144
UDC: 502.131.1:711.4(560Harran)
DOl: 10.5379/urbani-izziv-en-2011-22-01-006
Reyhan GENLi ViGiTER Funda VIRMIBEJOGLU
Local Agenda 21 and sustainable development: The case of Harran, Turkey
The twenty-first century is the beginning of an era in which urban development at the international and national levels, equality, continuity, capability, administration involving many actors and settlement systems need to be dealt with using new settlement administration ethics. The concept of sustainable development first came up at the National Development and Environment Conference held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, when the action plan known as Agenda 21 was constituted at the Earth Summit. This is a comprehensive document assigning responsibility to governments, NGOs, local authorities, United Nations organisations, development organisations and all persons and institutions that have an impact on the environment. On this basis, this study evaluates the growing necessity of urban transformation in Turkey in various dimensions within the framework of Local Agenda 21, in which various actors can be involved. This paper approaches the issues not only from the point of view of the state, but also from the point of view of all actors to whom responsibility is assigned. It
examines the philosophy of the Local Agenda 21 program and how it is being implemented in the Municipality of Harran, and it assesses the achievement level of Local Agenda 21 in Turkey and policies in the case reviewed. The paper includes proposals that will allow all local authorities in Turkey to examine their own programs within the framework of the Local Agenda 21 action program so that they can participate in the urban transformation process, develop local sustainable development policies and establish short-term and long-term strategic plans to solve problems.
Keywords: Local Agenda 21, sustainable development, urban transformation, Harran, Turkey
1 Introduction
Globalisation, which is a consequence of increased mobility of people, advances in communication, enormous growth in trade relations and capital, and technological developments, has created new opportunities for sustainable growth and development for the global economy and especially for the economies of developing countries. It not only creates an opportunity for countries to share experiences and learn from others' mistakes, but it also provides a setting in the world in which ideals, cultural values and aspirations are mutually nourished. On the other hand, in addition to rapid change and adjustments, this process also includes severe poverty, unemployment and social disintegration. Furthermore, transformations in the global economy are changing social development parameters and hence urban development in all countries (United Nations, 1995). Kayvan Karimi (1999: 1) emphasised that:
Cities are always involved in a continuous process of change. However, it is evident that in the mediaeval period a relatively stable urban form - the organic city - was shaped and preserved for a considerable period of time until the 18th century. Although the cities of this period also experienced different fortunes, they tended to adopt a gradual and incremental process of change, both in Western mediaeval and Eastern Islamic examples. This process created a distinguished pattern of urban structure, which incorporated the concepts of irregularity and diversity, but meanwhile, managed to develop a complex urban logic based on configurations and relations.
William Wilson (1997) and several other researchers have emphasised that the World Bank's report on urban and local government strategy, Cities in transition: A strategic view of urban and local government issues, stated that "[w]ithin a generation the majority of the developing world's population will live in urban areas and the number of urban residents in developing countries will double, by over 2 billion inhabitants. The scale of this urbanisation is unprecedented and poses daunting requirements for countries to meet the needs of their people at relatively low levels of national income" (World Bank, 2000: 32).
The urban transition offers significant opportunities for countries to improve the quality of life for all of their citizens. However, whether this potential is realised depends critically on the quality of urban management and on the national and local policies affecting it (World Bank, 2000). The most important factors affecting urban areas and urban transformation process are:
•	Globalisation (Sassen, 1994, 2000; Soja, 2000; World Bank, 2000);
•	Democratisation (Dewar, 1996; Burgess et al., 1997; Campbell & Mehta, 2000);
•	Decentralisation (Schubert & Zerlauth, 1997; World
Bank, 2000; Campbell, 2003); and • Hybridisation (Witzling, 1979; Tomlinson, 1994; Nadin & Barton, 1996), which refers to the transformation of urban planning from an overly technical/physical discipline to a much broader people-oriented and developmental approach. Among other things, this new approach has foregrounded various new agendas such as social rationality, sustainable development, community participation, integrated planning, urban productivity and performance, and strategic planning (Coetzee & Serfontein, 2002).
