AnnaleSKinesiologiae UDK / UDC 796.01:612 | Annales Kinesiologiae 9, 2018, 1, pp. 1-72I ISSN 2232-2620 SŒNTiFiC PUBLiSHiNG HOUSE ANNALES Koper 2018 ISSN 2232-2620 UDK/UDC 796.01:612 Volume 9, Year 2018, Number 1 ISSN (online ed.) 2335-4240 Editor in Chief / Glavni in odgovorni urednik: Rado Pišot Editors / Uredniki: Peter Čerče, Petra Dolenc, Mitja Gerževič, Mihaela Jurdana, Katja Koren, Uroš Marušič, Cecil J. W. Meulenberg, Nina Mohorko, Armin Paravlič, Saša Pišot, Matej Plevnik, Boštjan Šimunič Editorial Board / Uredniški odbor: Guglielmo Antonutto (Ita), Jakob Bednarik (Slo), Gianni Biolo (Ita), Cornelius P. Bogerd (Nld), Bojan Borstner (Slo), Ksenija Bosnar (Cro), Carlo Capelli (Ita), Linda Catelli (Ita), Andrej Čretnik (Slo), Natale Gaspare de Santo (Ita), Pietro di Prampero (Ita), Scott Drawer (Usa), Samo Fošnarič (Slo), David Lee Gallahue (Usa), Bruno Grassi (Ita), Milan Roman Gregorič (Slo), Jay R. 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Quantity /Naklada: 250 copies per issue Financial support / Finančna podpora: The publishing of this journal is supported by the Foundation for Financing Sport Organisations in the Republic of Slovenia and the Slovenian Research Agency. £\ '£9 Fundacija za šport ^L I «L> I-W.kh'IH'. SLOVENIAN RESEARCH AGENCY Izdajo revije sofinancirata Fundacija za financiranje .športnih organizacij v Republiki Sloveniji in Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije. Journal abbriviation: Ann Kinesiol. Annales Kinesiologiae is an international journal published twice a year. A annual subscriptions (2 issues in English language) are available for 25 eur, and single issue is available for 15 eur. For students 20% discount applies upon presenting an international valid student ID. Subscription requests can be send to: annales.kinesiologiae@zrs-kp.si TABLE OF CONTENTS Rado Pišot:............................................................................................................... 1 Editorial Uvodnik Katerina Strašilova, Petr Vajda:............................................................................ 3 Influence of Social Interaction in a Group on Young Girls' Physical Performance Vpliv socialnih interakcij v skupini na telesne zmogljivosti deklic Vesna Simič, Nina Mohorko:.................................................................................. 15 Nutritional Strategies of Slovenian National Junior Swimming Team Prehranske strategije plavalcev slovenske kadetske in mladinske reprezentance Špela Bogataj, Blaž Lešnik:.................................................................................... 35 Correlation Between Different Motor Abilities and Score Points in the Rauch Cup Povezava različnih motoričnih sposobnosti z doseženimi točkami v Rauch pokalu Stojan Puhalj, Blaž Lešnik:.................................................................................... 45 The Relationship Between Dimensions of Technical Knowledge of Young Alpine Skiing Competitors and Competitive Performance Povezanost dimenzij tehničnega znanja mladih tekmovalcev v alpskem smučanju s tekmovalno uspešnostjo REVIEWS AND REPORTS OCENE IN POROČILA Saša Pišot:................................................................................................................ 59 2nd International Conference SPE Balkan Ski 2. Mednarodna konferenca SPE Balkan Ski Cecil Meulenberg:................................................................................................... 61 15th International Conference on Transformation Processes in Sport 15. Mednarodna konferenca »Transformacijski procesi v športu « Uroš Marušič:.......................................................................................................... 63 The 23rd Annual Congress of the European College of Sport Science 23. letni znanstveni kongres »European college of sport science« Cecil Meulenberg, Uroš Marušič:.......................................................................... 67 International Conference on Healthiness and Fitness Across the Lifespan Mednarodna konferenca o zdravju in telesni pripravljenosti v življenjski dobi Guidelines for authors .............................................................................................. 69 Navodila avtorjem ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 EDITORIAL Annales Kinesiologiae has published several scientific articles, adding an important value to the role and importance of regular physical / sports activities as well as for the holistic and harmonious development of every individual. Focusing on an individual's health and prevention, several articles present interesting research findings about the preventive role of physical / sports activity and its influence on the overall quality of life. Our readers can also get an insight into numerous events, scientific meetings and congresses with a common straightforward effort to raise awareness of the discussed values. In this number, the topic is presented from a slightly different perspective. These articles all have a common starting point aiming to contribute to a successful sports performance and the quality of exercise. The studied factors are highlighted by both the social aspect - the role of the group and social integration, the set of appropriate nutrition strategies, as well as the functional aspect - the role of motor abilities and technical knowledge. The process of training and development of an individual involved are usually organized and guided by experts - kinesiologists and trainers in cooperation with the interdisciplinary team and, of course, parents when talking about the period of childhood. With the professionally adapted and integrated, but above all, coordinated operation of these factors, we can multiply the effects and impact of exercise and the sport results which is not only shown in sports results or ranking, but will represent an important positive experience for further and sustainable engagement in physical / sports activities. prof. Rado Pisot, Ph.D. Editor-in-Chief and Managing Editor 1 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 UVODNIK O vlogi in pomenu redne gibalne/športne aktivnosti za celosten in skladen razvoj posameznika, za njegovo zdravje, o preventivni vlogi ter vplivu na kakovost življenja, smo v Annales Kinesiologiae objavili že vrsto znanstvenih člankov ter ob tem našim bralcem predstavili številne dogodke, znanstvena srečanja in kongrese, ki jim je skupno ravno prizadevanje za uzaveščenje omenjenih vrednot. V številki, ki je pred vami, je ta problematika izpostavljena nekoliko drugače. Prispevki imajo skupno izhodišče v doprinosu k uspešnemu športnemu nastopu in kakovosti vadbe in treninga. Kot pomembne dejavnike za doseganje cilja pa izpostavljajo tako socialni vidik - vlogo skupine in socialne integracije ter nabora ustreznih strategij prehranjevanja, kot tudi funkcionalni vidik - vlogo gibalnih sposobnosti ter tehničnega znanja. Sam proces vadbe in razvoja posameznika vključenega v vadbo in trening običajno vodijo in usmerjajo strokovnjaki - kineziologi in trenerji, v sodelovanju z interdisciplinarnim timom ter seveda starši ali skrbniki, ko govorimo o obdobju otroštva. S strokovno prilagojenim, celostnim, predvsem pa usklajenim delovanjem navedenih dejavnikov, lahko multipliciramo učinke in doprinos vadbe ter športnega dosežka tako, da ta ne bo izkazan le na področju športnega rezultata/uvrstitve, temveč bo predstavljal pomembno pozitivno izkušnjo ter spodbudo za nadaljnje in trajno udejstvovanje v gibalni/športni aktivnosti. prof. dr. Rado Pišot, glavni in odgovorni urednik 2 Original scientific article received: 2018-02-06 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 UDC: 796.012.1-053.2:316.454 INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL INTERACTION IN A GROUP ON YOUNG GIRLS' PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE Katefina STRASILOVA1 & Petr VAJDA1 1 Masaryk University, Faculty of Sport Studies, Brno, Czech Republic Corresponding Author: Katefina STRASILOVA, MSc Masaryk University, Faculty of Sport Studies, Kamenice 5, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic Phone: 420 549 49 2000 e-mail: katka.strasilova24@gmail.com ABSTRACT It is assumed that there are many factors influencing sport performance in youth sport. This research is designed to find out whether there are any differences between individual and group physical performance. The aim ofstudy is to report on the effect of social-comparative effect on young girls 'physicalperformance. The study involved young elite synchronized swimmers from a Czech club with Olympic tradition who compete at an international level (n = 28, age 10.12±1.20). The swimmers were required to hold a wall-seat position as long as possible in two separately measured rounds, i.e. as individuals and as a group. The girls were randomly split into two groups. They started with an individual or group try of the wall-seat position exercise. There was a week's interval between the measured rounds. The mean performance was M = 108.82±57.10 in the individual try and M = 271.50±218.88 in the group one. The influence of social interaction in the group was evaluated by Cohen's d which showed high substantive differences (d = 1.1, large effect). The Wilcoxon matched pair test was used for data analysis (results were statistically significant, P < 0.05). It showed mutual social encouragement in a group that caused improvement in performing a wall-seat position and influenced significantly their performance. However, it was also established that such social interaction / encouragement is not consistent for every child. Nevertheless, there are many other important factors influencing a youth physical performance as positive verbal motivation, constructive feedback or appraisal. Keywords: group cohesion, mutual encouragement, self-motivation, sport performance, synchronized swimming, youth athletes. 