, 
both 
nationally 
and 
internationally, 
the 
High-Performance 
Centres 
in 
Portugal 
must 
pursue 
the 
technological 
advances 
of 
other 
countries 
and, 
for 
that, 
it 
is 
fundamental 
that 
they 
have 
the 
financial 
capacity. 
In 
economic 
terms, 
it 
will 
be 
more 
profitable 
if 
all 
the 
local 
entities 
cooperate 
in 
planning 
strategies 
for 
the 
hpcs. 
At 
the 
same 
time, 
with 
economic 
growth, 
these 
infrastructures 
will 
be 
able 
to 
compete 
with 
international 
markets 
by 
investing 
in 
high 
quality 
materials 
and 
innovation. 
Considering 
the 
growth 
of 
the 
sports 
sector, 
it 
becomes 
preponderant 
that 
Portugal, 
and 
more 
specifically 
the 
Central 
Region, 
in-
vestsin 
the 
developmentof 
infrastructureand 
then 
in 
hosting 
events/competitions 
that 
promote 
sport 
because 
it 
is 
a 
sector 
that 
attracts 
many 
participants 
and 
spectators. 


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Original 
Scientific 
Article 


Inspiring 
Breathwork 
Retreats 
in 
the 
Post-COVID-19 
Period 


Milan 
Hosta 


University 
of 
Primorska, 
Slovenia 
milan.hosta@fvz.upr.si 


Matej 
Plevnik 


University 
of 
Primorska, 
Slovenia 
matej.plevnik@fvz.upr.si 


The 
impact 
of 
the 
global 
tourist 
lockdown 
due 
to 
the 
pandemic 
dimensions 
of 
covid-19in2020 
andthebeginningof2021 
hasshakentheindustrytoitscore. 
The 
industry 
of 
mass 
tourism 
has 
certainly 
suffered 
a 
great 
knockout, 
a 
kind 
of 
acute 
respiratoryconstriction,a 
functionalcollapse 
thatonanorganiclevel 
would 
appear 
ascoughing,wheezing,shortnessofbreath,tiredness,alife-threateningdifficultyin 
breathing. 
In 
this 
paper, 
we 
used 
the 
concept 
of 
hyperventilation 
as 
understood 
by 
medicine 
to 
seek 
an 
organic 
understanding 
of 
the 
crisis 
that 
has 
hit 
tourist 
services. 
The 
study 
used 
a 
qualitative 
research 
technique, 
namely 
the 
single 
case 
study 
of 
a 
healthy 
man 
at 
the 
age 
of 
51, 
who 
was 
going 
through 
a 
health-enhancing 
breathing 
protocol. 
The 
conclusions 
were 
derived 
based 
on 
inductive 
reasoning. 
The 
pattern 
and 
results 
of 
expected 
organic 
changes 
due 
to 
the 
breathing 
protocol 
were 
transferred 
by 
analogy 
to 
the 
institutionalized 
level 
of 
tourism. 
Since 
we 
focused 
on 
changesand 
patterns 
to 
be 
reflectedorganically, 
the 
detailed 
symptoms 
or 
initial 
disbalance 
of 
the 
individual 
in 
the 
case 
study 
were 
irrelevant 
for 
our 
conclusions. 
Physiologically, 
hyperventilation 
in 
humans 
results 
in 
tissue 
hypoxia, 
meaning 
that 
less 
oxygen 
is 
delivered 
to 
cells. 
Similar 
logic 
can 
be 
transferred 
to 
hyperinflated 
mass 
tourism 
booming 
in 
recent 
years, 
negatively 
impacting 
the 
indigenous 
social 
and 
natural 
environment. 
The 
results 
of 
the 
expert-based 
and 
scientifically 
justified5-
weekbreathinginterventionsarepresentedviaacasestudy.Theimprovement 
of 
major 
factors 
and 
qualitative 
interpretation 
from 
the 
subject 
itself 
has 
provided 
us 
with 
sufficient 
outcomes 
that 
can 
be 
used 
(1) 
in 
designing 
preventive 
and 
post-
covidhealthregenerativeretreatsastouristproductsand(2)asamodeltosupport 
the 
tourism 
industry 
with 
an 
understanding 
of 
sustainable 
niche-market 
solutions. 


Keywords: 
innovative 
tourism, 
preventive 
retreats,wellness, 
breathing 
programme, 


motivation, 
covid-19 
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.15.123-133 


Introduction 
is 
breath-taking. 
It 
has 
literally 
taken 
the 
vital 
breath 
The 
global 
tourism 
industry 
is 
probably 
one 
of 
the 
awayfromcrowdedcities,beaches,lakes,historicsites, 
hardest-hit 
industries 
with 
regard 
to 
the 
effect 
of 
the 
and 
other 
tourist 
destinations. 
But 
before 
jumping 
covid-19 
pandemic. 
In 
a 
sense, 
the 
whole 
pandemic 
to 
catastrophic 
conclusions 
regarding 
tourism 
and 


Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|123 



Milan 
Hosta 
andMatej 
Plevnik 
Inspiring 
Breathwork 
Retreats 
in 
the 
Post-COVID-19 
Period 


tourism-related 
industries, 
we 
are 
hereby 
offering 
an 
organicperceptionandinterpretationof 
the 
situation. 
Thepurposeofourexplorationis 
(1) 
toregardthecri-
sis 
in 
terms 
of 
an 
opportunity 
for 
a 
contemplative 
introspection 
of 
the 
tourismindustry,(2) 
to 
reframethe 
business-centred 
narrative 
from 
the 
organic 
perspectivewiththesupportofacasestudy,
and(3)toprovide 
arguments 
for 
sustainable 
and 
niche-market 
health-
related 
tourist 
services. 
The 
industry 
of 
mass 
tourism 
hascertainlysufferedagreatknockout,akindofacute 
respiratory 
constriction, 
a 
functional 
collapse 
that 
on 
an 
organic 
level 
would 
appear 
as 
coughing, 
wheezing, 
shortnessofbreath,tiredness,oralife-threateningdifficulty 
in 
breathing. 


Tourismisa 
dynamicandfluidsystem,whichpositivelycontributestothequality 
oflifeofthetravelling 
population. 
Research 
suggests 
that 
too 
much 
interaction 
with 
tourism 
may 
reduce 
hosts’ 
quality 
of 
life. 
At 
the 
same 
time 
residents’ 
quality 
of 
life 
is 
an 
essential 
aspect 
of 
sustainable 
tourism 
development 
(Juvan 
et 
al., 
2021). 
The 
recent 
policy 
brief 
from 
the 
United 
Na-
tionsWorldTourismOrganization(unwto)provides 
thefollowingstatementsregardingthehugeeconomic 
impact 
of 
covid-19 
on 
tourism 
(unwto, 
n.d.): 


• 
Tourism 
is 
one 
of 
the 
world’s 
major 
economic 
sectors. 
It 
is 
the 
third 
largest 
export 
category 
(afterfuelsandchemicals)
andin2019,itaccounted 
for 
7. 
of 
the 
global 
trade. 
• 
For 
some 
countries, 
it 
can 
represent 
over 
20. 
of 
their 
gross 
domestic 
product 
(gdp). 
• 
Tourismisoneofthesectorsmostaffectedbythe 
covid-19 
pandemic, 
which 
impacts 
economies, 
livelihoods, 
public 
services 
and 
opportunities 
on 
all 
continents. 
All 
parts 
of 
its 
vast 
value 
chain 
have 
been 
affected. 
• 
Export 
revenues 
from 
tourism 
could 
fall 
by 
$910 
billion 
to 
$1.2 
trillion 
in 
2021. 
This 
will 
have 
a 
wider 
impact 
and 
could 
reduce 
the 
global 
gdp 
by 
1.5. 
to 
2.8.. 
• 
Tourism 
supports 
one 
in 
10 
jobs 
and 
provides 
livelihoods 
for 
several 
millions 
more 
in 
both 
the 
developing 
and 
the 
developed 
economies. 
Over 
100 
million 
jobs 
directly 
related 
to 
tourism 
are 
at 
risk. 
• 
In 
some 
Small 
Island 
Developing 
States 
(sids), 
tourism 
accounts 
for 
as 
much 
as 
80. 
of 
exports, 
while 
it 
also 
represents 
important 
shares 
of 
national 
economies 
in 
both 
the 
developed 
and 
the 
developing 
countries. 
Since 
there 
is 
no 
doubt 
that 
tourism 
was 
estimated 
to 
generate 
7. 
of 
global 
trade 
in 
2019, 
and 
in 
some 
countriesupto20.,withthe 
covid-19pandemic,we 
aredealingwithahugeconstrictionofthesystem.The 
collapseininternationaltravelrepresentsanestimated 
loss 
of 
$1.3 
trillion 
in 
export 
revenues 
– 
more 
than 
11 
times 
the 
loss 
recorded 
during 
the 
2009 
global 
economic 
crisis 
(unwto, 
n.d.). 


Economic 
Impact 
of 
COVID-19 
on 
Tourism 


At 
the 
moment, 
the 
total 
2020 
economic 
impact 
is 
not 
yet 
available. 
There 
are 
several 
reliable 
umbrella 
sources 
(unwto, 
n.d.; 
oecd, 
2020) 
that 
have 
partial 
data 
alreadyathandandhaveissued 
relativelyreliable 
forecasts.However, 
the 
final 
evaluation 
is 
not 
decisive 
for 
our 
research. 
The 
sole 
fact 
of 
lockdowns 
globally 
and 
the 
obvious 
impact 
that 
this 
has 
on 
tourism 
is 
an 
argumentgoodenoughtobuildourdiscourseonsolid 
foundations. 


The 
report 
from 
Tourism 
Economics 
(Trimble 
et 
al., 
2020) 
estimated 
that 
the 
global 
pandemic 
devastated 
city 
tourism, 
with 
global 
city 
arrivals 
forecast 
to 
havedeclinedby 
58. 
in 
2020,equivalent 
tothelossof 
373millionvisitor 
arrivalsfor 
the309 
citiescoveredin 
theirglobalcities 
travelservice.MostEuropean 
governments 
have 
taken 
a 
proactive 
approach 
in 
encouraging 
tourism, 
easing 
international 
travel 
restrictions 
andencouragingdomestictravel.However, 
covid-19 
continues 
to 
engulf 
the 
eu 
region, 
with 
travel 
restrictionschangingcontinuously 
and, 
often, 
with 
little 
notice. 
This 
fluctuation 
dampens 
the 
tourist 
sentiment 
and 
endangers 
the 
travel 
recovery. 
International 
visitorarrivalstoEuropeancitieswillnotexceed2019levelsagainuntil2024,
whiledomesticvisitorarrivalswill 
only 
reach 
2019 
levels 
by 
2023 
(Trimble 
et 
al., 
2021). 


Škare 
et 
al. 
(2021) 
suggest 
policy-makers 
andpractitioners 
in 
the 
tourism 
industry 
need 
to 
gain 
knowledge 
of 
the 
impact 
of 
the 
pandemic 
crisis 
on 
the 
tourism 
industry 
and 
the 
economy. 
Therefore, 
an 
importantpartoftheeconomicstrategyistoprotectproduc


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Turistica, 
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1, 
April 
2022 



Milan 
Hosta 
andMatej 
Plevnik 
Inspiring 
Breathwork 
Retreats 
in 
the 
Post-COVID-19 
Period 


tivecapacityanduseeconomicproductioncapacityto 
the 
fullest 
extent 
as 
soon 
as 
the 
virus 
has 
diminished. 


However, 
besides 
the 
pandemic’s 
impact 
on 
the 
economy, 
there 
is 
consequentially 
also 
growing 
anxiety 
arising 
from 
the 
fear 
of 
the 
infectious 
disease 
spreading 
while 
travelling. 
The 
research 
also 
shows 
that 
covid-19 
risk 
perception 
per 
se 
influences 
typicalformsofvacationbehaviour,
butthisriskalsoleads 
to 
the 
development 
of 
travel 
anxiety, 
which 
additionally 
influencesonly 
some 
forms 
of 
vacation 
behaviour 
(Bratic 
et 
al., 
2021; 
Turnšek 
et 
al., 
2021). 


Organic 
Interpretation 
of 
the 
Crisis 


Acrisisisalways 
alsoan 
opportunity 
to 
rethink 
the 
tourism 
industry 
and 
its 
impact 
due 
to 
the 
exploitation 
of 
natural 
and 
cultural 
resources: 
an 
opportunity 
to 
reframe 
the 
issues 
at 
hand 
and 
come 
up 
with 
inclusive 
and 
resilient 
solutions. 
The 
breath-takingdimensionsofsuddenchangesin 
tourism,suchaslockdown 
and 
restrictions 
in 
travelling 
globally 
and 
locally 
are 
pushing 
us 
towards 
metaphoric 
thinking 
that 
might 
shednewlightoncompassionateunderstandingofthe 
situation. 
In 
this 
regard, 
we 
can 
compare 
the 
tourism 
sector 
to 
an 
organ 
within 
a 
living 
organism 
(society), 
an 
entity 
with 
its 
own 
characteristics 
that 
collaborates 
with 
other 
entities/business 
sectors 
(different 
organs), 
which 
form 
a 
bigger, 
more 
complex 
organic 
whole, 
namely 
an 
organism(society). 


In 
his 
1653 
Lectures 
on 
the 
Whole 
of 
Anatomy, 
William 
Harvey, 
the 
famous 
British 
physiologist, 
stated 
simply 
but 
profoundly: 
‘Life 
and 
respiration 
are 
complementary. 
There 
is 
nothing 
living 
which 
does 
not 
breathe 
nor 
anything 
breathing 
which 
does 
not 
live’ 
(Stephen, 
2021). 
It 
is 
obvious 
that 
this 
crisis 
took 
the 
vitalandfullybloomingtouristbreathaway,andmany 
stakeholders 
are 
at 
the 
edge 
of 
survival 
due 
to 
lack 
of 
‘oxygen.’ 
In 
organic 
terms, 
we 
refer 
to 
this 
as 
a 
constriction 
due 
to 
prior 
hyperventilation. 
Hyperventilation 
is 
an 
example 
of 
an 
extreme 
breathing 
pattern 
alteration 
that 
may 
be 
acute 
or 
chronic. 
The 
first 
description 
of 
hyperventilation 
in 
Western 
medical 
literature 
dates 
back 
to 
the 
American 
Civil 
War 
when 
a 
surgeon 
published 
a 
paper 
where 
he 
described 
the 
reasons 
for 
cardiac 
disorders 
among 
300 
soldiers 
who 
suffered 
breathlessness, 
dizziness, 
palpitations, 
chest 


pain, 
headache 
and 
disturbed 
sleep. 
However, 
at 
that 
timetheyhadnotyetidentifiedhyperventilationasthe 
primary 
cause. 
The 
term 
hyperventilation 
syndrome 
was 
introduced 
later 
in 
1937 
and 
provided 
the 
physiological 
rationale 
to 
explain 
the 
findings 
of 
cardiac 
disorders 
from 
the 
surgeons’ 
report 
(Chaitow 
et 
al., 
2014). 


Hyperventilationistodayunderstoodastheillpat-
tern 
of 
breathing, 
which 
is 
defined 
as 
breathing 
in 
excess 
of 
metabolic 
requirements, 
reducing 
carbon 
dioxide 
concentration 
of 
the 
blood 
to 
below 
normal. 
This 
causes 
an 
alteration 
in 
the 
body’s 
pH, 
increasing 
alkalinity, 
and 
thereby 
triggering 
a 
variety 
of 
adaptive 
changes. 
One 
of 
the 
major 
changes 
is 
hypoxia, 
a 
reduced 
supply 
of 
oxygen 
to 
the 
tissues 
of 
the 
body 
below 
healthy 
physiological 
levels, 
despite 
adequate 
perfusion 
of 
the 
tissue 
by 
blood 
(Chaitow 
et 
al., 
2014; 
Aliverti 
& 
Pedotti, 
2014). 
The 
other 
major 
change 
is 
hypoventilation 
as 
compensation 
for 
inadequate 
gas 
exchange 
due 
to 
hyperventilation. 
In 
extreme 
form, 
hypoventilation 
is 
commonly 
associated 
with 
morbid 
obesity, 
and 
as 
a 
sleep 
or 
spontaneous 
acute 
apnea. 


Translating 
these 
physiological 
laws 
onto 
socio-
economicdynamicswouldmeanthatwhenthesystem 
is 
consuming 
more 
than 
needed 
to 
maintain 
the 
basic 
life-maintaining 
functions 
in 
order 
to 
make 
and 
accumulate 
bigger 
profit 
or 
is 
in 
a 
constant 
competitive 
battle-like 
mode, 
there 
will 
be 
a 
turning 
point 
which 
resemblestheBohreffectinbreathingphysiology. 
The 
system 
will 
shut 
down, 
collapse 
or, 
to 
a 
proportional 
degree, 
limit 
its 
major 
functions 
in 
order 
to 
compensate 
for 
the 
loss 
of 
balance 
due 
to 
low 
values 
of 
basic 
productionunits(cells).Inshort,wecandrawaparallel 
asfollows: 
when 
a 
person(organism)is 
greedyand 
isgaspingformoreandmoreoxygenintheair,butnot 
sharing 
this 
with 
their 
inner 
world 
on 
a 
cellular 
level, 
the 
cells 
will 
either 
give 
up 
or 
stand 
up 
for 
their 
needs 
and 
call 
the 
immune 
system 
to 
protect 
their 
‘natural 
rights.’ 
The 
immune 
system, 
as 
a 
‘court 
of 
justice,’ 
will 
causeconstrictionofbloodvessels(feltasahighblood 
pressure) 
or 
airways 
in 
lungs 
(felt 
as 
asthma) 
to 
stop 
the 
person 
from 
‘committing 
a 
crime.’ 
In 
these 
terms, 
lockdown 
appearsasanimmune 
responsedue 
to 
the 
hyperventilation 
of 
the 
tourism 
industry, 
which 
was 
already 
showing 
signs 
of 
devastating 
natural 
and 
cul-

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April 
2022 
|125 



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Hosta 
andMatej 
Plevnik 
Inspiring 
Breathwork 
Retreats 
in 
the 
Post-COVID-19 
Period 


tural 
resources 
due 
to 
mass 
exploitation. 
We 
believe 
that 
such 
organic 
thinking 
and 
use 
of 
the 
language 
of 
physiology 
can 
provide 
us 
with 
great 
insights 
and 
opportunities 
for 
creative 
solutions 
that 
are 
already 
availablewith 
thisreframing 
of 
thecrisis. 
Following 
this 
analogy, 
we 
could 
for 
instance 
think 
in 
the 
proposed 
terms: 
person/body/organism 
= 
society, 
organs 
= 
different 
business 
sectors 
(one 
of 
them 
is 
tourism), 
air 
= 
goods, 
oxygen 
= 
money, 
cells 
= 
people, 
immune 
system 
= 
court 
of 
justice, 
hyperventilation 
= 
hyperinflation. 


There 
is 
a 
strong 
historic 
background 
on 
the 
value 
of 
conscious 
breathing, 
a 
vast 
amount 
of 
research 
and 
an 
international 
body 
of 
knowledge 
that 
shows 
the 
healthbenefitsofbreathing-relatedprotocolsinterms 
of 
exercise 
and 
therapy. 
In 
2016, 
Anselm 
Doll 
and 
his 
colleaguesshowedthatthisattentionfocuseasesstress 
and 
negative 
emotions, 
in 
particular 
by 
activating 
the 
dorsomedialprefrontalcortex,aregulatoryareaofthe 
brain, 
and 
by 
reducing 
activity 
in 
the 
amygdala 
(Doll 
et 
al., 
2016). 
Doria 
et 
al. 
(2015) 
offered 
10 
training 
sessions 
of 
two 
hours 
each, 
spread 
across 
two 
weeks, 
to 
69 
patients 
with 
anxiety 
or 
depressive 
disorders. 
The 
training 
included 
a 
varied 
set 
of 
breathing 
techniques 
(such 
as 
abdominal 
breathing, 
acceleration 
and 
deceleration 
of 
rhythm, 
and 
alternate 
nostril 
breathing), 
combined 
with 
some 
yoga 
stretches. 
The 
researchers 
observed 
a 
significant 
(p-level) 
decrease 
in 
symptoms 
at 
the 
end 
of 
the 
protocol. 
Even 
better, 
improvement 
wasmaintainedtwoandsixmonthslater,withfollow-
up 
sessions 
just 
once 
a 
week 
and 
some 
home 
practice 
during 
this 
period. 


In 
this 
paper, 
the 
concept 
of 
hyperventilation 
as 
understood 
by 
medicine 
and 
physiology 
will 
be 
used 
to 
seek 
an 
organicunderstanding 
of 
the 
crisis 
that 
has 
hittouristservices. 
Wewilldrawtheconclusionsfrom 
a 
single 
case 
study 
of 
a 
person 
who 
is 
going 
through 
a 
health-enhancing 
breathing 
protocol 
and 
transfer 
it 
bytheanalogytotheinstitutionalizedlevel 
of 
tourism 
toshowthesimilaritiesinthepatternofchange.Physiologically, 
hyperventilation 
results 
in 
tissue 
hypoxia 
which 
means 
less 
oxygen 
delivered 
to 
cells. 
Similar 
logic 
can 
be 
seen 
with 
hyperinflated 
mass 
tourism 
booming 
in 
recent 
years, 
and 
negatively 
impacting 
the 
indigenous 
social 
and 
natural 
environment. 
Re


garding 
the 
research 
available, 
our 
main 
claim 
is 
not 
basedonasinglecasestudythatwearepresenting,but 
on 
the 
understanding 
of 
the 
rationale 
of 
change 
that 
can 
be 
organically 
proven 
and 
used 
as 
an 
insight 
into 
newnicheopportunitiesfortouristservicesinthepost 
covid-19 
period. 
Therefore, 
it 
is 
the 
aim 
of 
this 
papertoemphasizethepossibilitiesofdesigningpreventiveandpost 
covid-19health-regenerativeretreatsas 
tourist 
products 
using 
a 
case 
study 
methodology 
and 
reasoning 
by 
the 
analogy. 


