De Paula Ferreira et al.: THE ROLE OF MENTAL PRACTICE IN DECREASING …                    Vol. 13 Issue 1: 119 - 126 
 
Science of Gymnastics Journal                                119                           Science of Gymnastics Journal 
 
 
THE ROLE OF MENTAL PRACTICE IN DECREASING 
FORGETTING AFTER PRACTICING A GYMNASTICS 
MOTOR SKILL 
 
Bárbara de Paula Ferreira
1
, Nathálya Gardênia de Holanda Marinho 
Nogueira
1
, Guilherme Menezes Lage
1
, João Roberto Ventura de Oliveira
2
, 
Tércio Apolinário-Souza
3
 
 
1 
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil 
2
 Universidade Estadual de Minas Gerais, Ibirité, Brazil 
3 
Instituto Metodista Izabela Hendrix, Belo Horizonte, Brazil 
 
Original article 
Abstract 
Parallel to processes of memory consolidation, forgetting is a functional mechanism that 
allows the maintenance of relevant information or learning in memory. Practice condition 
can affect the forgetting rate, favouring or not memory consolidation. Physical practice has 
been shown to be effective in decreasing forgetting, but the role of mental practice is not 
known yet. Thus, in this study, we aimed to investigate the role of mental practice in the 
forgetting rate of a motor skill. Twenty-four participants with the mean age of 26.13 years (± 
3.04) of both genders were divided into three groups: (a) mental practice group (MG); 
physical practice group (PG) which practised the handstand skill either mentally or 
physically, respectively, and (c) control group (CG) that did not practice the skill. Results 
showed no difference between the forgetting rate of MG and PG. Also, they had forgetting 
rates lower than CG. Thus, it is suggested that mental practice is as effective as physical 
practice to decrease the forgetting rate of motor skills, favouring the maintenance of the 
movement representation in memory. Possibly, physical and mental practice conditions share 
mechanisms that slow down forgetting processes. 
 
Keywords: handstand skill, mental practice, forgetfulness, memory consolidation, cognitive 
processes.
 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
Memory is one of the key elements 
involved in motor performance, learning, 
and control (Robertson, 2012). Working-
memory (WM) is involved in the process 
of storing and manipulating information 
during a given task (Diamond, 2013), 
playing a decisive role in mechanisms of 
error detection and correction (Seidler, Bo, 
& Anguera, 2012). The greater rate of 
improvement in motor performance at the  
 
 
 
 
beginning of practice typically observed in 
motor learning, as opposed to the rate of 
improvement at the end of the practice 
period, is entailed by trial-to-trial 
adjustments in motor command that aim to 
reduce the discrepancy between the 
performed and the desired behaviour 
(Smith, Ghazizadeh, & Shadmehr, 2006). 
WM participates in the updating of motor 
plans through mechanisms of error 

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detection (Seidler et al., 2012). Throughout 
practice both the errors and the WM 
influence decrease, and the participation of 
cognitive processes associated with 
learning consolidation increases (Smith et 
al., 2006). Although the encoding and 
adaptation of long-term memory (LTM) 
influence learning since the beginning of 
practice, this process is paramount for 
motor learning consolidation not only at 
the final stages of practice, but especially 
after acquisition (Robertson, Pascual-
Leone, & Miall, 2004). Through more 
stable memories, the learner is capable of 
maintaining her performance similar to the 
performance reached at the end of the last 
practice session, even after a period 
without practice (Mosha & Robertson, 
2016; Robertson, 2012). 
The long-term reverberation of the 
information acquired during practice is 
crucial for the LTM consolidation, since 
forgetting processes act in an adaptive 
fashion in which only relevant information 
is retained long-term (Schacter, 1999). The 
first empiric evidence on forgetting 
processes was shown at the end of the 19
th
 
