143 professional supervision – a Discipline anD profession in its own right: its historical roots anD evolution1 PROf ESIONAl NA SUPERvIZIjA kOT SAMOSTOjNA STROkA IN POkl IC: ZGODOvINSkO OZADjE IN RAZvOj Louis Van Kessel kesselvan.l@hetnet.nl 1 Prispevek je delno preoblikovan tekst, ki je v ruskem jeziku natisnjen v monografiji Sodobna supervizija. Sodobni pristopi, standardi kakovosti: zbornik gradiv znanstvenih in strokovnih konferenc o superviziji z mednarodno udeležbo (str. 23-52). Založba ASC. ABSt RAC t This chapter outlines the mainstream development of professio- nal supervision, as recorded mainly in Anglophone publications. It sketches its two recognized historical roots and the inclusion of supervision in social work, psychotherapy, and counselling. It then delineates the development of supervision since the 1950s and how supervision evolved towards a generic methodical approach suita- ble for use across human service and health care professions with their different methodical schools, either in their service organi- zations or for their (self-employed) practising professionals, and as part of their (continuous) training programmes. Parallels with developments in continental European countries are delineated. It concludes with some challenging tasks to develop a science of super- vision and the competency and training of professional supervisors. keYW oRDS: administrative supervision; care professions; clinical supervision; history of supervision; helping professions; human service professionals; professional human services; professional supervision; supervision science; professional supervisor; super- visor competence; supervisor association; supervisor training. povzetek Poglavje predstavi prevladujočo smer razvoja poklicne supervi- zije, kot je opisana predvsem v publikacijah v angleškem jeziku, pri čemer najprej izpostavi dve zgodovinski ozadji in vključevanje supervizije na področja socialnega dela, psihoterapije in svetova- nja. V nadaljevanju poglavja je opisano, kako se je supervizija od 50. let 20. stoletja razvijala v splošen metodološki pristop, pri- meren za različne socialnovarstvene in zdravstvene poklice, ki so podvrženi različnim metodološkim šolam, pri čemer se je izvajala tako znotraj organizacij kot za njihove (samozaposlene) strokov- njake oziroma je bila del njihovih (stalnih) programov usposablja- nja. Poglavje vključuje tudi vzporednice z razvojem supervizije v državah celinske Evrope. Zaključi se z zanimivimi nalogami za razvoj znanosti supervizije ter kompetenc in usposabljanja pro- fesionalnih supervizorjev. kLJUČNe B eSeD e: upravna supervizija, poklici s področja nege in varstva, klinična supervizija, zgodovina supervizije, podporni poklici, socialnovarstveni poklici, profesionalne storitve nege in varstva, profesionalna supervizija, znanost supervizije, profesion- alni supervizor, kompetence supervizorja, supervizorsko združenje, usposabljanje za supervizorje. Introduction The history of supervision and how it develops worldwide, with its inherent similarities and differences, must be part of the knowledge SOCIAlNA PEDAGOGIkA 2023, lETNIk 27, šTEvIlkA 3–4 144 base of today's supervisors. The purpose, values, and methodical features of their current professional activity find their footing therein. Drawing mainly on Anglophone publications, this chapter broadly describes its mainstream evolution. Starting with section 2, a sketch in great strokes outlines the two recognized historical roots (social work and psychoanalysis). Section 3 describes the inclusion of supervision in psychotherapy and counselling. Then, section 4 follows with a delineation of the development of supervision since the 1950s, leading up in section 5 to professional supervision as a generic meta-methodical approach suitable for use across profes - sions and methodical schools of human service. The essentials of this approach are highlighted. Section 6 shows some parallels with the development of supervision in continental Europe and sheds some light on how supervisors in Europe have organized them - selves on national and European levels. The conclusion (section 7) outlines the features of supervision as a discipline in its own right. It looks at some challenging tasks to develop a science of supervision, to educate professional supervisors, and the role of professional supervisor associations in this. Two historical roots: Social work – Psychoanalysis The concept and practice of contemporary professional supervision are historically rooted in two traditions of human service. SoCiAL Wo Rk The first root is social work. In that area, supervision started around 1870 as an accompaniment and support activity – as 'wor - kplace coaching' as we would say today – within 'charity organiza- tions' in the United States. Being the forerunners of professional social work, these volunteer organizations strived to professi - onalize their service delivery and organizational structures. To indicate the just-described function and present themselves as serious organizations, they took over the term 'supervision' from l. vAN kESSEl: PROfESSIONAl SUPER vISION – A DISCIPlINE AND PROfESSION IN ITS OwN RIGHT 145 public administration