Academica Turistica
Tourism & Innovation Journal – Revija za turizem in inovativnost
Year 12, No. 2, December 2019, issn 2335-4194
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.12(2)
107 From Genuine ‘Greenery,’ Tradition, . . . , to Rural Tourism
Metod Šuligoj
109 Traditional Festivities in North Istria in Terms of Authenticity and (Dis)Continuity
Katja Hrobat Virloget and Petra Kavrečič
121 Dark Events of the Istrian Countryside: An Electronic Media Perspective
Metod Šuligoj
133 Efficiency Analysis of Restaurants Operating in the Rural Areas: The Case of Slovenia
Tanja Planinc and Marko Kukanja
147 Service Quality in Restaurants Operating in a Rural Area: The Case of Slovenian Istria
Marko Kukanja and Tanja Planinc
161 Event Competitivness in Heritage Tourism in Rural Croatia
Danijel Drpić and Elena Rudan
173 The Distinctiveness of Rural TourismMarketing Practices:
The Case Study of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Merima Činjarević, Almir Peštek, and Sanja Tufo
185 Systems Approach to Cultural Tourism and Events
Tadeja Jere Jakulin
193 Security Challenges for the Hotel Industry:
Implications for Selected Hotels in Owerri, Nigeria
Edwin Chigozie Nwokorie and Polycarp Igbojekwe
207 Instruments for Sustainable Tourism Development in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Nemanja Šarenac, Mladen Rebić, and Milica Bojat
219 Abstracts in Slovene – Povzetki v slovenščini
225 Instructions for Authors
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106 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
From Genuine ‘Greenery,’ Tradition, . . . ,
to Rural Tourism
Metod Šuligoj
Guest Editor
University of Primorska, Faculty of Tourism Studies – Turistica, Slovenia
metod.suligoj@fts.upr.si
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.12.107-108
Individual business ideas are, besides courage and a
favourable business environment, the essence of rural
tourismdevelopment. Local, regional, national and in-
ternational funds undoubtedly help to realize ideas as
well as create entrepreneurially friendly business envi-
ronments. Thus, many private initiatives and training
opportunities for established entrepreneurs and be-
ginners are supported. This way unspoiled nature and
many examples of fascinating (autochthonous) tradi-
tions could be economically valorised, which means
for a certain price offered to visitors/tourists: tradi-
tional customs and events, cuisine and other examples
of tangible and intangible heritage as well as diver-
sity of landscape (including cultural landscape), abun-
dant animal and plant life, various habitat types, and
diverse geography. In this special issue, some socio-
cultural end economic topics of rural tourism are
highlighted.
Kavrečič and Hrobat Virloget, in their ethnolog-
ical research, focused on traditional festivities of the
countywide. They investigated how people of North
Istria perceive local intangible heritage. The results
show that a significate element of the break of the tra-
dition of šagre (a typical Istrian village event/festival)
can be found in the massive post-wwii migrations in
the rural part of Istria. It has also been shown how vi-
tal for the tradition to survive is its adaptation to the
contemporary needs of the present and, this way, these
events are already linking to the so-called special in-
terest tourism. However, local people do differentiate
between traditional šagra and the contemporary ‘mas-
sive’ events that aremore tourist-oriented. This means
that they offer thematic products to tourists/visitors,
which include the presentation of ‘olden days’ cus-
toms, dresses etc. that represent a ‘staged authenticity.’
Similarly, Drpić and Rudan focused on a heritage-
based event, but in continental Croatia (Slavonia).
Ðakovo Embroidery Festival, significantly marked by
rural character, is considered more from a commer-
cial tourism perspective; issues related to the pro-
motion (of Croatian rural destinations), respecting
their characteristics (quality) and uniqueness are at
the forefront of research (including empirical anal-
yse). In order to increase/promote competitiveness of
heritage-based cultural events of rural areas, the au-
thors suggest an event certification model – CroRu-
ralisHeritage Awards Certification Model – which in-
cludes three dimensions: heritage (tangible and intan-
gible), event (Ðakovo Embroidery), and rural desti-
nation (Ðakovo). The proposed model should find its
place in the pool of all possible models focused on
assessing and thus promoting different types of rural
tourism and their quality.
Memorial heritage, which is considered as a dis-
tinct type of heritage, also attract people. Memorial
sites as well as memorial events (commemorations),
also called ‘dark events,’ reflect past traumatic events
in the present time. In this context, Šuligoj investi-
gated the media-constructed social reality related to
dark events in the countryside of the trans-border re-
gion of Istria. World War ii, as that events’ historical
background, dominates in all areas of Istrian country-
side. Events, according to media, mostly occurred at
memorials or internment sites. To some extent, this re-
search complements the research of Kavrečič andHro-
bat Virloget in a substantive way. Although, since it is
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 107
Metod Šuligoj From Genuine ‘Greenery,’ Tradition, . . . , to Rural Tourism
Rural tourism
Dark events
(dark tourism)
Rural traditions
(heritage tourism)
Small rural-based
tourism business
Rural restaurant
facilities businesses
Figure 1 Thematic Structure of the Special Issue
focused on tourist exploitation, it is in this sense more
related to the research of Drpić and Rudan.
Research in which rural tourism is linked or illu-
minated in a socio-cultural context is followed by re-
search in which tourism is considered as an economic
(or entrepreneurial) activity. Interesting research has
been carried out in a particular socio-economic en-
vironment, in the post-conflict laggard economy of
Bosnia and Herzegovina, where the development of
rural tourism has a different dynamic. Their evolving
practices should be of interest at least to other develop-
ing countries in the wider region or elsewhere. Thus
research obtains a sense of the policies/programmes
that foster the growth of these types of places. Činjare-
vić, Peštek, and Tufo, in this context, find that local
providers (small rural-based tourism business) seem
to have an entrepreneurial and professional attitude
toward marketing actions. Their businesses promote
the outstanding natural beauty to visitors, where, ac-
cording to findings of abovementioned authors, the
following themes can be extracted: product variety,
the authenticity of experience, marketing capabilities,
and business challenges.
The paper of Planinc and Kukanja has an entirely
different focus with an analysis of efficiency perfor-
mance of restaurants operating in the rural areas of
Slovenia (the oecd and eu member state has devel-
opment problems in rural areas). The authors establish
that the identified lower average efficiency score is not
in line with other studies of restaurant efficiency. They
justify this result as being a consequence of a rural en-
vironment that is significantly different from the ur-
ban environment (or the established tourist centres),
whichmeans that the paper contributes to the growing
body of literature in the field of restaurant efficiency
measurement. In their second paper, the same authors
investigate service quality using the dineserv tool
in restaurants operating in the rural area of Slovenian
Istria. Research results indicate that restaurant man-
agers in rural areas should emphasise the importance
of the two identified quality dimensions:
1. Empathy, Responsiveness, and Assurance (era),
and
2. Tangibles.
These finding should interest not only restaurant
managers but also destinationmanagers, who system-
atically work on destination quality and development
strategies (not only in Slovenian Istria).
The set of topics in this special issue consists of
four areas, as shown in Figure 1. Trendy sustainability
is not in the forefront but is not completely ignored.
An especially natural environment (merely symboli-
cally marked in the title as ‘greenery’), one of funda-
mental pillars of rural tourism, is not discussed in the
context of (natural) sustainability. Interestingly, au-
thors have thoroughly discussed the practices of some
post-Yugoslav countries (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia
and Herzegovina), mainly in ethnically mixed areas
(Istria, Slavonia and state of Bosnia andHerzegovina).
It should not be neglected that, from the tourism per-
spective, cultural diversity is a relevant circumstance
and potential for tourism development, also in the of-
ten forgotten rural areas.
The last three articles that are not a part of the the-
matic issue. They have been included in this issue as
they were accepted after the end of the previous edito-
rial.
This paper is published under the terms of the
Attribution- NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International (cc by-nc-nd 4.0) License.
108 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Original Scientific Article
Traditional Festivities in North Istria
in Terms of Authenticity and (Dis)Continuity
Katja Hrobat Virloget
University of Primorska, Faculty of Humanities, Slovenia
katja.hrobat@fhs.upr.si
Petra Kavrečič
University of Primorska, Faculty of Humanities, Slovenia
petra.kavrecic@fhs.upr.si
This article is derived from the project Turizmo Ištriano (Programme las Istre),
the main aim of which was to observe the intangible heritage of North Istria from
an ethnological point of view, within which our focus was on traditional festivities.
Instead of a tourist valorisation ‘from above,’ the focus of this ethnologic research
was directed towards the perceptions ‘from below,’ on how people perceive the local
intangible heritage. Questions were raised about the so-called ‘authenticity,’ conti-
nuity, or discontinuity of the traditions and their relation to tourism. The research
has shown that a significate element of the break of tradition of šagre can be found in
the massive migrations after wwii in the rural part of Istria, which is related to the
consequences of the so-called ‘Istrian exodus.’ It has also been shown how vital it is
for the tradition to survive is its adaptation to the needs of the present. It was shown
that people do differentiate between šagra (local character, no tourist promotion),
and the ‘massive’ events that are attempting to attract tourists by selling products,
presentation of ‘old days’ customs, traditional dresses, etc. that represent a ‘staged
authenticity.’
Keywords: festivities, šagra, tradition, (dis)continuity, North Istria
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.12.109-120
Introduction: On Tradition and Village Festivities
Šagre
The reflections in this article are derived from the
project Turizmo Ištriano (Programme las Istre)1 in
which the primary aim was to observe the intangible
heritage of North Istria2 from an ethnological point of
1 The programme las Istre (Lokalna akcijska skupina za ob-
močje občin Ankaran, Izola, Koper and Piran) is a public-
private partnership with the aim of acting jointly in the im-
plementation of the Local Development Strategy of a given
area and to obtain support from eu funds.
2 The part of Istria which lies today in Slovenia. Because of
the multiculturality and official Italian-Slovenian bilingual-
view, within which our focus was on traditional fes-
tivities. The interest was also to study the correlation
between traditional local festivities and the tourism
industry, identifying those elements of intangible her-
itage that could be positioned and promoted in the
tourism offerings of Northern Istria. For this purpose,
we have prepared a list of intangible heritage, focus-
ing on annual customs (tradition) and habits in the
studied region. We have given evidence that the most
appealing customs for tourists are the festivals, known
ism of the region, we prefer to call it North Istria and not
Slovenian Istria.
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 109
Katja Hrobat Virloget and Petra Kavrei Traditional Festivities in North Istria
as šagre. This traditional event was also studied in the
previous project Heritage Live: Living, Lived, Revived
Cultural Heritage (Programme ipa Slovenia-Croatia
2007–2013), in which particular attention was given to
the history of such events (from the 16th to the 19th
century) and the so-called ‘authenticity’ of the intan-
gible heritage of North Istria (see Panjek 2012).
In the frame of this project, we have decided, that
instead of a tourist valorisation ‘from above’ we will
look into peoples’ perception of intangible heritage
and how is a tourist promotion of these events seen
by the locals. Are tourists welcome at all? Or are these
festivities mostly meant for inhabitants from the area?
Which festivities potentially have a tourist interest and
want to attract tourists (foreign)? Are there such fes-
tivities in this area? Is this more common for new,
recently ‘invented’ festivities or also for ‘traditional’
ones? These reflections have brought out questions of
the so-called ‘authenticity’ and continuity or disconti-
nuity of the intangible heritage in North Istria, which
had not been previously explored.
The intention linked to the ethnological part of the
project would be to preserve the intangible heritage
of Istria and present it within a tourism framework.
As mentioned above, one of the aims is to elaborate
a list of intangible heritage of North Istria focusing
on traditional calendar festivities, where the focus was
on the kind of village festivities called šagre.We have
concentrated on the calendar festivals in Northern Is-
tria, conducting ethnographic fieldwork at traditional
and new events (šagre, celebrations related to memo-
rial events of wwii, 1st May etc.). During the field-
work, we have though decided to focus mostly on ša-
gre, since this has been and is still today one of themost
widespread traditions in the field of calendar festivities
and it has not received sufficient attention in the pro-
fessional/scientific literature.
Ethnologists are well aware that traditions evolve
and adapt to new contemporary needs of the present
in order to be meaningful to members of a particular
community; they also disappear when they losemean-
ing for the people and their collective identity. Once
they cease to be changeable, they disappear and be-
come ‘fossilised’ as heritage (Sims & Stephens, 2005;
Kockel, 2008). Tradition is not a product of the past
to be accepted passively by successors, but a ‘view-
point,’ a contemporary interpretation of past events by
strictly contemporary criteria. Every continuity con-
tains change, constructions, inventions, therefore con-
tinuity is not synonymous of sameness, but change-
ability (Kockel, 2008, p. 12; Lenclud, 2004, pp. 124–126,
131).
This article aims to reflect on the elements of (dis)-
continuity in North Istria, especially in the case of the
village festivals, called šagre, which when speaking of
the traditional village festivities, were the most dis-
cussed by our interlocutors. Usually a nostalgic picture
of the countryside prevails, portrayed as ‘rural idyll,’
where ‘frozen’ tradition is locked in time and space
(Poljak Istenič, 2013, pp. 108–110). This would also be
the case of the observed cases in North Istria. How-
ever, if the tradition exists because it makes sense to
the community, it gives the basis for identity construc-
tions, it unites members of the community, it brings
economic advantages, etc. (Poljak Istenič, 2012; Fakin
Bajec, 2011, pp. 287–291), why have certain traditional
festivities in North Istria disappeared, and why others
have persisted?
Methodology
The interest of this paper was to study the changing
of tradition in the rural area of North Istria in the
period following wwii, when political, economic, so-
cial, and population changes significantly affected this
area. How did these changed circumstances affect the
local tradition, why and how did it change? As already
explained in the introduction, we have decided to con-
centrate our study from a different perspective. Our
focus was on the peoples’ perception of intangible her-
itage and their relation towards its tourist promotion.
If traditionality is conceived as the kind of events
with a long-lasting continuity (Habinc, 2014, pp. 114,
125; Poljak Istenič, 2008, p. 71), ‘the continuity of the
past in the present’ (Lenclud, 2004, p. 125) or ‘a set of
phenomena that have been passed on from generation
to generation and finally settled in the life of a com-
munity’ (Poljak Istenič, 2012, p. 77), our aim was to
observe (dis)continuity elements and the reasons for
them.
The method implied was ethnographic. Interviews
110 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Katja Hrobat Virloget and Petra Kavrei Traditional Festivities in North Istria
were conducted with older persons from North Is-
tria, above the age of 60, focusing mostly on their
perception of local calendar festivities, what they like
or dislike and what is their opinion about changes
through time and their view about the commercial-
isation (tourism) of these events. The interest was
to question their point of view about issues such as
the transformation, disappearance, and revitalisation
or invention of festivities. Since šagre are one of the
most well-known and common festivities in the stud-
ied area, we dedicated most attention to these events.
While talkingwith our interlocutors,manyother ques-
tions were raised, especially related to ‘authenticity,’
continuity and discontinuity. Those phenomenaman-
ifested due to specific historical circumstances, follow-
ing the Second World War in Istria.
The second part of the research is derived from the
anthropological method of participant observation,
in which students and researchers were observing the
performance of nine festivities (šagre) in the current
year (2019), interviewing organizers of the events, but
also questioning visitors about their opinion, attitudes,
etc. The study also concentrated on scientific and pro-
fessional literature.
Continuity Elements and ‘Authenticity’
Šagre, sometimes opasilo, semenj, fiera, etc. in Istria,
as well as in other places in Slovenia, also known as
žegnanje, proščenje, shod, etc., have many meanings.
The root of the word and history suggest that the
word originally signified dedication, i.e. commemo-
ration of the anniversary of the consecration of the
church. As observed by Muženič (2012, pp. 88–89),
the celebration is not performed on the annual day it-
self, but on the Sunday that follows. In the past, the
duration was commonly from one to three days. The
most important daywas Sunday, startingwith theHoly
Mass, following by the procession through the vil-
lage. A smaller celebration took place also onMonday
and/or Tuesday, rarely on Saturday. As an informant
said: ‘the preparations of the stage for dancing usu-
ally took place on Saturday, the šagra was organized
on Sunday [. . .] we started late in the afternoon.’3 As
3 Interview by Petra Kavrečič, 22th August 2019.
known, today’s šagra takes place from Friday to Sun-
day. The majority of visitors are coming on Saturday.4
People slowly transferred the word to other ecclesi-
astical events, such as the consecration of a chapel, an
altar, the restoration of a church, etc., and slowly it was
transferred to the local church patron saint, e.g., a saint
or saint to whom the church is dedicated. In the word
for ‘fair,’ Slovenian semenj or Italian fiera, a second
meaning is retained: gathering people with a promi-
nent trading function (Vilfan, 1945, pp. 18–19; 1996,
155; Kuret, 1998, p. 143; Hrobat Virloget, 2012, p. 14). In
some places there are also two (Vidali, 1989, p. 58) or
three šagre (Sv. Peter, Škofije) a year, which could be
explained by the loose meaning of the festivity, which
extends from the celebration of the patron saint to the
dedication of the church and its various parts (Hrobat
Virloget, 2012, p. 14) or to several churches or chapels
in the village (e.g,. Škofije). The village of Škofije re-
mains divided in the upper (Zgornje Škofije) and lower
village (Spodnje Škofije). The two settlements (or even
part of the settlements) organised a šagra each or even
more than one šagra. The upper village (2nd and 3rd
Škofija) organized two celebrations. One was dedi-
cated to the nearby church of Kristus Kralj (Christ
the King), celebrated still today at the end of Novem-
ber. The local priest organizes the celebration, with
the procession, accompanying the statue of Christ the
King across the central part of the village.5 The other
was organised in summer months (the second Sunday
of July) and was not based upon any religious celebra-
tion.
The sole organization of šagre in the past has al-
ready been described in detail. We will just briefly
present themain characteristics. The organisationwas
in the hands of the youngmenof the village. Theywere
in charge of the preparation of the dance floor, stage
and selection of musicians, permissions, wine sale,
ticket sale, the organization of the dance, where a spe-
4 This is understandable in the present way of living. People
are usually at to work during the week, which is mostly sit-
uated in the nearby urban centres. The weekend represents
‘the free days,’ so the festivity has adjusted to present needs.
5 Interview by Petra Kavrečič, 22th August 2019 and Župnija
Koper (B. d.).
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 111
Katja Hrobat Virloget and Petra Kavrei Traditional Festivities in North Istria
cial symbolic function was linked to the so-called ‘first
dance’ etc. (Hrobat Virloget, 2012, pp. 15–18; Ciglič,
1981; Kuret, 1998, p. 153; Koštiál, 2005, p. 209). An in-
formant had a humorous comment on the ‘old’ way of
advertisement: ‘one week before “šagra” the Yugosla-
vian flag was put on the highest point. It was an old
oak tree above Truške by us . . . Facebook on the tree
augh.’
People managed to adjust to various changes. As
seen in this case, it regarded a specific political situa-
tion. Since Istrians experienced five different change
of states (from Austro-Hungarian empire, the King-
dom of Italy, Provisional Government of the Free Ter-
ritory of Trieste (Zone A and B), Yugoslavia, tp Slove-
nia/Croatia) during the 20th century, the choice of
the flag depended upon the temporary state powers.
An informant commented on the period following
wwii, when the territory has been divided into two
zones (Zone A and B of the Free Territory of Trieste
(1947–1954)). Since Škofije was a village closer to the
border (Cunja, 2004), the inhabitants had to adjust to
this situation. As explained by an interlocutor from
Škofije: ‘after the war, arches were placed . . . in Spod-
nje Škofije . . . a magnificent arch made of juniper . . .
on the Italian side . . . on the Yugoslavian side, a knife
was in our flags . . . but the arch on the Zgornje Škofije
was not that magnificent.’6
On the day of šagra, all the village was decorated,
houses’ interior was repainted, in some towns (e.g.,
Piran) handmade fabrics and ivy decorations in the
streets were made, etc. (Hrobat Virloget, 2012, pp. 16–
18). In contrast to the night music of today, this was
organised during the daylight, after lunch, with a Ro-
man Catholic mass before.
One element of continuity from the past is the or-
ganisation of the šagre, especially in places where the
young people are in charge of them. Still, most of the
observed šagre tend to imitate the past events with
the local popular music, mostly limited to the taste of
older generations. However, in some observed study-
cases of the šagre, young people were in charge of their
organisation. As an informant noted, not only folk
music should be present at these events, since the mu-
6 Interview by Petra Kavrečič, 22th August 2019.
sic should suit to the tastes of all generations: ‘it does
not matter what music is played . . . but it should be a
little bit of all . . . not only rock.’7
The cases of šagre with music answering to the
needs of the younger generation seem to be successful,
especially those with the music that does not derive
from the popular kind. Such is the case of črna šagra
or black šagra in Pobegi with the concerts of metal
music. The event was organized a day before the ‘tra-
ditional’ šagra with the aim of linking the so-called
‘black’ one and the traditional ‘coloured’ one. After
two years the ‘black’ šagra surpassed the number of the
visitors of the traditional šagra, which could indicate
a success when tradition is adapted to the needs of the
present or to those who will become the future bear-
ers of tradition – young people. Similar was the event
entitled ‘the youth in Smokvica’ with electronic mu-
sic, which was consciously organised apart from the
date of traditional šagra, but it was still perceived by
people as šagra. In both cases, the events organized by
village youth were supported by older village people,
who expressed their satisfaction because ‘something is
happening in the village.’8 As already said, if tradition
does not adapt to the needs of the present, if it loses
its meaning and disappears. This will probably not be
the case of the šagre of the youth, where tradition fully
answers to the needs of the present and (probably) the
future bearers of tradition.
The element of šagre that was highlighted by most
of the interlocutors of the previous and contempo-
rary research was the function of the first dance or
dance in general. It is in this case that the cohesive role
of tradition takes place (Fakin Bajec, 2011, pp. 287–
291). Before globalisation processes, šagre were one of
the rare occasions where young couples could meet
and express their mutual affection by the official ‘first
dance.’ One can say that this cohesive function of ša-
gre has been retained only in places, where they are
organised by youth, but in contrast to the past, it is
no longer the prevalent function of šagre. The need
for social encounters in fulfilled on many other occa-
7 Interview by Petra Kavrečič, 22th August 2019.
8 Interviews and both field research made by Jaka Godeša,
16th of August 2019 and 2nd of August 2019.
112 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Katja Hrobat Virloget and Petra Kavrei Traditional Festivities in North Istria
sions. As observed during the ethnographic fieldwork,
it seems that today, the main social gathering at the
šagra is meant for families, children, and neighbours
that meet at the festivity. Food and beverage are, of
course, offered and consumed. It is an occasion for lo-
cals to socialize. There is music, but the dancefloor is
not crowded. Dancing is not the primary purpose of
the šagra anymore.
A difference with the šagre in the past is also repre-
sented by the food.While in the past only wine was of-
fered (with the exception of some osmicas9), food was
offered only in the intimacy of the family and the vis-
iting relatives. For those days ‘they did their best to of-
fer the best they had’ (Hrobat Virloget, 2012, p. 20) or
as another informant commented, ‘something better
than usually was on the table.’ Ethnologists as much
as our informants were well aware of the changes in
the ‘traditional food.’ What seems as traditional today
was not necessary so in the past, as an informant com-
mented, ‘once there was not this habit of the tomato in
the salad. Once, it was before the war. My uncle was a
carabiniere [Italian police] in Italy and he used to eat
this kind of tomato.’10
As seen in this case, the food has many symbolic
functions in the cultures in which it is created. In line
with the changing cultural patterns (through space
and time), the eating habits of the members of a par-
ticular culture or community also change. The food
and the ways of its preparation are not a static, un-
changeable phenomenon, as they adapt to different
influences, acquiring new characteristics over time
(Kavrečič, 2014, p. 37). What seems today ‘newly im-
ported,’ will be probably tradition in the future as
most of the cultural processes have been ‘invented’
or ‘reinvented;’ therefore there is no need to, distin-
guish between more and less ancient tradition (Mug-
naini, 2004, p. 57; Hobsbawn & Ranger, 1983). That
9Osmica represents the right to sell home made products
as wine, later also food for a limited number of days (ini-
tially for eight days – that is why the name osmica – osem
means eight in Slovene language). This right was obtained
for the peasants during the Habsburg period (Hrobat Vir-
loget, Kastelic and Kavrečič, 2012, pp. 65–66).
10 Interview by Katja Hrobat Virloget, 4th July 2019.
is why, regardless of the guidelines for the so-called
‘authenticity’ (Sedmak, 2012) and regardless of the
average perception of ‘traditionality,’ čevapčiči is one
of the most common food on šagre, as it has been
most common on the public and private gatherings
in (post)socialist Yugoslavia (Habinc, 2014, p. 121). Its
seems that there is no Slovene family picnic or birth-
day celebration during warmer months without če-
vapčiči. This has also been successfully targeted by
advertising of food-chain companies. Every end of
April (towards the 1st May Holidays) as well as in
summermonths, the companies compete with one an-
other for ‘the best’ offers of čevapčiči and similar food.
The fact that before such holidays food and butcher
shops usually run out of such products shows that this
dish has been commonly accepted by Slovenes. How-
ever, knowing that tradition is changeable, invented,
revived, forgotten in the constant adaptation to con-
temporary needs of the present, it would be nonsense
to judge the ‘import’ of new food or drinks as some
sort of ‘terrible contamination.’ Čevapčiči can be com-
pared to discourses about burek, a similar ‘imported’
food from the Balkans, in which Jernej Mlekuž finds
the representations of the Otherness, Balkanness, ori-
entalness, although at the same time is perceived as
‘foreign, but still “ours”’ (Mlekuž, 2008; Janović, 2008).
Although, čevapčiči seem to have accomplished amore
efficient integration in the Slovene society and daily
dish. When talking to the interlocutors, they made
it clear that ‘of course, we serve čevapčiči at šagra . . .
what else?’11Čevapčiči are considered to be an integral
part of the offering at this festivities.
Nowadays šagra food represents an important com-
ponent of the festivity. It is important that the dish is
prepared quickly and in abundance. Čevapčiči seems
to have gained more success integrating into Slovene
food habits than burek has, probably also because its
easier preparation. Nowadays čevapčiči are not made
at home but already prepared to be grilled, which pro-
vides them an advantage compared to other dishes.
However, in the observation of the traditional fes-
tivities in Istria we are again faced with an eternal
dilemma in ethnology and cultural anthropology: to
11 Interview by Petra Kavrečič, 22th August 2019.
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 113
Katja Hrobat Virloget and Petra Kavrei Traditional Festivities in North Istria
act in an applicative way, to judge (as expected from
an ethnologist) what is truly traditional (cf. Poljak Is-
tenič, 2008, 75; Habinc, 2014, p. 114), thereby creating
or inventing heritage, or to critically observe from a
distance how the society today ‘thinks’ heritage (Fakin
Bajec, 2011, p. 13). At the festival of wine called Fontana
fest in Marezige,12 it can be difficult to avoid judging
as kitsch the presentations of the ‘old days’ such as the
classic cars and old imported American bus or even
the so-called traditional ‘Šavrinke and Šavrini,’ dressed
in folk costume from last century, a typical form of
folklorisms condemned as a ‘distortion of folklore or
“fakelore”’ (Poljak Istenič, 2012, 84).
However, as the critics of the concept of folklorism
have shown all the cultural forms, including the ‘au-
thentic’ ones, remain ‘constructions’ (Bausinger, 2004,
pp. 145–159; Mugnaini, 2004, p. 41). Furthermore, the
concepts of ‘authentic’ and ‘non-authentic’ are re-
versed over time (Dei, 2002, p. 32). The term ‘au-
thenticity’ today remains limited only to the field of
tourism, where it implicates traditional culture, the
feeling of originality, reality or uniqueness and where
it gives sense to the experiences of tourists since tourist
places are perceived as constructed, as a staged scene,
with a ‘staged authenticity’ (Poljak Istenič, 2013, pp.
103–108). Ahmed Scounti defines these kinds of her-
itage performances as ‘authentic illusions,’ which are
similar to ‘the inventions of traditions’ (Hobsbawm &
Ranger, 1983). As intangible heritage has no authen-
ticity, if this is conceived as rootedness, faithfulness
or fixedness, since it changes, it is fluid, it is never
performed identically, it is re-created, it has differ-
ent application within communities, it has different
meanings for different people, etc. If we want to fix
it or materialize it, we just make a certain copy in a
certain time, but we cannot guess the forms it will
take through time (Scounti, 2009, p. 78). With tradi-
tion, ‘communities and individuals think of their past,
present and future’ (Slavec Gradnišnik, in print). Tra-
dition is not what people passively accept from the
past and what it has always been, but is the view-
point, the perception of the contemporary people of
what the past was. It is, therefore, an interpretation of
12 Fieldwork done by Jaka Godeša 9th June 2019.
the past according to the strictly contemporary crite-
ria. As Gérard Lenclud summarises, ‘tradition is not
what it always was, but what is made of it’ (Lenclud,
2004, p. 131). According to Herman Bausinger, the so-
called ‘non-authentic’ has to enter into the research
field of the ethnologist to help him/her understand the
processes of constructing the social meaning of the
phenomenon and its role in organising social bonds
(Bausinger, 2004, pp. 145–159; Mugnaini, 2004, p. 41).
If we reflect on the popular regional symbol of ‘Šavrini’
presented inMarezige’s festival, it has to be understood
as a form of an invented identity from the 1990s, the
consequence of the Slovenisation and nationalisation
of the newly Slovenian Istria (Brumen, 2000, p. 404;
Baskar, 2002, p. 120). Today, it reflects the ‘façade of
the tourist image’ (Ledinek Lozej & Rogelja, 2012, p.
544) and ‘a nostalgic search for lost time and authentic
life’ (Ledinek Lozej & Rogelja, 2012, p. 544). As Mateja
Habinc observes, cases such as this show that authen-
ticity is not only a fiction, as described above, but it
is also a reality based on the organizers’ discourse, a
social fact affecting social practice, which is therefore
changeable through time (Habinc, 2014, p. 115; Cerib-
ašić, 2008, pp. 261–262).
Problems of Dis-Continuity?
If we have shown some elements of continuity through
time in the village festivities of šagre while being well
aware that continuity does not mean sameness, but
adaptation and changeability through time, the ques-
tion goes to a thus far mostly ignored question of the
continuity of the tradition in Istria in places, where
‘old people’ have gone away.When we asked our inter-
locutors why the traditional village festivities like šagre
have died out, usually the answer would be as the one
fromManžan:13
i1: These people from this village went to Izola,
Koper, Trieste, Italy, they went left and right,
and the village remained empty. [. . .] You know
what they got, that Italians from Koper and
Izola, they went to Trieste, and these [e.g., peo-
ple settling in the emptied towns after Italians
13 Interview by Katja Hrobat Virloget, 4 th July 2019.
114 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Katja Hrobat Virloget and Petra Kavrei Traditional Festivities in North Istria
left] they got these old big houses, the old ones,
they got farms in Koper, they left this and went
fromMarezige,Manžan, all these villages. They
got and went away [. . .] And at that time the
village, at least Manžan, has emptied out.
K: And who came here?
i2: People from the south [e. g. From ex Yu-
goslavian republics other than Slovenia] . . . a
feeling of loneliness among the newcomers in
the village was felt further on.
The older married couple from Manžan commen-
ted that all these forešti,meaning strangers, not locals,
are not interested in the local tradition:14
i1: Once our daughter, they thought of organiz-
ing a šagra. [. . .] But what if here is everything
mixed [meaning locals and migrants]. But then
nothing happened. [. . .] Nothing was done.
i2: There was no interest.
i1: These forešti [foreigners]. There was no in-
terest.
Similar was the answer of another informant from
Zabavlje15 on the question why the commemorations
by the localmonument of the national liberation strug-
gle are no longer organised anymore: ‘Today, there are
other people in the village, only a few locals, they came
from elsewhere. They are all fine, they have adapted,
but they still do not feel the same as I do living here.’16
Kennell, Šuligoj, and Lesjak (2018) claim that these
highly significant occasions for local communities
might not be understood by visitors, which can be
evidently applied also to immigrants.
From these interviews, two problems can be dis-
cerned. The first is the break in the continuity of village
traditions due to migrations, with the consequence of
the disappearance of the ‘traditional’ demographic vil-
lage structure. This problem has been mostly ignored
until now. The prevalent perception of the hinterland
of the Istrian towns was usually linked to the continu-
ity of the inhabitants in contrast to the demographic
14 Interview by Katja Hrobat Virloget, 4 th July 2019.
15 Interview by Jaka Godeša, 28 of July 2019.
16 Interview by Jaka Godeša, 28th July 2019.
structure of the urban population of the Istrian towns,
which was more widely known, at least in Istria, to
have changed after wwii. According to the data of
Slovenian authorities with the so-called ‘Istrian exo-
dus’17 27,810 people left the areas of Istria that cameun-
der Slovenian jurisdiction between 1945 and 1958; they
were mostly Italians, but also Slovenians and Croats
(Cunja, 2004, p. 89; Troha, 1997, p. 59) (from a total
of between 200,000 and 350,000 migrants from the
whole Istria; Ballinger, 2003, pp. 1, 275). Especially the
villages closer to the Italian border were faced with
mass migration:
Almost everybody left . . . only ten families re-
mained . . . my wife also wanted us to leave
and I already sold all my belongings . . . but
then I looked at the other side . . . people [that
moved to the emigrant’s camps nearby, inMilje]
lived in poor conditions . . . I couldn’t leave my
home . . . so I have stayed and bought everything
back [furniture, livestock . . .].
Some of the observed cases show even some re-
vitalisation processes of šagre after the tradition dis-
appeared for some decades due to the lack of interest
of the young generation and the migration processes.
Such is the case of the revival of the July šagra in 2nd
and 3rd Škofija (Zgornje Škofije) in 2004. The locals
(not only the younger) gathered and until 2011 orga-
nized the šagra that had disappeared during the 1950s,
sincemost of the ‘old’ villagers left for Italy: ‘it was very
nice . . . a lot of people came . . . but thenwe stopped . . .
there is no people who would work [take care of the
organization] . . . young people were not interested . . .
17 The Istrian exodus was the final stage of Italian migra-
tion from Yugoslavia, which started shortly after the war
ended, when the Yugoslav national liberation army occu-
pied the territories along the Adriatic coast (Istria, Dalma-
tia), assigned to the Kingdom of Italy after the fall of the
Austro-Hungarian empire (Treaty of Rapallo 1920). Some
more research has been done on the Istrian exodus, but in
a much smaller scale on the migration processes after ‘exo-
dus’ (Gombač, 2005; Ballinger, 2003; Verginella, 2015; Hro-
bat Virloget, Gousseff & Corni 2015; Kalc, 2019; Titl, 1961,
etc.).
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 115
Katja Hrobat Virloget and Petra Kavrei Traditional Festivities in North Istria
we [the elders] had to prepare and clean everything.’18
Besides the lack of interest of the young people in
the organisation of the šagra, the problems of mass
migrations after wwii and successive immigrations
were exposed: ‘here there is a lot of immigrants . . .
there is a few families left . . . most of them went to
Italy or already died . . . the problem is also politics . . .
different political opinions and people do not want to
collaborate . . . this is not good . . . it should be neu-
tral.’19
In 1960, a few years after the final phase of the ex-
odus, the proportion of native residents in the Slove-
nian part of Istria dropped to 49, according to reg-
istry offices, reaching 65 in rural areas and 33 in
urban areas. The difference is accounted for by the
fact that the Italian population was concentrated in
urban areas, while the adjacent rural population was
largely Slovene (Titl, 1961; Kalc, 2019).20 The Yugoslav
authorities filled the void that remained in the urban
areas after the Italians had left by stimulating the in-
flow of people from inland Slovenia and the rest of Yu-
goslavia, which has completely changed the ethnic, so-
cial, and cultural face of Istria (Gombač, 2005, p. 11).21
The interviews show that not only inhabitants of the
urban areas left, but also those from the rural, while
the emptied places in the towns were settled by the Is-
trians from their rural surrounding (Hrobat Virloget,
2019). The process of emigration was, as it always is,
highly complex, manifesting as a consequence of po-
litical, economic and social causes.
In order to minimise or relativize the effects of the
‘Istrian exodus’ historical discourses have emphasised
the urban character of the Italians against the rural
Slavic population, which was a nationalistic construct
18 Interview by Petra Kavrečič, 22th August 2019.
19 Interview by Petra Kavrečič, 22th August 2019.
20 In Istrian towns the total registered population of ethnic
Italians dropped from 90 before the war to a mere 7.7
in Koper/Capodistria, 8.15 in Izola/Isola, and 15.7 in Pi-
ran/Pirano in 1957 (Troha, 1997, p. 59).
21We are well aware that othermore or lessmassivemigrations
have affected this contested border region from 19th century
onwards due to several changes of political powers, ideolo-
gies and sovereignties, but since our research is limited to the
recent traditions, our focus goes to the correlated period.
of the 19th century. New research has deconstructed
this ethnic/nationalistic dichotomy, showing a much
more complex socio-historical situation (Dota, 2010,
p. 63; d’Alessio, 2003; on problematic national iden-
tity in Istria see Pupo & Panjek, 2004, p. 352; Ballinger,
2006; Brumen, 2000; 2001; D’Alessio, 2006; Hrobat
Virloget, 2015, pp. 162–164). However, coming back to
the observed problemof discontinuity, themost recent
research on the migration processes after ‘exodus’ in
Istria has showed, that in the first wave of the ‘exodus,’
the emptied Istrian towns after ‘exodus’ were settled
by people from the neighbouring environment, from
Istria and the wider region of Primorska (Hrobat Vir-
loget, 2019; Kalc, 2019). The current research focusing
on tradition proves again, that tradition cannot be re-
searched apart from its social and historical context.
The old cultural-historical perspective in ethnology
and cultural anthropology has been replaced by per-
spectives focusing on agency, in from which the at-
tention goes to dynamic processes of creations, imple-
mentation, agency, praxis, etc. (Habinc, 2008, p. 322).
From this perspective, the present research indicated
that one of the most decisive factors in the questions
of dis-continuity or disappearance of traditions in the
Istrian hinterland was played by (massive)migrations,
which were until now totally overlooked, at least when
speaking of the non-urban environment.
The second reason for the dying of tradition in the
Istrian country-side linked to themigrations and indi-
cated by the interlocutors is the absence of the identi-
fication of the settlers with the new environment. The
new paradigm emphasis the cohesive role of tradition
in which it is perceived as a medium that enhances
the sense of belonging and mobilises the individual
within it (Poljak Istenič, 2012, p. 88; Fakin Bajec, 2011,
pp. 287–291). Jasna Fakin Bajec noted that people do
not preserve tradition because they would like to pre-
serve the past (as the expectation of the professionals
would be), for market purpose (tourism) or for iden-
tification purposes, but because of their current social
needs for gathering, fun, and conversations (Fakin Ba-
jec, 2011, pp. 287–291). If people do not need to identify
with the village community and gather with the mem-
bers of it, especially in the contemporary individually
oriented society, there is no need for tradition. The
116 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Katja Hrobat Virloget and Petra Kavrei Traditional Festivities in North Istria
fieldwork has shown that the problem of discontinu-
ity of tradition in some Istrian villages is linked to the
disinterest of the new settlers in actively taking part in
the village traditions, and in actively taking part of the
village community. This can also be explained by the
individualistic and frenetic way of life of today.