If cities and towns are to promote the welfare of their residents and of the nation's citizens, they must be sustainable and functional in four respects. First and foremost, they must be liveable, ensuring a decent quality of life and equitable opportunity for all residents, including the poorest. To achieve this goal, they must also be competitive, well governed and well managed, and financially sustainable, or bankable (World Bank, 2000). The means for establishing a global society formed with the concept of globalisation and the implementation of universal principles such as respecting human rights, meeting basic human needs and preserving the natural and built environment. Significant effort is expected from national governments, local governments (see, e.g., Schubert & Zer-
100% y
90% -80% -70% -60% -50% -40% -30% -20% -10% -0%
Year ■ ■ ■
1960 1990 2020
a
JZ
a
uo
-G C rs			■0 C aa u rs LU o; <
n3	SiLl^ LU U		
LU ^		C _i rs	
Figure 1: Developing world population and urbanisation ratio (source: United Nations, 2008).
lauth, 1997), international organisations, private institutions and citizens in this attempt. During the 1990s, when it was understood that the principal theme of sustainable growth comprised more than economic growth, the action plan established as a consequence of the Agenda 21 conference was a significant instrument dealing with matters such as social arguments, economic structures, preservation of resources and problems of civil societies (Flavin et al., 2002). Ludek Sykora (2000: 1) emphasised that "[s]uccessful cities do not lose their position within the national, continental and global urban hierarchy. However, only cities characterised by integrated and balanced development of economic, social and environmental aspects of urban society can be successful in the long run. ^e two major tasks of contemporary urban planning and policy are strengthening the competitiveness within the global economy and promotion of economically, socially and environmentally sustainable development."
According to Christopher Flavin et al. (2002), the Rio Declaration of 1992 states that people are the basis of concern for sustainable development and emphasises how significant social matters are for development. Local Agenda 21 establishes the path to sustainable development at the local level for increasing the quality of life for all people. When commitments for the "supporting capacity" of the ecosystems and protecting the rights of future generations combine with mechanisms providing social consensus based on interactive and collaborative participation, it is observed that Local Agenda 21 is not only directed at the future and is not only very comprehensive, but is also an enterprise project (United Nations, 1994; Emrealp, 2005). ^e importance of local authorities as the type of administration closest to the population is emphasised in the section in which the concept of Local Agenda 21 is introduced in Agenda 21. ^e basic goals and approaches emphasise "participation". Four basic goals are set forth in this section:
•	Initiating a participatory process for local authorities in each country involving townspeople and consensus on a Local Agenda 21 for their city.
•	Increasing cooperation between the international community and local authorities, and taking steps to strengthen cooperation between local authorities on an international scale.
•	Developing the level of coordination and cooperation between local administrative units and representatives of other administrative management units in order to enrich experience and exchange information.
•	Encouraging development and implementing programs for effective participation of women and young people in decision-making, planning and implementation processes.
Within the scope of activities to attain these goals, each local administrative unit should develop its own Local Agenda 21
program that includes dialog with the population, local institutions and private-sector organisations. ^e Local Agenda 21 process covers development of a vision aimed at the city's sustainable future and the preparation (and then implementation) of a long-term, strategic local action plan to realise this vision. How things shall be carried out and by whom are as important as what is to be done. In opening the Local Agenda 21 process to all sectors of society, the development of policies and mechanisms encouraging participation is of great significance and priority.
^is paper examines and assesses the necessity of the urban transformation observed in various dimensions in Turkey within the framework of Local Agenda 21, in which various actors can also participate. For this purpose, general information is provided about the philosophy of the Local Agenda 21 program, and its implementation is assessed globally and in Turkey. ^e matter is approached not only from the point of view of the state, but also from the point of view of all responsible actors and the planning process. ^e work carried out in the Municipality of Harran implementing the Local Agenda 21 program was analysed within this scope. ^is paper assesses the extent to which the goals of Local Agenda 21 implemented in Turkey and its policies were achieved.
2 Local Agenda 21 in Turkey
Agenda 21 is a comprehensive global action plan for socially, economically and environmentally sustainable development in the twenty-first century. Local Agenda 21 pertains to developing and implementing local sustainable development action plans with a long-term perspective, based on a consulting process and effective partnership of local stakeholders (United Cities and Local Governments - Middle East and West Asia, 2010). ^e project of encouraging and developing Local Agenda 21 in Turkey was developed by the International Union of Local Authorities, Section for the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East Region (lULA-EMME). ^e project was realised under the aegis of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) Permanent Representation for Turkey, and the UNDP Capacity 21 Program was initiated in September 1997. Project revision was initiated in October 1998 with the aim of new partners participating and extending implementation to the entire country. ^e project was selected as the most successful implementation among the projects supported by the Capacity 21 Program in more than fifty countries.