3 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 Katerim STRAŠILOVA Petr VAJDA: INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL INTERACTION IN A GROUP ON YOUNG GIRLS' PHYSICAL ..., 3-13 VPLIV SOCIALNIH INTERAKCIJ V SKUPINI NA TELESNE ZMOGLJIVOSTI DEKLIC IZVLEČEK Na uspešnost udejstvovanja v mladinskem športu vplivajo številni dejavniki. Namen pričujoče raziskave je bil ugotoviti morebitne razlike med telesnimi zmogljivostmi pri individualnem in skupinskem udejstvovanju. V raziskavo smo vključili skupino mladih vrhunskih športnic skladnostnega plavanja iz češkega kluba z olimpijsko tradicijo, ki tekmujejo na mednarodnem nivoju (n=28, starost 10,12±1,20). Plavalke smo prosili, da vztrajajo v položaju »sedenje ob steni« kolikor mogoče dolgo. Vajo smo ponovili dvakrat, s to razliko, da so jo udeleženke v raziskavi enkrat izvajale individualno, nato pa še skupinsko. Dekleta smo naključno razdelili v dve skupini in pri eni smo najprej merili individualno izvedbo, pri drugi pa skupinsko izvedbo vaje. Interval med enim in drugim merjenjem je bil en teden. Povprečni izmerjeni dosežki udeleženk v raziskavi so bili M=108.82±57.10 pri individualni izvedbi vaje in M=271.50±218.88 pri skupinski. Učinek socialne interakcije v skupini smo ovrednotili s pomočjo Cohenovega d indeksa, ki je pokazal visoko statistično odstopanje (d=1,1, velik učinek). Za analizo podatkov smo uporabili Wilcoxonov testpredznačenih rangov (rezultati so bili statistično pomembni, P< 0,05). Izkazalo se je, da je vzajemna socialna vzpodbuda v skupini povzročila učinkovitejše izvajanje vaje sedenja ob steni in znatno vplivala na izmerjene rezultate. Tekom raziskave pa smo ugotovili tudi, da tovrstna socialna interakcija/ vzpodbuda ne vpliva nujno na vsakega otroka. Vsekakor obstaja še vrsta drugih pomembnih faktorjev, ki vplivajo na otrokovo samomotivacijo kot npr. pozitivno verbalno motiviranje, konstruktivne povratne informacije in pohvale. Ključne besede: skupinska kohezivnost, vzajemno vzpodbujanje, samomotivacija, športna zmogljivost, skladnostno plavanje, mlade športnice INTRODUCTION Motivation to exercise, often referred to as a need of achievement, is described as a need to prove something difficult, be the best, overcome yourself and your rivals. The natural social aspect of motivation to exercise is an effort to compete with others (Vyrost & Slamenik, 2008). Similarly, Heckhausen (1991) described the need to be the best or to do things better than before or to do them better than other people. Motivation to exercise is proposed by many psychological factors. Enjoyment, social influence and self-efficacy are among the most frequently mentioned (Carron, Hausenblas, & Mack, 1996; Irwin, Scorniaenchi, Kerr, Eisenmann, & Feltz, 2012; Mcauley & Courneya, 1993). Another 4 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 Kateiim STRASILOVA, Petr VAJDA: INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL INTERACTION IN A GROUP ON YOUNG GIRLS' PHYSICAL ..., 3-13 factor that should not be overlooked is exercising in a group. The motivational effect of a group activity has been studied for many years, mainly in social psychology, and it was shown it could lead to higher exercise adherence than individual programs (Di-shman & Buckworth, 1996). The motivational effect of exercising in a group was described in two different ways. The first one, the so-called motivational loss, is caused by a phenomenon of social lofting. Especially more capable team members developed less effort than if they worked individually (Baron & Kerr, 2003). However, motivation gain is described more frequently. The Köhler motivation effect and social compensation are two phenomena which are connected with motivation gain. In case when superior group members work hard and increase their individual effort in order to compensate the effort of less-capable group members we call it social compensation (Osborn, Irwin, Skogsberg, & Feltz, 2012). The Köhler effect occurs when the inferior group members enhance their effort to cooperate with the superior members (Baron & Kerr, 2003). It was shown that the Kohler effect is task-dependent (Weber & Hertel, 2007). For example, Steiner (1972) created the task taxonomy which divided motivation tasks into three relevant categories: conjunctive, coactive, and additive. The first one, the conjunctive task, means that group performance is dependent on the inferior members' performance. The result of the weakest member defined the overall team result. The second one, the coactive task, means that the task is performed simultaneously by all members of the group, but their individual result is not dependent on the outcome of other group members. The last one, the additive task, describes an exercise when the sum of members performance represents the result of the group. On the other hand, Kerr et al. (2007) proposed two main explanations of the Köhler effect. One explanation works with conjunctive theory. It says that group performance will always be as strong as the weakest group member. It brings motivation gain for the inferior group members who want to get closer to the stronger members because they know that the group result is dependent on their performance. The other explanation suggests an increase in motivation due to social comparison. It means that the presence of superior group members may enhance personal and performance goals of weaker group members. It was shown from previous studies that the greatest motivation gains for the weakest group members was in a conjunctive group task, when the weaker members were exercising with moderate partners, it worked especially for women. On the other hand, it has been shown that a lot of men work better in coactive tasks with a superior co-worker and it does not matter if they cooperate on a task or not (Weber & Hertel, 2007). On the contrary, Feltz, Kerr and Irwin (2011) found out that the increase in motivation was entirely the result of social comparison. It means that the presence of the other group member brought the main motivation gain regardless if they work on the group goal or not. It was also confirmed that the motivation gains are greatest when the inferior members are 1.4 times weaker than the stronger ones (Messe, Hertel, Kerr, Lount Jr, & Park, 2002). Nevertheless, the differences between the most and the least capable partners should not be too large as this can cause motivation losses (Hertel, Niemeyer, & Clauss, 2008). 5 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 Katerim STRASILOVA, Petr VAJDA: INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL INTERACTION IN A GROUP ON YOUNG GIRLS' PHYSICAL ..., 3-13 Osbom et al. (2012) states that motivation is a cognitive process and it is impossible to express it in the correct way. For this reason, the motivation is inferred from the performance differences that could be weakness as well. Unfortunately, many previous studies have been done in laboratory conditions only and they have not been tested on real existing sports teams. It means that we have many results which demonstrated the effects of Kohler motivation gains but only a few of them aim to show effectiveness in real sport team groups. METHODS Subject A number of thirty-three girls at the age ranging from eight to twelve (M=10.12±1.20) were randomly split into two groups (fifteen and sixteen). The girls were young elite synchronized swimmers from the Czech club with Olympic tradition who compete at an international level. The experimental group consisted of two smaller training groups (younger and older ones). The girls are close friends within the training group, but they do not know well the girls from the other training group. The girls from both training groups were randomly split in two experimental groups. Their physical performance was measured in two separate rounds, i.e. as individuals and as a group. The first group started with individual exercises and the second one with exercising in a group. Though this approach we controlled the effect of previous experience with testing session. There was a one-week interval between the rounds. Five girls did not finish the research because of health reasons. Therefore, only twenty-eight girls fulfilled the whole protocol. It changed the number of participants in the examined groups to 13:15. Consent Before the beginning of this research, all under-aged girls' parents were thoroughly informed about the research purpose and all potential health and other risks. All parents agreed on their children's participation and signed appropriate consensus documents. Procedure All girls held a wall-seat position (isometric strength) as long as they were able to in two separate occasion. In the individual try, there was only the researcher and the tested girl, however, in the group test, there were all girls from the selected part of the sample. The group exercising was coactive, it means the girls exercised together in the same room and at the same time but we measured individual time of each girl, not a team result. Both measurements took place at the same time of a day with a one-week 6 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 Kateiim STRASILOVA Petr VAJDA: INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL INTERACTION IN A GROUP ON YOUNG GIRLS' PHYSICAL ..., 3-13 rest interval. All of the girls participated in both tests, in the individual as well as the group one, so we gathered the data to compare performance with or without the presence of teammates for each participant. In this way, we were able to measure the effect of the exercise on physical performance in a small social group. Performance duration was recorded for each occasion and later used to interpret the findings. The girls held a wall-seat position when they leaned their back against the wall with arms held forward. They bent the ankles, knees, and hips at the right angle. It looked as if they were sitting on an imaginary chair (fig. 1 and 2). All girls received the same instructions: "Girls, I would like you to hold the wall-seat position as long as you can. When it starts to hurt too much or you get too tired only then you can sit on the floor and leave the room. Do you understand what to do?" The subjects were not allowed to talk during the session and were informed about their results after their second measurement. When they did not abide by the instructions, during the exercise position, they were immediately asked to adjust it. If they did not adjust the position immediately, the exercise was stopped. Fig. 1 and 2: Wall seat position 7 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 Katerim STRASILOVA, Petr VAJDA: INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL INTERACTION IN A GROUP ON YOUNG GIRLS' PHYSICAL ..., 3-13 Research Questions 1. How does social comparison affect the performance in wall-seat test of the synchronized swimmers at the age from eight to twelve? 