Han Steenwijk, Ortografia resiana / To jošt rozajanske pfsanje, Pa-
dova, CLEUP-IHan Steenwijkl, 1994, 73 pp.; Han Steenwijk, Gramma-
tica pratica resiana. Il Sostantivo, Padova, CLEUP, 1999, XX, [2],237 pp. 
In the volume entit1ed OrtograJia resiana / To jošt rozajanske pfsanje the 
author treats the graphic criteria for the Resian standard as well as for four local 
dialects, San Giorgio/Bila (SG), Gniva/Nji'wa (G), Oseacco/Osoane (O) and Stol-
vizza/Solbica (S). The work is divided into five chapters with the following titles: l. 
General Principles; 2. The Resian Standard; 3. The Four Local Dialects; 4. The 
Resian Standard and the Four Local Dialects; 5. Two Simplified Prescriptions for the 
Resian Standard. The central treatment is then followed by an alphabetical List of 
Words Cited and the Appendix: The Italian z or the Slovene One? 
The accomplishment of this enormous normative project, which inc1udes also a 
practical grammar , follows in -depth field research, conducted with the most refined 
linguistic tools. Before confronting normative matters, a careful phonological analy-
sis of the spoken varieties was undertaken, a fundamental premise of any project of 
this type. 
It is worth noting at the start the inventory of the proposed letters for con-
sonants: b, c, Č, C, d, J, g, g, g, h, j, k, 1, m, n, p, r, s, Š, t, v, W, z, Ž. As can be 
seen, it is necessary to employ special diacritic marks to render the Resian phon-
emes. In addition to the letter s Č, Š, Ž, used also in the c10sely related languages Slo-
vene and Croatian, there is also g, that, together with the letter C used in the Serbi-
an, Bosnian and Croatian alphabets, forms a voiced-voiceless pair (from an articula-
tory point of view equivalent to Friulian gj, ej), g being the voiced partner of č. 
The inventory of vowel letters is as follows: a, ii, e, e, i, f, o, o, U, U. The choice of 
the diaeresis to indicate the typical Resian dark vowels corresponds to the common 
phonological characteristic of the Resian vocalic system represented by the funda-
mental phonemic opposition between centralized and non-centralized vowels. This 
diacritic is used primarily for the stressed vowels and in part for unstressed vowels. 
In addition it is worth noting the Oseacco variant, where the letter ii may occur also 
in syllable-final unstressed position. For the localities of San Giorgio and Stolvizza y 
represents a new letter with respect to the inventory of the standard given in the 
account above. 
From a practical point of view, in learning the written language, for example, 
the use of the letter s that mark the centra liz ed or "dark" vowels could present 
somewhat of a further difficu1ty, given the complexity inherent in the entire system. 
The native speaker naturally recognizes the dark vowel and in writing does account 
for them, the evidence for this being the fact that in most cases in which Resians 
spontaneously write their language, the dark vowels are not identified as such. In 
the codified texts in which these vowels are indicated are quite rare, being used 
only sporadically and without systematic criteria. The two major local writers, Rena-
to Quaglia and Silvana Paletti, both of whom write poetry, in fact do not mark the 
dark vowel. The consonantal letters of the new spelling proposal coincide neverthe-
less with nearly everything used by these two authors. The only newly coined sym-
bol, g, adopted recent1y also by Silvana Paletti, was designed in a coherent manner 
with the same diacritic mark that marks the voiceless correspondent Č. 
R. Dapit, Review of Han Steenwijk, Ortografia resiana ... 71 
The resulting alphabet is quite functional and systematic, with a high degree of 
isomorphism between graphemes and actual pronunciation. It is perhaps worth 
assessing the graphic impact of the new Resian spelling codification as it appears in 
a text treated in the book, "Ta prawa pravica od lisica od Rezija" (p. 14): 
Lisfcii anu Gardfnicii 
Tadej, ko na sa omužitii, ta-dow Osoaneh, lisfcii na melii pa 
ta maja. Anu na !Opu ji diiržalii kont, anu na !Opu ji gledalii anu 
dan din na sa wzelii, na mela kar je fučec anu powjuw, tej ni so 
mele prit ka ni niso vijawale anu so mete priit, anu bogii lisfcii na 
šlii prat nutew potok. 