^e project emphasises governance based on participation and partnerships within the framework of global partnership, which is the basis of Agenda 21. ^e project, coordinated by lULA-EMME, has shown one of the most extensive and impressive illustrations of partnerships at the national and international levels. UNDP's support for the project constitutes
an outstanding example of global partnership between United Nations agencies and local actors. Partners include the Union of Mediterranean Municipalities, the Union of Eastern Black Sea Municipalities, the Union of Aegean Municipalities, the Union of Southeastern Anatolia Project (Turk. Güneydogu Anadolu Projesi, GAP), municipalities, and the Union of Municipalities of the Marmara Region. Project partners that provide multifaceted support to the project include the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI), the World Academy for Local Government and Democracy (WALD), and the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality. Activities for young people are coordinated by another project partner, the Youth for Habitat International Network.
Within the framework of global partnership, steps have been taken to develop and establish a democratic and participatory administration as governance supported by the facilitating and feasible role of local authorities, based on the power of the community and encouraging local interest groups and equal partnerships. The purpose of the project is to strengthen local governance by ensuring that civil society participates in decision-making and influences local investment. The project has two main objectives: The first objective is to promote Local Agenda 21 and its implications for local governance at the national level. The second objective is to establish consulting mechanisms in pilot cities, which will foster a local participatory planning process. The project has five major goals: (United Cities and Local Governments - Middle East and West Asia, 2010):
•	Increasing the number of local authorities engaging in Local Agenda 21, and promoting and developing participatory processes in new partner cities.
•	Preparing local action plans in new partner cities and implementing these plans in partner cities from the first phase.
•	Launching public information and publicising the process abroad to increase international support.
•	Ensuring that the Local Agenda 21 process receives long-term support.
•	Enabling Local Agenda 21 to play a facilitating role within the recovery and reconstruction process after the izmit earthquake.
Within the framework of global partnership, efforts were made to keep the Local Agenda 21 processes initiated in project partner cities open to the associations and foundations constituting local partners, NGOs such as chambers of crafts and trade unions, private sector institutions, academic institutions, media and publishing organisations, local authorities, citizens' efforts and all local community members in general. Special importance is attached to policies and efforts that increase the effective participation of women in urban life and emphasise the issue of gender in local planning and decision-making proc-
esses, present young people not only as "administrators of the future" but also as "partners of today" and provide more and equal opportunities to seniors, children and the handicapped.
During the first phase of the project, processes were launched in a total of 23 cities. In the second phase, the project partner cities increased to 48. The city councils established under the leadership of metropolitan project partners or similar platforms function as effective participatory mechanisms that bring together participants from different institutions in a regular manner to achieve common goals. Similar structures function in many other cities that are project partners with different sizes and features. Studies are being carried out to sufficiently represent all of the partners within these structures, to develop methods to eliminate the representational imbalance between those participating individually in these councils and those participating on behalf of different groups, and to represent unorganised sections and working groups (Emrealp, 2005; United Cities and Local Governments - Middle East and West Asia, 2010). The working groups (or "caucus") established in project partner cities continue to function as a primary mechanism for channelling the dynamic enthusiasm of volunteers from all sectors and all groups to the cities' priority areas of concern. Special attention is devoted to ensuring effective participation of women and young people in these groups, securing adequate representation of disadvantaged community groups and establishing coordination among working groups (United Cities and Local Governments - Middle East and West Asia, 2010).
Although relatively new, the Local Agenda 21 program in Turkey has developed into an effective area of stakeholder collaboration and an important instrument of improved service delivery and democratisation. Furthermore, this is also aided by empowering community groups, facilitating their participation in expressing their needs, and making decisions to address these needs. The result of this transparent process is more client-centred service delivery, enhanced legitimacy for public administration and increased opportunities for civic engagement. The key for the success of such initiatives is a degree of awareness on the part of citizens (which can be initiated or augmented through "sensitivity" programs), existence of stakeholders willing to participate (or responsive to certain incentives) and public officials or local politicians that can foresee the advantages in kindling or adding fuel to the dynamics of local governance (United Cities and Local Governments -Middle East and West Asia, 2010).