2. Does the social comparison have the same effect on inferior and superior members? RESULTS The data were tested by the Kologmo-Smirmov test and it was established that it did not come from a normal distribution. The data from both measurements were recorded and inserted into Table 1. We can see the performance of all girls in the individual and group exercises, the differences between these two measurements and the percentage changes. The mean performance was M = 108.82±57.10 for the individual try and M = 271.50±218.88 for the group one. Other average values (median, values coming from the 2nd and 3rd quartile and min / max value) you can see from Figure 3. The influence of group interaction on the performance of synchronised swimmers was evaluated by the Cohen's d which showed a high substantive dependence (d=1.1, large effect). The Wilcoxon matched pair test was used for the data analysis. The results showed significant differences (P < 0.05) between the performance carried out individually and the one in the group. Based on the results of both tests, we can conclude that the social interaction had a positive impact on girls' physical performance in the wall-seat test. We also evaluated the size of the motivation gain or loss for individual girls. The influence of social interaction on each girl is described in the Figure 4. The graph shows percentage changes in girls' performance between the individual and group exercises. Girls were ranked in the chart from the weakest to the strongest (rated according to their performance from individual exercises). The mean percentage change in the wall-seat position test was +166.6 % (range -18.5 % to +616.3 %). We can see a slight trend in the graph, which suggests that inferior girls from individual exercises achieved a slightly higher positive change in performance. 8 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 Kateiim STRASILOVA Petr VAJDA: INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL INTERACTION IN A GROUP ON YOUNG GIRLS' PHYSICAL ..., 3-13 Table 1. Performance result, difference and percentage change for the wall-seat test. No. Time in individual exercise (sec) Time in group exercise (sec) Difference (sec) Percent. Change (%) 1 32 34 2 6.3 2 90 625 535 594.4 3 83 225 142 171.1 4 40 120 80 200.0 5 83 171 88 106.0 6 47 195 148 314.9 7 178 800 622 349.4 8 92 93 1 1.1 9 62 121 59 95.2 10 124 197 73 58.9 11 109 238 129 118.3 12 173 141 -32 -18.5 13 102 337 235 230.4 14 87 126 39 44.8 15 70 316 246 351.4 16 65 76 11 16.9 17 330 411 81 24.5 18 105 419 314 299.0 19 140 536 396 282.9 20 85 487 402 472.9 21 86 91 5 5.8 22 98 702 604 616.3 23 175 240 65 37.1 24 87 91 4 4.6 25 109 108 -1 -0.9 26 182 255 73 40.1 27 134 241 107 79.9 28 79 206 127 160.8 Note: The girls were divided into two groups. The first one started with the individual and the other one with the group measurements. The group results are separated by a line in the tables. 9 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 Kateiim STRASILOVA Petr VAJDA: INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL INTERACTION IN A GROUP ON YOUNG GIRLS' PHYSICAL ..., 3-13 Fig. 3: Average difference in physical performance in wall-seat position. 900 800 700 500 400 300 !00 100 0 ¥ j _ Note: Particij strongest one. Individual performante Performance in group □ Median □ 25%-7S1i T Mh-Max weakest to the Fig. 4: Percentage changes in performance in individual and group tries. 10 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 Kateiim STRASILOVA, Petr VAJDA: INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL INTERACTION IN A GROUP ON YOUNG GIRLS' PHYSICAL ..., 3-13 DISCUSSION The primary aim of the study was to find out whether the group exercise (Kohler effect) could positively influence the performance of girls aged 8 to 12. The results showed significant differences between the performance of the girls in individual and group exercises. Based on these results, we can conclude that the group exercise caused a positive performance increase for most girls, which is consistent with the results of many other studies. For example, Hertel, Kerr, and Messe (2000) investigated the influence of group condition on motor persistence task. The participants held a metal bar in stretched arms for as long as possible. The exercising time was measured in an individual and in a group condition for all the participants. In the group condition, the partners held the bar over a rope. Once the first partner touched the rope the timer was stopped and exercising was ended. The authors found out that less capable participants held the bar longer if they worked in the group. Feltz et al. (2011) empirically tested the impact of Köhler motivation gain. They found out that people who were exercising with superior partner in a series of five isometric exercises improved by 24 % (d=0.99) compared to a check-up sample where people were exercising individually. Irwin et al. (2012) examined the impact of a coactive and a conjunctive task on an aerobic exercise. They described the performance increase up to 86 % per coactive and even to 208 % for conjunctive tasks. We also evaluated the individual performance differences of all girls in an individual and a group try. There we can see a slightly higher impact of motivation gain on the inferior member. A similar motivation gain was described by Weber and Hertel (2007) in the coactive task. In their research, they discovered the stronger impact of social interaction due to additive and conjunctive task in women. They also suggested that the strongest gain of the Köhler effect occurs when: (a) all group members are involved in the team goal, (b) all team members care about the good team performance, (c) all group members perceive the group as a team. Furthermore, they proposed that connecting these three points could bring a particularly large enhancement in motivation. Their results showed a large effect on the physical performance due to these three points (d = 0.94). We would like to extend our research by a comparison of these three points in accordance with Weber and Hertel in our next study. However, the influence of the group motivation could be affected due to friendships between or among some girls. We tried to reduce the impact of friendship in the way that the experimental groups were randomly split and mixing younger and older girls. For example, the last two exercising girls in the first experimental group were from the same training group and the last two girls from the other experimental group were from different training groups. Yet all of them increased their physical performance in the group try in comparison with their individual tries. So we believe that the enhancement was caused because of the group exercising and not because of the relationships in the group. Nevertheless, it is possible that this effect will not be traceable or effective in other sport groups or in boys. Because of this reason, we would like to extend our 11 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 Kateiim STRASILOVA, Petr VAJDA: INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL INTERACTION IN A GROUP ON YOUNG GIRLS' PHYSICAL ..., 3-13 research to another different group of children, for example boys, in some individual / team disciplines, games, etc. CONCLUSION To sum up, we established that social interaction, i.e. mutual encouragement in a group of young girls, could influence their sport performance. However, it was also found out that such social interaction / encouragement is not consistent for every girl; it was fluctuating in the sample. A small positive trend was noticed, which showed that the motivation gain was a little bit higher for the inferior group members. We believe that this effect could be important in exercises that girls do not enjoy so much and where they have to overcome a certain degree of discomfort or even pain. Not only young girls but children in general often do not understand why they should do some unpleasant activities and put their effort in them. So there is surely some extra motivation gain needed. Exercising in a training group could be used to increase the attractiveness of training in the individual sports and increase the training efforts of youth through competitions and fun. But it should be noted that group dynamics can influence the effectiveness of this result. Nevertheless, it seems that social interaction could be beneficial for the young girls' training as well as other factors influencing a child's self-motivation, such as positive verbal motivation, constructive feedback or appraisal. REFERENCES Baron, R. S., & Kerr, N. L. (2003). Group process, group decision, group action (2. ed). Buckingham: Open Univ. Press. Carron, A. V., Hausenblas, H. A., & Mack, D. (1996). Social influence and exercise: a meta-analysis. 