ijems | scientific article
StatusofFisheriesinGazaStrip:
PastTrendsandChallenges
doaa m. a. hussein
RomaTreUniversity,Italy
dhussein@os.uniroma3.it
maria claudia lucchetti
RomaTreUniversity,Italy
mariaclaudia.lucchetti@uniroma3.it
hossam a. zaqoot
EnvironmentQualityAuthority,Palestine
hanreen2@yahoo.com
jerneja penca
Euro-MediterraneanUniversity,Slovenia
jerneja.penca@emuni.si
mohammed a. hussein
EarthandHumanCenterforResearchesandStudies,Palestine
mahkh101@yahoo.com
Thispapercomprehensivelyportraysfisheries’pasttrendsand
currentstatus intheGazaStrip, relyingontheliterature review
andowndatacollection.Gazaisapoliticallycontestedterritory
thathasnotbeenthesubjectofatargetedanalysiswiththeview
toshapingmeasuresformoreeffectivefisheriesmanagement.
Inordertocontributetothis,thearticlefirstdiscussesgapsthat
mayimpedeeffectivemanagementandthenhighlightsfuture
challenges.Totalseafoodproductionhasgrownsteadilyoverallin
thelast15yearsduetothe rapid growthofaquaculture alongside
anincreaseinfisheriesproduction(87)from1995to2020.The
fishingfleetoftheGazaStripincreasedby269,from647mo-
torizedvesselsin1995to1741vesselsin2020.Gillnets,trammel
nets,longlines,purseseinenets,anddriftnetwerethefishinggear
mostusedbymotorizedvessels,followedbytrawlers.Despiteef-
fortsthroughnationallegislationtoaddressfisherymanagement
problems,weakenforcement,lowcompliance,andunregulated
fishingremainaseriouschallenge.Fisheriesstakeholders,includ-
ingfundersofdevelopmentaidtoGaza,havetoconsiderthe
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DoaaM.A.Husseinetal.
socialandpoliticalcontextofthesefisherieswhendeveloping
suitablemanagementstrategies.
KeyWords:fisheries,aquaculture,Gaza,fisheriesmanagement,
subsistencefisheries
https://emuni.si/ISSN/2232-6022/15.179-216.pdf
introduction
TheFoodandAgricultureOrganization(fao)oftheUnitedNations
workstoachievefoodsecurityforall,ensuringpeoplehaveregular
access to enough great quality food to live dynamic lives. The fish-
eries and aquaculture sector contribute considerably to food secu-
rity and nutrition, particularly in some of the world’s most food-
limitedareas,whileatthesametime,supportingtheincomeofhun-
dredsofmillionsofpeopleeverywhereintheworld.Tosavethese
incomesforpresentandcominggenerations,constantattentionto
thesustainableuseofnaturalresourcesisrequired(fao 2020).
Mostoftheworld’sfishproductioncomesfromdevelopingcoun-
tries (e.g., tropical fisheries). In many of these countries, manage-
mentmethods areusedthatdo notcomplyandarenoteligible for
the formal stock evaluation procedure (Griffin and Mahon 1997).
The same fisheries management approaches are often attempted
to be used in developing countries, leading to mismanagement of
someoftherelatedfisheries(RuddleandHickey2008).Forexample,
the model of a marine protected area (mpa) was seen as tradition-
allyandsociallydefectiveandunsuitableinsomedevelopingcoun-
tries(RuddleandHickey2008)andisonlygraduallybeingadjusted
topromotethesustainableuseofnaturalresourcesandpromote
ecosystem services (Hill et al. 2016). An effective co-management
with local communities is needed all the more since some of these
countries have limited resources for imposing rules and guidelines
insidethempa,whichthenleadstoweakcompliance(Samy-Kamal,
SánchezLizaso,andForcada2011).Akeyfactorcontributingtotheir
ineffectiveness and the status of ‘paper parks’ is non-compliance
with the rules in place (Mora et al. 2006; Guidetti et al. 2008; Rife
etal.2013;Advanietal.2015).
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StatusofFisheriesinGazaStrip
[181]
PartofthePalestinianAuthority,theGazaStrip(orGaza),islo-
cated at the southeast corner of the Mediterranean Sea, but sepa-
rated from the other part of the Palestine-West Bank. The area is
mostly ignored as a specific subject of study in Mediterranean re-
gionalfisheriesmanagement,despiteoccupying42kmofcoastand
contributing to the fishing pressure in the area. In efforts to sup-
port the development in Gaza, several international sponsors and
partnersareworkingtopromotethefisheriesandaquaculturesec-
tor here.The EuropeanUnion (eu)andthe German Agencyfor In-
ternational Cooperation (giz) supported the development of blue
economy analysis in the Gaza Strip, and the Food and Agriculture
Organization (fao) has a long history in fisheries sector develop-
mentinGaza.Recently, fao startedamarinecageaquaculturepi-
lot project with financing from the Italian Development Coopera-
tion. The Japan International Cooperation Agency (jica) has also
supportedthe aquaculturesector’scapacity developmentvia train-
ingprogramsconductedinIndonesiaandEgypt.Ataregionallevel,
theGazaStripandWestBankareinvolvedinscientificandinstitu-
tional cooperation to support accountable fisheries in the Eastern
Mediterranean,supportedby fao, eu,ItalianMinistryofAgricul-
ture,GreeceMinistries(TheWorldBank2020).Sustainablefisheries
development and improving the value-chain of fisheries and aqua-
culturesectorshavethepotentialtoincreasemorejobopportunities
andeconomicdevelopmentactivities.
So far, few studies have been published on the state of fisheries
and aquaculture in Gaza. To contribute to increasing the socio-
economicbenefitsofthefisheriessector,whileenablingprogresson
ecologicalsustainability,thisarticlepresentsandexaminesthefish-
eriesandthe fisheriessectorinGaza.Previousstudies(AbdRabou
2 0 1 3 ;2 0 1 9;A b uA m r a2 0 1 8 ;S h a h e e n2 0 1 6 ;A b u d a y a ,H a r p e r ,a n d
Ulman2013; mena 2001)studiedthecurrentstatusofthemarine
fisheries and aquaculture sectors in a simplified and concise man-
ner.However,mostofthemtendedtobepoorinrecentdatarelated
tobothsectors.TheGeneralFisheriesCommissionfortheMediter-
ranean(gfcm)isworkingwiththePalestinianMinistryofAgricul-
tureandthe fao officeinPalestinetoscaleupmarinefisheriesand
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DoaaM.A.Husseinetal.
aquaculturedevelopment to contribute toward the creation of new
jobs,theimprovementoflivelihoods andtherecoveryfromthere-
centsocialandeconomicinfluences(fao 2022).Thepresentarticle
providesthefirstattempttoofferacomprehensivewrittenaccount
oftheGazafisheriessector.
The analysis relies on data gathered from the index and non-
indexpublishedarticles,unpublishedreports,questionnaires,inter-
viewswiththeDirectorateofFisheryandfishers’staff,andrelated
institutionsandorganizations.Amethodicalsearchwasconducted
to attain pertinent literature relating to fisheries in Gaza. Some
of the data were attained through a predefined search in Google
Scholar: (search terms: fisheries in Gaza, Mediterranean fisheries,
aquaculture in Gaza, etc.). Results of the study were not limited
to texts available only in English or peer-reviewed journals, but
wasalsoextendedtoArabicreportsandun-indexedjournals.The
dataonfisherieslandingsandfishingeffortcharacteristicsfoundin
the collected data spanningfrom 1995 to 2020 was collated by that
held by the General Directorate of Fisheries (dof) in the Ministry
of Agriculture(moa) (and included published and unpublished re-
ports), the organization responsible for managing Gaza’s fisheries,
and by fao statistics. Additionally, interviews and questionnaire
surveyswiththefishersandrelatedstakeholdersandorganizations,
aswellaswithrelatedinstitutionsintheGazaStripwereconducted
toamendthestatistics.
Thegeneralgoalofthispaperistooutlinethestatusoffisheries
in the Gaza Strip, as well as to identify the main gaps related to
fisheries management.The paperis made up ofthree segments:(i)
the first reports on the main characteristics of fisheries and aqua-
culture, including total production trends; trends in landings per
species, trends in landing per gears used; catch composition, fish-
ing effort, and socio-economic aspects, where existing knowledge
is particularly poorly documented; (ii) the second part provides an
overview of the management regulations and analyses their weak-
nesses in promoting effective management;(iii) based on the find-
ings,keystartingpointsforthemanagementoftheGazaStripfish-
eriesarediscussedinthethirdsegment.
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StatusofFisheriesinGazaStrip
[183]
key features and trends
in the fisheries sector
The Gaza Strip is a narrowpart lying along the south-western por-
tion of the Palestinian coastal plains, located between longitudes
[34° 20’ and 34° 25’ east] and latitudes [31° 16’ and 31° 45’ north],
its area about 365 km
2
.Thelengthisapproximately42kmonthe
westernMediterraneancoast,andthewidthvariesfrom6kmto12
km.TheSinaidesertissituatedinthesouth,theNaqabdesertinthe
east, and the Mediterranean Sea in the west (Aish 2013). The pop-
ulation density in the Gaza Strip is measuredto be high compared
with other areas in the world (5,936 persons/km
2
), with a popula-
tion of 2.1 million people and a growth rate of 2.8 at the end of
2021(pcbs 2019).Gazaisfoundinanaridtosemiaridcountry;all
the rainfall takes place between October and April. Average rain-
fall rangesbetween 400 mm/yr in the north and230 mm/yr inthe
south (https://water.fanack.com/palestine/climate-and-rainfall/).