3 Implementation of Local Agenda 21 in Harran
Harran is located in the Southeastern Anatolia region near §anliurfa. It is the city where one of the oldest universities in
Figure 2: Location of the Southeastern Anatolia region and Janliurfa district with Harran (source: Republic of Turkey Prime Ministry Southeastern Anatolia Project Regional Development Administration, 2011).
the world was founded. Before Islam, Harran was known as a major centre for the study of medicine, astronomy, physics and mathematics, translation of Greek and Syriac works, and studies in the natural sciences. Harran was invaded and devastated by the Mongols in 1260; the ruins can still be seen today.
Harran is well known for its traditional beehive-shaped houses, which were built entirely without wood. Harran-style houses can be built rapidly like tents, with fired or sun-dried bricks. The vernacular architecture of Harran illustrates the concepts of flexible building, climatic building design and reusable building-material concepts (Özdeniz et al., 1998). The design of the houses makes them cool inside and is believed to have remained unchanged for over three millennia. Some of these were still inhabited until the 1980s. However, the buildings remaining today are only exhibits for tourists, and most of population of Harran lives in a small newly built village about 2 kilometres from the main site.
Although Harran is a small-scale settlement, it is quite significant within the scope of socioeconomic development processes. Harran, preferred by communities belonging to different religions and cultures for settlement and development, is a place bearing the traces of many civilisations. Today it faces a new phase with the revitalisation of the settlement and as
Figure 3: Traditional Harran houses (photo: Eren KOrk^Ooglu).
a consequence of economic vitality (United Cities and Local Governments - Middle East and West Asia, 2010). The vast plains of Harran that were dry until recently have been transformed into productive fields through irrigation supplied by the Southeastern Anatolian Project. The project rests on the philosophy of sustainable human development, which aims to create an environment in which future generations can benefit and develop. The basic strategies of the project include fairness in development, participation, environmental protection, employment generation, spatial planning and infrastructure development (Republic of Turkey Prime Ministry Southeastern Anatolia Project Regional Development Administration, 1999). This development will accelerate economic
Table 1: Population of Harran in 1990, 2000 and 2009.
Population area	1990	2000	2009
City centre	2,267	8,784	5,995
Village	27,325	47,474	56,994
Total	29,592	56,258	62,989
Table 2: Housing units and size of families in some Harran neighbourhoods in 1990.
Note: According to 2010 census the total Harran population was 65,697.
Source: State Institute of Statistics (1990, 2000, 2010).
and demographic growth in Harran and will transform the district into an important centre that significantly contributes to the economy at the national level. Growth is a dilemma in Harran, which is caught between historical and urban sites and valuable agricultural land. The people of Harran would like to transfer the capital gained from agriculture to achieve development where they live. However, Harran has a unique structure with its centuries-old past and domed houses that are very rare in the world and should be preserved. The social effects of the rapid transformation that it is going through are worth attention. The municipality and the governorship responsible for sensitive development could not achieve any development for establishing a balance between living and preserving despite all of their efforts to develop living conditions and establish infrastructure.
Although Harran is experiencing the issues mentioned above, it is fortunate because the adverse effects of growth are not yet being felt intensely on the environment and the society. The study of "Local Agenda 21 for Harran" carried out within this framework seeks to deal with development by establishing a
Neighbourhood	Number of housing units	Average family size	Average family size in housing unit
5eyh Hayat-el Harrani	80	8.2	1.36
imam Bakir	113	7.9	1.38
Cumhuriyet	109	8.6	1.47
Total	302	8.2	1.40
Source: State Institute of Statistics (1990).
long-term participatory vision as part of sustainable development while minimising negative outcomes. Harran became a district in 1987 and it started to develop as an urban centre when the municipality was established. Table 1 shows the population of Harran in 1990, 2000 and 2009. ^e rate of total population increase is 47%. However, it is still has predominantly rural characteristics.
Harran was divided into three neighbourhoods after becoming a district and after the city hall was built. Table 2 shows the population according to the 1990 census and the household counts. Harran ranks 857th among 872 districts in Turkey by socioeconomic development according to the State Planning Organisation (SPO, 2004). It ranks last among the districts of §anliurfa in terms of development (see Table 3). When its so-ciocultural and economic structure is evaluated, it is observed that, although Harran mainly functions as a closed system, it is starting to open up slowly with the modifications it has gone through and it has started to develop relations with other centres. Harran has close urban, commercial, social and cultural relations with §anliurfa. ^e increase in income experienced in
Table 3: Socioeconomic indicators of Janliurfa and Harran in 2004.