A Remark on Šagre and Tourism
Tourism is an activity that provides substantial finan-
cial income, and it is one of the fastest-growing indus-
tries in the world (Kavrečič, 2017, p. 19). It has excel-
lent capabilities to adjust to latest trends and needs. If
is the sun and the sea, it will promote sun and swim-
ming localities; if it is curiosity for heritage and way of
living of the visited destinations, its offering and sup-
ply will adjust to that demand. In recent years, a great
effort has been made towards heritage tourism, em-
phasising the natural and cultural resources22 of the
visited areas. In the case of North Istria, we were also
interested in peoples’ perception of touristic activities
linked to the intangible heritage such as šagre. Our
research has shown that šagra events do not have a
tourist affiliation. Locals mostly want to maintain a lo-
cal characteristic, and their purpose is to gather the
inhabitants of the village (and surrounding commu-
nities). They are an opportunity for locals to meet and
socialize. As an informant said: ‘for the rural area . . .
šagra . . . and I like it to stay this way, since the city is
something different. Here are more local people [that
come at šagra], although people are also coming from
other places, because they have means of transport.’23
However, tourists are not seen as participants at such
events.
In contrast, there are events – mostly new – that
have overcome the local affiliations and gained a more
‘touristic’ character. Such events (as Praznik refoška or
Fontana fest in Marezige) are seen differently by the
locals:24
22 Heritage tourism aims at promoting ‘traveling to experience
the places, artefacts, and activities that authentically repre-
sent the stories and people of the past and present. It includes
cultural, historic and natural resources’ (National Trust for
Historic Preservation, 2015; Gibson, 2015).
23 Interview by Jaka Godeša, 28th July 2019.
24 Interview by Jaka Godeša, 28th July 2019.
when you visited šagra you met a lot of people,
it took place in the local area, but today Praznik
refoška is losing its cosiness. At the beginning,
the locals voluntarily organized the event, my
mum, I know, she baked bread . . . every woman
baked something . . . but today, it is only com-
mercial, they sell different things, busses [are ar-
riving], the restaurant . . . it is all for money.
We can see the difference between the festivities.
On one side there are the ones (šagra) that have amore
local character and have no interest in tourist promo-
tion, on the other, there are ‘massive’ events that are in
fact trying to attract also tourists by selling products,
presentation of ‘old days’ customs, dresses etc. that rep-
resent a ‘staged authenticity.’ Both types can be linked
with some kind of nostalgia and especially the least
ones with (trendy) special interest tourism (Šuligoj,
2018).
Concluding Remarks
This paper presents an analysis of the conducted study
and ethnographic fieldwork on intangible heritage of
North Istria that took place in the frame of the project
Turizmo Ištriano (Programme las Istre). The main
focus of the research was on traditional festivities, es-
pecially šagre in the region, which when speaking of
the traditional village festivities, were the most men-
tioned by our interlocutors. The issues raised have
brought out questions of the so-called ‘authenticity’
and continuity or discontinuity of the intangible her-
itage in North Istria, which had not been questioned
before.
The question –Why have certain traditional festiv-
ities in North Istria have disappeared and why others
have persisted? – can be only partially answered. The
research has shown that a significate element of the
break of tradition of šagre can be found in the mas-
sive migrations after wwii in the rural part of Istria,
which is related to the consequences of the so-called
‘Istrian exodus.’ The finding is quite innovative, since
in the dominant discourses the massive migrations
were mostly linked to urban areas, to Istrian towns,
but no reflection had previously been done on their
impact in the rural part of Istria. The second reason
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 117
Katja Hrobat Virloget and Petra Kavrei Traditional Festivities in North Istria
for the discontinuity of tradition in some Istrian vil-
lages is linked to the disinterest of the new settlers in
actively taking part in the village traditions,and in ac-
tively being apart of the village community. Younger
people do not integrate into the villages, since they
commute to work to the urban areas, and the village
is mostly considered a place to sleep. In this period of
capitalistic euphoria and the consumer society, noth-
ing is done for free. Thus, migrations could be seen
as one of the strong reason for the break in the tradi-
tions in Istria, in one way due to the disappearance of
the ‘bearers’ of tradition with the ‘exodus,’ and on the
other way due to the disinterest in the maintenance of
traditions of the new settlers, coming after ‘exodus’ or
in more recent decades.
The research has also shown cases of continuity of
šagre, which seems to be much stronger when the ac-
tive part of its organisation is taken charge by young
people, the future bearers of tradition. It has been
shown how necessary the tradition’s adaptation to the
contemporary needs of the present is in order for it
to survive; in the observed cases, this has affected the
choice of music for the taste of the youth (or all gener-
ations together) or with the adaptation to the popular,
even though ‘non-authentic’ food.
In conclusion, a short reflection has been done on
the problem of the correlation between traditional lo-
cal festivities and the tourism industry. Which events
are potentially attractive for tourists and which are
eager to obtain a more local characteristic, but this
time with the focus on the perspective of the locals –
the Istrians? It has been shown that people do differ-
entiate between two types of festivities, those (šagra)
that have a more local character and in reality do not
have any interest in being part of tourist promotion,
on the other, the ‘massive’ events, that are in fact try-
ing to attract also tourists by selling products, presen-
tation of ‘old days’ customs, costumes, etc., that rep-
resent a ‘staged authenticity.’ From the point of view
of the locals, dissatisfaction with the ‘massive’ festiv-
ities for tourist aims was noted, while a desire was
observed to maintain the local characteristics of ša-
gre gathering only the inhabitants of the village and
surrounding communities. As it seems tradition has
been still valued due to its function of cohesive role
among people of the village and region, regardless of
its (dis)continuity, ‘old’ or ‘new’ imported forms.
Acknowledgments
We thank Jaka Godejša, a student of the Faculty of
Tourism study-Turistica, for his participation in the
fieldwork. His work was very accurate, and his inter-
views and observations represent an essential contribu-
tion for this research.
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120 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Original Scientific Article
Dark Events of the Istrian Countryside:
An Electronic Media Perspective
Metod Šuligoj
University of Primorska, Faculty of Tourism Studies – Turistica, Slovenia
metod.suligoj@fts.upr.si
This pilot research illuminates the connection and reflection of past traumatic events
in contemporary dark events. The purpose of the research is to provide a basic un-
derstanding of what dark events and dark tourism mean in a specific regional en-
vironment – the countryside of the trans-border region of Istria. Consequently, the
media-constructed social reality related to dark events was identified with the help
of a quantitative content analysis; cross tabulation and descriptive analyses were em-
ployed to resolve three research questions. It was found that wwii-relatedmemorial
services dominate in all areas of the Istrian countryside; dark events, according to
media,mostly occurred atmemorials or internment sites;most of themwere in small
Istrian towns. Flower ceremonies and cultural programmes are essential elements of
Istrian dark events in all areas. However, there is no statistically significant associa-
tion between event type and different rural areas. Consequently, we are now (at least
basically) familiar with current Istrian dark events, which offer an ideal basis for the
development of dark tourism in the most developed tourist region of Slovenia and
Croatia.
Keywords: dark events, dark tourism, thematic tourism, Istrian history,
countryside, media
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.12.121-132
Introduction
Contemporary tourists seek tailored tourist experi-
ences with different immaterial qualities as a reaction
to post-modern urban life (Robinson & Novelli, 2005;
Šuligoj, 2018, p. 19; Trauer, 2006; Wong & Cheung,
1999). Consumers as tourists can thus encounter dif-
ferentiated thematic tourism products as a reaction
to tourist demand or as products which, in contrast,
create demand (Douglas, Douglas, & Derrett, 2001;
Kruja&Gjyrezi, 2011; Štetić, Šimičević, &Ćurčić, 2013;
Trauer, 2006) and, consequently, 365-day tourism des-
tinations.
It is worth mentioning that many terms are used
in thematic tourism theory: ‘niche tourism’ (Robinson
& Novelli, 2005), ‘selective forms of tourism’ (Štetić et
al., 2013) or ‘special interest tourism’ (Douglas et al.,
2001). ‘Special interest tourism,’ as the predecessor of
‘niche tourism,’ which was conceptualised during the
1980s (Hall & Weiler, 1992) and is the complete oppo-
site of mass tourism (Douglas et al., 2001, p. 2; Hall &
Weiler, 1992) accelerated in the second half of the 20th
century. It as part of the interdisciplinary system of the
21st century, which encompasses all elements of supply
and demand in the broadest sense, including ‘politi-
cal, economical, ecological, technological, and socio-
economical and socio-cultural concerns, from the lo-
cal to the global level’ (Trauer, 2006, p. 185).
Consequently, ‘special interest tourism’ can be re-
lated to the so-called homo turisticus, who is seeking
experiential dimensions based on numerous possi-
bilities of tourist services (Šuran, 2016, p. 69) and is
aimed at increasing consumption. Tourists, among
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 121
Metod Šuligoj Dark Events of the Istrian Countryside
other things, also look for interesting/exciting memo-
rial sites with an (extreme) traumatic background that
shapes contemporary societies only in a certain geo-
graphical area or wider on the international level, e.g.,
sites related to the Holocaust or other genocides and
criminal acts. Interestingly, tourists, however, do not
necessarily understand such sites or events (Kennell,
Šuligoj, & Lesjak, 2018, p. 948). This is even more im-
portant if we consider the fact that visiting such sites
is not necessarily understood, even among local res-
idents as part of tourism, which Šuligoj (2016; 2017)
found in his investigation among young residents in
Croatia. However, many dark events and dark tourism
sites were and still are interesting for the media. The
media construct social reality through the explanation
and interpretation of information (Nišić & Plavšić,
2014). Moreover, the media can generate a culturally
distributed collective memory (Pavlaković & Perak,
2017, p. 301), and be the ‘site of memory’ (Mustapić &
Balabanić, 2018, p. 439), ‘the media plays a huge role
when it comes to dark tourism as it contributes to the
popularization of sites;’ ‘this could result in overcom-
mercialisation of dark tourism sites and these sites be-
coming a spectacle’ (Simone-Charteris, Kirkpatrick, &
McLaughlin, 2018, p. 73).
This pilot research illuminates the connection and
reflection of past traumatic events in contemporary
memorial practices with some perceived tourist char-
acteristics (or at least potentials for tourism develop-
ment). The research aims to add a new dimension to
social studies and humanities in providing a pilot anal-
ysis of history-centric memorial practices and dark
tourism.More specifically, the purpose of the research
is to provide a basic understanding of what dark events
and dark tourismmean in a specific regional environ-
ment: the countryside of the trans-border region of
Istria (Slovenian and Croatian part). A dark event, as
a construct used in this research, concurrently reflects
the memorial and dark tourism dimension and de-
rives from the dark event typology of Frost and Laing
(2013, pp. 36–42) and Kennell et al. (2018, p. 948).
According to the research purposes and after the
finished state-of-the-art (see chapters ‘Brief Theoreti-
cal Background: Dark Events and Dark Tourism’ and
‘Brief Historical Background: Traumatic 20th Century
in Istria’), we want to identify the media-constructed
social reality related to dark events as a significant part
of contemporary social life (which includes tourism)
in Istria. In addition, the second objective is to identify
contemporary types, time components, and locations
where public history-centric dark (memorial) events
take place in the Istrian countryside. Consequently, a
content analysis as a useful methodological approach
in social sciences, where its growing ‘popularity’ is ev-
idenced in several top quality scientific publications
(Neuendorf, 2017, p. xv, 4), was employed. Specifically,
we refer to a quantitative content analysis, which is
‘analysis of documents and texts that seeks to quan-
tify content in terms of predetermined categories and
in a systematic and replicable manner’ (Bryman, 2012,
p. 290).
The coding unit was an article as an independent
electronic media entity (e-newspaper). Each article
was coded according to predetermined codes (indica-
tors); see Tables 2 and 4. Codes represented categori-
cal variables with no multiple responses allowed. The
coding processwas done entirely by one researcher. All
quantitativemethods (cross tabulation and descriptive
analyses) were employed using spss Statistics 24.0.
Quantitative content analysis ismost efficientwhen
dealingwith specific research questions (Bryman, 2012,
p. 291; Riffe, Lacy, & Fico, 2005, pp. 43–45), which led
us to formulate the following research questions:
rq1 What are the main characteristics of Istrian
dark events that can be defined on a media ba-
sis?
rq2 Are dark events of different types associatedwith
areas?
rq3 When do Istrian dark events occur or when do
the media reports on them?
This research builds on some of the previous re-
search related to Istrian/Upper Adriatic memory, e.g.,
Ballinger (2002), D’Alessio (2012), Hrobat Virloget
(2015), Hrobat Virloget and Čebron Lipovec (2017),
or past commemorative practices, e.g., Klabjan (2010)
and Cattunar (2012), including those focused on the
legacy of Isonzo/Soča front, e.g., Kavrečič (2017), To-
dero (2010) as well as to some other contemporary
studies, e.g., Gosar, Koderman and Rodela (2015).
122 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Metod Šuligoj Dark Events of the Istrian Countryside
Brief Theoretical Background:
Dark Events and Dark Tourism
Tragic and morbid topics, in general, constitute a rel-
evant reason for travel, which makes this activity a
tourist activity within so-called dark tourism. Tarlow
(2005, p. 48) described dark tourism as ‘visitations
to places where tragedies or historically noteworthy
death has occurred and that continue to impact our
lives,’ while Preece and Price (2005, p. 192) defined it
as ‘travel to sites associated with death, disaster, acts of
violence, tragedy, scenes of death and crimes against
humanity.’ However, the first definitions of Foley and
Lennon (1996, p. 198) define it as ‘the presentation and
consumption (by visitors) of real and commodified
death and disaster sites,’ or as ‘the visitation to any
site associated with death, disaster and tragedy in the
twentieth century for remembrance, education or en-
tertainment’ (1997, p. 155), or as ‘tourism associated
with sites of death, disaster, and depravity’ (Lennon
& Foley, 1999, p. 46). Very relevant and interesting
are also two of Stone’s definitions: dark tourism is ‘the
act of travel to sites associated with death, suffering
and the seemingly macabre’ (2006, p. 146) and later
‘dark tourism is concerned with encountering spaces
of death or calamity that have political or historical
significance, and that continue to impact upon the liv-
ing’ Stone (2016, p. 23). All these definitions (and some
others, e.g., Ashworth, 2008, p. 234; Robb, 2009, p. 51)
indicate the breadth of the research area, as well as its
essence, which is human death and suffering. Foun-
dational monograph of Lennon and Foley entitled
Dark Tourism: The Attraction of Death and Disaster
(Lennon & Foley, 2000) conceptualised dark tourism
as a subset of cultural tourism and shifted it conceptu-
ally from heritage tourism (Bowman& Pezzullo, 2010;
Kravanja, 2018).
The term ‘dark tourism’ is not the only one to define
the tourism-death connection. The following terms
are also related to the connection between tourism
and death, which are not fully synonyms: holidays in
hell (O’Rourke, 1988), thanatourism (Seaton, 1996, p.
240), morbid tourism and an attraction-focused arti-
ficial morbidity-related tourism (Blom, 2000), sombre
tourism (Butcher, 2003; Hughes, 2008), fright tourism
(Bristow & Newman, 2005), atrocity tourism (Ash-
worth & Hartmann, 2005), grief tourism (Dunkley,
Morgan,&Westwood, 2007), conflict heritage tourism
(Mansfeld & Korman, 2015), genocide tourism (R. A.
Dunkley et al., 2007), trauma tourism (Clark, 2006),
war-related tourism (Bigley, Lee, Chon, &Yoon, 2010),
post-war tourism (Wise, 2011), war tourism (Keyes,
2012), warfare tourism (Šuligoj, 2016; 2017), battle-
field tourism (Dunkley, Morgan, & Westwood, 2011;
Ryan, 2007), tourism of memory (Hertzog, 2012), or
memorable tourism (Drvenkar, Banožić, &Živić, 2015;
Kim, 2013), favela tourism, (Robb, 2009), atomic or
nuclear tourism (Freeman, 2014; Gusterson, 2004)
and dystopian dark tourism (Podoshen, Venkatesh,
Wallin, Andrzejewski, & Jin, 2015). The term ‘dark
tourism’ is the most frequently searched tourism-
related keyword in the developed countries of North
America, Europe, and Australia (see https://trends
.google.com).
Kennell et al. (2018), in contrast, focused only on
so-called dark events, which are not exclusively related
to the dark tourism context. They adopted Frost and
Laing’s (2013, pp. 36–42) typology and listed: (a) dark
exhibitions, (b) dark re-enactments, e.g., annual re-
enactment of the battles, (c) national days of mourn-
ing or remembrance, (d) memorial services, opening
of memorials, concerts, performances, (e) significant
anniversaries, e.g., centenaries, (f) parades, marches,
processions, (g) festivals. Moreover, Getz’s (2008, p.
404), Frost and Laing’s (2013, pp. 36–42), andKennel et
al.’s (2018, pp. 947–949) descriptions of commemora-
tive events as one kind of cultural celebrations related
to the traumatic heritage/past as well as to the typol-
ogy of the related events were also relevant/interesting
for this research. Such events are usually designed to
remember victims and historical tragic events and are
carried out close to thememorial (Rojek, 1994) or dark
tourism sites; consequently, we link them directly to
the dark tourism. Dark tourism sites, which are also
event venues, are according to Seaton (1996) (a) sites
of public executions, (b) sites of individual or mass
deaths: areas of former battlefields, death camps and
sites of genocide and similar, (c) memorials or intern-
ment sites, (d) sites/areas with the purpose of viewing
evidence of death or symbolic representations of it and
(e) places or events of re-enactments or simulation of
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 123
Metod Šuligoj Dark Events of the Istrian Countryside
death. However, in general, events ad these sites ‘are
often highly significant occasions for local communi-
ties andmight not be understood by tourists’ (Kennell
et al., 2018, p. 948). In the Istrian case, contemporary
memorial and dark tourism practices have not been
investigated, and we also do not know howmuch they
are present in the (regional) media.
Brief Historical Background: Traumatic 20th
Century in Istria
After the ruin of the Venetian Republic, and finally
with the Congress in Vienna (1815), the Istrian penin-
sula was annexed to the Habsburg Empire. In 1853,
Vienna declared Pula to be the empire’s principal mil-
itary port, which changed the city from an unimpor-
tant and inconsequently fishing village to one of Eu-
rope’s more prominent naval bases; none of the fol-
lowing regimes accomplished as much in developing
the city (Duda, 2000; Marsetič, 2013, pp. 483, 484). All
this development led to an intense militarisation as
well as the systematic urban planning and economic
development of Pula and the entire southern Istrian
peninsula (Marsetič, 2013). In terms of culture and en-
tertainment, Pula was also extremely advanced; see
Kalčić (2016) and Duda (2000). However, Pula was
differed from the rest of the region by presence of the
army, cultural abundance, and economic prosperity,
while the people of rural areas lived in poverty; see
Knez (2010) and Marsetič (2014). The clash with the
Kingdom of Italy in 1915 (wwi) halted the develop-
ment of the city/region.
Shortly before thewar, in the summer of 1914, a civil
steamboat, Baron Gautsch, sank south of Rovinj after
entering the minefield of the Austro-Hungarian Navy,
which was intended to defend the Imperial Navy from
the sea (Spirito, 2002). During the wwi, Pula was
bombed 41 times by Italian military aviators (Mandić,
2006, pp. 210–212), while other areas of the penin-
sula were not endangered/damaged. Residents of Is-
tria, especially in 1917, suffered from hunger, which
combined with diseases and dangerous living condi-
tions led to emigration/evacuation (Herman Kaurić,
2015, p. 14). According to the Treaty of Rapallo signed
on 12November 1920, almost all territory of the former
Austrian Littoral, including Istria, was annexed to the
Kingdom of Italy (Lipušček, 2012; Šuligoj, 2015a). A
great socio-economic crisis in the Pula and the whole
peninsula (Marsetič, 2006b; 2006a), which, together
with the state fascist terror, led to an increased emi-
gration of the Slavic population and Italian antifascists
(Dukovski, 2010; Hrobat Virloget & Čebron Lipovec,
2017, p. 47; Violante, 2009, p. 98); Slavic rebels as well
as native local Italians of different political ideologies
were persecuted by the fascists due to their common
work in an antifascist coalition movement (Ashbrook,
2006; Violante, 2009). Moreover, systematic ‘ethnic
refinement’ of the population was upgraded by the or-
ganised immigration of the ‘true Italians’ from other
parts of the kingdom, which additionally influenced
the change in the ethnic structure in Istria.
Resistance from the beginning of World War Two
onwards was escalated and transformed into a severe
armed conflict with the fascist Italian army. After the
capitulation of Italy in September 1943, Istria became
part of a German Province under the name of the Op-
erational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral (Ferenc, 1966).
The tragedy of the occupation was also marked by the
deportation of more than 20,000 Istrians to the Nazi-
fascist concentration camps, from which more than
5,000 never returned; 5,000 Istrian Partisan fighters
did not survive wwii (Jokić & Čudov, 1986, p. 417).
The liberation of the Istrian peninsula was a mili-
tary action of the anti-fascist resistance movement
led by the Yugoslav Partisans (see Beltram, 2017, and
Dukovski, 2001; 2011), which Istrians of Italian origin
also were involved.
After wwii, pro-Italian forces launched a cam-
paign to blame Tito and his followers for the violence
and encouraged the Istrian Italians (both native to the
area and those that had immigrated) towards emigra-
tion (Altin&Badurina, 2017;Dukovski, 2010; Kosmač,
2018). Mass executions of (former) fascists and their
followers, capitalists, possessors, and Roman Catholic
priests by Tito’s army, mostly known as foibe (Altin
& Badurina, 2017; D’Alessio, 2012; Radošević, 2010)
(from the Italian word infoibare means throwing into
the abyss) caused additional upheaval.1 The victims
1 Chasms and foibe are characteristic for the allUpperAdriatic
karst landscape.
124 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Metod Šuligoj Dark Events of the Istrian Countryside
of the foibe and the socialist revolution were system-
atically denied up to the democratic changes of the
1990s.
On the international level, there were considerable
disagreements in determining the Italian-Yugoslav
state border (Kosmač, 2018). With the Paris Peace
Treaties signed in 1947, Italy had to cede most of the
Istrian peninsula to Yugoslavia; north of the River
Mirna, including the province of Trieste, became the
so-called Free Territory of Trieste (Dukovski, 2010;
Kosmač, 2018; Rogoznica, 2011; Tunjić, 2004; Violante,
2009). The border issue with Italy was resolved no ear-
lier than in 1954 and finally confirmed with the Treaty
of Osimo (1975): the whole Istrian peninsula South of
Muggia (Milje), was officially annexed to Yugoslavia
(Tunjić, 2004). Istria in the (Second) Yugoslavia was
divided between the two (socialist) republics, Slovenia
and Croatia. The new political regime and the system-
atic immigration of Slavic people from other Yugoslav
republics, significantly influenced the socio-economic
development of the region (see Purini, 2012; Hrobat
Virloget; and Šarić, 2015). Istria faced an imbalanced
development of coastal and some other towns/cities
(tourist and industrial centres) and the rural interior
of the region. This resulted in the economic stagnation
and depopulation of central Istria, where agriculture
prevailed.
The last military conflict in the 20th century in
Europe was the Yugoslav/Balkan conflict. The Croa-
tian homeland war in Istria was not as intense and
bloody as in some other areas. The Croatian part of
Istria was ‘liberated’ by the end of 1991 without a se-
rious direct military clash (Majušević, 2012, p. 446).
The Slovenian ten-day war did not reach the scale of
the Croatian one. However, there were three brief mil-
itary confrontations of the Slovenian police and Terri-
torial defence forces with the Yugoslav People’s Army
in the Istrian countryside: in the hamlet ofMoretini, at
the (then) Bivje intersection, and at the Škofije inter-
national border-crossing. These three confrontations
resulted in fivewounded and three deadYugoslav Peo-
ple’s Army soldiers (Filipčič, 2011, pp. 22, 23).
Istria, which was the leading tourist region as early
as in the period of post-wwii Yugoslavia (Blažević,
1984, p. 5), has been maintaining status and still has
highly recognisable tourism products on the interna-
tional level (e.g., sports events, cultural events, many
secular and sacral buildings from the Venetian, Aus-
trian and Italian periods, Tito’s and other heritage on
the Brijuni Islands, traditional gastronomy, the for-
mer Parenzana railroad track, and similar), what is, in
terms of development from the 19th century onwards,
described by Blažević (1984; 1987) and Šuligoj (2015b).2
Concurrently, because of its geostrategic position, the
multi-ethnical Istria was an area of constant conflict
and an area with reinforced military presence. Today,
in contrast, it is a recognisable Upper Adriatic area
of peace, collaboration and coexistence, although, ac-
cording to Cocco (2010), it remains deeply subjected
to Central European, Roman and Balkan influences.
It seems that the French slogan Liberté, égalité, fra-
ternité, is also alive in Istria in the late 20th century
and especially at the beginning of the 21st century,
although not without problems. Traumatic histori-
cal events of the 20th century with frequent changes
in power affected Istria’s residents in urban and ru-
ral areas. Consequently, this territory evolved over
years to become the South-European hotspot. This
creates different public memorial practices and dif-
ferent memorial sites, which offer typical examples,
which are nowadays linked also to dark tourism. They
are scattered around Istrian (coastal) cities as well as
in the countryside, which is generally less overloaded
with tourism, but traumatic situations (clashes, exe-
cutions, torture, etc.) were taking place there as well.
This offers new development opportunities for rural
tourism. In terms of dark tourism, this has not been
studied.
Contemporary Dark Events in the Istrian
Countryside
After wwi, wwii, and after all totalitarian regimes,
the events, heroes and victims of the Yugoslav/Balkan
conflict in the 1990s are commemorated in Istria. As
mentioned before, Istrian memorial and dark tourism
practices have not been investigated, and we also do
2 The roots ofmodern development date back to theHabsburg
period; more can be found in Kavrečič (2009; 2011; 2015) or
Baskar (2010).
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 125
Metod Šuligoj Dark Events of the Istrian Countryside
January 
February 
March 
April 
May 
June 
July 
August 
September 
October 
November 
December 
Figure 1 Dark Events Distribution by Months
not know howmuch they are present in the (regional)
media. Thus, three leading regional newspapers were
selected: Primorske novice in Slovenian, Glas Istre in
Croatian, and La voce del popolo in the Italian language
(all available in printed and electronic versions). They
were selected on the basis of preliminary short infor-
mal interviews with eleven people of different ages in
Slovenian and ten in Croatian Istria.
Regional media are more familiar with the lo-
cal mentalities and historical moments than others
are. All available articles from 1 February 2016 to 30
November 2018 were included in the analyses, which
totals 126 articles. All articles were particularly focused
on history-centric dark events; commemorations of 1
November3 or scientific events were not included. Ba-
sic characteristics of analysed articles are presented
in Table 1. Figure 1 shows the time distribution of ar-
ticles on dark events in the Istrian countryside. As
we can see, they were unevenly dispersed throughout
the year; from this point of view, they are not tourist-
centric. Articles on off-summer season events (April,
September, October and November) are particularly
interesting.4 This is coherent with the idea of 365-days
tourism destinations, if dark events link with the dark
tourism context, as well as to thematic tourism theory.
This finding provides an answer to rq3.
In the following phase, all selected articles were
3 Known as All Saints’ Day, All Hallows’ Day or the Day of the
Dead.
4 It should be noted that articles in electronic media are pub-
lished on the day of event, or a day or two later.
Table 1 Characteristic of Analysed Articles
Category Item f 
(q) Newspaper Glas Istre  
La voce del popolo  
Primorske novice  
(q) Report type Short message  
A shortened version
of the printed report
 
Full text  
(q) Number
of photos
No photos  
One photo  
More than one photos  
(q) What kind
of photos?
Only old/historical  
Only new photos  
Both new and historical  
coded (see introductory chapter) and then analysed.
Table 2, which is result of cross-tabulation (χ2 Test of
Independence) analysis with Fisher exact test (FI(x)),
shows that history-centric dark events (according to
regional media) mainly occurred in rural areas (
∑
= 69), if small old Istrian towns can also be clas-
sified as rural areas. Moreover, memorial services as
an event type significantly dominate in all types of
areas, for which dark exhibitions should also be men-
tioned as the second-largest type of event in Istrian
media. Surprisingly, there are a small number of ar-
ticles on events in the non-settlement area, although
the main military clashes (and thus casualties) usually
take place there; the already mentioned foibe are also
located there; villages represent the second smallest
group of event venues. Nevertheless, according to re-
sults in Table 3, based on media articles there is not
enough evidence to suggest an association between
event type and area: FI(x) = 7.947 and exact p = 0.479
(if p ≤ 0.05 it is significant). This empirical finding
gave us an answer to rq2.
After the completion of the first analysis, a sim-
ple cross tabulation was employed for additional de-
scription of dark events in the Istrian countryside. As
a result, Table 4 shows themain characteristics of dark
events in the Istrian countryside. It is necessary to take
126 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Metod Šuligoj Dark Events of the Istrian Countryside
Table 2 Articles on Type of Area in Relation to Events Type
Event type Item () () () () ()
Dark exhibition Count     
Percentage within event type     
Percentage within area     
Percentage of total     
National day of Mourning or Remembrance Count     
Percentage within event type     
Percentage within area     
Percentage of total     
Memorial service Count     
Percentage within event type     
Percentage within area     
Percentage of total     
Significant anniversary Count     
Percentage within event type     
Percentage within area     
Percentage of total     
Total Count     
Percentage within event type     
Percentage within area     
Percentage of total     
Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) city, (2) town, (3) village, (4) non-settlement area, (5) total.
Table 3 Statistical Significance
Item () () () ()
Pearson Chi-Square .*  . .
Likelihood Ratio .  . .
Fisher’s Exact Test . .
Linear-by-Linear Assoc. .**  . .
No. of Valid Cases 
Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) value, (2) de-
grees of freedom, (3) asymptotic significance (2-sided), (4)
exact significance (2-sided).
into account once again that the following findings, as
well as previous ones, rely on media-constructed real-
ity in Istria.
Of the analysed regional electronic media arti-
cles, 44 report that dark events occurred at memo-
rials or internment sites and 19 at sites of individual or
mass deaths.Most of themwere in towns. Events were
history-centric with wwii as a background signifi-
cantly dominating in all areas. It should be taken into
consideration that wwii still represents the most ex-
tensive and traumatic armed conflict of the 20th cen-
tury in Istria; events that relate to the victims of fas-
cist terror could be added as well. Flower ceremonies,
as a significant component of the programme, were
pointed out in 54 articles, which clearly highlights
their importance. Similarly, a speech, as the simplest
event programme element, is reported in 43 articles,
while more varied cultural programmeswere found in
36 articles. They were the most frequent programme
type in villages and towns where events occurred; see
Table 4. These provide an answer to rq1.
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 127
Metod Šuligoj Dark Events of the Istrian Countryside
Table 4 Characteristics of Dark Events in the Istrian Countryside
Event type Item () () () ()
Site category Site of individual or mass deaths Count    
Percentage    
Memorials or internment site Count    
Percentage    
Site/area with the purpose of viewing evidence
of death or symbolic representations of it
Count    
Percentage    
Conflict wwi Count    
Percentage    
Fascist terror Count    
Percentage    
wwii Count    
Percentage    
Socialist revolution and Italian exodus Count    
Percentage    
Independence war in the s Count    
Percentage    
Other Count    
Percentage    
Cultural programme Just a speech Count    
Percentage    
Varied cultural programme Count    
Percentage    
Not specified* Count    
Percentage    
Flower ceremony Yes Count    
Percentage    
No Count    
Percentage    
Not specified* Count    
Percentage    
Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) city, (2) village, (3) non-settlement area, (4) total. * It was not clearly specified by
the journalist.
Conclusion
Dark tourism studies focus on the relationships be-
tween still-living generations of visitors and sites of
traumatic death. At these sites, dark events with sim-
ple or varied programmes occur today, which can be
a special type of thematic tourism. Consequently, ac-
cording to the purposes of this research (i.e., to provide
a basic understanding of what dark events and dark
tourismmean in a specific regional environment) dark
tourism and the Istrian history in the 20th century
128 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Metod Šuligoj Dark Events of the Istrian Countryside
were initially briefly described. On this basis, three
research questions were defined. Six indicators (time
distribution, event type, site category, conflict, cultural
programme and flower ceremony) served as robust di-
rections for the empirical analysis. It was determined
that wwii-relatedmemorial services are the dominat-
ing ones in all areas of Istrian countryside; dark events,
according to media, mostly occurred at memorials or
internment sites; most of them were in towns. Flower
ceremonies and cultural programme are significant
elements of Istrian dark events in all areas. However,
there is no statistically significant association between
event type and different rural areas, which also applies
when the urban environment is considered. These re-
sults, which reflect the media-constructed social real-
ity related to dark events, gave provide to all research
questions (rq1–rq3).
The value of this pilot research is that different
Istrian history-centric dark events reported in re-
gional electronic media were identified and then de-
scribed, which represents an original perspective in
dark tourism studies (especially in the post-Yugoslav
states). Consequently, we are now (at least basically)
familiar with the present Istrian dark events, which of-
fer an ideal base for the development of dark tourism
in the most developed tourist region of Slovenia and
Croatia.
However, this research has also certain limitations
and weaknesses that need to be mentioned. First, the
pilot research is done on the basis of electronic media,
which include only limited indicators/characteristics,
whichmeans that this is not a comprehensive analysis.
Second, dealingwith categorical variables limits statis-
tical analyses. Hence, the number of analysed research
units can affect the results; furthermore, this analysis
relies on the population. However, there was a possi-
bility that some articles could be unintentionally over-
looked. Nevertheless, there should not be a significant
discrepancy between the real and the analysed num-
ber of articles.
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132 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Original Scientific Article
Efficiency Analysis of Restaurants Operating
in the Rural Areas: The Case of Slovenia
Tanja Planinc
University of Primorska, Faculty of Tourism Studies – Turistica, Slovenia
tanja.planinc@fts.upr.si
Marko Kukanja
University of Primorska, Faculty of Tourism Studies – Turistica, Slovenia
marko.kukanja@fts.upr.si
The purpose of this paper is to analyse the efficiency performance of restaurants op-
erating in the rural areas of Slovenia. The sample consisted of 52 independently run
rural restaurant facilities. Data were obtained from restaurant managers and restau-
rant firms’ financial reports. Based on a convenience sampling method, only those
restaurants whose only source of operating revenues was providing food in a restau-
rant setting were included in the sample. In order to assess restaurants’ efficiency
performance, Data Envelopment Analysis (dea) was used. Financial variables were
used as inputs and outputs to perform dea. This paper contributes to the grow-
ing body of literature in the field of restaurant efficiency measurement by providing
valuable insights into rural-restaurants efficiency performance. The findings of this
study have several significant implications for future research and practice.
Keywords: efficiency, restaurant industry, Slovenia, smes, dea
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.12.133-145
Introduction
Generally speaking, tourism is a vital economic ac-
tivity and, in the previous decade, tourism achieved
higher growth rates of gross domestic product in com-
parison to the world economy (wttc, 2019b). In
Slovenia, tourism plays a critical economic role. In
2018, tourism contributed to more than 12 of na-
tional gross domestic product and offered employ-
ment to almost 13 of all employees (wttc, 2019a).
Within the tourism industry, restaurants play an es-
sential role. According to the official standard classi-
fication of activities in Slovenia, restaurants are a part
of the category ‘Food and beverage service activities,’
which, together with accommodation activities, rep-
resents the main activity called ‘accommodation and
food service activities.’ Food and beverage service ac-
tivities are comprised of three subsectors (restaurants
andmobile food service activities; event catering; bev-
erage service activities) (see https://www.stat.si). The
food and beverage sector is a vital part of the tourism
industry, since tourists and visitors have to eat, and
food is recognised as an indispensable tourism prod-
uct. Approximately one-third of travel expenditure
can be assigned to food consumption (Bélisle, 1983),
and this figure can be even higher nowadays (Boyne,
2001).
A closer look at the Slovenian food and bever-
age sector reveals that in 2018, there were 6,597 busi-
ness entities (5.4  of all business entities), employ-
ing 18,622 employees (3.41 of all employees). The
largest and most important part of this sub-sector
is restaurants and inns, which represent 55.87 of all
business entities in the food and beverage sector (see
http://www.ajpes.si). Consequently, this sub-sector is
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 133
Tanja Planinc and Marko Kukanja Efficiency Analysis of Restaurants
the focus of our research. In the food and beverage
sector, most business entities earn revenues not only
from the restaurant business but also from other ac-
tivities (e.g., they also offer accommodation facilities).
The restaurant sector is also characterised by monop-
olistic competition, low barriers to enter the business,
demand volatility, and high fluctuation of employees
(Lee, Hallak, & Sardeshmukh, 2016). Since the focus of
our analysis is the restaurant sector, only those restau-
rant facilities whose sole source of operating revenues
presented the restaurant business were included in the
study.
Rural areas are considered to be economically less
developed regions (Roberts & Hall, 2001) and, ac-
cording to Dashper (2014), such areas are continually
struggling with a decline in traditional economic ac-
tivities (such as agriculture) and population (younger
population is migrating to urban areas). Tourism is
often seen as a tool to revive rural areas since it of-
fers economic and social benefits that can boost rural
development (George, Mair, & Reid, 2009). There-
fore, many governments see rural tourism as a rem-
edy for rural areas and encourage its development in
order to slow down or even reverse the negative trend
of economic and social development (Briedenhann
& Wickens, 2004). A significant segment of tourism
is rural tourism and, according to Roberts and Hall
(2001), tourism in rural areas makes up to 20 of
all tourism activity and more than 20 of European
tourists choose rural areas as their holiday destination
(ibid). Because of the low entry barriers, restaurant
activity is a vital resource in rural development. Rural
restaurants are also a crucial element in promoting lo-
cal food and gastronomy heritage and also represent
an essential element of income source for the local
community (Bessière, 1998).
According to the Organisation for Economic Co-
Operation and Development’s (oecd) definition of
rural areas, the entire Republic of Slovenia is classi-
fied as a rural area. In addition, this definition dis-
tinguishes between two types of rural areas: predom-
inantly and moderately rural regions (Ministrstvo za
kmetijstvo in okolje, 2013). For the purpose of our re-
search, the definition from the Geographical Termino-
logicalDictionary (Geografski terminološki slovar, 2013)
was used, since it defines rural areas as a cultivated
landscape with agriculture and forestry as predomi-
nant economic activities, and with an above-average
share of the rural population. According to Sedmak,
Planinc, and Planinc (2011), this definition is more
convenient when defining and identifying rural areas
in Slovenia.
In order to contribute to the development of ru-
ral areas, tourism companies must perform efficiently.
This means that firms have to produce ‘a maximum
output from a given set of inputs’ (Farrell, 1957, p. 254).
In academic literature, efficiency analysis in the field of
tourism has gained popularity in the previous century
(since 1950). The majority of studies are concerned
with the lodging sector (Poldrugovac, Tekavcic, &
Jankovic, 2016; Barros, Dieke, & Santos, 2010; Pérez-
Rodríguez & Acosta-González, 2007; Barros & San-
tos, 2006; Brown & Ragsdale, 2002), while the restau-
rant sector is somehow neglected (Planinc, Kukanja, &
Planinc, 2018; Alberca & Parte, 2018; Kukanja & Plan-
inc, 2018b; Reynolds & Biel, 2007) although it is a vital
part of the tourism industry.
The main research objective of this paper was to
determine the efficiency level of restaurants located in
Slovenian rural areas and to provide suggestions for
the decision-makers in order to improve their opera-
tional efficiency. The second research objective was to
analyse if there are statistically significant correlations
between restaurants’ physical characteristics and op-
erational efficiency.