The fisheries sector in Gaza is divided into two parts, namely the
marinefisheriesandaquaculture,andtheyaredescribedasfollows:
MarineFisheries
ThefishingzoneoftheGazaStripislocallyknownastheareaalong
the coast that stretches up to 20 nautical miles (nm) offshore, but
duetopoliticalinstability,notallofthesewatersarebeingusedfor
fishing. The fishing area has largely been dictated by the Israeli au-
thority’simpositionofrulesonGaza.Atitsbest,thefishingzonein
the Gaza Strip fluctuates between three and six nautical miles and
rarelyexceedsthat.
Initially, in 1994, the fishing area was divided into three differ-
entmaritimeactivityzones,namedK,L,andM;zonesKandMare
borderbufferzones,zoneKbeingsituatedbetweenGazaandIsrael
(20 nm offshore and 1.5 nm wide), and zone M between Gaza and
Egypt (20 nm offshore and 1 nm wide), while fishing is restricted
within these zones. Zone L extends 20 nm offshore and is open to
fishing by fishers from the Gaza Strip according to the 1994–1995
Osloagreement.However,asIsraelhasrepelledtheimplementation
of this agreement, fishing was further limited to within 12 nm, re-
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DoaaM.A.Husseinetal.
ducingthetotalfishingareatoabout660km
2
(Melon2011).Israel’s
administration has been gradually confining Gaza fishers to access
thesea,particularlyaftertheseconduprising(in2000).In2006,the
fishingzonewasfurtherreducedto6nm.Followingthe Israeliop-
eration (2008–2009), Israel banned Gaza fishers from functioning
beyondadistanceof3nmfromshore,inthatwaypreventingthem
from accessing 85 of the maritime area they are allowed accord-
ingtothe1994Gaza-JerichoAgreement(Melon2011),alsoleading
to conflicts between Gaza fishers and the Israeli Navy (Akram and
Rudoren2012).
TherestrictionslasteduntilDecember2012,andaftertheinter-
ventionofseveralinternationalorganizations,thefishingzonewas
increasedbackto6nauticalmiles.ThiscontinueduntilMarch2013
when fishingboundarywereagainreturnedto 3 nauticalmilesun-
tilMay2013,shiftingbacktoanareaof6milesuntilOctober2016.
InNovember2018,thefishingarea’scapacityreturnedto9nauti-
cal miles, with the southernmost point being Wadi Gaza and the
northernmost point close to the Israeli border being 6 miles. The
permittedfishingzonehasnowbeenextendedto9milesfromthe
northern side close to the Israeli border to the Wadi Gaza side, 12
milesfromthewadiGazasidetothecentralarea,and15milesfrom
the central area to the southern side of the Gaza Strip close to the
Egyptianborder.
Over the past two decades, the Israeli military has gradually in-
creasedtherestrictionsonaccesstothefishingareasalongtheGaza
strip coast. Since early 2009, Gaza fishers have been largely pre-
ventedfromaccessingthewatersbeyond3,6and9nmfromshore.
Thus, Gaza fishers are now prevented from accessing around 50 to
85 of the maritime areas they are entitled to access according to
theOsloagreements.Ontheotherhand,thespatialrestrictionen-
forcedonGazafishersmayhaveservedasade-factono-takemarine
reserve, and thus may have the potential to enhance longer term
stockstatus andstockproductivity (Abudayaetal.2013).Thisfluc-
tuation in the fishing area distance is due to the complex security
situation in the Gaza Strip, where the restrictions imposed on the
fishingareaareconstantlychanging,andwhichhasasignificantim-
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StatusofFisheriesinGazaStrip
[185]
pact on the landing process and the fishing fleet operating in the
area.
The fisheries sector in Gaza has playeda significantrole in food
security and is a lively source of employment. Presently there are
3,982 registeredfishers in the Gaza Strip. This impliesabout 27,874
people directly rely on fishing for their livelihood. Seeing the total
populationintheGazaStripisapproximately2.1millionpeople,al-
most 7 of the population depends on the fisheries sector. Gener-
ally, the number of registered fishers has increased from 1,600 in
1995to2,305in2001;2,750in2007;3,606in2016;and3,982in2020.
Most individuals working in the fisheries sector are deprived. Ac-
cording to the dof in the moa, about 90 of the fishers live be-
lowthepovertyline.Atpresent,fisherslivewithlessthan(200–250
us$) a month. Per capita income from fishing has decreased from
(450–900 us$) before 2007 to less than (200–300 us$) in 2020. In
thenineties,ownersoflargevessels,suchastrawlers(locallycalled
Gar)andPurseseine(locallycalledShanshula),preferredtoworkin
fishingasitwasbetterthanworkinginothersectors–whichisnot
thecaseanymore.ItwasreportedthatinGaza,theunemployment
rate is beyond 50 while the poverty level has reached 53, even
thoughthemaximumnumberofpeoplecategorizedaspoortakeaid
fromthegovernmentandinternationalorganizations.Gazaisgrad-
ually becoming very difficult to live in under the worsening socio-
economiccircumstances.In2018,itslocaleconomywasconstricted
by7,leadingtoa10decreaseinitspercapitaincome(unctad
2019).Thestudyareaincludesfourfishlandingsitesfromthenorth
(1) Gazacity fishing port, (2)the Deir Al-Balahlandingsite, (3)the
Khanyounislandingsite,and(4)theRafahlandingsite.
Aquaculture
Fish farming operationsare consideredone of the most important
economic activities in the Palestinian territories. A study previ-
ously noted that there are about five fish farming projects work-
ing in the governorates of the Gaza Strip. Five planted fish species
have been cultured, including Oreochromis hybrids (Red Hybrids
Tilapia), Oreochromis niloticus (Nile Tilapia), Sparus aurata (Gilt-
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DoaaM.A.Husseinetal.
head Seabream), Mugil cephalus (Flathead Grey Mullet) and Clar-
ias gariepinus (African Sharp Tooth Catfish) (Shaheen 2016). Fish
farmingisanessentialsourceofincomeinlightofthe limitedem-
ployment opportunities provided by the Palestinian private sec-
tors.Manyinvestorshavetwistedtofishfarmingoperationsinthe
coastal area of the Gaza Strip. Aquaculture farms use saline water
fromtheonshorewellsastheprimarywatersourceandreleasethe
wastewater to the sea during the water exchange and harvest, ba-
sically without any treatments. At present, two main aquaculture
farmsarefunctioninginGaza,calledAlBaharfarmandFishFresh
farm.
The Al-Bahar farm area is about 16,000 m
2
and was established
in2014intheGazaGovernorate.Thefishfarm(31°29’22.02’N,34°
24’ 6.8394’ E) is located near the beach of Gaza and receives about
13,440m
3
ofmarinesaltywaterfrombeachwells.Thefarmissemi-
intensive, consisting of 30 cylindrical ponds used for overfeeding
andhatcherypurposes.Theultimatewaterdischargetakesplacevia
manholesdirecttothesea.Thefarmworkersexaminetheammonia
levelandsalinityinthepipestoensurethatthewaterissuitablefor
fishfarmingandusecoppersulphatetocombatfishdiseasesinthe
ponds.TheFishFreshfarmareaisabout32,000m
2
andwasestab-
lishedin2009intheRafahGovernorate,whichliesinthesouthern
GazaStrip.Thefishfarm(31°20’37.6074’N,34°14’44.1954’E)islo-
catednearthebeachofRafahandreceives28,800m
3
ofmarinesalty
waterfrombeachwells.Thefarmissemi-intensive,consistingof25
cylindrical ponds used for overfeeding purposes. The water supply
comes through beach wells. Qualified workers measure ammonia,
dissolved oxygen, temperature, and salinity levels in the pipes. No
sterilization methods are used inside the farm to control fish dis-
eases.
status of fisheries in gaza
Total Production Trends
Up to 2005, marine fisheries were the primary sources of national
production in Gaza, around 2683tons annually. However, aquacul-
tureproductionhasgrownrapidlyduringthelastdecade,butisnot
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StatusofFisheriesinGazaStrip
[187]
table1 StatisticsofMarineAquaculturesFishProductionfrom1997to2020
inGaza
Year () () Year () () Year () ()
  –   –   
  –      
  –      
  –      
  –      
  –      
  –      
  –      
notes Column headings are as follows: (1) marine production (tons), (2) aquaculture’s
production(tons).Basedonunpublished dof data.
reflected in the annual national production growth rate. The total
nationaloutputhasincreasedsteadilyinthelasttenyears.Between
1997 and 2008, fish catches have varied from a maximum of 3,790
tonsin1997toaminimumof1,507tonsin2003,dependingmainly
on the political situation and partly on the quality of the biannual
sardine seasons.Although in 2005 and 2008 there was a steady in-
crease from 1,814 to 2,845 tonnes caught, the reduction in Gaza’s
fishingzoneto3nmhasdroppedthefishcatchto1,525tonsin2009.