Socioeconomic indicator	Janliurfa	Rank among 72 districts	Harran	Rank among 872 districts
Population (absolute number)	534,706	9	56,258	238
Urbanisation rate (%)	72.11	77	15.61	843
Increase of population rate (%)	34.78	68	64.23	7
Population density (inhabitants/km^)	146	128	53	395
Economic dependency rate	83.69	100	100.01	42
Average household size	6.10	199	7.23	91
Activity rate of agricultural sector (%)	54.84	708	96.13	1
Activity rate of industrial sector (%)	6.80	263	0.16	872
Activity rate of service sector (%)	38.36	132	3.71	872
Unemployment rate (%)	16.58	31	2.73	753
Literacy rate (%)	72.57	782	55.16	865
Infant mortality rate (^)	36.37	513	29.28	708
General budget income per capita (thousand TRY)	70,518	236	8,495	784
Tax revenue income in country overall (%)	0.16	42	0.003	541
Agricultural income in country overall (%)	0.71	12	0.28	87
Source: SPO (2004).
Harran is mostly transferred to §anliurfa. However the population of Harran is quite willing to have some services provided there by making investments in the city.
3.1	Urbanisation tendencies in Harran and planning activities
A slow transformation from rural to urban life is taking place within the development process of Harran. ^e implementation movements and plans are also being developed in parallel to this process. Families' preference for living in separate places as tribal groups when tribes broke apart has caused some disorder. However, this disorder has lessened in recent years and the settlements have been combined. Whereas rural settlements are gradually being transformed into villages, the increasing heterogeneous nature of settlements has led to the establishment of social and commercial institutions in settlement units established in previous years (Republic of Turkey Prime Ministry Southeastern Anatolia Project Regional Development Administration, 1996).
Although Harran is an old and historical region, it did not have a development plan until 1992 because it was used as a rural settlement for many years. Within the framework of the 1992 development plan, more intensive use is foreseen for areas where residences are currently located and the development of a new settlement area in the eastern part of the city, with low-quality soil, is planned. ^e permitted height of buildings in areas reserved for construction is two stories. ^ere is an increasing need for residences and buildings in Harran within the framework of the current developments. However, despite this demand for development, the area reserved for urban development in the district is quite limited. In addition to the residential areas with typical Harran houses, the regions registered as "urban and archaeological site area" are also among the major limiting factors. On the other hand, the productive land that is the foundation of Harran's agriculture-based economy is also another important factor limiting the development area.
3.2	Infrastructure and investments
When intercity transportation is considered, it gains importance for the transportation of agricultural and industrial products within and outside the region and allowing them to reach export markets (Republic of Turkey Prime Ministry Southeastern Anatolia Project Regional Development Administration, 1994, 1996). ^e district of Harran is 40 km from §anliurfa and is connected to the city centre by an asphalt road. ^e railroad passes though the Syrian border. Transportation takes place normally during seasons with little rain in rural settlements and it is difficult in rainy seasons because the in-
frastructure is insufficient (Doganay, 1994). However, investments in transportation as part of the GAP will also improve accessibility to the district of Harran. Within this framework, a transportation plan initially focusing on highways and then on railways was developed after 2005.
3.3	Existing and potential environmental problems
^ere were no major environmental problems in Harran's transformation process from a rural to an urban settlement; however, many environmental transformations are expected in the region under the influence of the GAP. Studies need to be carried out to examine what these modifications may be and how potential problems should be solved. Climate changes caused by irrigation and reservoirs, and modifications in the soil structure and water regime are expected in the region, and changes in flora and fauna are foreseen as a consequence of these. In addition to these general changes, it is expected that agricultural activities will cause the most important environmental problems in the region. Harran is an important agricultural centre and will be at a critical stage in the future. Studies are being conducted in the district to increase awareness, especially about agricultural expansion. A farmer-training centre and the Faculty of Agriculture at Harran University are carrying out this important task.
Pollution caused by urban development can be eliminated in Harran, which is at the beginning of the urbanisation process. No detailed study exists on the storage, removal and treatment of wastewater. Cesspools are not functional due to the rising water table, and a sewer system needs to be built. In addition to the drinking-water network being insufficient, the water it contains is unhealthy. ^ere is not yet any industrial development in Harran; however, there is a demand for industrialisation to begin in the district. ^e possible effects of targeted industrial development are being investigated (Yigiter & Yirmibe^oglu, 2002; United Cities and Local Governments - Middle East and West Asia, 2010).