and industrial organizations, which knew the 'supervisor' as a middle-management function as part of their organizational model (Harkness & Poertner, 1989). These forerunners of social work gave the function 'supervision' besides administrative or controlling aspects, supportive and edu - cational tasks. As early as 1903, a publication conceived supervision as 'educational work', using the 'teachings of experience' (Bracket, 1903, p. 212). In the 1930s, the 'educational function of supervision' was stressed; supervision was described as a 'process in its own right' (Robinson, 1936, p. 33), and as a time-structured 'educatio - nal process for training a person' (Robinson, 1936; in Kadushin & Harkness, 2014), aiming at fostering the supervisee's developing as a 'professional self and its expression in professional skill (…) and its use in a functionally defined helping relationship' (Robinson, 1949, p. 35).2 Through that, the focus of supervision shifted from the case and client to the social workers' professional qualities (Harkness & Poertner, 1989), a trend that research in the 1970s (Kadushin, 1974) confirmed as enduring. pSYC ho ANALYSiS The teaching and learning of psychoanalysis provide the second root of supervision's origin. The so-called Wednesday-night discussion meetings, which Sigmund Freud organized from 1902 for his pupils (Freud, 1914/1950; Watkins, 2011a, p.59), have come to be thought of as the 'informal' beginnings of psychotherapy supervision (Frawley-O'Dea 2 For comprehensive information about the history of supervision in social work, see Kadushin and Harkness (2014), O’Donoghue (2010), Tsui (1997, 2005a). Munson (2002, pp. 49-94) outlines the 150-year historic development from the early beginnings into the 1990s in a detailed descrip- tion. Using content analysis of historical texts of the Anglo-American tradition, Levická et al. (2021) identify the origins and nature of supervision in social work and its gradual development in the context of professionalization. White & Winstanley (2014) traces the origins back to the pioneering charity work of European and North American social reformers of the eighteenth century. For the coun-selling field, Leddick and Bernard (1980) described the supervision practice’s historical evolution from a polarized relationship state toward its current collaboration trend. Watkins (2011a) looks back at hundred years of psycho-therapy supervision and considers some of the salient issues and themes that have defined its science and practice as an emerged ‘signature pedagogy’. SOCIAlNA PEDAGOGIkA 2023, lETNIk 27, šTEvIlkA 3–4 146 & Sarnat, 2001; Urlic & Brunori, 2007; Wiener et al., 2002; Watkins, 2013, p. 255). However, the real founder was the Berlin psychoanalyst Max Eitington. At the 7th International Psychoanalytical Congress in Berlin (1922), he presented a report (Eitington, 1923) that appears to be the first material dealing with supervision issues, such as its rati - onale, screening, notes, responsibility, and the extent and length of supervision itself. Called 'control analysis', it was introduced as a formal and obligatory part of psychoanalytic training. Today that is known as 'supervised analysis' or 'analysis under supervision', separating it from personal analysis. (Fleming and Benedek, 1983; Perlman, 1996; Szecsödy, 2008; Watkins, 2013; Wiener et al., 2002). Almost two decades later, this separation became an official policy (Bibring, 1937). For Jungian circles, this separation occurred not earlier than 1962 (Wiener et al., 2002, p. 7). Inclusion of supervision in psychotherapy and counselling: Learning and teaching of professional functioning through supervision instead of under supervision It took until 1958 before the first book on supervision in psychothe - rapy was published. With its publication, Ekstein and Wallerstein (1958), both World War II refugees from Austria, made a fruitful connection between the two roots just sketched by using the insi- ghts that the social work tradition had developed, as they recogni- zed with courtesy in their book's introduction. These authors did focus on 'how to supervise rather than how to do psychotherapy'. They replaced the supervision concept as doing psychotherapy 'under supervision' with the concept of supervision 'as the learning and teaching of psychotherapy through supervision', a concept that some years earlier was propagated in social work supervision (Garrett, 1954). This view—learning and teaching through supervision—was a turning point in the conception of supervision in psychotherapy l. vAN kESSEl: PROfESSIONAl SUPER vISION – A DISCIPlINE AND PROfESSION IN ITS OwN RIGHT 147 and the mental health sector. Nevertheless, we can find supervision definitions and practices referring to a professional hierarchical relationship between supervisor and supervisee positions until today (Milne, 2007). Development of supervision since the 1950s In addition to the traditional psychoanalytic approach, various counselling and psychotherapy orientations have emerged since the 1950s. Along with that and the increasing attention to the quality assurance of the expanded human services, supervision has gone through an exciting