Methods 


Inordertoachievethepurposeofthestudy,weuseda 
case 
study 
methodology,which 
is 
theidealmethodologywhenaholistic,
in-depthinvestigationisexpected 
and 
needed. 
On 
the 
other 
hand, 
case 
studies 
are 
designed 
to 
bring 
out 
the 
details 
from 
the 
viewpoint 
of 
the 
participants 
by 
using 
multiple 
sources 
of 
data 
(Baxter 
& 
Jack, 
2008; 
Crowe 
et 
al., 
2011; 
Tellis, 
1997; 
Rashid 
et 
al., 
2019). 
However, 
the 
case 
presented 
here 
is 
not 
directly 
related 
to 
the 
covid-19 
disease, 
which 
might 
be 
consideredasa 
flawedattempt 
to 
support 
our 
thesis. 
To 
date, 
there 
have 
been 
no 
relevant 
cases 
that 
wouldenable 
ustoresearch 
the 
direct 
impact 
of 
the 
Buteyko-method-based 
breathing 
rehabilitation 
on 
individuals 
with 
a 
history 
of 
covid-19. 
However, 
thecaseofaformerathletepresentedhereisofspecial 
valueaswell, 
since 
wemight 
speculate 
that 
the 
benefits 
of 
the 
protocol 
that 
the 
subject 
gained 
over 
the 
intervention 
period, 
though 
he 
was 
initially 
healthy 
and 
physically 
fit 
above 
average, 
are 
indeed 
reported 
asimpressiveintermsofsubjectivechange.Consideringtherelativeimportanceofsuchinterventionsinrelation 
to 
health 
and 
especially 
post-covid-19-related 
tourist 
services, 
we 
are 
also 
including 
a 
patient 
report 
published 
in 
bmj 
Practice 
Pointer 
by 
Greenhalgh 
et 
al. 
(2020). 


Participant 


The 
participant, 
a 
man 
aged 
51, 
who 
performed 
a 
5week 
Integral 
Breathing 
programme 
in 
October 
and 
November 
2020 
was 
a 
former 
top 
athlete, 
biathlete, 
multiple 
Olympian, 
serviceman, 
coach 
and 
more. 
Other 
anthropometric 
data 
are 
irrelevant 
for 
the 
process 
and 
objective 
of 
this 
paper. 
During 
the 
years 
fol


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Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Milan 
Hosta 
andMatej 
Plevnik 
Inspiring 
Breathwork 
Retreats 
in 
the 
Post-COVID-19 
Period 


lowing 
the 
end 
of 
his 
sports 
career, 
he 
continued 
and 
persisted 
with 
a 
sporting 
lifestyle. 
He 
still 
engages 
in 
various 
endurance 
and 
long-distance 
sports 
such 
as 
running, 
cross-country 
skiing, 
mountaineering 
and 
road 
cycling, 
as 
well 
as 
some 
adrenaline 
sports 
like 
freeriding, 
wind-surfing, 
sailing 
and 
more. 
Prior 
to 
thestudy,he 
did 
not 
haveany 
breathing 
problems, 
norwashesnoring. 
However,hewaswellawareofthe 
benefits 
he 
might 
gain 
from 
the 
designed 
breathwork 
regime 
and 
was 
motivated 
to 
dedicate 
himself 
to 
it 
on 
a 
daily 
basis. 


An 
informed 
consent 
on 
expected 
outcomes, 
limitations 
and 
potential 
risks 
was 
signed 
prior 
to 
the 
intervention. 
Regarding 
the 
research 
objectives, 
the 
personal 
athletic 
history 
of 
the 
subject 
is 
not 
of 
relevant 
importance, 
since 
we 
are 
aiming 
to 
show 
relative 
improvementsinduced 
by 
the 
protocol. 
However, 
since 
the 
subject 
was 
already 
in 
good 
health, 
the 
ob-
servedchangesareevenmoreencouragingandwould 
probablybeofhigherdegreewithlessfitpost-covid19 
individuals. 
This 
hypothesis 
is 
yet 
to 
be 
proven, 
of 
course, 
and 
further 
research 
is 
needed 
(Planinc 
et 
al., 
2021). 


Intervention 
Protocol 
and 
Study 
Design 


The 
intervention 
that 
was 
proposed 
to 
the 
participant 
and 
that 
he 
agreed 
to 
follow 
for 
5 
weeks 
was 
part 
of 
the 
integralbreathingtrainingprogrammeforbreathing 
practitioners 
designed 
by 
the 
leading 
author 
of 
this 
article. 
The 
duration 
of 
the 
intervention 
is 
arbitrary 
but, 
based 
on 
the 
experiences 
from 
20 
years 
of 
practicalbreathworkteaching,the5-weekprotocolhas 
provedtobeasafeperiodtoshowmeaningfulandtangible 
changes 
experienced 
by 
the 
subject 
performing 
the 
protocol.According 
to 
Baxter 
and 
Jack 
(2008), 
we 
hereby 
focus 
on 
the 
descriptive 
and 
intrinsic 
value 
of 
thecasestudy,anditsinterpretative(Croweetal.,2011) 
potentials 
to 
serve 
our 
objective. 
The 
leading 
author 
of 
this 
article 
has 
been 
doing 
breathworksessions 
and 
breathingtherapiesfor20years.Oneofthemostcommon 
and 
successful 
methods 
of 
hyperventilation 
syndrome 
treatment 
is 
the 
Buteyko 
method, 
stemming 
from 
Russia 
in 
the 
mid-20th 
century 
and 
named 
after 
Dr.Konstantin 
Buteyko.Thismethod, 
with 
scientifically 
proven 
results, 
is 
now 
largely 
accepted 
as 
an 
ef


ficient 
complementary 
and 
self-treatment 
respiratory 
therapy 
to 
treat 
many 
inflammatory 
diseases 
arising 
from 
hyperventilation 
syndrome 
(McKeown, 
2015). 


The 
entire 
programme 
involved 
20–30 
minutes 
of 
breathing 
routine, 
10–15 
minutes 
of 
meditation 
and 
a 
30–60 
second 
cold 
shower 
every 
day 
for 
5 
weeks. 
The 
breathing 
routine 
used 
in 
this 
case 
was 
designed 
according 
to 
the 
subjective 
needs 
and 
preferences 
of 
the 
participant, 
namely 
to 
support 
his 
fitness. 
The 
breathing 
techniques 
were 
carefully 
chosen 
according 
to 
well-researched 
benefits. 
The 
first 
technique 
was 
the 
traditional 
Buteyko’s 
breathing 
method 
(Bruton 
& 
Lewith, 
2005), 
which 
basically 
comes 
down 
to 
very 
slow 
and 
small-in-volume 
breathing 
(‘slow 
and 
low’), 
whichisalsoknownas 
‘reduced’ 
breathing. 
Thebene-
fits 
of 
such 
a 
breathing 
regime 
are: 
(1) 
better 
tolerance 
to 
high 
co2 
in 
lungs 
and 
blood, 
(ii) 
better 
tissue 
oxygenation, 
and 
(iii) 
higher 
vagal 
nerve 
tone 
which 
is 
a 
sign 
of 
an 
active 
parasympathetic 
autonomic 
nervous 
system 
(McKeown, 
2015). 
The 
second 
breathing 
technique 
is 
often 
used 
by 
free 
divers 
to 
raise 
the 
capacity 
of 
blood 
to 
carry 
oxygen 
or 
by 
athletes 
to 
simulate 
high-altitude 
training. 
Apnea, 
breath 
holding, 
was 
introduced 
as 
the 
second 
technique 
(Elia 
et 
al., 
2021). 


In 
the 
initial 
phase, 
we 
explained 
to 
the 
participantthebenefitsofconsciousbreathingwithacertain 
breathing 
pace 
(Table 
1) 
using 
both 
techniques, 
and 
the 
important 
role 
of 
carbon 
dioxide 
(co2)and 
nitric 
oxide 
(no) 
for 
good 
health. 
The 
aim 
of 
the 
intervention 
was 
to 
enable 
a 
better 
breathing 
pattern 
in 
everyday 
life 
and 
in 
sports 
activities, 
and 
consequentially 
to 
gain 
benefits 
from 
the 
possible 
qualitative 
changes 
and 
subjective 
feelings 
as 
narratively 
reported 
and 
recorded 
daily 
by 
the 
subject 
in 
his 
notes. 
Regarding 
meditation, 
the 
participant 
had 
his 
own 
10–15-minute 
routine 
of 
calm 
sitting 
and 
breathing 
and 
observing 
inner 
feelings 
with 
no 
judgment 
or 
the 
need 
of 
intervention 
to 
change 
them. 
The 
cold 
shower 
routine 
includedaminimumof30secondsandamaximumof 
60seconds(Buijzeetal.,2016) 
withcalmnosebreathing 
standing 
under 
the 
shower. 


Tosummarize,theinterventionincluded 
‘slowand 
low’ 
Buteyko 
breathing 
(15 
minutes 
daily), 
maximum 
inhalation 
and 
exhalation 
retention 
(3–5 
apnea 
repetitions 
daily), 
meditation, 
and 
a 
cold 
shower. 
The 


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Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|127 



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Hosta 
andMatej 
Plevnik 
Inspiring 
Breathwork 
Retreats 
in 
the 
Post-COVID-19 
Period 


.. 


Table 
1 
Breathing 
Pace 


Day 
Breathingpace 


Inhalation 
Exhalation 
Breath 
hold 


after 
exhale 


.–. 
. 
. 
. 
.–.. 
. 
. 
. 
..–.. 
. 
. 
. 
..–.. 
. 
. 
. 


Notes 
In 
seconds. 


..
..
..
..
..
..
Breathholdtimeatexhalation(insec.)
.. 


. 


. 


.... 
............................ 
Days 
of 
training 


subject 
was 
taking 
notes 
on 
(1) 
the 
pace 
of 
‘slow 
and 
low’ 
breathing, 
(2) 
the 
pre-exercise 
breath 
hold 
time 
(known 
as 
‘control 
pause’ 
in 
the 
Buteyko 
breathing 
method), 
and 
(3) 
subjective 
feelings 
and 
the 
assessment 
of 
the 
impact 
due 
to 
intervention. 


Results 
and 
Discussion 


In 
the 
beginning 
of 
the 
intervention 
breathing 
pro-
gramme, 
the 
participant 
reported 
that 
he 
found 
it 
difficulttofollowthe‘
slowandlow’breathingroutinefor 
15 
minutes. 
He 
felt 
anxious 
and 
uncomfortable, 
especially 
in 
terms 
offeeling 
outofbreath. 
Basedonthis 
initial 
feedback, 
we 
agreed 
to 
the 
principle 
of 
graduation, 
despite 
the 
fact 
that 
the 
participant 
already 
had 
experience 
with 
lower 
oxygen 
levels 
at 
high 
altitudes 
and 
the 
feeling 
of 
air 
hunger 
was 
not 
strange 
to 
him. 
Therefore, 
we 
started 
with 
the 
shortest 
possiblebreathingpacewherehestillfeltcomfortable,
then 
gradually 
reducing 
the 
volume 
and/or 
extending 
the 
breathing 
cycle 
as 
the 
felt 
sense 
allowed 
as 
shown 
in 
Table 
1, 
meaning 
10 
breaths 
per 
minute 
at 
the 
start 
of 
the 
regime, 
and 
3.3 
per 
minute 
starting 
on 
day 
16. 
We 
alsopaidspecialattentiontothedailycoldshowerroutine 
because 
the 
reactions 
were 
initially 
expressed 
in 
the 
form 
of 
a 
shock 
(increased 
mouth 
breathing, 
discomfort, 
and 
aversion). 
Thus, 
we 
agreed 
that 
the 
procedure 
should 
start 
with 
warm 
water 
and 
then 
gradually 
turn 
into 
cold, 
starting 
with 
cold 
water 
at 
the 
feet, 
moving 
to 
the 
arms, 
torso 
and 
finally 
the 
head 
as 
well. 


After 
a 
week 
of 
daily 
sessions, 
the 
client 
reported 
the 
first 
obvious 
changes 
regarding 
better 
sleep 
and 
reported 
that 
in 
the 
morning 
after 
the 
session, 
he 


Figure 
1 
The 
Results 
of 
Pre-Exercise 
Control 
Pause 
Test 


was 
feeling 
light 
and 
remained 
playful 
throughout 
the 
workday. 
Because 
he 
trained 
regularly 
over 
the 
period 
of 
intervention, 
subjectively 
by 
the 
felt 
sense, 
lactic 
acid 
most 
likely 
appeared 
in 
smaller 
amounts, 
and 
the 
body’s 
regeneration 
was 
faster, 
as 
reported 
by 
the 
subject 
in 
the 
notes. 
The 
desire 
for 
hydration 
was 
greater 
and 
digestion 
was 
also 
better. 
Showering 
with 
cold 
water 
was 
no 
longer 
a 
problem 
after 
day 


5. 
Further 
into 
the 
intervention, 
the 
participant 
reported 
that 
he 
had 
less 
desire 
for 
sweet 
products. 
He 
reported 
higher 
calmness 
and 
good 
focus 
throughout 
the 
workday. 
During 
the 
conversation, 
the 
client 
reported 
that 
cognition 
was 
clearer, 
the 
visual 
channel 
of 
communication 
was 
sharpened 
(he 
estimated 
situations 
better, 
read 
people 
faster, 
recognized 
‘fake 
be-
haviour’ 
faster, 
etc.) 
and 
his 
intuition 
improved. 
He 
also 
reported 
that 
regular 
meditation 
induced 
new 
ideasand 
good 
thoughts,and 
he 
evennoticed 
a 
better 
sense 
of 
humour, 
but 
did 
not 
know 
the 
reason 
why 
this 
occurred. 
Since 
this 
was 
reported 
during 
conversations, 
and 
might 
bring 
some 
anecdotal 
value 
to 
the 
transformation,wecannotdrawanyconclusionsupon 
these 
very 
subjective 
impressions. 
Regarding 
the 
apnea 
or 
breathing 
retention 
training, 
the 
participant 
reported 
that 
his 
endurance 
trainings 
are 
much 
more 
effectivethisway,hedoesnotfeelastiredasusual,and 
that 
he 
can 
do 
longer 
workouts. 
However, 
the 
results 
of 
the 
daily 
pre-exercise 
‘control 
pause’ 
test 
noticeably 
improved 
(Figure 
1). 
In 
general, 
after 
5 
weeks 
of 
daily 
routine, 
the 
par


128 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Milan 
Hosta 
andMatej 
Plevnik 
Inspiring 
Breathwork 
Retreats 
in 
the 
Post-COVID-19 
Period 


ticipantconcludedthatduringhisroutinetraining,he 
feltmoreconfident,hisbreathingpatternchangedina 
manner 
that 
his 
mouth 
was 
closed 
during 
a 
slow 
and 
moderaterunningorcyclingpace,andhisrestingrespiratoryratealsoincludedanaturalpauseaftertheexhalation. 
During 
daily 
work 
activities, 
the 
habituation 
of 
nose 
breathing 
was 
obvious. 
In 
conclusion, 
he 
was 
very 
satisfied 
with 
the 
impact 
of 
the 
intervention 
on 
his 
physiological 
and 
psychological 
performance 
resultingalsoinabetteremotionalconditionandoverall 
well-being. 


The 
participant 
in 
this 
case 
study 
was 
a 
former 
top 
biathlon 
athlete, 
a 
healthy 
51-year-old 
adult 
with 
an 
ambition 
to 
improve 
his 
athletic 
performance 
due 
to 
the 
promised 
positive 
effects 
of 
following 
the 
breath-
ing-meditative-cold-showerregime(interventionprotocol). 
The 
5-week 
protocol 
included 
the 
following 
interventions 
daily: 
pre-exercise 
breath 
hold 
(‘control 
pause’)test,15minutesofslowandlowvolumebreathing 
to 
the 
limits 
of 
feeling 
air 
hunger, 
6 
times 
repetitive 
apnea 
(breath 
holding), 
meditation 
and 
a 
cold 
shower. 
After 
three 
weeks, 
the 
participant 
reported 
the 
first 
tangible 
changes: 
sleeping 
better 
at 
night 
and 
experiencing 
a 
better 
flow 
state 
and 
playfulness 
in 
the 
morning 
after 
the 
breathwork 
as 
well 
as 
throughout 
the 
working 
day. 
Since 
the 
subject 
still 
trained 
regularly, 
the 
body’s 
regeneration 
(subjective 
qualitative 
assessment)wasenhancedoveraperiodoffourweeks 
of 
the 
intervention 
protocol. 
The 
desire 
for 
hydration 
became 
clearer 
and 
the 
digestion 
was 
also 
better. 
The 
participant 
found 
that 
the 
endurance 
training, 
which 
included 
prior 
proper 
breathwork, 
was 
much 
more 
effective; 
it 
did 
not 
feel 
so 
tiring, 
and 
the 
participant 
coulddolonger 
sessions. 
It 
was 
alsoobserved 
bythe 
subject 
and 
noted 
in 
daily 
narrative 
reports 
that 
his 
breathing 
pattern 
changed 
in 
the 
final 
part 
of 
the 
5weekprotocol.
Duringexercise,themouthwasclosed 
at 
a 
slow 
and 
moderate 
pace, 
and 
during 
sleep, 
the 
respiratorypatternalso 
included 
a 
spontaneouspause 
after 
exhalation. 
During 
daily 
work 
activities, 
he 
held 
his 
mouth 
closed 
more 
often 
than 
before, 
and 
if 
he 
ran 
out 
of 
energy, 
he 
started 
doing 
Buteyko 
breathing 
exercises. 


For 
the 
purpose 
of 
contextualization 
and 
further 
inductive 
reasoning, 
we 
are 
hereby 
also 
presenting 
a 


covid-19-related 
patient’s 
account 
which 
was 
published 
in 
bmj 
Practice 
Pointer 
by 
Greenhalgh 
et 
al. 
(2020). 


APatient’s 
Account 


40-year-old 
man, 
who 
was 
previously 
fit 


Exercise,whichIdoafairamount,wasnotatall 
possible. 
[...] 
My 
chest 
was 
painfully 
tight, 
and 
mybreathingwasslightlyerratic;I 
begantoexperience 
shortness 
of 
breath 
in 
random 
waves 
thatdidn’tleavemegaspingforairbutcertainly 
made 
me 
uncomfortable 
and 
very 
worried. 
My 
glands 
were 
swollen 
to 
the 
point 
that 
it 
was 
physically 
challenging 
to 
swallow, 
and 
this 
was 
onlypossiblewithseverediscomfort.Ifeltphysically 
exhausted, 
mentally 
drained, 
and, 
for 
the 
firsttimeinmylife,begantoconsideraskingfor 
additional 
help. 
[...] 
As 
far 
as 
recovery 
goes, 
it 
hasnowtakenafullseventoeightweekstostart 
feeling 
close 
to 
my 
normal 
self 
again. 
In 
the 
aftermath 
of 
this, 
I 
have 
continued 
to 
experience 
the 
following: 
fatiguedtothe 
point 
of 
havingto 
sleepduringday,inabilitytoexercise,continued 
shortness 
of 
breath 
both 
motionless 
and 
when 
exerting, 
small 
waves 
of 
anxiety, 
considerable 
depression, 
continued 
loss 
of 
smell. 
These 
are 
all 
post-symptoms 
that 
I 
have 
had 
no 
experience 
ormedicalhistorywith,and 
soit 
hasbeen 
difficult 
to 
wrestle 
with 
the 
unexpectedness 
of 
them. 


Learning 
and 
Empowerment 
via 
Breathwork 
Retreats: 
Opportunities 
in 
Tourism 
after 
the 
COVID-19 
Pandemic 
Period 


Since 
global 
policy 
recommendations 
regarding 
more 
resilientsustainabletourismhavealreadybeenlaunchedbyeconomic(
oecd)andtourism-related(unwto) 
umbrella 
organizations, 
we 
believe 
that 
besides 
tackling 
the 
challengesof 
a 
negativeeconomic 
impact, 
the 
industryshouldalsorelatetoacrisisasanopportunity 
to 
develop 
new 
products 
and 
services. 
That 
is 
why 
we 
believe 
that 
a 
rather 
unusual 
attempt 
shown 
as 
a 
case 
study 
in 
our 
research 
might 
show 
exactly 
the 
point 
that 
is 
relevant 
in 
both 
directions: 
(1) 
how 
to 
organicallyunderstandthepathologiesofmasstourism,
and 


Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|129 



Milan 
Hosta 
andMatej 
Plevnik 
Inspiring 
Breathwork 
Retreats 
in 
the 
Post-COVID-19 
Period 


(2) 
where 
to 
look 
for 
resilience 
and 
sustainability. 
Below 
is 
the 
résumé 
of 
our 
intervention 
that 
will 
lead 
us 
to 
a 
discussion 
and 
implications 
for 
further 
suggestionsregardingniche-
market-orientedhealthservices 
in 
post-covidtimes. 
Now 
that 
we 
have 
to 
a 
sufficient 
degree 
reframed 
our 
original 
tourist 
crisis 
onto 
an 
organic 
level, 
the 
breathing 
therapy 
used 
in 
cases 
of 
hyperventilation 
andinsupportingindividualsaspresentedinthiscase 
study 
might 
show 
us 
a 
way 
forward 
and 
one 
of 
the 
possibilities 
for 
a 
healthy 
and 
resilient 
future 
in 
the 
tourism 
sector. 
There 
are 
further 
research 
attempts 
and 
arguments 
(Korstanje, 
2021; 
Gibson, 
2021) 
that 
are 
challenging 
resilient 
and 
sustainable 
tourism 
in 
the 
post-covid-19 
era 
and 
are 
compatible 
with 
our 
thesis. 