Literature Review
There are numerous expressions that describe ru-
ral tourism, such as ‘agritourism, farm tourism, soft
tourism, alternative tourism, ecotourism,’ and others
(Sharpley & Sharpley, 1997, p. 9). The oecd (1994)
suggested that rural tourism should be located in rural
areas, sustainable, connected with local inhabitants,
developed on a small scale and, most importantly, it
should be used in a way to conserve the rural natu-
ral and cultural environment. The term ‘rural tourism’
has also been adopted by the European Community
to refer to all tourism activity in rural areas (Roberts
& Hall, 2001).
Rural tourism offers many potentials benefits for
134 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Tanja Planinc and Marko Kukanja Efficiency Analysis of Restaurants
rural areas. These benefits can be grouped into three
segments: economic, social, and environmental (Mac-
Nulty, 2004). Generally speaking, jobs in the tourism
sector do not require high education or advanced
training and consequently, tourism can be an essential
element in providing employment for local residents
with lower education (Nigam & Narula, 2011). Job op-
portunities also arise from the fact that, especially in
the restaurant industry, there are low barriers to entry
into the business market (Assaf, Deery, & Jago, 2011).
In addition, tourism also improves local quality of life
through investments in infrastructure and is an im-
portant source of local tax revenues (Nigam&Narula,
2011). As far as environmental benefits are concerned,
rural tourism plays a vital role in protecting the natu-
ral and cultural environment (MacNulty, 2004). Food
expenditures are an essential part of tourists’ and visi-
tors’ budgets, and this is something restaurants in ru-
ral areas should be aware of. In addition, restaurants
in rural areas offer a link between local gastronomy
and culture and can, therefore, be a vital promotion
tool of a rural destination image (Boyne, Williams, &
Hall, 2002).
Regardless of the well-acknowledged importance
of rural tourism, Hall, Roberts, and Morag (2016)
pointed out that rural areas, in general, will gain max-
imum benefit from tourism only when it is engaged as
one part of actions to revive such areas. In the case of
a weak economy and social degradation, tourism can
additionally contribute to income inequality. Never-
theless, although rural tourism is unable to solve the
problems of all rural areas, it still offers numerous
possibilities for economic growth and development
(Dashper, 2014).
According to Farrell (1957, p. 254), a firm is efficient,
when it produces ‘maximum output from a given set
of inputs.’ In operational efficiency measurement, we
compare the observed (actual) and the optimal val-
ues of input(s) and output(s). If the optimal values are
identified in terms of production possibilities, then the
efficiency is defined as technical. In contrast, if the op-
timal values are identified thru firm’s behavioural goals
(in terms of cost, revenue, and profit), the efficiency is
defined as economic (Fried, Knox Lovell, & Schmidt,
2008).
Traditionally, firms have used partial ratio analysis
in order to estimate their operational efficiency and to
perform a benchmark analysis with competitors (Ri-
ley, 1999). Despite its ability to quickly assess the firms’
performance, the usage of ratios has several limita-
tions, including the fact that it only uses two static vari-
ables.
Consequently, there was a growing need for a more
thorough approach to efficiency analyses since firms
use multiple inputs to produce multiple outputs si-
multaneously (Donthu, Hershberger, & Osmonbekov,
2005). As a result, the efficiency of frontier approaches
was developed. There are two groups of frontiermeth-
ods to estimate firms’ operational efficiency, paramet-
ric and nonparametric frontier approaches (Bogetoft
& Otto, 2011). With parametric methods (such as
stochastic frontier analysis (sfa)), there is a need of
a pre-specification of the functional form in the esti-
mation of production frontier technologies (Assaf &
Agbola, 2011), whilst nonparametricmethods (such as
dea) are not so strict. dea forms a production fron-
tier of best practices and enables the calculation of ef-
ficiency scores for each observed unit (Oliveira, Pedro,
& Marques, 2013). An observed unit is 100 efficient
(and therefore lies on the frontier) when no output
can be increased without increasing its inputs (Wöber,
2007). An efficiency score of less than 100  indicates
that the observed unit is inefficient. Efficiency mea-
surement using frontier analysis is a quite useful and
valuable tool in determining critical areas of cost con-
trol (Assaf &Matawie, 2009). Themost crucial benefit
of frontier analyses is that they reveal the gap between
a firm’s actual and optimal performance. In addition,
frontier analyses are able to combine multiple inputs
and outputs simultaneously. This cannot be said for
the traditional methods of performancemeasurement
(accounting-based ratios, cost, volume profit analysis,
etc.), although they are still commonly used in assess-
ing firms’ operational performance.
The abovementioned advantages are the main rea-
son for the rapid growth of academic literature on per-
formancemeasurement with efficiency frontier analy-
ses (Assaf & Josiassen, 2016). In the last decade, the use
of dea has become quite popular for assessing the rel-
ative efficiency of business entities (Martić,Novaković,
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 135
Tanja Planinc and Marko Kukanja Efficiency Analysis of Restaurants
& Baggia, 2009). In addition, dea has proved to be a
reliable tool for assessing efficiency in various busi-
ness fields (Emrouznejad & Yang, 2018). dea com-
bines multiple inputs and outputs simultaneously, and
it also allows the usage of controllable (within man-
agers’ influence) and uncontrollable variables (man-
agers have no influence on these variables). Requisite
assets (goods and material used, services, labour, tan-
gible and intangible assets) are controllable inputs, and
no business entity can operate without them. There-
fore, it is vital for managers to know how efficiently
they are using them in achieving operational effi-
ciency. In this view, the requisite assets represent a
solid starting point for evaluating a firm’s operational
efficiency.
Efficiency analyses in academic literature in the
field of tourism has gained popularity since the late
1980s and, according to Wöber (2007), 35 studies of
tourism efficiencywith dea were published in the pe-
riod from 1985–2006. Sainaghi, Philips, and Zavarrone
(2017) performed a content analytical meta-approach
on performance measurement in tourism. Most re-
searchers studied the efficiency of the lodging in-
dustry, while the restaurant sector was somehow ne-
glected (although it is a vital part of the hospitality
industry). Their study included almost 1,000 scien-
tific papers, and the efficiency measurement appeared
in 170 papers with a first jump in the volume of paper
in the period from 2007–2010 and a second jump in
the period from 2011–2014.
In the academic literature, there is a growing body
of studies related to the efficiency measurement us-
ing dea in the restaurant industry (see also Table 1).
The first study dates to 1986, when Hrusckha used
the panel database on an aggregated level. He ap-
plied dea analysis for ten restaurant groups and de-
termined differences in efficiency among them (Hr-
uschka, 1986). In the same year, Banker and Morey
used the same method on a chain of fast-food restau-
rants (60 restaurants). They introduced the idea to use
some uncontrollable inputs (age of the restaurant, lo-
cation, etc.) when determining the efficiency scores.
In their model, they modified the input constraints in
a way to disallow the reduction of uncontrollable in-
puts. The result of their analysis suggested that differ-
ent assumptions about controllable anduncontrollable
inputs have a significant impact on efficiency results.
When all inputs were considered to be controllable,
24 restaurants were efficient, but when some inputs
were considered to be uncontrollable, 32 restaurants
achieved efficiency score 1. The fixed nature of uncon-
trollable inputs allows the identification of opportuni-
ties for targeted savings in all controllable inputs that
are used in the analysis (Banker & Morey, 1986).
Then, after almost two decades, researchers re-
discovered dea in the restaurant industry and, in
the last five years, the number of studies intensified
(see Table 1). Some studies have focused on the effi-
ciency of menu items in order to improve restaurant
firms’ financial performance. Taylor, Reynolds, and
Brown (2009) employed dea as an analytic technique
for analysing menu-item efficiency. They analysed 65
menu items in three full-service restaurants and con-
cluded that menu items that are selected with dea
yield higher gross profit. However, their results were
not validated, since the study was performed as a sim-
ulation. Fang and Hsu (2014) analysed 30 menu items
in two restaurants of the same branded chain and
proved that menu items selected with dea increase
the profitability of both restaurants by more than 15
comparedwith the traditionalmenu-engineeringmeth-
od.
Nevertheless, most studies were concerned with
the operational efficiency of restaurants within the
same franchise or chain. Reynolds (2004) analysed
the efficiency of 38 same-brand restaurants and deter-
mined that seven restaurants achieved an efficiency
score of 1 and that restaurants with the highest sales
were not the most efficient. Reynolds and Thomp-
son (2007) analysed the efficiency of a chain of 60
full-service restaurants; they determined that seven
restaurants operated efficiently, and the average effi-
ciency score for all 60 restaurants was 82. Reynolds
and Biel (2007) analysed the efficiency of a chain of 36
casual-theme restaurants where the average efficiency
score was 86, and eight restaurants achieved an ef-
ficiency score of 1. They determined that with more
efficient use of inputs, the restaurants’ income could
be increased by 13.4. Hadad, Friedman, and Hanani
(2007) analysed data from 30 restaurants. They used
136 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Tanja Planinc and Marko Kukanja Efficiency Analysis of Restaurants
various dea models and consequently obtained two
different sets of efficiency scores. According to the first
scenario, seven restaurantswere fully efficient; accord-
ing to the second scenario, 11 restaurants achieved an
efficiency score of 1. The emphasis of their research is
on the comparison of different ranking methods (e.g.,
restaurant rankings in restaurant guides) with the re-
sults of dea.
Giménez-García,Martínez-Parra, andBuffa (2007)
performed a dea analysis with the data of 54 Spanish
fast-food restaurants. According to the analysis, due
to input reallocation, sales and service quality can be
increased on average by 4.20. Roh and Choi (2010)
employed dea analysis to evaluate the efficiency of
three brandswithin the same restaurant franchise. The
sample consisted of 136 restaurants, and the efficiency
was assessed based on interviews with managers. The
analysis revealed that the average efficiency score is
73 and that the efficiency results of each brand differ
significantly from the others. In some cases, it was de-
termined that the restaurant size and managers’ expe-
rience have a positive and statistically significant im-
pact on efficiency scores, meaning that larger restau-
rants with more experienced managers achieve higher
efficiency scores (Assaf et al., 2011). Kukanja and Plan-
inc (2018a) used secondary financial data to analyse
the efficiency of 142 restaurants. The average efficiency
score was 85, and 23 restaurants were fully efficient.
Labour costs and depreciation proved to be the main
areas for efficiency improvement.
Some researchers used panel data in determining
the efficiency over a specific time period. For exam-
ple, Giokas, Eriotis, and Dokas (2015) analysed the
efficiency of 21 Greek restaurant companies in pre-
recession and recession and recovery periods (2006–
2012). The results reveal that the average efficiency
scores are 0.85, 0.80, and 0.80 and that most com-
panies had no significant change in their efficiency
while three companies had a significant efficiency de-
crease. Mhlanga (2018) analysed the efficiency of 16
South African restaurants in a four year period (2012–
2016). Four restaurants achieved an efficiency score of
1 at some point in the four-year period. Full-service
restaurants have higher efficiency scores in compari-
son to fast food and casual restaurants.
In addition, the location and revenue per available
seat have a statistically significant positive impact on
restaurants’ efficiency. Parte and Alberca (2019) ex-
amined the efficiency of 1,071 Spanish bar companies
for the 2005–2014 period. The mean efficiency scores
ranged from 0.673 in 2005 to 0.711 in 2014. Companies
improved their efficiency through reducing inputs (the
number of employees, labour costs and operational
costs). The results also revealed the levels of employ-
ees’ education and employment rate are significantly
and positively correlated with efficiency. In contrast,
low wages and long working hours are significantly
and negatively correlated with efficiency.
Efficiency studies in the period from 1986 to 2019
are presented in Table 1. Most studies used sales rev-
enues as an output in the analyses. However, there
is much more inconsistency when it comes to the
selection of inputs. Consequently, the efficiency re-
sults of the presented studies are not fully compara-
ble. This would not be the case if there were a stan-
dardised selection of inputs and outputs, as in some
other business sectors, such as banking. Assaf and
Josiassen (2016) also concluded that the selection of
inputs and outputs is driven mainly by data availabil-
ity rather than theoretical arguments. Efficiency scores
of restaurant firms from previous studies vary from
46.17 (Assaf et al., 2011) up to 86 (Reynolds & Biel,
2007). Efficiency scores vary because of differences
in the variables, different characteristics of restaurant
firms, and because researchers used different models
of dea. Specifically, several authors (Reynolds, 2003;
Roh & Choi, 2010; Assaf et al., 2011) emphasised the
importance of correlation analyses between inputs
and outputs before performing dea. Interestingly, the
analysis of studies presented in Table 1 reveals that
most studies do not provide any evidence of corre-
lation analyses between inputs and outputs. The only
exceptions are the studies of Reynolds and Biel (2007),
Reynolds and Taylor (2011), Roh andChoi (2010), Tay-
lor et al. (2009), and Kukanja and Planinc (2018a). In
addition, researchers use different dea models within
the same research without proper theoretical justifica-
tion for such action.
Therefore, we decided to use requisite assets as
variables in our research, since no business entity can
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 137
Tanja Planinc and Marko Kukanja Efficiency Analysis of Restaurants
Table 1 Efficiency Studies in the Restaurant Industry
Authors Inputs Outputs
Hruschka (1986) No. of seats, labour costs, costs of goods sold, other
operating expenses
Sales
Banker and Morey (1986) Costs of goods sold, labour costs, age of the restaurant,
advertising expenditures, location, existence of a ‘drive-in’
window
Sales
Reynolds (2003) No. of labour hours Sales
Reynolds (2004) No. of labour hours, average salary, no. of seats, no. of
competitors
Sales, tips
Reynolds and Thompson
(2007)
Average salary, no. of seats Sales, tips
Reynolds and Biel (2007) Costs of goods sold, labour costs, employee satisfaction, no.
of seats, taxes and insurance
Profit, retention equity
Hadad, Friedman and Hanani
(2007)
No. of seats, no. of all employees, no. of employees in a
shift, total size
Average no. of guests per day,
average selling price
Giménez-García,
Martínez-Parra and Buffa
(2007)
No. of all employees, seats and server, no. of competitors,
average spending per guest
Sales, service quality
Taylor, Reynolds, and Brown
(2009)
Meal method preparation, no. of purveyors, no. of stations Gross profit, meal popularity
Roh and Choi (2010) Total size, hall size, kitchen size, no. of seats, no. of tables,
no. of all employees, no. of kitchen and hall, monthly salary
and rent, overhead expenses
Sales, net income
Assaf, Deery, and Jago (2011) No. of seats, no. of employees, food and beverage costs Sales from food, sales from
beverages
Fang and Hsu (2014) Labour costs, costs of goods sold, no. of purveyors Gross profit, meal popularity
Giokas, Eriotis and Dokas
(2015)
Operating expenses (without costs of goods sold), assets
value
Sales
Mhlanga (2018) No. of employees, no. of seats, labour costs, other operating
expenses
Sales, no. of covers
Kukanja and Planinc (2018a) Labour cost, depreciation, costs of goods sold, costs of
services
Sales
Alberca and Parte (2018) Labour costs, other operating expenses, assets value Sales
Parte and Alberca (2019) No. of employees, labour costs, other operating expenses,
assets value
Sales
operate without them. It is also necessary formanagers
to know how efficiently they are using them in achiev-
ing operational efficiency. In this view, the requisite
assets present a solid starting point for evaluating a
firm’s operational efficiency.
Research Methodology
In order to acquire primary data, a questionnaire was
developed based on previous studies on efficiency
measurement in the restaurant industry (presented in
Table 1). The questionnaire consisted of two parts; the
138 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Tanja Planinc and Marko Kukanja Efficiency Analysis of Restaurants
first was concerned with the socio-demographic char-
acteristics of managers (gender, age, education, work-
ing experience), while the second dealt with the char-
acteristics of restaurants (size, number of seats, em-
ployees, competitors, etc.). Secondary data consisted
of financial data for the year 2018 (net sales revenues;
acquisition cost of goods and material sold and costs
of material; costs of services; labour costs; deprecia-
tion). Financial data were obtained by the Agency of
the Republic of Slovenia for public legal records and
related services (http://www.ajpes.si). The availability
of official financial data is a significant advantage of
our research since we can avoid the subjective opin-
ions of restaurant managers on financial matters.
In order to achieve the main objective of this re-
search, data were gathered from 52 restaurant facil-
ities, located in rural areas in three municipalities in
the countrywith the highest number of overnight stays
(Ljubljana; Piran; Bled). The oecd definition classi-
fication of Slovenian rural areas was not useful for
defining the sample for our research. Therefore, we
used the definition from theGeographical Terminolog-
ical Dictionary (Geografski terminološki slovar, 2013),
as already explained in the Introductory chapter.
Barrows,Vieira, andDiPietro (2015) recommended
being cautious in identifying the competitive set for
the benchmarking process. Therefore, we included
restaurant facilities which are similar according to
their operating variables. Restaurant facilities had to
be officially classified as restaurants and inns; had to
be run independently, and the restaurant activity had
to be the only source of restaurants’ operating rev-
enues. Based on the convenience sampling method,
we selected 250 business entities. All of them were
prechecked in extensive field research. Fieldwork was
conducted by ten interviewers during the summer and
autumn of 2018. Only those facilities that met all the
above-mentioned criteria were included in the study.
According to interviewers’ feedback, many managers
refused to participate in our research for a variety of
reasons. In the end, the final sample consisted of 52
independently-run restaurant facilities.
The demographic data of managers and physi-
cal characteristics of restaurants were analysed with
the spss 24 software. In order to determine the effi-
Table 2 Correlation Coefficients between Inputs
and Output
() () () () ()
Pearson Corr. .** .** .** .**
Sig. (-tailed) .** .** .** .**
Notes ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-
tailed). Column headings are as follows: (1) net sales rev-
enues, (2) acquisition cost of goods and material sold and
costs of material, (3) costs of services, (4) labour costs, (5)
depreciation.
ciency levels, we conducted a dea analysis with the
software deap version 2.1. We opted for an input-
oriented dea model since restaurant managers have
a much higher influence on the inputs than on the
outputs (Mhlanga, 2018) and, in such a robust com-
petitive environment, firms are usually input-oriented
(Barros, 2005). In addition, input-oriented models are
a measure of competitiveness (Oliveira et al., 2013).
In the input-oriented model, we want to determine
by how much the input(s) can be reduced without
changing the output(s) (Coelli, Rao,O’Donnell, & Bat-
tese, 2005). We also used the constant returns to scale
(crs) option, since in the restaurant industry there is
a strong monopolistic competition and all firms have
the possibility of operating at an optimal and similar
scale (Coelli et al., 2005). The efficiency scores were
calculated based on one output (net sales revenues)
and three inputs (acquisition cost of goods and mate-
rial sold and costs of material, costs of services, labour
costs, and depreciation). Prior to calculating the effi-
ciency scores, it is necessary to verify that all inputs
were correlated with the output. The results are pre-
sented in Table 2.
Results and Discussion
Firstly, we analysed the demographic data ofmanagers
and the physical characteristic of restaurant facilities.
The results are presented in Table 3. The analysis of
the data revealed that there were slightly more male
respondents (51.9) than females (48.1) and the av-
erage age of the respondents was 45.15 years. Most
(80.8) respondents had a high-school education, and
all the rest (19.2) achieved a college or faculty degree.
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 139
Tanja Planinc and Marko Kukanja Efficiency Analysis of Restaurants
Table 3 Socio-Demographic Data of Managers
Variable Item f 
Gender Female  .
Male  .
Age –  .
–  .
–  .
–  .
More than   .
Level of
education
Elementary school  .
Vocational or secondary school  .
College/faculty degree  .
Master’s degree or PhD  .
Working
experience
–  .
–  .
–  .
–  .
More than   .
Ownership
structure
Owner and manager  .
Manager  .
Table 4 Restaurants’ Characteristics
Variable () ()
Size of the restaurant (m2) . .
Number of seats . .
Number of employees . .
Age of the restaurant . .
Number of competitors . .
Average spending per guest in eur . .
Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) mean, (2) stan-
dard deviation.
As far as working experience in the restaurant indus-
try is concerned, managers had, on average, almost 23
years of working experience. The majority of respon-
dents (82.7) owned the restaurant facility and were
also employed asmanagers, while the rest (17.3) were
only managers.
In the next step, we analysed the characteristics of
restaurants facilities. The results are presented in Table
Table 5 Financial Data in Euros
Variable () ()
Acquisition cost of goods
and material sold and costs
of material
,. ,.
Costs of services ,. ,.
Labour costs ,. ,.
Depreciation ,. ,.
Net sales revenues ,. ,.
Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) mean, (2) stan-
dard deviation.
4. The analysis of restaurant facilities characteristic in-
dicated that the average size of a restaurant was 248.5
square metres and the average number of seats was
136. In terms of the number of employees, more than
half of all restaurants included in the sample (51.92
) employed up to 5 employees, 32.70 employed
from 6 to 10 employees, and only three restaurants
(5.77) employed more than 15 employees. On aver-
age, the restaurants had been in business for 38 years,
and 78.8 of them were run as family businesses.
As suggested by Reynolds (2004), we also gath-
ered information on the number of competitors in
the vicinity of a restaurant facility. Almost half of the
restaurants (46.15 ) had 0 or 1 competitors, while all
the rest (53.84) had 2 or 3 competitors within a 1 km
radius. The average spending per guest (person – asp)
in all restaurants was almost 14 euros.
Next, we analysed the financial data of all 52 restau-
rant facilities for the year 2018. As already mentioned,
the financial data form statements of income were ob-
tained from national authorities. The results are pre-
sented in Table 5.
According to the results presented in Figure 1, only
nine restaurant firms achieved a score of 1, which in-
dicates that they are fully efficient (100). The aver-
age value of efficiency of all 52 firms under observa-
tion is 67. Based on research results, we can conclude
that on average, the evaluated firms could reduce their
inputs by 33 and simultaneously maintain the same
level of total sales revenues (the output). Detailed re-
sults on efficiency scores are presented in Figure 1.
Twenty-nine restaurants achieved and efficiency
140 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Tanja Planinc and Marko Kukanja Efficiency Analysis of Restaurants











                 
Effi
ce
nc
y
sc
or
es
Restaurants
          




     


     
  
    
 
    
    
  
Figure 1 Efficiency Scores
score below the average efficiency score, while 23 res-
taurants achieved above the average efficiency. De-
tailed analysis of restaurants that had achieved the ef-
ficiency score below the average revealed that when
it comes to the input ‘costs of labour,’ there is much
room for optimisation. This is also true for other in-
puts but to a lesser extent. According to the analysis,
the costs of labour could be, on average, lower bymore
than 60.Although all requisite assets are controllable
inputs, managers cannot lower them to the recom-
mended extent. Because of already low salaries in the
restaurant industry (see explanation below) and also
due to the Slovenian tax legislation, managers can-
not afford such a drastic cost reduction. The average
monthly gross salary in the restaurant industry for the
year 2018 in Slovenia was €1,056.22, while the average
gross salary for all business subjects was €1,681.55 (see
https://pxweb.stat.si). The actual net salaries in Slove-
nia are lower by more than 30 due to relatively high
tax burdens. Consequently, restaurant managers have
little or no space in terms of labour cost reductions.
Another significant issue is concerned with the
lack of people willing to work in the restaurant indus-
try. The Slovenian government addressed this issue
by changing the legislation in 2005 by eliminating the
condition of mandatory education for professions in
the tourism and restaurant industry (waiters, cooks,
receptionists, etc.) (Zakon o spremembah in dopol-
nitvah Zakona o gostinstvu, 2005). The change in leg-
islation did not bring the desired effect. According to
Table 6 Correlation Coefficients between Efficiency
Scores and Restaurants’ Physical Characteristics
() () () () ()
Pearson Corr. –. –. –. –.*
Sig. (-tailed) . . . .
Notes * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Column headings are as follows: (1) efficiency scores, (2)
restaurant size, (3) no. of seats, (4) average spending per per-
son, (5) age of a restaurant.
Zupančič (2019), the government should take some
steps in reducing the tax burden on salaries which
would result in higher net salaries.
Regarding the cost of goods and material sold and
costs of material, managers should consider optimis-
ing costs through inter-firm networking. According
to Sedmak et al. (2011), there are still unexploited po-
tentials in networking between firms in the Slove-
nian hospitality sector, as research results revealed that
managers see the inter-firmnetworking as a possibility
to gain access to more reliable and favourable suppli-
ers.
Next, we verifiedwhether there are correlations be-
tween efficiency scores and restaurants’ physical char-
acteristics, which would help us to better understand
the efficiency level in rural restaurant facilities. We
considered the size of a restaurant, the number of seats,
the average spending per guest, and the age of restau-
rants. The results are presented in Table 6.
The results of the correlation analysis showed that
only the age of restaurants has a weak negative statis-
tically significant correlation with the efficiency scores
(r = –0.279, 2-tailed Sig. = 0.045). Although the cor-
relation coefficients do not indicate the direction of
causality, we might assume that restaurants operat-
ing for a more extended period of time are becoming
less efficient. One possible explanation could be that
restaurants in their early life cycle stages put more ef-
fort inmarketing actions in order to become recognis-
able than in their maturity and decline phase, which
results in higher operational efficiency (on average
restaurants have 38 years of business activity). Nev-
ertheless, further research should be undertaken to
investigate the influence of different life cycle stages
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 141
Tanja Planinc and Marko Kukanja Efficiency Analysis of Restaurants
and years of business activity on restaurants’ opera-
tional efficiency.
Conclusion
The primary goal of this paper was to determine the
efficiency of selected restaurants operating in rural ar-
eas. We decided to use the requisite assets as inputs
since no business can operate without them. Accord-
ing to the analysis, the selected restaurants achieved
an average efficiency score of 67. This result is not
in line in comparison with other studies of restaurant
efficiency, where the identified efficiency results were
higher (Banker & Morey, 1986; Choi, Roh, & Yoon,
2007; Giménez-García et al., 2007; Reynolds, 2004;
Reynolds & Biel, 2007; Reynolds & Thompson, 2007;
Giokas et al., 2015; Kukanja & Planinc, 2018a; Parte &
Alberca, 2019). On the contrary, only in a few studies
were the identified average scores below our results
(Alberca & Parte, 2018; Assaf et al., 2011; Hadad et al.,
2007).
The comparison of results between our study and
previous studies is difficult if not impossible since dif-
ferent inputs and outputs had been used in different
dea studies (see also Table 1). The direct comparison
is possible only with the results of Kukanja and Plan-
inc’s (2018a) study; the authors had used the same in-
puts and output as they were used in our study and
calculated the average efficiency of 142 restaurants at
85. In their study, restaurants were located predom-
inantly in Slovenian urban areas, while in our case,
restaurant facilities were located exclusively in rural
areas. We can assume that restaurants in urban areas
can generate higher revenues since urban areas offer a
higher number and frequency of guests. Restaurants in
urban areas are also more often characterised as more
luxurious and can consequently charge higher prices
for their offerings.
This research also has some other limitations that
must be considered. dea analysis is a deterministic
method and, consequently, every observed unit that
does not lie on the efficiency frontier is characterised
as an inefficient unit (Fried, Knox Lovell, & Schmidt,
1993). The financial data used in our study presented
only one business year (2018). Therefore, it would be
of great interest to use the panel data. Another limita-
tion is concerned with the sample size and geographi-
cal distribution of restaurant facilities. It would be nec-
essary to broaden the research in order to get more
conclusive results of the analysis.
Regarding the practical implications of this study,
we provided some valuable information for restaurant
managers and decision-makers in terms of identify-
ing areas where further optimisations are possible and
necessary in order to improve restaurant firms’ effi-
ciency. The analysis revealed that managers should
primarily focus on optimising labour costs. Unfortu-
nately, we also determined that managers have little or
no space for such optimisation because of the already
low salaries in the restaurant industry and because of
the strict labour and tax legislation. Therefore, an es-
sential area for restaurants’ operational efficiency im-
provement might be inter-firm networking, especially
in terms of optimising the costs of goods and material
sold and costs of material.
In order to ensure comparable benchmarking anal-
yses, we should also emphasise the importance of the
usage of objective and reliable information in deter-
mining the efficiency levels. Objective and reliable
data is a prerequisite for conducting effective efficiency
analyses.
For an in-depth understanding of restaurants’ effi-
ciency, further research is needed. Researchers should
focus on analysing management practices of the best-
performing restaurants. In addition, the element of
quality of input and output variables is also worth fur-
ther investigation, since the use of appropriate vari-
ables is imperative in understanding the achieved effi-
ciency levels.
Further research should consider incorporating
firms’ non-financial indicators into the efficiency anal-
ysis. Non-financial indicators are becoming increas-
ingly important in evaluating the business perfor-
mance and, in combination with financial indicators,
represent a balanced scorecard consisting of four per-
formance elements: financial, customer service, inter-
nal processes, and the learning and growth aspect (Ka-
plan & Norton, 1992). The fact is that relying solely on
financial analysis is not advisable since companies are
often able to tailor business results in one way or an-
other (Atkinson & Brown, 2001; Hansen, Otley, & Van
142 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Tanja Planinc and Marko Kukanja Efficiency Analysis of Restaurants
der Stede, 2003). The combination of financial and
non-financial indicators is imperative in today’s com-
petitive environment. Many firms already use non-
financial indicators related to customer satisfaction,
product quality, achieved market share, corporate so-
cial responsibility, environmental indicators (e.g., car-
bon footprint, green practices, etc.), firms’ organisa-
tional climate, etc. (Kaplan & Norton, 1996; Tarigan
& Widjaja, 2012; Banker, Potter, & Srinivasan, 2005;
Sainaghi et al., 2017).
Since the restaurant industry is a vital part of the
tourism industry, there is a need to establish a stan-
dardised selection of inputs and outputs. Ensuring an
appropriate system for standardised efficiency analy-
ses would significantly contribute to accurate bench-
marking of the restaurant industry worldwide.
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Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 145

Original Scientific Article
Service Quality in Restaurants Operating
in a Rural Area: The Case of Slovenian Istria
Marko Kukanja
University of Primorska, Faculty of Tourism Studies – Turistica, Slovenia
marko.kukanja@fts.upr.si
Tanja Planinc
University of Primorska, Faculty of Tourism Studies – Turistica, Slovenia
tanja.planinc@fts.upr.si
The purpose of this paper was to investigate service quality in restaurants operat-
ing in the rural area of Slovenian Istria. The dineserv tool was used as a research
instrument. The research sample consisted of 25 restaurant facilities and 250 valid
questionnaires completed by domestic guests. Based on results of the exploratory
factor analysis, twomain factor groups that best explain domestic guests’ quality per-
ceptions in rural restaurant facilities were identified: (1) Empathy, Responsiveness,
and Assurance (era) and (2) Tangibles. The results of our study are significantly
different from those obtained in a previous study performed in the coastal area of
Slovenian Istria (Kukanja & Planinc, 2015), as they indicate a relatively bipolar and
homogeneous service quality structure. This study is of great managerial interest at
the micro (restaurant) and macro (destination) levels. Research results indicate that
restaurant managers should emphasise the importance of the two identified quality
dimensions (era and Tangibles) and continuously measure the level of their offer-
ings. Accordingly, research results may also be implemented in future destination
quality and development strategies. In terms of future research, it would be of great
interest to see if similarities in guests’ quality perceptions exist between Slovenian
Istria and other competitive rural destinations.
Keywords: restaurant industry, service quality, dineserv, rural areas, Slovenian
Istria
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.12.147-159
Introduction
Understanding, achieving, and maintaining service
quality are recognised as essential elements leading
to the successful business of hospitality firms. Know-
ing guests’ quality expectations is instrumental in de-
veloping a quality strategy for meeting and exceeding
their expectations (Ryu & Lee, 2017). Consequently,
the efforts of service managers and researchers are di-
rected to understanding andmeasuring guests’ quality
expectations and the quality of services provided.
In Slovenian Istria, several local tourism strategies
primarily focus on general guidelines on how to de-
velop different types of tourism in different geograph-
ical areas, towns, and municipalities (see https://www
.las-istre.si; Mestna občina Koper, 2016; Turistično
združenje Portorož, 2019). To the best of our knowl-
edge, there are no studies that measure guests’ percep-
tions of restaurant service quality on an operational
(micro) level in rural areas. This is important because
different restaurant facilities are the primary providers
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 147
Marko Kukanja and Tanja Planinc Service Quality in Restaurants
of the gastronomic services in rural Istria (Kukanja,
2016). The only study that measured domestic guests’
quality perceptions in the area (coastal Istria) was
conducted by Kukanja and Planinc in 2015, based on
which the present study examines domestic guests’
quality perceptions in restaurant facilities operating
in the rural part of Slovenian Istria. It does this by ap-
plying the dineserv tool. To determine guests’ level
of satisfaction with the quality of restaurant offerings,
in our study, the servperf (performance-based) ap-
proach was implemented, as previously suggested by
Adil, Ghaswyneh, and Albkour (2013), Cronin and
Taylor (1994), and Unuvar and Kaya (2017).
The purpose of this investigation is to explore do-
mestic guests’ quality perceptions in restaurant facil-
ities operating in the rural part of Slovenian Istria.
Based on previous research conducted in the area and
the literature review (see Chapter 2), we formulated
our main research question (rq):
rq How do domestic guests’ perceive service quality
in restaurants located in rural Istria?
This paper is divided into several sections. First, a
brief review of service quality and rural tourism re-
search is provided. Next, the research methodology
is presented; followed by a presentation and discus-
sion of results. In conclusion, suggestions for future
research and useful information for restaurant man-
agers are provided.
Literature Review
Service Quality
In recent decades, many academics (Hanks, Line, &
Kim, 2017; Kukanja, Gomezelj Omerzel, & Kodrič,
2017; Nikbin, Marimuthu, & Hyun, 2016) have ex-
amined the concept of service quality, its dimensions,
and measurement methods. Among the various defi-
nitions proposed, the most widely used is the one pro-
posed by Oliver (1980), which defines service qual-
ity as a gap between guests’ quality expectations and
quality perceptions (Park& Jeong, 2019). Service qual-
ity is built on the concept of guest satisfaction. Satis-
faction is most often defined as a post-purchase con-
struct that is related to how a consumer likes or dis-
likes a service after experiencing it (Truong & Foster,
2006). In terms of the restaurant industry, this post-
purchase construct is primarily a result of pre-dining
expectations and previous experiences. According to
Oliver’s (1980) disconfirmation theory, an individual
guest’s expectations are confirmed when the service
performs as expected, negativelywhen the service per-
forms worse than expected, and positively when the
service performs as/or better than expected. Based on
Oliver’s theoretical concept, Parasuraman, Zeithaml,
and Berry (1985) defined service quality as the ability
of a service to fulfil and exceed guests’ quality expec-
tations. Because of the intangibility of services and
guests’ subjective perceptions of service quality, the
delivery of high-quality services in the hospitality and
tourism industry is a difficult task. In academic litera-
ture, several attempts have been made to capture and
measure the essential components of service quality.
Parasuraman et al. (1985; 1988) developed a five-
step model of service quality (also referred to as the
Gapmodel) andproposed the servqual instrument,
which measures service quality based on 22 quality
indicators merged into five service quality attributes
(quality dimensions): Responsiveness, Assurance, Tan-
gibles, Empathy, and Reliability (also referred to as
rater). Similarly, Grönroos (1990) and Lehtinen and
Lehtinen (1991) proposed two major components of
service quality: the tangible (technical) and the in-
tangible (functional) aspect of service quality. Fol-
lowing the pioneering work of Parasuraman et al.
(1985) and Grönroos (1990), different scholars (Can-
dido &Morris 2000; Kukanja et al., 2017; Lin, Chan, &
Tsai, 2009) proposed alternative approaches to ser-
vice quality measurement. For example, Lin et al.
(2009) upgraded the traditional Importance Perfor-
mance Analysis (ipa) with service quality gap eval-
uation and developed a new instrument called ipga
(Importance Performance Gap Analyses), Saeida Ar-
dakani, Nejatian, Farhangnejad, and Nejati (2015) ap-
plied a fuzzy-logic method to service quality evalu-
ation, while Kukanja et al. (2017) developed a ser-
vice quality model based on the concept of Kotler’s
marketing mix. According to Ali, Hussain, Konar,
and Jeon (2017), none of these alternative models re-
ceived significant academic validation. Moreover, Ali
et al. (2017) found that all alternative models were
148 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Marko Kukanja and Tanja Planinc Service Quality in Restaurants
conceptually based on the gap model, as first pro-
posed by Parasuraman et al. (1985). This view was
also supported by Sharif and Kassim (2012), who state
that the predominant quantitative measurement tech-
nique in hospitality and tourism research remains the
servqual instrument with all its modifications. To
adapt the servqual instrument to the specifics of
the hospitality sector, many scholars modified the
original servqual instrument and developed spe-
cific tailor-made models, such as:
• lodgserv (Knutson, Stevens, Wullaert, Patton,
& Yokoyama, 1990): a modified version of the
servqual instrument developed to measure
service quality within the context of lodging (ac-
commodation) settings;
• dineserv tool (Stevens, Knutson, & Patton,
1995): a modified version of the servqual in-
strument, developed for service quality evalua-
tion in different restaurant settings.
• holserv (WongOoiMei,Dean,&White, 1999):
a service quality instrument designed for quality
evaluation in hotels;
• tangserv (Raajpoot, 2002): developed to mea-
sure the tangible aspect of service quality;
• servimperf model (Lin et al., 2009): this in-
strument combines service quality evaluation
with importance measurement of different qual-
ity attributes;
• grserv scale (Chen, Cheng, & Hsu, 2013) de-
signed for measuring guests’ perceptions of ser-
vice quality in green restaurants;
• msq (Eid & Abdelkaber, 2017): a modified ver-
sion of the servqual instrument adapted for
measuring service quality in Muslim facilities;
Although restaurantmanagers can use simple tech-
niques to assess guests’ satisfaction (e.g., observa-
tions, conversations with employees and guests, hid-
den guests, etc.) service providers need standardised
(quantitative)measurement tools to empirically evalu-
ate, compare (benchmark), and understand the quality
construct of provided services.
Service quality is not essential only for the success
of restaurant firms, but also plays a vital role in the
way tourists and/or visitors experience tourist des-
tinations (Križman Pavlović & Živolić, 2008). Con-
sequently, more and more Destination Management
Organisations (dmos) are focusing on gastronomic
tourism as a central element of a destinations’ tourism
product (Sukiman, Omar, Muhibudin, Yussof, & Mo-
hamed, 2013). Rural tourism destinations, in partic-
ular, are promoting local gastronomy (most often in
the relationship between local food and tourism),
as it highlights their distinctive food cultures, im-
proves local sustainability standards, and strengths
community wellbeing (Bellini & Resnick, 2018; see
https://igcat.org). In Slovenia, restaurant service qual-
ity, especially in the context of rural tourism, is rel-
atively poorly analysed. This results in a lack of aca-
demic articles, although after the release of the Strat-
egy of Gastronomy Development of Slovenia in 2006,
a slight increase of research interest for gastronomy
and restaurant-quality researchwas observed (Gačnik,
2012; Kerma & Gačnik, 2015; Kukanja, 2016; 2017;
Sanchez-Cañizares & Castillo-Canalejo, 2015). Ac-
cordingly, there were more studies in the field of food
and beverage (restaurant) management (Gričar & Bo-
jnec, 2009; Kukanja & Planinc, 2018), farm tourism
management (Bojnec&Latruffe, 2013; Potočnik Slavič,
2014), and service quality management (Kukanja &
Planinc, 2015).
The DINESERV Tool
The original dineserv tool included 40 service qual-
ity indicators. In the process of academic evaluation,
the instrument was refined and revalidated. Today, the
final version includes 29 items, which are captured
into five rater quality dimensions of the generic
servqual instrument (Stevens et al., 1995). In their
pilot study of service quality in Quick Service, Ca-
sual/Theme, and Fine Dining Restaurants, Knutson,
Stevens, and Patton (1996) found that Reliability was
the most important service quality dimension, fol-
lowed by Tangibles, Assurance, Responsiveness, and
Empathy. Later, Johns and Tyas (1996) used a modi-
fied version of the servqual instrument to evaluate
the service quality of a contract catering company;
interestingly, they found that other specific elements
related to the quality of service staff and food, and not
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 149
Marko Kukanja and Tanja Planinc Service Quality in Restaurants
the rater quality dimensions, were more important
for delivering high-quality services.