phase of development (Carroll, 2007). DiSSemiNA tio N ACR oSS A v AR iet Y of hUmAN Se RviCeS, theiR pRofe SSioNS, AND theiR e DUCA tio NAL pR ogRAmme S Supervision extended to numerous professions and sectors of human services. Already in 1925, it was written: 'whether it be teaching, nursing, commerce and industry, or other professions and occupations, where supervisors are expected to achieve instru - mentality of other workers' (Day, 1925; in White and Winstanley, 2014, p. 11). Also, a crossover of the principles of social casework supervision to nurses was argued: they shared a common need for a supervisor 'who must slowly and gently lead her workers on, broadening their understanding, deepening their acceptance and strengthening their capacity to limit themselves to the area of work for which they are professionally qualified' (Hollis, 1938; in White and Winstanley, 2014, p. 11). The respective educational programmes and professional com - munities in the wide variety of human service professions valued supervision as an essential means to enhance their service's effec - tiveness. It became a signature method for training students to acquire professional practice competence, as well as for the ongoing professional development of advanced practitioners and those in SOCIAlNA PEDAGOGIkA 2023, lETNIk 27, šTEvIlkA 3–4 148 leadership positions to perform their practice competently and responsibly. The thousands of publications on supervision nowa - days available worldwide show that. CoNC ept UAL D eve LopmeNt Administrative/managerial supervision – Clinical supervision This dissemination of supervision went hand in hand with an evo- lution of its concept and the generation of numerous approaches and models for its conducting. Partly related to the history of supervision and partly to how a particular service is organized and the extent of its professiona- lism, in Anglo-Saxon supervision theory and practice, an underlying tension can be observed between focusing on either bureaucratic control or professionalism (Lonneman Doroff, 2012; Munson, 1976). That has to do with how the particular human service profession and the organizations employing its members want to influence the professional's first-line work performance: focusing on acco - unting for it or emphasizing professional autonomy and deve - lopment (Glanz, 1998). That tension results in a dichotomy of supervision concepts and practices: on the one hand, the so-called administrative/mana - gerial (Brown and Bourne, 1996; Hawkins and Shohet, 2000) or line supervision (Beddoe, 2012) with the primacy of organizatio - nal accountability, consistency of the frontline services with the formulated service policy of the organization, and a hierarchical relationship between supervisor and supervisee; on the other hand, clinical supervision with its educational-developmental approach (Holloway, 1995). We can state that administrative/managerial supervision has value as a form of workplace coaching and quality management (Tsui, 2005b; Van Kessel, 1992), which can contribute to organiza- tional learning (Austin and Hopkins, 2004). Although both of the just-mentioned positions can be complementary (Bertacchi and Gil - kerson, 2009), it is advisable to distinguish them when organizing and carrying out supervision in practice. This is desirable because possible overlap or conflict areas and potential difficulties with l. vAN kESSEl: PROfESSIONAl SUPER vISION – A DISCIPlINE AND PROfESSION IN ITS OwN RIGHT 149 boundary issues affect the effectiveness of supervision (Beddoe, 2010; Davys, 2017; Erera and Lazar, 1995; Gibelman and Schervish, 1998; Haarman, 2013; Munson, 1981; Payne, 1994). It is recommen - ded to keep the two approaches separated to avoid role duality with its potential for conflict generation (Kleiser and Cox, 2008). Clinical supervision – professional supervision – reflective supervision The terms 'clinical supervision', 'professional supervision,' and 'reflective supervision' came into use to distinguish supervision that excludes administrative responsibilities, although not uni - vocal in their usage. The term 'clinical supervision'—often shortened to 'super - vision' and used synonymously with 'psychotherapy supervision' (Milne and Watkins, 2014, p. 3)—mainly refers to building on and advancing psychotherapeutic or other clinical skills; and, like in social work, to improve practice with human services' clients and enhance the practitioner's professional growth and development (Bernard, 2005; Borders et al., 2014; Campbell, 2006; Corey et al., 2021; Cutcliffe and Lowe, 2005; Cutcliffe et al., 2010; Falender and Shafranske, 2014; Milne, 2007; Watkins and Milne, 2014). Its inherent evaluation component focuses on the supervisee's deve- lopment of his/her professional competencies, which are anchored in professional performance standards and public accountability rather than the organization. The term 'professional supervision' (Davys and Beddoe, 2020; Ferguson, 2005; Martin and McBride, 1987; Pawar and Anscombe, 2022; Žorga, 2002) often equates with clinical supervision (Noble et al., 2016). However, one difference is that it is considered to incorporate any professional role aspect, not exclusively learning psychotherapeutic or other clinical skills (Carroll, 2007). 