Regardingbreathing,toframeourinterpretation,a 
certaindegreeofbreathlessnessisapparentlycommon 
after 
acute 
covid-19. 
Severe 
breathlessness, 
which 
is 
rare 
in 
patients 
who 
are 
not 
hospitalized, 
may 
require 
urgent 
referral. 
Breathlessness 
tends 
to 
improve 
with 
breathing 
exercises 
(Greenhalgh 
et 
al., 
2020). 
Many 
patients 
are 
still 
recovering 
spontaneously 
in 
the 
first 
six 
weeks 
after 
acute 
covid-19 
and 
do 
not 
generally 
require 
fast-track 
entry 
into 
a 
pulmonary 
rehabilitation 
programme. 
Those 
who 
have 
had 
significant 
respiratory 
illness 
may 
benefit 
from 
pulmonary 
rehabilitation, 
defined 
as 
‘a 
multidisciplinary 
intervention 
based 
on 
personalized 
evaluation 
and 
treatment 
which 
includes, 
but 
is 
not 
limited 
to 
exercise 
training, 
education, 
and 
behavioural 
modification 
designed 
to 
improve 
the 
physical 
and 
psychological 
condition 
of 
people 
with 
respiratory 
disease’ 
(Brice, 
2018; 
Barker-
Daviesetal.,2020). 
Thereisavastamountofresearch 
thatshowssuccessinthetreatmentofchronicoracute 
stresshyperventilationviasuchprotocolsaspresented 
above 
(McKeown, 
2015). 


Thus, 
if 
our 
organic 
interpretation 
and 
transfer 
of 
understanding 
of 
the 
breathing 
of 
the 
human 
being 
ontothe 
‘breathing’ofthetourismindustry 
‘holdswater,’ 
then 
we 
are 
witnessing 
the 
lockdown 
as 
a 
bronchoconstriction. 
With 
narrative 
support 
of 
the 
observed 
and 
documented 
positive 
changes 
of 
the 
subject 
and 
science 
behind 
it, 
we 
can 
propose 
a 
pathway 
towards 
sustainable 
tourism 
that 
should 
not 
fall 
into 


a 
trap 
of 
hyper-production, 
overcrowded 
sights, 
and 
the 
destruction 
of 
cultural 
and 
natural 
resources. 


The 
growing 
awareness 
of 
personal 
responsibility 
for 
health 
and 
a 
clean 
environment 
has 
been 
a 
byproduct 
of 
the 
covid-19 
pandemic 
and 
the 
consequential 
lockdown. 
The 
tourist 
services 
should 
take 
advantageof 
thisand 
the 
industry 
should 
rethinkand 
regenerateits 
agenda 
towardsautopoietic 
capabilities. 
Healthcare 
quality 
innovation 
will 
certainly 
play 
an 
important 
role 
in 
building 
resilient 
and 
sustainable 
tourist 
services. 
So, 
this 
period, 
even 
though 
the 
industry 
is 
suffering, 
offers 
a 
great 
opportunity 
to 
design 
health-enhancing 
and 
regeneration-related 
retreats 
with 
similar 
healthcare 
protocols 
as 
described 
in 
our 
case 
study. 


As 
an 
outline 
of 
the 
health-enhancing 
retreat 
pro-
gramme 
based 
on 
our 
case 
study, 
we 
would 
propose 
to 
design 
a 
focused 
breathwork-related 
intervention 
within 
the 
holistically 
framed 
service 
that 
includes 
the 
following 
options: 
(i) 
bio-certified 
food 
and 
herbs 
(Chauhan 
et 
al., 
2021) 
from 
local 
farmers, 
(ii) 
daily 
guidedbreathworkregimeincludingtheButeykomethod 
and 
yogic 
pranayama 
techniques, 
(iii) 
light 
to 
medium 
daily 
physical 
activity, 
and 
iv) 
social 
events 
and 
tours 
to 
honour 
natural 
resources 
and 
cultural 
her-
itage.Wearealreadywitnessingthe 
covid-19-related 
tourismand 
rehabilitationprogrammes. 
Forexample, 
theThermanaSpa(Laško,Slovenia;www.thermana.si) 
is 
offeringa 
6-or 
11-day 
post-covid-19 
rehabilitation 
programme 
that 
includes 
the 
following 
treatments: 
physiotherapy, 
classical 
massage, 
salt 
room 
therapy, 
herbal 
therapy, 
acupuncture, 
and 
swimming.1 
The 
main 
objective 
of 
such 
programmes 
is 
to 
raise 
awareness 
of 
embodied 
experience 
and 
the 
socio-economic 
networkthatreliesonnaturalresources,whichshould 
be 
carefully 
managed. 
The 
shift 
from 
mass 
tourism 
with 
huge 
investments 
towards 
localized 
co-natural 
and 
boutique-like 
health 
enhancing 
services 
has 
in 
our 
estimation 
a 
great 
perspective 
in 
bringing 
people 
fromcitiesbacktotheruralenvironment.Thisreasoningis 
also 
aligned 
with 
the 
notion 
of 
‘healing 
tourism’ 
expressed 
and 
justified 
by 
Siying 
et 
al. 
(2021), 
which 


1https://www.thermana.si/en/packages-offers/strengthen 
-your-health-after-covid-19. 


130 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Milan 
Hosta 
andMatej 
Plevnik 
Inspiring 
Breathwork 
Retreats 
in 
the 
Post-COVID-19 
Period 


we 
also 
find 
appropriate 
for 
our 
suggestions. 
There 
is 
abodyofknowledge 
andavastamountofresearch 
in 
the 
domain 
of 
health, 
tourism, 
sport 
and 
recreation,
kinesiology,andrelateddisciplinesclaimingthe 
benefits 
of 
outdoor 
and 
physically 
active 
tourism 
with 
close 
connection 
and 
intentional 
exposure 
to 
natural 
elements 
(water, 
sun, 
air, 
forest, 
etc.) 
and 
its 
positive 
impact 
on 
health. 
Recently, 
Buckley 
and 
Westaway 
(2020) 
published 
a 
review 
that 
showed 
the 
powerful 
positive 
impact 
of 
outdoor 
tourism 
on 
the 
well-being 
of 
women 
and 
families 
in 
covid-19 
recovery. 


The 
ongoing 
covid-19 
pandemic 
has 
also 
influencedpredefined 
health 
andwellnessphilosophies. 
This 
paper 
may 
help 
advance 
the 
recovery 
of 
health 
and 
wellness 
tourist 
destinations, 
promote 
renewed 
services, 
and 
encourage 
health 
and 
natural 
healing 
practitioners 
to 
cooperate 
closely 
with 
the 
tourism 
infrastructure. 
There 
is 
a 
need 
to 
revitalize 
the 
underperformingelementsofhealthandwellnesstourist 
destinations 
during 
covid-19 
and 
have 
further 
crisis 
management 
and 
recoverystrategies 
in 
place. 


Conclusive 
Thoughts 


The 
organic 
shock 
due 
to 
the 
global 
lockdown 
has 
shed 
light 
on 
the 
tourism 
industry 
as 
never 
before. 
The 
realization 
of 
the 
natural 
recovery 
potentials 
became 
evenmoreobvious 
asthe 
sights 
ofmasstourism 
were 
freed 
from 
crowds 
and 
a 
huge 
environmental 
burden. 
Since 
there 
was 
a 
huge 
deprivation 
of 
con-
sumers,whichcanorganicallybeillustratedasoxygen, 
the 
system 
went 
through 
a 
‘hypoxia’ 
and 
related 
compensations. 
But 
the 
important 
lesson 
here 
should 
not 
be 
overlooked. 
The 
constriction 
in 
the 
organic 
language, 
or 
the 
lockdown 
in 
institutional 
terms, 
is 
the 
result 
of 
acute 
or 
chronic 
hyperventilation, 
and 
this 
leads 
to 
slowing 
down 
the 
breathing 
frequency 
and 
volume. 


We 
believe 
that 
this 
comparison 
provides 
a 
good 
rationale 
to 
consider 
the 
importance 
of 
sustainable 
and 
in-depth 
tourism 
regeneration, 
meaning 
that 
the 
sole 
consumerism 
of 
tourist 
services 
without 
a 
meaningfulandaddedvalueforthehostandguestitselfwill 
not 
bring 
anything 
good 
to 
the 
cultural 
and 
natural 
environment.As 
MajeedandRamkissoon(2021) 
conclude, 
a 
deeper 
understanding 
of 
people’s 
perceptions 


of 
their 
physical 
and 
psychological 
needs 
in 
times 
of 
crisesanddisastersisessential.Thismayhelpadvance 
the 
recovery 
of 
health 
and 
wellness 
tourist 
destinations, 
promote 
place 
attachment, 
and 
encourage 
re-
visitation. 


The 
current 
trends 
in 
health-enhancing, 
preventive, 
regenerative 
and 
rejuvenatingservices 
due 
to 
the 
raised 
health-awareness 
effects 
of 
the 
pandemic 
pro-
videafertilesoilforthebreathworkandsomatic-based 
retreats, 
rural 
and 
spa 
tourism 
(Pinos 
& 
Shaw, 
2021) 
closely 
related 
to 
natural 
settings 
and 
landscape. 
The 
service 
industry 
of 
breathwork-based 
interventions 
is 
gaining 
momentum 
due 
to 
the 
awareness 
raised 
because 
of 
covid-19 
threats 
and 
its 
direct 
impact 
on 
lungs 
and 
related 
breathing 
difficulties. 
Again, 
we 
are 
well 
aware 
of 
important 
limitations 
of 
our 
case 
study 
duetoasinglesubjectintermsofjustifyingthebreathworkintervention.
However,thiswasnotourgoal,and 
for 
the 
purpose 
of 
analogy 
to 
bring 
an 
understanding 
thatismoreorganicintotheindustryitself,webelieve 
the 
message 
is 
well 
delivered 
and 
justified. 
The 
research 
in 
future 
should 
certainlyconsider 
and 
analyse 
a 
variety 
of 
post-covidrehabilitation 
programmes 
with 
a 
larger 
sample 
of 
subjects 
and 
its 
success 
from 
a 
health 
perspective 
and 
from 
an 
economically 
sustain-
ableviewpoint.Secondly,thearticlewillalsoserveasa 
canvas 
for 
further 
explorations 
and 
contextualization 
in 
order 
to 
support 
the 
efforts 
of 
the 
industry 
to 
realign 
its 
trends 
to 
the 
service 
of 
humanity 
and 
nature 
as 
joint 
venture. 


References 


Aliverti,A.,&Pedotti,A.(Eds.).(2014).Mechanicsofbreathing: 
New 
insights 
form 
new 
technologies. 
Spinger 
Verlag 
Italia. 


Barker-Davies, 
R. 
M.,O’Sullivan, 
O.,Senaratne, 
K., 
Baker, 
P.,Cranley,M., 
Dharm-Datta, 
S., 
Ellis, 
H., 
Goodall, 
D., 
Gough, 
M., 
Lewis, 
S., 
Norman, 
J., 
Papadopoulou, 
T., 
Roscoe,D.,Sherwood, 
D.,Turner,P.,Walker,T.,Mistlin, 
A., 
Phillip, 
R., 
Nicol, 
A. 
M., 
... 
Bahadur, 
S. 
(2020). 
The 
Stanford 
Hall 
consensus 
statement 
for 
post-covid-19 
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British 
Journal 
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Sports 
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Academica 
Turistica,Year15, 
No.1,April 
2022 
|133 



Original 
Scientific 
Article 


Sport-Tourism 
Running 
Events 
in 
the 
Post-COVID-19 
World: 
Any 
Sign 
of 
Change? 


Ana 
Chersulich 
Tomino 


University 
of 
Rijeka, 
Croatia 
kersulica@gmail.com 


Marko 
Peric 


University 
of 
Rijeka, 
Croatia 
markop@fthm.hr 


The 
covid-19 
pandemic 
has 
led 
to 
significant 
restrictions 
on 
sports 
and 
the 
sport-
tourism 
event 
industry. 
Consequently, 
event 
organisers 
must 
consider 
and 
implement 
new 
safety 
strategies 
to 
protect 
event 
attendees. 
This 
empirical 
study 
focuses 
on 
active 
runners 
and 
their 
intention 
to 
attend 
future 
running 
events 
following 
the 
covid-19 
crisis, 
and 
the 
perception 
of 
how 
important 
they 
find 
some 
of 
the 
non-
pharmaceutical 
safety-related 
protective 
measures 
when 
attending 
sporting 
events 


(e.g. 
limited 
number 
of 
people, 
prescribed 
minimum 
distance, 
no-contact 
payment 
etc.).Tocollectdata,asurveyquestionnairewasconductedinFebruary2021among 
therunningcommunityinCroatia. 
Besidesdescriptivestatistics, 
anova 
and 
t-test 
wereemployedtotestwhetherstatisticallysignificantdifferencesexistinthepercep-
tionofsafetyprotectivemeasuresamongparticipantsdependingontheirmotivation 
andthetypeofrunningevent.Respondentsareveryimpatientregardingeventsand 
it 
seems 
they 
do 
not 
perceive 
the 
safety 
protective 
measures 
as 
very 
important. 
The 
majority 
of 
respondents 
plan 
to 
attend 
one-day 
races 
in 
their 
home 
country 
within 
afewweeksandtheyaremostlymotivatedbycompetitionandimprovementofracing 
skills, 
socializing 
and 
fun.The 
type 
of 
motivationand 
the 
type 
of 
runningevent 
are 
not 
found 
to 
have 
a 
major 
influence 
on 
the 
perception 
of 
safety 
protective 
measures. 
Even 
though 
running 
is 
an 
outdoor 
sport, 
safety 
protective 
measures 
might 
be 
a 
challenge 
for 
event 
organizers 
in 
the 
future. 
Revealing 
the 
runners’ 
intentions 
to 
visit 
running 
events 
and 
their 
attitudes 
towards 
safety 
protective 
measures, 
this 
study 
could 
shape 
event 
organizers’ 
future 
managerial 
and 
security 
strategies. 
Keywords: 
sport-tourism 
events, 
running, 
covid-19, 
safety-relatedprotective 
measures 
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.15.135-147 


Introduction 


Event 
tourism 
(culture, 
sporting 
and 
business-related 
events) 
has 
become 
a 
rapidly 
expanding 
segment 
of 
the 
leisure 
travel 
market 
in 
the 
last 
decades 
(Alexandris 
& 
Kaplanidou, 
2014; 
Getz 
& 
Page, 
2016; 
Maditi-

nos 
et 
al., 
2021; 
Shifflet 
& 
Bhatia, 
1999). 
The 
connection 
between 
sport 
and 
tourism 
is 
not 
new, 
and 
scholars 
have 
considered 
the 
rise 
of 
sporting 
events 
as 
one 
of 
the 
most 
significant 
components 
of 
event 
tourism 
and 
one 
of 
the 
most 
extensive 
elements 
of 
sporting 


Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|135 



Ana 
Chersulich 
Tomino 
andMarko 
Peri. 
Sport-Tourism 
Running 
Events 


tourism(Getz,1998;Gibson,1998).Thegrowinguseof 
sporting 
events 
is 
an 
attempt 
to 
expand 
economic 
development 
opportunities 
and 
achieve 
tourism 
growth 
(Zhang 
& 
Park, 
2015). 


Giventhe 
contemporarycircumstances,one 
of 
the 
earliest 
signals 
of 
the 
severity 
of 
the 
spread 
of 
the 
covid-19 
virus 
in 
countries 
was 
the 
swift 
cancellation 
or 
postponement 
of 
many 
highly 
prominent 
lo-
cal,nationalorinternationalamateurandprofessional 
sportingevents(Borovcaninetal.,2020;Cooper&Alderman, 
2020; 
Peric 
et 
al., 
2021). 
The 
cancellation 
of 
such 
events 
due 
to 
the 
covid-19 
pandemic 
was 
to 
protect 
the 
health 
and 
safety 
of 
individuals 
and 
communities; 
but 
it 
resulted 
in 
economic 
loss 
in 
tourism 
revenue 
for 
local 
economies 
and 
deprived 
traveller-
fans 
(Cooper 
& 
Alderman, 
2020). 
Travel 
and 
tourism 
is 
among 
the 
most 
affected 
sectors 
with 
airplanes 
on 
the 
ground, 
hotels 
closed 
and 
travel 
restrictions 
put 
in 
place 
in 
virtually 
all 
countries 
around 
the 
world 
(Lapointe, 
2020; 
Turnšek 
et 
al., 
2020; 
unwto, 
n.d.). 
Sportparticipation,businessactivityandrelatedtravel 
have 
thus 
been 
significantly 
affected 
(Gössling 
et 
al., 
2020). 


Still, 
the 
sport 
events 
industry 
is 
a 
big 
business 
(atm 
Team, 
2017; 
unwto, 
n.d.;Weed,2020) 
and 
in 
order 
to 
minimize 
the 
listed 
losses, 
organizers 
attempted 
to 
re-arrange 
the 
events 
while 
waiting 
for 
the 
population 
to 
be 
fully 
vaccinated. 
Many 
sporting 
events 
and 
professionalleagues 
made 
plans 
to 
resume 
competition 
and 
bring 
attendees 
back 
to 
events, 
and 
some 
of 
them 
have 
already 
resumed 
(with 
or 
without 
a 
limited 
number 
of 
spectators 
inside 
the 
venue) 
with 
significant 
changes 
in 
the 
experience 
(DiFiori 
et 
al., 
2020). 
Certain 
safety 
aspects 
such 
as 
technical 
features, 
security 
checks 
at 
entry 
and 
the 
presence 
of 
medical 
staff 
are 
common 
practice 
in 
the 
case 
of 
sporting 
events 
(Kaplanidou 
& 
Vogt, 
2010; 
Pickering 
et 
al., 
2010; 
Peric 
et 
al., 
2019). 
However, 
in 
the 
light 
of 
covid-19 
and 
uncertainty 
about 
vaccination 
success 
and 
validity, 
some 
additional 
safety 
measures 
should 
be 
considered. 
Forinstance,non-pharmaceuticalprotective 
measures 
such 
as 
temperature 
checks 
for 
competitors, 
staff 
and 
spectators, 
no-contact 
payment 
for 
all 
services, 
prescribed 
minimum 
distance 
between 
spectators,limitedfoodandbeverageofferandlimited 


numberofvisitorsincommonplaceswereconsidered 
(Peric 
et 
al., 
2021). 


When 
it 
comes 
to 
predicting 
future 
participation, 
some 
recent 
studies 
show 
thatpeople 
areeager 
to 
participate 
in 
sport 
(and) 
tourism 
activities 
(Hemmonsbeyetal.,
2021),butnotallparticipantssharethesame 
motivationstoattendandattitudestowardssafetyprotective 
measures 
might 
differ 
(Peric 
et 
al., 
2019; 
2021). 
It 
is 
assumed 
that 
outdoor 
competitions 
will 
resume 
faster 
than 
indoor, 
and 
this 
is 
especially 
true 
for 
competitions 
held 
in 
nature, 
that 
is, 
outside 
the 
stadiums. 
Giventhis, 
runningevents,which 
areverypopular 
all 
over 
the 
world 
(Lee 
et 
al., 
2017; 
Nowak, 
2015; 
Zach 
et 
al.,2017;Scheeretal.,2020),mightbeareasonableoption 
to 
start 
with. 
Still, 
the 
attitudes 
of 
people 
belonging 
to 
the 
running 
community 
towards 
their 
participation 
in 
post 
covid-19 
running 
events 
and 
towards 
theirperceptionofsafetyprotectivemeasureshavenot 
been 
analysed 
to 
date. 


This 
empirical 
study 
therefore 
focuses 
on 
the 
intention 
of 
runners 
to 
attend 
future 
running 
races 
and 
the 
perception 
of 
how 
important 
they 
find 
some 
of 
the 
safety-related 
protective 
measures 
when 
attending 
running 
races 
in 
post 
covid-19 
times. 
It 
will 
also 
test 
whether 
perception 
of 
safety 
protective 
measures 
among 
participants 
depends 
on 
the 
type 
of 
running 
event 
they 
participate 
in 
and 
their 
motivation 
to 
participate. 
The 
results 
should 
be 
a 
guideline 
for 
event 
planners 
and 
organizers, 
practitioners 
and 
governing 
bodies, 
who 
should 
adopt 
safety 
measures 
which 
the 
attendees 
would 
like 
to 
see 
put 
in 
place 
before 
events 
resume. 


This 
paper 
now 
turns 
to 
present 
a 
review 
of 
sport 
tourism 
during 
the 
pandemic 
as 
well 
as 
motivation 
to 
participate 
in 
sport 
and 
running 
as 
a 
popular 
type 
of 
sportactivity. 
The 
nextsectionswill 
thenpresent 
the 
research 
methodology 
and 
main 
findings. 
The 
paper 
concludes 
with 
a 
discussion 
and 
some 
concluding 
remarkshighlightingthetheoreticalandpracticalimplications 
and 
future 
research 
paths. 


Literature 
Review 


Sport 
Tourism 
During 
the 
Pandemic 


Sport 
tourism 
is 
a 
symbiosis 
between 
people, 
places 
and 
activities 
(Turco 
et 
al., 
2002; 
Weed 
& 
Bull, 
2009; 


136 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Ana 
Chersulich 
Tomino 
andMarko 
Peri. 
Sport-Tourism 
Running 
Events 


Pericetal.,2019).Duringthepandemic,social 
gatherings 
were 
strictly 
limited 
or 
forbidden, 
thus 
challenging 
the 
essence 
of 
sport 
tourism. 
The 
devastating 
impact 
of 
covid-19 
for 
each 
of 
the 
intersecting 
areas 
of 
professional 
sports 
events 
(Swart 
& 
Maralack, 
2020) 
and 
global 
tourism 
became 
clearer 
during 
February 
and 
March 
2020, 
when 
sports 
event 
hosts 
and 
administrators 
began 
to 
consider 
whether 
their 
events 
should 
be 
postponed 
or 
cancelled 
(Weed, 
2020). 
The 
pandemichasclearlydealtaneconomicblowtomany 
nations 
through 
the 
postponement 
or 
cancellation 
of 
sport 
tourism 
activities, 
especially 
in 
emerging 
nation 
contexts. 
The 
scale 
of 
the 
global 
disruption 
to 
the 
sector 
is 
highlighted 
by 
the 
postponement 
and 
potential 
cancellation 
or 
curtailment 
of 
sport 
mega-
events 
(Hemmonsbey 
et 
al., 
2021). 
For 
instance, 
the 
uefa 
Euro2020,theTokyo2020OlympicGames,and 
the2021 
iaafWorldChampionshipswerepostponed 
and 
rescheduled 
while 
the 
2020 
Wimbledon 
Championships 
was 
cancelled. 
On 
the 
other 
hand, 
the 
list 
of 
cancelled 
small-scale 
sport 
events 
is 
endless. 