The fox and the Gardiniza 
Then, when she was married in Oseacco, the fox had alitter 
of cubs. She protected them and watched over them with care. One 
day, as she had many diapers to wash-because in the old days 
they did not throw diapers away, but they had to wash them -she 
went down to the stream. 
Some discussion is given to the rendering of the speech of Oseacco, which, as 
has already been pointed out, among other peculiarities of this variety, requires the 
employment of the standard letter ii in final unstressed syllables as well. As has 
already been indicated, the spelling might be viewed as an unnecessary redundancy, 
but it is perhaps worth observing, with a view to the future, that this usage could 
represent a tool for phonological preservation. Thus it is not an excessive worry to 
be preoccupied with graphic isomorphism, for what today seems excessive caution 
may tomorrow be a tool to safeguard the phonological individuality of the language. 
The linguistic behavior of the Resian speakers themselves in fact reveals a strong 
tendency towards a dec1ine in competence, both as concems active and passive 
knowledge of the language. Rather, one can express some reservations on the need 
to represent with a grapheme the reflex of *b in the combination *br. For example 
the word piirstiin 'ring' in the standard appears in the variant dialect pronunciations 
as SG, S pyrstiin, G parstiin, O piirstiin. The functional load of this sign is revealed 
in a combination where the reflex of *b is realized automatically in each dialect. On 
the other hand it is true that Gniva realizes this phoneme with the full vowel a. To 
fail to account for this reality would be able to be misleading from the point of 
view of the role of the spelling as a guide to the articulatory behavior of future 
speakers. In reality, the graphic choices were dealt with logically, compelling one to 
consider the modern reflexes of *b, as well as in the combination *br, and of other 
vowels that had developed into *<1 (e.g., standard vitek 'big', SG vlyk, O valek, S 
valyk, as independent phonemes, represented by a single grapheme. 
The complexity of the Resian (socio )linguistic situation presents us with a 
multi-faceted task, namely, to elaborate a standard system similar to that of all 
national languages, where the whole community recognizes a single linguistic code, 
taking into account also of the variation of four dialects as they differ from the 
standard. The construction of the Resian standard means therefore the elaboration of 
a supradialectal language-one that does not exist in reality-across a system of cor-
72 Slovenski jezik - Slovene Linguistic Studies 4 (2003) 
respondences between the dialects. Four variants are referred to, as mentioned in the 
beginning, as well as the village dialect of Lipovaz/Llpovac, which is located in the 
center of the valley and displays a characteristic mixture of features. In certain 
cases the choice of the standard form is unproblematic, e.g., the headword SG krej, 
G kraj, O krej, S krej 'side, part; area', the standard form is krej. In other cases 
difficulties arise because the attestations are different in every locality. For example, 
one is confronted with a word that presupposes the reflex of *b: SG dyž, G daž, O 
diiž, S dež 'rain', which in the standard will be diiž, as the reflex in Lipovaz is diiž, 
as well. 
In the graphic elaboration of this code it was unfortunately impossible to 
account for the further linguistic reality encountered the valley. Here one may men-
tion the subsystems of the localities Coritis/Korito and Uccea/Učja, belonging to the 
Oseacco dialect. Uccea in particular offers us the phonological distinction of yet a 
further, fifth Resian reflex of *b, namely, a; the realization of final *Q as u; and, 
sporadically, the voiced fricatives b, d, together with r as the normal reflex of g in 
western Slovene. The decision to ignore these two sources of data can be justified by 
the fact that in Coritis there is no longer any permanent settlement, and Uccea, 
although more populous in the past, no longer has more than twenty inhabitants. 
A special note in an appendix is devoted to the topic "The Italian Z or the Slo-
vene One?" In it the possibility of using an alternative for the signs Z in place of c, 
or s in place of Z, is discussed. This leaves open the possibility of maintaining, in 
some cases, the Italian tradition, and thus facilitating to a degree the acquisition of 
the code and, consequently, the use of the Resian language. It should be kept in 
mind that the Resians, with a few exceptions, do not know the graphic and lin-
guistic system of the Slovene standard, as the public education system demands the 
official use of the Italian language and Slovene does not figure as part of the curri-
culum, even as a foreign language subject. For this reason, Resians in general find 
themselves reticent and confounded in accepting such a graphic system for an extra-
-linguistic reason, too, namely , the lack, or at least the difficulty, of identification 
with the Slovenes across the border and consequently also of the reception of a 
graphic code considered to be a type of Slovene. 