'Reflective supervision', the third term, refers to an appro - ach that integrates reflective learning theory notions to promote practitioners' reflective development and practice (Barron et al., 2022a, 2022b; Davys and Beddoe, 2009; Flood et al., 2017; Fran - klin, 2011; Hewson and Carroll, 2016a, 2016b; Pack, 2009; Rankine, 2017; Scaife, 2010; Schön, 1983; 1987; Tomlin et al., 2013; Ward & SOCIAlNA PEDAGOGIkA 2023, lETNIk 27, šTEvIlkA 3–4 150 House, 1998). It views the reflective process as the centrepiece of effective supervision (Ghaye and Lillyman, 2010; Shea, 2019) and focuses exclusively on the 'educational-developmental' approach to enhance the supervisees' capacity for critical reflection and lear - ning to accomplish a value-based practice (Noble et al., 2016, pp. 142-251). The approach allows the supervisees to understand the practice's social and cultural context and actively promotes social justice and human rights (Rankine, 2017, 2018). Supervision as a generic methodical approach for application across professions and methodical schools Historically, supervision concepts and practices were developed within the framework of a specific profession bound to the para - digm of a particular methodical professional practice approach. That continues today: publications and practices show that the concrete understanding and implementation of supervision are not the same in each profession or professional field. Differentiations of supervision practices are connected with a profession's particularities, the preferred methodical/methodo- logical approach a particular profession values; moreover, the kind of human service the supervisee is carrying out, the supervisee's level of professional development, and the particular objective of the supervision contract. Concepts are also influenced by the respective author's preference and point of view, often related to the particular profession and professional field s/he belongs to. Moreover, concepts and practices differ between countries (Del Pilar Grazioso et al., 2021; Falender et al., 2021). All these factors have led since around 1970 to a broad differentiation of supervi - sion approaches and models. Often, they were discipline-, school-, or method-bound. However, none of these models fully cover the complexity of the supervision practice. That is why supervisors use elements of more than one model in an eclectic way in conducting super - vision. Moreover, the main models show shared goal-setting and l. vAN kESSEl: PROfESSIONAl SUPER vISION – A DISCIPlINE AND PROfESSION IN ITS OwN RIGHT 151 conceptual commonalities (Bernard and Goodyear, 2019), and the way supervision in practice is realized across professions shows more similarities than differences (Ladany et al., 1999; Rich, 1993; Spence et al., 2001; Vandette and Gosselin, 2019). Publications suggest it is more important that a supervisor has supervisory competencies and is capable of focusing on the supervisees' needs to function as competent professionals than being a representa - tive of the same profession as the supervisee (Lilley et al., 2007; Mullarkey et al., 2001; Davies et al., 2004). Consequently, in the last three decades, more and more publi - cations on supervision show the construction of supervision as a discipline and profession in its own right (Carroll, 2014)3 for use across professions and methodical orientations. That is in contrast to the previously developed profession-specific and method-bound approaches. 4 Terms indicating this development of a generic, non-disci - pline-specific model are best evidence synthesis approach (Milne et al., 2008), cross-theoretical models (Russell et al., 1984), common-fac - tors approach (Morgan and Sprenkle, 2007), generic model (Watkins, 2018), meta framework (Chang, 2013), general, integrative or com - prehensive approach of supervision (Bernard and Goodyear, 2019; Carroll and Tholstrup, 2001; Page and Wosket, 2015; Rich, 1993; Scaife, 1993), and transtheoretical supervision (Aten et al., 2008; Watkins, 2020). The generic approach as the basis for concrete supervisory practice The generic approach presents methodical principles and features generally fundamental for supervision as a methodological activity. According to this approach, supervision offers customized and practice-related professional development to the broad spectrum 3 As described in section 2 Robinson (1936, p. 33) already formulated supervision almost that way. 4 A first ‘International Interdisciplinary Conference on Clinical Supervision (IICCS)’ was held in 2005, with regular an-nual conferences occurring since then. Five presentations updating knowledge from research about professional supervision, although not covering all fields and disciplines, are published in Shulman & Safyer (Eds.) (2005/2012). SOCIAlNA PEDAGOGIkA 2023, lETNIk 27, šTEvIlkA 3–4 152 of human service professionals, their leadership, and future pro- fessionals participating in educational programmes. As practice theory, this generic approach offers the supervisor the basics and a methodical framework for organizing and