383 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 383–396 | DOI: 10.14502/tekstilec.68.2025095 Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 4.0 licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Authors retain ownership of the copyright for their content, but allow anyone to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute and/or copy the content as long as the original authors and source are cited. No permission is required from the authors or the publisher. This journal does not charge APCs or submission charges. Tuan Anh Nguyen, Huong Dam Thi, Que Tran Tran Nguyen Faculty of Fashion and Tourism, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology and Education No 1, Van Ngan St, Thu Duc Wd, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Dyeing on Sustainable Cotton Fabric with Mangosteen Rind: Investigating Extraction Parameters and Colour Fastness Trajnostno barvanje bombažne tkanine z lupino mangostina (Garcinia mangostana): raziskava parametrov ekstrakcije in barvne obstojnosti Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni članek Received/Prispelo 8–2025 • Accepted/Sprejeto 12–2025 Corresponding author/Korespondenčni avtor: Tuan Anh Nguyen, PhD E-mail: nta@hcmute.edu.vn Phone No. +84934061793 ORCID iD: 0000-0003-2607-6671 Abstract This study explores the sustainable dyeing of cotton fabrics using natural colorants extracted from mango- steen (Garcinia mangostana) rind. The extract was obtained via hot aqueous extraction and applied to cotton using varying dyeing conditions such as concentration, pH, temperature and time. Mordants (copper sulfate, iron sulfate and potassium alum) and fixatives (sodium chloride, potassium alum and acetic acid) were evalu- ated for enhancing colour strength and wash fastness. Copper sulfate improved dye uptake, while potassium alum best minimized colour fading. Optimal dyeing was achieved at pH 7 and 80 °C, for 30 min, balancing efficiency, cost, energy and acceptable colour quality. The dyed fabrics showed higher moisture content and stiffness, with minimal impact on air permeability and crease recovery. These results highlight mangosteen rinds promise as a sustainable, eco-friendly dye for cotton textiles. Keywords: mangosteen rind, natural dyeing, cotton fabric, mordant, colour fastness Izvleček Raziskano je bilo trajnostno barvanje bombažnih tkanin z uporabo naravnih barvil, ekstrahiranih iz lupine mangostina. Izvleček, ki je bil pridobljen z ekstrakcijo mletih lupin z vročo vodo, je bil uporabljen za barvanje bombažne tkanine pri različnih koncentracijah, vrednostih pH, temperaturah in časih barvanja. Ocenjeni so bili učinki različnih čimž (bakrovega in železovega sulfata ter kalijevega aluminijevega sulfata) in fiksirnih sredstev (natrijevega klorida, kalijevega aluminijevega sulfata in ocetne kisline) za izboljšanje globine obar- vanja in obstojnosti pri pranju. Bakrov sulfat je izboljšal absorpcijo barvila, medtem ko je kalijev aluminijev sulfat najbolj zmanjšal bledenje barve. Optimalno barvanje je bilo doseženo pri pogojih pH 7, 80 °C, 30 min, pri čemer so bili uravnoteženi učinkovitost, stroški, energija in sprejemljiva kakovost barve. Barvane tkanine so vsebovale več zračne vlage in bile bolj toge, minimalno sta se jim poslabšali zračna prepustnost in mečkavost. 384 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 383–396 Ti rezultati kažejo na možnost uporabe lupine mangostina kot trajnostnega in okolju prijaznega barvila za bombažne tekstilije. Ključne besede: lupina mangostina, barvanje z naravnimi barvili, bombažna tkanina, čimža, barvna obstojnost 1 Introduction The increasing demand for sustainable and eco-con- scious practices in the textile industry has prompted renewed interest in the application of natural dyes. Unlike synthetic dyes, which are derived from petroleum-based sources and pose significant environmental and health concerns including wastewater pollution, toxicity and bioaccumulation, natural dyes offer a biodegradable, non-toxic and renewable alternative [1, 2]. However, despite their environmental advantages, natural dyes often face limitations such as low colour fastness, limited colour range and inconsistent dyeing performance, especially on cellulosic fibres such as cotton. Ad- dressing these drawbacks remains a key focus in natural dye research [3, 4]. Plant-based colorants, particularly those derived from fruit peels, leaves and barks, have shown promising results due to their