By2011,thefishcatchdecreasedfurtherto1,492tons,whilein2020,
the fish catch increased further to 4,660 tons. Despite its modest
fishingindustry,Gaza’sfisheriessectorisasignificantsourceofem-
ployment,income,andasupplyofhigh-proteinfoodfortheGazans.
TheincorporationoffishintotheGazandiet,andthelargesourceof
proteinitrepresents,islimitedbyseawatercontaminationthrough
untreatedsewage,lackoffueltooperateboats,andtheongoinglim-
itationoffishinggrounds.Accordingtothestatisticsofthe moa in
2015 and 2020, the volume of Sparus aurata (Gilthead Sea Bream)
productionreached220tons;in2016,theproductionwas350tons;
in2017theproductionwas435;andastheproductionofSparusau-
rata(GiltheadSeaBream)in2019and2020reached650and750tons
respectively,theproductionwasrecordedat159tonsin2011,show-
ing that fish production from aquaculture farms is on the increase
(table1).
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DoaaM.A.Husseinetal.
TrendsinLandingsperSpecies
AccordingtothestudyconductedbytheWorldBank,themainland-
ing fisheries species in the Gaza Strip are small pelagic fisheries
of Engraulis spp. and Sardina Spp. Other larger landed fisheries
species are Pagellus Erythrinus among demersal fisheries, Protuns
Spp. among crustacean, and Loligo Spp., Octopoda, Sepia spp., or
Nautilusesamongthe Cephalopodclass.Inthe GazaStrip, thereis
no systematic recording of fish landing amount nor fish stock as-
sessment. A stock assessment of the Sardinella aurita, among the
pelagicfisheries,andtheSauridaundosquamis,amongstthedemer-
salfisheries,wasconductedin2018and2019,respectively,together
with ajointeffort ofthe dof and fao. Themostimportanttypes
of fish caughtin the MediterraneanSea along the Gaza Strip coast
were identified during this study. This was conducted by distribut-
ingaquestionnairetothefishersandtheownersoftheusedfishing
vessels.Besidesthis,datawerecollectedfromthe dof andreports
published online. The findings of these stock assessments demon-
strated over-harvesting, with the stock of Sardinella aurita being
moderately over-harvested and the stock of Brushtooth lizardfish
(Saurida undosquamis) highly overexploited (World Bank, 2020).
Table 2 shows the landed fish per species in the Gaza Strip from
2018to2020.
TrendsinLandingsperGearsUsedinFishing
The dof collects landed fish data by (i) trawling gear by trawlers,
(ii)purseseininggearbylargepurseseiners(Shanshulas),(iii)purse
seininggearbyHasakaswithmotors,(iv)longlinegearbyHasakas
withmotors,(v)driftnetgearbyHasakaswithmotors,andothers.
There aretwo main fish catch seasonsthroughout the year, includ-
ingthespringseason,whichstartsfrommid-Marchandendsinthe
middleofJune,whilethesecondautumnseasonbeginsfromthebe-
ginningof Septemberandends inNovember. Thehighfishingsea-
sonisMay,andthelowfishingseasonisfromNovembertoMarch.
Accordingtoourknowledge,therearenoobserversonvessels;thus,
thelandedfishandestimatedcatchfisharenotthesame.Thereare
slightvariationsintherecordeddata.
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table2 OverallLandedFishperSpeciesintheGazaStrip
Species Group   
Engraulisspp.(Anchovies) Pelagic .  
Sardinaspp.(Sardines) Pelagic .  
Protunsspp.(SwimCrab) Crustacean .  
Scomberscombrus(Atlanticmackerel) Pelagic .  
Auxisrochei(Bullettuna) Pelagic .  
Loligospp.(Squid) Cephalopod .  
Penaeusspp.(Prawn) Crustacean .  
Etrumeusspp.(Roundherring) Pelagic .  
Siganusspp.(PinspottedSpinefoot) Demersal .  
Trachurusspp.(Atlantichorsemackerel) Pelagic .  
Pagelluserythrinus(CommonPandora) Demersal .  
Scomberomorusspp.(Spanishmackerel) Pelagic .  
Sillagosihama(Northernwhiting) Demersal .  
Sauridaundosquamis(Brush.lizardfish) Demersal .  
Otherspecies .  
Total .  
notes Intons.Basedonunpublisheddofdata.
Landed Fish by Trawling Gear (Trawlers). Almost 35-50 of trawler
catchesareProtunsspp.,andabout15oftrawlercatchesarePe-
naeus spp. Trawlers also catch squid, Spanish mackerel, common
Pandora,Brushtoothlizardfish,andredmullets.Themaintargetis
prawns due to their high value. Most of the landed prawns are al-
ready packed in boxes in the trawlers. Upon arrival at the fishing
port of Gaza city, they aretransportedto the West Bankandsome
high-endrestaurantsintheGazaStrip.Ifthecheckpointisnotopen,
landed prawns are kept at cold storage at Al-Tawfeek Cooperative
(tc) or traders. Meanwhile, other landed catches, including swim
crab,aremostlysoldatlocalmarketsintheGazaStrip.Table3shows
thelandedfishbytrawlersintheGazaStripfrom2016to2020.
LandedFishbyLargePurseSeiningGear(Shanshulas). Thelargepurse
seine gears used by Shanshulas target small pelagic fish. Engraulis
spp.andSardinaspp.arethemainfish,aswellasTrachurusspp.and
Etrumeus spp.With Engraulisencrasicolusfrom springto autumn
andSardinaspp.fromautumntospring,Shanshulascancatchsmall
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DoaaM.A.Husseinetal.
table3 LandedFishbyTrawlers
Species Group     
Protunsspp.(SwimCrab) Crustacean . . . . .
Penaeusspp.(Prawn) Crustacean . . . . .
Loligospp.(Squid) Cephalopod . . . . .
Scomberomorusspp. Pelagic . . . . .
Pagelluserythrinus Demersal . . . . .
Sauridaundosquamis Demersal . . . . .
Mullusspp.(Redmullets) Demersal . . . . .
Sillagosihama Pelagic . . . . .
SphyraenaChrysotaenia Pelagic . . . . .
Sepiaspp.(Cuttlefish) Cephalopod . . . . .
Otherspecies . . . . .
Total . . . . .
notes Intons.Basedonunpublisheddofdata.
table4 LandedFishbyLargePurseSeiningGearbyShanshulas
Species Group     
Anchovies Pelagic . . . . .
Sardines Pelagic . . . . .
Scomberscombrus Pelagic . . . . .
Etrumeusspp Pelagic . . . . .
Loligospp Cephalopod . . . . .
Auxisrochei Pelagic . . . . .
Trachurusspp Pelagic . . . . .
Otherspecies . . . . .
Total . . . . .
notes Intons.Basedonunpublisheddofdata.
pelagicfishthroughouttheyear.Thefishersraisedconcernsregard-
ingthedeclineoffishcatchesinpastyearsandrecognizedregional
andlocalissues.AssmallpelagicfishmigrateintheMediterranean
Sea, it requires regional management, but there is insufficient co-
ordination.Therewasalsorecognitionofthelackoflocalcoordina-
tion, as some Shanshulas use small mesh size nets. Table 4 shows
thelandedfishbylargepurseseinersintheGazaStripfrom2016to
2020.
ijems

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[191]
table5 LandedFishbyHasakawithSmallPurseSeining
Species Group     
Anchovies Pelagic . . . . .
Sardines Pelagic . . . . .
Auxisrochei Pelagic . . . . .
Siganusspp. Demersal . . . . .
Scomberscombrus Pelagic . . . . .
Loligospp.(Squid) Cephalopod . . . . .
Sillagosihama Demersal . . . . .
Trachurusspp. Pelagic . . . . .
Lizaspp.(Mullets) Pelagic . . . . .
Otherspecies . . . . .
Total . . . . .
notes Intons.Basedonunpublisheddofdata.
Landed Fish by Hasaka. Hasakas with motors (small-scale fishing
vessels)usedifferentfishinggear,dependingonthefishingseason.
Thecollectedlandedfishdata weredeterminedby thefive typesof
gear used by Hasakas small purse seining, longlines, driftnet, gill-
nets, and trammel nets. While some Hasakas use only one type of
gear,mostHasakasusemultipletypes.Thetargetfisheriesofsmall
purseseiningHasakaoverlapwiththoseofShanshulas,butthefish-
ing zone is different, because Hasakasfish are closer to the coastal
area. Longline fishing by Hasaka targets demersal fish. Their fish
catchtotalissmaller,buthigherinvalue;thus,theytargethigh-end
markets, including restaurantsin the Gaza Strip. Tables 5, 6, and 7
show the landed fish by Hasaka with small purse seiners, Hasaka
with longlines, and Hasaka with drift nets in the Gaza Strip from
2016to2020.
FishingEffort
There are four fish landing areas in the Gaza Strip. These sites are
managed by the Ministry of Transport (mot), collaborating with
theMinistryofAgricultureandthePalestinianCoastalPolice(pcp).
WhileGazacityfishingporthassolidfacilitieswiththeharbour,the
otherthreelandingsiteshavelimitedfacilitieswithalimitedland-
ingextentinthecoastalareas.Allthelandedfisharemadeuptouse
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table6 LandedFishbyHasakawithSetLonglines
Species Group     
Epinephelusspp. Demersal . . . . .