conduc - ting supervision concretely and specified in particular settings and with different types of supervisees across various human services professions, practice fields, organizations, and their educational programmes. Generic models are essential for a supervisor who delivers supervision across professions and disciplines (Simmons et al., 2007), what is termed: 'cross-disciplinary supervision' (Crocket et al., 2009; Hutchings et al., 2014; O'Donoghue, 2004), 'cross-profes - sional supervision' (Holton, 2017), 'interdisciplinary supervision' (Goodyear et al., 2016), 'multi-professional supervision' (Davies et al., 2004; Mullarkey et al., 2001). All these terms refer to acti - vities now most frequently called 'interprofessional supervision' (Beddoe and Davys, 2016, 147-160; Bogo et al., 2011; Davys and Beddoe, 2015; Howard et al., 2016). A supervisor's knowledge of the essentials of this generic approach, connected with the capability to perform these with interventions, increases the effectiveness of his/her supervisory intervention to the benefit of supervisees' functioning in concrete practice. The latter will develop their professional competence more purposefully and continuously; that, in turn, will lead to their better performing human service and contributes to the well-being of clients and our global human society. However, a supervisor needs additional knowledge of the specific practice approach and its desired methodical principles if supervision is applied to particular professions—with their speci- fic and characteristic methodology and contexts the supervisee's learning process has to focus on. Also, s/he needs to know how to assist the supervisee in handling the particular issues the latter can face in that practice, and, if possible, s/he must dispose of a reflected experience related to these. That, in particular, is the case in student or trainee supervision as part of basic professional trai - ning programmes because in these the supervisor functions as the profession's gatekeeper. l. vAN kESSEl: PROfESSIONAl SUPER vISION – A DISCIPlINE AND PROfESSION IN ITS OwN RIGHT 153 A discipline in its own right Supervision as a discipline in its own right consists of creating a knowledge base unique to supervision by examining the essential facets of supervision: purpose, function, characteristics, process, appropriate interventions, characteristics of desired professional functioning, professional ethics, and the essential values of pro - fessional human service delivery. These transcend the different exi - sting supervision models and the application of supervision into particular professions and fields (Shulman and Safyer, 2005/2012). That knowledge base promotes a supervision concept indepen - dent of particular professions or methodical approaches, though using relevant concepts from other disciplines and approaches. Moreover, it includes the relationship between the generics of supervision and the specific applications in practice situations widely different. Also, that concept has consequences for conducting research activities (Ellis, 2010; Goodyear et al., 2016; Ladany and Muse Burke, 2001; Nielsen and Haugaard Jacobsen, 2009; O'Donoghue and Tsui, 2015; Wampold and Holloway, 1997) and setting requirements for licensing supervisors, their training and continued development, and organizing their particular professional community. The latter shall be exemplified in section 6, with a description of the origin of the Association of National Organisations for Supervision in Europe ANSE and its member associations, advocating supervi - sion as an independent professional service across human service professions. Essential elements of generic models The generic approach conceives supervision as an interactional process, processing practice-based content presented by the super - visee to (learn to) (further) develop his/her current practice func - tioning and professionalism according to standards demanded by society, clients, professional bodies, and humanizing values. In that process, the supervisor assists and guides the supervisee(s) as a novice or seasoned human service professional(s) who conduct frontline tasks or function in a leadership position. Within this interaction of supervisee and supervisor, interactional and SOCIAlNA PEDAGOGIkA 2023, lETNIk 27, šTEvIlkA 3–4 154 psychodynamic phenomena may occur, such as (counter-)trans - ference and regression, (dys-)functional behaviour patterns, resi- stance, projection, and (counter-)identification. In addition, the interaction may also show parallel processes, mirroring how the supervisee functions in his/her professional practice situations. The best possible functioning of the professional in various human service situations demands foundational and functional competencies. Developing professional competency for acting in a wide variety of practice situations demands an individualized learning process, the outcomes of which show the supervisee's professional development level. In the supervision process, the supervisee's learning issues for improved practice and problems with learning to develop professional competency come to light. In their collaboration, both