The intention of developing a (practical) Resian grammar nevertheless aro se 
wholly within the local environment and was promoted by the local administration 
of Resia while Luigi Paletti was in office. Now with the new administration the 
project should continue. The financial support for the realization of this and other 
linguistic projects has been come largely from the Autonomous Region of Fri-
uli -Venezia Giulia, on the basis of a special law on the border areas, as well as 
from the Province of Udine and the Community of Resia. Law no. 482/1999 per-
taining to minority languages in Italy, but above all the law protecting of the Slo-
venes in Italy no. 3812001, with respect to previous legislation, recognize the greater 
right of the Slovene-speaking community in the province of Udine. It is hoped that 
these laws will have a positive effect on the cultural life of these communities. 
The publication of the volume dedicated to Resian spelling carries significant 
meaning for Resian cultural history. The normative rules support those who intend 
to concern themselves with written Resian. Nevertheless they do not provide for full 
mastery of the written code, as one would require illustrations primarily of the 
R. Dapit, Review of Han Steenwijk, Ortografia resiana ... 73 
morphological part demonstrated in the paradigms of the various grammatical cate-
gories, particularly those of the noun and the verb. Also in this sen se the variation 
evidenced in the four dialects present a picture of particular complexity. Towards the 
codification of the entire Resian grammatical system, a continuing project after the 
publication of the volume on orthography, we assisted in 1999 with the publication 
of the first true grammar , which appears under the title Grammatica pratica resi-
ana. The conceptual structure that forms the basis of this project is present in this 
work, which, of course, accounts both for the standard language as well as that of 
four local dialects. 
In the treatment of the work pertaining to the noun the intent has be en to 
offer an important and quite complex chapter on the linguistic system Resian. After 
an analytical index presented in 12 pages, including the abbreviations and symbols, 
the work is divided into seven chapters: 1. Introduction; II. A1ternations; III. 1'1 
Masculine Declension; IV. 1'1 Neuter Declension; V. 2nd Declension; VI. 3rd declen-
sion; VII. Pluralia tantum; Alphabetical List of Words Cited. In the second chapter 
is presented areview of the frequent alternations in the different grammatical 
class es for the Resian standard and the four dialects. Each of the following pheno-
mena are treated: vocalic alternations, vowel raising, final reduction, insertion and 
other vocalic a1ternations, consonantal a1ternations with the behavior of the glide, 
i.e., the glides w, j, palatalization and assibilation. As far as vocalic alternations are 
concerned, two different phenomena divide the Resian speech territory into two: San 
Giorgio and Gniva are characterized by regressive assimilation, traditionally called 
vowel harmony, while Oseacco and Stolvizza are characterized by pretonic vowel re-
duction. The standard accepts the rule for regressive assimilation, but not pretonic 
vowel reduction. In this sense, therefore, the feature of the western dialects prevails. 
Observing the result of these two phenomena we can account nevertheless for 
the fact that in some cases the shape s correspond. For example, let us examine the 
alternation e - i - a as it is treated in the case of regressive assimilation in stand-
ard blek, blikuw, blakii, blak6wjilblak6vi 'rag, patch' and the alternation e - a of 
Oseacco (similar to Stolvizza), with pretonic vowel reduction: blek, blakuw, blakii, 
blak6wjelblak6ve, respectively, for the cases nom. sg., gen. pI., gen. sg., nom. pI., 
and we can thus account for the coincidence of the gen. sg. and nom. pI. 
The Resian nominal category is subdivided into three declensions. The first 
declension consists of masculine and neuters nouns; the second and third are femi-
nine, except the masculine noun ocii 'father', belonging to the second declension. 
The grammatical description demonstrates the shape s with respect to the accentual 
classes "a", "b" and "c" that characterize the first two declensions, while only "a" 
and "c" occur in the third. The shape s exhibited here under like example pertain 
the Resian standard and indic ate the registered cases and singular genitive. The 
vowel rendered with the diaeresis indicates that the vowel corresponds to centralized, 
representing always the place of accent in the Resian standard. If two dark vowels 
appear, the first one always is stressed. 