Pagelluserythrinus Demersal . . . . .
Carcharhinusspp. Chondrichthyes . . . . .
Balistescapriscus Demersal . . . . .
Rhynchobatus Chondrichthyes . . . . .
Pagrusspp. Demersal . . . . .
Dasyatisspp. Chondrichthyes . . . . .
Argyrosomusregius Demersal . . . . .
Diplodusspp. Demersal . . . . .
Auxisrochei Pelagic . . . . .
Serioladumerili Pelagic . . . . .
Otherspecies . . . . .
Total . . . . .
notes Intons.Basedonunpublisheddofdata.
oneofthesefourfishlandingsites.Still,informallandingandtran-
shipment are happening due to the limited capacity and the poor
conditions ofexistinglandingareas.Amongthetotalrecordedfish
catch, 73.3 land at Gaza city port, 7.2 at Deir Al-Balah, 11.3 at
Khanyounis, and 8.2 at Rafah (based on unpublished dof data).
Thereareonlytwoiceplantsavailablethatsupplyiceforfishers.One
is at Gaza fishing port, operated by tc, and the other is at Rafah
landing site. A fishers’ syndicate in Gaza plans to establish an ice
plant in the Deir Al-Balah landing site. Currently, there are about
1741registeredvessels in the Gaza Strip distributed in four fishing
ports (table 8). Gaza port includes the most significant number of
vessels,followedbyDeirAl-Balah.Therearemainlyfivetypesoffish-
ing vessels (i) Trawlers, locally called Gar, (ii) Purse seiners, locally
calledShanshula(includinglargepurseseineandsmallpurseseine),
(iii)SmallHasakawithmotor(includingdriftnetsandlonglinesnet
fishinggearsvessels),(iv)Felucca,whichaccompanyShanshula,and
(v)Hasakawithoars.
Theoveralltotalnumberoffishingvesselsincreasedfrom647in
1995 to 1741 in 2020. Vessels are made of wood or fibreglass. Orig-
inally most of the vessels were made of wood. Still, recently the
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[193]
table7 LandedFishbyHasakawithDriftnet
Species Group     
Sardines Pelagic . . . . .
Protunsspp. Crustacea . . . . .
Carcharhinusspp. Chondrichthyes . . . . .
SphyraenaChrysotaenia Pelagic . . . . .
Scomberomorusspp. Pelagic . . . . .
Sauridaundosquamis Demersal . . . . .
Auxisrochei Pelagic . . . . .
Pagelluserythrinus Demersal . . . . .
Sepiaspp. Cephalopod . . . . .
Trachurusspp. Pelagic . . . . .
Mullusspp. Demersal . . . . .
Rhynchobatus Chondrichthyes . . . . .
Lizaspp. Pelagic . . . . .
Hirundichthysrondeleti Pelagic . . . . .
Loligospp. Cephalopod .  . . .
Otherspecies . . . . .
Total . . . . .
notes Intons.Basedonunpublisheddofdata.
table8 FishingVesselsbyTypeandbyLandingAreasintheGazaStrip
Landingarea () () () () () () ()
Gazaport       
DeirAl-Balah       
KhanYounis       
R a f a h       
Total       
notes Column headings are as follows: (1) trawler (gar), (2) large purse seiner (shan-
shula),(3)smallpurseseiner(shanshula),(4)h asakawithmotor,(5)felucca,(6)hasakawith
oars,(7)total.Basedonunpublished dof data.
fishers started renewing their vessels with fibreglass, because it is
lighter in weight, easy to do maintenance, lower in costs, and pro-
vides a longer boat life, besides the restrictions imposed by the Is-
raelioccupationonimportingandusageoflongwood,obligingfish-
ers to turn to fibreglass.The number of operational vessels peaked
at 1036 total in 2011 when fishers could get cheap fuel from Egypt
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DoaaM.A.Husseinetal.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
figure1 NumberofVesselsintheGazaStripfrom1995to2020(basedon
unpublished dof data)
around2010to2013.Notallregisteredvesselsareinoperation.Fig-
ure1showsthefluctuatingnumberofvesselsintheGazaStripfrom
1995 to 2020. Not all registered vessels are active either, because
owners cannot afford to maintain their vessels, and do not renew
their licenses or pay license fees, while fishers cannot afford oper-
ating costs and may have security concerns. For example, the to-
tal number of trawlers and Shanshula vessels in 2012 was 888, but
only 218 were operating (25 of the registered vessels were opera-
tional) (fao 2016). In the workshop course during February 2020,
conducted by the World Bank in Gaza, the participants discussed
the actual operating rate of the registered vessels, concluding that
11 trawlersamong 14 are operational,andaround50–70 of regis-
teredShanshulasandHasakasareoperational.
MostvesselsintheGazaStripareold.Theaverageusageperiod
of each vessel is normally about twice as long as the ideal or typ-
ical usage period, as shown in table 9. Most owners of the vessels
havedifferenttypesofriskmitigationmeasures.Vesselownerssay
HasakasaremorefeasiblethantrawlersandShanshulasifthefish-
ing zone is limited only to the coastal area. During the low fishing
season, some vessels land on the beaches, and fishers who do not
gofishingalsobenefitfromtheincomeifthepersonbelongstothe
same family under the vessel’s owner. Owners and skippers select
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table9SummaryofDifferentTypesofVesselsintheGazaStrip
Item Trawler Shanshulas Hasakawith
motor
Felucca Hasakawith
oars
Total
numbers
    
Size –m –m –m –m –m
Material Woodand
fiberglass
Wood Wood Wood
coveredby
fiberglass
Fiberglass
Engine – hp – hp – hp Without
engine
Without
engine
Average no.
ofcrews
– – – – –
Gear Trawlingnet Purseseine
net
Gillnets,
trammelnet,
andpurse
seine,hooks
Assistant
boat
Gillnet,
trammelnet,
BeachPurse
seine
Targetfish Demersal
fish,Prawn
Pelagic fish Pelagic and
demersal
Not
applicable
Coastal
demersalfish
Average
usageperiod
–years –years –years –years –years
Average days
atsea
days days days days 
Average daily
wagepercrew
 nis (
us)
 nis (
us)
 nis (
us)
Mostlyself-
employed
 nis (.
us)
Effort(days
atsea)
–
days
–
days
–
days
Not
applicable
–
notes Basedonunpublisheddofdata.
the fishers on board. Those who have no other source of income,
haveeconomicobligationsandahighernumberofchildrenusually
acquire priority to be on board for fishing. The average daily wage
percrewisaround50 nis (15 us$)fortrawlers,40 nis (12 us$)for
Shanshula,and20 nis (6 us$)forHasakawithmotors.Fisherscan
hardlyliveonsuchalowincome.Winchesandtractorsareusedfor
launching,landing,andbeachingthevessels.Theannualcostofus-
ingthisoldequipmentandenginesis2,500 nis (715 us$)and nis
900 nis (57.14 us$)forShanshulaandHasakawithmotors,respec-
tively.
Insomecases,injurieshappenamongthe fishersduetothein-
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DoaaM.A.Husseinetal.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
figure2 NumberofFishersintheGazaStripfrom1995to2020(basedon
unpublished dof data)
adequacy of the equipment, and the vessels are likewise damaged
during landings. Conventionally, trawlers and Shanshula do not
fish near the coastline because the bottom of the vessels would be
damaged in order to give some fishing space for small vessels like
Hasakas. When there are restrictions in the fishing area, all differ-
ent vessels fish in the same area near the coastal extents, which
sometimes causes arguments among the fishers and the responsi-
bleorganizations.Smallermeshnets,sometimes5mminsize,tend
tobeusedwhenfishingnearthecoastoccurs.
Severalcharacteristics,includingtherestrictedcontinentalshelf,
artisanalgearsandvessels,lackofelectronicequipment(e.g., gps,
fishfinder),andlackoffreezingfacilities,resultinfishingactivities
restrictedto3–6andsometimes6–9nauticalmilesfromthecoast.
Most fishing gears use small mesh sizes and hooks because small-
sizedfishandjuvenilesexistinthelandings.Thefishingtechniques
are mostly based on passive gears such as gillnets, trammel nets,
longlines,purseseinenets,driftnets,trawlernets,andbeachseines.
Fishingoperations,withtheexceptionoflonglines,aremostlycar-
riedoutatdepthsofupto50m.Itstandstoreasontohaveknowl-
edge about the number of fishers and how it has varied over the
years due to fishingrestrictions (seefigure2). After the SecondIn-
tifada, the number of fishers in the Gaza Strip declined for a few
ijems

StatusofFisheriesinGazaStrip
[197]
years to reach a plateau from 2004 until 2012. After 2013, and the
expansionofthefishingzone,fishersstartedslowlycomingbackto
theseaandtheprofession.Thiscanalsobeexplainedbythechange
in the composition of the sea vessel fleet. The new fleet was com-
posedofsmallerandnon-motorizedboats; therefore,morehands-
on-deckwereneededforthesameamountoffishyield.Inaddition,
the2006fishersspikeintheGazacitymightbeexplainedaseither
alogisticalerrororadifferentwayofclassifyingwhereeachfisher-
manbelonged.