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Journal of 12 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 Kateiim STRASILOVA, Petr VAJDA: INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL INTERACTION IN A GROUP ON YOUNG GIRLS' PHYSICAL ..., 3-13 Applied Social Psychology, 38(5), 1329-1363. doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00350.x VIEW ITEM Irwin, B. C., Scorniaenchi, J., Kerr, N. L., Eisenmann, J. C., & Feltz, D. L. (2012). Aerobic exercise is promoted when individual performance affects the group: a test of the Köhler Motivation Gain effect. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 44(2), 151-159. doi: 10.1007/s12160-012-9367-4 VIEW ITEM Kerr, N. L., Messe, L. A., Seok, D.-H., Sambolec, E. J., Lount, R. B., & Park, E. S. (2007). Psychological mechanisms underlying the Köhler Motivation Gain. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(6), 828-841. doi: 10.1177/0146167207301020 VIEW ITEM Mcauley, E., & Courneya, K. S. (1993). Adherence to exercise and physical activity as health-promoting behaviors: attitudinal and self-efficacy influences. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 2(2), 65-77. doi: 10.1016/S0962-1849(05)80113-1 VIEW ITEM Messe, L. A., Hertel, G., Kerr, N., Lount Jr, R. B., & Park, E. S. (2002). Knowledge of partner's ability as a moderator of group motivation gains: an exploration of the Köhler discrepancy effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 935-946. doi: 0.1037/0022-3514.82.6.935 VIEW ITEM Osborn, K. A., Irwin, B. C., Skogsberg, N. J., & Feltz, D. L. (2012). The Köhler effect: motivation gains and losses in real sports groups. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 1(4), 242-253. doi: 10.1037/a0026887 VIEW ITEM Steiner, I. D. (1972). Group process and productivity. New York: Academic Press. Vyrost, J., & Slamcnik, I. (2008). Socialni psychologie [Social psychology]. Praha: Grada. Weber, B., & Hertel, G. (2007). Motivation gains of inferior group members: a meta--analytical review. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(6), 973-993. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.93.6.973 VIEW ITEM 13 Original scientific article Received: 2018-04-19 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 UDC: 797.21.034.6:613.2 NUTRITIONAL STRATEGIES OF SLOVENIAN NATIONAL JUNIOR SWIMMING TEAM Vesna SIMIC1, Nina MOHORKO1 'University of Primorska, Faculty of Health Sciences, Slovenia Corresponding Author: Nina MOHORKO University of Primorska, Faculty of Health Sciences, Polje 42, 6310 Izola, Slovenia. Phone: +386 5 66 35 801 e-mail: nina.mohorko@fvz.upr.si ABSTRACT Purpose: The purpose of our study was to assess the nutritional strategies of Slovenian national junior swimming team and compare them with recommendations of clinical sports nutrition. Competitive young swimmers, namely, have increased energy and nutrient needs compared to general adolescents due to frequent and intense training. Despite some physiological differences if compared with adults, adult sports nutrition recommendations for macronutrients apply to them. Further, literature reports iron, calcium, and vitamin D intake as frequently inadequate. Methods: Nutritional strategies of 19 members of Slovenian national junior swimming team were assessed retrospectively through 3-day food and activity diaries, questionnaires, anthropometric data including bioimpedance analysis. Energy availability (EA), macronutrient intake and timing, iron, calcium and vitamin D intakes, hydration, consumption of sports food and dietary supplement use were evaluated. Results: EA in some of male swimmers and in the majority offemale swimmers was lower than recommended. Carbohydrate intake was adequate in male swimmers and two thirds of female swimmers. Although average protein intake exceeded the upper recommended limit, some female swimmers did not meet the lower recommended intake limit. Total fat intake was lower than recommended, with saturated fat intake on the upper recommended level. Calcium and iron intake in male swimmers exceeded recommended values, while female swimmers had lower calcium intake than recommended and some had lower iron intake, too. Vitamin D intake was low in all swimmers. Meal timing was adequate in the majority of swimmers, who often reached for dietary supplements, mostly omega 3 fatty acids, multivitamins and magnesium. Conclusions: Low EA in young competitive swimmers is of concern. More successful, personalised nutrition strategies for young competitive swimmers, focusing on hi- 15 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 Vesna SIMIC, Nina MOHORKO: NUTRITIONAL STRATEGIES OF SLOVENIAN NATIONAL JUNIOR SWIMMING TEAM, 15-34 gher energy intake and healthy food choices, would contribute to the preservation of their health and further development into top performers. Keywords: nutrition, young athletes, sport nutrition recommendation, health, performance. PREHRANSKE STRATEGIJE PLAVALCEV SLOVENSKE KADETSKE IN MLADINSKE REPREZENTANCE IZVLEČEK Namen: Namen naše raziskave je bil ugotoviti ustreznost uporabljenih prehranskih strategij plavalcev slovenske kadetske in mladinske reprezentance v primerjavi z veljavnimi priporočili klinične športne prehrane. Mladi plavalci, ki tekmujejo, imajo v primerjavi z ostalimi najstniki zaradi pogostih in intenzivnih treningov povečane energijske in prehranske potrebe. Kljub očitnim fiziološkim razlikam, ki jih ločijo od odraslih, veljajo zanje priporočila za vnos makrohranil za odrasle športnike. Med mikrohranili literatura navaja, da so vnosi železa, kalcija in vitamina D pogosto nezadostni. Metode: Prehranske strategije 19 plavalcev slovenske kadetske in mladinske reprezentance smo retrospektivno ocenili na osnovi 3-dnevnih prehranskih in aktivno-stnih dnevnikov, vprašalnika ter podatkov antropometričnih meritev, vključno z bioimpedančno analizo. Ugotavljali smo energijsko razpoložljivost (ER), vnos in časovno razporejanje makrohranil, vnose železa, kalcija in vitamina D, hidracijo, uporabo športne prehrane in prehranskih dopolnil. Rezultati: ER je bila pri nekaterih moških plavalcih in pri večini plavalk prenizka. Vnosi ogljikovih hidratov so bili primerni pri plavalcih in dveh tretjinah plavalk. Kljub temu, da je ugotovljeni povprečni vnos beljakovin presegal zgornjo priporočeno mejo, nekatere plavalke niso dosegale spodnje priporočene meje. Celokupni vnosi maščob so bili nižji od priporočenih, vnosi nasičenih maščob pa na zgornji meji. Vnos kalcija in železa je pri plavalcih presegal priporočene vrednosti, pri plavalkah pa je bil vnos kalcija in pri nekaterih tudi vnos železa pod priporočeno mejo. Ritem obrokov je bil pri večini ustrezen. Plavalci in plavalke so pogosto uživali prehranska dopolnila, najpogosteje maščobne kisline omega-3, multivitamine in magnezij. Zaključek: Nizka ER pri mladih plavalcih, ki tekmujejo, je zaskrbljujoča. Bolj uspešne individualne prehranske strategije za mlade plavalce, ki bi se osredotočale na višji energijski vnos in zdravo prehrano, bi prispevale k varovanju njihovega zdravja in razvoju v vrhunske športnike. Ključne besede: prehrana, mladi športnik, priporočila, zdravje, zmogljivost 16 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 Vesna SIMIC, Nina MOHORKO: NUTRITIONAL STRATEGIES OF SLOVENIAN NATIONAL JUNIOR SWIMMING TEAM, 15-34 INTRODUCTION Young athletes who participate in high intensity sports programs have higher nutritional and energy needs than the general WHO recommendations stated for children and adolescents (Desbrow & Leveritt, 2015). Competitive young swimmers belong to a group of athletes with increased energy and nutrient needs due to frequent and intense training (Petrie, Stover, & Horswill, 2004). At the metabolic level, all three energy systems (the high energy phosphagen system, anaerobic glycolysis and aerobic metabolism) are involved in all swimming competition disciplines, ranging by duration between 20 seconds (50 m) and 14.5 minutes (1,500 m) in junior elite swimmers (Federation Internationale de Natation, 2018). Although adolescents have specific nutritional needs because they differ from adults in energy consumption, substrate consumption during exercise, thermoregulation, sweat mechanism and maintenance of fluid balance as well as other physiological components (Desbrow & Leveritt, 2015), the sports nutrition principles are similar to those for adults. For long-term health protection of athletes, adequate energy availability (EA), 45 kcal/kg of fat-free mas (FFM) or more, must be provided (Desbrow & Leveritt, 2015). Sufficient energy and nutrient intake in adolescence is critical for normal growth and development, maintaining health and injury prevention. An adequate nutrition intake also enables optimization of the training process and successful recovery. Adolescence is a crucial period, comprised of intense growth and development, involving the alteration of body composition, metabolic and hormonal fluctuations, maturation of organ systems and formation of nutrient storage, all of which has a potential impact on the individual's health in the future (Sawyer et al., 2012). Long-term suboptimal EA, in the range between 30 and 45 kcal/kg FFM, or too low EA, under 30 kcal/kg FFM, leads to relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) (Mountjoy et al., 2014). The latter leads to disrupted physiological functions caused by the relative lack of energy, which include lowered metabolic rate, disrupted menstrual function, and compromised bone health, immunity, protein synthesis and cardiovascular health. Despite the fact that there are potential differences in the ability to store carbohydrates (CHO) and to use substrates during physical activity between adults and children, literature reports that the CHO needs of young athletes do not differ greatly from the needs of adults (Desbrow et al., 2014). In moderate to high-intensity endurance training, which lasts from 1 to 3 hours per day, CHO intake of 6 to 10 g/kg of body weight (BW) is recommended and in moderate to high intensity exercise, which lasts 4 to 5 hours per day, 8 to 12 g CHO/kg BW/ day is recommended (Burke, Hawley, Wong, & Jeukendrup, 2011). The recommendations must be individual, dynamic and in accordance with the requirements and goals (Thomas, Erdman, & Burke, 2016). Due to the lack of specific research into the protein requirements of adolescent athletes, it is suggested to follow the recommendations for adult athletes (1.3 - 1.8 g protein/kg BW). Some athletes have increased protein requirements during adolescence compared to the recommended quantities for their age group, especially if they have well-developed muscle mass or if they participate in high intensity exercise programs 17 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 Vesna SIMIC, Nina MOHORKO: NUTRITIONAL STRATEGIES OF SLOVENIAN NATIONAL JUNIOR SWIMMING TEAM, 15-34 (Boisseau, Vermorel, & Rance, 2007; Aerenhouts, Deriemaeker, Hebbelinck, & Clarys, 2011; Aerenhouts, Van Cauwenberg, Poortmans, Hauspie, & Clarys, 2013). Dietary fat intake of adolescent athletes should follow general recommendations (Desbrow et al., 2014). According to the National Institute for Public Health (2016) this means that in the 10- to 14-year old age group, fat should represent between 30 and 35% of total energy intake (EI), while in the 15- to 18-year old age group, fat intake should contribute up to 30% EI, with the note that in physically active individuals this share could be increased to up to 35% EI. Saturated fat should not exceed 10% EI (National Institute for Public Health, 2016). Micronutrient deficiencies have negative impact on health and performance because micronutrients participate in a number of functions in the body. In young athletes, special attention must be paid to iron, calcium and vitamin D intakes (Desbrow & Leveritt, 2015). Recommendations for iron intake in young athletes do not differ from recommendations for the general population, despite the fact that exercise can cause additional iron loss through sweating or bleeding into the gastrointestinal system or also due to the decomposition of erythrocytes during a long run (Peeling et al., 2009; Koe-hler et al., 2012). Slovenian adolescent males aged 13 to 18 should therefore consume 12 mg of iron per day and females 15 mg per day (National Institute for Public Health, 2016). The only exception are vegetarian athletes who require higher intakes due to the reduced bioavailability of non-heme iron (Desbrow & Leveritt, 2015). Calcium and vitamin D are key nutrients for the development and maintenance of bone mass. Due to intense bone growth during adolescence, calcium needs are increased in both males and females. For 13- to 18-year olds, the recommended daily intake of calcium is 1200 mg (National Institute for Public Health, 2016), which applies to adolescent athletes, too, until there is more research available (Desbrow & Leveritt, 2015). Vitamin D plays an important role in calcium and phosphate metabolism and calcium integration into bones and teeth, and in the operation of the immune and muscle systems (Desbrow & Leveritt, 2015). Approximately 90% of our daily vitamin D requirements are covered by internal synthesis in the skin after exposure to ultraviolet rays; dietary intake contributing only 10% of the requirements (Koundourakis, Avgo-ustinaki, Malliaraki, & Margioris, 2016). In Slovenia, typical nutritional vitamin D intakes (2-4 ^g daily) in adolescents in the absence of internal synthesis do not suffice to achieve recommended serum concentrations. The difference between the intake and the recommended value of 20 ^g must be reached through frequent exposure to the sun and/or taking a vitamin D formulation (National Institute for Public Health, 2016). In latitudes above 35° north, which applies to Slovenia, the sun rays angle in winter are too oblique for efficient skin vitamin D synthesis (Holick, 2008), apart from that, competitive young swimmers spend long hours practicing indoor also in autumn and spring, which poses them at risk for vitamin D deficiency. Geiker et al. (2017) reported that 45% of the 29 swimmers (16-24 years old) residing at latitude 55-56° north had 25-hydroxycholecalciferol below 50 nmol/L in March and April. It is known that adolescent athletes have a higher height to body mass ratio (Petrie et al., 2004) and a lower sweating rate (Shibasaki, Inoue, Kondo & Iwata, 1997) than 18 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 Vesna SIMIC, Nina MOHORKO: NUTRITIONAL STRATEGIES OF SLOVENIAN NATIONAL JUNIOR SWIMMING TEAM, 15-34 adults. A decreased sweating rate is an advantage in maintaining hydration status and at the same time decreases the success of thermoregulation. Sawka et al. (2007) propose fluid replacement during exercise to such a degree that hypohydration exceeding 2% is prevented. Desbrow et al. (2014) and Smith, Holmes & McAllister (2015), who deal with adolescent athletes, recommend the same. Water or milk should not be replaced by sports drinks that contain electrolytes and CHO because sodium losses through sweating are smaller than in adults (Meyer, Volterman, Timmons, & Boguslaw, 2012). Sports drinks are recommended only in long-term intense physical activity. Drinking caffeinated energy drinks is advised against in young athletes (Desbrow & Leveritt, 2015). The use of sports food (sports drinks, sports bars, sports confectionery, sports gels, liquid meal supplements, ...) is justified in adolescents in cases of long and intensive training (Desbrow et al., 2014). Replacing nutrients with dietary supplements, such as calcium, iron and vitamin D, is also justified when a deficiency is confirmed (International Olympic Committee (IOC), 2011). The use of ergogenics is advised against because it is inappropriate and unnecessary, and in addition their safe use in all age groups has not been confirmed (International Olympic Committee (IOC), 2011). To fulfil their increased energy requirements, young athletes are recommended three main meals and two snacks (Desbrow & Leveritt, 2015). A meal rich in CHO (1-4 g CHO/kg BW) is recommended 1-4 hours before activity. During exercise lasting 1-2.5 hours, 30-60 g CHO/h should be consumed. The post exercise meal should contain 1.0-1.2 g CHO/kg BW and 20 g of protein (Smith et al., 2015). Such a meal, consumed directly or as soon as possible after exercise, enables the refilling of glyco-gen stores, muscle repair and replaces lost fluid. This is especially important in athletes who compete several days in a row (e.g. in a tournaments) or train more than once per day (Desbrow & Leveritt, 2015). The aim of our study was to assess the nutritional strategies of Slovenian national junior swimming team and compare them with recommendations. METHODS Data Collection All members of Slovenian national junior swimming team were invited to participate in the study. The eligibility criteria for the national team are determined by the Slovenian swimming federation, which also provided us with the list of swimmers (27 competitive young swimmers). Out of 21 swimmers for whom written consents for personal data processing were obtained, 2 were excluded from analysis due to inadequate food diaries, confining the final sample to 19 competitive young swimmers (Figure 1, Table 1). The data was collected from October to December 2016 and analysed in February 2017. 19 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 Vesna SIMIC, Nina MOHORKO: NUTRITIONAL STRATEGIES OF SLOVENIAN NATIONAL JUNIOR SWIMMING TEAM, 15-34 Invited: All members of Slovenian junior national swimming team (N = 27). Excluded (N = 8): Injured (N = 2), Refused to participate (N = 4), Inadequate food diaries (N = 2). 1 Final sample (N = 19). Figure 1: Swimmers flow diagram. Anthropometric Measurements We collected weight and height data from anthropometric measurements regularly performed during preparation training cycles. Swimmers were weighed to the nearest 10 g (M 304641-01, AED) and height was measured to the nearest 0.5 cm (Stadiometer, M 304641-01 (ADE). Whole body BIA (BIA 101 Anniversary AKERN, Florence, Italy, medically approved: EN ISO 13485 - ISO 9001) was performed using an alternating sinusoidal electric current of 400 ^A at an operating frequency of 50 kHz according to recommendations (Kyle et al., 2004) for FFM assessment, that was needed for EA calculation. Dietary Assessment and Energy Consumption Evaluation Data were collected from food and activity diaries. Swimmers were asked to keep 3-day weighted food and activity diaries for three consecutive days (including one weekend day). Swimmers were fully briefed on how to complete the diary and asked to continue their normal diet and physical activity. They were asked to include food labels and recipes for mixed dishes in their record. For each day, they had to record the kind, duration and intensity of the physical activity. The dietary intake was assessed using Open Platform for Clinical Nutrition (OPEN), that is an online, freely accessible, dietary assessment and planning tool for the analysis of food diary (http://www.opkp.si/en_GB/cms/vstopna-stran). OPEN food composition data was taken from the Slovenian food composition database (Golob et al., 2006); or if not available there, from the Souci, Fachmann & Kraut Food composition and nutrition tables (2008) and/or from the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Referen- 20 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 Vesna SIMIC, Nina MOHORKO: NUTRITIONAL STRATEGIES OF SLOVENIAN NATIONAL JUNIOR SWIMMING TEAM, 15-34 ce (http://www.ars.usda.gov/Services/docs.htm?docid=8964). Food composition data applied by the OPEN meet the European standard for food data CEN/TC 387, available at http://www.cen.eu/. EI, macronutrient intake and calcium, iron and vitamin D intakes were evaluated. To examine the suitability of energy consumption, EA was calculated. EA represents the energy that is available for body function, growth and development taking in consideration exercise energy expenditure (EEE) during planned physical activity (Desbrow et al., 2014). Metabolic equivalent of task (MET) was used for EEE evaluation, as suggested by OPEN. Questionnaire Data from a questionnaire that was developed by nutrition expert in charge of nutrition support of national swimming team, were analysed. Swimmers were asked to answer the questionnaire on health parameters (number of infections, menstrual cycle, growth), nutritional habits, timing of meal intake, use of dietary supplements and sports food, as well as type, intensity and the duration of exercise. Statistical Analysis Answers from the questionnaire that refer to sports nutrition recommendations and dietary intake compared to recommended values were processed in Microsoft Excel (IBM Corp. Released 2011), while anthropometric data and dietary intakes were processed with SPSS 20.0 (IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 20.