abundance of chromophoric compounds such as anthocyanins, flavonoids, tannins and xanthones [5, 6]. Among these, mangosteen (Garcinia man- gostana) rind, a byproduct of the fruit industry, has been reported to contain high levels of xanthones and polyphenols that exhibit strong UV absorbance and vibrant coloration [7‒10]. Mangosteen dyes are mainly composed of prenylated xanthones, partic- ularly α-mangostin, γ-mangostin and garcinones, which possess a xanthone core with phenolic hy- droxyl and prenyl side groups [11]. These structural features contribute to their yellow-orange colour, antioxidant activity and strong affinity for fibres in natural dyeing applications [12‒14]. Previous studies have explored its potential as a natural antioxidant and antimicrobial agent, but its application as a textile dye remains relatively underexplored. Recent works have investigated the use of fruit waste in dyeing textiles. For instance, Satyanarayana and Chandra (2021) reported that pomegranate rind extract could yield satisfactory colour strength on cotton when combined with mordants like alum and iron [15]. Similarly, Haddar et al. (2018) demonstrated that anthocyanin-rich ex- tracts from red cabbage showed enhanced dyeability on silk and cotton under acidic conditions, although fastness properties were moderate without mor- danting [16]. In a study by Prabhu and Teli (2014), tamarind seed and peel extracts were applied to cotton fabrics, with iron sulfate yielding the highest wash fastness among tested mordants [17]. These prior studies collectively underscore the importance of optimizing dyeing parameters such as pH, temperature, dye concentration and time, as well as the critical role of mordants in improving dye-fibre interactions and colour durability. Mordants, partic- ularly metal salts, can form coordination complexes with natural dye molecules, enhancing their affinity to cellulose fibres [18‒20]. Additionally, fixative agents such as alum and acetic acid have been employed to further stabilize dye-fibre bonds and improve fastness to washing and rubbing [21, 22]. Additional recent studies have emphasized the molecular mechanisms of dye–mordant interactions and the role of bio-based Figure 1: Chemical composition of mangosteen (Gar- cinia mangostana) pericarp (α-mangostin) [14] Dyeing on Sustainable Cotton Fabric with Mangosteen Rind: Investigating Extraction Parameters and Colour Fastness 385 mordants (e.g., tannins and citric acid) in improving fastness and colour uniformity on cotton fabrics [23‒25]. Furthermore, several eco-friendly coloration processes, including ultrasonic- and microwave-as- sisted dyeing, have been proposed to enhance dye uptake efficiency while reducing energy and water consumption [26‒28]. These developments provide broader scientific context and reinforce the relevance of sustainable natural dye research. Building upon such works, this study focuses on the extraction and application of natural dyes from mangosteen rind on cotton fabric. Using hot aqueous extraction, the study systematically investigates the effects of dyeing conditions including pH, tempera- ture, concentration and time on colour development. The role of different mordants and post-dyeing fixatives is also evaluated in terms of their impact on colour strength, colour difference and wash fastness. Furthermore, changes in key fabric properties such as moisture regain, stiffness, air permeability and crease recovery are assessed to determine the practical im- plications of MGSR dyeing. This research contributes to the growing field of natural dye technology by identifying mangosteen rind as a potential sustainable dye source and proposing optimized methods for its effective use in cotton textile applications. 2 Experimental 2.1 Materials Plain-woven 100% cotton fabric (120 g/m², purchased from Viet Thang Corporation, Vicotex) was used as the dyeing substrate. Mangosteen rinds (Garcinia mangostana) were collected from local markets in Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam, cleaned, air-dried and ground into powder (Figure 1). Analytical-grade chemicals, including copper sulfate pentahydrate (Cu- SO₄·5H₂O), iron sulfate heptahydrate (FeSO₄·7H₂O), potassium aluminium sulfate dodecahydrate (KAl(SO₄)₂·12H₂O), sodium chloride (NaCl) and acetic acid (CH₃COOH), were obtained from A.R. Chemicals, India. Distilled water was used through- out all procedures. The natural dye was extracted by boiling 100 g of MGSR