The 
various 
levels 
of 
lockdown 
experienced 
by 
countries 
around 
the 
globe 
meant 
that 
domestic 
leagues 
and 
international 
sporting 
fixtures 
that 
would 
usuallyattractbothatravellingliveaudienceandlarge 
mediated 
television 
audiences 
stopped 
abruptly. 
This 
lefttelevisionnetworkswithgapstofillintheirschedules, 
and 
sports 
fanatics 
with 
gaps 
to 
fill 
in 
their 
lives 
(Hemmonsbeyetal.,2021).Tosatisfytheneedofspectators 
and 
media 
houses, 
professional 
leagues 
(like 
the 
NBA 
and 
mlb 
leagues 
in 
the 
us, 
football 
leagues 
across 
the 
world, 
etc.) 
resumed 
competitions 
but 
in 
most 
cases 
without 
spectators 
inside 
the 
venue, 
and 
with 
additionalnon-pharmaceuticalprotective 
protocols 
implemented 
(Ludvigsen 
& 
Hayton, 
2020; 
Peric 
et 
al., 
2021). 


Additionally, 
as 
more 
and 
more 
people 
are 
vaccinated, 
spectators 
are 
getting 
permission 
to 
participate 
at 
events, 
althoughin 
a 
limitednumber. 
However, 
the 
entire 
population 
cannot 
be 
vaccinated 
in 
this 
short 
time 
(and 
some 
people 
do 
not 
want 
to 
be 
vaccinated) 
and 
what 
the 
future 
of 
the 
sport 
tourism 
industry 
will 
look 
like 
and 
how 
it 
will 
change 
in 
order 
to 
adapt 
to 
changing 
global 
conditions 
remains 
to 
be 
seen 
(Hemmonsbey 
et 
al., 
2021). 


Running 
as 
a 
Popular 
Type 
of 
Sport 
Activity 


AccordingtoNowak(2015),runningisoneofthesimplestformsofhumanmovementandthemostnatural 
way 
of 
experiencing 
psycho-physical 
fatigue. 
During 
thelastfewdecades,runninghasbeencommonlyrecognizedasaneffectivepreventivemeasureagainstdiseases 
of 
civilization. 
For 
many, 
running 
constitutes 
a 
permanent 
component 
of 
a 
healthy 
lifestyle; 
for 
others, 
it 
is 
a 
way 
of 
life 
and 
satisfactory 
leisure 
activity 
(Nowak, 
2015). 
According 
to 
Lee 
et 
al. 
(2017), 
run-
ningisapopularandconvenientleisure-timephysical 
activity 
with 
a 
significant 
impact 
on 
longevity 
and 
in 
general, 
runners 
have 
a 
25–40. 
reduced 
risk 
of 
prematuremortalityandliveapproximately3yearslonger 
than 
non-runners. 


Besides 
being 
a 
leisure 
activity, 
running 
is 
also 
a 
competitive 
sport. 
For 
instance, 
in 
athletics, 
there 
are 
many 
short, 
middle 
and 
long 
courses 
disciplines. 
The 
marathon, 
a 
running 
race 
of 
42.2 
km, 
is 
an 
example 
of 
a 
long-distance 
race 
held 
as 
a 
rule 
in 
urban 
areas. 
Marathon 
races 
have 
become 
popular 
all 
over 
the 
world 
and 
they 
have 
been 
undergoing 
a 
unique 
revival 
(Borovcanin 
et 
al., 
2020; 
Nowak, 
2015), 
while 
the 
number 
of 
attendees 
determines 
the 
prestige 
of 
each 
race. 
Marathon 
participants 
include 
professional 
athletes 
and 
amateur 
joggers,the 
able-bodied 
and 
the 
disabled,andthe 
old 
and 
the 
young, 
togetherforming 
a 
diverse 
and 
colourful 
crowd 
(Nowak, 
2013). 
Global 
participationinrunningraces,accordingtoAndersen 
(2021), 
peaked 
in 
2016 
with 
a 
total 
of 
9.1 
million 
participants 
and 
then 
it 
declined 
to 
7.9 
million 
(a 
decline 
of 
13.) 
in 
2018; 
the 
change 
in 
participation 
in 
the 
last 
10yearsresultsas 
anincreasein 
participationof 
57.8. 
(from 
5 
to 
7.9 
million 
participants). 


Additionally, 
there 
is 
a 
growing 
trend 
in 
the 
popularity 
of 
off-road 
races. 
Although 
the 
categories 
and 
terminologiesareoftenusedinterchangeablyandwithout 
precision, 
trail 
running, 
mountain 
running, 
sky 
running, 
fell 
running, 
orienteering, 
obstacle 
course 
racing 
and 
cross-country 
running 
all 
take 
place 
predominantly 
in 
nature 
and 
off-road 
terrain 
(Scheer 
et 
al., 
2020). 
Despite 
the 
fact 
that 
there 
is 
no 
clear 
definition 
of 
nature 
sports 
in 
the 
academy 
(Krein, 
2014), 
these 
sports 
could 
be 
included 
in 
this 
group 
because 
they 
are 
mostly 
practiced 
on 
off-road 
paths 
located 
in 


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Chersulich 
Tomino 
andMarko 
Peri. 
Sport-Tourism 
Running 
Events 


natural 
spaces 
and, 
inmany 
cases,inprotected 
areas 
of 
high 
natural 
and 
ecological 
value. 


The 
context 
and 
overall 
atmosphere 
of 
road 
and 
country 
races 
differ 
a 
lot, 
and 
runners 
are 
fully 
aware 
of 
traits 
as 
well 
as 
risks, 
including 
the 
safety 
issues,associated 
with 
the 
venues 
(Peric 
& 
Slavic, 
2019; 
Peric 
et 
al., 
2019). 
Hence, 
the 
runners’ 
perception 
of 
safety 
protective 
measures 
might 
depend 
on 
the 
type 
of 
the 
event, 
that 
is, 
whether 
it 
is 
road 
(mostly 
in 
urban 
areas) 
or 
off-road 
(mostly 
in 
country) 
races. 
Still, 
regardless 
of 
the 
type 
of 
event, 
the 
common 
denominator 
for 
all 
long-distancerunningactivities 
is 
thattheir 
effectiveness 
depends 
on 
the 
durability 
of 
one’s 
psychical, 
physical 
and 
motor 
dispositions 
(Maditinos 
et 
al., 
2021; 
Nowak, 
2015; 
Scheer 
et 
al., 
2020). 
In 
the 
case 
ofultra-marathons(anyrunningeventovermarathon 
distance 
conducted 
in 
any 
terrain 
and 
surface), 
it 
is 
not 
clear 
whether 
they 
can 
be 
explicitly 
classified 
as 
a 
competitivesporteventorextremerecreationbecause 
the 
overall 
classification 
relies 
more 
on 
its 
psychosocialcontextratherthanonthetypeofactivity(
assport 
or 
recreation). 


Motivation 
to 
Participate 
in 
Sport 
and 
Running 
Events 


Different 
theories 
like 
the 
needs 
theory 
of 
personality 
(Murray,1938), 
hierarchyof 
needstheory(Maslow, 
1943) 
or 
concept 
of 
optimal 
level 
of 
stimulation 
(Berlyne, 
1960) 
might 
explain 
why 
people 
participate 
in 
various 
sport, 
leisure 
and 
tourism 
activities. 
Regarding 
spectators, 
that 
is, 
passive 
participants, 
the 
quest 
for 
fun 
and 
excitement, 
social 
interaction 
(with 
family 
members, 
friends, 
and 
business 
associates), 
self-
actualization 
generated 
by 
team 
identification, 
and 
nostalgic 
association 
are 
the 
main 
motives 
to 
visit 
sportevents 
(Cassidy, 
2005;Duanetal.,2020).When 
it 
comes 
to 
active 
participants, 
the 
motives 
for 
participating 
in 
sport 
are 
manifold 
and 
can 
be 
divided 
into 
physical 
(e.g. 
refreshment 
of 
body 
and 
mind, 
health 
and 
weight 
control, 
and 
pleasure), 
interpersonal 
motivators(
social 
interaction, 
sense 
of 
affiliation, 
to 
have 
fun, 
to 
seek 
new 
and 
different 
experiences), 
and 
psychological, 
status 
and 
prestige 
motivators 
(personal 
development,goalachievementandwinning,and 
ego 
enhancement) 
(McIntosh 
& 
Goeldner, 
1986; 
Hodeck 
&Hovemann,2016;Xieetal.,2020).Fornaturesports, 


enjoying 
nature 
is 
a 
strong 
motive, 
too 
(Hodeck 
& 
Hovemann, 
2016; 
Peric 
et 
al., 
2019). 


Race 
runners 
share 
similar 
motives 
for 
participation. 
The 
motives 
of 
marathon 
runners 
have 
been 
widelyexploredandmotivesaremainlycategorizedas 
psychological 
(maintaining 
or 
enhancing 
self-esteem, 
coping 
with 
negative 
emotions), 
social 
(sense 
of 
affiliation 
and 
receiving 
recognition 
or 
approval 
from 
others), 
physical 
(general 
health, 
weight 
concern), 
and 
achievement 
(competition 
with 
other 
runners 
and 
personal 
goal 
achievement) 
(Masters 
et 
al., 
1993; 
Deaner 
et 
al., 
2011; 
Zach 
et 
al., 
2017). 
The 
motivations 
of 
runners 
have 
been 
further 
analysed 
in 
different 
sport 
event 
contexts 
(i.e. 
different 
venues 
and 
course 
lengths), 
but 
the 
conclusions 
were 
very 
similar 
(Yates, 
1991;Oglesetal.,2000;Shipway& 
Jones,2007;Poczta 
et 
al., 
2018; 
Malchrowicz-Mosko 
et 
al., 
2020). 


Finally, 
previous 
studies 
confirmed 
that 
people 
driven 
by 
different 
motives 
usually 
have 
different 
ex-
pectationsabout 
event 
and 
destinationattributes 
(Kaplanidou 
et 
al., 
2012; 
Buning 
& 
Gibson, 
2016; 
Peric 
et 
al., 
2019), 
and 
therefore 
it 
might 
be 
expected 
that 
the 
type 
ofmotivationisthefactorthatinfluencesparticipants’perceptionofsafetyprotectivemeasures.
Hence, 
the 
different 
motivations 
displayed 
by 
runners 
might 
affecttheirattitudestowardscompetitioningeneralas 
wellasattitudestowardssomeeventattributesincluding 
safety 
protective 
measures. 


Methods 


Inorderto 
fulfilthe 
researchgoals,a 
surveyquestionnaire 
was 
conducted 
inFebruary 
2021 
inCroatia. 


Questionnaire 
Development 


The 
first 
part 
of 
the 
questionnaire 
encompassed 
participants’ 
intentions 
to 
attend 
running 
races, 
running 
race 
preference 
(cross 
country, 
mountain 
running, 
trail, 
ultra-trail, 
road 
and 
track 
running; 
according 
to 
World 
Athletics, 
n.d.), 
type 
and 
motives 
of 
participation, 
duration 
and 
the 
destination 
of 
the 
running 
race. 
Five 
different 
motives 
for 
participation 
at 
running 
races 
have 
been 
used, 
namely 
fun 
(Hodeck 
& 
Hovemann, 
2016; 
Peric 
et 
al., 
2019), 
socializing 
(Mastersetal.
1993;Pericetal.,2019),competitionandskills 
(Masters 
et 
al., 
1993; 
Peric 
et 
al., 
2019), 
to 
enjoynature 


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April 
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Ana 
Chersulich 
Tomino 
andMarko 
Peri. 
Sport-Tourism 
Running 
Events 


Table 
1 
Non-Pharmaceutical 
Safety 
Protective 
Measures 


Safety 
protective 
measures 
Source 


Availability 
of 
hand 
sanitizers/cleaners 
Lee 
et 
al. 
(....), 
Peric 
et 
al. 
(....), 
Xiao 
et 
al. 
(....) 
Official 
personnel 
wearing 
personal 
prot. 
equipment 
(masks 
...) 
Lee 
et 
al. 
(....), 
Peric 
et 
al. 
(....), 
Xiao 
et 
al. 
(....) 
The 
spectators 
wearing 
personal 
protective 
equipment 
(masks 
...) 
Lee 
et 
al. 
(....), 
Peric 
et 
al. 
(....), 
Xiao 
et 
al. 
(....) 
Temperature 
checking 
for 
the 
competitors 
before 
the 
competition 
authors 
Temp. 
checking 
for 
the 
staff/employees 
before 
the 
competition 
Peric 
et 
al. 
(....) 
Temperature 
checking 
for 
the 
spectators 
upon 
arrival 
Peric 
et 
al. 
(....) 
Exclusive 
online 
registration 
Peric 
et 
al. 
(....) 
Limited 
number 
of 
competitors 
authors 
Limited 
number 
of 
spectators 
Gössling 
et 
al. 
(....), 
Peric 
et 
al. 
(....) 
The 
start 
of 
the 
race 
at 
intervals 
in 
small 
groups 
authors 
The 
minimum 
distance 
between 
spectators 
is 
prescribed 
Lee 
et 
al. 
(....), 
Peric 
et 
al. 
(....) 
Limited 
food 
and 
beverage 
offer 
Peric 
et 
al. 
(....) 
Limited 
number 
of 
visitors 
in 
common 
places 
(rest., 
toilets 
...) 
Peric 
et 
al. 
(....) 
No 
contact 
payment 
for 
all 
services 
Peric 
et 
al. 
(....) 


(Hodeck& 
Hovemann,2016; 
Pericetal.,2019), 
andto 
enhancehealthandtolookbetter(Mastersetal.,1993; 
Pericetal.,2019). 
Thesecondpartfocusedonrespon-
dents’ 
perception 
of 
the 
importance 
of 
the 
covid-19relatedprotectivenon-
pharmaceuticalmeasureswhen 
attending 
running 
races. 
Most 
items 
have 
been 
designed 
according 
to 
Gössling 
et 
al. 
(2020), 
Lee 
et 
al. 
(2012), 
Xiao 
et 
al. 
(2020), 
and 
Peric 
et 
al. 
(2021) 
(e.g. 
availability 
of 
hand 
sanitizers/cleaners), 
while 
a 
few 
itemsthatreflectthecontextofrunningwereamended 
by 
authors 
(e.g. 
the 
start 
of 
the 
race 
at 
intervals 
in 
small 
groups). 
The 
final 
version 
which 
included 
14 
items 
related 
to 
personal 
safety 
protective 
measures 
is 
given 
in 
Table 
1, 
but 
respondents 
were 
left 
with 
an 
option 
to 
add 
anyother 
safetymeasuretheywished 
to 
identify. 


Among 
safety 
protective 
measures, 
there 
was 
no 
item 
referring 
to 
respondents’ 
opinion 
about 
how 
importanttheyperceivevaccinationbeforeattendingthe 
running 
race, 
because 
the 
questionnaire 
was 
about 
non-pharmaceutical 
safety 
protective 
measures 
and, 
in 
the 
period 
of 
the 
empirical 
research, 
there 
was 
no 
possibility 
for 
people 
who 
were 
not 
part 
of 
vulnerable 
groups 
in 
Croatia 
to 
receive 
the 
vaccine. 
Respondents’ 
perception 
was 
measured 
on 
a 
5-point 
Likert-

type 
scale,meaning:1 
=notimportantatall,2 
=oflittle 
importance, 
3 
= 
of 
average 
importance, 
4 
= 
important,
and5=veryimportant/essential.Thefinalpartof 
thequestionnairecomprisedsocio-demographicdata. 
The 
questionnairewaspreparedandconductedin 
the 
Croatian 
language. 
An 
independent 
certified 
translator 
carried 
out 
forward 
and 
backward 
translation 
to 
ensure 
the 
content 
validity 
of 
the 
questionnaire. 


Data 
Collection 


Data 
for 
this 
preliminary 
analysis 
were 
collected 
in 
February 
2021 
by 
an 
online 
questionnaire 
due 
to 
the 
limited 
mobility 
and 
recommended 
social 
distancing. 
The 
link 
leading 
to 
the 
electronic 
version 
of 
the 
questionnaire 
was 
active 
from 
February 
4th 
2021 
until 
February 
22nd 
2021. 
The 
questionnaire 
was 
distributed 
within 
the 
social 
networks 
of 
five 
running 
clubs/groups 
thanks 
to 
the 
groups’ 
leaders 
who 
allowedusaccessto 
sharethe 
linkamong 
members 
and 
followers. 


Participation 
in 
the 
survey 
was 
voluntary 
and 
the 
answersremainanonymous.Intotal,248surveyquestionnaires 
were 
collected, 
but 
after 
additional 
check, 
183 
valid 
responses 
were 
acceptable 
and 
proceeded 
to 
further 
analysis. 


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April 
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Chersulich 
Tomino 
andMarko 
Peri. 
Sport-Tourism 
Running 
Events 


Data 
Analysis 


Descriptive 
statistics 
present 
respondents’ 
characteristics 
and 
their 
preferences 
as 
well 
as 
their 
assessment 
oftheimportanceofthesafety-relatedprotectivemeasures 
when 
attending 
running 
races. 
Besides 
descriptive 
statistics, 
anova 
and 
t-test 
were 
employed 
to 
testwhetherstatisticallysignificantdifferencesexistin 
perception 
of 
safety 
protective 
measures 
among 
participants 
depending 
on 
their 
motivation 
and 
type 
of 
running 
event. 
Due 
to 
the 
similar 
contexts 
regarding 
types 
of 
running 
races 
or 
running 
styles, 
the 
respondents 
have 
been 
merged 
from 
six 
to 
two 
groups. 
Respondents 
that 
expressed 
their 
intention 
to 
participateatcrosscountryrunning,
mountainrunning,trail 
running 
and 
ultra-running 
events 
were 
classified 
as 
off-road 
running 
groups, 
while 
those 
who 
intend 
to 
participate 
at 
road 
running 
and 
track 
running 
events 
were 
classified 
as 
the 
road 
running 
group. 
To 
examine 
and 
analyse 
the 
research 
data, 
spss 
software 
was 
used. 


Results 


Sample 
Profile 


The 
respondents’ 
socio-demographic 
data 
show 
that 
63. 
(115) 
of 
the 
respondentsare 
women 
and 
37. 
men 
(Table 
2). 
Most 
of 
the 
respondents 
are 
middle 
aged 
35–44 
years 
(39.), 
living 
on 
the 
north 
coast 
of 
Croatia 
(57.) 
and 
central 
Croatia 
(36.). 
In 
general, 
respondents 
are 
highly 
educated, 
with 
around 
70. 
of 
them 
having 
a 
university 
diploma. 
They 
are 
mostly 
employed, 
in 
either 
the 
private 
sector 
(55.) 
or 
public 
sector 
(38.). 


Respondents’ 
Intentions 


By 
concluding 
the 
empirical 
part 
of 
the 
study 
and 
analysing 
the 
answered 
questions, 
it 
was 
easy 
to 
conclude 
that 
all 
the 
respondents 
are 
very 
eager 
to 
attend 
running 
races. 
The 
vast 
majority 
of 
respondents 
(140 
or 
77.) 
are 
ready 
to 
attend 
an 
event 
within 
7 
days 
while 
13. 
(23) 
would 
like 
to 
attend 
a 
running 
race 
in 
2 
or 
4 
weeks. 
Only 
11. 
(20) 
of 
the 
respondents 
would 
like 
to 
wait 
a 
couple 
of 
months 
(1–2, 
3–4 
or 
more 
than 
6 
months). 
For 
their 
next 
running 
race, 
most 
of 
the 
respondents 
prefer 
events 
in 
Croatia 
(171 
or 
93.). 
Further, 
a 
majority 
choose 
trail 
running 
(98 


Table 
2 
Respondents’ 
Socio-Demographic 
Data 


Gender 
Female 
... 
Male 
.. 


Age 
..–.. 
..–.. 
..–.. 
..–.. 
..–.. 
. 
.. 
.. 
.. 
. 
Place 
East 
Croatia 
Central 
Croatia 
Mount. 
Croatia 
North 
Coast 
South 
Coast 
.. 
.. 
. 
... 
. 
Education 
Without 
education 
Elementary 
school 
High 
school 
College 
Postgraduate 
study 
(SpeWithout 
education 
. 
. 
.. 
.. 
cial., 
PhD) 
.. 
. 


Employment 
Public 
sector 
.. 
Private 
sector 
... 
Unemployed 
. 
Retired 
. 
Student 
. 
Other 
. 


or54.)androadrunningevents(65or36.).Actually, 
110 
respondents(60.) 
belongto 
the 
groupof 
off-road 
runners 
and 
73 
(40.) 
to 
the 
group 
of 
road 
runners 
(Table 
3). 


Regarding 
respondents’ 
motivation 
for 
event 
participation, 
they 
are 
mostly 
motivated 
by 
competition 
and 
to 
improve 
racing 
skills 
(47 
or 
26.), 
socializing 
(45 
or 
25.) 
and 
fun 
(42 
or 
23.). 
Enjoying 
nature 
(27 
or 
15.) 
and 
health 
reasons 
(22 
or 
12.) 
were 
less-
mentioned 
motives 
(Table 
4). 