supervisor and supervisee can signal, evaluate, and improve these through the way they perform their learning alliance.5 As essential elements of a generic approach, we can list the following: • Supervision has a dual purpose: 1) ensuring client care quality through assisting practitioners in delivering their services in the best possible way, or in the case of leadership, -supervises their leadership conduct, and 2) enhancing the supervisee's learning and development capacity to permanently improve his/her professional practice competencies in the future; • The central goal is developing the capacity for continuous lear - ning from experiences in recent professional acting and trans - forming insights achieved from that to conducting practice conforming to topical professional requirements and enhan- cing the capacity of own professionalism; • A clear contracting of the objectives, way of working, lear - ning alliance (Gill, 2002; Holloway and González-Doupé, 2002; Ladany et al., 1999; Watkins, 2014), and conditions, as there 5 While the foregoing and following formulations refer to an individual supervisee, it should be noted that they are analo-gously, but not identically, transposable to group and team supervision. l. vAN kESSEl: PROfESSIONAl SUPER vISION – A DISCIPlINE AND PROfESSION IN ITS OwN RIGHT 155 are: a task-directed basic structure, with sessions held regu - larly, at a set time and of defined duration; • A safe supervisory collaborative relationship (Austin and Hopkins, 2004; Holloway and Gonzaléz-Doupé, 2002) in which the supervisor interacts with the supervisee as an active self - -directing learner who creates his/her own agenda for the sessions in focusing on his/her provision of better service to clients. A relationship in which the supervisor promotes an experiential-reflective learning process through methodical interventions to realize that (Allstetter Neufeldt, 1999; James et al., 2007; Kilminster and Joley, 2000; Van Kessel, 1989, 1996, 2019; Van Kessel and Haan, 1993a, 1996a). That is also tailored to the supervisee's idiosyncratic personal-professional lear - ning issues and necessary professional developmental goals, the supervisee's stage of professional development, attitude, and psychological type (Driver, 2009; Kitzrow, 2002; Stone, 2009), and learning style development (Abbey et al., 1985; Johnston and Milne, 2012; Tangen, 2018; Van Kessel, 1990). • Experiential learning (Kolb, 1984; Kolb and Kolb, 2007, 2009) is seen as the basis for successful supervision learning (Milne, 2014; Van Kessel, 1988; Vec et al., 2014; Walden and Pershey, 2013; Watkins and Milne, 2014; Žorga, 1997).6 • Developing critical reflectivity is viewed as vital to professio- nal development (Carroll, 2009, 2010; Moon, 2004; Rankine, 2018; Schön, 1983; Skovolt and Rønnestad, 1995; Vince and Reynolds, 2009). • As a facilitator of that process, the supervisor conducts mul- tiple supervisory roles (Holloway, 2014) with flexibility. S/he communicates in such a way that it enhances the supervisee's in-depth reflection and critical elaboration of recently expe - rienced professional issues. Moreover, s/he sees to it that the supervisee transfers acquired insights into current and future practice and desired own professional development. 6 A review of supervision literature (Milne et al. 2008, p. 181) found ‘82 % of the reviewed studies described out-comes consistent with the experiential learning cycle (Kolb, 1984)’ SOCIAlNA PEDAGOGIkA 2023, lETNIk 27, šTEvIlkA 3–4 156 Additionally, s/he can use a variety of procedures and tech - niques to assist and guide the process. • Contextual forces—regarding society, service delivery envi - ronment, and cultural differences of the (in-)direct actors involved—influence the concrete application of supervisory characteristics and principles (cf. Noble & Irwin, 2009). The professional experience, development, relationships, and kno - wledge of the supervisors and supervisees, the kind of human service the latter conduct to clients, and the kind of clients and their issues, also have an influence (Neufeldt, 1997; Holloway, 2014). Therefore, supervisors must be aware of what cultural, gender, and political background dynamics influence their behaviour, beliefs, and the meanings they give. That applies equally to their supervisees and commissioning parties and how these factors work out in accomplishing the supervisory tasks. Some pARALLe LS W ith D eve LopmeNtS iN We Ste RN C oNtiNeNtAL eUR ope The development of supervision in the Anglophone world outlined in the preceding sections parallels developments in continental Europe, although the circumstances and time scope differed. As early as the 1930s, some small experimental supervision initiatives already originated in Western European countries, espe - cially in child guidance clinics (Van Kessel, 2018a). However, a real breakthrough came only after World War II. Then, the socially and economically disrupted Western continental European countries worked intensively together in a desire for innovation to develop their societies' social systems. As part of that process, American and Canadian 'visiting experts' (mainly former European