century with studies by Ebbinghaus (Murre 
& Dros, 2015). One of his best scientific 
contributions pertains to the forgetting 
curve, wherein it was shown that the 
largest forgetting rate occurs only 
moments after learning (Murre & Dros, 
2015). Considering the pieces of evidence 
provided by Ebbinghaus` groundbreaking 
experiments, the Decay Theory suggests 
that forgetting is entailed by decayed 
activation of memory traits (Ricker, 
Vergauwe, & Cowan, 2016). According to 
this theory, the weakening of memory 
traits is faster after its encoding and, if this 
trait was not strengthened enough, it gets 
lost over time (Brown, 1958). 
Other than time, practice is one of the 
factors that can contribute to increasing or 
diminishing forgetting (Robertson et al., 
2004). Different practice conditions may 
increase or diminish the rate of forgetting. 
For instance, the suppression of sensory 
receptors that participates in the coding of 
mental representation may increase the rate 
of forgetting  (Ventura de Oliveira et al., 
2019). Conversely, increasing the quantity 
of practice slows the rate of forgetting, 
entailing distinct levels of motor 
consolidation (Lage et al., 2017). 
Practice conditions with explicit 
movement are usually known as physical 
practice, while those that do not include 
movement are called mental practice 
(Gomes et al., 2014; Millard, Mahoney, & 
Wardrop, 2001; Wulf, Horstmann, & Choi, 
1995). Studies often see physical practice 
as superior to mental practice, while the 
latter, to a lesser extent, leads to better 
performance and learning than conditions 
with no practice (Toth, Neill, Hayes, 
Moran, & Campbell, 2020). One of the 
explanations for the benefits of mental 
practice is related to the cognitive 
processes underlying it, which are similar 
to those of physical practice (Munzert & 
Zentgraf, 2009). Considering this 
similarity, it is reasonable to expect a 
similar rate of forgetting between these 
two practice conditions during motor 
memory consolidation. Nevertheless, to the 
best of our knowledge, the forgetting rate 
of these two practice conditions has never 
been investigated in the literature. In line 
with the idea that mental practice may be 
an important factor to aid the consolidation 
of motor learning, we investigated the rate 
of forgetting in mental and physical 
practice of a sports skill. We hypothesized 
that mental and physical practice would 
show a similar rate of forgetting, and a 
lower rate than the no-practice condition. 
 
METHODS 
 
Twenty-four undergraduates in 
physical education (12 female and 12 
male), with the mean (M) age of 26.13 
years (standard deviation [SD] = 3.04) 
participated in this study. As a prerequisite 
for participation in the experiment, the 
individuals had to be able to raise their legs 
at a 90º angle while both hands were 
touching the ground (Rohleder & Vogt, 