Onediscrepancythatappearsthroughthispieceofinformation
is that it goes against every other source on the matter. Multiple
accounts in the bibliography state that the number of fishers has
progressivelydwindledovertheyears,anotionthatlocalsourcesin
theareahavealsocultivated,whetherby ngos andorganizations,
orfishersthemselves.YetaccordingtotheinformationbythePales-
tinianCentralBureauofStatistics(pcbs 2019),besidesthedecline
of 2010, the number of fishers either remained stable or increased
steadilyfrom2004until2020.
Domestic and marine cage aquaculture fish farming is growing
andseemstobeoneofthemostauspicioussectorsintheGazaStrip.
In 2010, Gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) and European seabass
(Dicentrarchus labrax) were introduced. Lately, the marine cage
aquacultureofSeabreamhascommencedasapilotproject.Domes-
ticTilapiafishfarminghasthelongesthistoryintheGazaStrip,and
still,manysmallfarmersraiseTilapiainsmallpondsandirrigation
systems. In 1997, the dof constructed a small-scale Tilapia hatch-
eryandproducedTilapiafingeringsforsale.In2005,thePalestinian
Agriculture Development Association (parc), with dof, were ad-
vanced through a training session on Tilapia hatcheries in Egypt
and formed a new freshwater Tilapia hatchery in the Gaza Strip.
dof providedfingerlingstoabout20irrigationponds,whichafford
organicfertilizerforirrigationpurposes.
fao also supported the formation of about 13 intensive fish
farming facilities and 300 irrigation-based fish farms. Many small
farmers continue raising Tilapia in small ponds and irrigation sys-
tems, and it is easy to get Tilapia fingerlings in the Gaza Strip. Eu-
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DoaaM.A.Husseinetal.
ropeanseabassandGreymulletfarmingdidnotdevelopasmuchas
Tilapia,andtheproductionofthesefisheriesisminimal(TheWorld
Bank 2020). Seabream and Seabass species were introduced to the
market in 2010, and Gilthead seabream production is continuing.
A number of private businesses started to raise Sparus aurata and
Dicentrarchus labrax in 2010, but most of them had to close their
businessin2013whenthefuturelookedgloomy,andalsocouldnot
financefuelforbackupgeneratorsuse.Presently,twofarmsareop-
erational:Al-BaharinGazacityandFishFreshinRafahcityproduce
about300and450tonsofGiltheadseabreamfingerlings.
The cost of Gilthead seabream fingerling production is about 33
nis perkg(10 us$).ImportedGiltheadseabreamfingerlingusedto
costaround2.4 nis (0.72 us$)pergram,butnowitisavailablefor
about1 nis (0.30 us$)pergram,becauseofthecurrenthatcheries
in the Gaza Strip. Presently, around 1.5 million Gilthead seabream
fingerlingsareproducedinayear.Giltheadseabreamproductionhas
beenincreasing.Currently,about60oftheproductionisexported
to the West Bank. Following the success of domestic fish farming,
faointroducedaninventiveprojectofmarinecagefarmingintend-
ingtosupportthe resilienceandlivelihoods ofthe fisheriessector.
Theprojectestablishedapilotcagefarmdeliveringmarineaquacul-
turetechnologiesandcapacitydevelopmenttofishersandtheGaza
FisheriesSyndicatetooperatethemarinecagefarmasasocialbusi-
nessandpromoteaccessandlinkstomarkets.
Thepilotmarinecagefarm,whichstartedinthemiddleof2020,
is located approximately 3.5 nautical miles off the southern border
oftheDeirAl-Balahgovernorate.Theestablishmentofthismarine
aquaculturezoneisexpectedtoencouragethefuturegrowthofthe
marineaquaculturesectorintheGazaStrip(fao2018).Manystud-
ies wereconducted before introducingthe project,includingpossi-
ble diseasesand weather conditions (fao 2018). Tension Leg Cage
(tlc) is considered the most suitable system and will be mounted
throughouttheproject.Theprojectalsosupportscapacitydevelop-
ment and generates several skilled jobs required for management
and operations. The fingerlings of seabream will be available from
the local market. The farm location is acknowledged in coordina-
ijems

StatusofFisheriesinGazaStrip
[199]
tionwiththeGazaPortAuthority, dof,and moa andsharedwith
otherexperiencedfisherstodiminishthe risk.Theprojectwillalso
enable accessibility to trade Gilthead seabream in the West Bank
andexternalmarkets.TherearenofishfeedindustriesintheGaza
Strip. Owners of aquaculture businesses keep large feeder records
for the crisis, which costs them a lot of money andspace.Whereas
most feed for inland aquaculture and marine cage culture is im-
ported, some farmersstarteddeveloping alternatives for imported
fishfeed,includingtheAzollaplant.Thisaquaticferngrowsonthe
watersurface.Azollaplantfishfeedisacost-effective,environmen-
tally friendly, and economical feed. The Gaza Strip is well-known
for citrus fruits and other crops, and there are fruit and vegetable
wastesthatcanbeusedforfishfeed.Astudysuggestedthatanor-
ange peel can improve the nutrient absorptive ability of the intes-
tine in Nile tilapia (Salem, Heba, and Abdel-Ghany 2018). In addi-
tion,anotherstudyconcludesthatpotatopeelfeedisverynutritive
and helps in the qualitative and quantitative growth of fish. That
orangepeelfeedshowedbrighterbodyscales(SanyogitaandSatya-
narayan2016).However,usingcitrusandvegetablepeel,andother
plantresiduesisrecommendedtobetestedasalternativefishfeed
intheGazaStrip.
SocioeconomicAspectsofFisheriesandAquaculture
ThefishersintheGazaStriparepresentmostlyininaccessiblelive-
inareaswheretherearenomoderncommunicationsystems,having
a very low developmental and socio-economic impact in the com-
munity.Thereisnodenyingthatfishersandthefishingcommunity
as a whole are the poorest and most disadvantaged groups in the
GazaStrip.Theyhavenootherincome-generatingactivities except
fishing, which cannot be carried out throughout the year while in
idleperiods,theylackalternativeemploymentopportunities.Their
socio-economicdevelopmentisnegligible.Fortheoverallplanning,
development, andimplementation in the fisheries sector, it is nec-
essarytohavesoundknowledgeaboutthelivelihoodpatternsofthe
relatedpeople.
Thestudyshowedthatamajority(95)weremarried,whilethe
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[200]
DoaaM.A.Husseinetal.
unmarriedfishersrepresentedonly5ofactivefishers.Inthefish-
eriescommunityarea,thereareatotalof3,982fishers,themembers
inthefishermenfamiliesapproximability21,021,ofwhich9,029are
adults (44) and 4,720 are children (23), and 2,257 are old (11),
and4,515werewomen(22).
The fishing area is an important characteristic, especially for
commercial fishing as the habitats of the fish in the sea are not
found everywhere. Therefore, it is important to choose a fishing
areathatismorecommerciallyviableforfishing.
Most of the fishers in the fisheries community area in the Gaza
Strip are used to going from 3 to 12 miles from the seashore for
fishing. The duration of the fishingtrip dependson the availability
of fish and catch. Depending on various factors, duration is usu-
ally from 6 to 12 hours for most vesselsandabout 24 hours for the
trawlerssegmentduringthedayandnight.Differentkindsoffish-
inggearareusedinthefisheriescommunityoftheGazaStrip.Most
fishinggearsusesmallmeshsizesandhooks, withthe significance
that small-sized fish and juveniles exist on the landing sides. The
fishingmethodsaremostlybasedonpassivegearssuchasgillnets,
trammel nets, longlines, purse seine nets, drift nets, trawler nets,
and beach seines. These are traditional fishing nets widely used in
the coastal area of Gaza. Usually, large, medium, and small-sized
boats are used. There are 11 trawlers for deep-sea fishing. Most of
the vessels are operated by using motors. Capacity utilization of
days at sea is about 75. The fleet-average length over all is 18 m
to24m,18m(trawlersandlargepurseseiners),6to9metersfor
small purse seiners and small-scale vessels with motor, and 3 to
4 meters for small-scale vessels without an engine using passive
gear. The motor power of the vessels range from 20 to 450 horse-
power(hp)mostly.Somefishershavetheirvessels;somesharethe
vessel and others work as labourers on vessels. There are about 54
kinds of species usually caught in Gaza Strip marine waters. Most
fishers reported Sardina spp. catch is dominant, and others are
Loligo spp., Engraulis Spp., Etrumeus spp., Mullus barbatus, Tra-
churus spp., Sphyraena spp., Dasyatis spp., Sillago sihama, Auxis
rochei,Lizaspp.,Thunnusthynnus,Pagelluserythrinus,Argyroso-
ijems

StatusofFisheriesinGazaStrip
[201]
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
figure3 PercapitafishconsumptioninWestBankandGazafrom2005
to2020(kg/year;basedon fao 2020andunpublished dof data)
mus regius, Alectis alexandrinus, Sepia sp., Balistes capriscus, Red
mullets, Poops boops, Dentex gibbosus, Trachinotus ovatus, An-
chovies, Saurida undosquamis, Protuns sp., Sphyraena Chrysotae-
nia, Scomberomorus, Hirundichthys rondeleti, Epinephelus spp.,
etc.Fortheaveragefishingtrip,vesselsintheGazaStripcaught32
kgoffishperdayineachcatch.65ofthefishersselltheircaptured
fishwholesaletoretailersinthemarkets,and35selltheirfishdi-
rectly to consumers.The interviews found that the fishers’ highest
income per month (14 working days) from selling fish is 320 usd,
andthelowestis61 usd.