Since the year 2000, there has been an increasing
amount of academic research on restaurant quality
management. In many studies, the dineserv tool
was used to assess the quality structure in different
geographical areas. For example, Kim, McCahon, and
Miller (2003) used the dineserv tool to evaluate
the service quality of a foreign-brand, casual dining
restaurant in Korea. The factor analysis indicated that
Tangibles had three sub-dimensions, and Responsive-
ness had a substantial overlap with Assurance. Results
also revealed that gender, average spending per per-
son (asp), and the dining occasion significantly im-
pacted guests’ perceptions of service quality. Similarly,
Bougoure and Neu (2010) used the dineserv tool to
assess service quality in the Malaysian fast food in-
dustry. The study confirmed the five-dimensional na-
ture of the dineserv tool. Later, Marković, Raspor
and Šegarić (2010) analysed service quality in restau-
rants in Croatia, using a modified version of the di-
neserv questionnaire and found that seven quality
dimensions best explain guests’ quality expectations in
Croatian restaurants and only two dimensions influ-
ence guests’ quality perceptions. Following the study
of Marković et al. (2010), in 2015, Kukanja and Plan-
inc conducted a cross-national comparison between
the two neighbouring North Mediterranean tourist
destinations: Opatija and Portorož and Piran. In their
study, Kukanja and Planinc (2015) identified the im-
portance of the very same quality dimensions as had
previously been identified in the Opatija’ study.
Similarly, Djekic et al. (2016) used the dineserv
tool to analyse restaurant guests’ perceptions of service
quality in different European cities: Belgrade (Serbia),
Manchester (uk), Thessaloniki (Greece), and Porto
(Portugal). The research results revealed that guests’
fromdifferent cities showed significantly different per-
ceptions regarding restaurant service quality. The au-
thors also reported that the gender of guests’ played
a significant role in the perception of the interior, re-
stroom, and service, while the age of respondents was
a category with no significant difference concerning
food quality, layout, restrooms, and service.
The results of presented studies indicate that the
rater quality dimensions are not necessarily applica-
ble in all restaurant facilities. Research results are not
generalisable as restaurant guests may have different
quality expectations fromdifferent restaurant facilities
in different geographic areas. Nevertheless, the pre-
sented findings may aid in better understanding the
specificity of the restaurant service quality. According
to Hansen (2014), dineserv has proven to be a reli-
able and valid measurement tool for assessing restau-
rant service quality. Following previous research, the
dineserv tool is applied in our study as well.
Rural Areas and Rural Tourism
According to Loureiro (2012), rural areas in post-
modern society have grown in importance and appeal,
since they have been perceived as green and unspoiled
places. Conceptually, rural tourism may be regarded
as tourism in the countryside, a form that embraces
the rural environment as pivotal to the product of-
fered (Loureiro, 2012). Rural tourism should be func-
tionally rural, small in scale, traditional, organically
and slowly growing, and managed by locals (Cawley
& Gillmor, 2008). According to Frochot (2005) and
Ohe and Kurihara (2013), scholars have also become
interested in rural tourism, as it was also recognised as
a development tool for often economically depressed
and underdeveloped rural areas. Rural tourism has
also been identified as an opportunity to diversify the
tourism product in terms of declining the importance
of the mass sea, sand, and sun (sss) tourism destina-
tions (Sharpley, 2002). Since the year 2000, there has
been an increasing tendency among the urban pop-
ulation to choose rural zones as short-term tourism
destinations (Loureiro, 2012). Service providers must
correspondingly adapt to the currentmarket situation.
Guests in rural areas are becoming extremely demand-
ing, as well as price- and quality-oriented (Sharpley,
2002). This results in an extremely competitive busi-
ness environment, which is also dominated by pow-
erful communication campaigns (Roberts, Hall, &
Morag, 2017) and strategically developed marketing
actions (e.g., Green story of Slovenia; Discover green
destinations and providers; Indulge in the most beau-
tiful green adventures etc.) on different social media
platforms (e.g., TripAdvisor, Booking.com, etc.).
150 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Marko Kukanja and Tanja Planinc Service Quality in Restaurants
Case Study Region
This researchwas carried out in the rural area of Slove-
nian Istria, more specifically, in the hinterland of the
municipalities of Piran, Koper, Izola, and Ankaran.
Slovenian Istria (also referred to as the SlovenianMed-
iterranean), and especially its seaside riviera, are one
of the most recognisable tourist destinations in the
Eastern Adriatic region. Based on its long tradition
of organised tourism, Slovenian Istria is still consid-
ered one of the most visited tourist destinations in the
Republic of Slovenia (see https://www.stat.si/StatWeb/
en/Field/Index/24/66). In order to upgrade the mar-
ket position of the entire area of Slovenian Istria,
different projects and strategies have been applied
by different municipalities and stakeholders, such as:
the eu cross-border project ‘365 Days of the Riviera,’
which aimed to extend the summer season, the gastro-
project ‘Taste of Istria,’ the wellness project ‘Wellness
Istria,’ the wine path project ‘Malvasia TourIstra,’ and
many others (see https://www.las-istre.si; https://www
.turistica.si). All projects emphasised the importance
of gastronomy and rural development for the overall
tourism development of the entire region (Slovenian
Istria). Further development of gastronomy in rural
areas is also emphasised in different local strategies
(e.g., Tourism Development Strategy of the Munici-
pality of Piran until 2025 (Turistično združenje Por-
torož, 2019); Strategy of Development and Market-
ing of the Municipality of Koper until 2025 (Mestna
občina Koper, 2016); and the National Strategy for the
Sustainable Growth of Slovenian Tourism for 2017–
2021 (Ministry of Economic Development and Tech-
nology, 2019). This is also important because gas-
tronomy and rural (green) areas are important ele-
ments of Slovene national identity and critical com-
ponents of its promotional campaigns at different
national and international levels (Korez-Vide, 2017).
Moreover, in 2018, Slovenia was officially appointed as
the European (eu) Region of Gastronomy 2021 (see
https://igcat.org).
Methodology
Research Process and Sample Description
In the first part of the study, qualitative research was
performed to identify previous studies on restaurant
quality in rural areas. Articles related to the research
topic were retrieved in February 2019 frommajor aca-
demic databases for tourism and hospitality research,
such as ebscohost (http://search.ebscohost.com/),
Science Direct (http://sciencedirect.com/), and the
Springer database (http://link.springer.com/). Key-
words used to retrieve literature included: ‘restaurant
quality,’ ‘rural,’ ‘service quality,’ ‘dineserv,’ and ‘ser-
vice measurement.’ The screening process startedwith
reading titles and abstracts of each article. Although
service quality is well researched in academic liter-
ature, surprisingly, there were relatively few studies
focusing on restaurant service quality in rural areas.
Articles and chapters in books that matched the topic
of the research were included in the study in a logical
manner (a total of nine publications). During the pro-
cess of reviewing the academic literature, we also veri-
fied whether any previous studies had analysed restau-
rant service quality in Slovenian Istria. We found only
one research study, conducted by Kukanja and Planinc
in 2015. To the best of our knowledge, this is the only
study that measured the quality of restaurant offerings
in Slovenian Istria using the dineserv methodology.
In the next part of the study, domestic guests’ per-
ceptions of restaurant service quality were analysed
using the dineserv tool. This instrument comprises
29 service quality indicators that correspond to the five
quality dimensions of the generic servqual instru-
ment (quality indicators are presented in Table 2). The
level of guests’ quality perceptions was measured on
a five-point Likert-type ordinal scale, ranging from 1
(strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree). Although the
generic dineserv tool measures the differences be-
tween guests’ quality expectations and perceptions to
determine the level of the quality gap, in our study, we
focused only on the analysis of guests’ quality percep-
tions, as suggested by Adil et al. (2013). The research
process used in this study was prepared by adapting
the procedure used by Kukanja and Planinc (2015),
who measured guests’ quality expectations and per-
ceptions in different restaurant settings located in the
Portorož and Piran coastal area. Their study included
32 restaurant settings and 156 domestic guests.
In order to facilitate the comparison of results
to Kukanja and Planinc’s study, our study is predi-
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Marko Kukanja and Tanja Planinc Service Quality in Restaurants
cated on the following research preconditions: time
of field research (month of April); guest sample (do-
mestic guests), and restaurant sample (only the fol-
lowing types of foodservice facilities were included in
the study: restaurants (in Slovene restavracije), inns
(in Slovene gostilne), and snack facilities (in Slovene
okrepčevalnice) (see also Table 4). To determine the ge-
ographical (rural) area in which our researchwas con-
ducted, we obtained information from the local devel-
opment agency las Istre, which is responsible for Is-
trian rural development (see https://www.las-istre.si),
and we consulted representatives of local tourism en-
trepreneurs operating in the area (M. Kozlovič Hrva-
tin, personal communication, 11 February 2019). Un-
fortunately, the exact number of restaurants located
in rural Istria is unknown, although according to of-
ficial data (see https://www.ajpes.si), 413 companies
were operating in restaurant (Food & Beverage) sec-
tor in the four Istrian municipalities (Piran, Koper,
Izola, and Ankaran).
The fieldwork was performed by five pre-trained
surveyors. Based on convenience sampling, question-
naires were distributed in 25 restaurants located in the
Istrian hinterland. Each restaurant received ten ques-
tionnaires, which were completed by domestic guests.
Residents were not included in the research. Before
conducting the research, we obtained permission from
the restaurant managers. Guests were asked to fill in
a questionnaire after the service encounter. Although
we used the performance-based scale, which (accord-
ing to Adil et al. (2013)) considerably reduces the num-
ber of guests unwilling to collaborate in the study,
some guests (n = 31) refused to participate for a va-
riety of reasons. Therefore, the final analysis is based
on 250 valid questionnaires. The ibm spss software
version 25.0 was used for the analysis of the results.
First, descriptive statistics analysis was used to de-
scribe respondents’ demographic characteristics and
to evaluate their quality perceptions (see Table 1).
Next, exploratory factor analysis (efa) was performed
(see Tables 2 and 3) to assess the perceived quality
structure. Principal component analysis with varimax
rotationwas used to derive the underlying dimensions
of service quality. Variables with eigenvalues equal to
or greater than 1, factor loadings above 0.3, and fac-
Table 1 Socio-Demographic Data
Variable Item f 
Gender Female  .
Male  .
Age –  .
–  .
–  .
–  .
More than   .
Level of
education
Elementary school  .
Vocational or secondary school  .
Associate degree  .
College or faculty degree  .
Master’s degree or PhD  .
Number
of visits
Once (first-time visitor)  .
Twice  .
Three times or more  .
Purpose
of visit
Celebration  .
Business  .
Get together (socialising)  .
To dine (nutrition)  .
tors that contain more than three quality indicators
were retained. To test the reliability of the scale and
the inner consistency of extracted factors, the Cron-
bach alpha coefficients were calculated.
Research Results
In Table 1, the basic socio-demographic data are pre-
sented. As can be seen, the majority of respondents
were in the 16–25 year group (the average is 38.3 years
of age; standard deviation is 15.45), and the sample was
almost equally composed of female (50.4) and male
(49.6) guests. Most guests had finished vocational or
secondary school. Next, the purpose of visit and the
number of visits to the same restaurant were analysed.
Most guests (72.4) visited the same restaurant three
or more times with the purpose of dining (46.4).
The results presented in Table 2 show that all 29
dineserv quality indicators were evaluated relatively
highly (the averagemean value is 4.31). Among the five
service quality dimensions, the highest-rated dimen-
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Marko Kukanja and Tanja Planinc Service Quality in Restaurants
Table 2 Analysis of Guests’ Quality Perceptions
Quality indicators () ()
Tangibles i Visually attractive parking areas and building exteriors . .
i Visually attractive dining area . .
i Clean, neat and appropriately dressed staff . .
i Restaurant’s decor typical to its image and price range . .
i Easily readable menu . .
i Visually attractive menu . .
i Comfortable dining area . .
i Clean restrooms . .
i Clean dining areas . .
i Comfortable seats in the dining room . .
Reliability i Service in the promised time . .
i Quick correction of incorrect service . .
v Dependable and consistent restaurant . .
i Accurate bill . .
i Error-free served order (food) . .
Responsiveness i Maintaining speed and quality of service during busy times . .
i Provision of prompt service . .
i Extra effort for handling special requests . .
Assurance i Employees can answer questions completely . .
i Comfortable and confident feeling . .
i Staff provide inf. about menu items, their ingred. and methods of preparation . .
i Feeling safe . .
i Well-trained, competent and experienced staff . .
i Restaurant supports the employees . .
Empathy i Employees provide individual attention . .
i Special feeling . .
i Anticipation of guests’ individual needs and wants . .
i Sympathetic and reassuring employees . .
i Guests’ best interests at heart . .
Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) mean, (2) standard deviation.
sion was Reliability (mean 4.6), with i14, with ‘the ac-
curate guest bill’ as its highest-rated indicator (mean
value 4.82). The results indicate that the lowest percep-
tions are related to the dimension of Empathy (mean
4.17), with the lowest scores related to the indicator i27
– ‘Anticipation of guests’ individual needs and wants’
(mean 4.03). Standard deviations (sd) show how ho-
mogeneous guests are in the evaluation of different
quality indicators.
In the next section of the study, efa was perfor-
med to assess the factor structure of perceived service
quality. The first step in this process was to check the
distribution of data. Because we could not confirm
a normal distribution for any of the selected qual-
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 153
Marko Kukanja and Tanja Planinc Service Quality in Restaurants
ity indicators of the first set (a Kolmogorov-Smirnov
test was used), it was necessary to use the Principal
Axis Factoring method for performing efa. Based
on the results of the first test, we evaluated the suit-
ability of the information for inclusion in the factor
model. Thus, based on the value of the Kaiser-Meyer-
Olkin (kmo) Measure of Sampling Adequacy (0.943),
and the outcome of Bartlett’s test of sphericity (χ2 =
4206.494; degrees of freedom = 406), we estimated
that all included variables were suitable for perform-
ing efa. Most indicators had satisfactory commonal-
ities (≥0.50), suggesting that the greater part of their
variability can be explained by the influence of the
common factors. In the next step, eight quality in-
dicators with too low (<0.50), commonalities (i1, i5,
i6, i7, i14, i15, i16, and i25) were excluded from the
evaluation process. After a few successive iterations
of the factor model evaluation (eight rotations were
performed), we finally selected as the most appropri-
ate the model with 19 service quality indicators; while
two indicators with too low communalities (i17 and
i21) had to be removed from the factor model.
The suitability of the information for inclusion in
the final model is also supported by the high value of
the kmo indicator (0.942) and the outcomeof Bartlett’s
test (χ2 = 2945.012; degrees of freedom= 171). Based on
a rotated factor solution, we have decided to include
two main factor groups (service quality dimensions)
in the finalmodel, as they allow amoremeaningful in-
terpretation of results. The final (rotated) factormodel
with two quality dimensions is presented in Table 3. In
the final model, factor weights with factor loadings
above 0.3 and factors that contain more than three
service quality indicators were retained. Indicators be-
longing to the quality dimensions Empathy (i28, i29,
i27, and i26), Reliability (i11, i12, i13) and Assurance
(i24, i19) were logically merged into a new common
quality dimension called ‘era.’
Based on the rotated matrix of factor weights pre-
sented in Table 3, it is evident that according to guests’
perceptions of service quality, only two quality dimen-
sions are important for delivering restaurant service
quality: (1) era (51.06) and (2) Tangibles (7.31).
Based on the presented quality dimensions and the
values of their total explained variances, it is evident
Table 3 Final-rotated factor solution
() () () () () ()
i . –. i . .
i . –. i . .
i . . i –. .
i . –. i –. .
i . . i –. .
i . . i . .
i . . i . .
i . . i . .
i . . i . .
i . . * . .
Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) quality indica-
tors, (2) empathy, reliability and assurance (era), (3) tangi-
bles. * Percentage of explained variance.
that, according to guests’ quality perceptions, the indi-
cators reflecting the quality of service staff (era) have
by far the greatest importance in assuring restaurant
quality, followed by the quality of Tangibles. We be-
lieve that further dissection of the results would not
contribute to the improvement of the quality of re-
search. Therefore, we have decided to keep the final
factor model with two main factor groups (quality di-
mensions).
Discussion
In order to better understand the results of the sta-
tistical analysis presented in Chapter 3, our findings
were compared to the results of the previous study per-
formed in the coastal area of Portorož and Piran. Re-
search characteristics and findings of both studies are
summarised in Table 4.
The comparison of results from both studies re-
veals that the highest rated quality indicator was ‘Bill
accuracy.’ It can thus be suggested that restaurant bills
were accurate in both studies. Interestingly, in the Por-
torož and Piran research, the lowest-rated indicator
was ‘Paying more than planned.’ Therefore, we might
assume that guests did not paymore than they had ini-
tially anticipated. In our study, the lowest-rated indi-
cator was ‘Anticipation of guests’ individual needs and
wants,’ which indicates that guests were not completely
154 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
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Table 4 Comparison of Results between the Two Restaurant-Quality Studies from Slovenian Istria
Research characteristics Portorož & Piran (coastal area)* Hinterland (rural area)
Methodology dineserv tool (mod. questionnaire) dineserv tool (original version)
Time of research April 2014 April 2019
Research approach Two-step (perceptions-minus-
expectations)
One-step (performance analysis)
Sample size (n) 32 restaurants; 156 domestic guests 25 restaurants; 250 domestic guests
Restaurant type Restaurants, Inns, Snack facilities Restaurants, Inns, Snack facilities
Highest rated indicator Bill accuracy Bill accuracy
Lowest rated indicator Paying more than planned Anticipation of guests’ individual needs
and wants
Identified quality dimensions (factor
structure)
Four dimensions (respectively): Assur-
ance, Restaurant Ambiance, Respon-
siveness, and Satisfaction and Loyalty
Two dimensions: era and Tangibles
Notes * Study conducted in 2015 by Kukanja and Planinc.
satisfiedwith the way the service staff anticipated their
needs and wants.
Furthermore, the comparison of results from both
factor analyses reveals that efa in Portorož and Piran
study extracted four factors, which explained 61.70 per
cent of the total variance in the data. Research results
revealed that guests’ perceptions of restaurant service
quality in the coastal area were mainly based on the
quality of the following four quality dimensions: As-
surance, Ambiance, Responsiveness, and Satisfaction
and Loyalty. In our study, only two factors were ex-
tracted (era and Tangibles), which explains 58.37 per
cent of the total variance in the data. Although the first
factor (era) is composed of three quality dimensions
(see Table 3), the research result indicates a relatively
bipolar service quality structure in rural restaurants in
comparison to restaurants located in the coastal area.
The factor structure in rural restaurants highlights the
importance of the quality of service staff (era) and
the quality of the physical environment (Tangibles).
This is critical because it indicates the importance of
functional quality (people) in restaurants located in a
rural area. To ensure restaurant quality in rural areas,
managers must primarily ensure the quality of ser-
vice staff and the physical environment. This is also
relevant because in the Republic of Slovenia the min-
imum standards related to the quality of the physical
environment are determined by the national rules (see
https://www.tgzs.si/zakonodaja). In contrast, there are
no minimum standards related to the professional
characteristics of service staff.
Taken together, these results suggest that domestic
guests in coastal and rural restaurants do not evaluate
restaurant service quality based on the same quality
indicators. There are several possible explanations for
these results. First, the time gap between the two types
of research might have significantly influenced guests’
quality expectations and/or the level of restaurant offer
in both areas. However, there are also other possible
explanations for these results, such as: the primary
focus of restaurateurs operating in rural area is on
local guests (residents), the seasonality of restaurant
offerings in the coastal area, the high fluctuation of
service staff working in coastal restaurants, restaurant
managers’ characteristics, rural area managers’ demo-
graphic characteristics, which might be significantly
influenced by the specifics of the ‘Mediterranean’ way
of life, etc. More research on this topic needs to be
undertaken before the association between restaurant
guests’ quality perceptions in both areas ismore clearly
understood.However, the results of this study are quite
encouraging as they indicate a relatively high level of
perceived service quality in restaurants located in the
Istrian hinterland (average mean value is 4.31).
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Marko Kukanja and Tanja Planinc Service Quality in Restaurants
Conclusion and Implications
The purpose of this studywas to determine howdiffer-
ent quality indicators of the institutional dineserv
tool influence domestic guests’ quality perception in
rural restaurants. Based on qualitative research, we
were unable to determine the importance of differ-
ent quality indicators in restaurants operating in a
rural area. Returning to the rq posed at the begin-
ning of this study, it is now possible to state that, in
rural Istria, domestic guests perceive restaurant ser-
vice quality based on two primary quality dimensions:
era and Tangibles (see also Table 3). This study has
also identified nineteen service quality indicators that
best explain guests’ quality perceptions in rural restau-
rants: visually attractive dining area, clean neat and
appropriately dressed staff, restaurant’s décor typical
to its image and price range, clean restrooms, clean
dining areas, comfortable seats in the dining room,
service in the promised time, quick correction of in-
correct service, dependable and consistent restaurant,
extra effort in handling special requests, employees
completely answer questions, comfortable and confi-
dent feeling, feeling safe, well-trained, competent and
experienced staff, restaurant supports the employees,
special feeling, anticipation of guests’ individual needs
andwants, sympathetic and reassuring employees, and
guests’ best interest at heart.
The second part of this study was concerned with
comparing the results of our study to previous re-
search findings (Kukanja & Planinc, 2015). In com-
parison to previous research conducted in a coastal
area, our study confirmed the importance of differ-
ent quality dimensions. It can, therefore, be assumed
that domestic guests in restaurants located in a coastal
and rural area have different quality perceptions re-
garding restaurant service quality. The present study
confirms previous findings (Djekic et al., 2016; Kim,
Ng, & Kim, 2009) and contributes additional evidence
which suggests that service quality dimensions cannot
be generalised. The present findings enhance our un-
derstanding of restaurant service quality in rural areas.
The findings of this study have important impli-
cations for future practice and quality development
strategies, as they provide information about service
quality in restaurants operating in a rural area. Once
guests’ quality perceptions are identified, restaurant
managersmust strive to provide quality offerings. The
key policy priority should, therefore, be to implement
a quality management system (e.g., systematic and on-
going analyses of restaurant quality, training and ed-
ucational programmes for restaurant managers and
staff, comparison and exchange of best practices, etc.)
at individual (restaurant’s) and destination (regional)
level.
This study has also found that the cooperation be-
tween scholars (academia) and restaurant providers
(regarding research into restaurant service quality in
rural areas) is generally weak. As restaurants present a
basic and vital element of a destination’s tourism offer,
restaurant service quality should be regularly evalu-
ated. Gastronomy represents a critical element in des-
tination marketing and significantly influence a des-
tination’s image. Therefore, restaurant service quality
should also bemeasured by local marketers and devel-
opers. In terms of quality control, Ohe and Kurihara
(2013) reported the importance of a broader perspec-
tive related to local resource management. Especially
the nurture of local food heritage and the quality of the
partnership between tourism providers and local food
producers found to be extremely important for quality
assurance and economic development at the destina-
tion level.
Despite its contributions, some significant limita-
tions need to be considered. The major limitation of
this study is the absence of foreign guests’ evaluation
of perceived restaurant quality. Another limitation is
the time of research, as it was conducted in only a one-
month period. Therefore, additional caution must be
applied, as the findings might not be completely gen-
eralisable. Notwithstanding these limitations, this re-
search has generated many questions in need of fur-
ther investigation. Future studies should empirically
investigate whether differences exist between differ-
ent segments of guests during different times of the
year (especially during high and low season). A fur-
ther study could also assess restaurant quality in other
neighbouring and competitive rural destinations, such
as Slovene Karst and Brda, Croatian Istria, and the
Italian region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia. Regarding rec-
ommendations for future research, further work could
156 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Marko Kukanja and Tanja Planinc Service Quality in Restaurants
also investigate if differences exist between restaurant
managers’ and guests’ perceptions of service quality.
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Research Note
Event Competitivness in Heritage Tourism
in Rural Croatia
Danijel Drpić
Polytechnic of Rijeka, Croatia
ddrpic@veleri.hr
Elena Rudan
Faculty of Tourism and Hospitality Management Opatija, Croatia
elenar@fthm.hr
In recent few years, Croatia’s rural areas have been developing various forms of
tourism, primarily focused on heritage. Sustainablemanagement of the rich cultural
and historical heritage of Croatian rural areas can stimulate the creation of market
recognition and competitiveness. Among the critical elements of heritage tourism
are the events stemming from the community and its traditions, andwhich represent
that community on the tourism market. Heritage-based events enable the creation
of a unique tourism product that, through heritage elements, enables the promo-
tion of Croatian rural destinations, respecting their characteristics and uniqueness.
Tourism events and programs provide a successful interpretation of heritage ele-
ments, strengthening local identity and creating positive interrelationships between
visitors and hosts. This paper aims to explore and propose possibilities for innova-
tion of heritage-based events in rural areas of Croatia, with analysis of an event held
in Ðakovo: the Ðakovo Embroidery Festival. In order to facilitate the competitive-
ness of Croatian heritage-based cultural events, the paper proposes an event certi-
fication model: the CroRuralisHeritage Awards Certification Model. The paper also
provides guidelines for the creation of heritage-based tourism events as a vital ele-
ment in the realisation of innovative and sustainable tourism services to achieve the
competitiveness of rural Croatian tourism.
Keywords: heritage, events, sustainable development, rural tourism, Croatia,
Ðakovo Embroidery
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.12.161-172
Introduction
Rural areas have many distinctive features that distin-
guish them from other, primarily coastal and urban,
tourist destinations and that are reflected in their focus
on agriculture, unique cultural and historical heritage
and the specificity of gastronomic and oenological of-
ferings. In recent decades, rural areas have become in-
creasingly interesting tourist destinations, not only in
Croatia but also throughout Europe. According to Eu-
rostat data (2017a), rural areas in Croatia occupy 79.1
of the total territory, with 45.9 of its population. Ac-
cording to Demonja (2014), the rural area in Croatia
is determined by the territorial division according to
which small administrative units, municipalities, are
considered as rural areas and cities as urban ones. This
paper explores rural areas of the mainland of Croatia.
In considering tourism development, it is neces-
sary to enable the rural areas to evaluate and protect
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 161
Danijel Drpi and Elena Rudan Event Competitivness in Heritage Tourism in Rural Croatia
tangible and intangible heritage and achieve dynamic
economic development. Local community values need
to be managed sustainably, without disturbing the ex-
isting resource base of the rural area and ensuring
economic and social benefits for all destination stake-
holders (Daniloska & Hadzi Naumova-Mihajlovska,
2015). As an essential stakeholder, the local popula-
tion is generally more prone to tourism development
based on authentic culture, since it is not something
unknown, but rather part of their identity of which
they are, in principle, proud.Of course, sustainable de-
velopment principles must be considered, and exces-
sive and unprofessional refinement of culture must be
avoided (Sedmak, Planinc, Kociper & Planinc, 2015).
Due to the development of modern information tech-
nologies, new guidelines in tourism development con-
siderations and the growing interest of tourists in tra-
ditions, particular forms of events offered by rural ar-
eas are becoming tourists’ interest and motivation for
travelling. In such new and contemporary conditions
of tourism development, it is necessary to enable the
creation of value-added offers, while preserving the
originality of heritage elements as the basis for creat-
ing competitive tourism services in rural areas.
Characteristics of Contemporary Tourism Demand
in Croatian Rural Tourism
Knowledge of the socio-demographic structure of vis-
itors, their motives and habits are the basis for achiev-
ing the competitiveness of rural tourism destinations
(Getz, 2010; Krajičkova & Šauer, 2018). According
to the United Nations World Tourism Organization
(unwto), Europe was the most visited region in the
world in 2016, accounting for about half (49.8) of
the 1.24 billion arrivals of international tourists. The
richness of European cultures, the diversity of its land-
scapes, and the quality of tourism infrastructure are
probably the essential reasons why tourists will visit
Europe in the future. Considering tourist traffic inten-
sity in rural areas, Eurostat (2017b) indicators show
that there are more nights spent in accommodation
facilities in rural areas than in urban centres of the Eu-
ropean Union (European Commission, 2017). Based
on these assumptions, rural tourismmanagement can
successfully create a recognisable tourism product
with significant added value. Added value for stake-
holders ismanifested in the numerous benefits of rural
tourism development (economic, socio-demographic
benefits, greater recognition, strengthening of self-
awareness and identity) and in ensuring a permanent
and sustainable rural development.
The existing tourism demand and supply in Croat-
ian rural areas are not at a satisfactory level. Although
the total number of tourists and overnight stays in
the whole country is rising, rural areas do not show
such intensity of growth and development. In 2016,
there were 15,454,000 guests who realized 77,919,000
overnight stays; 2017 recorded a growth in tourism
demand, with 17,430,000 arrivals, which is 12.8more
than 2016 and 86,200,000 overnight stays or 10.6
more than in 2016. Looking at Croatia through its
three regions (Adriatic, continental and theCity of Za-
greb and Zagreb County), it can be said that the Adri-
atic part realized 14,399,000 arrivals (82.61 of the
total number) and 79,305,000 overnight stays (92 of
the total); Zagreb County had 1,373,000 visitors (7.88
of the total number) and 2,413,000 overnight stays
(2.8 of the total) and continental Croatia 1,658,000
visitors (9.51 of the total) and 4,482,000 overnight
stays (5.20 of total) (Ministry of Tourism, 2018).
Slavonia, Baranja, and Western Syrmia are eco-
nomically less developed areas; they are largely emi-
grated from, and agricultural activity, once the leading
economic activity in this region, faces serious prob-
lems due to various subjective and objective difficul-
ties. The development of tourism in the area would
enable the preservation and development of agricul-
ture, preservation of tradition and local identity, as
well as the creation of a new basis for economic and
social revival. The stated can be achieved by incor-
porating heritage into the tourism product in differ-
ent ways (including events) that would preserve the
original heritage value and create new economic ben-
efits. Since we are considering the rural areas of the
Republic of Croatia, it is necessary to determine the
competitive abilities of rural destinations.
Competitiveness of Rural Tourism Destinations
Although rural areas represent an abundant source of
heritage elements and a rich resource base for the cre-
162 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Danijel Drpi and Elena Rudan Event Competitivness in Heritage Tourism in Rural Croatia
ation of tourismofferings, they are unfortunately often
not recognised as a valuable potential for tourismoffer.
Farming, crafts, traditional crafts, gastro-oenological
offer, churches, traditional buildings and other ele-
ments form a set of heritage motifs that need to be
uniquely presented on the tourism market, without
disturbing their originality and distinctiveness. This is
possible through tourism events. According to Svržn-
jak, Kasntar, Jerčinović, and Kamenjak (2014), rural
tourism is a collective name for the activities and
forms of tourism that develop in rural areas and is
determined by the natural and cultural resources that
are found there. ‘Rural tourism’ is a very broad term
that signifies every tourist activity within a rural area,
encompassing various forms of tourism (rural, eco-
tourism, cultural, rural household tourism, events,
etc.).
Similarly, Kušen (2006) mentions that rural tour-
ism is a complex type of tourism composed of dif-
ferent types of tourism and is defined by the features
and boundaries of rural areas in which it develops.
Dashper (2014) also points to the importance of ru-
ral tourism for rural areas, stating that rural tourism
offers a possible solution to some of the problems asso-
ciated with lost economic opportunities and popula-
tion decline that accompany thewaning of agriculture.
Many governments and regional authorities have em-
braced rural tourism as an opportunity to bring new
money into rural regions, stimulating growth, provid-
ing employment opportunities and thus beginning to
halt rural decline (Smolčić Jurdana, 2015). In Croatia,
rural tourism and the related activities started to be
taken seriously as late as 1996, with the adoption of
the Regulation on the provision of catering services in
rural households, thus establishing a legal framework
for action within the new tourism sector. This was ten
years after the European Council had recognised ru-
ral tourism as a new form of tourism service that took
place in rural areas. The first tourism-oriented rural
households were registered in 1998, when there were
32 (Ružić, 2011), in 2014, there were 447 registered ru-
ral households, while today there are around 500. In
terms of the structure of offerings, almost 80 of them
are excursion sites (offering tasting rooms and visits
to the estate), while only 20 offer accommodation
services (Poslovni.hr, 2018). Although development
over two decades has been noticeable, it is not propor-
tional to the development potential of a country with
a vibrant tourism tradition, almost 80 rural areas ac-
companied by the natural, cultural and environmental
values of such area. The largest number of rural house-
holds is registered in Istria and Dubrovnik-Neretva
County, already the most developed Croatian tourist
regions. In the continental part of Croatia, there is
a lack of accommodation capacities, as well as other
rural-related services.
Tourism product development in a rural area is
possible only by respecting its special features and
by ensuring permanent protection of the resource
base, sustainable development, and quality of offer-
ings. These prerequisites can bemet by creating unique
tourism products: tourism events as the basis for tour-
ism offerings in rural destinations. Their uniqueness
is reflected in their continuous dynamic nature; they
can be permanently improved and changed according
to the needs of the local community and supply and
demand, which is why events represent an ideal form
of tourism product in rural areas.
The Contribution of Events in Developing
Rural Tourism Offer
The scientific literature defines tourism events as an
event, occasion, or case, but there are also synonyms
such as occurrence, incident or experience that indi-
cate different types of events or activities in the area,
especially those more significant and easily mem-
orable (Getz, 2010; Bowdin, Allen, O’Toole, Harris
& McDonnell, 2008; Ivančić, 2015). Tourism events
are among the most critical factors in development
strategies and competitiveness increase in many of
the world’s tourism destinations (Goeldner & Ritchie,
2006; Davidson &Rogers, 2006). Tourism events have
a positive social, economic, and cultural impact on a
potential event visitor (Getz & Page, 2016, p. 54), af-
fecting his/her level of satisfaction. Positive effects of
tourism events are also crucial for the local commu-
nity as they ensure sustainable well-being and growth
of the overall life satisfaction in the destination (growth
of standards, social quality of life, etc.) (Drpić, 2017).
A rural tourism destination is competitive when
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 163
Danijel Drpi and Elena Rudan Event Competitivness in Heritage Tourism in Rural Croatia
it develops its products and services on the tourism
market in a way that ensures tourism consumption
increase and that attracts a larger number of visitors,
providing them with profitable, satisfactory, and un-
forgettable experiences while simultaneously increas-
ing the well-being of the local population and pre-
serving the natural capital of the destination for fu-
ture generations. Gomezelj Omerzel (2006, p. 169)
emphasises that the support of tourism stakeholders
is essential for successful development and sustain-
ability of tourism and could help to improve the des-
tination competitiveness. From the above, it can be
concluded that tourism destination competitiveness
is largely based on sustainable development of basic
resources, strengthening the overall economic per-
formance of the whole community (Crouch & Brent
Ritchie, 2003), and the synergy of all stakeholders.
Destination attractiveness depends primarily on four
elements (Crouch & Brent Ritchie, 1999; Porter, 1990):
core resource base (culture, history, activities, special
events, entertainment and superstructure), supporting
factors (infrastructure, availability, offer, hospitality,
companies), destination management (marketing, fi-
nance, capital, organization, human resource develop-
ment, information/research, quality of services, visitor
management) and qualitative determinants (location,
independence, safety, image, brand, value for money).
From the aforementioned, it can be concluded that
attractiveness influences tourismdestination competi-
tiveness, whose elements destinationmanagement can
successfully present on the tourism market by using
knowledge and skills and by creating tourism events,
thus achieving economic benefits for the destination
(Drpić, 2017; Andersson & Lundberg, 2013, p. 102).
The resource base is the fundamental element of the
competitive ability of the destination, and includes
culture, history and identity of the rural area, which
is conditioned by a variety of historical influences and
can be successfully presented through special events.
Tourism events based on heritage in rural areas
represent a unique tourism product defined by spe-
cific features of the environment and heritage itself.
Heritage is the destination’s distinctive and unique re-
source element whose valorisation ensures increased
competitiveness on the tourism market by offering
a product of high value and recognition. Stipanović,
Rudan, and Peršin (2015) underscore the importance
of heritage-based events in destination branding. The
specific features characterizing heritage-based tourism
events in rural areas are specified by the following:
• events in rural areas are the result of people’s lives
through different historical periods in a given
area;
• events make the local community proud of their
own cultural and historical heritage and stimu-
late its preservation (especially folklore, historical
events, culinary and religious events, etc.);
• heritage-based events must preserve their au-
thenticity;
• events position the rural destination as the desti-
nation of culture and sustainable development;
• events add value to the existing tourism offer of
the rural area;
• events create new tourist experiences that be-
come motives for visiting the destination.
The basic assumption of a rural heritage-based
tourism event is the active involvement of the local
community, which can be achieved by timely infor-
mation and education about the need to preserve and
improve the local tourismofferings, rural areas and the
elements of tangible and non-tangible heritage. The
local community must be involved in every segment
of event planning, organisation, management and de-
velopment, as well as participate in the creation of cor-
rective actions based on feedback from the tourism
market. Heritage-based events represent an element
for creating and promoting the desired identity of ru-
ral destinations and create higher value, which is re-
flected in the local quality of life and the upgrading of
cultural tourism offerings, which in turn contributes
to increased destination competitiveness and satisfac-
tion of all stakeholders.
Figure 1 clearly shows that the prerequisite for
competitive advantage is the sustainable and lasting
synergy between tourism and heritage, which can be
achieved through heritage-based events as the original
and unique elements of rural destinations’ tourism of-
ferings. This is a mutually conditioned process based
on the funnel principle, in which all the positive, as
164 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Danijel Drpi and Elena Rudan Event Competitivness in Heritage Tourism in Rural Croatia
Heritage Tourism
Tourism event
Innovative tourism product
and competitive advantage
Figure 1 Competitiveness of Rural Tourism Destination:
The Funnel Model
well as negative aspects of the observed elements are
permeated and mutually complemented, creating a
new recognisable tourism product by applying mod-
ern knowledge and skills.
Rural destinationmanagementmust pay particular
attention to determining the desired level of heritage
involved in the tourism product and enable the sus-
tainable development of tourism events, which can be
achieved by incorporating international quality stan-
dards or by adopting unique quality standards for
an individual event or destination. Interventions that
might potentially endanger the value and originality of
the tradition need to be prevented. Undesirable influ-
ences are possible already in the process of designing
a tourism event and are wielded by entrepreneurs and
marketing experts in order to achieve greater mar-
ket attractiveness of the product and to realize greater
economic benefits for the destination, creating false
stories and distorted images of the role of tangible and
non-tangible heritage in the life of the local commu-
nity. In tourism event development, innovation is an
essential driving force of evolution, in which systems
adapt to internal changes or changes in the surround-
ing environment. Innovations take place in all areas of
business, societal, cultural, social and private life, thus
becoming a critical factor in economic development
(Uran Maravić, Križaj & Lesjak, 2015, p. 53).
One of the recognisable heritage and tourismevents
in rural Croatia is the Ðakovo Embroidery Festival,
boasting tradition, originality, and contributing to the
economic and social advancement of the commu-
nity for over half a century. For this reason, the au-
thors have explored the visitors’ satisfaction with cer-
tain elements that affect the competitiveness of both
Ðakovo and theÐakovo Embroidery Festival (culture,
history, infrastructure, accessibility, offer, hospitality,
human resources development, information/research,
quality of services, location, safety, image, value for
money, etc.). The aim is to identify the current level
of event recognition and to set guidelines for further
improvement of rural Croatia’s events on the tourism
market.