The 1'1 masculine declension. The shape of both the animate and inanimate 
declensions is treated here. The sole difference between these two declension resides 
in the accusative singular. For inanimates this case is the same as the nominative, 
while for animates it is the same as the genitive. The class to with kjiič, kjiiča 'key' 
74 Slovenski jezik - Slovene Linguistic Studies 4 (2003) 
and ded, deda 'grandfather , old man' is characterized from the scarcity of accent in 
the endings. In class "b" with blek, blakii 'rag, patch' and konj, konjii 'horse' the 
ending is always stressed, if this is -0 then the accent falls on the syllable immedi-
ately preceding, for example plataniic 'basket', dwor 'courtyard' . In this class there 
are irregular cases like the basic otrok- 'child'. The fundamental characteristic of the 
class "c" with zob, zoba 'tooth' and čiirw, čiirwa 'worm' is the mobility of the accent 
in the paradigmo AIso here irregularity of cases appear with the stems muž- 'hus-
band, man' and si'n- 'son, boy'. 
The 1't neuter declension. The feature is the genitive singular in -al-ii. The 
three accentual classes are exemplified by: jabulku, jabulka 'apple'; irregular cases 
are illustrated the plural of oku 'eye' and wiihu 'ear'; rašato, rašatii 'seive' , where the 
position of the accent always occurs on the ending; in class "c" the accent occurs on 
the ending in the singular, e.g., okno, oknii, as well as writina [writina] or 
wratanowji nom. pI. of wratano, wratanii 'spindie'. For this reason class "c" could 
have be en confused with class "b". 
The 2nd feminine declension is characterized by the ending -e -[el in the geni-
tive. The accentual class "a" is represented by trpa, trpe 'linden tree' with the irre-
gular type mati, matare 'mother'; for class "b" is represented by kozii, koze [koze] 
'goat', with the irregular case ocii 'father', between the masculine other of type; the 
class "c" is exemplified by gora, gore [gore] 'mountain' (Ist group) and rič, rače [rače] 
'thing' (2nd group). An irregular case is cirkuw [cirkuw], carkve [carkve] 'church'. 
The 3rd , feminine-only, declension, with the gen. sg. in -i, is represented by 
racjun, racjuni 'prayer'; a special declension with the formant -ust, i.e., zdrawjust, 
zdrawjustilzdrawjusta 'health'; and class "c" by meš, mm 'mouse'. 
Although they do not impair the scientific value of the work, in the Gramma-
tica pratica resiana. Il sostantivo, errors and imperfections in the !talian language 
usage may be noted. These can perhaps be explained by the fact that the work was 
apparently not reviewed by an !talian native speaker. 
After only seven or eight years from the publication of the Resian spelling 
proposal there are indications that the longed-awaited development of the written 
language is being effected according to the new rules, for example, in local printing 
(ab ove all in the weekly one of the Slovenes in the province of Udine, Novi Mata-
jur), in the publications issued by the Community of Resia, the cultural Circle 
"Rozajanski Dum" and, more rarely, in the Parochial Bulletin of Resia. According 
to the published texts it is understood that the speakers and potential writers prefer 
to use the proper variant that can be identified with one of the four main dialects. 
In messages aimed at the entire population the use of the Resian standard is admit-
ted. As was noted above, there is an increase in texts written also in other individu-
al variants, the native speakers are perhaps responding to the proposal as one they 
are not yet prepared to accept. In any event, this cannot but indicate the vitality of 
the situation, of the positive dynamics, given that the oral culture, prevalent in its 
time in Resia, is now giving way to the increasing use of writing. 
Naturally , it is still premature to be able to expect to gauge the full impact of 
this normative project, the only one of its kind in the Slovene linguistic area. 
Steenwijk's studies on Resian grammar are undoubtedly an important step forward 
in the field of Resiology. The analysis to date allows us, at least for those aspect s 
R. Dapit, Review of Han Steenwijk, Ortografia resiana ... 75 
treated so far, to obtain a much clearer view of the linguistic situation of spoken 
Resian, both with respect to its variation as well as its commonalities. It represents 
therefore avaluable tool for further scientific studies in the linguistic field, both 
interdisciplinary and applied. 