Moreover,everyyear,manypeoplearebecominginvolvedinfish-
ing as a seasonalor part-time occupation. As a result,fishing pres-
sureiscontinuouslyincreasinginthesea.4offishers’monthlyin-
comeisabout320 usd,14offishers’monthlyincomeis220 usd,
15is10 usd,3080 usd,and37offishers’incomeisabout65
usd.
The fish speciesin the Gaza Strip areclustered into two classes:
‘high-valuefish’and‘publicfish,’accordingtothedeterminationof
dof for trade purposes. High-value fish are those with a unit cost
of over 6 usd per kilogram, and public fish cost less than 6 usd
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[202]
DoaaM.A.Husseinetal.
per kilogram. Public fish, such as sardines and anchovies, are nor-
mally consumed in Gaza. Resident consumption of fish has been
low,buthasdemonstratedasoundincrease.A fao studyindicated
thataveragefishconsumptionintheGazaStripis3.5kilogramsper
person per year. This is very low compared to neighbouring coun-
tries, where average consumption is around 15 kg per person per
year(fao 2020).Figure3showsthegrowthofunderstoodfishcon-
sumptionpercapitaintheWestBankandGazaStrip(separatedata
for the Gaza Strip did not exist). It is observed that much of the
fish consumption compared to theWestBankisrecordedinthe
Gaza Strip. The increase in fish demand has been supported by ex-
panding fish imports. As understood from figure 3, the amount of
foodfishconsumedintheWestBankandGazahasincreasednotice-
ably, but much of it is characterized by fish imports. In agreement
with the fao booklet, annual fish consumption in the Gaza Strip
ispresentlyabout20,000tons.Customaryfishingproduces26of
locally consumed fish, with in-land aquaculture producing 3. The
shortage is supported by fish imports from abroad, which account
for over 66 of locally consumed fish. Fish exports from the Gaza
Strip have increased recently, mostly due to increased aquaculture
fish export. There was no trade from 2008 to 2013. Since the truce
in 2014, Gaza started again exporting fish, but merely to the West
Bank.Theamountofaquaculturefishproductionhasincreased,and
itsexportisalsogrowing.
High-valuefishincludeseabream,seabass,andoctopus.Thereis
nolimitinexportinghigh-valuefish,andexportersprefertohandle
high-value fish. Meanwhile, public fish are limited for export, be-
causetheyareconsideredtohavehighdemandinthelocalmarket.
Publicfishincludesardinesandanchovies.FishfromtheGazaStrip
isexportedtotheWestBankonlyonSundaysandWednesdays.The
volume of export by each exporter is limited to 1.5 tons per week,
resulting in a total of 24 tons a month for all four permitted ex-
porters.FourleadingexporterstradefishwiththeWestBank.They
havetotakepre-authorizationpermissionfrom dof toexportfish.
ExportingfishfromtheGazaStripismoreprofitablethansellinglo-
cally,creating30addedvaluetotherevenues.Tradersmentioned
ijems

StatusofFisheriesinGazaStrip
[203]
a shortage in essential infrastructures for export, such as storage
andcollectioncentres,decenttransportation,coldstoragefacilities
ontheborder,distributionpackingcentres,andotherexporttrade
support. They experienced high costs due to the border and road
closures. These high business costs (favouring mainly Israel) make
Palestinianagriculturaloutputuncompetitiveintheexportmarkets
despiteastronginternalandexternaldemand.However,according
to the traders, trading with the West Bank is feasible and promis-
ingforfutureinterventionsbyinvestorsconditionedwithfacilities
fromtheIsraeliside.Theyalsocertifythatinlandfishfarmingcould
holdpromiseonthegroundsofflexibleexportationandlowerpro-
ductioncosts.
TheCurrentStatusofFisheriesManagement
The question of how best to manage littoral resource for artisanal
fisheries has been examined on a large scale in the Mediterranean
basin,includingthetopicsofclosedareas,co-managementandop-
tions.Therearemanystrategiesthatcanbeusedtoaddressthreats
tothemarineenvironment,andfisheriesinparticular.Thesestrate-
giesmaybecross-cuttingandmayrelatetostructuralaswellasnon-
structural measures. It may also contain actions that have already
been previously defined by different organisations. Accordingly, a
set of potential strategies related to fisheries were presented in a
studymadeby(Abudaya,Harper,andUlman2013).
The General Directorate of Fisheries in the Ministry of Agricul-
tureisthechiefauthorityresponsibleforfisheriesmanagementand
collectingassociatedfisheriesstatistics.The dof playedanimpor-
tant role in fisheries management up to 2007, by issuing licenses
to fishers, administering the construction of ships, collecting and
analysing data, solving arguments between fishers, enforcing laws
and regulations, ensuring the health and safety of fishers, inspec-
tion of the quality of fish before arriving at the auction market,
capacity-buildinginhealthandsafetyandonthetechnicalsubjects
offishing.Since2007,though,the dof’srolehasweakenedbecause
ofthecrucialpoliticalsituationandfinancialdifficulties.
ThemainchallengeofthefisheriessectorintheGazaStripisthe
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[204]
DoaaM.A.Husseinetal.
extremelylimitedfishingzone,especiallytothethreen.m.Thisre-
strictionhasbeenimposedbytheIsraelimilitaryonfishersregard-
ingaccesstothefishingareasalongtheGazaStripcoastwherethe
fishersarealwaystryingtoprotectthemselvesfrombeingshotand
arrestedbytheIsraelimilitary.However,suchalimitationhassub-
stantially reducedboth the quantity and qualityof fishing catches.
Thus, nearly 90 of fishers are now considered either poor (with a
monthlyincomeofbetween100and150 us$)orverypoor(earning
less than 100 us$ per month), which constitutes a sharp increase
from2009whenalmost50offishersfellintothesecategories.
Although this restriction, imposed by the Israeli military, is justi-
fied‘forsecurityreasons,’whichisuncertain,itseriouslyaffectsthe
fisheries’economicviabilityandlong-termsustainableexploitation,
which profoundly impacts the fisheries’ livelihoods and food secu-
rity. The fishers know very well the restrictions imposed on fish-
ing activities in the Gaza Sea are their main obstacle for meeting
the challenge for the survival and progress of the fisheries sector.
Applying the fishing terms of the Oslo Accord to the 20-n.m. limit
would remove this obstacle and open up opportunities for Gazans
fromwhichtheyarepresentlydestitute.Fishingbeyondthe12n.m.
would improve the sector and bring considerable economic nutri-
tional benefits, as well as employment and manyother advantages
tothesector.
TheGazaStripfacesadeclineinemploymentopportunitiesim-
posedbytheoccupation,leadingtohighpovertyratesandalackof
employmentopportunities.Itbecomesimpossibletobuildanecon-
omyinconditionsthatlackthemostbasicdevelopmentnecessities.
Otherconditionshavetobemet.Thefisheriesauthoritiesandpub-
licinstitutionsshouldmakelong-termarrangementstostrengthen
andupgradethecapacityofthefishersandfishfarmersintheGaza
Strip,andtherelatedfishingsupportactivitiestoimprovetheman-
agement and the governance of the sector. The level of experience
inthemodernmethodsofrunningfisheriesalsoneedstoberaised
whilethesector’sneedsshouldbebetterunderstood.Therestric-
tion on importing the various requirements for the sector should
beliftedwithoutburden.Thenumberandtypeoffishingequipment
ijems

StatusofFisheriesinGazaStrip
[205]
requiredtomaintaintheexistingvesselsandgears,andonshoreser-
vicestodevelopnewfishingmethods,shouldbeprovided.Untilthe
pledgedentirelydevotedfisheriesharbourislastlyestablished,the
currentfisheriesinfrastructurefacilitiesinthesmallGazaharbour,
the fishmarket (the Hisba)andthe fishingandmarketingsupport
services,willremaininpoorcondition,andwhatisavailableneeds
tobeimprovedandexpanded.
Underthepresentconditions,Gazaneedsandoftenreceivesaid
and assistance from several international and regional donors and
ngos invariousfields,includingthefisheriessector.Forexample,
Palestine takes part in the fao executed EastMed project, gfcm,
and others, and receives support from donor agencies such as the
eu, usaid,andothers.However,itisrecommendedthatthissup-
port be continued without interruption and expanded to the fish-
eries sector to become self-sufficient and support itself. The areas
of assistance most needed include (1) training of fishers and fish
farmersonnewandmoreproductivetechniques,(2)datacollection
andanalyses,(3)stockassessment,(4)value-addedproduction,(5)
promises for export, (6) hygienic systems in fish preservation and
processing, (7) marketing techniques, (8) value-chain analysis, (9)
introductionofnewspeciesandotherissuesthatsupportasustain-
ablefisheryintheGazaStrip.