3.4	Evaluation of the Harran Local Agenda 21 implementations
Harran entered a transformation process with the effect of GAP implementations (Republic of Turkey Prime Ministry Southeastern Anatolia Project Regional Development Administration, 1996). ^e necessary policies and tools should be determined in order for Harran to preserve its cultural and historical heritage and bear the effects it will experience during this transformation. Within this context, sustainability should be questioned once again, using both a top-down and
a participatory approach. This process should include the establishment of social, economic, environmental and cultural identity and a long-term vision of Harran with the participation of influential persons, organisations and institutions from the region. Issues with the initial effects of urban development and in accordance with the principles of Local Agenda 21, specifically for Harran in 1999, are listed below (Yigiter & Yirmibe^oglu, 2002; United Cities and Local Governments -Middle East and West Asia, 2010):
•	^e beginning of irrigated agriculture practices underlies the transformation process in Harran. Although this process is invigorating the economy of the region, extensive irrigation and agricultural investment will create pressures on land and water resources in the long run. It is therefore necessary to question intensive agricultural practices once again and to evaluate them within the context of sustainability.
•	One of the major consequences of the vitality experienced in the region is urbanisation and population increase. However, Harran is positioned between valuable agricultural land and urban and historical sites. The development of a top-down plan is important for settlement. Such a plan should cover the preservation of existing settlements and traditional Harran houses and urban sites on the one hand, and should define new settlement areas on the other hand.
•	^e historical city, which has an important place from the international perspective, played a significant role in the religious tourism programs started in the 2000s. However, the insufficient infrastructure and substructure necessary for visitors and the exhibition of "preserved" heritage has created concerns for the future of the city. It is possible to transform the district into a cultural centre by enlivening the rich cultural identity that Harran has had within the historical process. The work to be conducted in this manner should be evaluated using the planning approach described above.
•	^e changes in consumption habits caused by economic development require new investments in infrastructure and system development.
•	^e people of Harran are demanding the creation of investment opportunities in order for capital to remain in Harran as profit. This issue should be evaluated in relation to socioeconomic and location aspects.
•	Another important dimension of economic and social development is increasing the level of organisation in the community.
•	As previously emphasised, it is necessary to initiate environmental management actions ranging from land use to the waste system in Harran, where it is believed that population increase and development will continue rapidly. Preserving two important components, agriculture
and historical urban structure, and preventing the newly developed activities from pressuring these structures should be considered. • ^e city incorporates many elements of "sustainable life" with the traditions it has preserved. However its urban architectural characteristics currently face the risk of severe damage.
While settlement remained at a manageable level, this kept "development" under control. However, effective solutions needed to be developed to solve urgent needs. Various studies were conducted using a participatory mechanism to manage the strong local effects of a project with a regional scale. ^ose that started with local initiatives were collected as part of the Local Agenda 21 project and were shaped in line with certain targets. ^e people of Harran discussed the visions, priorities and needs of the town and sought solutions. Among all of the issues mentioned above, however, only irrigated agriculture practices could be implemented, and others remain unfinished or untouched.
3.5 Local Agenda 21 implementations needed for Harran
Local Agenda 21, which was founded approximately 20 years ago, aroused interest in Turkey, and effective and widespread implementations were initiated through the Project of Encouragement and Development of Local Agenda 21. One of the most important goals was to be able to preserve Anatolia's rich natural and cultural values while allowing the transformation from rural to urban within the development process in Harran. The need for policies and strategies to be implemented in a well-planned process cannot be emphasised enough. Unfortunately, the existing planning process does not provide sufficient means for successful results from implementing Local Agenda 21 in Turkey.
In the projects affecting the GAP and Harran, which are economically, socially, culturally and strategically important to Turkey, the principles present in Local Agenda 21 have been accepted as a basis and have been considered in many projects since 1989 (Yildirim & Öner, 2003). ^e philosophy of sustainable, public participation-based human development in accordance with Local Agenda 21 is parallel to the sustainable human development principles that were applied in Harran in the late 1990s (Yigiter & Yirmibe^oglu, 2002; United Cities and Local Governments - Middle East and West Asia, 2010).