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.). The descriptive statistics was used to determine averages, standard deviations and minimum and maximum values. The Shapiro-Wilk test was used for assessing the normality in the distribution of variables, one sample T-test and independent samples T-test were used to evaluate the difference from recommended values and difference between genders. Statistical significance was set at P < 0,05. Spearman and Eta correlations were performed to detect different associations between dietary intakes and frequency of infection as well as regularity of menstrual cycle. 21 Table 1: Characteristics of swimmers divided by gender Average (± SD) t* p (2-tailed)* All (N= 19) Male swimmers (N= 6) Female swimmers (N=13) Age (years) 14,95 ± 1,22 16,17 ±0,75 14,38 ±0,96 3,99 0,001 Body height (cm) 173,97 ±7,70 181,92 ±4,32 170,31 ±5,91 4,28 0,001 Body weight (kg) 62,35 ± 10,07 73,33 ±4,88 57,28 ± 7,35 4,84 0,000 BMR (kcal/day) (kJ/day) 1608,50 ± 180,30 (6729,96 ± 745,38 1827,88 ±91,55 (7647,85 ± 383,04) 1507,25 ± 100,50 (6306,33 ± 420,49) 6,63 0,000 FFM (kg) 51,58 ±9,39 62,97 ±3,80 46,33 ± 5,62 6,54 0,000 Fat mass (%) 17,44 ±3,77 14,08 ± 1,75 18,99 ±3,43 3,28 0,004 Training load (h/week) 20,78 ±2,59 21,42 ±3,52 20,48 ±2,15 0,72 0,480 Energy availability (kcal/kg FFM) (kJ/kg FFM) 37,01 ± 12,99 (155,23 ±54,35) 43,48 ±9,16 (181,92 ±38,32) 34,02 ± 13,69 (143,09 ±57,28) 1,53 0,144 BMR - basal metabolic rate, FFM -fat free mass *Difference between male and female swimmers Table 2: Nutritional intakes of swimmers divided by gender Average (± SD) t* p (2-tailed)* All (N= 19) Male swimmers (N= 6) Female swimmers (N=13) CHO intake/kg BW (g/kg) 7,24 ± 1,92 8,08 ± 1,32 6,85 ±2,07 1,33 0,201 Protein intake/kg BW (g/kg) 2.03 ±0.76 2,70 ± 0,90 1,72 ±0,44 3,21 0,005 Fat (% EI) 25,06 ±25,98 23,07 ±4,54 25,98 ± 7,10 -0,916 0,373 Saturated fat (% EI) 8,67 ± 9,00 8,67 ± 2,94 9,00 ± 2,48 -0,257 0,800 Iron itake (mg) 19,47 ±7,18 25,75 ±6,89 16,57 ±5,35 3,180 0,005 Calcium intake (mg) 1156,99 ± 516,64 1715,57 ± 352,75 899,19 ±347,17 4,742 0,000 Vitamin D intake (jig) 4,84 ± 4,76 9,20 ±6,31 2,83 ± 1,88 2,424 0,056 EI - energy intake, CHO -carbohydrate, BW - body weight *Difference between male and female swimmers ft o o p ft v1 5 I ri p S- g, 5 g i. 6 I ft 02 8 G. D « ft c 3 t« &* t« s5 & a 1 m > ►n s on-going research projects. In two days, the scientific programme was divided into three rooms with parallel sessions that each hosted oral sessions and poster sessions with varied topics. Rang- 61 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 REPORTS AND REVIEWS/POROČILA IN OCENE, 57-68 ing from video games influencing tennis techniques, knee arthroplasty, bed rest influencing skeletal muscle, to movement and assessment in preschool children, and from gender differences in physical activity among elderly and non-physical techniques to counteract functional decline, to the potential contribution of muscles consumption to a healthier active lifestyle. Through well-moderated sessions, the contributors among which were students and young researchers, were provided with plenty of time to present their findings and - time permitting - these were followed by fruitful discussions. Several following lectures were of specific interest, especially Rémi Radel>s of the Université Cote d'Azur, Nice France Neurocognitive Functions Involved in the Regulation of Effort during Endurance Exercise: A Dual-Model Perspective that provided a clear theoretical proposition of the regulatory brain network of physical effort. And the lecture of Boštjan Šimunič of the Science and Research Centre, Koper, Slovenia, dealing with Skeletal Muscle Mechanical Contractile Properties: From Childhood to Late Adulthood, which showed that through tensiomyography, non-symmetrical development trends in muscle wasting could be observed for subjects that maintain different levels of physical activity. Further detailed information on lectures and posters can be found on MSA's listing of conferences (http://csakademija.me/publications/#book-of-abstracts), where also previous editions can be found. Well worth a browse and a further orientation into developing an interest in this highly diverse and interesting regional conference on sport performance of various disciplines and the like. Cécil Meulenberg 62 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 REPORTS AND REVIEWS/POROCILA IN OCENE, 57-68 15. MEDNARODNA KONFERENCA »TRANSFORMACIJSKI PROCESI V ŠPORTU« Budva, Črna Gora, 12.-15. april 2018 Izbrani raziskovalci Inštituta za kineziološke raziskave Znanstveno-raziskovalnega središča Koper, so se s predstavitvijo prispevkov udeležili 15. mednarodne znanstvene konference »Transformacijski procesi v športu«, ki jo je od 12. do 15. aprila 2018 organizirala Športna akademija Črne Gore. Konferenca z naslovom »Športna učinkovitost« je potekala v obmorskem mestu Budva. V uvodni sekciji sta bili predstavljeni samo dve od načrtovanih treh predavanj. Prvo je imel Prof. Antonio Figueiredo iz Fakultete za športno znanost in telesno vzgojo, Univerze v Coimbri (Portugalska). Prikazal je dobro poznavanje področja treninga nogometa in svoje izkušnje nogometnega trenerja in športnega svetovalca predstavil v predavanju na temo odločanja nogometnih trenerjev na področju otrok in mladostnikov, z naslovom »Odločitve nogometnega trenerja in upoštevanje bioloških danosti otrok in mladostnikov«. Predavatelj je pustil precej odprtih vprašanj in tez, predvsem zaradi dejstva, da se konference žal ni mogel udeležiti tretji od načrtovanih uvodnih govorcev prof. Dejan Madic, ki naj bi predstavil komplementarno temo z naslovom »Promocija gibalno/športnih intervencij med otroci in mladostniki: ali obstaja kritična obdobje?« in v njej predstavil področje športa otrok in mladostnikov. Sekcijo je zaključil prof. Nejc 63 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 REPORTS AND REVIEWS/POROČILA IN OCENE, 57-68 Šarabon iz Fakultete za vede o zdravju Univerze na Primorskem, Slovenija, ki je v predavanju z naslovom »Kineziologija v ergonomiji: poudarek na bolečini v spodnjem delu hrbta«, ponudil dober vpogled v raziskave in projekte, ki jih izvajajo na fakulteti. Dvodnevni znanstveni program je potekal v treh dvoranah s paralelnimi sekcijami, od katerih je vsaka gostila tako predavanja kot poster predstavitve. Teme so bile zelo raznovrstne: vpliv video iger na tehniko tenisa, kolenska artroplastika, vpliv ležanja na skeletno mišico, gibalna aktivnost in spremljanje le-te med predšolskimi otroci, razlika med spoloma v gibalni aktivnosti v starosti, kognitivne tehnike za zmanjšanje funkcionalnega upada, potencialni vpliv uživanja školjk na aktiven življenjski slog. Skozi dobro moderirane sekcije so predavatelji, tudi študentje in mladi raziskovalci, imeli dovolj časa za temeljite predstavitve njihovih ugotovitev kot tudi za pestre razprave. Sekcija uvodnih predavanj drugega dne je bila izredno zanimiva. Prof. Rémi Radel iz Université Cote d'Azur, Nica, Francija je v predavanju z naslovom »Neurokognitiv-ne funkcije, vključene v regulacijo napora med vzdržljivostnim treningom. Dvodelni model« predstavil teoretično ozadje regulatornih mehanizmov možganske mreže med telesnim naporom. Prof. Boštjan Šimunič iz Znanstveno-raziskovalnega središča Koper, Slovenija je v predavanju z naslovom »Kontraktilni mehanizmi skeletne mišice: od otroštva do pozne odraslosti« predstavil metodo tenziomiografije ter pokazal, da je mogoče s to metodo opazovati nesimetrične razvojne trende propadanja mišic pri osebah, ki vzdržujejo različne stopnje telesne aktivnosti. Vse informacije o predavanjih in posterjih je mogoče najti na spletni strani Športne akademije Črne gore (http://csakademija.me/publications/#book-of-abstracts), kjer so dostopne tudi vsebine prejšnjih konferenc. Priporočam ogled vsebin izvedene konference po področjih interesa. Konferenco prepoznavam kot interesantno področno srečanje na temo športne zmogljivosti in drugih sorodnih tem. Cécil Meulenberg (prevod v slovenščino Matej Plevnik) 64 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 REPORTS AND REVIEWS/POROCILA IN OCENE, 57-68 THE 23rd ANNUAL CONGRESS OF THE EUROPEAN COLLEGE OF SPORT SCIENCE Dublin, Ireland, 4th-7th July 2018 The 23rd annual congress of the European college of sport science was held in Dublin (Ireland) between 4th and 7th July 2018. It was organized by two universities: University College Dublin (UCD) and Ulster University. In total, there were 2900 participants from 71 countries with 2002 presented abstracts. We had 4 plenary sessions, 41 invited sessions, 161 oral sessions, and 43 minioral sessions. The Congress