Additionally,in 
most 
casesrespondentswill 
revisit 
theevent(157or86.),meaningthattheyhavealready 
participated 
in 
the 
event 
in 
previous 
years, 
while 
for 
26respondents(14.)thiswouldbetheirfirstvisittoa 
chosen 
event. 
Respondents 
would 
usually 
travel 
with 


140 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Ana 
Chersulich 
Tomino 
andMarko 
Peri. 
Sport-Tourism 
Running 
Events 


Table 
3 
Type 
of 
Running 
Race 
Respondents 
Want 
to 
Visit 
First 


Type 
of 
running 
race 
(.) 
(.) 


Cross 
country 
running 
. 
. 
Mountain 
running 
. 
. 
Trail 
running 
.. 
.. 
Ultra-running 
. 
. 
Road 
running 
.. 
.. 
Track 
running 
. 
. 


Total 
... 
... 


Notes 
Column 
headings 
are 
as 
follows: 
(1) 
frequency, 
(2) 
percent. 


Table 
4 
Respondents’ 
Main 
Motives 
for 
Attending 
the 
RunningRaces 


Motives 
(.) 
(.) 


Fun 
.. 
.. 
Socializing 
.. 
.. 
Competition 
and 
improv. 
of 
racing 
skills 
.. 
.. 
Enjoy 
nature 
.. 
.. 
Health 
and 
good 
looks 
.. 
.. 


Total 
... 
... 


Notes 
Column 
headings 
are 
as 
follows: 
(1) 
frequency, 
(2) 
percent. 


friends 
(89 
or 
48.) 
or 
with 
a 
partner 
(36 
or 
20.). 
Around 
17. 
(31) 
would 
travel 
alone 
and 
15. 
(27) 
with 
theirfamily. 
Since 
mostoftheeventsareone-day 
(140 
or 
77.) 
or 
two-day 
(34 
or 
19.) 
competitions, 
respondents 
will 
in 
most 
cases 
stay 
only 
for 
a 
day 
(52.) 
or 
two 
(25.) 
in 
the 
destination 
where 
the 
competition 
is 
held. 
Only 
24. 
of 
respondents 
will 
stay 
three 
or 
more 
days 
in 
the 
destination 
of 
the 
event 
venue. 


Respondents’ 
Attitudes 
to 
Safety 
Protective 
Measures 


The 
respondents 
do 
not 
find 
safety 
protective 
measures 
particularly 
important 
when 
attending 
running 
races. 
Table 
5 
shows 
that 
respondents 
do 
not 
find 
any 
of 
the 
proposed 
measures 
as 
(very) 
important. 
How-
ever,justfivemeasures,thatis,Officialpersonnel 
wearing 
personal 
protective 
equipment 
(masks 
...) 
(mean 
3.2), 
Registrationofcompetitorsexclusivelyonline 
(3.1.), 


Table 
5 
Respondents’ 
Perception 
of 
the 
Importance 
of 
Safety 
Protective 
Measures 
while 
Attending 
the 
Running 
Races 


Safety 
protective 
measures 
(.) 
(.) 


Availability 
of 
hand 
sanitizers/cleaners 
... 
.... 
Official 
personnel 
wearing 
personal 
protec-... 
.... 
tive 
equipment 
(masks 
...) 
The 
spectators 
wearing 
personal 
protective 
... 
.... 
equipment 
(masks 
...) 
Temperature 
checking 
for 
the 
competitors 
... 
.... 
before 
the 
competition 
Temperature 
checking 
for 
the 
... 
.... 
staff/employees 
before 
the 
competition 
Temperature 
checking 
for 
the 
spectators 
... 
.... 
upon 
arrival 
Exclusive 
online 
registration 
... 
.... 
Limited 
number 
of 
competitors 
... 
.... 
Limited 
number 
of 
spectators 
... 
.... 
The 
start 
of 
the 
race 
at 
intervals 
in 
small 
... 
.... 
groups 
The 
minimum 
distance 
between 
spectators 
... 
.... 
is 
prescribed 
Limitedfood 
andbeverageoffer 
... 
.... 
Limited 
number 
of 
visitors 
in 
common 
... 
.... 
places 
(restaurants, 
toilets 
...) 
No 
contact 
payment 
for 
all 
services 
... 
.... 


Notes 
Column 
headings 
are 
as 
follows: 
(1) 
average, 
(2) 
standard 
deviation. 


Limited 
number 
of 
visitors 
in 
common 
spaces 
(restaurants, 
bars, 
toilets 
...) 
(3.1), 
Temperature 
checking 
for 
thestaff/employees 
before 
thecompetition 
(3.0),and 
No 
contact 
payment 
for 
all 
services 
(3.0) 
are 
recognized 
as 
moderately 
important. 
All 
the 
other 
measures 
re-
spondentsevaluateas 
lessimportant, 
withaverages 
below 
3. 


The 
results 
of 
the 
t-test 
imply 
that 
statistically 
significant 
difference 
between 
groups 
exists 
in 
only 
one 
item(Table6).Off-roadrunnersfindLimitedfoodand 
beverage 
offer 
as 
a 
significantly 
more 
important 
safety 
protectivemeasurethanroadrunners(p 
=0.009),but 
meanvaluesofbothgroupsarequitelowimplyingthis 
measureisoflittleimportance. 


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No. 
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April 
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Ana 
Chersulich 
Tomino 
andMarko 
Peri. 
Sport-Tourism 
Running 
Events 


Table 
6 
Road 
and 
Off-Road 
Runners’ 
Perception 
of 
Importance 
of 
Safety 
Protective 
Measures 


Safety 
protective 
measures 
Group 
statistics 
t-test 
for 
equal 
means 
(.) 
(.) 
(.) 
(.) 
(.) 
(.) 
(.) 
(.) 


Availability 
of 
hand 
sanitizers/cleaners 
Road 
.. 
.... 
..... 
..... 
..... 
... 
..... 
Off-road 
... 
.... 
..... 
..... 


Official 
personnel 
wearing 
personal 
Road 
.. 
.... 
..... 
..... 
..... 
... 
..... 
protective 
equipment 


Off-road 
... 
.... 
..... 
..... 


The 
spectators 
wearing 
personal 
protective 
Road 
.. 
.... 
..... 
..... 
–..... 
... 
..... 
equipment 


Off-road 
... 
.... 
..... 
..... 


Temperature 
checking 
for 
the 
competitors 
Road 
.. 
.... 
..... 
..... 
–..... 
... 
..... 
before 
the 
competition 


Off-road 
... 
.... 
..... 
..... 


Temperature 
checking 
for 
the 
Road 
.. 
.... 
..... 
..... 
–..... 
... 
..... 
staff/employees 
before 
the 
competition 


Off-road 
... 
.... 
..... 
..... 


Temperature 
checking 
for 
the 
spectators 
Road 
.. 
.... 
..... 
..... 
–..... 
... 
..... 
upon 
arrival 


Off-road 
... 
.... 
..... 
..... 


Exclusive 
online 
registration 
Road 
.. 
.... 
..... 
..... 
–..... 
... 
..... 
Off-road 
... 
.... 
..... 
..... 


Limited 
number 
of 
competitors 
Road 
.. 
.... 
..... 
..... 
..... 
... 
..... 
Off-road 
... 
.... 
..... 
..... 


Limited 
number 
of 
spectators 
Road 
.. 
.... 
..... 
..... 
–..... 
... 
..... 
Off-road 
... 
.... 
..... 
..... 


The 
start 
of 
the 
race 
at 
intervals 
in 
small 
Road 
.. 
.... 
..... 
..... 
..... 
... 
..... 
groups 


Off-road 
... 
.... 
..... 
..... 


The 
minimum 
distance 
between 
spectators 
Road 
.. 
.... 
..... 
..... 
–..... 
... 
..... 
is 
prescribed 


Off-road 
... 
.... 
..... 
..... 


Limited 
food 
and 
beverage 
offer 
Road 
.. 
.... 
..... 
..... 
–..... 
....... 
..... 
Off-road 
... 
.... 
..... 
..... 


Limited 
number 
of 
visitors 
in 
common 
Road 
.. 
.... 
..... 
..... 
–..... 
... 
..... 
places(restaurants,toilets 
...) 


Off-road 
... 
.... 
..... 
..... 


No 
contact 
payment 
for 
all 
services 
Road 
.. 
.... 
..... 
..... 
–..... 
... 
..... 
Off-road 
... 
.... 
..... 
..... 


Notes 
Column 
headings 
are 
as 
follows: 
(1) 
running 
race, 
(2) 
N, 
(3) 
mean, 
(4) 
standard 
deviation, 
(5) 
standard 
error 
of 
the 
mean, 
(6) 
t, 
(7) 
df, 
(8) 
significance 
(2-tailed). 


Finally,theresultsoftheOne-wayanovaimplied 
gt2posthoctestindicatedthattherearenostatistithat 
statistically 
significant 
difference 
in 
perception 
cally 
significant 
differences 
within 
groups. 
Therefore, 
of 
safety 
protective 
measures 
among 
participants 
de-it 
could 
be 
concluded 
that 
no 
statistically 
significant 
pending 
on 
their 
motivation 
exists 
only 
in 
one 
of 
the 
difference 
among 
the 
respondents 
in 
regard 
to 
dif-
safety 
protective 
measures 
(Temperature 
checking 
for 
ferent 
motives 
exists 
and 
that 
the 
recorded 
difference 
the 
spectators, 
p 
=0.039). 
However, 
theHochberg 
occurred 
by 
chance. 


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No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Ana 
Chersulich 
Tomino 
andMarko 
Peri. 
Sport-Tourism 
Running 
Events 


Discussion 


This 
study’s 
results 
showed 
that 
most 
respondents 
will 
attend 
sporting 
events 
in 
their 
home 
countries 
within 
a 
few 
weeks 
after 
all 
restrictions 
on 
movement 
and 
sporting 
event 
attendance 
have 
been 
lifted. 
This 
can 
be 
compared 
and 
is 
in 
line 
with 
previous 
studies 
(Peric 
et 
al., 
2021; 
Reade 
et 
al., 
2020) 
which 
together 
showtheoptimismnotonlyregardingrunningevents 
but 
sporting 
eventsand 
tourism 
in 
generalin 
the 
post 
covid-19 
period. 


This 
optimism 
is 
also 
visible 
through 
the 
respondents’ 
perception 
of 
safety 
protective 
measures 
that 
theywouldexpecttobeimplementedatrunningeven-
ts. 
Both 
road 
and 
off-road 
runners 
share 
similar 
attitudes 
and 
there 
are 
almost 
no 
differences 
regarding 
the 
importance 
of 
proposed 
safety 
protective 
measures. 
What 
runners 
found 
moderately 
important 
are 
the 
safety 
protective 
measures 
regarding 
the 
staff 
they 
would 
be 
more 
in 
contact 
with 
(the 
wearing 
of 
personal 
protective 
equipment 
and 
temperature 
checking). 
At 
running 
races, 
competitors 
and 
spectators 
are 
usually 
quite 
dispersed 
along 
the 
course, 
but 
protection 
for 
all 
attendees 
(staff, 
competitors 
and 
even 
spectators) 
can 
be 
assured 
by 
a 
limited 
number 
of 
visitors 
in 
common 
spaces. 
In 
addition, 
the 
competitors 
are 
running 
in 
their 
running 
paths 
and 
are 
not 
in 
directcontactwiththespectators. 
Thisisespeciallytrue 
for 
the 
off-road 
running 
events 
where 
the 
number 
of 
spectatorsislowerandthecoursethroughthecountry 
terrain 
is 
difficult 
to 
access 
(Krein, 
2014; 
Scheer 
et 
al., 
2020). 
This 
might 
explain 
why 
respondents 
did 
not 
give 
much 
importance 
to 
safety 
protective 
measures 
regarding 
spectators 
(their 
limited 
number, 
temperature, 
personal 
protective 
equipment, 
and 
prescribed 
minimum 
distance). 
On 
the 
other 
hand, 
euphoria 
before 
the 
start 
of 
the 
race 
can 
explain 
that 
the 
start 
of 
theraceatintervalsinsmallgroupswasnot 
perceived 
asimportantfortherunners.Theonlystatisticallysignificant 
difference 
between 
road 
and 
off-road 
groups 
wasfound 
in 
limitedfood 
andbeverage 
offeratthe 
event. 
Off-road 
runners 
do 
not 
expect 
an 
abundant 
food 
and 
beverage 
offer 
along 
the 
running 
paths 
duringtheracebecauseofthecountryterrain(
mountains, 
wood, 
mud, 
sludge) 
and 
found 
this 
safety 
protective 
measure 
more 
important 
than 
road 
runners. 
Never-

theless,bothgroupsfound 
thismeasureaslessimportant. 
Tosummarize,althoughrunnersperceivedthese 
measures 
as 
moderately 
or 
less 
important, 
social 
distancing 
will 
remain 
a 
key 
non-pharmaceutical 
safety-
related 
strategyin 
preventingthe 
pandemic 
(Gössling 
et 
al., 
2020; 
Peric 
et 
al., 
2021). 
In 
addition, 
modern 
technologies 
such 
as 
online 
registration 
of 
competitors 
and 
no 
contact 
payment 
can 
help 
the 
organizers 
preventthespreadof 
covid-19infection. 
Thismeans 
that 
organizations’ 
existing 
business 
models 
will 
have 
to 
adapt 
and 
innovate, 
focusing 
on 
new 
strategies 
to 
generate 
revenue 
such 
as 
ticketing 
strategies, 
digitalization 
strategies, 
and 
media 
involvement 
(PwC, 
2020). 


Furthermore, 
although 
running 
is 
often 
perceived 
as 
an 
individual 
sport 
(Masters 
et 
al., 
1993; 
Deaner 
et 
al., 
2011; 
Zach 
et 
al., 
2017), 
this 
study 
found 
that 
almost 
83. 
of 
the 
respondents 
will 
not 
travel 
and 
visit 
the 
event 
alone. 
This 
indicates 
that 
people 
missed 
social 
gatherings 
during 
the 
pandemic. 
Many 
respondents 
motivated 
by 
socializing 
and 
fun 
also 
confirm 
thepreviousassertion. 
Thisisinlinewithother 
studies 
highlighting 
the 
social 
and 
entertainment 
factors 
as 
strong 
motives 
for 
participation 
in 
sports 
activities 
(Buning 
& 
Gibson, 
2016; 
Peric 
at 
al., 
2019; 
Xie 
et 
al., 
2020). 
Still, 
a 
number 
of 
runners 
remain 
motivatedbycompetitionandimprovementoftheirracing 
skills, 
focusing 
on 
their 
individual 
goals.However,regardlessoftheirmotivation,
respondents’ 
attitudestowardsafetyprotectivemeasuresdonotdiffer,
suggesting 
that 
the 
running 
community 
might 
be 
a 
very 
ho-
mogenous 
group 
regarding 
risk 
aversion. 
Dominant 
optimisticintentionsandattitudestowardssafetyprotective 
measures 
might 
imply 
low 
perception 
of 
risks 
associated 
with 
travelling 
and 
attending 
events, 
especially 
when 
it 
comes 
to 
those 
few 
minutes 
spent 
all 
together 
sharing 
the 
same 
area 
during 
the 
race 
start. 
However, 
the 
fact 
that 
the 
vast 
majority 
of 
respondents 
would 
prefer 
to 
attend 
the 
next 
event 
in 
their 
home 
country 
might 
suggest 
a 
hidden 
safety 
concern. 
According 
to 
Maditinos 
et 
al. 
(2021), 
destinations 
far 
away 
from 
home 
that 
are 
not 
within 
a 
daily 
trip 
or 
convenient 
distances 
pose 
the 
need 
for 
accommodations 
for 
the 
participants, 
and 
they 
have 
to 
stay 
in 
unknown 
facilities. 
In 
addition, 
there 
are 
countries 
or 


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15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
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Ana 
Chersulich 
Tomino 
andMarko 
Peri. 
Sport-Tourism 
Running 
Events 


regions 
that 
are 
considered 
to 
be 
affected 
more 
than 
others 
by 
the 
epidemic, 
so 
restrictions 
on 
travel 
may 
be 
applied, 
or 
potential 
travellers 
and 
visitors 
are 
unwilling 
togothere 
in 
ordertoparticipate 
in 
arunning 
event. 
The 
respondents’ 
intentions 
to 
participate 
in 
eventsorganizedintheirhomecountryarealsoinline 
with 
contemporary 
tourism 
trends 
that 
suggest 
people 
are 
occupied 
by 
their 
jobs 
and 
families 
and 
favour 
shortervisits. 
Tosummarize,therelationshipbetween 
thehealthriskperceptionandreadinesstoimplement 
non-pharmaceutical 
interventions 
was 
found 
to 
be 
positive 
in 
previous 
studies 
(Lee 
et 
al., 
2012). 
Also, 
the 
lower 
perception 
of 
risks 
usually 
results 
in 
higher 
intention 
to 
(re)visit 
a 
destination 
or 
attend 
an 
event 
(Karl, 
2018; 
Reade 
et 
al., 
2020; 
Yang 
et 
al., 
2017) 
but 
this 
study 
did 
not 
examine 
this 
relationship 
directly. 


Conclusion 


In 
order 
to 
bridge 
the 
research 
gap 
of 
the 
lack 
of 
literature 
and 
researches 
on 
the 
connection 
between 
motivations, 
types 
of 
running 
races 
and 
safety 
protective 
measures 
in 
the 
post 
covid-19 
period 
and 
improve 
participation 
in 
running 
events, 
this 
empirical 
study 
focused 
on 
active 
runners’ 
intentions 
to 
attend 
future 
running 
events 
following 
the 
covid19 
crisis, 
and 
perception 
of 
how 
important 
they 
find 
some 
of 
the 
safety-related 
protective 
measures 
when 
attending 
sporting 
events 
depending 
on 
running 
motives 
and 
type 
of 
running 
event. 
The 
analysed 
non-
pharmaceutical 
safety 
protective 
measures 
when 
attending 
sporting 
events 
are 
related 
to 
competitors 
(temperature 
check, 
online 
registration, 
limited 
number, 
start 
of 
the 
race 
in 
intervals), 
spectators 
(temperature 
check, 
wearing 
protective 
equipment, 
limited 
number, 
prescribed 
minimum 
distance), 
the 
staff 
(temperature 
check, 
wearing 
protective 
equipment) 
andtoallofthestakeholders(availability 
ofhandsan-
itizers,limitednumberincommonspaces,no-contact 
payment). 


Theresultssuggestthatthesafety-relatedmeasures 
are 
not 
recognizedas 
distinctly 
important 
by 
the 
running 
community 
in 
Croatia. 
It 
seems 
that 
runners 
do 
notcaremuchaboutsafetyandthattherearenomajor 
differencesinattitudesbetweenthegroupsofrunners. 
It 
is 
possible 
that 
runners’ 
attitudes 
regarding 
safety 


could 
be 
misguidedby 
the 
fact 
thatrunning 
is 
an 
outdoor 
sport, 
but 
in 
this 
specific 
period 
wheretheworld 
is 
still 
fighting 
against 
the 
pandemic 
(i.e. 
virus 
mutations), 
safety 
will 
remain 
the 
focal 
event 
attribute 
for 
organizers 
and 
governments. 
As 
argued 
by 
Kaplanidou 
et 
al. 
(2012), 
Mohan 
(2010), 
and 
Chersulich 
Tominoetal. 
(2020), 
itis 
necessaryto 
focus 
onstrategic 
elements 
necessary 
for 
efficient 
and 
effective 
event 
planning 
and 
organization 
in 
order 
to 
achieve 
positiveand 
sustainable 
events. 
Safety 
for 
all 
stakeholders, 
the 
organizers, 
competitors 
and 
local 
population 
is 
a 
strategiceventattribute 
of 
utmost 
importance. 
Proper 
and 
consistent 
implementation 
of 
safety-related 
protective 
measures, 
especially 
if 
these 
are 
confirmed 
by 
the 
running 
community 
and 
implemented 
at 
a 
higher 
level 
of 
safety 
than 
prescribed 
by 
public 
authorities, 
would 
be 
a 
value-added 
activity 
for 
event 
planners 
and 
organizers. 
In 
this 
special 
situation, 
they 
should 
point 
to 
some 
additional 
measures 
where 
safety 
protective 
kits 
are 
available 
for 
all 
involved 
in 
the 
event. 
Also, 
they 
should 
organize 
an 
automatic 
temperature 
check 
point 
to 
reduce 
the 
staff-spectator-competitor 
contact.Thefoodandbeverageoffershouldbepacked 
into 
portions 
and 
served 
as 
closed 
packaging 
in 
outdoor 
spaces 
to 
reduce 
indoor 
gatherings. 
Registration 
should 
be 
exclusively 
online 
and 
the 
payments 
for 
all 
services 
without 
any 
contact, 
by 
credit 
or 
debit 
card 
or 
mobile 
phone. 
While 
primarily 
focused 
on 
event 
participants, 
all 
these 
activities 
should 
also 
consider 
the 
benefits 
of 
host 
communities 
that 
have 
become 
vulnerableduringthe 
covid-19context,asarguedby 
Lapointe 
(2020). 


There 
are 
a 
few 
limitations 
of 
this 
empirical 
study. 
Thefirst 
limitation 
relatesto 
thesamplesize 
andsampling 
method 
and 
the 
respondents, 
members 
of 
clubs 
and 
groups 
related 
to 
running, 
originating 
from 
one 
country, 
Croatia. 
Collecting 
data 
online 
using 
social 
networks 
can 
potentially 
lead 
to 
false 
data 
representations 
(Leiner, 
2019), 
but 
due 
to 
cancellations 
of 
sporting 
events, 
limited 
mobility, 
and 
recommended 
social 
distancing 
during 
the 
data 
collection 
period, 
it 
was 
a 
reasonable 
choice. 
As 
has 
been 
argued 
by 
Alexandris 
et 
al. 
(2017) 
and 
Risitano 
et 
al. 
(2017), 
each 
sport, 
event 
or 
country 
is 
specific 
and 
it 
would 
be 
important 
for 
future 
studies 
to 
consider 
these 
particularities 


144 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Ana 
Chersulich 
Tomino 
andMarko 
Peri. 


when 
proposing 
or 
analysing 
safety-related 
protective 
measures. 
Future 
research 
should 
examine 
the 
importance 
of 
safety 
protective 
measures 
in 
other 
sports 
because 
the 
characteristics 
of 
running 
as 
an 
outdoor 
sport 
can 
impose 
some 
bias 
in 
runners’ 
perceptions 
as 
mentioned 
above. 
Also, 
as 
suggested 
by 
Peric 
et 
al. 
(2021), 
studying 
larger 
samples 
from 
countries 
that 
experienced 
the 
pandemic 
differently 
(i.e. 
countries 
very 
successful 
and 
unsuccessful 
in 
the 
battle 
against 
covid-19) 
would 
increase 
the 
generalizability 
of 
the 
results.Finally,itcanbeimportanttoclarifytheterms 
anddevelopauniversallanguage 
fortherunningfield 
in 
general, 
while 
overlaps 
exist 
between 
these 
running 
events 
(Scheer 
et 
al., 
2020), 
mainly 
through 
the 
commondenominatorofoff-roadorroadterrain,and 
distinctions 
need 
to 
be 
recognized. 