In the sustainable development process for Harran, in accordance with Local Agenda 21 the following measures still need to be taken with the participation of the public, local government and NGOs:
•	Preserving fertile farmland;
•	Better irrigation practices;
•	Promoting environmentally conscious agricultural production;
•	Keeping urbanisation and population increase under control;
•	Preserving traditional Harran houses and conservation areas;
•	Designating new settlements and integrated planning for the urban population;
•	Reviving the rich cultural identity and promoting the countryside as a cultural focal point;
•	Developing infrastructure;
•	Raising community awareness of environmental issues due to changing consumption patterns;
•	Increasing organisation in the community; and
•	Establishing agricultural credit and agricultural cooperatives, and integrating these organisations into the public participation mechanism.
All actors should be expected to assume responsibility in the planning process for directing urban development by also preserving historical and traditional values and differences in the spatial, social and cultural environment they live in. To this end, a recommendation describing the participation levels of various actors in the process is given in Table 4.
It is necessary to make changes and arrangements to attain flexibility and transparency in the planning process in order for the planning studies to be implemented. Local Agenda 21 can be implemented more effectively by developing participatory
Table 4: Planning participation, actors and responsibilities.
Stage	Planning process stages	Public	Planners	Local authority
1	Determining social values	X	O	
2	Determining targets and aims	X	O	X
3	Collecting data		X	
4	Designing criteria and standards		X	
5	Developing alternative plans		X	
6	Selecting a plan	X	O	X
7	Detailed design of the plan to be implemented		X	
8	Improving/approving the plan	X	O	X
9	Implementation		X	X
10	Data feedback	X	X	X
and flexible implementation methods and making changes. Local Agenda 21's biggest contribution to Turkey is that it performs an intermediary role between public organisations, local authorities, NGOs and the community, and thus a new local administrative model can be developed. An integrated (holistic) and participatory approach to sustainability is another important contribution.
4 Conclusion
The Local Agenda 21 program should be prepared and launched with the aim of contributing to the development of more democratic and participatory forms of local governance in Turkey. The Local Agenda 21 program, based on community participation, involvement of local stakeholders, establishment of local partnerships and decentralisation of local decision-making processes, will provide a unique opportunity to enhance local democracy and practically implement the concept of good governance in Harran. As a result, by adhering to Local Agenda 21 principles, Harran will succeed in sustainable development displaying its raw material: the market, labour force, knowledge and its unique heritage through social consensus. In this way, Harran can become a model settlement featuring prudent use of natural resources, effective environmental protection, maintenance of high and stable levels of economic growth and employment, social progress that recognises the needs of all and attention to all of these objectives concurrently, for both present and future generations.
Reyhan Genli Yigiter
Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Istanbul, Turkey E-mail: yigiter@itu.edu.tr
Funda Yirmibe§oglu
Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Istanbul, Turkey E-mail: funday@itu.edu.tr
References
Burgess, R., Carmona, M. & Kolstee, T. (1997) Contemporary urban environmental strategies and policies in developing countries: A critical review. In: Burgess, R., Carmona, M. &Kolstee, T. (eds.) The challenge of sustainable cities, pp. 65-89. London, Zed Books.
Campbell, T. (2003) The quiet revolution: Decentralization and the rise of political participation in Latin American cities. Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Press.
Campbell, T. & Mehta, D. (2000) City development strategies: Taking stock of progress - Issues and policy to increase impact. Paper presented at the Second Public Policy Forum of the Consultative Group of the Cities Alliance, 1 December, Rome, Italy. Typescript.
Note: X = Leading role, O = Opportunity-creating / supporting role. Coetzee, P. J. & Serfontein, K. J. (2002) Urban spacing: A new con-
struct before and beyond planning's "BIG" affair. Typescript.
Dewar, P. (1996) The role of planning: Club Mykonos and a sense of deja vu. Town and Regional Planning, 40, pp. 50-52.
Doganay, F. (1994) Sosyal ve Kültürel Dönü^me Sürecinde Harran Ovasi ve GAP Uygulamasi. Ankara, State Planning Organization, General Directorate of Social Sector and Coordination.
Emrealp, S. (2005) Handbook on facilitative information for the implementation of Local Agenda 21. Istanbul, International Union of Local Administrations, East Mediterranean and Middle East Regional Organization.