TheFisheriesOrganizingLawof2005wasqualifiedandapproved
by the cabinet of the Palestinian National Authority. The law is for
(i)promotingthegeneralplanforprotectingfisheriesandthelong-
term conservation, sustainability, development, processing, and
utilization of fishery resources; (ii) the organization and manage-
ment of fishing and aquaculture; (iii) programs to protect the ma-
rine environment, reduce pollution of fishing waters, work to ad-
dress the adverse environmental effects of fisheries resulting from
humanitarianactivities,avoidexcessfishingcapacity,andmaintain
theexploitationoffishstocksfromaneconomicpointofviewinco-
ordinationwiththecompetentauthorities;(iv)thedevelopmentof
investmentinfisheries;(v)scientificresearchinthefieldoffisheries
andaquaculture;(vi)thesettingofstandardsofconductforallthose
involved in fisheries and aquaculture and the development and ra-
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[206]
DoaaM.A.Husseinetal.
tionalization of fishing methods and method, and (vii) enhancing
thecontributionoffisheriesandaquaculturetofoodsecurity.
ThePalestinianlawofenvironmentNo.7wasestablishedin1999,
whichisaframeworkforprotectingtheenvironment,publichealth,
and biodiversity in Palestine, including marine areas. The law in-
cludesanarrativethattheEnvironmentQualityAuthority(eqa),in
coordination with specialized agencies, shall set standards for sea-
waterquality,andsetrulesandregulationstopreventmarineenvi-
ronment pollution that comes as a resultof wastewater discharges
andsolidwastedumping.Itiswellknownthatdifferentministries
and departments were working in the fisheries sector in the Gaza
Stripalongwithagencies,whichhadsignificantroles,until2007,but
a lot has changed since then. Until 2007, the Palestinian National
Authority (pna) obliged all boats and ships to have telecommuni-
cations equipment tools to enable fisheries and maritime police to
communicate and track them. The Ministry of Agriculture used to
conduct more training for fishers and the Ministry of Transport
used to update vessel data in terms of efficiency, effectiveness, li-
censing,andregistration.Thevesselswerepreviouslylicensedbased
on specific lengths and standards, but currently, new licenses are
frozen.Therewasaprotectedareawherefishingwasprohibiteddur-
ing the mating and spring periods and prevented fishing within 3
milesofshore.Still,unfortunately,fishersatpresentarenotimple-
mentingtheselawsduetothepoliticalandeconomicsituationand,
aboveall,thedelimitedIsraelisiegeontheGazaStrip.
discussion
It is clear that Gaza has a smaller production capacity in terms of
both fisheries and aquaculture. Trends show that fisheries produc-
tion has fluctuated in recent years, while aquaculture has gained
considerableimportance,becauseoftheincreasinghumanpopula-
tion’s high demand for aquatic food products. Therefore, the aqua-
cultureindustryisapromisingsectorfortheeconomyinGaza,while
wild fisheries have more challenges to overcome. The geographical
location of Gaza presents a major advantage in supporting biodi-
versityinmarineandbrackishwaterresources.FisheriesinGazaare
ijems

StatusofFisheriesinGazaStrip
[207]
stillanunderdevelopedactivity,andtheyremainapoorlymanaged
sectorcomparedtootherlargeneighbouringeasternMediterranean
countries(e.g.,Egypt,Turkey,andGreece).Thereportedincreasein
landingsinthelateeightiesandninetiesispossiblyattributable to
the improvements in fishing technology, a large areaof the fishing
zone,andincreasingeffortratherthanaclearretrieval.Therewasa
similar worldwide increasein fish landings (includingthe Mediter-
ranean) during the eighties. However, landings have decreased or
remainedconstantinlateryearsdespitetechnologicaladvancesdue
tothedepletionoftraditionalfishinggrounds(Paulyetal.2002)and
minimizingthefishingzone.
InternationalOrganizationssuchas fao startedtosupportfish
farms financially in the late nineties (fao 2010). Therefore, aqua-
culture production increased 472 in the years between 2011 and
2020.Asaresult,fishconsumptioninGazaroseto4.5kgpercapita
peryear,whichisasmallamountwhencomparedtotheaverageEu-
ropean consumption (22 kg) and less than the global (15.3 kg) and
African(10.4kilograms)averages(fao 2013;2020).Ithasaveraged
around 2.5 kilograms over the past decade. Marine and aquacul-
ture fisheries are the main source (about 30) of wild production,
and the remainder is imported from abroad. The aforementioned
decline was mainly due to the decrease in marine fishery landings.
Inturn,fishingefforts graduallyincreasedduringthesameperiod.
Thiswouldinevitablylowerthecpue(catchperuniteffort)asmore
vessels compete for fewer resources. One of the main difficulties
in Gaza marine fisheries (Mediterranean Sea) is that they depend
very much on seasonalsuppliesof small pelagic fish species.These
species show great fluctuations on a global scale, because they are
morevulnerabletoenvironmentalfactors(Fréonetal.2005).How-
ever,thecurrentfishingregulationsareunenforced,andillegalfish-
ing techniques, including destructive fishing, are affecting marine
resources(AshworthandOrmond2005;Samy-Kamal,Sánches,and
Forcada 2011). Thus, some (mpas) are now functioning as ‘paper
parks’(Moraetal.2006;Guidettietal.2008;Rifeetal.2013;Advani
etal.2015).However,therearecurrentlynomarineprotectedareas
in the territorial waters of the Gaza Strip. In turn, Mediterranean
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DoaaM.A.Husseinetal.
fisheries are suffering from unjustified trawl fleet overcapacity.
Moreover,allthelandingsitesarefacingthesamechallenges:
pollution,habitatloss,asignificantreductioninarea,thespreadof
aquatic weeds, declining fish yield and quality, overfishing, illegal
fishing practices like harvesting of fish fry. These are actually part
ofthewholechallengesfacingthemarineenvironmentandfishery
resources of the Gaza Strip (mena 2001; Abd Rabou et al. 2007).
Thereislowawarenessamongfishersofenvironmentalissues,and
the need for regulation measures is of utmost priority (Mehanna
2008). Most of these assessments have recommended a reduction
infishingmortalityof40viatheadoptionofappropriatemanage-
ment measures. Such recommendations include the improvement
oftrawlselectivitybyincreasingmeshsizes,identifyingandprotect-
ingnurseryandspawningareas,theminimumdistanceoftrawling
fromthecoast,andclosedareasandseasons(fao 2014).
ComparedtootherneighboringcountriessuchasEgyptand
Lebanon, fisheries management in Gaza faces challenges from the
problematic nature of the accompanying socio-ecological systems.
The fisheries are defined as labour-intensive, multi-species, and
multi-gear; they areextensivelydistributedalong the coastandre-
latedtohighlevelsofcommunityneed.Itisdurabletocontrolfish-
ers’behaviourorimposeandimplementregulationsinsuchasitua-
tion.Thedemandforfisheryresourceshasbeensteadilyincreasing
duetotheriseinpopulationandincreasedunemploymentrate.This
hasledtoincreasedpressureonstocksandtheuseofdamagingand
illegal gear and practices. Most of the damaging methods are pro-
hibitedbylaw,butcontinuetobeusedduetolackofinvestigation,
enforcement, public awareness,andincreasedpoverty. Despitethe
existenceof national legislationfor the potential ability to address
fisherymanagementissues,theselawshavenotbeenimplemented
tothecompletestlevel(fao2014).Toourknowledge,morelicenses
havebeenissuedtofishersandnewvesselstopracticefishinginma-
rine waters of the Gaza Strip, and the mesh-size regulations were
setatlowerlimitsthanexpertsandscientistsrecommended(based
onunpublished dof data).
Additionally, these laws and regulations are somewhat old and
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StatusofFisheriesinGazaStrip
[209]
seem not to consider the current changes in international policy
or regional fisheries arrangements.The laws vary with the General
Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean regulations, despite
Gaza notyet being a member, but Palestine is an observer in fao.
Consequently, the wild fisheries of Gaza are under-regulated with
norationalmanagementplans.Thishashadpositiveresultsonthe
amountofnationalproductionanddistortedmulti-speciesproduc-
tionintofarmedsingle-speciesproduction.
Although fisheries in Gaza look to be poorly studied (Shaheen
2016;AbuAmra2018),muchinformationisstillneededto address
management gaps. The management of fisheries requires detailed
data onthe fleetsandmisusedresources.Such informationshould
indicate the status of each fishery, their dynamics, characteristics,
as well as of time and spatial distribution of each fleet (e.g., For-
cadaetal.2010;Samy-Kamal,Forcada,andSánchezLizaso2014).It
shouldalsoincludeconfirmationsupportingestimatesofmaximum
sustainable yield and documentation of the standing stock’s best
size and age composition. To retrieve this information, it is indis-
pensablethatscientists,inturn,beprovidedwithdataonharvests,
numbersoffishers,geartypes,vessels,effort,andfishinglocation.
In Gaza, fisheries statistics collected from the landing sites are
notcomprehensiveenoughtoprovideacompletepictureofthere-
sources and fleets. Furthermore, knowledge of the ecology of ma-
rinefishcommunitiesissparse,andquantitativeecologicalstudies
andresearchon invasive species(AbdRabou 2019)areneeded.For
instance,there are no data on the impact of the aquaculture farms
onthenearbymarineenvironmentortheyieldofadjacentfisheries.