powder in 1000 mL of distilled water at 90 °C for 60 min. The solution was filtered and stored in dark bottles at 4 °C for later use. Figure 2: Fruit (left) and rind powder (right) of man- gosteen (adapted and redrawn from xaxafruit.vn) 2.2 Dyeing process, mordanting and fixation Cotton fabric samples (10 cm ´ 10 cm) were pre- scoured and dyed using the exhaust method with a liquor ratio of 1:20. The effects of dye concentration (20–100% v/v), dyeing pH (3‒7), temperature (40– 100 °C) and time (30–120 min) were studied. The temperature was increased from room temperature to the desired level at a heating rate of approximately 2 °C/min, and maintained for the required dyeing duration. The pH was adjusted using acetic acid or sodium carbonate. Mordanting was performed using pre-, meta- and post-mordanting techniques with CuSO 4 ·5H₂O, FeSO 4 ·7H₂O and KAl(SO 4 ) 2 ·12H 2 O at concentrations of 0.5–2.0% (w/v). Each mordanting process was conducted at 80 °C for 30 min under continuous stirring to ensure uniform treatment. For fixation, dyed fabrics were treated with 5% NaCl, 5% KAl(SO 4 ) 2 ·12 H 2 O or 5% CH 3 COOH for 20 min at room temperature, then thoroughly rinsed with distilled water and dried at dried at 60 °C for 2 h in a hot-air oven before testing. 2.3 Evaluation methods Colour strength (K/S) and colour difference (ΔE) values were calculated based on the spectrophoto- metric measurements performed using a Datacolor spectrophotometer. The UV-vis spectral analysis of dye extracts and dye-mordant interactions were conducted using a Yoke UV1200 UV-vis spectro- photometer to characterize the functional groups and absorption behaviour of the colorants. Washing 386 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 383–396 fastness tests were carried out at 40 °C ± 2 °C using a Miele washer (Germany), and the results were eval- uated according to ISO 105-C06 after one, two and four wash cycles, using grayscale ratings. In addi- tion, the physical properties of the fabrics, including moisture regain (ISO 139), air permeability (ISO 9237), stiffness (ASTM D1388) and crease recovery (AATCC 66), were measured to assess structural and performance changes after dyeing. 3 Results and discussion 3.1 UV-vis spectral analysis of MGSR extract The UV-vis spectra in Figure 3 show the absorbance behaviour of MGSR extract and its interaction with cotton fabric, both with and without copper sulfate as a mordant. The MGSR extract (NNO) exhibits a strong absorbance peak at around 300–320 nm, at- tributed to phenolic or flavonoid compounds, which are common in natural plant extracts. When MGSR is applied to cotton fabric (NNOF), the absorbance intensity decreases slightly, suggesting the partial adsorption or interaction of dye molecules with the fibre surface. When mordanting with copper sulfate mordant (NCUF), a noticeable increase in absor- bance is observed in the same region, indicating the formation of coordination complexes between cop- per ions and MGSR constituents, which enhances dye uptake and stability on the fabric. Beyond 320 nm, all three curves show a gradual decrease in absorbance, consistent with the typical behaviour of natural dyes, where main chromophor- ic absorption occurs in the UV range. Overall, the results demonstrate that mordanting with copper sulfate significantly enhances the interaction of MGSR extract with cotton fibres through chelation, thereby enhancing dye fixation and colour strength. Figure 3: UV-vis spectra of MGSR extract (NNO), MGSR with cotton fabric (NNOF) and MGSR with cotton fabric and copper sulfate mordant (NCUF) Figure 4 presents the UV-vis spectra of MGSR extract in the absence (NNO) and presence of dif- ferent mordants: copper sulfate (NCU), potassium aluminium sulfate (NKA) and iron sulfate (NFE). The spectra reveal distinct variations in absorbance intensity and band shape, indicating that mordants significantly influence the optical properties of the extract. In the absence of mordant (NNO), the extract shows a broad absorption peak around 305–320 nm, characteristic of phenolic or xanthone compounds present in mangosteen rind. When copper sulfate (NCU), is added the absorbance Dyeing on Sustainable Cotton Fabric with Mangosteen Rind: Investigating Extraction Parameters and Colour Fastness 387 intensity increases noticeably within this region, suggesting enhanced electronic transitions due to complexation between copper ions and active dye constituents, which improves