Flavin, C., French, H., Vickers, A., Halweil, B., Nierenberg, D., Gardner, G. et al. (2002) Dunyanin Durumu 2002. Istanbul, Theme Foundation Publications, Worldwatch Environmental Alert Series.
Karimi, K. (1999) Urban conservation and spatial transformation: A spatio-analytical approach to continuity and change in the historic cores of Iranian and English cities. Abstract of paper presented at 2nd International Symposium of the Space Syntax, 29 March-3 April, Brasilia, Brazil. Typescript.
Nadin, V. & Barton, H. (1996) ICLEI's guide to environmental management for local authorities in Central and Eastern Europe. Bonn, ICLEI European Secretariat.
Özdeniz, M. B., Bekleyen, A., Gönül, I. A., Gönül, H., Sarigül, H., Ilter, T. et al. (1998) Vernacular domed houses of Harran, Turkey. Habitat International, 22(4), pp. 477-485. DOI: 10.1016/S0197-3975(98)00027-7
Republic of Turkey Prime Ministry Southeastern Anatolia Project Regional Development Administration (1994) Basic environment problems in Southeastern Anatolia Region. Ankara.
Republic of Turkey Prime Ministry Southeastern Anatolia Project Regional Development Administration (1996) Socio-economic effects of Southeastern Anatolia Project. Ankara.
Republic of Turkey Prime Ministry Southeastern Anatolia Project Regional Development Administration (1999) Terms of reference for a revision of the GAP master plan. Ankara.
Republic of Turkey Prime Ministry Southeastern Anatolia Project Regional Development Administration (2011) GAP provinces. Available at: http://www.gap.gov.tr (accessed 21 Mar. 2011).
Sassen, S. (1994) A new geography of centres and margins: Summary and implications. In: Stout, R. T. & Le Gates, F. (eds.) The city reader, pp. 208-212. New York, Routledge.
Sassen, S. (2000) Cities in a world economy. Thousand Oaks, CA, Pine Forge Press.
Schubert, U. & Zerlauth, A. (1997) Ekološka kvaliteta v mestih -organizacija in koordinacija okoljskih politik in urbanističnega planiranja na lokalni ravni [Ecological quality in cities: The organisation and co-ordination of environmental policy and urban planning at the local level]. Urbani izziv, 30-31, pp. 27-39 [114-121]. DOI: 10.5379/urbani-izziv-en-1997-30-31-004
Soja, E. W. (2000) Postmetropolis: Critical studies of cities and regions. Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell.
State Institute of Statistics (1990) 1990 Census of population. Ankara.
State Institute of Statistics (2000) 2000 Census of population. Ankara.
State Institute of Statistics (2010) 2010 Census of population. Ankara.
State Planning Organization (2004) Socio-economic development ranking. Ankara.
Sykora, L. (2000) Global competition and strategic urban planning: The case of Prague, Czech Republic. Paper presented at the 3rd Sharjah urban planning symposium of the Sharjah Directorate of Public Works, the American University of Sharjah and University of Sharjah, April 17-18, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. Typescript.
Tomlinson, R. (1994) Urban development planning: Lessons for the economic reconstruction of South Africa's cities. Johannesburg, Wit-watersrand University Press.
United Cities and Local Governments - Middle East and West Asia (2010) Local Agenda 21 Turkey Program. Available at: http://esa. un.org/unup (accessed 20 Dec. 2010).
United Nations (1994) Agenda 21: Earth Summit: The United Nations Programme of Action from Rio. New York.
United Nations (1995) Copenhagen declaration on social development. Copenhagen.
United Nations (2008) World population prospects: The 2006 revision and world urbanization prospects: The 2007 revision population database. Available at: http://esa.un.org/unup (accessed 28 Mar. 2011).
Wilson, W. J. (1997) When work disappears: The world of the new urban poor. New York, Vintage Books.
Witzling, L. (1979) Physical planning. In: Catanese, A. J. & Snyder, J. C. (eds.) Introduction to urban planning, pp. 175-205. New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company.
World Bank (2000) Cities in transition: World Bank urban and local government strategy. Washington, DC.
Yigiter, R. & Yirmibe§oglu, F. (2002) Planning participation lecture notes. Typescript.
Yildirim, U. & Öner, (2003) Sürdürülebilir Kalkinma Yakla§iminin Türkiye'ye Yansimalari. Qagda^ Yerel Yönetimler 12(4), pp. 6-27.