InsuchintensivecoastalaquacultureareasasGaza,fishfarmsmay
actassmall mpas.Forthisreason,theecologicalinteractionswith
the surrounding fishing grounds and influences on the fish stocks
shouldbeconsidered(Dempsteretal.2002).Thefutureoffisheries
management in Gaza also lies in improving the current manage-
ment strategies and measures. It is important to evaluate the ef-
fectiveness of management measures (e.g., Samy-Kamal, Forcada,
and Sánchez Lizaso 2015a; 2015b; 2015c) to understand if they can
achievetheirmainobjectives.
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DoaaM.A.Husseinetal.
Fishisoneofthemostimportantfoodsourcesofhumanbeings
andisofgreatimportanceatlocalandgloballevel.Thefisheriessec-
tor is a form of agricultural production in the Gaza Strip and is al-
ways targeted by the Israeli occupation forces. This has a negative
impact on the rate of fish production from marine catches. Fish is
one of the most important food sources for humans, because they
contain protein and essential nutrients. The Food and Agriculture
Organization(fao)hasrecommendedthattheannuallowestindi-
vidualconsumes13kgoffish.IntheGazaStrip,byseacatches,only
1.75kgpercapitaisavailableannually;importedfishsupplytherest.
Thepercapitasharewas4.1kgin2016duetotheincreaseinthearea
ofthefishingzoneinGaza.
Anoverviewofthefishinghistoryshowedthattheperiod(1967–
1978)wasthegoldenageofthefishingprofessionintheGazaStrip.
This is due to the area where the fishers were allowed to do fish-
ing, up to 180 km from the shoreof the Gaza Sea to Lake Bardawil
in the south, near the city of El Arish; sometimes fishers arrived
in the Egyptian Port Said. As a result, the amount of fish caught
in that period reached60 tonnes per day, but the situation did not
continue in this way. The Israeli occupation authorities started to
impose obstacles on the fishers, and they set the allowed fishing
distance of 82 km, which reduced the amount of fish caught. Af-
ter the Oslo agreement was signed between Israel and the plo in
1993–1994, this distance was reduced to 20 nautical miles. The oc-
cupation authorities did not commit to allowing fishers to use this
fishingzone,whichwasreducedto12nauticalmiles.Therefore,the
amountofcaughtfishdecreased(wafa 2020).AftertheIsraeliwar
on the Gaza Strip, from December 2008 until January 2009, Israel
narrowedtheallowabledistancetothreenauticalmiles,whichneg-
atively affectedthe fishingsectorinthe GazaStrip. Thisprevented
manyvesselsfromoperating;Shanshulascatchesceasedworkingin
sardinefishing,whichaccountedfrom40to70oftotalfishproduc-
tion(wafa 2020).ThisclosurelasteduntilDecember11,2012,and
after the intervention of a number of international organizations,
thefishingareawasincreasedto6nauticalmiles.Thiscontinuedun-
til23March2013;thefishingboundaryreturnedto3nauticalmiles
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StatusofFisheriesinGazaStrip
[211]
until 21 May 2013, once again rebounding to an area of 6 miles un-
til (October 2016), and finally to this day returned to an area of: 15
milesinthesouthofGaza,12milesinthemiddleofGaza,9miles
fromGazaseaporttoWadiGazaand6milesinthenorthernofGaza
nearthebordersofGaza(basedonunpublished dof data).
In the context of widespread unemployment and food insecu-
rity, the fishing sector continues to be an important source of em-
ployment.Fish,especiallysardines,isasignificantsourceofprotein,
micronutrients,andomega-3fattyacidsforpeopleinGazaandcon-
tributes to nutritional variety. In 2017, it was estimated that 40
of households in Gaza were severely or moderately food insecure,
while unemployment rates reached 43.6. According to the Direc-
torateGeneralofFisheriesintheMinistryofAgriculture,3,700reg-
istered fishers in Gaza depend on this sector for their livelihoods.
Gazafishersareestimatedtosupportanother18,250people(based
onanaveragehouseholdsizeof5–7inGaza).Itisalsoestimatedthat
a large number of people depend on fishing-related industries, in-
cludingvesselsandfishinggearmaintenanceandfishretailing.Ac-
cordingtotheMinistryofAgriculture,only2,000registeredpeople
fishdaily,whileapproximately1,700inthesectorworksporadically,
about once a month. Fishing quantities and revenues vary widely
overtheyears,whilethedesignationoffishinggroundsaffectsfish
landingquantities andrevenues.Revenuesalso varydepending on
thetypeandquantityoffishavailableinthespecifiedarea.Restrict-
ing fishing in a small area near the coast leads to overfishing and
has a negative impact on fish breeding areas. According to the Di-
rectorateGeneralofFisheries,theeffectsoftherestrictionsonthe
fishing zone and its limitation to three nautical miles in 2006 and
2007 were notseenuntil 2009, when the fish breedingareasof the
3-nautical-milezonewereheavilydepleted(ocha 2018).
The income of fishers from fishing does not cover their operat-
ing costs. The Gaza Strip still suffers from a shortage of fish due
to the occupation authorities imposing fishing restrictions, which
sometimes prevents fishers from practising the profession of fish-
ing at sea. This has encouraged the people to establish fish farms
to meet their needs from fish. A number of traders have turned to
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[212]
DoaaM.A.Husseinetal.
fishfarmingprojects,‘fishponds,’tocompensatefortheshortageof
fishstocks.Despitetheimportanceoftheseprojectstothefisheries
sector, they are almost limited due to their high cost and current
politicalandeconomicconditions(ocha 2018).
ThemarineecosystemoftheGazaStriphasbeendegraded.Con-
struction along the coastline has blocked sand transport and has
causedanerosiveeffectonthecoastdownstream.Largevesselsare
damagingtheseabed,henceaffectingthehabitatsandnichesofma-
rinelife.Thedischargeofpartiallytreatedsewageintotheseawater
from different wastewater treatment plants is a serious challenge
affectingthemarineenvironment.Thisdischargemayposeserious
health hazards, destroy marine habitats, and causes severe threats
to the population of marine biota such as fish, zooplankton, phy-
toplankton, and macro-algae. The dumping of solid wastes in the
coastalandmarineenvironmentsbylocalsandfishershasaffected
the marine ecosystem. Fishers have collected solid waste in their
fishing nets, which can pose direct threats to marine species and
theirhabitats(mena 2001;AbdRabou2007;2013).
conclusion
The challenges of fisheries in the Gaza Strip are closely related to
thecurrentcomplexsecurityandpoliticalsituation.Thefisheriesin
GazaareareflectionofthedevastatingimpactofIsraelipolicieson
the citizens of Gaza. Access to resources that would provide them
with food for subsistence is significantly impeded. Poverty, lack of
training,andlackofsanctionscontributetoacontinuedpoorman-
agement of the resource; but poor management of the resource is
alsotheonlyoptionavailabletopeopletryingtosurvive.
ThefisheriesandaquaculturesectorintheGazaStrip hasmany
challengesofinstitutionalstructure,movementconstraints,having
old infrastructures and vessels. Despite these various challenges,
there is also potential to expand, create more jobs, and generate
more revenue. There is potential for capacity development in the
fisheriesandaquaculturesectorintheGazaStrip.Peoplearedesper-
atetoattainnewknowledgeandtechniques.Theysufferfromalack
ofexchangeofexperienceswiththeoutsideworld,whichaffectsthe
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StatusofFisheriesinGazaStrip
[213]
qualityofresearch,data,fishingskills,healthandsafetyprocedures,
andportsandshipmanagement.Differentstakeholdersexistinthe
fisheriesandaquaculturesector,anditisusefultoclarifymorede-
tailsofavailablecapacityandcapacitydevelopmentneeds.Sustain-
able fisheries development and improving the value-chain of fish-
eriesandaquaculturesectorshavethepotentialtoincreasemorejob
opportunitiesandeconomicdevelopmentactivities.Itisrequiredto
havecomprehensivecoastalandenvironmentalmanagementofthe
fisheriessectorintheGazaStrip.
ThechallengeforGazafisheriesmanagersisnotonlytoprovide
properstrategiestodevelop thecurrentsituationinGaza,butalso
to monitor the success of management plans and implementation
of the guidelines. Most of the measures and guidelines related to
fisheriesareoutdatedandoftennotfollowed,makingthesituation
difficulttocontrol.Furthermore,littledataexistonenvironmental
issues’socialandeconomicaspects.Ingeneral,thereisalackofcom-
munication among the leading groups of stakeholders in adaptive
management: managers, fishers, experts, and scientists. Experts,
policymakers, scientists, and fisheries managers need to consider
thesefisheries’variousscopesandnature,countingtheframework
inwhichtheywork.Theymustthentrytoevolvemanagementpoli-
ciespropertotheframeworkofthesefisheries.
Moreover,integratingthefishingsectorintomanagementdeci-
sionsandactionsisveryimportant(Jentoft1989).Thishelpsunder-
stand the community’s priorities and behaviour in order to adopt
appropriatemanagementtools to their needs (Gelcich, Godoy, and
Castilla2009;Pitaetal.2011).Improvingenforcementisnecessary,
and this implies the need for greater effectiveness of fisheries per-
ambulations, which may enhance community education regarding
environmentalandfisheriesconcerns.
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