Ðakovo Embroidery Festival: Tourism Event Based
on Non-Tangible Rural Heritage
Rural areas in Croatia organise several heritage-based
events, but only a small number of them focus on
potential tourists and are integrated into rural des-
tinations’ tourism offers. One of the numerous well-
known and valuable events presenting the cultural and
historical values of Croatia is the Ðakovo Embroidery
festival, an essential event and symbol of the town of
Ðakovo. The first Slavonia and Baranja folklore festi-
val, ‘Ðakovo Embroidery,’ was held on July 1967 as a
specific cultural tourism event marking the Interna-
tional Tourist Year.
In 2016, the festival celebrated its 50th anniver-
sary.1 It includes many attractive events, including
the ceremonial procession of all the participants, the
opening and closing ceremonies, equestrian competi-
tions, parade of the horse-drawn carts, gastronomic
and musical programmes, and others. This festival
was created and remained on the exceptionally strong
foundations of folk heritage in Ðakovo, for many rea-
sons one of the most important centres of Croatian
folklore. One of the symbols of Ðakovo Embroidery,
Ljelje (the Procession of Queens), has been inscribed
on the World Heritage List. Every spring on Pente-
cost, Ljelje/Queens from Gorjani move in a proces-
sion from house to house, performing a ritual com-
posed of special songs and dances with sabres (Min-
1 According to the estimates in the Cultural Strategy of the
City of Ðakovo, Ðakovo Embroidery gathers more than five
thousand participants from all over Croatia, but also from
abroad, and visitors can enjoy the beauty of folk customs,
costumes, songs, dance, handicrafts, gastronomic specialties
(Ðakovo Tourist Board, personal communication, 2018).
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 165
Danijel Drpi and Elena Rudan Event Competitivness in Heritage Tourism in Rural Croatia
Table 1 Number of Arrivals and Overnight Stays
in Ðakovo 2010–2017
Year Whole year Ðakovo
Embroidery
Festival
Ðakovo
Embroidery
share ()
() () () () () ()
 , , ,  . .
 , , ,  . .
 , , ,  . .
 , , ,  . .
 , , ,  . .
 , , , , . .
 , , , , . .
 , , , , . .
Total , , , , . .
Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) overnight stays,
(2) arrivals. Based on data from Ðakovo Tourist Board (per-
sonal communication, 2018).
istry of Culture, 2018a). Another essential part of the
festival is ‘bećarac’ – a vocal or vocal-instrumental
song popular in Slavonia, Baranja and Syrmia, usually
sung at weddings and other joyous occasions (Min-
istry of Culture, 2018b). Every year, Ðakovo Embroi-
dery also presents the cultural heritage from the Croa-
tian diaspora; mostly Bosnia and Herzegovina, but
also Australia and New Zealand, the United States,
andCanada.Occasionally, folklore societies fromGer-
many, Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia,
and New Zealand are also present, making Ðakovo
Embroidery an international event, increasing mar-
ket recognition of Ðakovo, Slavonia and the Repub-
lic of Croatia on the global tourism market. Positive
impressions left on participants from abroad repre-
sent free advertising and word-of-mouth recommen-
dations based on the non-tangible heritage of the Re-
public of Croatia.
ÐakovoEmbroidery has a significant impact on the
overall tourism promotion of the area, which is also
visible in the increased number of visitors to Ðakovo
during the event. According to Ðakovo Tourist Board
(personal communication, 2018), the number of festi-
val visitors has been continuously increasing from2015
Table 2 Number of Participants and Visitors to Ðakovo
Embroidery Festival
Year Participants Est. no. of
visitors
Increase/decrease
() ()
 , , – –
* , , +. +.
 , , –. +.
Total , , – –
Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) participants, (2)
overnight stays. Based on data from Ðakovo Tourist Board
(personal communication, 2018).
to 2017. In the observed period, the number of visitors
to the event is estimated at 290,000 (see Table 1).
In the observed period, the number ofÐakovo Em-
broidery Festival participants differs only slightly, with
the largest number recorded at the Festival’s 50th an-
niversary, when 3,336 participants attended the event.
At the time of the event, the number of visitors, as
well as overnight stays, increases with minor fluctu-
ations. In 2010, there were 1,063 overnight stays and
567 arrivals, while 2017 recorded 4,137 overnight stays
and 2,040 arrivals, representing a 289,18 increase of
the number of overnight stays and 259,79 increase
of the number of visitors. The number of arrivals in
2017 makes up for 21.20 of the total number of ar-
rivals, and 22.76 of the total number of overnight
stays, which makes a significant increase compared to
2010 when the ratios were 15.41 and 16.59, respec-
tively (see Table 2).
Methodology
The authors conducted empirical research with pri-
mary data in which they used a structured question-
naire, translated and offered in the Croatian and En-
glish languages, to the participants who attended the
event and who voluntarily agreed to participate in the
research when asked. No difficulties occurred dur-
ing the data gathering procedure. The questionnaire
consisted of six parts; the first determining the socio-
demographic characteristics of the respondents, fol-
lowed by determining the motive of arrival to the des-
tination and the event; the means of informing prior
to the arrival to the destination; the way of arrival to
166 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Danijel Drpi and Elena Rudan Event Competitivness in Heritage Tourism in Rural Croatia
the destination, and the level of satisfaction with the
elements of the offer, which was determined using a
Likert scale. The questionswere prepared according to
the methodologies of previously undertaken research
studies such as tomas (Institute for Tourism, 2008;
2018), Guidelines: Survey Procedures for Tourism Eco-
nomic Impact Assessment of Gated Events and Festivals
(Research Resolutions & Consulting, 2007), and Getz
(2010) in order to determine the necessity to know the
socio-demographic characteristics of visitors as the
basic element for creating a successful event. Themain
goal is to investigate the importance of satisfaction of
the Ðakovo Embroidery visitors and to determine the
characteristics of the users of the Ðakovo Embroidery
service, in order to develop guidelines for further im-
provement of the tourism offerings and, consequently,
a more competitive position of the city of Ðakovo on
the tourism market (Drpić, 2017). The collected re-
search results were processed using spss 2.0, Arith-
metic Mean and Standard Deviation, and Pearson’s
Coefficient of Correlation.
Results
DuringÐakovo Embroidery 2016, a random sample of
57 respondents was surveyed,2 of which women made
up 52.6 and men 47.4. The average age of visitors
is 39.11 years. As far as their educational structure is
concerned, 36.8 of the respondents have a secondary
education, 57.9 higher education and 5.3 of the re-
spondents have a doctoral degree. In terms of the re-
spondents’ country of permanent residence, most are
from Croatia (36.8), Slovenia (31.6), and Germany
(15.8).
More than half of the respondents were visiting the
Ðakovo Embroidery festival for the first time (63.2),
but there is also a significant proportion of those who
visited the event several times (15.8 twice, 15.8 five
times and 5.3 six times). It can be concluded that a
quarter of the respondents are regular visitors to the
event. The respondents mostly used hotel accommo-
dation (42.1), private accommodation (31.6), and
friends or acquaintances (26.3). Almost all the re-
2 The results of the research were published as part of the PhD
thesis (Drpic, 2017).
spondents came to the festival individually (84.2),
spending between one and two days in the destination.
Cultural heritage is the primary motive for com-
ing to the city of Ðakovo (36.8), while the primary
motives for visiting Ðakovo Embroidery are acquain-
tances’ recommendation (36.8) and the image of the
tourism event (21.1). Most of the respondents be-
come informed about the Ðakovo Embroidery festival
via the internet (42.1) and television (31.6). This
fact underscores the importance of modern informa-
tion technology in the promotion of destinations and
events, as well as pre-sale and post-sales activities, es-
pecially since the Ðakovo Embroidery festival does
not have an official website. Visitor consumption is
an essential element in assessing the success of the
event and its competitiveness, and inmaking decisions
about event improvement. The results of the survey
show relatively low visitor consumption in Ðakovo.
During their stay, the visitors intend to spend €195.26
of which the largest share is dedicated to transport, ac-
commodation, and food. Interestingly enough, a sig-
nificant part of the funds is spent on cultural contents
(13.88), i.e. €27.11, of which €14.47 are to be spent at
the event itself (53.37 of the amount to be spent on
culture and 7.41 of the total).
In order to make the right decisions for improving
the existing tourism offer, destination management
needs to be aware of the level of satisfaction with indi-
vidual elements of the offerings and increase competi-
tiveness on the tourism market by removing the weak
points. The respondents evaluated each event element
with scores from 1 to 5, with –1 being ‘very dissatisfied’
and 5 ‘very satisfied.’
Table 3 shows that content recognition and quality
are an essential element of event success. The respon-
dents showed the highest level of satisfaction with in-
terpretation quality of event participants/moderators
– presenters, with a mean value 4.42, followed by at-
tractiveness of the event with amean value of 4.26. The
lowest level of satisfaction refers to information avail-
ability, for which the arithmetic mean of 2.21 indicates
the need for a more active use of marketing and mod-
ern information technology. The respondents show a
high level of satisfaction (3.53) with the image of the
destination.
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 167
Danijel Drpi and Elena Rudan Event Competitivness in Heritage Tourism in Rural Croatia
Table 3 Level of Satisfaction with Individual Elements of Ðakovo Embroidery
Group Elements () () ()
Content
recognition
and quality
Recognition/image (prior to arrival) . . .
Information availability . . .
Quality of information/marketing materials . . .
Event organisation quality . . .
Event authenticity . . .
Attractiveness . . .
Interpretation quality of event participants/moderators – presenters . . .
Total . . .
Infrastructure Traffic accessibility . . .
Safety . . .
Cleanliness of attraction site . . .
Cleanliness of sanitary facilities . . .
Diversity of side events . . .
Total . . .
Staff, pricing,
amenities
Opening hours of catering and hotel facilities . . .
Prices of beverages or side products . . .
Souvenirs . . .
Staff friendliness . . .
Staff knowledge and expertise . . .
Value for money . . .
Total . . .
Overall satisfaction level . . .
Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) average satisfaction score, (2) standard deviation, (3) correlation coefficient.
Another highly rated element is the attractive-
ness of the event (4.26), suggesting that a varied pro-
gramme, especially if based on original heritage, can
result in high visitor satisfaction. The respondents
are also very satisfied with event authenticity (4.11)
and event organisation quality (4.00). Mean deviation
from the average level of satisfaction with the recog-
nition and quality of the Ðakovo Embroidery festival
is 0.71. Variability of visitor satisfaction with content
recognition and quality is relatively low.
When it comes to infrastructure, the respondents
show the highest level of satisfactionwith safety (4.79).
The respondents are generally very satisfied with Ða-
kovo infrastructure (3.73). It should be noted that the
cleanliness of the attraction site (4.16), the cleanli-
ness of sanitary facilities (3.42) and traffic accessibility
(4.37) are all highly rated. The lowest level of satisfac-
tion refers to the diversity of side events, with a mean
value as low as 1.89.
Mean deviation from the average level of satisfac-
tion with the staff, pricing and amenities is 0.49. The
variability of visitor satisfaction with infrastructure is
relatively low. The highest level of satisfaction (3.95)
is with prices of beverages and side products. The
lowest level of satisfaction refers to souvenirs (2.47),
indicating the current lack of original souvenirs in
the tourism offering and the need to design and of-
fer them. The visitors are mostly satisfied (2.58) with
the opening hours of catering and hotel facilities. This
indicates that destination management, in agreement
168 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Danijel Drpi and Elena Rudan Event Competitivness in Heritage Tourism in Rural Croatia
with the local authorities, needs to change the current
opening hours of catering facilities. The visitors are
satisfied with value for money (3.68) and staff friend-
liness (3.53). Although the respondents are satisfied
with staff quality, it is not at a satisfactory level given
that staff knowledge and expertise are rated 3.11, in-
dicating the need for further investment in education
and quality of human resources in the destination. The
mean deviation from the average level of satisfaction
with the infrastructure of Ðakovo Embroidery is 1.02,
while the variability of visitor satisfaction with staff,
pricing, and amenities is relatively low. The overall
level of satisfaction with the event is high, with arith-
metic mean 3.53. It can be concluded that 52.6 of all
surveyed respondents are very satisfied with their visit
toÐakovoEmbroidery,while 47.4 are satisfied.Mean
deviation from the average level of overall satisfaction
with the event is 0.51, and variability of overall visitor
satisfaction with the event, in general, is relatively low.
The development and long-term sustainability of ru-
ral heritage-based tourism event can only be ensured
if there are clear standards andmeasures for achieving
a competitive and recognisable rural tourism range of
tourism offerings.
Opportunities for Event Development –
The Example of Ðakovo Embroidery
In order to ensure a sustainable competitive position
on the market characterised by constant changes, new
forms of tourism demand, and an abundance of com-
petitors, rural tourism destinations need to design a
model for evaluating the quality of contents and ele-
ments of rural heritage-based tourism events.
The process of creating a heritage-based tourism
event is complex and demanding and requires a va-
riety of knowledge and skills from destination man-
agement, as well as modern technology solutions such
as interactive web sites, applications, virtual tours of
Ðakovo and Ðakovo Embroidery, etc.
In addition, it is necessary to ensure a permanent
and consistent quality of planning, organisation, im-
plementation, information and monitoring, as well as
corrective activities. Unfortunately, there is no sta-
tistical monitoring of the number of event visitors,
which prevents the creation of appropriate develop-
ment plans and strategies. Event development could be
steered by international or national quality standards,
such as iso 20121 for sustainable event management,
designed in 2012 at the time of the Olympic Games
in London, and applied during the Eurovision Song
Contest in Stockholm, achieving enviable results in
sustainability management, especially in reducing the
use of hazardous waste materials, energy consump-
tion, and exhaust gases. By using only biodegradable
materials for beverages, the organizers prevented the
creation of two tons of waste, while energy saving was
achieved by using special water heating systems and
encouraging the use of local food (see https://www
.iso.org/iso-20121-sustainable-events.html).
In addition to international iso standards, it is
possible to design internal or national standards that
aremore closely tailored to the needs of the local com-
munity and the local tourism market. One example
of a possible standardisation system in Croatia pre-
sented in this paper is the CroRuralisHeritage pro-
gram. The basic purpose of certification is to achieve
greater transparency and added value for all stake-
holders in the Ðakovo destination, but it must be sub-
ject to permanent improvements using feedback sys-
tems and modern information technologies. Value as-
sessment of the Ðakovo Embroidery festival would be
performed by evaluating the three groups of parame-
ters on which Ðakovo Embroidery is based: heritage
(tangible and intangible), event (Ðakovo Embroidery)
and rural destination (Ðakovo). See Table 4.
The certification committee could include:
• Representatives of the Ðakovo Tourist Board
• Representatives of the Ðakovo city
• Representatives of cultural workers
• Representatives of tourism workers
• Representatives of scientists and professionals
• Local community – participation in public dis-
cussion of the assessment results
Each representative could award points that would
affect the final result at a predetermined rate, with the
aimof preventing individual preferences and bias.One
essential element for event certification of the Ðakovo
Embroidery festival is its influence on the sustain-
able destination development of Ðakovo, as well as
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 169
Danijel Drpi and Elena Rudan Event Competitivness in Heritage Tourism in Rural Croatia
Table 4 Ðakovo Embroidery certification parameters
Heritage (30) Event (30) Rural destination (40)
Heritage preservation.
Effects of previous reconstructions.
Heritage repurpose possibility.
Adopted destination strategy for
sustainable heritage management.
Economic performance of heritage.
Economic sustainability of the event.
Implementation of international and
national quality standards
Environmental responsibility (res,
green perspectives . . .).
Development opportunities
infrastructure.
Attitudes of the local community.
Tourism event harmonization with
local development strategies and the
existing tourism product.
Application Assessment Corrective action Decision
Assessment of tourism event Assessment of compatibility
between the actual situation
during the event and the time
of the registration
Suggestions for corrective
actions accepted by the
organizer and carried out
during the evaluation process
The certificate is granted
for a limited period; after
re-certification it becomes
permanent
Figure 2 Application process for CroRuralisHeritage certification
the sustainable management of tangible and intangi-
ble heritage in the overall micro and macro environ-
ment. The purpose of event assessment by the certi-
fication board is to determine the weak links in the
chain in order to remove them, and to emphasise the
strong links as the basis for the creation of competi-
tive advantage. The CroRuralisHeritage certification
process is conceived as a national system for evalu-
ating heritage-based tourism events held in Croatian
rural areas, facilitating the promotion on the tourism
market through CroRuralisHeritage brand. The pro-
cess of obtaining a certificate is conceived as a several
months-long process that would begin no later than
six months prior to the event. A heritage-based event
would be applied by either the event organizer or a
target group within the destination.
The assessment of comparability between the ap-
plication and the actual situation would be carried out
by an assessment team that would, based on the dis-
crepancies noted, draw up a list of corrective actions
that the organizer would have to conduct before the
end of the current event. After the proposed correc-
tions are implemented, the organiser invites the eval-
uators to carry out the final evaluation of the event and
make the decision about awarding the CroRuralisHer-
itage certificate. The certificate is awarded for one year,
followed by a re-evaluation process. A re-awarded cer-
tificate is considered permanent and can only be de-
nied in case of breaching of the basic principles of cer-
tification (i.e., violation of heritage authenticity, the
rural area, and the general resource base) (Figure 2).
Conclusion
Although comprising a significant part of the Croa-
tian territory, rural areas are not sufficiently recog-
nized and included in the tourism offerings; most of
the tourist traffic continues to take place in seaside
destination and resorts.
Culture and heritage represent essential elements
in preserving the tradition and strengthening local
identity as a prerequisite for creating a permanently
successful heritage-based tourism event and guaran-
teeing its sustainability on the market. Considering
that the rural area is rich in heritage and has a pre-
served resource base, it is an ideal area for improving
the existing tourism offer of the Republic of Croatia.
This paper presents the Ðakovo Embroidery festival
as a tourism event model whose success and longevity
are based on heritage and which represents an essen-
tial factor in the preservation of heritage, especially its
most vulnerable aspect: intangible heritage.
The limitation of this research lies in its small
170 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Danijel Drpi and Elena Rudan Event Competitivness in Heritage Tourism in Rural Croatia
number of respondents, and further research should
be directed to other destination stakeholders, such
as local population, participants, and management.
The research should be repeated in a reasonable pe-
riod on a larger statistical sample. Research accuracy
would be improved by the organisers’ more precise
statistical tracking of number of visitors, since it is
now only based on estimation. The authors, there-
fore, suggest implementation of possibly on-line or
application-based registration of visitors before they
come to the event. The research has pointed to the im-
portance of using modern means of communicating
with the market through websites, social networks,
Q bar codes, smartphone app development, and the
like. The Ðakovo Embroidery Festival is only present
on Facebook, and does not have its own web site or
mobile app, which makes it challenging to achieve a
sufficient level of presence in the media of the event
itself, thereby disrupting its actual developmental and
competitive potential on the market. This is also per-
ceived as one of the significant shortcomings of the
event.
The implementation of the proposed certification
program CroRuralisHeritage would enhance rural
tourism destination recognition, the creation of added
value of the overall tourism product and long-term
sustainability of the destination, heritage and tourism
events. The process of designing a heritage-based tour-
ismproductmust be based on feedback from the target
market and the local community, allowing the desti-
nation management to take timely corrective action
in order achieve sustainable management of the rural
heritage-based tourism event.
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172 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Research Note
The Distinctiveness of Rural Tourism Marketing
Practices: The Case Study of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Merima Činjarević
University of Sarajevo, School of Economics and Business, Bosnia and Herzegovina
merima.cinjarevic@efsa.unsa.ba
Almir Peštek
University of Sarajevo, School of Economics and Business, Bosnia and Herzegovina
almir.pestek@efsa.unsa.ba
Sanja Tufo
University of Sarajevo, School of Economics and Business, Bosnia and Herzegovina
sanjatufo@hotmail.com
This paper seeks to explore the distinctiveness of marketing practices of small rural-
based businesses in the context of a so-called laggard economy in South-Eastern
Europe (see) economy: Bosnia and Herzegovina. Since this study is exploratory,
we employed a qualitative methodology using the multiple-case study and semi-
structured interviews.We collected nine cases of small rural-based tourism business
and conducted interviewswith their owners. The data analysis is guided by the inter-
pretive research paradigm. The results show that the majority of small rural-based
tourism businesses are engaged in marketing activities, and they seem to have an
entrepreneurial and professional attitude toward marketing actions. Moreover, the
majority of small rural-based tourism business follows the so-called zoning model
promoting the outstanding natural beauty and integrity to visitors. Based on the crit-
ical concepts identified during the coding process in the analysis, we extracted the
following themes: product variety, the authenticity of experience, marketing capa-
bilities, and business challenges. This study deepens our understanding of market-
ing activities of small tourism business in rural areas. Moreover, it provides valuable
information to policy-makers to design and implement policies/programmes that
foster the growth of these types of businesses.
Keywords: rural areas, marketing, tourism development, small tourism business
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.12.173-184
Introduction
In recent decades, tourism activity has increased tre-
mendously in many rural areas. Rural tourism is de-
veloping rapidly due to the growing need of the urban
population to escape from every-day life and to con-
nect with nature and traditional lifestyles (Pato &Kas-
tenholz, 2017). Rural tourism attracts new residents,
tourists, and entrepreneurs, and, thus, it is considered
to be the instrument of revitalisation and development
of the life and work in rural areas (Findlay, Short, &
Stockdale, 2000). Despite the increasing importance
of the rural tourism, there is a paucity of research into
the marketing practices of small rural-based tourism
businesses (Ateljevic & Doorne, 2004; Pato & Kasten-
holz, 2017; Siemens, 2007). More research is needed as
the majority of the rural-based tourism businesses is
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 173
Merima Činjarevi et al. The Distinctiveness of Rural Tourism Marketing Practices
small-scale and has been owned by individuals with
little marketing knowledge and skills (Siemens, 2007).
The lack of marketing knowledge and skills impacts
the small rural-based businesses in a variety of ways,
ranging from every-day operations to access to financ-
ing, and enhances the risk of business failure.
The present study contributes to the tourism litera-
ture by providing the insight into marketing practices
of small rural-based tourism businesses in the con-
text of the so-called laggard economy in the South-
Eastern Europe (see) economy: Bosnia and Herze-
govina. Notwithstanding the success in studying small
rural-based tourism business in many Western Euro-
pean societies, researchers have paid less attention to
the cases of see countries, which mostly have differ-
ent political, economic, and social contexts that are
very important for business success. Bearing this in
mind and respecting the characteristics of the frag-
ile environment of laggard see economies (e.g., weak
policies and institutions with the lack of capacity to
support small tourism businesses), this study aims to
verify and expand existing theories and frameworks
pertaining to marketing practices of small rural-based
tourism business beyond the Western context. Due
to complex administrative structures at national, re-
gional, canton, and municipal levels, there is no in-
tegrative framework that supports systemic advance-
ment, education and improvement of the tourism in-
dustry in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Shultz, Peštek, &
Geroulis, 2015). As a result, Bosnia and Herzegovina
belongs to the lower group of countries (ranked 105
out of 140), according to the Travel & Tourism Com-
petitiveness Report 2019 (TheWorld Economic Forum,
2019). Furthermore, the current policies and practices
in the tourism sector are inefficient, and there is a lack
of holistic tourism planning across national, regional,
canton, andmunicipal levels (Shultz et al., 2015). These
predisposing factors harm the performance of tourism
businesses, particularly small businesses located in
the rural area, which offers many opportunities for
further investigation (though perhaps more state-ori-
ented).
Moreover, the present study identifies critical chal-
lenges of small rural-based tourism business and, the-
reby, provides valuable information to policy-makers
to create and implement policies/programmes that
foster the growth of these types of businesses. Con-
sidering the importance of marketing in rural tourism
and given the lack of studies on this topic, the main
research questions of this study are: How do small
rural-based tourism businesses implement marketing
concept? What are the main business challenges faced
by small rural-based tourism businesses?
Rural Tourism and Small Tourism Businesses
The concept of rural tourism has different meanings
for different regions, regional and international or-
ganisations (e.g., unwto, oecd, eu) as well as in-
dividual scholars. unwto, for example, defines ru-
ral tourism as tourism product ‘that gives visitors a
personalized contact, a taste of human-environment
of countryside and, as far as possible, allow them to
participate in activities, tradition and lifestyles of lo-
cal people’ (Nair, Munikrishnan, Rajaratnam, & King,
2014, p. 317). Similarly, Nagaraju and Chandrashekara
(2014, p. 42) described rural tourism as ‘any form of
tourism that showcases the rural life, art, culture and
heritage at rural locations.’ The academic literature
presents rural tourism as an umbrella concept encom-
passing different niche types of tourism such as agri-
tourism, cultural tourism, nature tourism, adventure
tourism, and ecotourism (e.g., Pröbstl-Haider, Melzer,
& Jiricka, 2014; Silva & Leal, 2015). Bearing in mind
that rural tourism creates positive economic, social,
and environmental impacts on the local communities,
it is perceived to be a crucial instrument for the revi-
talisation of rural areas (Silva & Leal, 2015).
Rural tourism is a complex phenomenon char-
acterised by following features: (1) located in rural
areas; (2) functionally rural, i.e., built upon the ser-
vices/activities offered by small-scale enterprises; (3)
direct contact with nature and heritage; (4) tourist ex-
perience co-creation as it allows the participation in
the activities, traditions and lifestyles of local people;
(5) provides personalised contact; (6) rural in scale –
both in terms of buildings and settlements; (7) tradi-
tional in its nature, growing slowly and organically; (8)
represents the complex pattern of the rural environ-
ment’s, economy, history and location; (9) generates
a high percentage of tourism revenue, and, thereby,
174 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Merima Činjarevi et al. The Distinctiveness of Rural Tourism Marketing Practices
contributed to the well-being of rural community
(Roberts and Hall, 2001, p. 16).
To capture multiple facets of rural tourism, the
concept of integrated rural tourism has been proposed
(Saxena, Clark, Oliver, & Ilbery, 2007). The concept of
integrated rural tourism suggests that the promotion
of rural tourism development ought to be based on
‘strengths of local rural resources – cultural, histori-
cal, landscape-based – and the interplay between local
actors and networks of exchange in order to improve
the competitiveness of the rural destination’ (Saxena
& Ilbery, 2010, p. 260). Bearing in mind the com-
plex nature of rural tourism, for the purpose of this
study we opted for the broad definition proposed by
Komppula (2007): ‘rural tourism typically refers to
tourism outside densely populated areas and tourism
centres’ (p. 123) Given the largely rural nature of terri-
tory in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the fact the more
than half of country’s population is involved in agri-
culture and rural-based activities (Alterural, 2009),
such a broad definition allows us to include almost all
tourism activity within the rural areas.
Rural tourism creates an opportunity for small-
scale and family-owned businesses. Although the liter-
ature offers a plethora of discussion about what consti-
tutes a small business andwhat denominators ought to
be employed, there is no general consensus about this
issue. Typically, scholars tend to define small tourism
businesses based upon the quantitative indicators such
as the number of employees, room or beds (Skokic &
Morrison, 2011). In this study, we opted for a defini-
tion devised by the European Commission in 1996,
which is widely accepted among scholars and practi-
tioners. According to this definition, small businesses
are firms that employ less than 50 employees. In a rural
area, the tourism industry is mostly composed of such
small businesses, indicating that these businesses have
a pivotal role in the development of rural tourism and
rural economy.
Rural TourismMarketing and Small Tourism
Businesses
Rural tourism marketing can be described as a ‘plat-
form for defining business strategies and objectives
and the development of offerings that deliver unique
experiences to consumers and generate profit for ru-
ral tourism destinations’ (Mihailovic & Moric, 2012,
p. 267). As Saxena (2016) argues, it is a ‘complex phe-
nomenon that explains how rurality is experienced
and shaped by rural tourism actors and a wide array
of socio-cultural, political and material processes and
practices’ (Saxena, 2016, p. 4). Hence, marketing plays
a significant role at every stage of the travel decision-
making process and drives a potential visitor along
the marketing funnel (i.e., attention-interest-desire-
action). Although the role of rural marketing has been
acknowledged, there is a paucity of research on how
a marketing concept manifests itself through prac-
tices employed by small rural-based tourism busi-
nesses (Pato & Kastenholz, 2017). The existing ru-
ral tourism marketing literature suggests that small
rural-based businesses are aware of the importance of
market-oriented culture (information capture, infor-
mation dissemination, and the response to market)
and that the adoption of market-orientated culture
among them has two specific characteristics (Polo-
Peña, Frías-Jamilena, & Rodrígues-Molina, 2012): (1)
small rural-based businesses tend to use informal
mechanisms for capturing and disseminating market
information within the business; (2) small rural-based
businesses are characterised by a high level of involve-
ment with, and commitment to, the business on the
part of the owner/manager (Polo-Peña et al., 2012).
Drawing on the ‘practice turn’ in marketing, Pato
& Kastenholz (2017) argue that marketing activities
and practices differ among small rural-based busi-
nesses. By analysing the way how small rural-based
businesses interpret the marketing process and the
degree of their engagement across different marketing
practices, Pato & Kastenholz (2017) identified the four
clusters of small rural-based business: ‘passive-inward
oriented businesses,’ ‘poorly active businesses,’ ‘mod-
erately active businesses,’ and ‘active-market-oriented
businesses.’ While passive-inward oriented businesses
tend to follow a resource-driven approach or inside-
out perspective, active-market oriented businesses
successfully compete on their ability to balance the
sense market trends ahead of its competitors (market-
driven approach or outside-in perspective) and their
internal resources (resource-driven approach or inside-
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 175
Merima Činjarevi et al. The Distinctiveness of Rural Tourism Marketing Practices
out perspective). Furthermore, Pato & Kastenholz
(2017) provided support for the view that marketing
concept (here meaning engaging in strategic and op-
erativemarketing activities) is at the core of the success
of small rural-based businesses.
The successful implementation of rural tourism
marketing is not straightforward. Small rural-based
tourism businesses are facing a plethora of challenges
within the areas of marketing, operation, and infras-
tructure (Siemens, 2007). The existing literature sug-
gests that internal factors (e.g., expertise and manage-
ment skills, financial resources) and external factors
(e.g., networks and environmental dynamism con-
ditions) are also of great importance for the success
of small rural-based businesses (Irvine & Anderson,
2004). The challenges that arise from the lack of in-
ternal resources can be overcome through formal and
informal networking in the tourism industry. As sug-
gested by Saxena & Ilbery (2008), the creation of em-
powering networks helps small rural-based businesses
to realise the network advantage, by aggregating and
creating new knowledge and building capacity. In
terms of limited access to financial resources and lack
ofmarketing expertise, it is necessary to establish pub-
lic sector support as well as to design and implement
adequate infrastructure policy (Ateljevic, 2009).
Methodology
Given the exploratory nature of this study, a quali-
tative methodology was applied to provide answers
to research questions. We opted for semi-structured
interviews as they offer flexibility in qualitative in-
quiries (Flick, 2009). More precisely, semi-structured
interviews are open discussions between interviewers
and interviewees about predefined themes with the
possibility of adding or excluding themes from the
interview scenario as interview proceeds. The inter-
views started with a brief explanation of the purpose
of this research and the general description of the en-
terprise(s) owned by interviewees. The main part of
interviews was organised around discussion themes
related to the scope and variety of services/activities
offered, marketing activities they carried out, collabo-
ration and networking with other tourism businesses,
perceived challenges facing their business, and plans.
At the end of interviews, interviewees had the oppor-
tunity to add theme(s) that they considered relevant
but which had not been covered during the inter-
view. The interviewswere carried out atmultiple-sites,
i.e., at interviewees’ businesses at a time convenient
to them. A list of 64 small based-tourism businesses
was obtained from Alterural, a non-profit association
dedicated to the promotion and professionalisation
of rural tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and it
served as the sampling frame for this study. The pur-
poseful sampling was used for the selection of small
rural-based tourism businesses that meet the follow-
ing criteria: (1) operating in the rural area; (2) being in
business at least three years; (3) having less than 50 em-
ployees.Overall, nine semi-structured interviewswere
conducted during two months (June and July 2018),
and each interview lasted from two to three hours. The
interviews were transcribed first, and then the content
was analysed. Each interview was coded using Arabic
numbers (Table 1), and all quotes presented in the fol-
lowing text are linked with the code number. A brief
description of selected cases helps us to understand
the setting in which the small rural-based businesses
operate.
Bogdan and Biklen (2003) define the qualitative
data analysis as ‘working with the data, organising
them, breaking them into manageable units, coding
them, synthesising them, and searching for patterns.’
Thus, in the present study, we followed the standard
format of qualitative data analysis (identifying, coding,
and categorising themes). First, raw data from inter-
views were broken down into fragments in order to
analyse, conceptualise, and develop concepts. In the
second step, relationships between concepts are iden-
tified in order to group them into themes. Based on the
key concepts identified during the coding process in
the analysis, we extracted the following themes: prod-
uct variety, the authenticity of experience, marketing
capabilities, and business challenges.
Results and Discussion
In the following section, we will outline the major
themes and sub-themes that emerged from the data. In
the first step of our data analysis, we compared the raw
data, i.e., the content of each interview and identified
176 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Merima Činjarevi et al. The Distinctiveness of Rural Tourism Marketing Practices
Table 1 Description of Cases and Interviewees
Case code/business characteristics
1 A family-owned business established in 2011. It offers accommodation in apartments decorated in line with Bosnian
tradition, restaurant services, organisation of events (birthday parties, team building, business lunches), as well as
outdoor activities (horse riding lessons for children and adults, riding for experienced riders, traditional games like
bag racing and rope pulling).
2 A family-owned business established in 2009 and located in the rural area known by its beautiful nature (water
branches, cascades and waterfalls). It offers accommodation, food and drink services, a variety of outdoor activities.
Moreover, this establishment is engaged in the organic production of fruits and vegetables.
3 A family-owned business founded in 2015. Accommodation capacity includes 75 beds in luxury apartments and cot-
tages. In addition to the food and drink services, visitors have the opportunity to enjoy outdoor activities such as raft-
ing, hiking, biking and photo safari with jeeps.
4 A family-owned business founded in 2016 and located in the mountain area. It offers catering services, and the menu
is based on Bosnian specialities prepared by the wife of the owner. Currently, this establishment does not offer accom-
modation services.
5 A family-owned business founded in 2015 and located in a rural area. It offers accommodation, food and drink ser-
vices as well as outdoor activities such as football and beach volleyball, trails, horseback riding.
6 A family-owned business that provides accommodation in apartments with four or six beds. Also, it has a restaurant
with 70 indoor seats and an outdoor garden with a capacity of 200 seats.
7 A family-owned business established in 2008. It provides accommodation in a family house located in the traditional-
style garden. Visitors can enjoy dishes prepared according to traditional recipes.
8 A family-owned business that offers accommodation, food and drink services. Also, owners are growing fruits and
vegetables and raising livestock in smallholder (cows and sheep).
9 A family-owned business established in 2010. It offers accommodation, food and drink services. Also, the establish-
ment has its own production of organic food.
the most frequent terms appearing across interviews.
In the second step, we identified key concepts and syn-
thesised them into sub-themes and themes (Table 2).
Personal commitment of owners. The cases studied
are family-owned and family-run businesses. They are
mostly founder-led enterprises characterised by en-
trepreneurial orientation (innovativeness, proactive-
ness, and propensity for taking the risk), and long-
term vision. Inspiring leadership is another distinc-
tive characteristic of the enterprises studied. More-
over, they are nourishing a sense of community – the
enterprise is not an isolated entity that pursues only
profit maximisation but instead, it is a member of a
community that contributes to the well-being of local
residents. One of the owners of enterprises stated:
The key to the success of our business is love,
courage and sacrifice for what we do. The ded-
ication of the whole family to our business
throughout the day. New facilities are needed
to keep tourists longer, but also to extend the
season. [Case 6]
Despite the limited access to external financing
sources, the enterprises studied are aware of the im-
portance of investments. Hence, they seek to provide
investments, no matter how difficult it is.
In the coming years, we plan to renovate the
mill, where flour will be milled. Also, we have
plans regarding the construction of a children’s
ski lift, the expansion of accommodation facil-
ities and the introduction of new facilities such
as the small souvenir shop. [Case 7]
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 177
Merima Činjarevi et al. The Distinctiveness of Rural Tourism Marketing Practices
Table 2 Summary of Case Insights: Cross-Case Presentation
Emerged themes Emerged sub-themes
Personal commitment
of owners
Family, long-term vision, passion, love, courage, dedication, planning, risk-taking, innovative-
ness, development, investments
Product variety Accommodation, food, horse riding, hiking, rafting, trails, organic production, event organising
Authentic experience Traditional food, cultural heritage, local people, uniqueness, servicescape, tourist experience
co-creation
Marketing capabilities customer-linking capability. market-sensing capability, channel- bonding capability, internal
marketing capabilities (product, price, promotion and place (distribution)
Business challenges Seasonality, public infrastructure, tourism infrastructure, lack of common legislative framework
in the area of rural tourism, limited access to financing
This finding is in line with the view that essential
characteristics and drivers of success amongst small
rural-based businesses are the owner’s energy and per-
sonal commitment to goals (Zapalska & Brozik, 2007;
Getz, Carlsen, & Morrison, 2004).
Product variety.Most enterprises offer a large vari-
ety of products, including accommodation, food and
drink services, and the production and sale of organic
food. Moreover, several enterprises provide opportu-
nities for visitors to take part in outdoor leisure and ad-
venture activities (e.g., horse riding, photo safari, fish-
ing, hunting, biking). Product expansion allows them
to create ‘all-around offers’ that will lead to unique
tourist experiences, and consequently, enhance visitor
satisfaction. Product variety strategy is partly moti-
vated by the economic gains obtained by the provi-
sion of a flexible array of services activities. However,
product variety can also be seen as a specific response
of tourism enterprises to market demands. One of the
enterprises in this study provides horse-riding lessons
for children/adults as well as horse-riding tours for
experienced riders, and he explained the strategy as
follows:
We have turned our love for nature and pas-
sion for horses into a successful business. We
purchased five Arabian horses and established
an equestrian club where visitors can experi-
ence horse riding in a natural, safe, and family-
friendly environment. We thought people wo-
uld come just to enjoy horse riding. However, it
turned out that when the visitors were already
here, they wanted to stay for a night or two,
they wanted meals and refreshments. Driven
by visitors’ needs, we decided to expand our
horse-riding business into accommodation and
food services. Today, our guests can stay in our
apartments that offer accommodation for four
or six people. Also, they can choose between
half board and full board meal plans in our
restaurant. [Case 1]
Another enterprise is in charge of the whole value
chain as it offers meals prepared by the ingredients
(fruits and vegetables) coming from its own organic
production. He explained the benefit of having control
over the whole value chain as follows:
To be honest, we do not earnmuchmoney from
growing the raspberries or frommaking home-
made juices and jams. However, we want to
serve fresh and healthy meals for our visitors.
We want to offer high-quality food for our visi-
tors. [Case 9]
Although for some enterprise’s product expansion
was strategically planed, some of them argued that
product development is actually the response to mar-
ket demands:
There is a shortage of accommodation facilities.
Currently, we have fifty beds, andwe cannot sat-
isfy market demand during the pick summer
178 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Merima Činjarevi et al. The Distinctiveness of Rural Tourism Marketing Practices
season. Therefore, the plan is to build a bunga-
low with an additional number of beds as well
as a new restaurant. [Case 2]
In general, all enterprises from this study are seek-
ing ways to create overall tourist experience by pro-
viding accommodation, food, and a wide array of
nature- and adventure-based activities. In addition
to being able to meet market demand, they are also
capable of anticipating visitors’ needs and design ‘all-
around’ offers that will create a memorable tourist ex-
perience. This finding is in line with the view that the
strategy of expanding the scope and variety of prod-
uct/services/activities can be seen as an effective and
efficient mechanism of transforming traditional ru-
ral tourism households into professional businesses
(Brandth & Haugen, 2011; Engeset & Heggem, 2015).