chromophore stability. In contrast, the spectrum with potassium aluminium sulfate (NKA) displays a slightly lower absorbance, implying weaker coordination or limited complex formation. The spectrum with iron sulfate (NFE) shows a moderately broad band with intermediate intensity, indicating a different mode of interaction, likely involving hydroxyl or carbonyl coordination. Overall, copper sulfate proves to be the most effective mordant in enhancing the UV-vis absorbance of the MGSR extract, which can contribute to improved dye fixation and colour strength on textiles. Figure 4: UV-vis spectra of MGSR extract in the absence of mordant (NNO), and in the presence of copper sulfate (NCU), potassium aluminium sulfate (NKA) and iron sulfate (NFE) 3.2 Effect of pH on dye uptake Figure 5 illustrates the K/S, DE values and colorimet- ric parameters (L*, C*, and h*) of cotton fabrics dyed with MGSR extract at varying pH levels from 3 to 7. The fabric images visually confirm that the colour becomes progressively darker and redder as the pH increases. The K/S values, which indicate dye uptake and colour strength, gradually rise from 0.4251 at pH 3 to 0.5660 at pH 7, showing enhanced absorp- tion under near-neutral conditions. Similarly, the C* values increase from 23.93 to 30.67 and the hue angle (h*) shifts from 64.22° to 62.82°, suggesting higher colour saturation and a slightly deeper reddish tone at higher pH. The pH-sensitive behaviour of MGSR extract is likely related to the ionization and stability of phenolic or anthocyanin compounds, which are more reactive in less acidic environments. Adjusting the dye bath to near-neutral pH (6‒7) can thus opti- mize the colour strength and stability of MGSR as a natural dye for cotton textiles. 3.3 Influence of dye concentration on colour strength and colour difference The K/S and coloristic parameters (L*, C* and h*) of cotton fabrics dyed with MGSR extract at vari- ous dilution ratios with water, ranging from 20/80 (SPC20) to 100/0 (SPC100), are presented in Table 1. The visual images and measured values show a clear trend of increasing colour depth as the concentration of MGSR extract increases. SPC20 was used as the reference sample, and all other samples were com- pared against it. The K/S values rise progressively from 0.3180 (SPC20) to 0.6936 (SPC100), indicating greater dye uptake and stronger coloration on the cotton fabric. This pattern is expected, as a higher MGSR/H₂O ratio provides more available dye 388 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 383–396 SP03 SP04 SP05 SP06 SP07 pH 3 pH 4 pH 5 pH 6 pH 7 a) b) Sample pH value L* C* h* SP03 3.0 70.16 23.93 64.22 SP04 4.0 69.69 24.90 65.67 SP05 5.0 69.44 27.49 66.44 SP06 6.0 69.23 28.79 65.76 SP07 7.0 66.59 30.67 62.82 Figure 5: a) K/S and b) DE values, together with a tabular representation of numerical values of coloris- tic parameters (L*, C* and h*, are presented for cotton fabrics dyed with MGSR extract at pH 3 (SP03), 4 (SP04), 5 (SP05), 6 (SP06) and 7 (SP07) Sample Sample molecules to interact with the fibre surface. In this context, DE values were treated only as secondary indicators of visible colour change and were not used to interpret dye uptake, as they simply reflect the expected differences between samples with different dye concentrations. The discussion therefore focuses on the more meaningful coloristic parameters (L*, C* and h*) and their trends with increasing MGSR con- centration. As the MGSR concentration increased, L* decreased from 73.51 to 63.90, indicating darker shades; C* increased from 19.60 to 31.18, showing higher colour saturation; and h* shifted slightly from 69.90° to 63.90°, suggesting a move toward a redder hue. These combined results clarify that the MGSR extract concentration strongly influences both the dye absorption (reflected by K/S) and colour appear- ance (L*, C* and h*) of the cotton fabrics. Dyeing on Sustainable Cotton Fabric with Mangosteen Rind: Investigating Extraction Parameters and Colour Fastness 389 Table 1: K/S values and colour coordinates ( DE, L*, C* and h*) of cotton fabric dyed with MGSR extract at MGSR/H₂O dilution ratios (DR) of 20/80 (SPC20), 40/60 (SPC40), 60/40 (SPC60), 80/20 (SPC80) and 100/0 (SPC100) Sample SPC20 SPC40 SPC60 SPC80 SPC100 DR 20/80 40/60 60/40 80/20 100/0 Photos K/S 0.3180 0.3689 0.4608 0.5542 0.6936 DE - 4.32 7.87 12.38 15.36 L* 73.51 71.83 69.18 66.86 63.90 C* 19.60 23.55 26.07 29.85 31.18 h* 69.90 69.50 67.90 65.50 63.90 3.4 