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2018). Volunteers could not have previous 
systematic experience with the handstand 
movement or with mental practice. They 
also did not report any pathology that 
could restrict their movements. The 
selected volunteers were informed of the 
purpose of the study and asked for their 
written informed consent to participate in 
this study. The experiment was reviewed 
and approved by the local Ethics 
Committee (Universidade Estadual de 
M i n a s G e r a i s - C A A E 
97208818.3.0000.5093). 
Data collection was conducted in a 
university laboratory, with standard 
luminosity and windows properly covered 
by curtains. To perform the kinematic 
analysis of handstand, we used a video 
camera (Nikon, D-750 Sigma - lens 17-50 
m m ) w i t h a 6 0 H z f r a m e r a t e a n d t h e 
Kinovea software (v.0.8.15) to process the 
data. 
Volunteers were marked on the right 
side of their bodies with red adhesive tape 
i n a p l u s ( + ) s h a p e i n t h e f o l l o w i n g 
locations: lateral condyle (knee), greater 
trochanter (hip), humeral head (shoulder), 
ulna's styloid process (hand), and temporal 
bone (head). After the placement of 
landmarks, the volunteers received the 
following instructions: “To perform the 
handstand skill, you must remove your feet 
from the ground, while maintaining 
support with your hands, and straighten 
your arms, legs, and spine as much as 
possible. You must touch the ground with 
fingers extended, and place the hands 
apart, at the shoulder width. The legs must 
remain upright and side-to-side with one 
another, while the head must remain 
aligned with the body”. Further, an image 
of the ideal execution of the task was 
shown to each participant, and a video of 
an ideal execution pattern (performed by a 
professional) was reproduced twice. After 
these initial procedures, participants 
performed three pre-test trials, which were 
filmed for posterior analysis. Participants 
were allowed to start each trial after the 
“prepare and go” command was given by 
the experimenter. 
After the pre-test, participants were 
randomly assigned and counterbalanced by 
sex in three groups: mental practice group 
(MG), physical practice group (PG), and 
control group (CG). The practice phase of 
MG consisted of imagining the task. 
Before starting mental practice, 
participants comfortably sat down on a 
chair facing a desk and holding a pen with 
their left-hand. Fifteen trials were 
performed mentally, and participants were 
required to signalize the end of each trial 
by touching the far end of the pen on the 
desk. The PG physically performed 15 
trials of the handstand skill after the pre-
test. 30 seconds of rest were provided to 
participants in-between trials, and each 
trial started after the “prepare and go” 
command given by the experimenter. 
Participants in the CG played T-Rex Game 
on the offline Google Chrome browser for 
10 minutes after the pre-test (a time similar 
to the time spent by participants in the MG 
and PG groups). This procedure was 
adopted to avoid any unwanted mental 
practice by participants of the CG. 
Ten minutes after the end of the 
practice session, a post-test was performed. 
Similarly to the pre-test, all participants 
performed three trials of the motor task, 
which started after the command “prepare 
and go” was given by the experimenter. 
The trials were recorded for posterior 
analysis. 
For video analysis, three angles were 
defined on Kinovea (Figure 1): (i) Angle 
between the lateral condyle and greater 
trochanter (angle 1); (ii) Angle between the 
greater trochanter and ulna's styloid 
process (angle 2); (iii) Angle between the 
greater trochanter and temporal bone 
(angle 3). The reference values were: angle 
1 = 200º, angle 2 = 164º, and angle 3 = 
159º. The reference values were extracted 
from the analysis of a gymnastics athlete 
with more than 10 years of experience and 
participation in international artistic 
gymnastics competitions. 

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Figure 1. Angles analysed. 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 2. Mean and standard deviation of the groups’ forgetting score. 
MG = mental practice group; PG = physical practice group; CG = control group; * = 
indicates a significant difference from the other groups 
 
 
 

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Performance error was computed as 
the difference between the actual angles 
and the angle criteria: 
Performance error = [|(Angle criterion
i
 – 
Actual angle
i
)| + |(Angle criterion
ii
  - 
Actual angle
ii 
)| + |(Angle criterion
iii
  - 
Actual angle
iii
)|]. 
 
A forgetting score was calculated as 
follows:  
Forgetting score = [(post-test – pre-
test)*100]/pre-test. 
Smaller numbers indicate less forgetting 
from pre- to post-test (Lee & Fisher, 
2019). 
One-way ANOVAs and post hoc 
Fisher LSD tests were used to compare 
groups. Effect sizes were calculated using 
eta-squared (ƞ²). An alpha level of .05 was 
set for all inferential statistics.  
 
RESULTS 
 
Descriptive statistics are presented in 
Figure 2. The inferential analysis detected 
a significant effect of groups [F(2, 21) = 
7.16,  p < .01, ƞ² = .40]. Post hoc analysis 
indicated that the forgetting rate was 
greater in CG than in MG (p = .02) and PG 
(p < .01). No difference was found 
between MG and PG (p = .33).  
 