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April 
2022 
|147 



Original 
Scientific 
Article 


COVID-19 
Public 
Health 
Strategy 
Implementation 
for 
the 
Hospitality 
Industry 
in 
Taiwan 


Heidi 
H. 
Chang 


I-Shou 
University, 
Taiwan 
heidichang@isu.edu.tw 


MiRan 
Kim 


Michigan 
State 
University, 
usa 
kimmi@broad.msu.edu 


ThisstudyattemptstoexplorethepublichealthstrategiesthathotelsinTaiwanhave 
applied 
during 
the 
covid-19 
pandemic 
crisis. 
This 
empirical 
study 
develops 
a 
list 
of 
public 
health 
strategy 
practices 
from 
a 
pilot 
study 
using 
in-depth 
interviews, 
followed 
by 
a 
questionnaire 
survey. 
The 
research 
samples 
are 
4-star 
and 
5-star 
hotels 
in 
Taiwan, 
which 
are 
the 
most 
popular 
hotel 
choices 
for 
domestic 
and 
international 
travellers. 
Out 
of 
127 
hotels, 
76 
hotel 
owners, 
general 
managers, 
or 
executive 
man-
agersparticipatedinthesurvey.Thefindingsillustratethefrequencyofpublichealth 
strategiesthat 
hotels 
have 
used 
during 
the 
coronaviruscrisis. 
It 
shows 
thatthe 
most 
popular 
strategy 
is 
strengthening 
hygiene 
and 
cleanliness 
in 
hotel 
operations 
to 
offerreassuringlodgingservicesandaccommodationproducts. 
Theresultsalsoshow 
there 
is 
no 
significance 
difference 
in 
implementation 
of 
the 
various 
public 
health 
practicesregardinghotellocation,nationalityofmaincustomers,hotelperformance, 
annual 
f&b 
revenue, 
or 
annual 
room 
sales. 
This 
study 
suggests 
hotels 
implement 
public 
health 
strategies 
to 
limit 
the 
spread 
of 
disease, 
regain 
customers’ 
trust 
and 
promote 
the 
hotel 
during 
and 
after 
the 
covid-19 
pandemic. 
The 
paper 
concludes 
with 
recommendations 
for 
crisis 
management 
and 
crisis 
preparation 
for 
the 
hospitality 
industry. 


Keywords: 
covid-19, 
public 
health 
strategy, 
crisis 
management,social 
exchange 


theory,hospitality 
industry 
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.15.149-161 


Introduction 


The 
global 
spread 
of 
the 
covid-19 
pandemic, 
large-
scale 
travel 
restrictions, 
and 
social 
distancing 
norms 
have 
dramatically 
wreaked 
havoc 
on 
the 
hospitality 
and 
tourism 
industry. 
This 
global 
pandemic 
has 
caused 
the 
deepest 
recession 
of 
the 
global 
economy 
sinceWorldWar 
ii 
(TheWorldBank,2020). 
Thecur-
rent 
covid-19 
pandemic 
crisis 
is 
perceived 
as 
an 
unexpected, 
random, 
shock, 
sudden 
stop 
to 
global 
society 
and 
the 
economy; 
a 
massive 
disruption 
of 
eco


nomic 
activity 
causing 
long-lasting 
injuries 
to 
the 
labour 
force 
(Karabag, 
2020; 
Orlowski, 
2020). 
The 
rapidlyevolvingglobalpandemiccausedinternational 
travel 
bans, 
affecting 
over 
90. 
of 
the 
world 
population, 
and 
resulted 
in 
widespread 
restrictions 
on 
public 
gatherings 
and 
community 
mobility. 
Tourism 
has 
largelyceasedsinceMarch2020(Gosslingetal.,2020). 
The 
decline 
of 
tourism 
and 
travels, 
along 
with 
a 
slowdown 
in 
economic 
activity, 
has 
especially 
made 
hotels 
susceptible 
(Hoisington, 
2020). 


Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|149 



Heidi 
H. 
Chang 
and 
MiRan 
Kim 
COVID-19 
Public 
Health 
Strategy 
Implementation 


The 
covid-19pandemiccrisishascausedthemost 
serious 
and 
devastating 
effects, 
with 
the 
global 
loss 
of 
6 
million 
lives, 
including 
nearly 
995 
thousand 
deaths 
in 
the 
United 
States 
by 
May 
22 
(Johns 
Hopkins 
University, 
n.d.). 
Taiwan 
reported 
its 
first 
covid-19 
case 
returning 
from 
Wuhan, 
China, 
on 
January 
21st, 
2020. 
Statistics 
show 
that 
there 
were 
173,942 
confirmed 
covid-
19casesand876deathsinTaiwan(JohnsHopkins 
University, 
n.d.). 
As 
early 
as 
December 
31, 
2019, 
Taiwan 
had 
issued 
travel 
alerts 
to 
China 
and 
imposed 
border 
controls, 
where 
direct 
flights 
arriving 
from 
Wuhan, 
China, 
were 
all 
screened 
onboard 
(Hsieh, 
2020). 
Since 
March 
2020, 
due 
to 
the 
continuedspread 
of 
the 
covid-19 
pandemic, 
the 
Taiwanese 
Central 
EpidemicCommandCentre(cecc)hasimplemented 
border 
control 
measures 
and 
flight 
bans, 
prohibiting 
foreign 
nationals 
from 
visiting 
Taiwan 
except 
for 
fulfillingcommercialandcontractualobligations.
Consequently,
comparedwiththesameperiodin2019,internationalarrivalsdeclinedby 
98. 
during2020;theoccupancy 
rate 
in 
high-end 
hotels 
(i.e. 
4-star 
and 
5-star 
hotels) 
dropped 
approximately 
70. 
(Taiwan 
Tourism 
Bureau, 
2020a). 
With 
government 
policies, 
restrictions 
and 
bans 
regarding 
inbound 
travellers 
during 
the 
covid-19 
global 
health 
crisis, 
the 
Taiwanese 
hotel 
industry 
consequently 
has 
suffered 
significant 
loss 
from 
the 
severe 
drop 
in 
international 
travellers 
and 
domestic 
visits. 


During 
the 
covid-19 
pandemic, 
many 
governments 
responded 
to 
the 
crisis 
by 
promoting 
measures 
aimed 
at 
containing 
infections, 
such 
as 
personal 
hygiene, 
social 
distancing, 
and 
wearing 
face 
masks 
and 
other 
protective 
gear. 
Hotel 
companies, 
as 
the 
private 
sector 
dealing 
with 
travellers, 
have 
served 
an 
important 
role. 
Some 
hotels 
have 
been 
used 
as 
quarantine 
hotels 
for 
international 
visitors 
and 
quarantined 
spacesforthoseexposedto 
covid-19,suchashealth-
care 
workers 
(Rosemberg, 
2020). 
Many 
hospitality 
scholars 
have 
put 
a 
great 
emphasis 
on 
the 
importance 
of 
public 
health 
strategies 
in 
the 
hospitality 
industry 
becausethesestrategiesservethefunctionsofprotecting 
the 
employees 
and 
ensuring 
a 
safe 
environment 
for 
the 
customers 
(e.g. 
Hao 
et 
al., 
2020; 
Jiang 
& 
Wen, 
2020). 


This 
study 
has 
two 
research 
objectives. 
Firstly, 
it 


aims 
to 
explore 
the 
public 
health 
strategies 
that 
hotel 
companies 
have 
been 
adopting 
to 
restore 
customer 
confidence 
and 
to 
protect 
the 
hotel 
staff 
and 
customers. 
Secondly, 
this 
research 
investigates 
whether 
hotels 
with 
differentlocations, 
customers, 
and 
performance 
apply 
different 
public 
health 
strategies. 
Understanding 
how 
the 
covid-19 
crisis 
impacts 
Taiwan’s 
hotelsectorand 
managementreactionstoit 
wouldaffordinsightsintotheproblemscausedbytheoutbreak 
of 
infectious 
disease. 
The 
contribution 
of 
the 
study 
is 
to 
provide 
further 
implications 
and 
suggestions 
to 
thehospitalityindustryindealingwith 
covid-19and 
other 
health-related 
crises 
such 
as 
flu, 
h1n1, 
Ebola, 
etc. 
(see, 
for 
example, 
Cahyanto 
et 
al., 
2016; 
Hung 
et 
al., 
2018; 
Oaten 
et 
al., 
2015). 


Hospitality 
Industry 
in 
Taiwan 


The 
hotel 
industry 
in 
Taiwan 
is 
reputedly 
one 
of 
the 
mostcompetitivesectorsandamajorcontributingfactor 
toward 
Taiwan’s 
economic 
growth 
(see, 
for 
example,
Wuetal.,2008;Chenetal.,2007;Kimetal.,2006). 
The 
key 
for 
the 
tourism 
and 
hospitality 
industry 
in 
Taiwan 
is 
4-star 
and 
5-star 
hotels. 
These 
hotels 
offer 
multipleusestovisitorssuchaslodging,foodservices, 
social 
activities, 
conference 
facilities, 
health 
clubs, 
en-
tertainmentfacilities,shoppingcentres,andotherser-
vices 
(TaiwanTourismBureau,2004; 
Wu 
et 
al.,2008). 
These 
two 
categories 
of 
hotels 
are 
popular 
accommodations 
for 
inbound 
and 
domestic 
travellers. 
They 
are 
oftenconsideredas 
‘high-end’ 
hotelsin 
thehospitality 
industryinTaiwan.TheTaiwanTourismBureauoperational 
performance 
report 
and 
analysis 
indicates 
that 
theservicequality,thenumberofrooms,andthehotel 
business 
administration 
of 
these 
4-star 
and 
5-star 
hotels 
are 
the 
core 
of 
Taiwan’s 
hospitality 
industry 
(Taiwan 
Tourism 
Bureau, 
2004). 


In 
2003, 
Taiwan 
was 
one 
of 
the 
countries 
seriously 
affected 
by 
Severe 
Acute 
Respiratory 
Syndrome 
(sars), 
experiencing 
the 
thirdlargestglobal 
outbreak 
on 
record. 
Over 
the 
course 
of 
the 
sars 
crisis, 
there 
were 
674 
cases 
and 
84 
deaths, 
fewer 
than 
mainland 
China 
(5,327 
cases 
and 
348 
deaths) 
and 
Hong 
Kong 
(1,755 
cases 
and 
298 
deaths). 
In 
late 
February 
2003, 
Taiwan’sfirstcaseof 
sars 
occurredinabusinessman 
having 
a 
history 
of 
travel 
to 
Guangdong 
Province, 


150 
| 
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Turistica, 
Year 
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No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Heidi 
H. 
Chang 
and 
MiRan 
Kim 
COVID-19 
Public 
Health 
Strategy 
Implementation 


China. 
The 
Taiwan 
governments, 
physicians, 
health 
specialists, 
health 
care 
facilities, 
media, 
and 
citizens 
tookseriousactionafterasaresultoftheexperienceof 
the 
sars 
crisis. 
The 
sars 
epidemic 
in 
Taiwan 
‘stimulatedvastandveryrapidimprovementsinthehealth 
infrastructure, 
especially 
in 
the 
areas 
of 
hospital 
in-
fectioncontrolprocedures,systemsfordatacollection 
and 
reporting, 
mobilization 
of 
the 
public, 
and 
coordination 
of 
all 
agencies 
contributing 
to 
the 
outbreak 
response’ 
(Chang, 
2004). 
From 
the 
reviews 
and 
experiences 
of 
the 
sars 
crisis, 
Taiwan 
has 
prepared 
a 
better 
structure 
for 
a 
command 
centre 
and 
developed 
some 
standard 
operating 
procedures 
(sops) 
to 
man-
agepossible 
futureepidemics 
(Huang,2020).Hotel 
companies 
have 
adopted 
different 
crisis 
management 
strategies 
during 
different 
stages 
of 
the 
health 
crisis 


(e.g. 
Kim 
et 
al., 
2005; 
Henderson 
& 
Ng, 
2004). 
Therehavebeenno 
globalsars 
outbreaks 
since 
2003. 
However, 
in 
late 
2019, 
covid-19, 
which 
is 
caused 
by 
the 
2019 
coronavirus, 
became 
pandemic 
and 
influenced 
the 
tourism 
and 
hospitality 
industry. 
Impactedby 
covid-19,manyhotels,roomsales,restaurants, 
and 
banqueting 
services 
in 
Taiwan 
have 
suffered 
particularly 
seriously 
since 
March 
2020 
(Wu 
& 
Tsai, 
2020). 
The 
first 
case 
was 
confirmed 
on 
January 
21st 
2020, 
just 
before 
the 
Lunar 
New 
Year 
during 
which 
time 
millions 
of 
Chinese 
and 
Taiwanese 
were 
expected 
to 
travel 
for 
the 
holidays. 
As 
the 
Taiwanese 
authority 
closed 
the 
border, 
forbidding 
any 
international 
travellers, 
hotels 
in 
metropolitan 
area 
had 
an 
occupancy 
rate 
below 
60.. 
With 
strict 
border 
con-
trolsand 
contacttracing,Taiwanwas 
able 
to 
maintain 
a 
low 
number 
of 
cases 
and 
deaths, 
so 
the 
country 
did 
not 
apply 
lockdown, 
social 
distancing, 
or 
domestic 
travel 
restrictions 
until 
mid-May 
2021 
(Taiwan’s 
Ministry 
of 
Foreign 
Affairs, 
n.d.). 
After 
an 
outbreak 
in 
an 
internationalbrand-hotel 
in 
May, 
Taiwanfaced 
a 
sudden 
covidsurge. 
The 
outbreak 
originated 
from 
the 
Novotel 
Taipei 
Taoyuan 
International 
Airport 
hotel, 
which 
accommodated 
crew 
from 
China 
Airlines 
during 
their 
quarantine. 
A 
total 
of 
30 
confirmed 
covid 
cases 
and 
1 
death 
involved 
China 
Airlines 
pilots 
and 
hotel 
staff. 
The 
hotel 
rewas 
fined 
us$45,660 
for 
violating 
basic 
quarantine 
rules 
when 
it 
hosted 
domestic 
travellers 
and 
quarantined 
pilots 
in 
the 
same 
building 


(Strong, 
2021). 
The 
Health 
Department 
fined 
Novotelhotel 
because 
itdid 
notprovide 
appropriate 
rooms 
to 
guests 
who 
were 
required 
to 
be 
in 
quarantine 
under 
Taiwan’s 
covid-19 
prevention 
measures. 
The 
airport 
hotel 
was 
at 
the 
centre 
of 
a 
cluster 
of 
covid19 
infections 
due 
to 
mixing 
the 
general 
domestic 
hotel 
guests 
and 
flight 
crews 
in 
quarantine 
on 
the 
same 
floor. 
The 
five-star 
hotel’s 
failure 
to 
carry 
out 
quarantine 
and 
health 
management 
measures 
related 
to 
the 
hotel 
guests 
caused 
the 
sudden 
covidsurge 
in 
Taiwan. 


Public 
Health 
Strategy 


It 
is 
considered 
that 
the 
sars 
transmission 
was 
successfully 
contained 
by 
implementing 
strict 
public 
health 
measures, 
such 
as 
early 
case 
detection 
and 
isolation, 
contact 
tracing 
and 
isolation 
and 
social 
distancing 
(Schulman 
& 
Rowley, 
2021). 
The 
Taiwanese 
government 
learned 
from 
its 
2003 
sars 
experience 
and 
established 
a 
public 
health 
response 
mechanism 
for 
enabling 
rapid 
actions 
in 
preparing 
for 
the 
next 
epidemic 
crisis 
(see, 
for 
example, 
Wang 
et 
al., 
2020; 
Yen 
et 
al., 
2014). 
Strategy 
has 
been 
refered 
to 
as 
the 
over-
allapproachtoaproblem(Quarantelli,1988),sointhis 
study,publichealthstrategiesaredefinedastheoverall 
approach 
dealing 
with 
the 
covid-19 
pandemic. 
Public 
health 
strategy 
provides 
the 
approaches 
for 
‘translating 
new 
knowledge 
and 
skills 
into 
evidence-based, 
cost-effective 
interventions 
that 
can 
research 
[sic] 
everyone 
in 
the 
population,’ 
and 
it 
aims 
to 
‘protect 
and 
improve 
the 
health 
and 
quality 
oflife 
of 
a 
community’ 
(Stjernswärdetal.,2007).Theseapproachescanbeincorporated 
by 
government 
into 
all 
levels 
of 
the 
health 
caresystem,publicsector,andprivatecompanies.Hotels 
have 
accommodated 
inbound 
travellers, 
domestic 
travellers, 
and 
residents 
returning 
to 
the 
country 
during 
covid-19. 
Hotels 
need 
to 
be 
more 
prepared 
for 
safety 
training, 
hygiene 
and 
cleanliness 
to 
ensure 
customers 
a 
safe 
and 
pleasant 
stay. 
In 
response 
to 
in-
fectiousdiseaseslike 
covid-19,organizationssuchas 
hotels 
need 
to 
have 
a 
higher 
standard 
to 
assure 
public 
health 
and 
meet 
the 
requirements 
for 
epidemic 
prevention 
(Chang, 
2020; 
Gossling 
et 
al., 
2020; 
Jiang 
& 
Wen, 
2020; 
Kim 
et 
al., 
2005; 
Yang 
& 
Wei, 
2020). 


The 
sudden 
outbreak 
in 
May 
happened 
in 
the 
air-

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April 
2022 
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H. 
Chang 
and 
MiRan 
Kim 
COVID-19 
Public 
Health 
Strategy 
Implementation 


porthotelwhichviolatedthequarantinerulesbyhousing 
quarantined 
flight 
crews 
and 
local 
guests 
in 
the 
samebuilding(Nordling&Wu,2021).Ithasreminded 
the 
Taiwanese 
hotel 
industry 
and 
the 
public 
health 
policymakersoftheimportanceofbordercontrolwith 
quarantineupon 
arrival 
in 
thehotels. 
From 
June 
2020 
until 
the 
current 
outbreak 
since 
May, 
life 
in 
Taiwan 
was 
pre-pandemic, 
except 
for 
the 
mandatory 
mask 
and 
temperature 
checks 
on 
public 
transportation 
and 
atlargeevents(Nordling&Wu,2021).Duringthepandemic 
crisis, 
hotels 
in 
Taiwan 
have 
applied 
different 
public 
health 
strategies 
while 
only 
face 
mask 
wearing 
is 
mandatory. 