Role of mordants in dye fixation The results presented in Table 2 show the K/S and ΔE values of cotton fabrics dyed with MGSR extract, with and without mordants, after multiple washing cycles. The mordants tested include potassium aluminium sulfate (SPKA), copper sulfate (SPCU) and iron sulfate (SPFE), while SPNO represents the sample without mordant. Initially, the unwashed fabrics show the highest K/S values, especially for SPCU (0.9488) and SPFE (1.0855), indicating en- hanced colour depth due to the mordanting effect of transition metal ions. SPNO and SPKA exhibit lower K/S values of 0.5318 and 0.4898, respectively, suggesting that the absence or weaker complexation ability of the aluminium-based mordant results in less dye fixation. After one, two and four washing cycles, the K/S values decrease across all samples, indicating a gradual loss of colour due to washing. However, SPCU and SPFE retain higher K/S values than SPNO and SPKA, even after four cycles (0.5878 and 0.6196, respectively), demonstrating stronger dye-fibre binding and superior wash fastness. In contrast, SPKA drops to 0.2537, showing poor co- lour retention, likely due to the lower stability of the aluminium-dye complex. The ΔE values increase with each washing cycle, reflecting noticeable colour differences. SPNO and SPKA exhibit the most significant ΔE values after four cycles (13.24 and 13.30), indicating substantial colour fading. On the other hand, SPCU and SPFE show lower ΔE values (9.50 and 8.54), confirming their better colour stability and resistance to wash- ing. Overall, the results confirm that copper and iron sulfate mordants enhance dye uptake and the washing durability of MGSR-dyed cotton fabrics, while the aluminium-based mordant is less effective. This behaviour can be attributed to the higher co- ordination ability of transition metals, which form more stable complexes with phenolic components in the MGSR extract, resulting in improved colour fastness suitable for practical textile applications. 390 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 383–396 Table 2: K/S and DE values of cotton fabrics dyed with MGSR extract in the absence and the presence of different mordants after zero, one, two and four washing cycles Fabric properties SPNO Mordant: none pH = 5.95 ORP = 40.2 SPKA Mordant: KAl(SO 4 ) 2 ·12H 2 O pH = 5.68 ORP = 55.5 SPCU Mordant: CuSO₄·5H₂O pH = 5.39 ORP = 72.7 SPFE Mordant: FeSO 4 ·7H 2 O pH = 5.52 ORP = 64.7 Unwashed a) K/S 0.5318 0.4898 0.9488 1.0855 Washed (1 cycle) a) K/S 0.3935 0.3685 0.7186 0.7100 DE 8.64 11.54 6.36 6.26 Washed (2 cycles) K/S 0.3460 0.2584 0.6424 0.6464 DE 10.64 12.64 8.48 7.56 Washed (4 cycles) K/S 0.2725 0.2537 0.5878 0.6196 DE 13.24 13.30 9.50 8.54 a) Appearance of dyed fabrics As illustrated in Figure 6, the K/S and ΔE values of cotton fabric dyed with MGSR extract were calculated for the samples treated with varying con- centrations (0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 wt%) of CuSO₄·5H₂O as a mordant. As the mordant concentration increases from 0.5 wt% (SPCU005) to 2.0 wt% (SPCU020), there is a clear increase in K/S values, indicating higher dye uptake and fixation on the cotton fibres. Specifically, the K/S value rises from 1.0501 to 1.6172, confirming that a higher mordant concen- tration promotes stronger dye-fibre interaction and deeper coloration. In contrast, the ΔE values (10.46‒16.6) represent the overall colour difference among the samples (SPCU005, SPCU010 and SPCU020) with respect to the unmordanted sample SP100 and are used here to support the visual observation of more vivid colours, rather than as a direct indicator of colour strength. It is important to emphasize that the increase in DE by increasing the mordant concentration only indicates that the overall colour difference become larger, but by itself it does not show how the colour is changing (i.e. whether the shade becomes darker or lighter, more or less chromatic, or shifts in hue). This improvement can be attributed to the ability of the mordant to form coordination complexes with dye molecules and the fibre, thereby enhancing dye-fibre affinity. At higher concentrations, more binding sites are likely formed, which boosts colour strength and leads to a more intense shade. The visual fabric samples also reflect this trend, showing progressively deeper brown hues with increasing CuSO₄·5H₂O levels. Overall, increasing the mordant concentra- tion effectively intensifies the dyed