refugees), and European students travelling to the USA with scholarships for study visits, introduced supervision in Western European coun - tries from around 1950 (Belardi, 2002; Cheminée, 1999; Hess et al., 1954; Van Kessel, 1997, 2000a, 2000b, 2018a, 2018b; Van Kessel & Haan, 1993b, 1996b). l. vAN kESSEl: PROfESSIONAl SUPER vISION – A DISCIPlINE AND PROfESSION IN ITS OwN RIGHT 157 At its introduction, the concept of supervision the pioneers promoted was exclusively restricted to professional training and continued development of 'social caseworkers', social work speci - alists who offered psycho-social guidance to people in long-term dyadic relationships. In the Netherlands, the first training activities to educate supervisors for these professionals took place already from 1951, which in 1968 resulted in the start of a state-accredited one-year post-graduate specialized supervisor training programme with parallel supervisory practice, and slowly an extension of the scope of the programme to supervision for social group workers. Meanwhile, because handling interaction in a professional way became important in more different human service sectors over time, supervision became significant in various training pro- grammes for novice professionals beyond the boundaries of social work as a classic professional domain. Also, supervision became significant for trained practitioners, those in leadership positions, and use in staff development. Several of these professions practised supervision concepts connected to their own particular discipline and methodical approach. Parallel to this development, at the end of the 1960s, the leading supervisor training programmes advocated a clear diffe - rentiation between the administrative and reflective approaches (Siegers, 1972). In that movement, they developed a generic educa - tional methodological supervision concept for organizing and con - ducting supervision across professions, which became fundamen- tal for their supervisor training programmes (Van Kessel, 2018a). This generic concept, no longer bound to a specific profession or methodical school, enabled supervisors to enact functional diffe- rentiation across professional disciplines and multiple contexts. Learning to become a supervisor was conceived as a generic rather than a profession-specific process (Fassmann, 2018; Siegers, 1972, 1974; Siegers et al., 1975, 1976; Siegers and Haan, 1983; Siegers, 2002; Van Kessel, 1997, 2000a, 2000b, 2018a; Van Kessel & Haan, 1993b, 1996b). Since then, more or less corresponding generic concepts on supervision have been developed in various Western European countries. That was partly caused because the concept developed SOCIAlNA PEDAGOGIkA 2023, lETNIk 27, šTEvIlkA 3–4 158 in the Netherlands was influential in Germany and Switzerland (Belardi, 2002; Siegers, 1974). Forty years after supervision's introduction in Western conti - nental European countries, after the fall of the Iron Curtain (1989), professionals in the so-called Eastern European countries felt a need to develop supervision in their countries. Consequently, they invited training supervisors from Western European countries to provide supervisor training programmes. Supervisors in Europe organized themselves on national and European levels In the slipstream of the above-sketched development, since the beginning of the 1980s, professional supervisors in some of the continental European countries organized themselves in specific professional supervisory national associations (Van Kessel, 2006). These associations designed certification systems and codes of conduct to assure supervisors' quality, enabling them to offer super - vision to various professional groups and situations. Moreover, specialized journals on supervision in the respective national lan- guages appeared.7 Cooperation of national supervisor organizations on a European level In the first half of the nineties, national associations for supervi - sion in Austria, Germany, Switzerland, and the Netherlands were aspiring for cooperation on a European level. That resulted in 1998 in the foundation of ANSE (Association of National Organisations for Supervision in Europe) as a European umbrella organization (Van Kessel, 2005, 2006, 2015, 2018c). 7 a. In Europe: Supervision-Mensch, Arbeit, Organisation (Psychosozial-Verlag, Gieβen, Germany), since 1982; OSC-Organisationsberatung, Supervision, Coaching (Wiesbaden, Germany), since 1994; Forum Super-vision, Onli-ne Zeitschrift für Beratungswissenschaft und Supervision (Universität Bielefeld), since 1993; SUPERVISION Theorie - Praxis - Forschung. Eine interdisziplinäre Internet - -Zeitschrift (www.fpi-publikation.de/supervision/), since 2001; ANSE-Journal, European Journal for Supervision and coaching (https://anse.eu/publications/anse-journal), since 2017. b. International: Counselor Education and Supervision, since 1961; The Clinical Supervisor, since 1983, dedicated to providing a crosspollination of ideas and research of supervision; International Journal of Supervision in Psycho-therapy (IPCS, www.ipcs-psy.com), since 2019. l. vAN kESSEl: PROfESSIONAl SUPER vISION – A DISCIPlINE AND PROfESSION IN ITS OwN RIGHT 159 