Authentic experience. Research conducted among
enterprises shows that authenticity also lies at the
core of these businesses. This authenticity comes in
different shapes. The staged aspect of authenticity is
reflected in the way that traditional dishes are pre-
pared and presented. The importance of authenticity
of gastronomic experience was discussed by one en-
trepreneur as follows:
We are growing organic vegetables and fruits
in our garden, and we are raising livestock in
smallholder (cows and sheep).Wehave our own
authenticwoodenwheel of an oldwatermill.My
wife prepares the dishes using the traditional
Bosnian recipes, and she is dressed up in tradi-
tional Bosnian clothing. We are trying to create
a unique and authentic experience by preserv-
ing our cultural heritage assets. [Case 7]
Moreover, visitors have the opportunity to partic-
ipate in agricultural work activities like feeding ani-
mals, picking fresh fruits or processing fruit juices and
jams. The focus on tourist experience co-creation is
explained by one entrepreneur, as follows:
The guests can pick fruit and vegetables from
our garden and together with our cook prepare
their meals. Also, they have the opportunity to
engage in the production of jams and pickles.
[Case 9]
The above-discussed practices are in line with the
co-creation theory (Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004)
and the service-dominant logic (s-d logic) in market-
ing. According to co-creation theory and s-d logic,
a tourist is an active participant rather than a pas-
sive recipient. Therefore, both service providers and
tourists have to collaborate in order to provide expe-
rience value for the tourists (Lončarić, Perišić Pro-
dan, & Dlačić, 2017). As argued by Mathis (2013, p.
11), the tourist experience of co-creation includes the
following: (1) the collaboration between the service
provider and the tourist; (2) the co-production of new
and improved products/services; (3) a shift away from
a goods-dominant logic towards a service-dominant
logic; (4) adaptability, personalisation, and unique-
ness. The tourist experience co-creation can be seen
as a driver of existential authenticity which in turn
leads to the sense of enjoyment, escape, and experi-
ence of a ‘true self ’ in a new place, time and culture
(Kolar & Zabkar, 2010). Bearing in mind that visitors
are searching for the objective and existential authen-
ticity in every attribute of tourism products (culture,
tradition, architecture, lifestyle, entertainment, hand-
icrafts, and cuisine), enterprises have to incorporate
authentic contents into the tourism product carefully.
Marketing capabilities. Marketing literature ac-
knowledges that a business can either compete on its
ability to sense market trends ahead of its competitors
(market-driven approach or outside-in perspective)
or its internal resources (resource-driven approach or
inside-out perspective). Furthermore, some market-
ing scholars argue that ‘the bundle of interrelated rou-
tines that facilitate the capacity to engage in specific
marketing activities and respond to themarket knowl-
edge’ (Kamboj & Rahman, 2015, p. 1041) is the central
pillar of business success. Although various conceptu-
alisations of marketing capabilities are available in the
literature, they can be categorised under two broad
types: the external marketing capabilities and inter-
nal marketing capabilities. The external marketing ca-
pabilities are bundles of marketing-related resources,
skills and accumulated knowledge that helps a busi-
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 179
Merima Činjarevi et al. The Distinctiveness of Rural Tourism Marketing Practices
ness to sense, understand, and respond promptly to
the evolving requirements of customers and markets
(Day, 2011) Examples of external marketing capabil-
ities are market-sensing capability, customer-linking
capability, or channel-bonding capability (Day, 2011;
Mu, 2015). Internal marketing capabilities are asso-
ciated with a function or practice of marketing, and
these capabilities enable a firm to capitalise the full
potential of market-oriented culture (Ngo & O’Cass,
2012). Enterprises analysed in this study have achieved
a certain degree of balance between outside-in and
inside-out perspectives. They have the ability to an-
ticipate the future evolution of visitor needs and de-
tect emerging opportunities based on information col-
lected from its business ecosystem (market-sensing
capability) and the ability to create intimate relation-
ships with the customer (customer-linking capabil-
ity). Moreover, they are capable of connecting with
partners and leverage the resources and capabilities
through formal and informal cooperation. One enter-
prise explained the formal cooperation and network-
ing as follows:
With the aim of better market positioning, the
providers of services in rural tourism have for-
med the Eco-Pliva Association. Since many lo-
cals rent out accommodation facilities to tour-
ists who want to feel the life in the countryside
and participate in farming work, we have to co-
operate. We need to exchange the knowledge
and experience amongst us to keep up our busi-
nesses. [Case 2]
At the same time, enterprises have developed
internalmarketing capabilities, particularly cus-
tomer-oriented culture. Customer orientation
counts among the essential characteristics of
the enterprises studied. All enterprises have
emphasised their devotion to establishing and
maintaining high-quality relations with their
customers: ‘The visitor comes as a guest and
leaves like our friend. This is something for
what every business in rural tourism should
strive for.’ [Case 3]
In terms of mid-level internal marketing capabili-
ties such as the marketingmix elements, product vari-
ety is a hallmark of all enterprises. As mentioned ear-
lier, all enterprises are trying to customise their ‘all-
around’ offers in order to meet visitors’ needs fully.
Also, they are aware that they need to set competi-
tive prices. The combination of competitive prices and
high quality of services, is a recipe for success, as most
of the interviewed entrepreneurs argued. Regarding
the means of communication with the market, online
marketing prevails over traditional marketing. Along
with having their ownwebsites, enterprises are present
in social media platforms (e.g., Facebook and Insta-
gram). Most popular distribution channels are direct
contact with owners. Direct sale via Booking.com and
indirect sale via travel agencies are not widely used
distribution channels. One of the entrepreneurs ex-
plained its marketing channel mix as follows:
Sales and bookings are generally made directly
and through the Internet, while there is no co-
operation with travel agencies. Internet and
brochures, as well as travel fairs, are used for
the promotion. Facebook, Booking.com and
Google Maps have proven to be extremely ef-
fective promotion and sales tools, especially
for foreign tourists. The interest of journal-
ists is also high, and through media coverage,
they help us to enhance the awareness of rural
tourism sites. [Case 5]
This finding is in line with the view that informa-
tion and communication technology (ict) helps small
tourism business in a rural area to achieve better visi-
bility and integration into economic and tourismflows
(Sedmak, Planinc, Kociper, & Planinc, 2016).
Challenges. Seasonality is perceived as a signifi-
cant challenge, and it impacts the operation of small
rural-based businesses in multiple ways. Since visi-
tors generally come in the summer, the businesses
have to capture as many visitors as possible during the
peak summer season. Due to the limited number of
rooms/beds, it is a challenging task to provide accom-
modation for a large number of visitors. Moreover,
owners and their family members need to work long
hours, resulting in unhealthy work-life balance and
180 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Merima Činjarevi et al. The Distinctiveness of Rural Tourism Marketing Practices
work-related stress. As with any other seasonal busi-
ness, rural-based tourism business depends highly on
the weather conditions. Unusually cold and rainy days
during the summer implies that visitors will decide
to go to other drier and warmer locations, resulting
in lost sales for small rural-tourism businesses. Some
businesses have realised that it is just a fact of (a busi-
ness’s) life, and they are responding on the seasonality
by adding the weather-independent tourist activities.
One example is quoted below.
All the year-around we are organising work-
shops for homemade products. Our visitors
have the opportunity to explore how our crafts-
men are making ‘Bolića kolo’ (weaving), village
bags and woollen socks. In our facility named
‘The House of Fun’ visitors can learn more
about the distillation of the rakija (schnapps) as
well as taste our famous ‘Petrovačka Šljivovica’
(Peter’s Plum Schnapps). [Case 6]
Access to finance is another challenge faced by
studied small rural-based tourism businesses. Given
that these types of business have a lower bargaining
power than that of the banks and other financial in-
stitutions from whom they may seek credit, they are
faced with the shortage of funds for both short-run
and long-run capital needs. Furthermore, interviewed
owners stated that there is a lack of public sector sup-
port through the usage of conventional public financ-
ing instruments such as grant support for small rural-
based tourism businesses or the subsidised loans are
used.
Given its out-of-the-way location, the public in-
frastructure (water, electricity, transportation, etc.)
and tourism infrastructure are not present, or it cannot
sustain the increased number of visitors. Thus, addi-
tional investments in the quality of public and tourist
infrastructure are needed for the further development
of rural tourism. Two of the interviewed owners ex-
plained the problem of poor quality of infrastructure
as follows:
The only complaints we are receiving from our
visitors are related to accessibility and tourist
signage. Although our location is accessible by
an asphalt road from the city, more road main-
tenance is required, especially in the winter
months. Although the tourist signage is present
additional improvements are needed. [Case 1]
Our location is well connected and easily acces-
sible. Public infrastructure and tourist signage
are satisfactory. Albeit, more efforts are needed
in the area of environment protection, waste
management, and the reduction of pollution.
[Case 4]
Another issue that hinders the success of small
rural-based tourism businesses is the lack of a joint
legislative framework for the management and devel-
opment of rural tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
While the registration of rural households in Repub-
lika Srpska is regulated by the new law about catering
services of the Republic of Srpska from 2017, this is-
sue remains unresolved in Federation of Bosnia and
Herzegovina. Furthermore, there is a particular gap
between the induced image of Bosnia and Herzegov-
ina as an attractive rural destination and rural tourism
reality. While the marketing campaign ‘Enjoy Life –
Bosnia & Herzegovina’ highlights the beautiful na-
ture,mountains, rivers, lakes across Bosnia andHerze-
govina, it should be noted that rural tourism remains
underdeveloped. The public authorities’ awareness of
economic opportunities offered by developing rural
tourism is rather low.
Conclusion
In terms of common traits, small rural-based tourism
businesses are led by active, visionary, passionate own-
ers who can foster, nourish and support the entre-
preneurial mindset amongst their family members.
Like their counterparts from the rest of the world,
Bosnian andHerzegovinian small rural-based tourism
businesses are also developing market-sensing and
customer-linking capability. Although their invest-
ments are lower than that of their counterparts in de-
veloped economies, small rural-based tourism busi-
nesses can recognise new opportunities (sensing) and
generate innovations (seizing). These findings are in
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 181
Merima Činjarevi et al. The Distinctiveness of Rural Tourism Marketing Practices
linewith the view that ‘resource-picking’ and ‘capabili-
ty-building’ are substitutes for each other in achieving
business success. In other words, our findings show
that a shortage of internal resources (knowledge, cap-
ital) can be substituted by the company’s ability to
build customer-linking and market-sensing capabili-
ties. Self-financing ss another characteristic of studied
small rural-based tourism businesses. They tend to
rely on self-financing from retained profit and owner’s
funds. In terms of external financing, they have lim-
ited access to both public and commercial financial
instruments.
What specific lessons can be derived from small
rural-based tourismbusinesses that are doing business
in the economies characterised by fragility? We have
identified the following lessons that can be valuable for
all small tourism businesses operating in fragile busi-
ness environments (also in conjunction with research
questions):
• In business environments characterised by polit-
ical and economic instability, there is an urgent
need for businesses that are capable of sketching
their own destiny in order to survive and prosper.
Product variety, the authenticity of the tourist
experience, customer-linking capability, market-
sensing capability, and self-financing are essential
building blocks of a successful small rural-based
tourism business.
• If it seems that business environment does not
provide an option for sustainable growth (domes-
tic tourists) tourism businesses should be able to
recognise new opportunities on regional/global
markets (market sensing) and create services/ac-
tivities based on these opportunities (market seiz-
ing). Also, if one is a small player in the tourism
industry, one needs to create formal and informal
networks with other small tourism businesses.
Thus, the saying ‘If you do not like how the ta-
ble is set, turn over the table’ vividly explains the
basic rule of the business game played by studied
small rural-based tourism businesses.
The findings of the present study offer some in-
sights for policy-makers. Although the studied small
rural-tourism businesses have put enormous effort
into designing and providing services/activities to
meet and even exceed visitors’ expectations, it seems
that the owners of these businesses are making mar-
keting decisions and solutions based on the trial-and-
error method. Their marketing strategies are reac-
tive not proactive: they respond to changes in the
market instead of anticipating them. Their actions
regarding marketing are mostly based on the trial-
error method than sound knowledge about strate-
gic marketing (Segmentation, Targeting and Position-
ing). Thus, local governments and tourism organisa-
tions ought to reinforce their know-how by designing
and implementing tailored training programmes for
small rural-based tourism businesses. Furthermore,
local and entity governments should strategically plan
the investments in public and tourism infrastructure,
thereby providing necessary conditions for the lucra-
tive operation of small rural-based tourismbusinesses.
Moreover, issues related to the legislative framework
of rural tourism (i.e., the registration of rural house-
holds) need to be solved in both entities.
Due to its exploratory nature, this study has lim-
itations. It examined marketing practices and chal-
lenges solely from the perspective of small rural-based
tourism businesses in one country. Therefore, it would
be valuable to consider how themarketing practices of
small rural-based tourism businesses are perceived by
visitors and/or how various levels of government can
support the growth of these types of businesses.
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184 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Original Scientific Article
Systems Approach to Cultural Tourism and Events
Tadeja Jere Jakulin
University of Primorska, Faculty of Tourism Studies – Turistica, Slovenia
tadeja.jerejakulin@upr.si
In this paper, we will present the systems approach methodology, which has been
widely used in the natural sciences and engineering for the last seven decades since
Ludwig von Bertalanffy published his manifesto on general systems theory (1952)
andNorbertWiener his on cybernetics (1948). The intention of general systems the-
ory and cybernetics is the ‘ontology’ of action, which is shown by feedback informa-
tion. Its goal is to find a method to predict the consequence of a decision-making
action. Industrial engineering recognised it when Forrester published Industrial Dy-
namics (1961), and social sciences rediscovered it with Senge’s work on the learning
organisation The Fifth Discipline (1990). Cultural tourism is an element of a com-
plex tourism system within global and local dimensions, in which cultural events,
as even smaller elements, play essential roles within the range of tourism goods and
services. As a methodology for the research of complex phenomena, the systems ap-
proachwill explain two of itsmethods, systems thinking andmodelling, as those that
can significantly influence decision-making when taken into account. We will show
the appropriateness of the methodology within cultural tourism decision-making
and modelling.
Keywords: systems approach, analytical and systems thinking, complexity, cultural
tourism and events, modelling
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.12.185-191
Introduction
The systems approach became an optimal methodol-
ogy for creating solutions within engineering and the
natural sciences a few decades ago. The feedback loop,
which represents the circle within a system, shows that
correct anticipation of the future outcome is possible
only if a decision-maker observes problems in reality
from a systems point of view. Such a point of view, or
‘the big picture,’ is a view in which all observed sub-
jects or objects are seen as connected, interdependent,
influencing each other, as is known in nature and en-
gineering. Frequently, it is difficult to see closed con-
nections and interdependency within social and or-
ganisational systems composed of elements (compo-
nents, departments) that are nested within each other
even though they are not only elements but also sys-
tems. Nesting and the difficulties of seeing boundaries
among the elementsmake them complex systems and,
as such, they need appropriate methodology to ex-
plain them, as well as solutions for their problems.
Tourism and its subsystems of cultural tourism with
events and all their connections, boundaries, and in-
terdependency represent systems complexity. The sys-
tems approach, with its systems thinking and mod-
elling methods, can survive the most rigid testing and
can find systems solutions.
Analytical and Systems Thinking
A vision without systems thinking ends up painting
lovely pictures of the future with no deep understand-
ing of the forces that must be mastered to move from
here to there (Senge, 1990).
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 185
Tadeja Jere Jakulin Systems Approach to Cultural Tourism and Events
(1) People, decision makers
for cultural tourism policy
(2) Process of creating
cultural tourism policy
(3) Cultural tourism
policy created
Figure 1 Model of Conventional (Linear) Thinking
(C) Group of experts
and decision-makers
(D) Processes and
programs of creation
(A) Cultural tourism policy
created
(E) Environment(B) Feedback Information
Figure 2 Systems Model of Cultural Tourism Policy
Some relevant paradigms to analysis were descri-
bed by Rosenhead (1989) and Mulej et al. (1994), in-
cluding soft analysis, the hard study of a system, criti-
cal thinking, strategic options development and anal-
ysis, and the dialectical theory of systems. The linear
(analytical) approach is based on interpretation as a
three-step thought process. It takes apart that which it
seeks to understand, then attempts to explain the be-
haviour of the parts taken separately, and finally, and
finally tries to develop an aggregate understanding of
the components into an explanation of the whole.
The systems approach uses a different process. It
puts the system in the context of the larger environ-
ment of which it is a part and studies the role it plays in
the larger whole. The parts are no longer the primary
focus. The elements are essential, but what ismore im-
portant is the interrelationship between the elements
as they work together to fulfil the purpose of the whole
system.A systems approach is optimal for understand-
ing interdependency, which requires a way of think-
ing differently than analysis; it needs systems thinking.
The number of works dedicated to the systems think-
ing, systems models, and methodologies devoted to
social, economic and natural sciences is enormous.
These include System Dynamics (Forester, 1961), Sys-
tem Thinking (Senge, 1990; Vennix, 1996), Autopoi-
etic System (Maturana & Varela, 1998), Living Sys-
tems (Miller, 1978), Viable Systems (Beer, 1959), An-
ticipatory Systems (Rosen, 1985) as well as others. Sys-
tems thinking searches for the optimal solutions and
answers from right to the left, as presented with the
systems model of cultural tourism policy in Figure 2.
The primary step of the system approach starts at A:
the outputs or vision of the optimal cultural tourism
policy. The expert group uses as fundamental ques-
tions the questions about the influence of optimal cul-
tural tourism (outputs, A) to the environment (E –
other people, nature, community), uses feedback in-
formation (B – what will cultural tourism policy bring
to the E) and asks 1. What will the vision (A), outputs,
organisational effectiveness, environmental effective-
ness (Getz & Frisby, 1988) bring to the environment,
environmental uncertainty, community context, net-
works complexity (E)? and 2. What is the current sit-
uation (C), inputs, ideas, teams, finances, material re-
sources, facilities (Getz & Frisby, 1988) for achieving
(A)? and 3. How can they help in the process (B) either
with the help or without any worries if they cannot in-
fluence the process? To avoid the trap of the simplicity
of systems thinking, one can build a simulation model
of effective decision-making in which one attempts to
implement the optimal systems solutions. The model
helps identify the flows and uses of resources, includ-
ing money and information, which are the life-blood
of all events. It helps identify key stakeholders who
have to be brought into decision-making (Getz, 2004).
Systems evaluation helps the manager keep the ‘big
picture’ in mind, whereas the natural tendency is to
get lost in daily problem-solving.
The systems model differs from the linear model.
Environment and feedback information are those parts
of systems thinking and modelling that enable see-
186 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Tadeja Jere Jakulin Systems Approach to Cultural Tourism and Events
Complex tourism system
Catering &
accommodation systems
Travel & transport systems
Cultural tourism, events
systems
Education systems
Supporting systems
(banks, services, etc.)
Sport, recreation and
wellness systems
State administration
systems
Legislation, safety &
insurance systems
Health systems
Environment
Figure 3 Interdependency of the Cultural Tourism System, Other Subsystems and the Environment
ing the ‘big picture’ point of view to an observer. The
model’s feedback information shows internal eval-
uation, which pertains to management’s collective
responsibility to ensure that all functions and pro-
grammes are meeting goals and that operations are
as efficient as possible. The external evaluation covers
both the organisation’s linkages with other agencies
and stakeholders and the impacts of its actions (Getz,
2004)
Ongoing assessment helps steer the institution, or-
ganisation, and manager towards meeting their goals.
The event can always be improved, marketing en-
hanced, and benefits increased. Furthermore, evalu-
ation can help avoid and suggest ways to eliminate
or enhance negative consequences. Evaluation means
assigning a value or worth to something, and it inher-
ently involves subjective judgment as well as technical
analysis (Getz, 2004).
The Complexity of Cultural Tourism and Events
The art of systems thinking lies in seeing through com-
plexity to the underlying structures generating change
(Senge, 1990).
In the context of tourism, we can use an expanded
concept of culture. From this point of view, culture
serves not only human education through the pro-
vision of music, theatre, museums, exhibitions, fes-
tivals and listed buildings, but permeates every area
of human life (Dreyer, 2000). According to Adams
(2008), cultural tourism is a type of special interest
tourism involving leisure travel to view or experience
the distinctive character of a place, its peoples, and its
products or productions. The complexity of cultural
tourism and events is visible since they are elements
of a more extensive, tourism system. The word ‘com-
plex’ is used only to indicate that the problem treated
here cannot be expressed solely in hard (quantitative)
relations and that most relevant values are qualita-
tive.We consider complex systems to be networks cre-
ated of many components, which interact among each
other in a nonlinear manner; theymay evolve through
self-organisation so that they are neither completely
regular nor completely random (Sayama, 2015). With
a conception of complex systems, we also present a
system within which the complexity of interactions
among system elements plays a leading role. These
elements are systems themselves and, for this reason,
the behaviour of a system as a whole can hardly be pre-
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 187
Tadeja Jere Jakulin Systems Approach to Cultural Tourism and Events
dicted: the system of systems, which exchanges energy
and informationwith its environment while in transit,
inflected by internal and external influences. Organ-
isational systems are complex because of the existing
relations and nesting of its subsystems. This is repre-
sented in Figure 3.
The systemswithin a system of tourism nest within
each other, which means that they represent subsys-
tems at the same time that they represent systems as
wholes. The interdependency and relations among the
entities of these subsystems are far more critical than
independent systems. This is especially seen between
the subsystems of travel and transport, catering and
accommodation, art and culture, sports, recreation
and wellness subsystems. There are certain interde-
pendent relationships among all subsystems, which
strongly influence each other. If we map the tourism
system to the local (national) or global (international
destination), we reach a level of a system, which en-
compasses a wide variety of partners, branches and in-
stitutions. They create a complex system as such; with
all interconnections, interdependency, and nesting in
each other (dependent on the size of a subsystem).
General Tourism SystemModel
Remember, always, that everything you know, and ev-
erything everyone knows, is only a model. Get your
model out there where it can be viewed. Invite oth-
ers to challenge your assumptions and add their own
(Meadows, 2008).
A society is a real world, which changes by al-
tering relations among its participants as well as in-
teractions with the environment. Tourism is often
studied as an industry, alongside hospitality, with re-
lated educational programmes stressing professional
career preparation. It is also a social, cultural, and
economic phenomenon with all its potential impacts
(Getz, 2007). Learning and experience through deci-
sion-making provide tourism development and gro-
wth that are observed through its evolution. The evo-
lution of society and skills as part of the past and the
anticipation of the future causes these systems to grow
and develop with the environment as the restriction.
Thus, we can say that tourism system is, as its subsys-
tems, dynamic. Regulation is necessary but far away
(P) Tourism process
(D) Decision-making team
(X) Inputs (Y) Outputs
(U)State of
environment
Figure 4 A General Model of Tourism as a Goal-Oriented
System (adapted from Jere Jakulin & Kljajić,
2006)
from being sufficient. The most important is a strate-
gic vision of a development, and the understanding
that the environment influences the prediction of the
strategic vision.
For this reason, tourism systems can be defined
slightly differently, so that the fundamental causes of
system behaviour are emphasised. Usually, they are
called ‘management subsystems.’ The tourism sys-
tem can be described with a model, which is an ide-
alised and simplified image of the real situation or
phenomenon and contains only necessary quantities
and their functional dependencies. The model is an
attempt to identify critical variables in a case study
and the relationship that exists among them (Kljajić,
1998).
In Figure 4, we define a generalmodel of tourism as
a goal-oriented system with a pair (P,D). P represents
the managing process in the tourism system, D the
managing subsystem. Loop P → Y → D → U → P
represents feedback information, which functions on
the cause-and-effect principle; therefore, we can call
it ‘reactive control.’ For small perturbances, such con-
trol suffices. For decision making in a tourism system,
information from the environment is necessary. The
chain X → D → U → P provides feed-forward data,
which represents the anticipation of the future state of
the situation. It is an essential part of the strategy of
goal-oriented systems.
The inputs consist of ideas, scenarios, tangible re-
sources, human resources, which start the process of
cultural tourism policy creation and outputs, which
can also include unintended and negative impacts that
should be identified through research. The decision-
making team plays a role in the model evaluation and
188 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Tadeja Jere Jakulin Systems Approach to Cultural Tourism and Events
consists of those experts and people who create goals
and have responsibility for the system’s development.
The team and its capabilities make the systems work
towards their balanced functioning and goals.
Building a Causal Loop DiagramModel
Modelling is a part of systems methodology, which
requires more than basic knowledge of the topic one
models. By modelling, we understand an activity en-
abling us to describe our experiences within a spe-
cific procedure (mental model) with one of the ex-
isting languages in the framework of a precise the-
ory (Jere Jakulin & Kljajić, 2006). Model building in
tourism seeks to understand a complex relationship
and to aid the management of the place or process (Ja-
fari, 2000). From a pragmatic point of view, a system
is defined by the double S = (E,R), where ei ∈ E ⊂
U = 1, 2, . . .n represents the set of elements, R ⊆ E×E
the relation between the elements, and the U univer-
sal set. The construction of concrete systems requires
specific knowledgeK(ei) ∈ E (property of elements) to
identify the elements of the systems (including those
from environments) and a theory T(ei, ej) ⊂ R to find
relationships among the elements. Each element ei can
be set as well as Rj ∈ R, j = 1, 2, . . .m defining different
relations between the elements. Such a procedure is in-
ductive and represents the model of a real system. In
other words, modelling represents the activity of de-
scribing our experiences by using one of the existing
languages within the framework of a specific theory
such as formal concepts analysis described in (Wolff,
1999). In this way, our experiences also become acces-
sible to others in that they may be proven, confirmed,
rejected, broadened or generalised.
From a causal loop diagram, shown in Figure 5, one
can derive that there is one basic circle (–) of the causal
loop, whichmeans the growth of tourists’ number and
borders of growth, caused by infrastructure and di-
minished environment attraction. In a vision of cul-
tural tourism policy, we have to predict development
as a whole to avoid limitations. If in the reinforcement
circle, which consists of investments, tourism infras-
tructure, environment attraction, only one element
starts to fall (–), this means all of the other elements
will fall.
GDP
Cultural
tourism
policy
Quality
of cultural
tourism
supplyEnvironment
attraction
Tourism
infrastructure
Investments
Cultural
tourism
events
Number
of tourists
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
–
+
Figure 5 cld Model of the Interdependence of Cultural
Tourism Policy Elements
The above-discussed model (Figure 5) requires
decision-making given by a group of experts and deci-
sion-makers who influence areas of cultural tourism.
Figure 5 presents the cultural tourism expert group
as a part of the cultural tourism legislative process, in
which modelling and ideas about penal code deter-
mination represent a knowledge-capturing process in
the form of the structure and behaviour of the model.
Once the model is defined and validated, experimen-
tation with different scenarios is possible. The cultural
tourism expert group determines the set of different
ideas, which represents possible future activities in
the real system. The results gathered as the output of
the model are evaluated with the multi-criteria eval-
uation function. At this stage, many different multi-
criterial evaluation methods may be used, from the
weighted average (Vincke, 1992) to the Analytical Hi-
erarchy Process (ahp), (Saaty, 2012) and Expert sys-
tems (es) (Rajkovič & Bohanec, 1991). Information
feedback provides the expert groupwith the possibility
of creatively determining a new set of ideas on cultural
tourism policy and multi-criteria evaluation func-
tions relating to the given situation. Simulated and
actual performances of the system are compared to
adapt the strategy according to changes in the environ-
ment.
The systems thinking solving method with sim-
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 189
Tadeja Jere Jakulin Systems Approach to Cultural Tourism and Events
Cultural Tourism
Expert Group
SD Model
(structure and behaviour)
Results
(Cultural Tourism Policy)
Structure and Parameters
Multicriteria Evaluation
Function
Modelling
Ideas
Output
Model Validation
Figure 6 The Principle Scheme of Simulation Methodology for Decision-Making Support
(adapted from Jere Jakulin & Kljajić, 2006)
ulation model follows standard steps: state analysis,
development of causal-loop diagrams, writing of the
model’s equations, andmodel implementation. Partic-
ular scenarios that form and determine a tourist mar-
ket in a particular environment are tested on a sim-
ulation system. A simulator is connected to the gss
(Group Support System). The participants using gss
work directly with the system simulator. A system sim-
ulator is connected to a database, which is necessary
for simulationmodel activation. Simulation results are
evaluated both with the group decision-making sup-
port system and with expert systems. In all of this,
the understanding of the system increases. With the
described model, the experimental loop on a simu-
lation model has been finished with the help of the
system simulator and scenario ranking. The elements
of the decision-making support system are Powersim,
a tool for the construction and use of a simulator; Ven-
tana Group Systems, the Ventana group working sup-
port system; dex, a shell of an expert system expert;
and Expert Choice, evaluation with the ahp method.
Since the work with group decision-making tool is
anonymous, it raises creative thinking, which enables
a higher flow of ideas and reduces unwanted influ-
ences. The participants become more relaxed since no
one knows where the ideas come from and, thus, cre-
ativity is released; this would not be the case in the
more conventional ways of working. The work time
decreases and the efficiency of participants increases
(Jere Jakulin, 2017). The final result is better, as the
decision becomes a group decision with which con-
flict between polarised groups is minimised, and a
consensus is achieved for the development of further
actions.
Conclusions
The present article discusses the method of describ-
ing and modelling the complex cultural tourism sys-
tem from the systems and decision-making point of
view. The systems approach has become a necessity
in contemporary life, which we see as a modern com-
plex system composed of a variety of other systems
and their elements. In the paper, we discussed the cul-
tural tourism system and its elements or subsystem
of travelling and transport systems, catering and ac-
commodation systems from a systems point of view
within the environment. The cultural tourism system
was described as a so-called soft system phenomenon,
in which people, with their actions, knowledge, and
characters play the leading roles, representing a com-
plex system of a society. As we reach a certain level of
complexity, we must search for an optimal methodol-
ogy to find an optimal way of dealing with this com-
plexity. The methods of systems dynamics, systems
thinking, and modelling are some of them. Therefore,
the anticipated system is much closer to describing
the essence of complex systems behaviour. However,
the influence of the observer in the process of mod-
elling the complex system is of primary importance.
The role of the observer usually is usually played by
expert groups and decision-makers who are entitled
to accept decisions regarding policies in society. In
literature, this problem has not been sufficiently con-
sidered.
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Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 191

Original Scientific Article
Security Challenges for the Hotel Industry:
Implications for Selected Hotels in Owerri, Nigeria
Edwin Chigozie Nwokorie
Department of Hospitality Management,
The Federal Polytechnic Ilaro, Nigeria
eddygozie@gmail.com
Polycarp Igbojekwe
Department of Hospitality & Tourism Management,
Imo State University Owerri, Nigeria
unclepoly112@yahoo.com
This study investigates the security challenges of ten selected hotels in the metropo-
lis of Owerri, Nigeria, and the effect on guest loyalty. A survey was conducted on 154
respondents using a structured instrument to elicit responses regarding the various
physical, personnel, and system security aspects of the hotel industry. Relationships
between the consequent variables were determined using the Pearson correlation
coefficient. The result indicated a weak positive correlation (r2 = 0.270) between se-
curity conditions and guest patronage (p ≤ 0.01) while a weak positive correlation
(r2 = 0.086) was also identified between perceived guest security and the availabil-
ity of informal businesses (p ≤ 0.281) in the hotel. A lack of security collaboration
among hotels located in the area, inadequate emergency exits, and poor internal se-
curity were also indicated. The study recommends a balance between the provision
of adequate security and guest privacy, bearing in mind the aggravation guests may
feel in the event of an invasion of privacy.
Keywords: guest loyalty, guest relations, guest satisfaction, hotel industry, hotel
security
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.12.193-205
Introduction
Security has long been recognised as a necessity for
the overall growth and development of the hotel in-
dustry, both in developed and developing societies.
This growing recognition has led to the commitment
of most hotel enterprises towards strengthening their
security systems in terms of advanced security ar-
rangements to ensure increased confidence on the
part of hotel investors, employees, and guests, who
form the core elements that foster industry develop-
ment. In the previous decade, the hotel industry has
played a prominent role in the development of Nige-
ria’s economy with tourism capacity building, provi-
sion for employment and cultural rebirth (Onugha,
Ibem, & Aderonmu, 2016; Obiora & Nwokorie, 2018),
and is regarded as one of the fastest growing sectors
in Nigeria’s economy, equivalent to the communica-
tions sector (Bankole, 2002; Onugha et al., 2016). This,
therefore, implies that the conditions necessary for the
overall sustainability of the business as a key player
in Nigeria’s economic growth should not be under-
emphasised.
However, most hotels in major cities and state cap-
itals in Nigeria still grapple with the reality of insecure
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 193
Edwin Chigozie Nwokorie and Polycarp Igbojekwe Security Challenges
situations within the business environment in relation
to emerging security trends in the tourism sector. For
instance, Nwokorie (2017) wrote that while hotel secu-
rity technology is moving into the cybersecurity sec-
tor, with an eye on customer data protection, physi-
cal security and awareness remain crucial to the safety
of hotel guests. Even when hotels have strong security
policies and procedures in place, they are still vulner-
able to cyber-attacks, break-ins, theft, fraud, and other
crimes. Consequently, it is vital to take precaution-
ary measures and continually evaluate security pro-
grammes. Nwokorie, Everest, and Ojo (2014) also saw
that one major problem that affects the development
of the hotel industry is the unfavourable government
stance concerning its lack of policy development on
tourism security, which should be treated as an essen-
tial condition for the success of the hospitality busi-
ness. The government, at the state level, is usually un-
interested in the size of private organisations set up in
relation to the provision of all-round security for such
businesses, mainly because security is exclusively un-
der the aegis of the legislative authority of the central
government (Nwokorie et al., 2014).
Nevertheless, the hotel industry has been a great
source of revenue to the government through value-
added tax (vat) and similar revenue collections but
without the government necessarily providingmost of
the social services required for successful business op-
erations (Khemani, 2001). Most hotel establishments
resort to the services of private security outfits to im-
prove guest confidence (Maranga, 2015; Cebekhulu,
2016), thus forcing an increase in the cost of hotel
products and services, thereby significantly affecting
the customer loyalty of the hotel industry (Nwokorie,
2016).
Again, there is an emerging trend of increased
competition among hotels in Owerri as a result of
concentrating hotel business in a particular location
within the city. Hotels everywhere in the state’s capi-
tal indicate that the business has overextended itself,
resulting in too many available rooms relative to the
guests’ desire to rent them. The result of this busi-
ness concentration is the undue attraction of security
risks to the business area, which is triggered by the in-
evitable visibility of different types of guests, including
vips and celebrities, who are likely to form part of the
customer base of these hotels (Nwokorie et al., 2014).
Hotel businesses are equally expected to improve the
wellbeing of the local people through the provision
of indirect employment opportunities for the local
population, as part of corporate social responsibil-
ity and sustainable development practice (Nwokorie
& Obiora, 2018). Judging from the perceived unem-
ployment rate within the state, it is expected that local
individuals may take undue advantage of this situa-
tion to commit crimes on unsuspecting guests within
the business location (Khadka, 2014). This could com-
promise the reputation of the affected establishment,
especially when there is a lack of security collabora-
tion among the nearby hotel businesses (Nwokorie,
et al., 2014) as is the case with the majority of hotel
businesses in crime-affected areas. Specifically, Ade-
bayo and Adebayo (2015) wrote that guest insecurity
has scared tourists from visiting Maiduguri, Nigeria,
over the previous decade, which led to a drastic reduc-
tion of guest patronage of small and medium hotels in
the area. Similarly, Akpan (2017) determined that cult
activities led to a staggering decline in the patronage
of hospitality products and services, in Idah, Nigeria,
in 2016 with the resultant loss of jobs that occasioned
the collapse of the affected businesses.
The myriad of social challenges for the industry in
Owerri has been compounded by the decline in the
number of accessible roads to most hotel locations in
the capital in recent times. Personal observations have
proven that the condition of most of the roads linking
the state’s capital, through inland roads to hotel busi-
ness locations with neighbouring states, have deterio-
rated. This situation could dampen the confidence of
inbound visitors from a global point of view (Delena,
2010), thus painting a picture of a total collapse of the
social system within the state capital. Also, poor ac-
cessibility to hotel locations may pose a problem for
both internal and external security collaboration, as
human traffic and crowd control seem to have been
poorly managed.
Statement of Problem
To a large extent, security challenges facing the ho-
tel industry could expose guests to many risks, mak-
194 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Edwin Chigozie Nwokorie and Polycarp Igbojekwe Security Challenges
ing them dissatisfied with hotel services, and could
create a high level of customer turnover, thus forc-
ing many hotels out of business. In Owerri particu-
larly, where over 200 hotels are presently established,
the deplorable social/security situation in the last three
years makes survival for the hotel businesses difficult.
Specifically, most hotels struggle to remain in the busi-
ness as a result of obvious security threat caused by the
level of business activities within hotel premises offer-
ing direct and indirect employment to the populace.
Also, the provision of indirect employment in the hotel
industry for the local population has been abused and
used as a ploy to commit covert crimes in the hotel,
thereby worsening security situations within the busi-
ness environment.
Objectives of the Study
The main objective of this study is to investigate chal-
lenges for hotels in ensuring guest security, and the ef-
fect on guest satisfaction and loyalty in selected hotel
establishments in Owerri. Specific objectives are to:
1. Identify the relationship between guest security
and guest loyalty in the selected hotels.
2. Identify the relationship between the availability
of informal businesses and guest security in the
selected hotels.
Research Questions
The following questions are addressed in this study:
1. What is the relationship between guest security
and guest loyalty for the hotel industry?
2. What is the relationship between the availability
of informal businesses and guest security in the
hotel industry?
Study Significance
This study was conducted among selected hotels in
Owerri, Nigeria, to determine the security challenges
facing these hotels and their relationship with respect
to overall guest satisfaction and loyalty, which ulti-
mately determines the organisational efficiency of ho-
tel businesses. It is expected that the outcome of this
study will provide insight into the security and social
challenges of the hotel industry in preparing indus-
try personnel and operators for the challenges ahead
of time. The study will assist the government, at all
levels, in policy formulation and implementation in
the area of providing security assistance to hotels for
sustainable tourism development, especially in times
of civil disturbances. The hotel strategic planner will
also benefit from the study in the idea of incorporation
of security facilities in the scheme of the business for
immediate or future business success. Researchers in
hospitality development will equally benefit from this
study as it will further create a new direction of how to
mitigate security challenges facing the hotel industry.
Literature Review
Hotel security is a long-established concept that is in-
strumental to the success of the hotel business from a
global perspective. Security in the hotel industry en-
tails protection from all forms of harm, not only to
hotel guests and their properties but to hotel employ-
ees and its host community at large (Groeneboom &
Jones, 2003). Most assets and stakeholders of the busi-
ness could be vulnerable as a result of the risks asso-
ciated with it (Bharwani & Mathews, 2012). The eco-
nomic implications of the business, however, pose suf-
ficient reason for security not to be neglected (Cedric,
2011).
For the local hotel industry (Adepoju, 2017, p. 4):
[. . .] the provision of sufficient employee and
guest services (including security) has been
challenging for hotel operators who are not ad-
equately prepared for a turn down – whether in
terms of the quality of the hotel services ren-
dered, strong revenue management strategies
or the diversification of their demand markets.