participants presented their latest research from different research fields. Namely, presentations were given in the topics of physiology, training and testing, health and fitness, sports medicine and orthopedics, biomechanics and others. This year, the ECSS Young Investigator Award 2018 contest was held again, where the oral presentation winner was Alessandro Del Vecchio (of the Imperial College London, United Kingdom with the title of his presentation: Populations of Longitudinally Tracked Motor Neurons Increase their Discharge Rate Following Four Weeks of Isometric Strength Training) and the mini-oral (poster) presentation winner was Henri Tilga (of the University of Tartu, Estonia with the title of his presentation: The Effects of Web-based Intervention Program on Physical Education Teachers' Autonomy-Supportive and Controlling Behaviour). The ECSS 2018 was attended by one member of the Institute for Kinesiology Research, Scientific and Research Centre Koper, Slovenia. Uroš Marušič, Ph.D. presented the recent discoveries from the GIBKOP project in which he cooperates with two coauthors (prof. Rado Pisot and dr. Jeannette Mahoney). He gave a lecture as part of the "motor development and motor control" section with the title: "The influence of improved cognitive control after non-physical training on mobility-related outcomes in healthy and physically active elderly: A randomized controlled trial". Next year's 24th annual congress of the European college of sport science will be held from 3rd to 6th July in Prague, Czech Republic. Uroš Marušič 65 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 REPORTS AND REVIEWS/POROCILA IN OCENE, 57-68 23. LETNI ZNANSTVENI KONGRES »EUROPEAN COLLEGE OF SPORT SCIENCE« Dublin, Irska, 4.-7. julij 2018 23. letni znanstveni kongres »European college of sport science« (ECSS) je potekal v Dublinu (Irska) med 4. in 7. julijem 2018. Letošnji kongres sta v sodelovanju organizirali dve univerzi in sicer »University College Dublin« (UCD) in »Ulster University«. Letošnjega kongresa ECSS se je udeležilo 2900 udeležencev iz 71 držav z 2002 predstavljenima povzetkoma. Kongres je bil razdeljen na štiri plenarne sekcije, 41 vabljenih, 161 ustnih predstavitev in 43 kratkih ustnih predstavitev. Udeleženci kongresa so predstavili svoje najnovejše ugotovitve na različnih znanstveno-raziskovalnih področjih kot so fiziologija, treniranje in merjenje, zdravje in zmogljivost, športna medicina in ortopedija, biomehanika, če izpostavimo le nekatere. Tudi letos je potekalo tekmovanje mladih raziskovalcev (ECSS Young Investigator Award 2018 contest), kjer je v kategoriji ustnih predstavitev zmagal Alessandro Del Vecchio iz Imperial College--a iz Londona, Velika Britanija (Populations of Longitudinally Tracked Motor Neurons Increase their Discharge Rate Following Four Weeks of Isometric Strength Training). V kategoriji predstavitev v obliki posterja pa je slavil Henri Tilga iz Univerze Tartu, Estonija (The Effects of Web-based Intervention Program on Physical Education Teachers'Autonomy-Supportive and Controlling Behaviour). Letošnjega kongresa ECSS 2018 se je udeležil en predstavnik Inštituta za kinezio-loške raziskave Znanstveno-raziskovalnega središča Koper. Doc. dr. Uroš Marušič je v soavtorsvu prof. dr. Rada Pišota in dr. Jeannette Mahoney predstavil izsledke svoje zadnje raziskave GIBKOP. Predaval je v sekciji gibalno učenje in kontrola in predstavil prispevek z naslovom »Vpliv izboljšane kognitivne kontrole po kognitivnem treningu na parametre mobilnosti pri zdravih in gibalno aktivnih starostnikih: randomizirana kontrolirana raziskava«. Naslednje leto bo 24. letni znanstveni kongres ECSS potekal med 3. in 6. julijem v Pragi, Češka republika. Uroš Marušič 66 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 REPORTS AND REVIEWS/POROCILA IN OCENE, 57-68 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HEALTHINESS AND FITNESS ACROSS THE LIFESPAN Magdeburg, Germany, 12th-15th September 2018 The 2018 version of the international scientific conference on Health Across Lifespan (HAL) organised by the Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg and the Centre of Neurodegenerative Diseases Magdeburg together with the European Group for Research into Elderly and Physical Activity (EGREPA) was a great success. Not only because it attracted about 160 participants of 22 different nationalities from Africa, Asia, Europe, North- and South-America. But actually because it was a well-organised and very informative conference. The key note lectures comprised Marcela González Gross' Fitness and Lifestyle in Middle Life; Kirk Erickson's Effects of Exercise on Brain and Cognition; Rado Pišot's Bed Rest Model for Studying Physical and Cognitive Decline; Gerd Kempermann's The Neurobiology of Individualised Brain Aging; and Matthieu Lenoir's Motor Competence and Childhood Obesity, which altogether indicate the red-line of the conference, with the speakers giving excellent updates on the current status of these topics and their work. Further, the audience could attend the invited symposia Motor Training, Mobility and Cognition (two separate sessions organised by EGREPA), and Cognitive-Motor Interactions across the Lifespan, and in three parallel sessions indulge in the oral presentations that ranged from the topics on Healthy Aging to Social Aspects of Health and Physical Activity. Additionally, two extensive poster sessions and workshops (e.g. shiatsu and various dances) gave a more hands-on character to the conference. Further detailed information on the content of the lectures and posters can be found on (https://www.hal2018.de/index.php?id=20908). We certainly hope that the conference will be again held in 2021, thus becoming triennial; the previous version in 2015 was entitled Active Healthy Aging (its report can be read inAnnales Kinesiologiae 2015, vol 6 (2): 155-156), as this event is highly recommended for all the researchers or clinicians from the field of motor development, studying the effects of physical activity and cognitive-functional exercise for all ages. Cécil Meulenberg and Uroš Marušič 67 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 REPORTS AND REVIEWS/POROCILA IN OCENE, 57-68 MEDNARODNA KONFERENCA O ZDRAVJU IN TELESNI PRIPRAVLJENOSTI V ŽIVLJENJSKI DOBI Magdeburg, Nemčija, 12.-15. september 2018 Letošnja mednarodna znanstvena konferenca o zdravju v celotnem življenjskem obdobju ('Health Across Lifespan' HAL 2018), ki sta jo organizirala Univerza Otto von Guericke Magdeburg in Center za nevrodegenerativne bolezni Magdeburg skupaj z Evropsko skupino za raziskave starejših in gibalno/športno aktivnost ('European Group for Research into Elderly and Physical Activity' EGREPA), je bila izvedena zelo uspešno. Ne le zato, ker je pritegnila približno 160 udeležencev 22 različnih narodnosti iz Afrike, Azije, Evrope ter Severne in Južne Amerike, ampak tudi zato, ker je bila dobro organizirana in zelo informativne narave. Vabljena predavanja so udeležencem predstavili predavatelji: Marcela González Gross 'Fitness and lifestyle in middle life'; Kirk Erickson 'Effects of exercise on brain and cognition'; Rado Pišot 'Bed rest a model for studying physical and cognitive decline'; Gerd Kempermann 'The neurobiology of individualised brain aging'; in Matthieu Lenoir 'Motor competence and childhood obesity'. Naslovi plenarnih predavanj nakazujejo rdečo nit konference, predavatelji pa so v njih odlično podali povzetke najnovejših ugotovitev na svojih raziskovalnih področjih. Poleg plenarnih predavanj so se udeleženci konference lahko udeležili vabljenih simpozijev z naslovi: 'Motor training, mobility and cognition' (dve različni sekciji organizirani s strani EGREPA-e), 'Cognitive-motor interactions across the lifespan', in treh vzporednih sekcij prestavitev, ki so zajemale tematike od 'zdravega staranja' do 'socialnih vidikov zdravja' in 'gibalne/športne aktivnosti'. Organizirani sta bili tudi dve sekciji s predstavitvami plakatov in delavnice (npr. Shiatsu in različni plesi), ki so konferenci dale bolj praktičen značaj. Podrobnejše informacije o vsebini predavanj in predstavitvah plakatov so dostopne preko spletnega naslova: https://www.hal2018.de/index.php?id=20908. Vsekakor upamo, da bo ta predvidoma trienalna konferenca (predzadnja, z naslovom Aktivno zdravo staranje in za katero dostopno poročilo v Annales Kinesiologiae 2015, vol. 6 (2): 155-156, je potekala leta 2015), organizirana tudi 2021. Znanstvena konferenca je namreč zelo priporočljiva za vse raziskovalce ali zdravnike/medicinske delavce, ki delajo na področjih gibalnega razvoja in/ali raziskujejo učinke gibalne/ športne aktivnosti in kognitivno-gibalne vadbe v vseh starostnih obdobjih. Cécil Meulenberg in Uroš Marušič 68 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 GUIDELINES FOR AUTHORS, 69-72 GUIDELINES FOR AUTHORS 1. Aim and scope of the journal: Annales Kinesiologiae is an international interdisciplinary journal covering kinesiology and its related areas. It combines fields and topics directed towards the study and research of human movement, physical activity, exercise and sport in the context of human life style and influences of specific environments. The journal publishes original scientific articles, review articles, technical notes and reports. 