Social 
Exchange 
Theory 


Socialexchangetheory(set),rootedineconomictheory 
and 
modified 
for 
the 
study 
of 
the 
social 
psychology 
of 
groups, 
focuses 
on 
the 
perceptions 
of 
the 
relativecostsandbenefitsofrelationships,
anddetermines 
risksandbenefitsoftwopartiesandtheirimplications 
for 
relationship 
satisfaction 
(Thibaut 
& 
Kelley, 
1959; 
Blau, 
1964). 
Homans 
(1961) 
defined 
social 
exchanges 
astheexchangeoftangibleorintangibleactivities,and 
reward 
or 
cost 
between 
at 
least 
two 
parties. 
A 
growing 
literature 
theorizes 
employee 
safety 
activities 
as 
a 
product 
of 
organizational 
practices 
related 
to 
safety 
(Turner 
& 
Grey, 
2009;Probst 
etal.,2013), 
and 
organizational 
support 
for 
a 
safe 
workforce 
for 
employees 
andcustomersis 
consideredas 
a 
social 
exchangerelationship 
(Reader 
et 
al., 
2017). 
Utilizing 
set, 
Reader 
et 
al. 
(2017) 
indicated 
the 
association 
between 
employees’ 
health 
and 
the 
administration 
of 
personal 
protective 
equipment, 
development 
of 
safety 
protocols, 
and 
design 
of 
safe 
equipment. 
With 
high 
uncertainty 
regarding 
covid-19, 
it 
is 
unknown 
which 
stage 
of 
the 
crisis 
this 
pandemic 
is 
in. 
As 
the 
number 
of 
con-
firmedcases 
anddeathsare 
stillincreasingglobally, 
hotel 
companies 
need 
to 
apply 
different 
strategies 
not 
just 
for 
business 
activities 
of 
mere 
selling 
and 
buying 
products 
and 
services 
during 
the 
crisis, 
but 
also 
for 
repeated 
patronage, 
loyalty, 
trust, 
and 
commitment 
exchange 
for 
the 
post-crisis 
long 
run. 


set 
hypothesizesthat 
‘themorevaluabletoapersonisthe 
result 
of 
hisaction, 
themorelikelyheis 
to 
perform 
the 
action’ 
(Homans, 
1974). 
Public 
health 


strategieslikehygiene 
and 
cleanlinesshaveproven 
essential 
to 
successful 
hotel 
operations, 
especially 
during 
and 
after 
public 
health 
crises 
such 
as 
sars 
and 
covid-19 
(Chien 
& 
Law, 
2003; 
Kim 
et 
al., 
2005; 
Jiang 
&Wen,2020).Itisessential 
forhotel 
companies 
to 
implementpublic 
healthstrategiesand 
spontaneously 
coordinate 
with 
the 
Government 
Health 
Department 
and 
cecc 
to 
restore 
customers’ 
confidence. 
Public 
health 
strategiesdo 
not 
create 
economic 
exchangebetweenhoteliersandcustomers,
buttheycanleadtothe 
developmentoftrustingandcommittedlong-termrelationshipsduringthepost-
crisisstage.Chang’s(2020) 
study 
indicated 
that 
hotels 
need 
to 
apply 
‘epidemic 
prevention’ 
practices 
including 
additional 
personnel 
hygiene 
and 
safety 
training 
(for 
example, 
mask-wearing, 
hand 
washing, 
body-temperature 
measurement), 
environmental 
sanitation, 
equipment 
disinfection, 
standard 
operation 
procedures 
for 
check-in 
guests, 
housekeeping,roomservice,garbagedisposal,airconditioning, 
cleaning,etc.Governments 
andhotel 
companies 
need 
to 
develop 
and 
follow 
special 
regulations 
for 
epidemic 
prevention 
purposes, 
which 
are 
different 
from 
the 
usual 
hotel 
management 
standards 
and 
operation 
procedures 
(Chang, 
2020). 
As 
a 
public 
service, 
the 
Taiwanese 
cecc 
made 
plans 
to 
assist 
schools, 
businesses, 
hotels, 
and 
furloughed 
workers 
to 
be 
prepared 
for 
the 
covid-19 
crisis; 
these 
reassurances 
and 
education 
for 
the 
public 
include 
when 
and 
wheretowearmasks,theimportanceofhandwashing, 
personal 
hygiene, 
social 
distancing, 
etc. 
(Wang 
et 
al., 
2020). 
This 
study 
hypothesizes 
that 
hotels 
with 
different 
locations, 
performance 
and 
revenues 
would 
apply 
different 
public 
health 
strategies. 
The 
hypotheses 
are 
as 
follows: 


h1 
There 
is 
a 
difference 
in 
public 
health 
strategies 
implementation 
with 
hotels 
in 
different 
locations. 


h2 
Hotels 
with 
a 
majority 
of 
customers 
who 
are 
in


ternational 
or 
domestic 
show 
differences 
in 
the 


implementation 
of 
public 
health 
strategies. 


h3 
There 
is 
a 
difference 
in 
public 
health 
strategies 


implementation 
in 
hotels 
with 
different 
perfor


mance. 


h3aThere 
is 
a 
difference 
in 
public 
health 
strategies 


152 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Heidi 
H. 
Chang 
and 
MiRan 
Kim 
COVID-19 
Public 
Health 
Strategy 
Implementation 


implementation 
in 
hotels 
with 
different 
occupancy 
rate, 
f&b 
sales, 
takeout 
sales, 
and 
catering 
sales. 


h3bThere 
is 
a 
difference 
in 
public 
health 
strategies 
implementation 
in 
hotels 
with 
different 
annual 
room 
sales. 


h3cThere 
is 
a 
difference 
in 
public 
health 
strategies 
implementation 
in 
hotels 
with 
different 
annual 
f&b 
revenue. 


Methodology 


The 
4-star 
and 
5-star 
hotels 
in 
Taiwan 
are 
the 
most 
popular 
hotel 
choices 
for 
both 
domestic 
and 
international 
tourists. 
There 
are 
one 
hundred 
and 
twenty-
seven 
4-star 
and 
5-star 
hotels 
accredited 
by 
the 
star 
rating 
evaluation 
programme 
of 
the 
Taiwan 
Tourism 
Bureau 
(2020b). 
These 
hotels 
accommodate 
tourists 
with 
amenities 
and 
services 
such 
as 
luxury 
suites, 
fitness 
centres, 
spas, 
multiple 
restaurants 
(for 
residents 
andnon-residents),24-hourservices,carservices,etc. 
Compared 
to 
hotels 
below 
3-star, 
the 
4-star 
and 
5-star 
hotels 
in 
Taiwan 
are 
large-scale 
hotel 
businesses, 
having 
more 
hotel 
rooms 
and 
restaurants 
to 
accommodate 
customers 
coming 
for 
lodging, 
events, 
and 
dining. 
There 
are 
more 
interactions 
between 
customers 
and 
employees, 
as 
well 
as 
more 
hotel 
rooms 
and 
public 
areas 
being 
used. 
As 
the 
Tourism 
Bureau 
considers 
the 
4-star 
and 
5-star 
hotels 
the 
key 
for 
the 
tourism 
and 
hospitality 
industry 
in 
Taiwan 
(Taiwan 
Tourism 
Bureau, 
2004), 
these 
127 
accredited 
hotels 
are 
the 
research 
samples 
in 
this 
study. 


Todevelopthesurveyinstrument,thisstudyfirstly 
initiatedin-depthinterviewswithtwo 
executiveman-
agers 
and 
one 
food 
and 
beverage 
director 
from 
5-star 
hotels 
and 
one 
general 
manager 
from 
a 
4-star 
hotel. 
From 
mid-January 
to 
the 
end 
of 
February, 
the 
researcher 
stayed 
in 
three 
5-star 
hotels 
in 
the 
North, 
MiddleandSouthpartofTaiwan,usingtheparticipant 
observation 
method 
to 
explore 
how 
hotels 
accommodate 
customers 
during 
covid-19. 
One 
hotel 
is 
an 
in-
ternationalchain-hotel,one 
isalocal 
chain-hotel,and 
oneisanindividual-ownedlocalhotelinTaiwan.With 
a 
literature 
review 
(e.g. 
Chang, 
2004; 
2020; 
Gossling 
et 
al., 
2020; 
Hao 
et 
al., 
2020; 
Isaeli 
& 
Reichel, 
2003; 


Tang, 
2020), 
in-depth 
interviews 
and 
participant 
observation, 
this 
study 
developed 
items 
measuring 
the 
frequency 
of 
usage 
of 
public 
health 
strategies 
in 
the 
4-star 
and 
5-star 
hotels 
during 
the 
coronavirus 
pandemic. 
Outof127 
hotels, 
76hotel 
owners,general 
managers, 
or 
executive 
managers 
participated 
in 
the 
survey. 
The 
questionnaire 
uses 
a 
5-point 
Likert 
Scale 
toexaminetheusageofpublichealthstrategies,from1 
(never) 
to 
5 
(always). 
The 
complete 
list 
of 
23 
practices 
is 
provided 
in 
Table 
1. 
The 
second 
section 
includes 
questions 
about 
hotel 
information, 
such 
as 
location, 
changes 
of 
hotel 
performance 
in 
occupancy 
rate 
and 
f&b 
revenues, 
and 
annual 
total 
revenue. 


Data 
Collection 


The 
questionnaires 
were 
pre-tested 
by 
two 
experienced 
executives 
in 
the 
hotels 
and 
two 
professors 
in 
the 
hospitality 
department. 
The 
paper-and-pencil 
questionnaires, 
along 
with 
the 
online 
survey, 
were 
distributed 
to 
all 
127 
4-star 
and 
5-star 
hotels 
in 
Taiwan. 
To 
increase 
the 
response 
rate, 
multiple 
types 
of 
direct 
and 
indirect 
contacts 
were 
adopted. 
Personal 
visits, 
phone 
calls, 
and 
contacts 
through 
the 
Bureau 
of 
Tourismwereapplied.FromMarch 
to 
April2020, 
the 
general 
manageror 
executive 
managersof 
127 
hotels 
in 
Taiwan 
were 
asked 
to 
provide 
information 
on 
public 
health 
strategies 
hotels 
have 
been 
using 
during 
covid-19. 
Eachparticipatinghotelhad 
onerepresentative 
complete 
the 
survey. 
Seventy-six 
valid 
data 
sets 
were 
used 
for 
the 
analysis, 
yielding 
a 
60. 
response 
rate. 


Item 
Analysis 
and 
Reliability 


The 
internal 
consistency 
of 
the 
public 
health 
strategy 
scale 
was 
high; 
the 
Cronbach’s 
a 
is 
0.841. 
The 
item-
total 
correlations 
ranged 
from 
0.31 
to 
0.63 
and 
were 
all 
statistically 
significant 
(p 
<0.05).The 
Cronbach’s 
a 
coefficient 
did 
not 
increase 
if 
any 
item 
was 
deleted 
from 
the 
scale. 
It 
was 
decided 
to 
keep 
all 
the 
items 
in 
the 
public 
health 
strategy 
scale. 


Results 


No 
significantdifferenceswerefound 
in 
theresponses 
from 
the 
electronic 
and 
hard 
copy 
survey, 
based 
on 


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Year 
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2022 
|153 



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H. 
Chang 
and 
MiRan 
Kim 
COVID-19 
Public 
Health 
Strategy 
Implementation 


Table 
1 
List 
of 
Public 
Health 
Strategies, 
and 
Item-Total 
Correlation 


Strategy/Description 
Item-total 
correlation 


. 
Proactively 
provide 
employees 
with 
covid-.. 
information 
for 
training 
purposes. 
....** 
. 
For 
the 
pandemic, 
provide 
personal 
hygiene 
and 
safety-related 
training, 
such 
as 
appropriate 
ways 
of 
....*** 


mask-wearing, 
hand 
washing, 
body-temperature 
measurement, 
etc. 


. 
Provide 
staff 
with 
training 
in 
regards 
to 
‘customer 
service 
flow’ 
during 
the 
pandemic. 
....*** 


. 
Provide 
staff 
with 
training 
in 
regards 
to 
environmental 
sanitation, 
such 
as 
equipment 
disinfection. 
....*** 


. 
Provide 
materials 
and 
supplies 
for 
employees 
for 
covid-.. 
prevention 
mechanisms, 
such 
as 
face 
masks, 
....*** 


forehead 
thermometers, 
hand 
sanitizer, 
disinfectionwipes, 
alcohol 
spray, 
bleach, 
etc. 


. 
Train 
and 
educate 
employees 
with 
standard 
operating 
procedures 
(sops) 
to 
handle 
suspected 
covid-.. 
....*** 
customers. 


. 
During 
covid-.. 
crisis, 
an 
‘epidemic 
command 
centre’ 
in 
the 
hotel 
is 
established 
to 
integrate 
resources 
of 
....*** 
the 
administration, 
different 
business 
units, 
medical, 
and 
public 
sectors. 


. 
Prepare 
and 
assign 
special 
floors 
or 
specific 
rooms 
in 
advance 
for 
quarantine 
of 
suspected 
covid-.. 
....*** 
customers 
or 
employees. 


. 
Prepare 
and 
reserve 
special 
floors 
or 
specific 
rooms 
for 
government 
departments 
(e.g. 
Centre 
for 
Disease 
....*** 
Control 
and 
Prevention) 
as 
quarantine 
stations. 


.. 
F&B 
Department 
develops 
special 
menus 
for 
healthy 
and 
nutritious 
food, 
such 
as 
immunity 
herbal 
tea, 
....*** 
immune-boosting 
meals, 
etc. 


.. 
Apply 
food 
safety 
strategies 
by 
providing 
takeout, 
delivery, 
kerbside 
pickup 
service, 
or 
special 
lunchbox 
....*** 
deal. 


.. 
Establish 
a 
special 
kitchen 
section 
for 
handling 
packaged 
food 
and 
food 
preparation 
during 
covid-... 
....*** 


chi-square 
and 
t-test 
so 
the 
two 
methods 
of 
data 
collection 
were 
combined 
for 
analysis. 
With 
76 
valid 
sets 
of 
data, 
the 
results 
indicate 
that 
most 
hotels 
encountered 
more 
severe 
profit 
loss, 
and 
are 
more 
heavily 
affected 
by 
covid-19, 
compared 
to 
sars. 
This 
demographic 
statistic 
is 
consistent 
with 
the 
percentage 
of 
hotel 
categories 
in 
Taiwan, 
indicating 
the 
participating 
hotels 
in 
this 
study 
are 
representative 
samples. 
Seventy-five 
percent 
of 
the 
participating 
hotels 
had 
their 
occupancy 
rate 
drop 
more 
than 
51.; 
58 
percent 
had 
f&b 
sales 
drop 
more 
than 
51.. 
Fifty 
percent 
of 
banquet 
services 
were 
cancelled, 
35. 
postponed, 
and 
3. 
transferredto 
other 
events,while 
10. 
remained 
as 
scheduled 
during 
the 
pandemic. 
The 
majority 
(63.) 
oftheparticipatinghotelsarelocatedinthecity’sbusiness 
district 
(cbd), 
21. 
are 
located 
in 
tourist 
attractions,
8.arelocatedinurbanareas,and8.arelocated 
aroundanairport.Asforthehotelannualrevenue,the 
majority(47.)has 
f&b 
revenueamountingto 
usd3 


Continued 
on 
the 
next 
page 


to 
10 
million, 
20. 
have 
11–17 
million; 
40. 
have 
room 
sales 
amounting 
to 
usd3 
to 
10 
million, 
and 
24. 
has 
11–17 
million. 


Implementation 
of 
Public 
Health 
Strategies 


Table 
2 
presents 
the 
top 
10 
strategies 
that 
almost 
all 
thestar-hotelsalwaysuse,whichare(1)strengthenhygieneandcleanlinessin 
hotel 
operationsto 
offerreassuringlodgingservicesandaccommodationproducts; 


(2) 
provide 
the 
proper 
personal 
protective 
equipment 
(ppe) 
(such 
as 
mask, 
gloves, 
face 
shield) 
for 
the 
front-
deskandfront-of-house(service)employeestoensure 
employee 
health, 
cleaning, 
and 
sanitizing; 
(3) 
provide 
the 
proper 
ppe 
(such 
as 
mask, 
gloves, 
face 
shield) 
for 
the 
back-of-house 
(kitchen) 
employees 
to 
ensure 
employee 
health, 
cleaning, 
and 
sanitizing; 
(4) 
measure 
theemployee’stemperatureandassesssymptomsprior 
to 
their 
starting 
work 
on 
a 
daily 
basis; 
(5) 
provide 
materials 
and 
supplies 
for 
employees 
for 
covid-19 
154 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Heidi 
H. 
Chang 
and 
MiRan 
Kim 
COVID-19 
Public 
Health 
Strategy 
Implementation 


Table 
1 
Continued 
from 
the 
previous 
page 


Strategy/Description 
Item-total 
correlation 


.. 
Provide 
special 
process 
of 
room 
service 
for 
hotel 
guests, 
such 
as 
knock-and-drop 
deliver, 
in-room 
dining 
....*** 
and 
food 
options. 
.. 
Strengthen 
hygiene 
and 
cleanliness 
in 
hotel 
operations 
to 
offer 
reassuring 
lodging 
services 
and 
....*** 
accommodation 
products. 
.. 
Provide 
the 
proper 
personal 
protective 
equipment 
(ppe) 
(such 
as 
mask, 
gloves, 
face 
shield) 
for 
the 
....*** 
housekeeping 
employees 
to 
ensure 
employee 
health, 
cleaning, 
and 
sanitizing. 
.. 
Provide 
the 
proper 
personal 
protective 
equipment 
(ppe) 
(such 
as 
mask, 
gloves, 
face 
shield) 
for 
the 
....*** 
front-desk 
and 
front-of-house 
(service) 
employees 
to 
ensure 
employee 
health, 
cleaning, 
and 
sanitizing. 
.. 
Provide 
the 
proper 
personal 
protective 
equipment 
(ppe) 
(such 
as 
mask, 
gloves, 
face 
shield) 
for 
the 
....*** 
back-of-house 
(kitchen) 
employees 
to 
ensure 
employee 
health, 
cleaning, 
and 
sanitizing. 
.. 
The 
Housekeeping 
Department 
builds 
action 
plans 
for 
guestroom 
cleaning 
procedures 
in 
response 
to 
the 
....*** 
covid-.. 
outbreak, 
such 
as 
altering 
the 
frequency 
of 
changing 
the 
bedding, 
room 
cleaning 
and 
disinfection, 
trash 
removal, 
etc. 
.. 
The 
Housekeeping 
Department 
change 
dishwashing 
and 
laundry 
sop 
in 
response 
to 
covid-... 
....*** 
.. 
Measure 
the 
employee’s 
temperature 
and 
assess 
symptoms 
prior 
to 
their 
starting 
work 
on 
a 
daily 
basis. 
....** 
.. 
Measure 
the 
customers’ 
temperature 
before 
they 
start 
the 
check-in 
process 
at 
the 
front-desk. 
....*** 
.. 
Measure 
the 
customers’ 
temperature 
before 
they 
enter 
the 
restaurants 
for 
dine-in 
services. 
....*** 
.. 
Designate 
a 
specific 
department, 
office 
or 
staff 
to 
gather 
public 
health 
information 
on 
covid-.. 
strategies, 
....*** 
policies 
and 
statistics 
updates 
from 
the 
private 
and 
public 
sector. 


Notes 
**p 
< 
0.01, 
***p 
<0.001. 


prevention 
mechanisms, 
such 
as 
facemasks, 
forehead 
thermometers, 
hand 
sanitizer, 
disinfection 
wipes, 
alcohol 
spray, 
bleach, 
etc.; 
(6) 
measure 
the 
customers’ 
temperature 
before 
they 
start 
the 
check-in 
process 
at 
the 
front-desk; 
(7) 
provide 
staff 
with 
training 
in 
regard 
to 
environmental 
sanitation, 
such 
as 
equipment 
disinfection; 
(8) 
provide 
the 
proper 
ppe 
(such 
as 
mask,gloves, 
face 
shield) 
for 
the 
housekeepingemployeestoensureemployeehealth,
cleaning,andsanitizing;(
9)forthe 
pandemic,provide 
personalhygiene 
and 
safety-related 
training, 
such 
as 
appropriate 
ways 
of 
mask-wearing, 
hand 
washing, 
body-temperature 
measurement, 
etc.; 
and 
(10) 
proactively 
provide 
employees 
with 
covid-19 
information 
for 
training 
purposes. 
In 
contrast, 
the 
public 
health 
practices 
that 
4star 
and 
5-star 
hotels 
rarely 
use 
are 
(1) 
establishing 
a 
special 
kitchen 
section 
for 
handling 
packaged 
food 
andfoodpreparationduring 
covid-19(mean 
=2.31), 
and 
(2) 
preparing 
and 
reserving 
special 
floors 
or 
specific 
rooms 
for 
government 
departments 
(e.g. 
Centres 


forDiseaseControlandPrevention)asquarantinestations 
(mean 
= 
2.50). 


T-Test 
and 
ANOVA 


T-testwasusedtocomparethemeanforpublichealth 
strategy 
implementation 
regarding 
different 
hotel 
location 
and 
nationality 
of 
main 
customers. 
This 
study 
categorizes 
the 
hotel 
locations 
into 
two: 
city 
business 
district 
(cbd) 
and 
non-cbd. 
It 
is 
found 
that 
there 
is 
no 
significant 
difference 
in 
implementation 
of 
public 
health 
strategies 
(t 
= 
–0.33; 
p 
=0.74). 
h1 
isnot 
supported. 
The 
nationality 
of 
main 
customers 
is 
categorized 
to 
Taiwanese 
(domestic 
travellers) 
and 
non-
Taiwanese 
(international 
travellers). 
The 
results 
show 
that 
there 
is 
no 
significant 
difference 
in 
implementation 
of 
public 
health 
strategies 
(t 
= 
–0.20; 
p 
=0.85). 
h2 
is 
not 
supported. 


One-Way 
anova 
was 
usedtocompare 
themean 
for 
public 
health 
strategy 
implementation 
regarding 


(1) 
hotel 
performance 
in 
occupancy 
rate, 
f&b 
sales, 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|155 



Heidi 
H. 
Chang 
and 
MiRan 
Kim 
COVID-19 
Public 
Health 
Strategy 
Implementation 


Table 
2 
List 
of 
Public 
Health 
Strategies,and 
Item-Total 
Correlation 


Strategy/Description 
(.) 
(.) 


.. 
Strengthen 
hygiene 
and 
cleanliness 
in 
hotel 
operations 
to 
offer 
reassuring 
lodging 
services 
and 
.... 
.... 
accommodation 
products. 
.. 
Provide 
the 
proper 
personal 
protective 
equipment 
(ppe) 
(such 
as 
mask, 
gloves, 
face 
shield) 
for 
the 
.... 
.... 
front-desk 
and 
front-of-house 
(service) 
employees 
to 
ensure 
employee 
health, 
cleaning, 
and 
sanitizing. 
.. 
Provide 
the 
proper 
personal 
protective 
equipment 
(ppe) 
(such 
as 
mask, 
gloves, 
face 
shield) 
for 
the 
.... 
.... 
back-of-house 
(kitchen) 
employees 
to 
ensure 
employee 
health, 
cleaning, 
and 
sanitizing. 
.. 
Measuretheemployee’stemperatureandassesssymptomspriortotheirstartingworkonadailybasis. 
.... 
.... 
. 
Provide 
materials 
and 
supplies 
for 
employees 
for 
covid-.. 
prevention 
mechanisms, 
such 
as 
facemasks, 
.... 
.... 
forehead 
thermometers, 
hand 
sanitizer, 
disinfectionwipes, 
alcohol 
spray, 
bleach, 
etc. 
.. 
Measure 
the 
customers’ 
temperature 
before 
they 
start 
the 
check-in 
process 
at 
the 
front-desk. 
.... 
.... 
. 
Provide 
employees 
with 
training 
in 
regards 
to 
environmental 
sanitation, 
such 
as 
equipment 
disinfection. 
.... 
.... 
.. 
Provide 
the 
proper 
personal 
protective 
equipment 
(ppe) 
(such 
as 
mask, 
gloves, 
face 
shield) 
for 
the 
.... 
.... 
housekeeping 
employees 
to 
ensure 
employee 
health, 
cleaning, 
and 
sanitizing. 
. 
For 
the 
pandemic, 
provide 
personal 
hygiene 
and 
safety-related 
training, 
such 
as 
appropriate 
ways 
of 
.... 
.... 
mask-wearing, 
hand 
washing, 
body-temperature 
measurement, 
etc. 
. 
Proactively 
provide 
employees 
with 
covid-.. 
information 
for 
training 
purposes. 
.... 
.... 
. 
Provideemployeeswithtraininginregardsto 
‘customerserviceflow’duringthepandemic. 
.... 
.... 
. 
Train 
and 
educate 
employee 
with 
standard 
operating 
procedures 
(sops) 
to 
handle 
suspected 
covid-.. 
.... 
.... 
customers. 


takeoutsales,andcateringsales;(2)annualroomsales; 
and 
(3) 
annual 
f&b 
revenue. 
It 
is 
found 
that 
there 
is 
no 
significant 
difference 
in 
implementation 
of 
public 
health 
strategiesamong 
hotel 
performance,annual 
room 
sales, 
and 
annual 
f&b 
revenue. 
h3, 
h3a, 
h3b, 
and 
h3c 
are 
not 
supported. 