The same holds for reductions in guests’ confi-
dence even when these demands have been met (Kan-
dampully & Suhartanto, 2000). However, for investors
who truly intend to bemid-to-long-termplayers, hotel
security is simply part of the cycle that creates myriad
investment opportunities in the hotel industry (Ade-
poju, 2017).
Khadka (2014) wrote that hotel employees might
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 195
Edwin Chigozie Nwokorie and Polycarp Igbojekwe Security Challenges
not even be aware of the risks that some guests may
bring with them during their stay. This requires the
hotel establishment to be vigilant at all times. The hotel
is an aspect of the service industry in which security is
an aspect of service. It is noteworthy, also, that a hotel
with excellent products and service provision but in-
adequate security would diminish guests’ safety, thus
exposing them to the risks of crime and compromise
the goodwill and reputation of the establishment.
Aspects of Hotel Security
Security in the hotel industry has a variety of aspects.
Chakravarti (2011) identified the physical aspects of se-
curity, which is further divided into internal and ex-
ternal security, which deals with theft, fire hazards,
lightning and escape routes, the safety of assets, un-
wanted visitors, and physical monitoring both inside
and within the hotel premises.
The security aspect of persons identified byNwoko-
rie (2017) is of two parts: employees and guests, which
include effective recruitment and selection, staff iden-
tification, key control, red tag system training and
locker inspection for employees. For guests, baggage
is supposed to be checked, guests who are suspected
of stealing hotel property are supposed to be charged
according to hotel policy, while guestroom security
should be improved (Chakravarti, 2011; Nwokorie,
2017). The security aspect of systems in the hotel in-
dustry is as important as the first two. Chakravarti
(2011) and Nwokorie (2017) identified them as in-
cluding all established policies and procedures for the
flow of work, which have to be followed alongside
the required equipment used in carrying out opera-
tions and prescribed tasks in the various departments
concerned. The security aspect of food and beverages
is associated with the principles of Hazard Analysis
and Critical Control Points (haccp) guidelines in
line with local and national food hygiene regulations
(Nwokorie, 2017; Chandra, 2017). Nwokorie (2017) ad-
vised that to forestall possible incidents that could lead
to loss of customer goodwill for the hotel, such as ro-
dent invasion, as well as food spoilage and poisoning,
local hotels in Nigeria should be regularly inspected
by the National Agency for Food and Drug Admin-
istration and Control (nafdac) to ensure that hotel
establishments comply with prescribed food hygiene
and safety standards.
Security Collaboration for Hotels
Khadka (2014) posited that the establishment ormain-
tenance of a sufficient degree of safety and confidence
of customers and employees is the aim of the work,
structures, and processes known as ‘security.’ It applies
to any vulnerable and valuable asset, such as a person,
dwelling, community, nation, or organisation. Secu-
rity, as a condition, is the degree of resistance to or
protection from harm. The main function of the ho-
tel security system, according to Negi and Manoher
(2011) is to safeguard guests’ and employees’ lives and
their property and to guard the hotel’s property.More-
over, the security department of the hotel is responsi-
ble for the overall security of the building, in-house
guests, visitors, day users, and employees of the ho-
tel (Khadka, 2014). The critical points for considera-
tion in hotel security include the prevention of theft
and pilferage by employees and guests, the avoidance
of intentional waste by employees, and the develop-
ment of emergency plans for the protection of employ-
ees and guests in the event of a civil disturbance (Negi
& Manoher, 2011), as it is the moral and legal respon-
sibility of a hotel to protect its employees, guests, and
their property against threats posed by those with a
conscious intent to harm them (Khadka, 2014).
Security collaborations for hotel organisations es-
tablished within the same vicinity are therefore essen-
tial in this circumstance, owing to the proximity be-
tween these establishments. It is expected that guest
traffic within the area would be increased at peak pe-
riods, due to increased guests’ demand, which would
also increase social activities and other informal guest
services from the immediate external environment of
the hotel industry that provide informal business ser-
vices. Experience has shownwhen civil unrest erupted
within hotel environments, and the internal security of
the affected establishment lost control of the situation
while waiting for state security agents to arrive, the af-
fected hotel was at themercy of hoodlums. In this con-
text, security collaboration among hotels within the
capital city remains vital in order to form some sort of
surveillance to forestall possible civil disturbances that
196 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Edwin Chigozie Nwokorie and Polycarp Igbojekwe Security Challenges
could hamper personnel and guest safety (Nwokorie
et al., 2014). As Khadka, (2014, p. 6) put it: ‘Hotel staff
may not even become aware of risks that some guests
may bring with them; consequently, a hotel must be
vigilant at all times.’ The risk to hotels within the same
location can also increase because of the identity of an
individual guest or his or her family. vips, celebrities
or the infamous can present unique difficulties. Apart
from the possibility of death or injury and destruction,
the adverse publicity from an incident can result in ru-
ined reputations, failing business, and detrimental ef-
fects to tourism within the state and nation at large.
Tourists and hotel guests want to feel safe and secure in
their temporary home (O’Fallon & Rutherford, 2011),
and hotels have a duty to protect them since the busi-
ness depends upon them (Khadka, 2014; Nwokori et
al., 2014).
Risk Factors for Poor Security
Khadka (2014) and Nwokorie et al. (2014) have listed
some security factors for the hotel industry: blackmail
of employees, invasion of (vip) guest privacy by lo-
cals, press, and interest groups; fraud, baggage theft,
room burglary, opportunistic robbery, robbery by or-
ganised crime, kidnapping, and terrorism. The ma-
jor cause is poor hotel security, which could lead to
risk factors for the hotel industry including effects of
tourism on the region or country, adverse publicity
of the incident, destruction, injury, possible loss of
life, attacks, and prolonged civil unrest (Khadka, 2014;
Adebayo & Adebayo, 2015; Onugha et al., 2016; Jasin-
skas, Streimikiene, Svagzdiene, & Simanavicius, 2016;
Akpan, 2017). However, studies have not examined
and determined the impact of security aspects for the
hotel industry on guest satisfaction and loyalty, which
ultimately determines organisational efficiency for a
given establishment. For instance, during the period
of this study, a local newspaper vendor and phone ac-
cessory dealerwere caught pilfering fuel froma storage
facility in one of the hotels within the study area. The
managers imagined a situation in which the incident
went unnoticed with the energy manager’s intent of
having sufficient gas for energy supply in the event of
a power outage in the short period of operation. The
result could be an unpredictable period of lack of en-
ergy supply to guest rooms and production areas until
more gas was purchased to generate energy. Such a sit-
uation could lead to the loss of goodwill from guests
and subsequent loss of profit for the hotel, which may
lead to a gradual business collapse. Therefore, the need
to ensure guest loyalty through the provision of effec-
tive security services for the guest throughout their
stay is relevant.
Other Conditions for Business Success
Guest Satisfaction
Hotel guests are becoming increasingly aware of the
need for satisfaction as part of expectationwhile choos-
ing hotel services. This is because: ‘the hotel room
becomes a sanctuary for the guest while he sleeps’
(O’Fallon & Rutherford, 2011, p. 231). On the part
of hotel managers, Mitrović (2017, p. 67) asserts that
‘measuring the satisfaction of visitors to the hotel is
the starting point in the planning and improvement of
hotel services, and relationshipswith guests.’ Dominici
and Guzzo (2010, p. 3) viewed customer satisfaction as
‘a business philosophy which tends to the creation of
value for customers, anticipating and managing their
expectations, and demonstrating ability and responsi-
bility to satisfy their needs.’ Recent studies have deter-
mined that adequate security is significant to proper
satisfaction management for the hotel guest (Pazir &
Amin, 2015; Amfani-Joe, Bahagu, & Osagede, 2018;
Onugha et al., 2016). This makes it imperative for ho-
tels to understand the essence of improved guest secu-
rity in order to enhance guest satisfaction.
Guest Loyalty
According to Gronholdt, Martensen, and Kristensen
(2000), a significant link exists between guest satis-
faction and guest loyalty. Onugha et al. (2016, p. 5797)
wrote that: ‘achieving customer satisfaction is a criti-
cal component of the hotel industry because improved
satisfaction can lead to better customer experience
and loyalty.’ Rising loyalty among guests, according to
Jasinskas et al. (2016, p. 562), ‘allows the organization
savings when decreasing marketing costs, transaction
costs, and also the costs as the result of customers’
decreasing change.’ Guest loyalty entails the retention
of existing guests to the extent of encouraging them,
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 197
Edwin Chigozie Nwokorie and Polycarp Igbojekwe Security Challenges
through quality service delivery, which includes guest
security, to attract new customers for the hotel through
inexpensive means, like word-of-mouth adverts (Do-
minici & Guzzo, 2010).
Informal Businesses
These are indirect business investments operating
within hotel establishments and owned by private in-
dividuals who are not part of the hotels where the busi-
nesses operate. These businesses have a way of causing
social unrest in the short run due to lack of regula-
tion and poor security verification. Kasim (2006, p.
5) wrote that ‘a destination may lose its tourist appeal
if there are social problems such as the commercial-
ization of local cultures (which lead to the lowering
of that culture’s authenticity), increase in crime (from
drugs/alcohol abuse and prostitution) and societal an-
tagonism,’ which may arise through informal trade
in the hotel sector (Okafor, Nwokorie, & Akeredolu,
2010). Examples of informal business activities include
but are not limited to sales of local food products, cul-
tural attire, artefacts, jewellery and beads, phone ac-
cessories and recharge cards, books and retails items as
well as the operation of taxicabs and travel agencies.
It is noteworthy that the majority of these informal
business owners are between 18 and 40 years (Obiora
& Nwokorie, 2018).
Methodology
Generally, the study focused on security issues and
challenges facing hotels in Owerri, but with specific
reference to ten selected ones. The delimitation of
the scope is in recognition of security challenges of
the hotel industry. In terms of respondents, customers
and employees of the selected establishments were in-
cluded. In investigating the behaviours and opinions
of the respondents, the study used the survey method,
which necessitated the use of a questionnaire (for data
collection over a period of 14 months: March 2017 to
April 2018) due to both the number of respondents
and nature of the study. The range of the data col-
lection was to ensure responses from the sample cut
across the various business seasons within the local
business period (peak and off-peak).
Population and Sample Size
The determination of the study population is based
on the accessibility of respondents that granted ac-
cess for questionnaire administration. In other words,
the convenience sampling method was adopted, and
the determination of the sample size is based on the
study population comprising 131 guests and 169 cus-
tomer contact hotel employees (300). It is noteworthy
that both strata of the sample showed reasonable un-
derstanding of the research background and proposed
items in the research instrument during fgd (Focus
Group Discussion), thus necessitating the placing of
their responses in the same pool. The Taro Yamane
formula, as given by Yamane (1967), is applied to ar-
rive at a sample size of 171.
Data Collection and Analyses
The questionnaire was designed in a four-point Likert
scale of ‘strongly agreed’ and ‘agreed’ which stand for
a positive response, as well as ‘disagreed’ and ‘strongly
disagreed’ which stand for a negative response. In de-
signing the questionnaire, the researchers were cog-
nisant of the perceived determinants of the security
performance of hotels expected from guests (as ob-
served during fgd). Other guest security-related is-
sues in the questionnaire regarding guest satisfaction
and guest loyalty were adopted from previous stud-
ies, including those of Bankole (2002), Groenenboom
and Jones (2003), Nwokorie (2016), Onugha et al.
(2016), Akpan, (2017), Nwokorie and Ezeibe (2016),
Chauhan, Shukla, and Negi (2018), Bharwani and
Mathews (2012), Nwokorie et al. (2014), Amfani-Joe
et al. (2018), Hilliard and Baloglu (2008), Maranga
(2015), Obiora and Nwokorie (2018), Okafor et al.
(2010).
The instrument was administered to sample to be
completed at their convenience. The responses were
analysed in inferential statistics using the Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (version 23) while the null
hypotheses formulated for the study were tested for
correlation at 0.05 level of significance (95.0 confi-
dence interval) using the Pearson Correlation Coef-
ficient. The decision rule is to accept the hypothesis
if p-value ≥ 0.05; otherwise, the hypothesis is rejec-
ted.
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Edwin Chigozie Nwokorie and Polycarp Igbojekwe Security Challenges
Table 1 Validity and Reliability of Statistics ()
Cronbach’s α No. of items Result
. * Reliable
Notes * The 18 items in the questionnaire, plus four demo-
graphic attributes of respondents not presented in Table 3.
Hypotheses
Twonull hypotheses were formulated in relation to the
consequent variables of the research problem to deter-
mine if relationships between these variables exist.
h1 There is no relationship between guest security
and guest loyalty in the hotel industry.
h2 There is no relationship between the availability
of informal businesses and perceived guest secu-
rity in the hotel industry.
Results and Discussion
Results of post-data analyses show that out of the
171 questionnaires (100 effective sample size) dis-
tributed, 154 were returned, representing a 90.1 re-
turn rate of the research instrument. The gender dis-
tribution of respondents was recorded at 55.2 (85) in
favour of the male gender, while the remaining 44.8
(69) are females. All the respondents are above 18 years
of age and are formally educated.
The validity and reliability test for the research in-
strument shows the consistency of the responses con-
tained in the instrument. Cronbach’s α value is greater
than 0.8, thus suggesting a high consistency in the re-
sponses to the questions (Guilford & Benjamin, 1978)
to signify that the research instrument is reliable (Ta-
ble 1). Table 2 shows the distribution of respondents
among the hotel establishments studied, indicating the
population of guests and customer contact employees
based on usable questionnaires. Customer contact em-
ployees (cce) made up to 48.05 of the respondents,
and 51.95 of the respondents are hotel guests (hg).
While designing the research instrument, statements
directed to either target group of the respondents or a
combination of both target groups were indicated to
elicit responses as appropriate, as indicated in Table
3 (n74, n80, and n154 for cce, hg, and tss, respec-
tively).
Table 2 Target Groups of the Respondents
Hotel () () ()
A  (.)  (.)  (.)
B  (.)  (.)  (.)
C  (.)  (.)  (.)
D  (.)  (.)  (.)
E  (.)  (.)  (.)
F  (.)  (.)  (.)
G  (.)  (.)  (.)
H  (.)  (.)  (.)
I  (.)  (.)  (.)
J  (.)  (.)  (.)
Total  (.)  (.)  ()*
Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) customer con-
tact employees, (2) hotel guests, (3) total sample size.
* Insignificant decimal due to approximation (Egbulonu,
2001).
This enabled a justification of the responses, thus
influencing the research outcome.Of the 18 statements
in the research instrument, three (16.70) were indi-
cated for responses by cce, six (33.30) were indi-
cated for hg, and nine (50.0)were indicated for both
target groups jointly (tss) as indicated in Table 3. As
stated earlier, these statements were adopted frompre-
vious studies, and they are reliable indicators of secu-
rity performances of hotel establishments.
Findings
Responses from the sample in relation to various as-
pects of hotel security, which are indicative of the level
of provision of security services in the selected estab-
lishments, are presented in Table 3. Over 77 of re-
spondents attested that guests’ properties are kept at
their owners’ risk: an indication that guests may not
have confidence in security within the hotel garage.
Cases of car tampering within the hotel premises re-
ceived a positive response of 46.4, which is consid-
erably high. This shows that car park security is dis-
couraging to a large extent and may negatively affect
the guest evaluation of a hotel’s functional quality of
its service (Jasinskas et al., 2016). Also, the issue of
tampered guests’ vehicles could also cast a shadow of
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Edwin Chigozie Nwokorie and Polycarp Igbojekwe Security Challenges
Table 3 Analysis of Agreement and Disagreement Responses
() () () () () ()
 Properties kept at owners’ risk (n) . . . .
 Cases of car tampering have been recorded (n) . . . .
 Poor road quality affecting hotel accessibility (n) . . . .
 Inadequate key control (n) . . . .
 Provision of night lighting (n) . . . .
 Cases of room break-ins (n) . . . .
 Low guest patronage (n) . . . .
 Security conditions affect guests’ stay (n) . . . .
 Current civil demonstrations affecting hotel business (n) . . . .
 Invasion of hotel premises by local residents (n) . . . .
 Availability of informal businesses (n) . . . .
 Invasion by rodents (n) . . . .
 Security collaboration among hotels in the area (n) . . . .
 Perceived guest security (n) . . . .
 Regular energy and water supply (n) . . . .
 Availability of internal security system (n) . . . .
 Availability of banking services within the hotel area (n) . . . .
 Availability of fire alarm and emergency exit route (n) . . . .
Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) serial number, (2) statements, (3) positive response (), (4) negative response
(), (5) mean, (6) standard deviation.
doubt on guests’ property security by the hotel. Lack of
access roads to the hotel environment has a response
of 77.9 to attest to the difficulty in accessing the lo-
cation, while inadequate key control recorded up to
77.3 responses. Chauhan et al. (2018) indicated that
emergency illness and life-threatening situations may
arise, requiring rapid response from hotel authorities.
Such rapid response could be hampered by poor ac-
cessibility from the hotel location.
As many as 78.6 respondents are negative on the
provision of adequate night lighting outside the ho-
tel building, which is an important safety attribute for
customer choice of hotels (Hilliard & Baloglu, 2008),
while 66.3 of the respondents agreed that cases of
room break-ins had been recorded. Low guest patron-
age received 78.0 positive responses, and 75.4 of
the respondents agreed that security conditions affect
whether guests stay in the hotels (Table 3). Worthy of
note are the studies (O’Fallon & Rutherford, 2011; Mu-
biri; 2016), which indicated guest wellbeing and safety
as encouraging guest patronage, and also a strength in
the swot analysis of hotels.
Respondents also attested that the current civil
demonstrations in the state capital were affecting the
hotel business (70.8), rodent invasions affecting guest
comfort has 75.3 responses in agreement, and secu-
rity collaboration among hotels in the study area has
85.1 negative responses (Table 3). Alananzeh (2017)
indicated hygiene factors as having a significant im-
pact on guest perception towards guest safety in ho-
tels, while Chauhan et al. (2018) suggested that hotels
should design a crisis management plan that would
ensure coordination with local administration and se-
curity authorities to forestall emergencies. A lack of
these security aspects has been identified in this study,
even with the existence of informal business opera-
tors who are indirect employees of the hotel establish-
ments, as confirmed by 63.7 of the respondents.
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Table 4 h1 Correlations
Item () ()
() Security conditions (a)  .**
(b) .
(c)  
() Low guest patronage (a) .** 
(b) .
(c)  
Notes Rowheadings are as follows: (a) Pearson correlation,
(b) significance (2-tailed), (c) n. ** Correlation (r2) is signif-
icant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
While 63.7 of the respondents confirmed that
water and energy supplies are available, 82.5 of the
responses attested that guests are not safe in the ho-
tels studied since the availability of internal secu-
rity system, access to the banking system within the
hotel environment, and emergency exit routes have
22.0, 63.7, and 36.4 responses respectively (Ta-
ble 3) which are not encouraging for guest security.
Hilliard and Baloglu (2008) determined that three di-
mensions of security attributes are necessary for the
hotel industry. These include visible security features,
like fire alarms and exit routes, documentation and
staff training, and general security features like back-
up energy supply, which are all indicated in the present
study.
A Pearson Correlation analysis was carried out to
determine if a relationship between security condi-
tions and guest patronage in the hotels exists. The re-
sult shows that r2 is statistically significant and posi-
tive at 0.270, which identifies a weak positive corre-
lation between the variables (Table 4). The mean and
standard deviation for security conditions, and low
guest patronage of 3.01 and 0.61; 3.11 and 0.64, respec-
tively, were also identified. The p-value for correla-
tion is 0.001, which is less than the significance value
of 0.05. Therefore, hypothesis h1 is rejected. This im-
plies that there is a relationship between guest security
and guest loyalty in the hotel industry.
For h2, a Pearson Correlation analysis was carried
out to determinewhether a relationship exists between
guests’ perceived security and availability of informal
Table 5 h2 Correlations
Item () ()
() Availab. of informal businesses (a)  .
(b) .
(c)  
() Perceived guest security (a) . 
(b) .
(c)  
Notes Rowheadings are as follows: (a) Pearson correlation,
(b) significance (2-tailed), (c) n. ** Correlation (r2) is signif-
icant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
businesses in the hotels. The result indicates that r2 is
statistically significant at 0.086, which shows a weak
positive correlation between perceived guests’ secu-
rity and availability of informal businesses within the
selected hotels. The p-value for correlation is 0.281,
which is greater than 0.05 significance value (Table
5). The mean and the standard deviation were also
identified for the availability of informal business (2.92
and 0.60, respectively) and perceived guest safety (3.21
and 0.66, respectively); therefore, hypothesis h2 is ac-
cepted. This suggests there is no relationship between
guests’ perceived security and the availability of infor-
mal businesses in the hotel industry. As the evidence
against the null hypothesis is weak, there seems to be
no guarantee of guest security from operators of infor-
mal businesses within the hotel premises.
From the result of the research, in relation to the
research questions, the rejection of h1 implies an ex-
isting relationship between guest security and guest
loyalty. Therefore, guest loyalty is likely if guest se-
curity is guaranteed to a reasonable extent. This im-
plication is that hotels would maximise guest loyalty
for business success if guest security is enhanced, be-
cause guests feel satisfied and offer repeat transactions
where security is certain. Conversely, accepting h2
entails that the availability of informal businesses in
the hotel premises is not an assurance to the security
of guests’ properties, as informal business operators
could be a threat to hotel security. The relationship
between the availability of informal businesses and
guest security is not mutual due to the threat posed
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 201
Edwin Chigozie Nwokorie and Polycarp Igbojekwe Security Challenges
to hotels’ and guests’ properties by informal business
operators.
Conclusion
This study was aimed to investigate the various secu-
rity challenges of the hotel industry inOwerri, Nigeria,
with particular reference to the impact on overall guest
safety and guest loyalty. The study was able to justify
the intent with various findings to validate that guest
security in the study area is at its low ebb. The study
observed that vehicles parked within hotel premises
are entirely vulnerable to theft. Even though hotel
establishments have no (legal) mandate to provide
guest vehicle security, incidents of vehicle tampering
recorded within hotel premises could be enough to
diminish the hotel’s goodwill to a large extent.
Reactions from respondents also confirmed cases
of roombreak-ins in the establishments studied,which
may be occasioned by poor internal security. Since the
hotel premises are being invaded by local residents (in-
form of informal guest service providers), cases of this
nature cannot be entirely avoided. Rodent invasion, as
indicated in the study, is another critical security risk
that may unknowingly affect food safety and, conse-
quently, guests’ health. Inadequate night lighting is an
indicated security aspect that gives rise to similar vi-
cious security situations.
The deplorable nature of roads leading to the ho-
tels is a major guest security impediment, especially
in terms of emergencies and external security col-
laboration. These situations are contributors to the
customer decision process while making destination
choice; theymay significantly hinder the growth of the
tourism industry in the state in the near future.
Correlation analyses identified a relationship be-
tween guest security and guest loyalty, as the study
indicated that security conditions affect guest loyalty.
Similarly, the study also identified that the availability
of informal businesses does not guarantee guest secu-
rity. This could be because the informal business oper-
ators are not direct employees of the hotel; their com-
mitment to guests in terms of security is not sacro-
sanct.
Previous studies (Jasinskas et al., 2016; Chauhan et
al., 2018; Hilliard & Baloglo, 2008; O’Fallon & Ruther-
ford, 2011; Mubiri, 2016; Alananzeh, 2017) identified
security risks as unfavourable to business success in
the hotel industry as it concerns guest satisfaction and
loyalty. This could be brought about by a neglect of the
various physical features, persons, and the system se-
curity aspects indicated in this study.
For first-time guests in the hotel, poor security
could undermine their satisfaction level and the chan-
ces of the hotel getting repeat business from them even
though they have no previous experience with the ho-
tel (Högnäs, 2015). The negative impact of a poor first
impression could be damaging to the service quality
of a hotel, as identified in previous studies (Högnäs,
2015; Amelia & Garg, 2016). It should be understood
that poor security could affect the guest’s first impres-
sion, as Högnäs (2015, p. 8) wrote: ‘the first impression
of a hotel experience is affected bymany things such as
surroundings, interior, and employees,’ and that ‘pre-
vious experiences and expectations also affect the total
perceived service quality’ (p. 13).
Limitations
The findings of this study may not be summarised as
a general situation obtainable in most state capitals in
the country. This is due, mainly, to inadequate avail-
able local literature to compare hotel security situa-
tions in most major cities in the country to a larger ex-
tent. Further research could be necessitated, especially
in regions where security conditions seem to have ei-
ther improved or deteriorated further.
Recommendation
From the findings of this study, hotels should review
their guest vehicle parking policy to accommodate the
interest of both parties, bearing in mind the confi-
dence reposed in the hotel by the guest. Absolute secu-
rity of guests’ vehicle could be achieved by enhancing
security at the car park area, providing vehicle park-
ing tags, and adequate night lighting as necessitated
by contemporary security situations that require due
diligence.
Hotel security goes beyond the installation of the
latest surveillance equipment. Staff should be made to
undergo regular training on the usage of these devices
to regularly ensure guest satisfaction and be reminded
202 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Edwin Chigozie Nwokorie and Polycarp Igbojekwe Security Challenges
that guest privacy is also important both in the service
encounter and security mix.
Hotels should thrive to ensure a balance between
guest privacy and security while providing lighting
and various security arrangements, bearing in mind
the aggravation customers may feel in the event of
privacy invasion. Therefore, night lighting outside the
hotel building should be adequate to discourage sus-
picious movements during late hours. However, cau-
tion should be applied, so that night lighting is not
reflected into guest rooms unnecessarily by providing
quality curtain materials.
To meet guest expectations and enhance guest loy-
alty, hotels should create a sustainable feedbackmech-
anism to obtain information from guests to enable
them to understand the feeling of first time guests (es-
pecially), in order to understand and capture their per-
ception of initial and overall service quality including
hotel security, and fulfil them for a repeat business.
Security collaboration among hotels locatedwithin
the same vicinity is essential to prevent coordinated
theft that could arise, especially during festive periods.
It is easier for a hotel security system to manage crisis
situations and or send an early report to police author-
ities for rapid response against crimes if intelligence
is received promptly from the nearby hotel establish-
ment of an imminent attack by hoodlums.
Hotel business operators should consider extend-
ing hospitality business development to other parts of
the state, rather than concentrating the business in a
particular cluster of the state capital. This would help
in spreading hospitality-related businesses to other ar-
eas and also minimise the security threat that may
arise as a result of huge guest traffic generated dur-
ing peak periods in locations with a large number of
hotels.
The government also has an enormous role to play
for tourism to grow. While it is expected that govern-
ment should improve security around business estab-
lishments who pay tax for the purpose, effort should
also be put in place by the government to construct
and maintain access roads to hotel establishments in
order to enhance the capacity of these hotels to attract
inbound tourists and other business investors.
Regular inspection should be enforced by regula-
tory agencies in the hotel industry in order to check
that hotelsmaintain standards in all aspects of security
(physical, food and beverage, persons, and systems).
Though informal businesses could assist hotel es-
tablishments in meeting guests’ ongoing needs, ho-
tels should ensure prescribed registration for infor-
mal business operators both with the hotel and affiliate
professional associations prior to the commencement
of business so that the operators would understand
they are part of the business’ success and they should
protect guests’ interest as much as the hotels do.
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Research Note
Instruments for Sustainable Tourism Development
in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Nemanja Šarenac
University of East Sarajevo, Faculty of Economics Pale, Bosnia and Herzegovina
nemanja.sarenac@ekofis.ues.rs.ba
Mladen Rebić
University of East Sarajevo, Faculty of Economics Pale, Bosnia and Herzegovina
rebicmladen@yahoo.co.uk
Milica Bojat
University of East Sarajevo, Faculty of Economics Pale, Bosnia and Herzegovina
milicabojat@yahoo.com
Sustainable tourism development is based on ecological sustainability, ways of using
renewable and non-renewable resources, and socio-cultural and economic sustain-
ability. Stakeholders of the tourism sector have an important role in tourism devel-
opment, in which the public represents one of the critical segments of sustainable
tourism development. This paper aims to analyse and determine the most effective
way of sustainable tourism development for Bosnia and Herzegovina. Understand-
ing different approaches to tourism development and their inclusion in the process
can significantly increase the sustainability of future tourism development. The re-
search was conducted as a population survey on the entire territory of Bosnia and
Herzegovina. The sample size was appropriate, based on the total population and
included more than 385 respondents of different demographic categories. The main
hypothesis of this paper emphasises that citizens’ education about the significance of
the concept of sustainable tourism represents a fundamental approach for the further
development of tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The analysis of the approach
to sustainable tourism development has shown that most respondents consider the
reduction of environmental pollution as the most critical instrument for sustain-
able tourism development in Bosnia and Herzegovina. They also emphasise the im-
portance of providing the active participation of all stakeholders in the creation of
tourism products, with a particular emphasis on local governments. In accordance
with the obtained research results, it was concluded that the main hypothesis was
not confirmed.
Keywords: sustainable development, economic sustainability, socio-cultural
sustainability, ecological sustainability, cultural heritage
https://doi.org/10.26493/2335-4194.12.207-217
Introduction
Today, the sustainable tourism concept is considered
to be a crucial link to the economic growth and de-
velopment of a country. Mihalic (2016) concludes that
the concept of responsible tourism is gaining increas-
ing attention from scholars in the tourismdomain. Ac-
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 207
Nemanja Šarenac et al. Instruments for Sustainable Tourism Development
cordingly, we can confirm the existence of many defi-
nitions that put social equity and environmental qual-
ity into their focus. Pearce, Markandya, and Barbier
(1991) list more than twenty definitions of sustainable
tourism. The term ‘sustainable tourism’ was first de-
fined by the United Nation World Tourism Organi-
zation (unwto) in 1996: ‘Tourism that leads to the
management of all areas, in such a way that the eco-
nomic, social and environmental needs are fulfilled by
cultural integration, ecological processes, biodiversity
and support for the development of society’ (Fennel,
2003). unwto also specifies that sustainable tourism
considers the needs of current tourists as well as the
needs of future generations. Buckley (2009) lists the
most important activities that characterise sustainable
tourism:
• optimal usage of natural resources, adequateman-
agement of environmental processes, and efforts
to preserve biodiversity;
• respecting the socio-cultural attitudes of the local
community, preserving cultural and traditional
values, as well as undertaking activities in the
field of intercultural understanding and toler-
ance;
• providing real and long-lasting economic pro-
cesses that would enable the growth of thewelfare
of society, employment stabilisation, and oppor-
tunities to earn income;
• the long-term success of tourism depends on
whether the tourism sector is able to manage
and reconcile economic, social and environmen-
tal aspects, which, at the same time, represent the
dimensions of sustainable development.
The underlying assumptions of sustainable tourism
are precisely formulated in international documents,
such as the Charter for Sustainable Tourism (see http:
//www.gdrc.org/uem/eco-tour/charter.html) and the
Global Sustainable Tourism Council (see http://www
.gstcouncil.org/gstc-criteria).
Vehbi (2012) mentioned that sustainability as a
concept stands for long term economic, environmen-
tal, and community health. Wearing and Nail (2012)
define the dimensions of sustainable tourism develop-
ment in the following way: ecological dimension – en-
vironmental quality and natural resources quality cre-
ate the level of attractiveness of the place for tourists.
Therefore, any activity that affects the environment or
natural resources, in the long run, aggravates attrac-
tiveness from the point of view of tourists, which leads
to fewer visitors and less income from tourists. Socio-
cultural dimension – the social and cultural heritage
of a region have a crucial role in tourism, especially in
regions with particularly rich cultural and artistic her-
itage, or places where local tradition and values have
a meaningful role. In these places, tourism can sig-
nificantly contribute to creating new jobs, protecting
cultural heritage, but it can also contribute to the de-
pendence of these regions on foreign companies and
tourist operators. Economic dimension – refers to the
financial aspects of tourism activities that are reflected
in the profit achievement, respecting the principles
of the sustainable development concept. If we do not
comply with the concept of sustainable development
and do not consider the ecological and socio-cultural
dimension, the results of future projections can distort
the picture and lead to inappropriate planning.
Furthermore, sustainable tourism should (unwto,
2017):
• optimally use ecological resources that are a cru-
cial element in the development of tourism, as
well as maintain basic ecological processes and
contribute to the preservation of natural and bi-
ological diversity;
• respect the socio-cultural authenticity of the lo-
cal community, preserves its material and cul-
tural heritage, traditional values and contributes
to intercultural understanding and tolerance;
• preserve the vital and long-term goals of eco-
nomic and business growth, providing socio-
economic benefits for all interested parties, em-
ployment, income and social services for the local
community and contributing to poverty reduc-
tion.
Huang (2011) found that non-conventional meth-
ods of assessing tourism sustainability failed to pro-
vide reliable results. To fill this gap, numerous activi-
ties have been undertaken to develop a relatively com-
prehensive and logical assessment methodology (Rei-
208 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Nemanja Šarenac et al. Instruments for Sustainable Tourism Development
hanian, Hin, Kahrom, & Mahmood, 2015; Dupeyras
& MacCallum, 2013). Some critical reasons call for
an urgent assessment of the sustainability of tourism.
Very poor ecological settings and cultural sensitivity
of the sites call for the consistent monitoring and eval-
uation of the impact of tourism. In addition, the dy-
namic, unstable and unpredictable nature of the in-
dustry encourages the consistent implementation of
the assessment and tracking progress towards sus-
tainable tourism development (Asmelash & Kumar,
2019).
Many tools can be used to assess the sustainable
development of tourism. As one of the most widely
accepted assessment tools, we indicate indicators or
instruments of sustainability because they are both
considered relatively reliable and easy to apply, and
they contain qualitative and quantitative data. How-
ever, the absence of well-developed sustainability in-
dicators greatly influences the adequacy of tourism
sustainability assessments (Asmelash & Kumar, 2019).
Nevertheless, Reihanian et al. (2015) propose several
instruments that can adequately assess the develop-
ment of sustainable tourism, especially emphasising
the systematic organisation and measurement of in-
dicators, based on which the state can make adequate
conclusions and decisions for the sustainable develop-
ment of tourism.
It is necessary to note that most of the studies car-
ried out on the topic of tourism sustainability assess-
ment applied positively and negatively expressed in-
dicators (Cottrell, Vaske, & Roemer, 2013; Ayazlar &
Ayazlar, 2016). Thus, indicators/instruments provide
an insight into the state of development of sustainable
tourism, or its particular aspect, at a given point in
time, but this cannot be a final assessment of the state
of the given occurrence. Therefore, indicatorsmeasure
information that can enable the authorities to reduce
the chances of making bad decisions unconsciously
(Jovičić, 2014).
Sustainable tourism is highly dependent on its abil-
ity to increase financial benefits, including the abil-
ity to maintain social, cultural, and ecological her-
itage (Janusz & Bajdor, 2013). The concept of sus-
tainable development has led to numerous controver-
sies. The approaches are different: from those who
see it as the only acceptable concept of future de-
velopment to those who accept it as a theoretically
conceived conception and philosophical paradigm
but dispute its applicability in practice. The concept
of sustainable development is directly related to the
improvement of the quality of the tourist destina-
tion. The preserved natural environment, cultural-
historical heritage, positive relation of inhabitants to-
wards tourists, cultural identity – those are the ele-
ments of the quality of a tourist destination, for which
sustainable development stands. In this way, a positive
interaction between tourism and the environment is
created. Tourism brings revenue and part of it is in-
vested in improving the quality of the environment.
The preserved environment is an essential element of
the tourist attraction of the destination.
Sustainable tourismdevelopment shouldmaximise
the benefits of tourism and, at the same time,minimise
damage or costs and direct and limit tourism devel-
opment in line with the requirements of sustainable
tourism development. We can observe that the con-
cept of sustainable development is based on the princi-
ple of intergenerational equity and that sustainable de-
velopment requires harmonisation between economic
growth, social justice, and a healthy environment. The
violation of this principle causes environmental dam-
age, which, although done today, is shifted to the next
generation, endangering economic development and
the development of tourism.
The population of a local community, region, en-
tity, or country represents one of the most critical
stakeholders in sustainable tourism development. If
the population is not involved in the decision-making
process, then the development process does not have
a great chance to succeed in the long run. They will
take a negative attitude about both existing and future
tourism development. This paper aims to determine
the perceptions of the population towards the devel-
opment of tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina from
the perspective of sustainability. The research in the
work was carried out based on the scientific method
of deduction and analysis for the interpretation of sec-
ondary data sources, and the primary research was
carried out based on the descriptive statistical analy-
sis method. Secondary data were collected from offi-
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 209
Nemanja Šarenac et al. Instruments for Sustainable Tourism Development
cial reports of tourist organisations, scientific works
of experts in the field of sustainable tourism and rele-
vant websites. Also, we obtained a list of sustainability
indicators from an extended literature review and in-
terviews with some key informants, with a particular
emphasis on the European Tourism Indicator System
(etis).
Literature Review
In recent years, sustainable development and sustain-
able tourism development have become a very impor-
tant subject of numerous research papers around the
world. Sustainability has become a significant link of
tourism development, especially for tourist destina-
tions, because the environment and its quality are an
essential segment of tourist attraction (Bramwell &
Lane, 1993; Butler, 1999; Garrod & Fyall, 1998; Stabler
&Goodall, 1997; Inskeep, 1991;Wahab& Pigram, 1997;
Hudson & Miller, 2005; Lynn & Brown, 2003; Ross &
Wall, 1999). The primary aim of sustainable tourism
development is to provide economic benefits, to max-
imise visitors’ satisfaction, to protect the environment
and improve the quality of life of the population of
the relevant destination (Akis, Peristianis, & Warner,
1996; Aronsson, 2000; Bramwell et al., 1998; Choi &
Sirakaya, 2006;McIntyre, 1993;Mowforthand&Munt,
2003).
Sustainable tourism development greatly facilitates
and accelerates local economic development, envi-
ronmental protection, as well as cultural heritage, as
confirmed in numerous international resolutions and
agreements (Carta di Rimini per il turismo sosteni-
bile, 2001; European Commission, 2000, 2006, 2007;
unwto, 1995). Also, it should be emphasised that the
real effect of sustainable tourism can only be achieved
if local communities and the state truly understand
that sustainable tourism development greatly con-
tributes to the improvement of social well-being (Ha-
nafiah, Azman, Jamaluddin, & Aminuddin, 2016).
Neto (2003) andmanyother authors (Godde, Price,
& Zimmermann, 2000;Milne &Ateljevic, 2001;Wells,
1997), confirmed the positive correlation of sustainable
tourism and local development, which makes it clear
how vital sustainable tourism is for the local and re-
gional development and the whole economy.
Indicators and standards for sustainable tourism
development have been proposed by several organisa-
tions. In 1995, for example, the United Nations Com-
mission for Sustainable Development (csd) launched
a five-year programme to create sustainability indica-
tors. However, the indicators obtained were focused
on the global (not local) and environmental (not cul-
tural, economic, or institutional) dimension of sus-
tainability (Cottrell, Vaske, & Shen, 2007; Cottrell,
Vaske, Shen & Ritter, 2007).
unwto has also produced 11 key indicators for
sustainable tourism, which are divided into four cat-
egories: ecological, social, economic, and planning
(Cottrell et al., 2013).
The European Commission launched the Euro-
pean Tourism Indicator System (etis) in 2013 to help
destinations to monitor and measure their sustainable
tourism performance by using a common compara-
ble approach. The etis was based on 27 core indica-
tors and 40 optional indicators, subdivided into four
categories: destination management, social, and cul-
tural impact, economic value, environmental impact
(the list indicators can be found at http://ec.europa.eu/
growth/sectors/tourism/offer/sustainable/indicators/
index_en.htm). Choi and Sirakaya (2006) also pro-
posed six dimensions for measuring the sustainability
of community-based tourism: political, social, ecolog-
ical, economic, technological, and cultural indicators.