2. General policy of Annales Kinesiologiae Annales Kinesiologiae pursues the multi-disciplinary aims and nature of Kinesiology with the main goal to promote high standards of scientific research. a) Reviewing: Each manuscript, meeting the technical standards and falling within the aims and scope of the journal, will be subjected to a double-blind peer-review by two reviewers. Authors can propose up to two reviewers for revision of their work and also up to two reviewers they would like to avoid. The referees are chosen by the Editors. Assessments by the referees will be presented anonymously to the author and will be returned to the author for correction. The corrected copy of the manuscript, with the list of corrections on a separate page, should be returned to the responsible Editor. b) Permissions: Authors wishing to include figures, tables, or text passages that have been published elsewhere, are required to obtain permission from the copyright owner(s) and to include evidence that such permission has been granted when submitting their manuscript. Any material received without such evidence it will be assumed that the authors hold the copyright. c) Cover letter: The submitting material, needs to include a cover letter with the contact data including postal address, telephone number, and email address of the corresponding author. The letter should clearly state that the material submitted is unpublished and original and has not and will not be submitted for publication elsewhere until a decision is made regarding its acceptance for publication in Annales Kinesiologiae. The use of human participants or animals should be approved by an ethics committee and shall be clearly stated in the Methods section of the submitted manuscript. d) Copyright agreement: Submitting the article through the OJS (Open Journal System), the corresponding author will be asked to accept the terms of the copyright agreement. The aforementioned agreement is effective if and when the article submitted to be published in Annales Kinesiologiae is accepted. 3. Manuscript preparation a) Language and style: The language of Annales Kinesiologiae is USA English. The authors are responsible for the language, grammar, and style of the manuscript, which need to meet the criteria defined in the guidelines for authors. Manuscripts are required to follow a scientific style style. The journal will be printed in grayscale. 69 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 GUIDELINES FOR AUTHORS, 69-72 b) The length of the manuscript should not exceed 36,000 characters (excluding spaces). Text formatting: It is required to use the automatic page numbering function to number the pages. Times New Roman font size 12 is recommended, with double spacing between lines. Use the table function, not spreadsheets, to make tables. Use an equation editor for equations. Finally, all lines need to be number, were the first line of a pages is assigned line number 1. c) Miscellaneous: Whenever possible, use the SI units (Système international d'unités). d) The title page should include the title of the article (no more than 85 characters, including spaces), full names of the author(s) and affiliations (institution name and address) of each author; linked to each author using superscript numbers, as well as the corresponding author's full name, telephone, and e-mail address. e) The authors are obliged to prepare two abstracts - one short abstract in English and one (translated) in Slovene language. For foreign authors translation of the abstract into Slovene will be provided. The content of the abstract should be structured into the following sections: purpose, methods, results, and conclusions. It should only contain the information that appears in the main text, and should not contain reference to figures, tables and citations published in the main text. The abstract is limited to 250 words. f) Under the abstract a maximum of 6 appropriate Keywords shall be given in English and in Slovene. For foreign authors the translation of the key words into Slovene will be provided. g) The main text should include the following sections: Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, Conclusions, Acknowledgement (optional), and References. Individual parts of the text can form sub-sections. h) Each table should be submitted on a separate page in a Word document after the Reference section. Tables should be double-spaced. Each table shall have a brief caption; explanatory matter should be in the footnotes below the table. Abbreviations used in the tables must be consistent with those used in the main text and figures. Definitions of symbols should be listed in the order of appearance, determined by reading horizontally across the table and should be identified by standard symbols. All tables should be numbered consecutively Table 1, etc. The preferred location of the table in the main text should be indicated preferably in a style as follows: *** Table 1 somewhere here ***. i). Captions are required for all figures and shall appear on a separate manuscript page, under the table captions. Each figure should be saved as a separate file without captions and named as Figure 1, etc. Files should be submitted in *.tif or *.jpg format. The minimum figure dimensions should be 17x20 cm and a resolution of at least 300 dpi. Combinations of photo and line art should be saved at 600-900 dpi. Text (symbols, letters, and numbers) should be between 8 and 12 points, with consistent spacing and alignment. Font type may be Serif (Times Roman) or Sans Serif (Arial). Any extra white or black space surrounding the image should be cropped. Ensure that participant-identifying information (i.e., faces, names, or any other identifying features) should be omitted. Each figure should be saved as a separate file without captions and named as Figure 1, etc. The preferred location of the figure in the main text should be indicated preferably in a style as follows: *** Figure 1 somewhere here ***. 70 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 GUIDELINES FOR AUTHORS, 69-72 j) References The journal uses the Harvard reference system (Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 5th ed., 2001). see also: http://www.apastyle.org). The list of references should only include work cited in the main text and being published or accepted for publication. Personal communications and unpublished works should only be mentioned in the text. References should be complete and contain up to six authors. If the author is unknown, start with the title of the work. If you are citing work that is in print but has not yet been published, state all the data and instead of the publication year write "in print". Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the last name of the first author of each work. Titles of references written in languages other than English should be additionally translated into English and enclosed within square brackets. Full titles of journals are required (no abbreviations). Examples of reference citation in the text One author: This research spans many disciplines (Enoka, 1994) or Enoka (1994) concluded... Two authors: This result was later contradicted (Greene & Roberts, 2005) or Greene and Roberts (2005) pointed out... Three to five authors: a) first citation: Simunic, Pisot and Rittweger (2009) found... or (Simunic, Pisot & Rittweger, 2009) b) Second citation: Simunic et al. (2009) or (Simunic et al., 2009) Six or more authors: Only the first author is cited: Di Prampero et al. (2008) or (Di Prampero et al., 2008). Several authors for the same statement with separation by using a semicolon: (Biolo et al., 2008; Plazar & Pisot, 2009) Examples of reference list: The style of referencing should follow the examples below: Books: Latash, M. L. (2008). Neurophysiologic basis of movement. Campaign (USA): Human Kinetic. Journal articles Marusic, U., Meeusen, R., Pisot, R., & Kavcic, V. (2014). The brain in micro- and hypergravity: the effects of changing gravity on the brain electrocortical activity. European journal of sport science, 14(8), 813-822. DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2014.908959. De Boer, M. D., Seynnes, O., Di Prampero, P., Pisot, R., Mekjavic, L, Biolo, G., et al. (2008). Effect of 5 weeks horizontal bed rest on human muscle thickness and architecture of weight bearing and non-weight bearing muscles. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 104(2), 401-407. 71 ANNALES KINESIOLOGIAE • 9 • 2018 • 1 GUIDELINES FOR AUTHORS, 69-72 Book chapters Šimunič, B., Pišot, R., Mekjavic, I. B., Kounalakis, S. N., & Eiken, O. (2008). Orthostatic intolerance after microgravity exposures. In R. Pišot, I. B. Mekjavic, & B. Šimunič (Eds.), The effects of simulated weightlessness on the human organism (pp. 71-78). Koper: University of Primorska, Scientific and Research Centre of Koper, Publishing house Annales. Rossi, T., & Cassidy, T. (in press). Teachers' knowledge and knowledgeable teachers in physical education. In C. Hardy, & M. Mawer (Eds.), Learning and teaching in physical education. London (UK): Falmer Press. Conference proceeding contributions Volmut, T., Dolenc, P., Šetina, T., Pišot, R., & Šimunič, B. (2008). Objectively measured physical activity in girls and boys before and after long summer vacations. In V. Štemberger, R. Pišot, & K. Rupret (Eds.) Proceedings 5th International Symposium A Child in Motion "The physical education related to the qualitative education" (pp. 496-501). Koper: University of Primorska, Faculty of Education Koper, Science and research centre of Koper; Ljubljana: University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education. Škof, B., Cecic Erpic, S., Zabukovec, V., & Boben, D. (2002). Pupils' attitudes toward endurance sports activities. In D. Prot, & F. Prot (Eds.), Kinesiology - new perspectives, 3rd International scientific conference (pp. 137-140), Opatija: University of Zagreb, Faculty of Kinesiology. 4. Manuscript submission The main manuscript document should be saved as a Word document and named with the first author's full name and the keyword manuscript, e.g. "Pisot_Rado_manuscript.doc". Figures should be named as "Pisot_Rado_Figure1", etc. The article should be submitted via e-mail: ¡innalcs.kincsiologiac@zrs-kp.si. Reviewing process communication will proceed via e-mail. 5. For additional information regarding article publication, please do not hesitate to contact the secretary of Annales Kinesiologiae. 72