Nowadays, 18 national associations have full membership, three have associate membership, and there are network relati - ons with initiatives in three countries.8 The 'National Association of Supervisors (NAS)' of the Russian Federation got associate membership. Since its foundation, ANSE has initiated various transnatio - nal activities regarding cooperation and continued development to supervisors: conferences, summer universities, international intervision groups, research conferences (De Roos et al., 2017), the publishing of ethical guidelines, and in 2017 the launch of the digital ANSE Journal, with an editorial board representing seven of its national member associations. In 2016, due to an intensive expert project, ANSE published a glossary on concepts and competencies of supervision and coaching in Europe (Judy & Knopf, 2016). This publication was essential in clarifying and accepting standard terminology without infrin - ging on existing and necessary differences. It provided a base for common terminology and issued a framework of competencies that supervisors are expected to have, and supervisor training pro - grammes can use in directing the development of their curriculum. Conclusion In 140 years of practice and its related conceptual-theoretical evo- lution, the organizing and conducting of supervision have evolved as a discipline and profession in their own right. Today, supervision is recognized worldwide as a centrepiece that ensures client welfare and facilitates the professional development of a broad variety of human service professions (Falender and Shafranske, 2004). It is not only part of the training programmes of these latter but also their practice and continued professional development. Super - vision is not only provided to social workers, psychotherapists, and counsellors but also to practicing psychologists, the various (allied) professionals in mental and physical healthcare, teachers 8 www.anse.eu SOCIAlNA PEDAGOGIkA 2023, lETNIk 27, šTEvIlkA 3–4 160 and lecturers in schools and universities, professionals in human resources development, coaches, and the leadership in these pro - fessions, and in many more categories of human service profes - sionals. Supervision enhances their professional well-doing and well-being and reduces their burnout. Moreover, it contributes to the improved function of organizations (Kihlgren and Hansebo, 2014) to deliver their intended human service in the interest of the well-being of clients and society. Today, it is necessary to develop supervision as a science, foun - dational for its practice, and to guide supervisors in their work. That includes connections between traditional and contemporary con- cepts and practices, comparative descriptions of how supervision is developing in different professional fields and countries around the globe, relating generic to specific issues, clarifying the particu - larities involved in applying supervision in the various professions and widely different practice, and taking seriously complex issues supervisees nowadays encounter in their professional practice. Moreover, part of this research agenda must focus on how super - vision contributes to the efficacy of professional human service practice with clients and the practitioner's competence and pro - fessional well-doing and well-being. To reach that goal, it is necessary to become acquainted with the existing diversity of supervision concepts and practices and discover their essentials. Part of it is a consciousness that supervi - sion is politically relevant (Adamson, 2012), as its value base must direct to the humanization of our globe. Supervision scholars must assimilate the knowledge gained so far, and supervisor training programmes and supervisors have to utilize that to enhance their professional identity, roles, compe - tencies, and methodological approaches. Being an experienced and competent practitioner does not anymore make one an effective supervisor (Falender and Shafranske, 2004). Well-trained supervi - sors who can provide high-qualified supervision across professions and to those in leadership are necessary to prevent sub-optimal practices. That is why clear competence profiles for supervisors have been developed and accepted internationally (Falender and Shafranske, 2004; Falender et al., 2014). l. vAN kESSEl: PROfESSIONAl SUPER vISION – A DISCIPlINE AND PROfESSION IN ITS OwN RIGHT 161 Professional supervisors must be capable of assisting and guiding their supervisees individually, in groups, and in teams. They must be capable of doing that from an organization- and pro - fession-internal as well as -external position; moreover, of provi - ding supervision as part of a professional educational programme (student/trainee supervision), continued professional development, licensing procedure, or staff-development programme. While using the knowledge of a generic supervision approach, they must be able to specify the conducting of the factual supervision to the needs and developmental level of the respective supervisee(s) on the one hand and the existing requirements of the respective pro- fession on the other. 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