Kim, Uysal, and Sirgy (2013) believed that the per-
ception of the well-being of the inhabitants under
tourism can influence the development, and tourism
policy and planning. Consequently, well-being can be
used as an indicator of testing the perceptions of res-
idents for encouraging the development of tourism.
Woo, Kim, and Uysal (2015) say the population feels
that life satisfaction is a key indicator for supporting
sustainable tourism development. To achieve the sus-
tainable development of community-based tourism,
the population should be provided with life satisfac-
tion sustainability such as material, emotional, health
and safety, and well-being.
In their paper, Edington and Edington (1986) anal-
ysed and confirmed the impact of tourism on the envi-
ronment, culture, and social and economic conditions;
tourism also relies heavily on the natural and socio-
210 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Nemanja Šarenac et al. Instruments for Sustainable Tourism Development
cultural environment. Gratton and Van der Straaten
(1994) also stated that sustainable tourism develop-
ment is only possible when environmental capacities
are not endangered.
Sustainable tourism is becoming increasingly rel-
evant for other forms of tourism, regardless of scope,
including mass tourism, which implies the fact that
the concept of sustainable tourism brings together so-
cial, cultural, economic, and political alongside envi-
ronmental issues (Bramwell, Higham, Lane, & Miller,
2017). In recent years, some critical issues in sustain-
able tourism have changed. For example, it has been
found that research and policies within sustainable
tourism are too focused on the behaviour of individ-
uals, rather than considering the broader social rela-
tionships and structures, institutional rules, and other
factors. (Nunkoo, 2017; Bramwell et al., 2017; Hall,
2013).
According to Choi and Sirakaya (2005), any form
of tourism development can be sustainable, but only if
the population is the focal point of the mentioned de-
velopment. The population attitudes are the basis for
successful sustainable tourism development. Gursoy,
Chi, and Dyer (2010) concluded that the population
aspires to have positive attitudes towards the concept
of sustainable tourism because they see tourism as a
tool for economic development.
Perceptions of population can be influenced by de-
mographic factors – age, gender, education, and years
of residence (Vargas-Sánchez, Plaza-Mejia, & Porras-
Bueno, 2009), community attachment (Lee, 2013),
tourism planning, environmental sustainability (Choi
& Murray, 2010), the state of the local economy (Gur-
soy, Jurowski, & Uysal, 2002), and the stage of tourism
development (Lundberg, 2015; Hunt & Stronza, 2014).
Populations with positive perceptions will become
major stakeholders in tourism planning and manage-
ment (Lee & Hsieh, 2016).
Methodology
The empirical research results, as the most important
part, will be processed by descriptive statistical meth-
ods, as well as appropriate tests to compare variables
within each dimension. These statistical methods will
be particularly useful in the presentation of survey re-
sults, for which the demographic impact on individ-
ual decisions, perceptions and preferences will be pro-
cessed. The questionnaire, as the main segment of this
research, consists of:
• demographic data of respondents (gender, age,
education, employment);
• an open question of the eight instruments of sus-
tainable tourism development that could best be
applied in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
A Likert scale for measuring the value of attitudes
with five responses provided, which are coded in num-
bers from one to five will be used to evaluate the atti-
tudes of the respondents. The questionnaire will con-
sist of open and closed questions, meaning statements
with offered responses (or without intensity-yes/no
answers) and statements without an offered response.
The questionnaire will be implemented in written and
electronic form in two ways: individual and by post
(or e-mail). The survey aims to analyse and imple-
ment the concept of sustainable tourism development
in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The population (basic set) in this survey are res-
idents of Bosnia and Herzegovina who, according to
the available official data of the Agency for Statistics
of Bosnia and Herzegovina, number 3,531,159 (data for
2013). The sample will be probabilistic andwill be cho-
sen by a simple random method, assuming a normal
pattern of the sample and population (the sample is
n > 30, and the probability of each unit’s choice is
the same). Of course, such a choice will include all
demographic categories of respondents who differ by
gender, age, education, income. A sample that has at-
tributes of impartiality, representativeness and econ-
omy is calculated according to the formula for calcu-
lating the minimum sample size:
n =
Z2p(1 − p)
c2
=
1.962 · 0.5 · (1 − 0.5)
0.052
=
0.9604
0.0025
= 384.16.
For the 95 level of reliability Z = 1.96, reliability
interval (c) ± 5, population estimation in b&h of
3,531,159, response rate of (p) 50. This led to a sample
of 385 respondents. The sample rate (step) isR =N/n =
2227970/385 = 5786.93. The rate of choice or coverage
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 211
Nemanja Šarenac et al. Instruments for Sustainable Tourism Development
Table 1 Statistical Analysis of Sustainable Tourism Instruments that Could be Applied in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Instruments () () ()
() Education of citizens about the importance of sustainable tourism . . .
() Reduction of environmental pollution . . .
() Maintaining natural and cultural heritage . . .
() Improving tourism management . . .
() Establish an integrated natural resource management system . . .
() Enable the public-private partnership model . . .
() Ensure active participation of all stakeholders, especially local communities,
in the creation of tourism products
. . .
() Complete integration of the term sustainable tourism into strategic planning . . .
Average . . .
Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) mean, (2) standard deviation, (3) coefficient of variation.
Table 2 Comparison of Respondents by Gender
Item () () () () () () () ()
Mean Rank Male . . . . . . . .
Female . . . . . . . .
Mann-Whitney U test . . . . . . . .
Wilcoxon W . . . . . . . .
Z –. –. –. –. –. –. –. –.
Asymp. significance (-tailed) . . . . . . . .
Notes For column headings see instruments in Table 1.
of the sample by the population is f = n/N = 0.00017
< 0.05 (n > 30).
Since a large amount of data on indicators rele-
vant to sustainable tourism has been collected and
analysed, a statistical method from general scientific
methods will be used. The technique to be used in
this research will be primarily cabinet or ‘desk’ re-
search. An insight into the available literature in the
field of research subjects (books, articles in scientific
journals, collections from scientific conferences, elec-
tronic sources, etc.) will be done. The collected data
were analysed using spss software. Data analysis us-
ing this software will consist of descriptive statistical
methods (arithmetic mean, frequencies, standard de-
viation, correlation coefficient), as well as appropriate
inferential statistical analyses (Mann-Whitney’s U test
and Kruskal-Wallis H test).
Research Results
The method of descriptive statistics was used to cover
the generalities of respondents such as gender, age and
education. A total of 385 peoplewere tested. In the total
sample, there were many females, but this is not sig-
nificant for the purpose of the research. Of the total
number of female respondents, there were 221 (57.4)
female and 164 males (42.6).
Regarding age structure, the highest percentage of
respondents is from 18 to 30 years old (61), followed
by subjects aged 31 to 40 (24.20), 41 to 51 years (9.4)
and respondents over 51 years (5+.5). The survey in-
cluded 191 persons with high school diploma, then 163
with bachelor’s degrees, 30 master’s degrees, and one
doctor of science.
In the opinion of the population, the highest rat-
ing received an instrument that refers to the mainte-
212 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Nemanja Šarenac et al. Instruments for Sustainable Tourism Development
Table 3 Comparison of Respondents by Age
Item () () () () () () () ()
Mean Rank – . . . . . . . .
– . . . . . . . .
– . . . . . . . .
+ . . . . . . . .
Chi-Square . . . . . . . .
Degrees of freedom        
Asymp. significance . . . . . . . .
Notes For column headings see instruments in Table 1.
Table 4 Comparison of Respondents by Education
Item () () () () () () () ()
Mean Rank High Sch. . . . . . . . .
bch . . . . . . . .
msc . . . . . . . .
phd . . . . . . . .
Chi-Square . . . . . . . .
Degrees of freedom        
Asymp. significance . . . . . . . .
Notes For column headings see instruments in Table 1.
nance of natural and cultural heritage (4.09), followed
by the instrument of inclusion of all stakeholders in
the creation of tourism products (4.06). There are two
instrumentswith ratings above 4: the reduction of pol-
lution and the improvement of tourism management.
The average deviation from the average rating is 0.966.
The dispersion of the opinion of the respondents about
the instruments is moderate (coefficients of variation
amount to between 21 and 28). Non-parametric
tests (Mann-Whitney’s U test and Kruskal-Wallis H
test) will be used to determine whether there are sta-
tistically significant differences between demographic
groups, in the direction of instruments of sustainable
tourism development can be applied in Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
Based on the test results shown in Table 2, conclu-
sions about the attitudes of men and women towards
the instruments of sustainable tourism development
can be drawn:
• there is no statistically significant difference in at-
titudes between men and women, except on the
second instrument about reducing pollution of
the environment, where the difference is statisti-
cally significant p = 0.047 < 0.05;
• as shown in the average of the ranking of instru-
ments, six of the eight instruments women, un-
like men, considers more important.
Based on the results shown in Table 3, it can be con-
cluded that:
• there is no statistically significant difference be-
tween respondents in relation to their age be-
cause all values are p > 0.05;
• respondents aged 31–40 years, unlike the other
age groups, consider certain instruments of sus-
tainable tourism development more important
than the other age groups do;
• respondents aged 41–50 years, unlike the others,
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 213
Nemanja Šarenac et al. Instruments for Sustainable Tourism Development
consider the reduction of pollution more impor-
tant, while respondents above 50 years old con-
sider the participation of all stakeholders in creat-
ing a sustainable tourism product to be the most
important.
Based on the results shown inTable 4, it can be con-
cluded that:
• there is no statistically significant difference be-
tween respondents in relation to their educa-
tion, except on the sixth instrument (enabling
the public-private partnership model) for which
p = 0.007 < 0.05;
• respondentswith a university degree, unlike those
who are categorised in the other education groups,
give greater importance to certain instruments of
sustainable tourism development;
• respondents with a master’s degree, unlike the
others, consider reducing pollution of the envi-
ronment, maintaining natural and cultural her-
itage, and improving tourism management to be
more important.
Conclusion
It is necessary to emphasise that this work is not com-
prehensive. Despite the contribution of this paper,
which mainly refers to extending the knowledge of
sustainable tourism development and makes a sig-
nificant contribution to relevant literature, it has sev-
eral limitations that need to be considered for future
research on the assessment of tourism sustainabil-
ity. The population perceptions were measured based
on three dimensions (economic, socio-cultural, and
environmental). To overcome this shortcoming, it is
necessary to include some additional dimensions and
their respective indicators such as technological sus-
tainability, infrastructural sustainability, information,
communication technology, and stakeholder collabo-
ration. In this paper, the emphasis was placed on per-
ceptions of local residents using a survey conducted
during one year. Consequently, future research should
have a long-term qualitative approach (in-depth in-
terviews, focus groups, participative observations and
ethnography). Also, this study was conducted when
b&h was in a politically instable time and, thus, the
perception of respondents might be negatively af-
fected.
Based on the obtained results of this empirical re-
search, the population in Bosnia and Herzegovina
has shown positive perceptions towards sustainable
tourism development. All instruments of sustainable
tourism development were rated with a high rating.
That means that the respondents do not have an un-
decided attitude about their application. A priority is
given to the maintenance of natural and cultural re-
sources, as the main impetus for the implementation
of sustainable tourism. Also, it can be concluded that
all the population groups possess certain knowledge
about sustainable development and the ways it can be
applied in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In the future development of sustainable tourism
in b&h, it is necessary to actively implement all prin-
ciples of sustainable development in the ecological
(preservation and protection of natural resources),
the socio-cultural (protection of cultural and histor-
ical material and intangible heritage), and the eco-
nomic principles of sustainable development. The eco-
nomic principles of sustainable tourism development
in b&h are easier to accomplish in big cities (Sarajevo,
Banja Luka, Mostar), where there is a broad range of
tourism services and facilities, and attractiveness is
based largely on cultural and historical heritage.
It is vital that the future conceptualisation of sus-
tainable tourism issues involves local communities
and the public sector. If the public sector does not
implement training activities and a sustainable devel-
opment policy, it is difficult to expect the interest and
active role of other stakeholders in the realisation of
sustainable development. If the population does not
recognise the benefits that a sustainable development
policy will bring, the public sector and its policy will
not have the support of the population.
b&h chronically faces the problem of a lack of
quality tourism development strategies. Perhaps the
biggest problem that b&h faces in terms of develop-
ing development strategies is the lack of understand-
ing of the importance of long-term planning. Specifi-
cally, long-term planning implies a period of over ten
years and is still rarely used in development strategies
in b&h. The lack of a long-termvision of development
214 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Nemanja Šarenac et al. Instruments for Sustainable Tourism Development
can prevent the implementation of the same. We em-
phasise that the sustainable development of tourism
relies on a long-term perspective, and therefore re-
quires a strategy that covers a period of more than
ten years. Consequently, we can conclude that in b&h
exist a problem of implementing the principles of sus-
tainable tourism, both at the level of state administra-
tion and the level of local self-government.
The positive attitude of the population towards
tourism development has key importance for the sus-
tainability of tourism in this area. To guarantee the
complete success of tourism development and its sus-
tainability, it is necessary to invest in natural and cul-
tural heritage, to ensure the active participation of all
participants in the creation of tourism product and
to continuously work on the education of human re-
sources in tourism. Accordingly, the authorities re-
sponsible for the development of tourism and its plan-
ners should further devote themselves to the develop-
ment of strategies and action plans for the implemen-
tation of instruments for sustainable tourism develop-
ment in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
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Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 217

Abstracts in Slovene Povzetki v slovenšini
Tradicionalne prireditve v severni Istri v smislu avtentičnosti
in (dis)kontinuitete
Katja Hrobat Virloget in Petra Kavrečič
Pričujoči prispevek je nastal kot rezultat raziskave, ki je potekala v okviru projekta
Turizmo Ištriano (Program las Istre). Cilj raziskave je bila etnološka študija ne-
snovne dediščine severne Istre, pri čemer je bila osrednja pozornost namenjena tra-
dicionalnim praznikom. V okviru raziskave sva se odločili za drugačenmetodološki
pristop, ki se namesto turistične valorizacije »od zgoraj« zanima, kako ljudje do-
jemajo nesnovno dediščino in kako (morebitno) turistično promocijo šager vidijo
domačini. So turisti na šagrah sploh dobrodošli? Ali so te prireditve večinoma na-
menjene lokalnemu prebivalstvu? Obenem so se pojavila vprašanja kot: Katere pri-
reditve imajo potencialni turistični interes in želijo privabiti (tuje) turiste? Lahko na
območju severne Istre zasledimo prireditve, ki bi bile turistično zanimive? Je to zna-
čilneje za novodobne, nedavno »izumljene« prireditve/praznike ali tudi za »tradici-
onalne«? Ti razmisleki so odprli nova vprašanja o tako imenovani »avtentičnosti« in
kontinuiteti oziroma diskontinuiteti nesnovne dediščine v severni Istri, kar do se-
daj še ni bilo deležno znanstvene obravnave. Raziskava je temeljila na etnografski
metodi. Intervjuji so potekali s prebivalci ruralnih območij, starejšimi od 60 let. Za-
nimalo naju je predvsem, kako domačini doživljajo tradicionalne praznike, kaj jim
je oziroma ni všeč in kako dojemajo spremembe. Drugi del raziskave je temeljil na
antropološki metodi opazovanja z udeležbo, kjer smo opazovali devet praznikov, ki
so potekali leta 2019. Na prireditvah so potekali tudi intervjuji z obiskovalci in orga-
nizatorji.
Ključne besede: pogostitve, šagra, tradicija, (dis)kontinuiteta, severna Istra
Academica Turistica, 12(2), 109–120
Temačne prireditve istrskega podeželja: pogled elektronskih medijev
Metod Šuligoj
Ta pilotna raziskava osvetljuje povezavo in odsev preteklih travmatičnih dogodkov
v sodobnih temačnih prireditvah. Namen raziskave je zagotoviti osnovno razume-
vanje, kaj pomenijo temačne prireditve in temačni turizem v specifičnem regional-
nem okolju – na podeželju čezmejnega območja Istre. Posledično je bila s pomo-
čjo kvantitativne vsebinske analize identificirana medijsko konstruirana družbena
resničnost, povezana s temačnimi prireditvami; v iskanju odgovorov na tri razisko-
valna vprašanja so bile uporabljene navzkrižne tabele in deskriptivna analiza. Ugo-
tovljeno je bilo, da na vseh območjih istrskega podeželja prevladujejo spominske
prireditve (komemoracije), povezane z drugo svetovno vojno; temačne prireditve so
se po navedbah medijev odvile večinoma ob spomenikih ali prizoriščih tragičnih
dogodkov – večina jih je bila v majhnih istrskih mestih. Polaganje cvetja in (boga-
tejši) kulturni program sta pomemben element istrskih temačnih prireditev na vseh
območjih. Ni pa statistično pomembne povezave med vrsto dogodkov in različnimi
podeželskimi območji. Glede na ugotovitve smo zdaj (vsaj v osnovi) seznanjeni s
sedanjimi istrskimi temačnimi prireditvami, ki ponujajo idealno osnovo za razvoj
temačnega turizma v najrazvitejši turistični regiji Slovenije in Hrvaške.
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 219
Abstracts in Slovene Povzetki v slovenšini
Ključne besede: temačne prireditve, temačni turizem, tematski turizem, zgodovina
Istre, podeželje, mediji
Academica Turistica, 12(2), 121–132
Analiza učinkovitosti prehrambnih obratov v ruralnem okolju:
primer Slovenije
Tanja Planinc in Marko Kukanja
Pričujoči prispevek analizira učinkovitost restavracij, ki delujejo na slovenskem po-
deželju. V vzorec je bilo zajetih 52 restavracij, ki delujejo neodvisno in v komerci-
alne namene. Del podatkov je bil pridobljen preko Agencije Republike Slovenije za
javnopravne evidence in storitve, del podatkov pa na terenu. Na podlagi priložno-
stnega vzorčenja so bile v raziskavo zajete samo tiste restavracije, ki prihodke do-
segajo izključno iz naslova prehrambne dejavnosti. Učinkovitost je bila analizirana
na podlagi finančnih podatkov prvin poslovnega procesa ter s pomočjo metode po-
datkovnih ovojnic (dea). Restavracije, ki so bile vključene v raziskavo, dosegajo v
povprečju 66-odstotno učinkovitost. Ugotovitve raziskave ponujajo vpogled v delo-
vanje podeželskega prehrambnega gostinstva, ki predstavlja pomemben in nepogre-
šljiv del slovenskega turizma.
Ključne besede: učinkovitost, prehrambno gostinstvo, Slovenija, dea
Academica Turistica, 12(2), 133–145
Kakovost v prehrambnih gostinskih obratih na podeželju:
primer slovenske Istre
Marko Kukanja in Tanja Planinc
Namen pričujočega prispevka je raziskati kakovost storitev v prehrambnih gostin-
skih obratih, ki se nahajajo na podeželju slovenske Istre. Kakovost storitev smo iz-
merili s pomočjo raziskovalnega inštrumenta dineserv. Vzorec raziskave obsega
25 prehrambnih gostinskih obratov ter 250 veljavnih vprašalnikov, ki smo jih pri-
dobili od domačih gostov, ki so obedovali v preučevanih obratih. Na podlagi rezul-
tatov eksplorativne faktorske analize smo identificirali dve glavni skupini faktorjev
(dimenzij), ki najbolje pojasnjujeta zaznano kakovost storitev v prehrambnih gostin-
skih obratih na preučevanem območju: (1) vživetje, odzivnost in zanesljivost ter (2)
urejenost. Rezultati naše raziskave se razlikujejo od dimenzij kakovosti, ki so bile
identificirane v predhodni študiji (Kukanja & Planinc, 2015), izvedeni na obalnem
območju slovenske Istre. Rezultati pričujoče raziskave so pomembni za izboljšanje
kakovosti storitev tako namikro ravni (restavracije) kot na nivoju turistične destina-
cije (makro raven). Menedžerji prehrambnih gostinskih obratov morajo primarno
zagotoviti kakovost obeh identificiranih dimenzij kakovosti ter nenehno meriti ra-
ven kakovosti ponudbe, da bi zadovoljili pričakovanja svojih gostov. Priporočljivo je,
da se rezultati znanstvenih raziskav vključijo v bodoče strategije razvoja turizma na
preučevanemobmočju. Predlagamo, da se raziskovalci v prihodnjih raziskavah osre-
dotočijo na ugotavljanje potencialnih razlik v kakovosti ponudbe med prehramb-
220 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Abstracts in Slovene Povzetki v slovenšini
nimi gostinskimi obrati, ki poslujejo na območju slovenske Istre, ter tistimi obrati,
ki poslujejo v konkurenčnih podeželskih destinacijah (hrvaška Istra, Italija).
Ključne besede: prehrambno gostinstvo, kakovost, dineserv, podeželje, slovenska
Istra
Academica Turistica, 12(2), 147–159
Konkurenčnost dogodkov dediščinskega turizma na hrvaškem podeželju
Danijel Drpić in Elena Rudan
V zadnjih nekaj letih se na hrvaškem podeželju razvijajo različne oblike turizma,
osredotočene predvsemnadediščino. Trajnostno upravljanje bogate kulturne in zgo-
dovinske dediščine hrvaškega podeželja lahko povečuje tržno prepoznavnost in kon-
kurenčnost. Med pomembne elemente dediščinskega turizma sodijo dogodki, ki iz-
hajajo iz skupnosti in njenih tradicij ter to skupnost predstavljajo na turističnem
trgu. Dogodki s svojimi značilnostmi in edinstvenostjo, ki temeljijo na dediščini,
omogočajo ustvarjanje edinstvenega turističnega produkta in preko dediščine pro-
mocijo hrvaških podeželskih destinacij. Turistični dogodki in programi zagotavljajo
uspešno interpretacijo elementov dediščine, krepijo lokalno identiteto in ustvarjajo
pozitivne povezavemed obiskovalci in gostitelji. Namenprispevka je raziskati in pre-
dlagati možnosti za inoviranje prireditev, ki temeljijo na dediščini hrvaškega pode-
želja. Analiza zajema đakoviški festival vezenja, ki se odvija v Ðakovu. Da bi olajšali
doseganje konkurenčnosti hrvaških kulturnih prireditev, ki temeljijo na dediščini,
v prispevku predlagamo model certificiranja in nagrajevanja dogodkov, tako ime-
novani CroRuralisHeritage Awards Certification Model. Da bi dosegali konkurenč-
nost turistične ponudbe hrvaškega podeželja, so v prispevku podane tudi smernice
za ustvarjanje turističnih dogodkov, ki temeljijo na dediščini kot pomembnem ele-
mentu pri uresničevanju inovativne in trajnostne turistične ponudbe.
Ključne besede: dediščina, dogodki, trajnostni razvoj, turizem na podeželju,
Hrvaška, đakoviški vezi
Academica Turistica, 12(2), 161–172
Razpoznavnost marketinških praks v podeželskem turizmu:
študija primera Bosne in Hercegovine
Merima Činjarević, Almir Peštek in Sanja Tufo
Želeli smo raziskati posebnost tržnih praks malih podjetij s podeželja v kontekstu
tako imenovanega »zaostalega gospodarstva« v jugovzhodni Evropi – Bosni in Her-
cegovini. Za potrebe te eksplorativne študije smo uporabili kvalitativno metodolo-
gijo z uporabo študije več primerov in polstrukturiranih intervjujev. Zbrali smo de-
vet primerovmalih podjetij v turizmu na podeželju in opravili intervjuje z njihovimi
lastniki. Analiza podatkov temelji na interpretativni raziskovalni paradigmi. Rezul-
tati kažejo, da večina malih turističnih podjetij na podeželju uporablja marketinške
prijeme in vse kaže, da imajo ta podjetja pozitiven podjetniški in profesionalni odnos
do marketinških ukrepov. Poleg tega večina malih turističnih podjetij na podeželju
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 221
Abstracts in Slovene Povzetki v slovenšini
sledi tako imenovanemu modelu coniranja in obiskovalcem ponuja neokrnjene na-
ravne atrakcije. Na podlagi ključnih konceptov, opredeljenih v sklopu procesa kodi-
ranja, smo v raziskavi izluščili naslednje teme: raznolikost izdelkov, pristnost izku-
šenj, tržne zmogljivosti in poslovni izzivi. Ta študija poglablja razumevanje marke-
tinških aktivnostimajhnih turističnih podjetij na podeželju. Poleg tega oblikovalcem
politik ponuja dragocene informacije za oblikovanje in izvajanje politik/programov,
ki spodbujajo rast te skupine podjetij.
Ključne besede: podeželje, marketing, razvoj turizma, mala turistična podjetja
Academica Turistica, 12(2), 173–184
Sistemski pristop h kulturnemu turizmu in k prireditvam
Tadeja Jere Jakulin
Prispevek obravnava metodologijo sistemskega pristopa v kontekstu kulturnega tu-
rizma. Sistemski pristop se v naravoslovju in inženirstvu široko uporablja zadnjih
sedemdeset let, odkar je Ludwig vonBertalanffy objavil svojmanifest splošne sistem-
ske teorije (1952) inNorbertWiener svojega o kibernetiki (1948).Namen splošne teo-
rije sistemov in kibernetike je »ontologija« delovanja, ki jo prikazuje povratna infor-
macija. Njen cilj je najti metodo za napovedovanje posledic odločanja. Industrijski
inženiring je pomen sistemskega načina razmišljanja odkril, ko je Forrester objavil
delo Industrial Dynamics (1961), družbene vede pa so sistemsko mišljenje odkrile v
delu Petra Sengeja The Fifth Discipline (1990), v katerem je obravnavana učeča se or-
ganizacija. Kulturni turizem predstavlja element kompleksnega turističnega sistema
v globalnih in lokalnih razsežnostih, kjer kulturne prireditve kot še manjši elementi
igrajo bistveno vlogo v turistični ponudbi. V prispevku sta predstavljeni dve metodi
sistemskega pristopa kot metodologije za raziskovanje kompleksnih pojavov, in si-
cer: sistemskomišljenje in modeliranje. Gre zametodi, ki lahko pomembno vplivata
na sprejemanje odločitev. Prispevek ob tem predstavi primernost sistemske meto-
dologije pri odločanju in modeliranju kulturnega turizma.
Ključne besede: sistemski pristop, analitično in sistemsko razmišljanje,
kompleksnost, kulturni turizem in dogodki, modeliranje
Academica Turistica, 12(2), 185–191
Varnostni izzivi v hotelih: implikacije za izbrane hotele v Owerri v Nigeriji
Edwin Chigozie Nwokorie in Polycarp Igbojekwe
Študija obravnava problematiko varnosti v izbranih hotelih nigerijske prestolnice
Owerri in učinek percepcije varnosti na zvestobo gostov. Z anketiranjem s pomočjo
strukturiranega vprašalnika so bila zbrana stališča glede pomena fizičnih, osebnih
in sistemskih varnostnih groženj v hotelskem sektorju. Povezanost med izbranimi
spremenljivkami je bila merjena z uporabo Pearsonovega korelacijskega koeficienta.
Rezultat je pokazal šibko pozitivno korelacijo (r2 =0,270)med percepcijo varnostnih
razmer in izborom hotela, medtem ko je bila ugotovljena statistično neznačilna po-
zitivna korelacija (r2 = 0,086) med zaznano varnostjo gostov in prisotnostjo nefor-
malnih oblik poslovanja v hotelu. Ugotovljeni so bili tudi pomanjkanje varnostnega
222 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Abstracts in Slovene Povzetki v slovenšini
sodelovanja med hoteli na tem območju, neustrezni izhodi v sili in slaba notranja
varnost. Rezultati študije priporočajo ravnovesje med zagotavljanjem ustrezne var-
nosti in zasebnosti gosta.
Ključne besede: lojalnost gostov, odnosi z gosti, zadovoljstvo, hotelirstvo, varnost
Academica Turistica, 12(2), 193–205
Orodja za razvoj trajnostnega turizma v Bosni in Hercegovini
Nemanja Šarenac, Mladen Rebić in Milica Bojat
Razvoj trajnostnega turizma temelji na ekološki trajnosti, načinih rabe obnovljivih
virov ter na socio-kulturni in gospodarski trajnosti. Deležniki v turističnem sek-
torju imajo pri njegovem razvoju pomembno vlogo, populacija pa predstavlja enega
od ključnih segmentov za razvoj trajnostnega turizma. Namen pričujočega članka
je analizirati in določiti najučinkovitejši način razvoja trajnostnega turizma za Bo-
sno in Hercegovino. Razumevanje različnih pristopov k razvoju turizma in njihovo
vključevanje v proces lahko znatno poveča trajnostnost nadaljnjega razvoja turizma.
Raziskava je bila izvedena v obliki raziskave stališč lokalne skupnosti celotnega oze-
mlja Bosne in Hercegovine. Vzorec je bil sprejemljiv, temeljil je na celotni popula-
ciji in vključeval več kot 385 anketiranih iz različnih demografskih kategorij. Glavna
hipoteza poudarja, da izobraževanje državljanov o pomembnosti koncepta trajno-
stnega turizma predstavlja ključni pristop k nadaljnjemu razvoju turizma Bosne in
Hercegovine. Analiza pristopa k razvoju trajnostnega turizma je pokazala, da večina
anketiranih upošteva zmanjšanje onesnaženosti okolja kot najpomembnejše orodje
za razvoj trajnostnega turizma v Bosni in Hercegovini. Anketirani tudi poudarjajo
pomembnost zagotavljanja aktivne udeležbe vseh deležnikov v kreiranju turističnih
proizvodov, predvsem lokalnih vlad. V skladu s pridobljenimi rezultati raziskave je
bila glavna hipoteza raziskave ovržena.
Ključne besede: trajnostni razvoj, gospodarska trajnostnost, socio-kulturna
trajnostnost, okoljska trajnostnost, kulturna dediščina
Academica Turistica, 12(2), 207–217
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 223

Academica Turistica Instructions for Authors
Instructions for Authors
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Academica Turistica – Tourism and Innovation Journal
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rum for the dissemination of knowledge on tourism
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cative contributions and encourages authors to use va-
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on a separate page should be returned to the Editorial
Board.
Permissions. Authors wishing to include figures, ta-
bles, or text passages that have already been published
elsewhere, are required to obtain permission from the
copyright owner(s) and to include evidence that such
permission has been granted when submitting their
papers. Any material received without such evidence
will be assumed to originate from the authors.
Submission declaration. Submission of a manuscript
implies that it has not been published previously
(except in the form of abstract or as part of a publi-
shed lecture or academic thesis), that it is not under
consideration for publication elsewhere, that its publi-
cation is approved by all its authors and tacitly or expli-
citly by the responsible authorities where the workwas
carried out. The corresponding author should ensure
that all appropriate co-authors and no inappropriate
co-authors are included on the paper, and that all co-
authors have seen and approved the final version of
the paper and have agreed to its submission for publi-
cation.
Conflict of interest. All authors are requested to dis-
close any actual or potential conflict of interest inclu-
ding any financial, personal or other relationshipswith
other people or organizations within three years of be-
ginning the submittedwork that could inappropriately
influence, or be perceived to influence, their work.
Manuscript Preparation
Manuscripts should be prepared according to the style
prescribed by the Publication Manual of the Ameri-
can Psychological Association (American Psychologi-
calAssociation, 2009; see also http://www.apastyle.org).
Language and style. The first author is fully respon-
sible for the language and style in the context of the
instructions. A good scientific standard command of
grammar and style is expected.
Text formatting. Please, use the automatic page num-
bering function to number the pages. Use tab stops or
other commands for indents, not the space bar.Use the
table function, not spreadsheets, to make tables. Use
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 225
Academica Turistica Instructions for Authors
the equation editor or MathType for equations. Whe-
never possible, use the si units (Système international
d’unités).
Thetitlepage should include the title of the article (no
more than 85 characters, including spaces), full name
of the author(s), affiliation (institution name and ad-
dress) of each author clearly identified; linked to each
author by use of superscript numbers, corresponding
author’s full name, telephone, and e-mail address.
Abstract. The authors are obliged to prepare two ab-
stracts – one in English and one (translated) in Slo-
vene language. For foreign authors translation of the
abstract into Slovene will be provided.
The content of the abstract should be structured
into the following sections: purpose, methods, results,
and conclusion. It should only contain the information
that appears in the text as well. It should contain no re-
ference to figures, tables and citations published in the
main text, and should not exceed 250 words.
Beneath the abstract, the authors should supply
appropriate keywords (3–6) in English and in Slovene.
For foreign authors the translation of the abstract into
Slovene will be provided.
The main text should contain a coherent and logi-
cal structure preferably following the imrad format
(Introduction, Methods, Research [and] Discussion).
However, other structures are also welcome (e.g. In-
troduction, Development and Conclusions) as long as
the text maintains its logical structure and focus. Ac-
knowledgments are optional.
The length of the articles should not exceed 9,000
words (including tables, figures, and references), dou-
ble spaced, using Times New Roman font sized 12.
Tables. Each table should be submitted on a sepa-
rate page in a Word document after References. Each
table shall have a brief caption; explanatory matter
should be in the footnotes below the table. The table
shall contain means and the units of variation (sd,
se, etc.) and must be free of nonsignificant decimal
places. Abbreviations used in the tablesmust be consi-
stentwith those used in the text and figures.Definition
symbols should be listed in the order of appearance,
determined by reading horizontally across the table
and should be identified by standard symbols. All ta-
bles should be numbered consecutively (Table 1, Table
2, etc.).
Figures. Captions are required for all Figures and shall
appear on a separate manuscript page, beneath table
captions. Each figure should be saved as a separate
file without captions and named as Figure 1, etc. Files
should be submitted in *.tiff or *.jpeg format. Pho-
tographs should be saved at at least 300 dpi. Line art
images should be saved at 1200 dpi. Lettering (sym-
bols, letters, and numbers) should be between 8 and
9 points, with consistent spacing and alignment. Font
face may be Serif (Minion) or Sans Serif (Myriad).
Line width should be 0.5 point or greater. Any extra
white or black space surrounding the image should be
cropped. Ensure that subject-identifying information
(i.e., faces, names, or any other identifying features)
is cropped out or opaqued. Prior to publication, the
author(s) should obtain all necessary authorizations
for the publication of the illustrative matter and sub-
mit them to the Editorial Board. All figures should be
numbered consecutively (Figure 1, Figure 2, etc.). The
journal will be printed in black and white. If the pa-
per contains graphs, we would appreciate that you also
e-mail them in a separate Excel file.
References
References should be formatted according to the Pu-
blication Manual of the American Psychological Associ-
ation (American Psychological Association, 2009).
The list of references should only include works
that are cited in the text and that have been published
or accepted for publication. Personal communications
and unpublished works should only be mentioned in
the text. References should be complete and contain all
the authors (up to six) that have been listed in the title
of the original publication. If the author is unknown,
start with the title of the work. If you are citing a work
that is in print but has not yet been published, state all
the data and instead of the publication year write ‘in
print.’
Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the
last name of the first author of each work. Do not use
footnotes or endnotes as a substitute for a reference
226 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019
Academica Turistica Instructions for Authors
list. Full titles of journals are required (not their abbre-
viations).
Citing References in Text
One author. Tourism innovation specific is mentioned
(Brooks, 2010). Thomas (1992) had concluded . . .
Two authors. This result was later contradicted (Swar-
brooke &Horner, 2007). Price andMurphy (2000)
pointed out . . .
Three to five authors, first citation. Laroche, Bergeron,
and Barbaro-Forleo (2001) had found . . . It was
also discovered (Salamon, Sokolowski, Haddock,
& Tice, 2013) . . .
Three to five authors, subsequent citations. Laroche et
al. (2009) or (Salamon et al., 2011).
Six or more authors.Wolchik et al. (1999) or (Wolchik
et al., 1999).
If two references with six or more authors shorten
to the same form, cite the surnames of the first author
and of as many of the subsequent authors as necessary
to distinguish the two references, followed by a coma
and et al.
List several authors for the same thought or idea
with separation by using a semicolon: (Kalthof et al.,
1999; Biegern & Roberts, 2005).
For detailed instructions please see the Publica-
tion Manual of the American Psychological Association
(American Psychological Association, 2009, Chap-
ter 6).
Examples of Reference List
Books
American Psychological Association. (2009). Publica-
tion manual of the American Psychological Associ-
ation (6th ed.). Washington, dc: Author.
Swarbrooke, J., & Horner, S. (2007). Consumer beha-
viour in tourism. Oxford, England: Butterworth-
Heinemann.
Journals
Laroche,M., Bergeron, J., & Barbaro-Forleo, G. (2001).
Targeting consumers who are willing to pay more
for environmentally friendly products. Journal of
Consumer Marketing, 18(6), 503–520.
Wolchik, S. A., West, S. G., Sandler, I. N., Tein, J.–
Y., Coatsworth, D., Lengua, L., . . . Griffin, W. A.
(2000). An experimental evaluation of theory-
basedmother andmother-child programs for chil-
dren of divorce. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 68, 843–856.
Newspapers
Brooks, A. (2010, 7 July). Building craze threatens to
end Lanzarote’s biosphere status. Independent. Re-
trieved from http://www.independent.co.uk/
environment/nature/building-craze-threatens-to
-end-lanzarotes-biosphere-status-2020064.html
Chapters in Books
Poirier, R. A. (2001). A dynamic tourism develop-
ment model in Tunisia: Policies and prospects. In
Y. Aposotolopoulos, P. Loukissas, & L. Leontidou
(Eds.),Mediterranean tourism (pp. 197–210). Lon-
don, England: Routledge.
Conference Proceedings
Price, G., & Murphy, P. (2000). The relationship be-
tween ecotourism and sustainable development: A
critical examination. In M. Ewen (Ed.), cauthe
2000: Peak performance in tourism and hospitality
research; Proceedings of the Tenth Australian Tou-
rism and Hospitality Research Conference (pp. 189–
202). Bundoora, Australia: La Trobe University.
Paper Presentation
Thomas, J. (1992, July). Tourism and the environment:
An exploration of the willingness to pay of the ave-
rage visitor. Paper presented at the conference To-
urism in Europe, Durham, England.
Theses andDissertations
Sedmak, G. (2006). Pomen avtentičnosti turističnega
proizvoda: primer destinacije Piran (Unpublished
doctoral dissertation). University of Ljubljana, Lju-
bljana, Slovenia.
Working Papers
Salamon, L. M., Sokolowski, S. W., Haddock, M. A., &
Tice, H. S. (2013). The state of global civil society vo-
lunteering: Latest findings from the implementation
Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019 | 227
Academica Turistica Instructions for Authors
of the un nonprofitt handbook (Comparative Non-
profit Sector Working Paper No. 49). Baltimore,
md: Johns Hopkins University.
Web Pages
Croatian Bureau of Statistics. (2001). Census of popu-
lation, households and dwellings. Retrieved from
http://www.dzs.hr/Eng/censuses/Census2001/
census.htm
For detailed instructions please see the Publica-
tion Manual of the American Psychological Association
(American Psychological Association, 2009, Chap-
ter 7).
Manuscript Submission
The main manuscript document should be in Micro-
soft Word document format and the article should be
submitted to http://pkp.turistica.si/index.php/test/
index
Please make sure that you do not leave any trace of
your identity in the submitted files. Otherwise, your
identity can be accidentally revealed to reviewers and
your manuscript might be rejected.
We are introducing new manuscript submission
system. The first responses from the authors are posi-
tive, but we still apologise for any inconvenience.
For technical assistance please contactmitja.petelin
@turistica.si and for additional information regarding
article publication contact the Editorial Board at
academica@turistica.si
228 | Academica Turistica, Year 12, No. 2, December 2019