colour, while ΔE serves only as a measure of colour difference among samples. Dyeing on Sustainable Cotton Fabric with Mangosteen Rind: Investigating Extraction Parameters and Colour Fastness 391 a) b) c) d) e) Figure 6: a) K/S and b) DE values of cotton fabric dyed with MGSR extract at c) 0.5, d) 1.0 and e) 2.0 wt% of CuSO₄·5H₂O, denoted as SPCU005, SPCU010 and SPCU020, respectively Sample Sample Figure 7 shows the K/S values at various dilution ratios (SP20 to SP100), both without mordant (NO) and with 1% wt of Cu₂SO₄·5H₂O as mordant (CU). As the MGSR concentration increases from SP20 to SP100, the K/S values also rise, indicating that a higher concentration of the dye extract leads to deeper coloration. Notably, SP100 (undiluted extract) achieves the highest colour strength, with a K/S value of 1.2504 (CU), compared to only 0.6936 (NO). This suggests that both dye concentration and mordanting play critical roles in improving colour yield. The copper mordant likely facilitates stronger coordi- nation interactions between dye molecules and the cotton fibre, thereby improving dye uptake. Overall, the combination of high-extract concentration and Cu-mordanting provides the most optimal colour depth on cotton. Figure 7: Change in K/S value of cotton fabric dyed with MGSR extract at various dilution ratios (SP20: 20/80, SP40: 40/60, SP60: 60/40, SP80: 80/20 and SP100: 100/0) as unmordanted (NO) and mordanted (N) with 1% wt of Cu 2 SO 4 .5H 2 O 392 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 383–396 3.5 Effect of dyeing temperature and time Tables 3 and 4 present the dyeability of cotton fabrics dyed with MGSR extract, examining the in- fluence of dyeing temperature and exhausting time, both in the absence (unmordanted) and presence (mordanted) of 1% CuSO₄·5H₂O. As the dyeing temperature increases from 40 °C to 100 °C, the K/S values for both unmordanted and mordanted samples increase, indicating enhanced dye uptake at higher temperatures. For example, the K/S value of unmordanted fabric rises from 0.4536 at 40 °C to 0.9770 at 100 °C, while the mordanted samples show a more significant increase from 0.8255 to 2.0374. At higher dyeing temperatures, the colour of the fabric becomes visibly deeper, as reflected by the increase in K/S values. This trend demonstrates that higher temperatures enhance dye diffusion and fibre pene- tration, further supported by the improved bonding between dye molecules and cellulose fibres when a mordant is used. Dyeing performance also improves with longer exhausting times. From 30 to 120 min, the K/S val- ues increase for both treatments. For unmordanted fabrics, K/S improves from 0.5310 to 0.6094, while it improves from 1.2779 to 1.5830 for mordanted fab- rics, thus confirming greater dye uptake. Meanwhile, unmordanted samples show higher perceptual colour variation than mordanted samples. Table 3: Dyeability (K/S, DE) of cotton fabrics dyed with MGSR extract at 40 ° C, 60 ° C, 80 ° C and 100 ° C, both unmordanted and mordanted with 1% of CuSO₄·5H₂O, using ST40 as the reference sample Sample Temp. (°C) Unmordanted Mordanted DE K/S DE K/S St30 (Ref.) 40 - 0.4536 - 0.8255 St60 60 3.57 0.4889 4.12 0.9466 St80 80 6.71 0.5786 8.43 1.3386 St100 100 11.64 0.9770 14.22 2.0374 Table 4: Dyeability (K/S, DE) of cotton fabrics dyed with MGSR extract at 30 min, 60 min, 90 min and 120 min of exhausting time, both unmordanted and mordanted with 1% of CuSO₄·5H₂O (controlled sample is greige cotton), using St30 as the reference sample Sample Exhausting time (min) Unmordanted Mordanted DE K/S DE K/S St30 (Ref.) 30 41.60 0.5310 51.36 1.2779 St60 60 41.80 0.5313 51.50 1.2889 St80 90 42.68 0.5732 53.46 1.4347 St100 120 42.63 0.6094 54.48 1.5830 3.6 Combined effect of mordant and fixative treatment Table 5 presents the ΔE values of cotton fabrics dyed with MGSR extract and mordanted with Cu- SO₄·5H₂O, followed by treatments with or without fixative agents after zero and one washing cycle. The fixatives evaluated include sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium alum (KAl(SO 4 ) 2 ·12H₂O) and acetic acid (CH₃COOH). ΔE represents the colour change, where a higher value indicates greater fading. For untreated fabrics (SPCUW), ΔE after one wash was 6.75, showing noticeable colour loss. Sodium chlo- ride-treated samples (SPCUSC) exhibited slightly higher ΔE (6.39), implying limited effectiveness in wash fastness improvement. Although the K/S value (colour strength) of SPCUSC0 was the