Implications 
and 
Conclusions 


The 
findings 
of 
this 
study 
are 
consistent 
with 
previous 
research 
on 
the 
epidemic 
that 
during 
the 
sars 
outbreak, 
the 
Korean 
hotel 
industry 
offered 
employ-
eeseducationprogrammesconcerningsafety,security 
andhealthawareness,aswellastrainingandoperating 
new 
hygiene 
equipment 
(Kim 
et 
al., 
2005). 
In 
Taiwan, 
the 
high-end 
hotels 
(i.e. 
4-star 
and 
5-star 
hotels) 
have 
often 
used 
public 
health 
strategies 
during 
the 
coronavirus 
pandemic, 
while 
intensifying 
employees’ 
safety 
trainingisthemost-adoptedpractice.Intheeducation 
programme,hotelsprovidestaffwith 
covid-19information 
and 
hygiene 
equipment, 
and 
give 
training 
in 


Continued 
on 
the 
next 
page 


personal 
hygiene 
and 
safety, 
special 
customer 
service 
flow,andenvironmentalsanitation.Providingppe 
for 
front-of-house 
staff, 
kitchen 
staff, 
and 
housekeeping 
employees 
are 
almost 
always 
applied 
in 
the 
daily 
hotel 
operation. 


The 
high 
implementation 
of 
public 
health 
strategies 
in 
the 
hotels 
in 
Taiwan 
can 
be 
attributed 
to 
the 
transparent, 
easily-accessed, 
and 
open 
information 
provided 
by 
who, 
the 
Taiwanese 
Central 
Epidemic 
Command 
Centre, 
the 
Tourism 
Bureau 
and 
city 
governors. 
Local 
governments 
in 
Taiwan 
like 
Taipei 
and 
Pingtung 
(Chang, 
2020; 
World 
Health 
Organization, 
2020; 
tpedoit,2020)haveprovidedoperationalconsiderations 
and 
sops 
for 
covid-19 
management 
in 
the 
lodging 
business. 
With 
the 
sars 
experience, 
in 
early 
March, 
2020, 
the 
Department 
of 
Information 
and 
Tourism 
of 
Taipei 
City 
Government 
where 
the 
Taiwan 
capital 
is, 
developed 
and 
launched 
the 
Manual 
of 
Pandemic 
Prevention 
sop 
for 
Hotel 
Businesses 
andmadeitavailabletoallthehotelcompaniesinTai


156 
| 
Academica 
Turistica,Year15, 
No.1,April 
2022 



Heidi 
H. 
Chang 
and 
MiRan 
Kim 
COVID-19 
Public 
Health 
Strategy 
Implementation 


Table 
2 
Continued 
from 
the 
previous 
page 


Strategy/Description 
(.) 
(.) 


.. 
Measure 
the 
customers’ 
temperature 
before 
they 
enter 
the 
restaurants 
for 
dine-in 
services. 
.... 
.... 


.. 
The 
Housekeeping 
Department 
builds 
action 
plans 
for 
guestroom 
cleaning 
procedures 
in 
response 
to 
the 
.... 
.... 
covid-.. 
outbreak, 
such 
as 
altering 
the 
frequency 
of 
changing 
the 
bedding, 
room 
cleaning 
and 
disinfection, 
trash 
removal, 
etc. 


. 
During 
the 
covid-.. 
crisis, 
an 
‘epidemic 
command 
centre’ 
in 
the 
hotel 
is 
established 
to 
integrate 
.... 
... 
resources 
of 
the 
administration, 
different 
business 
units, 
medical, 
and 
public 
sectors. 


.. 
Designate 
a 
specific 
department, 
office 
or 
employees 
to 
gather 
public 
health 
information 
on 
covid-.. 
.... 
... 
practices, 
policies 
and 
statistics 
updates 
from 
the 
private 
and 
public 
sector. 


.. 
Apply 
food 
safety 
strategies 
by 
providing 
takeout, 
delivery, 
kerbside 
pickup 
service, 
or 
special 
lunchbox 
.... 
.... 


deal. 


.. 
The 
Housekeeping 
Department 
change 
dishwashing 
and 
laundry 
sop 
in 
response 
to 
covid-... 
.... 
.... 


.. 
Provide 
special 
process 
of 
room 
service 
for 
hotel 
guests, 
such 
as 
knock-and-drop 
deliver, 
in-room 
dining 
.... 
.... 


and 
food 
options. 


. 
Prepare 
and 
assign 
special 
floors 
or 
specific 
rooms 
in 
advance 
for 
quarantine 
of 
suspected 
covid-.. 
.... 
.... 
customers 
or 
employees. 


.. 
F&B 
Department 
develops 
special 
menus 
for 
healthy 
and 
nutritious 
food, 
such 
as 
immunity 
herbal 
tea, 
.... 
.... 
immune-boosting 
meals, 
etc. 


. 
Prepareandreservespecialfloorsorspecificroomsforgovernmentdepartments(e.g.CentresforDisease 
... 
.... 
Control 
and 
Prevention) 
as 
quarantine 
stations. 


.. 
Establish 
a 
special 
kitchen 
section 
for 
handling 
packaged 
food 
and 
food 
preparation 
during 
covid-... 
.... 
.... 


Notes 
Column 
headings 
are 
as 
follows: 
(1) 
mean, 
(2) 
standard 
deviation. 


wan. 
The 
manual 
contains 
general 
information 
about 
the 
coronavirus 
pandemic, 
outbreak 
prevention 
practices,
hotelmanagementduringapandemic, 
sops 
for 
customer 
check-in, 
hotel 
room 
cleaning, 
food 
safety, 
transportationarrangement,cleaninganddisinfection 
(tpedoit, 
2020). 


This 
study 
also 
found 
the 
least-adopted 
public 
health 
strategy 
in 
the 
hotels 
is 
to 
establish 
a 
special 
kitchen 
section 
for 
handling 
packaged 
food 
and 
food 
preparationduring 
covid-19.SinceApril12untilthe 
time 
ofwritingthisarticle,theTaiwanesegovernment 
has 
successfully 
managed 
to 
maintain 
a 
record 
of 
no 
local 
covid-19 
transmission. 
Namely, 
local 
people’s 
life 
has 
remained 
normal, 
the 
country 
has 
never 
instituted 
lockdown 
orders, 
and 
the 
vast 
majority 
of 
restaurant 
and 
hotel 
businesses 
have 
remained 
open 
(Aspinwall, 
2020). 
One 
of 
the 
business 
characteristics 
of 
4-star 
and 
5-star 
hotels 
in 
Taiwan 
is 
that 
half 
of 
the 
hotel 
revenue 
comes 
from 
f&b 
sales, 
which 
is 


mostly 
generated 
by 
domestic 
purchase, 
and 
the 
hotels 
have 
maintained 
their 
regular 
kitchen 
operations 
without 
particular 
food-safety 
practices 
during 
the 
coronavirus 
pandemic. 
Another 
rarely 
adopted 
practice 
is 
preparing 
and 
reserving 
special 
floors 
or 
specific 
rooms 
in 
the 
hotel 
for 
government 
departments 


(e.g. 
Centres 
for 
Disease 
Control 
and 
Prevention) 
as 
quarantine 
stations. 
It 
can 
be 
explained 
by 
the 
successful 
control 
for 
covid-19 
so 
the 
demand 
is 
not 
there. 
This 
study 
not 
only 
explored 
the 
frequent 
implementation 
in 
employee 
safety 
training 
and 
employees’/
customers’ 
safety 
and 
protection, 
it 
also 
found 
there 
is 
no 
significant 
difference 
in 
implementation 
of 
public 
health 
strategies 
in 
regard 
to 
different 
hotel 
locations, 
annual 
revenue 
or 
nationality 
of 
customers 
(international 
or 
domestic 
visitors). 
Namely, 
almost 
all 
the 
4-star 
and 
5-star 
hotels 
frequently 
apply 
the 
strategies 
to 
protect 
the 
health 
and 
safety 
of 
its 


Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 
|157 



Heidi 
H. 
Chang 
and 
MiRan 
Kim 
COVID-19 
Public 
Health 
Strategy 
Implementation 


staff 
and 
customers 
during 
the 
covid-19 
pandemic. 
The 
public 
information 
concerning 
covid-19 
management 
in 
the 
accommodation 
sectors 
provided 
by 
national 
and 
local 
governments 
in 
Taiwan 
has 
been 
a 
common 
platform 
of 
knowledge 
by 
contributing 
best 
publichealthpracticeexperiencesforbettercrisispreparednessandresponse. 
Knowledge-sharingconcepts 
can 
explain 
the 
effectiveness 
of 
public 
health 
strategy 
implementation 
as 
part 
of 
crisis 
management 
in 
the 
hospitality 
industry 
in 
Taiwan 
(Racherla 
& 
Hu, 
2009). 
In 
set, 
Blau 
(194) 
indicated 
that 
the 
party 
anticipates 
what 
the 
reward 
would 
be 
in 
regards 
to 
their 
next 
social 
interaction. 
It 
explains 
that 
high-end 
hotels 
in 
Taiwan 
are 
highly 
engaged 
with 
public 
health 
strategies, 
without 
Government 
mandatory 
requirements, 
because 
they 
expect 
the 
customer 
will 
reward 
their 
strategy 
of 
implementation 
for 
preventing 
and 
limitingthespreadofthecoronaviruspandemic.Even 
those 
hotel 
companies 
that 
had 
more 
than 
50. 
in 
occupancy 
rate 
and 
f&b 
sales 
have 
all 
implemented 
the 
public 
health 
strategies 
during 
the 
covid-19 
crisis 
to 
protect 
their 
customers 
and 
employees, 
and 
to 
regain 
trust 
from 
future 
customers. 
It 
is 
consistent 
with 
Jeong 
and 
Oh’s 
study 
in 
the 
hospitality 
and 
tourism 
field 
(2017) 
that 
strategizing 
a 
business 
relationship 
requires 
not 
only 
economic 
exchanges 
but 
also 
additional 
social 
sharing 
of 
psychological 
rewards 
in 
the 
long 
run. 
Hotels 
strictly 
apply 
the 
public 
health 
measures 
regardless 
of 
location 
and 
annual 
performance 
because 
‘social 
costs 
and 
rewards 
drive 
human 
decision 
and 
behavior’ 
(Bluau, 
1964). 
Social 
rewards 
like 
emotional 
satisfaction 
and 
sharing 
ideas 
is 
important, 
andeveneconomicrewardsarerelevant(Lambeetal., 
2001). 


Four-starand5-starhotelsoftenhavetheiremployees 
trained 
in 
sop 
dealing 
with 
suspected 
covid-19, 
and 
having 
an 
epidemic 
command 
centre 
to 
integrate 
hotel,hospitalandgovernmenthasprovedtheimportanceofhotelshavingpublic 
healthcarefacilitiesand 
services,whichplayimperativerolesinpandemicprevention 
and 
control 
(e.g. 
Jiang 
& 
Wen, 
2020; 
Chen 
et 
al., 
2007). 
As 
Taiwan 
has 
never 
undergone 
lock-
down 
during 
the 
pandemic, 
the 
often-used 
hygiene 
and 
cleanliness 
practices 
in 
a 
hotel 
property 
are 
essential 
to 
restore 
customers’ 
confidence 
in 
dining 
and 


lodging. 
As 
Jiang 
and 
Wen 
(2020) 
mentioned 
in 
their 
study,afterapublichealthcrisislike 
covid-19,effectivestrategiesare 
necessarytoboost 
customers’ 
confidence 
and 
to 
help 
hotel 
businesses 
recover 
in 
a 
timely 
manner. 


This 
study 
suggests 
that 
hotel 
managers 
adopt 
different 
public 
health 
strategies 
for 
managing 
a 
pandemic 
crisis. 
The 
strategies 
could 
include: 


1. 
Intensifyingemployeesafetytraining(Strategy1– 
5, 
see 
Table 
1) 


2. 
Providing 
hotel-based 
health-care 
services 
and 
facilities 
(Strategy 
6–9) 
3. 
Assuring 
food 
safety 
and 
providing 
healthy 
food 
choices 
(Strategy 
10–13) 
4. 
Enhancing 
hygiene 
and 
cleanliness 
(Strategy 
14– 
18) 
5. 
Providingsafetyandprotectiontoemployeesand 
customers(Strategy 
19–23) 
During 
the 
abrupt 
health-based 
crisis 
of 
covid19, 
employers 
in 
the 
hotel 
industry 
have 
been 
obliged 
to 
safeguard 
their 
workers’ 
health 
and 
safety, 
emphasizing 
the 
administrative 
control 
of 
changing 
the 
way 
people 
work, 
and 
the 
protection 
of 
workers 
with 
ppe 
(Rosemberg,2020).Thefindingsinthisstudyareconsistent 
with 
the 
recommended 
measures 
in 
hierarchy 
of 
controls 
from 
the 
National 
Institute 
for 
Occupational 
Safety 
and 
Health 
(niosh) 
and 
the 
cdc 
in 
the 
usa 
to 
protect 
hotel 
employees, 
in 
particular 
the 
front-line 
staff 
(Centers 
for 
Disease 
Control 
and 
Prevention, 
2020; 
Rosemberg, 
2020). 
Among 
all 
the 
publichealthstrategieshotelsadoptedduringthepandemic, 
only 
a 
few 
were 
enforced 
by 
cecc 
in 
Taiwan. 
All 
the 
hotel 
customers 
and 
employees 
have 
been 
re-
quiredtowearmasksinpublic 
areas.Facemaskshave 
beenconsideredasthekeyfactormakingTaiwanlimit 
the 
spread 
of 
coronavirus 
(Hsu 
et 
al., 
2021). 
Consequently, 
people 
whodo 
not 
weara 
face 
maskin 
public 
mustfaceafineofupto 
us$536. 
Therestofthepublic 
healthstrategiesimplementedby 
thehotel 
companies 
in 
Taiwan 
were 
voluntary. 


Nevertheless,theresultsshowthathotelsfrequently 
strictly 
adopt 
public 
health 
measures. 
The 
findings 
can 
be 
explained 
by 
set 
that 
hotel 
companies 
consider 
the 
rewards 
of 
applying 
public 
health 
strategies 


158 
| 
Academica 
Turistica, 
Year 
15, 
No. 
1, 
April 
2022 



Heidi 
H. 
Chang 
and 
MiRan 
Kim 
COVID-19 
Public 
Health 
Strategy 
Implementation 


topreventthespreadof 
covid-19andcarryingsocial 
responsibility 
are 
higher 
than 
the 
costs 
(Eggert 
et 
al., 
2006; 
Walter 
et 
al., 
2001). 


Research 
Limitations 
and 
Future 
Studies 


As 
hotels 
are 
prominently 
suffering 
from 
the 
pandemic, 
it 
is 
necessary 
to 
examine 
how 
hotels 
should 
establishcontingencyplansforinfectiousdiseasecontrol. 
This 
study 
is 
an 
exploratory 
study 
investigating 
the 
public 
health 
strategy 
implementation 
in 
hotels 
and 
findings 
indicate 
the 
most 
and 
least 
frequently 
usedstrategyoverall.However,thereareonly127highendhotelsinTaiwan.
Evenwiththehighresponserate 
of 
60. 
with 
executive 
managers 
participating 
in 
the 
survey,thesamplesizeofthisstudyis76hotels,which 
is 
considered 
as 
a 
small 
sample 
which 
leads 
to 
a 
few 
limitations 
in 
statistical 
analysis. 
efa 
cannot 
be 
applied 
to 
test 
the 
validity 
of 
the 
questionnaire 
items. 
Secondly, 
the 
participants 
were 
not 
asked 
about 
hotel 
brand;thus,theresultscouldnotbeanalysedbybrand 
or 
service 
level. 


A 
future 
study 
is 
suggested 
to 
further 
investigate 
the 
relationship 
among 
crisis 
management 
strategy, 
crisis 
preparation 
and 
performance. 
It 
is 
needful 
to 
carefullyexamine 
the 
impactsof 
crisis 
strategyto 
find 
the 
best 
industry 
practices 
in 
handling 
a 
public 
health 
crisis 
such 
as 
covid-19. 


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164 
| 
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Turistica, 
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1, 
April 
2022 



Academica 
Turistica 
Instructions 
for 
Authors 


Citing 
References 
in 
Text 


One 
author. 
Tourisminnovation 
specificismentioned 
(Brooks, 
2010). 
Thomas 
(1992) 
had 
concluded 
... 


Two 
authors. 
This 
result 
was 
later 
contradicted(Swar-
brooke&Horner,2007).PriceandMurphy(2000) 
pointed 
out 
... 


Threeormoreauthors. 
Wolchik 
et 
al. 
(1999) 
or 
(Wolchik 
et 
al., 
1999). 


If 
two 
references 
with 
three 
or 
more 
authors 
shorten 
to 
the 
same 
form, 
cite 
the 
surnames 
of 
the 
first 
author 
and 
of 
as 
many 
of 
the 
subsequent 
authors 
as 
necessary 
to 
distinguish 
the 
two 
references, 
followed 
by 
a 
coma 
and 
et 
al. 


List 
several 
authors 
for 
the 
same 
thought 
or 
idea 
with 
separation 
by 
using 
a 
semicolon: 
(Kalthof 
et 
al., 
1999; 
Biegern 
& 
Roberts, 
2005). 


Examples 
of 
Reference 
List 


Books 


American 
Psychological 
Association. 
(2019). 
Publication 
manual 
of 
the 
American 
Psychological 
Association 
(7th 
ed.). 


Swarbrooke,J.,&Horner,S.(2007).Consumerbehavi-
our 
in 
tourism. 
Butterworth-Heinemann. 


Journals 


Laroche,M.,Bergeron,J.,&Barbaro-Forleo,G.(2001). 
Targeting 
consumers 
who 
are 
willing 
to 
pay 
more 
for 
environmentally 
friendly 
products. 
Journal 
of 
Consumer 
Marketing, 
18(6), 
503–520. 


Wolchik, 
S. 
A., 
West, 
S. 
G.,Sandler, 
I.N., 
Tein,J.– 
Y.,Coatsworth, 
D.,Lengua, 
L.,... 
Griffin, 
W. 
A. 
(2000). 
An 
experimental 
evaluation 
of 
theory-
basedmotherandmother-childprogramsforchildren 
of 
divorce. 
Journal 
of 
Consulting 
and 
Clinical 
Psychology, 
68, 
843–856. 


Newspapers 


Brooks, 
A. 
(2010, 
7 
July). 
Building 
craze 
threatens 
to 
end 
Lanzarote’s 
biosphere 
status. 
Independent. 
http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/ 
nature/building-craze-threatens-to-end 
-lanzarotes-biosphere-status-2020064.html 


Chapters 
in 
Books 


Poirier, 
R. 
A. 
(2001). 
A 
dynamic 
tourism 
development 
model 
in 
Tunisia: 
Policies 
and 
prospects. 
In 


Y. 
Aposotolopoulos, 
P. 
Loukissas, 
& 
L. 
Leontidou 
(Eds.), 
Mediterranean 
tourism 
(pp. 
197–210). 
Routledge. 
Conference 
Proceedings 


Price, 
G., 
& 
Murphy, 
P. 
(2000). 
The 
relationship 
be-
tweenecotourismand 
sustainabledevelopment:A 
critical 
examination. 
In 
M. 
Ewen 
(Ed.), 
cauthe 
2000: 
Peak 
performance 
in 
tourism 
and 
hospitality 
research; 
Proceedings 
of 
the 
Tenth 
Australian 
Tourism 
and 
Hospitality 
Research 
Conference 
(pp. 
189– 
202). 
La 
Trobe 
University. 


Paper 
Presentation 


Thomas,J.(1992, 
July). 
Tourism 
and 
the 
environment: 
An 
exploration 
of 
the 
willingness 
to 
pay 
of 
the 
average 
visitor 
[Paper 
presentation.] 
Tourism 
in 
Europe, 
Durham, 
England. 


Theses 
and 
Dissertations 


Sedmak, 
G. 
(2006). 
Pomen 
avtenticnosti 
turisticnega 
proizvoda: 
primer 
destinacije 
Piran 
[Unpublished 
doctoral 
dissertation]. 
University 
of 
Ljubljana. 


Working 
Papers 


Salamon, 
L. 
M.,Sokolowski, 
S. 
W.,Haddock,M.A., 
& 
Tice,H.S.(2013). 
Thestateofglobalcivilsociety 
volunteering: 
Latest 
findings 
from 
the 
implementation 
ofthe 
un 
nonprofitthandbook 
(ComparativeNon-
profit 
Sector 
Working 
Paper 
No. 
49). 
Johns 
Hopkins 
University. 


Web 
Pages 


Croatian 
Bureau 
of 
Statistics. 
(2001). 
Census 
of 
population, 
households 
and 
dwellings. 
http://www.dzs 
.hr/Eng/censuses/Census2001/census.htm 


Manuscript 
Submission 


The 
main 
manuscript 
document 
should 
be 
in 
Microsoft 
Word 
document 
format 
and 
the 
article 
should 
be 
submitted 
to 
http://academica.turistica.si/index.php/ 
AT-TIJ/about/submissions 


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