The potential application of the normative rules in two texts if used in Resi-
an-language pedagogy requires nevertheless a proviso. The work, which without a 
shadow of doubt is a fundamental one as such, must stiH be adapted to the needs 
and skiHs of the intended users. Some initiatives in this sen se have already be en 
undertaken by the Resian community. At present the vast majority of the potential 
local users is not in a position to use these tools, despite the systematicity and the 
precision that characterize them, without the help of a current pedagogical expert. 
There is therefore a palpable need to test channels of application of the linguistic 
norm for areas such as language pedagogy in compulsory school, in addition to 
other contexts of public or private life. Already varied experiences have be en ob-
served, particularly the Resian language course organized presently by the Cultural 
Circle "Rozajanski Dum" and by the Community of Resia with the support of the 
International Center on Multilingualism at the University of Udine, which has en-
deavored for some years to disseminate the rules of the Resian standard and the dia-
lects. Such a course is directed primarily at the linguistic education of the teaching 
personnel of kindergarten and elementary schools (unfortunately those having Resian 
as their mother tongue are exceedingly rare) as well as to all possible users of writ-
ten Resian. Pedagogical material supporting the teaching of the Resian was pub-
lished from 1999 to 2001 in the weekly Novi Matajur by the Slavist from Gorizia 
Matej Šekli, in his capacity as a teacher of the Resian language adhering to the new 
rules (ef. the rubric "Kot ic za dan liwči jazek"). In addition in kindergarten, ele-
mentary and middle schools, certain projects are expected (thanks also to the finan-
cial support granted by the current laws) that agree, although with limited space, to 
introduce in the curriculum also education in the local language and culture. 
It has been our pleasure to have assisted with the publication of books for 
children, including [Elena di Lenardo] Ta prawa pravica od lisfca od Rezija / La 
vera storia della volpe di Resia (Resia 1997), published by the Resian Cultural 
Circle "Rozajanski Dum"; R. Dapit et al., Po nas. Primo libro di lettura in resiano, 
(Resia: Comune di Resia, 1988). Immediately after these were all republished by the 
Community of Resia, as well as three other book1ets: Ditido za otroke, edited by L. 
Negro, C. Quaglia (Resia 1999), with linguistic exercises, Le o le ke na je, edited by 
L. Negro (Resia 1999), popular traditiona1 texts, and, finally, Wartac. Raccolta di 
testi e disegni dei ragazzi della Val Resia dal 1975 al 1999 / Pisanja anu dizinjavi 
od tih rozajanskih utruk od leta 1975 dardu leta 1999, edited by L. Negro, C. 
Quaglia (Resia 1999). In three of the five books the new orthographic proposal is 
used in rendering the four dia1ects, whi1e the spelling standard occupies, for the 
moment, a more limited space. This certainly reflects the intense connection of the 
Resians with their actua1 place of origin and therefore the degree of perceived 
linguistic identity with the territorial minority beyond that to the level of the entire 
community. Also, it may be noted, among the more recent initiatives, we assisted in 
the birth of a Resian dictionary on the Internet, conceived by Han Steenwijk as a 
reference for the utilization of the orthographic form (for which, in fact, there is a 
website available: http://www.maldura.unipd.it/resianica/docs/dictiona.jsp). 
76 Slovenski jezik - Slovene Linguistic Studies 4 (2003) 
So that Resian studies at present are not at risk of becoming an enterprise 
without practical application, albeit with high scholarly and cultural value, it is a 
positive sign that the target audience and users can acquire the tools that they have 
themselves have commissioned. According to a survey of the linguistic skills of 
children, conducted in 2000 in the main school, the results indic ate that the number 
that use the Resian language actively and passively represent the exception. The 
language capability of the youngest generations is therefore alarming and it is diffi-
cult at present to expect the future course of event s without a well-defined language 
policy. The factors that determine the linguistic and cultural development of the Slo-
vene area in the province of Udine are naturally multi-faceted and quite complex. 
Two laws of the Italian State, cited ab ove , provide for the protection of the Slovenes 
in Italy and among the diverse community this includes also the Slovene-speaking 
community of Resia. Its future will certainly depend on local as well as global con-
ditions. Moreover , there are factors of clearly historical and economical import, as 
well as other variables present in this territory, that are no less significant, of both 
a political and social nature. 
Prispelo novembra 2002 
Received November 2002 
Translated from Italian by Marc L. Greenberg 
Iz italijanščine prevedel Marc L. Greenberg 
Roberto Dapit 
Universita di Trieste