highest (1.15), its post-wash value decreased substantially, suggesting poor dye retention. Potassium alum (SP- Dyeing on Sustainable Cotton Fabric with Mangosteen Rind: Investigating Extraction Parameters and Colour Fastness 393 CUAW) demonstrated better performance, with a lower ΔE of 5.86, indicating improved wash fastness compared to no fixative or sodium chloride. The K/S values also decreased less dramatically, supporting its stabilizing effect on the dye. Surprisingly, acetic acid (SPCUAAW) resulted in the highest ΔE of 6.52, suggesting the least effective colour retention. Its low K/S values before and after washing further confirm weak dye fixation. Overall, potassium alum emerged as the most effective fixative among the three, providing relatively lower ΔE and better colour retention. Sodium chloride and acetic acid of- fered limited or no improvement over the untreated control. These results emphasize the importance of selecting appropriate fixatives to enhance the wash durability of natural dyes on cotton fabric. Table 5: ΔE values of cotton fabric dyed with MGSR extract and mordanted with CuSO₄·5H₂O, treated with or without fixative agents after zero and one washing cycle Sample Fixative agent Photos of unwashed fabrics Photos of washed fabrics one cycle Unwashed Washed one cycle DE K/S SPCUW None 1.08 0.73 6.75 SPCUSCW Sodium chloride NaCl 1.15 0.78 6.39 SPCUPAW Potassium alum KAl(SO4)2⋅12 H 2 O 0.87 0.61 5.86 SPCUAAW Acetic acid CH₃COOH 0.57 0.47 6.52 3.7 Physical properties of dyed cotton fabric Table 6 exhibits the changes in physical properties of cotton fabric after dyeing with MGSR extract, com- pared to untreated fabric. The moisture increased by 10.58%, suggesting that MGSR-treated fabric has improved hydrophilicity. This could be due to the presence of hydrophilic functional groups in MGSR compounds, which enhance the fabric’s ability to retain moisture. Air permeability slightly decreased by 3.35%, from 5.30×10 –3 mm/s to 5.12×10 –3 mm/s. This indicates that dyeing with MGSR extract may slightly reduce the fabric’s porosity or alter the surface structure. However, the change is minimal and unlikely to significantly affect breathability. Stiffness showed a substantial increase of 99.08%, nearly doubling in value after treatment. This sug- gests that MGSR components may form deposits or bonds with the fibre surface, resulting in a stiffer fabric structure. While this may improve durability, it might reduce comfort and drape. Crease recovery decreased marginally from 68.05 o to 67.00 o , a change of just 1.54%. This implies that the dyeing process has little effect on the fabric’s wrinkle resistance. Overall, MGSR dyeing alters the physical properties of dyed fabrics moderately. While the increase in moisture content and stiffness could be beneficial 394 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 68(4), 383–396 or detrimental depending on the application, the changes in air permeability and crease recovery are minimal, indicating that the fabric retains much of its original comfort and functionality after dyeing. Table 6: Changes in the physical properties (moisture regain, air permeability, stiffness and crease recovery) of cotton fabric dyed with MGSR extract, compared to undyed cotton fabric Fabric Moisture regain (%) Air permeability (mm/s) Stiffness (mg.cm) Crease recovery ( o ) Untreated 5.2632 5.30 × 10 -3 344.24 68.05 Treated with MGSR extract 5.8201 5.12 × 10 -3 685.3 67 Change (%) 10.58 -3.348 99.08 -1.54 4 Conclusion The use of MGSR extract as a natural dye for cotton fabric demonstrates promising results in terms of colour intensity, wash durability and sustainability. This study confirmed that mordanting with copper sulfate or iron sulfate enhances dye uptake and co- lour retention, while potassium alum provides better fastness among the tested fixatives. The optimal dyeing conditions were found at neutral pH, high temperature and extended dyeing time, all of which contributed to improved fabric coloration. Although MGSR-dyed cotton fabric showed increased stiffness, the changes in moisture regain, air permeability and crease recovery remained within acceptable limits. Overall, MGSR extract is a viable natural dye option for eco-friendly textile processing, especially when combined with appropriate mordants and fixatives to improve performance and durability. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. 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