DISCUSSION 
 
In this study, we investigated the 
effects of mental practice in the forgetting 
rate of a motor skill. Our results support 
our hypothesis that a similar forgetting rate 
between mental and physical practice 
would be found, with both practice 
conditions showing a smaller forgetting 
rate than the no-practice condition. The 
lower rate of forgetting of the MG  
compared to the CG suggests that mental 
practice is capable of slowing down the 
forgetting process after the implicit 
practice of a movement. Also, the similar 
forgetting rate of the MG and PG groups 
support the idea of shared underlying 
cognitive processes between mental and 
physical practice (Munzert & Zentgraf, 
2009). 
Studies showing the existence of 
unconscious implicit muscle movements 
during mental practice provided the first 
pieces of evidence of similarity between 
physical and mental practice (Hale, 1982; 
Jacobson, 1930). By using 
electromyography, Jacodson (1930) and 
Hale (1982) showed that thinking about a 
movement of elbow extension led to 
increased neuromuscular activity of the 
biceps brachii. This muscle activity of the 
same muscles involved in physical 
practice, although in smaller magnitudes, 
suggested that the benefits of mental 
practice are related to neuromuscular 
changes that favour future physical 
movement. 
Other possible links between mental 
and physical practice were suggested in the 
literature, such as the hypothesis of 
functional equivalence that proposes that 
mental and physical practice share memory 
representations, neural structures, and 
perception, planning and execution 
mechanisms (Moran, Guillot, Macintyre, 
& Collet, 2012). Among the shared brain 
areas are the premotor cortex, the 
supplementary motor cortex, the primary 
somatosensory area, cerebellum, and basal 
ganglia (Hardwick, Caspers, Eickhoff, & 
Swinnen, 2018). Studies presenting these 
neural correlations between physical and 
mental practice do not show a clear 
relation to memory formation or forgetting. 
However, the similarity between the brain 
areas involved in both practice conditions 
and the similar forgetting rate between the 
MP and PP groups suggests that motor 
memory strengthening and forgetting are 
also processes shared by these two practice 
conditions. 
The superiority of mental practice 
over a no-practice condition is recurrently 
demonstrated in the literature (Toth et al., 
2020), and our study also supports this 
premise. The smaller forgetting rate of the 
MG compared to the CG may be 
associated with a greater ability to protect 

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a previous performance level from factors 
that interfere with forgetting processes. In 
this study, for instance, the time between 
the end of the practice session and the 
post-test is one of these factors. 
Considering that the greatest weakening of 
memory traits occurs immediately after its 
encoding, resting time is paramount for 
memory survival (Brown, 1958). A recent 
memory goes through a phase of instability 
of its neuronal representation, thus 
vulnerable to perturbations and 
interferences (Robertson et al., 2004). The 
early consolidation processes are 
responsible for the stability and robustness 
of the memory after a period of sleep 
(Diekelmann & Born, 2007, 2010). Mental 
practice likely acts as a protecting agent 
against the short-term effects of time on 
forgetting, as shown in the present study. 
Another study also investigated the effects 
of mental practice on the learning of a 
gymnastics skill (Šešum & Kajtna, 2018). 
It is important to highlight that during the 
mental practice condition in their study, a 
relaxation technique was applied, which is 
not usual in study designs investigating 
mental practice. Given the use of such 
relaxation technique, it is difficult to 
support the hypothesis that there are no 
benefits of mental practice in the learning 
of gymnastic skills, since relaxation may 
have interfered with the results by Šešum 
and Kajtna’s (2018). It is also worth 
noticing that they did not investigate the 
rate of forgetting. If relaxation in 
conjunction with mental practice results in 
better memory consolidation, this 
additional effect could be observed in the 
rate of forgetting. 
Even though our results suggest a 
relation between mental practice and 
decrease in forgetting, more evidence is 
needed to further our comprehension of the 
role of mental practice in motor memory 
consolidation. For instance, our single 
session design allows inferences about the 
early stages of memory consolidation, but 
not about the whole process of LTM 
formation. Future studies should 
investigate how the forgetting rate under a 
mental practice condition behaves with 
distinct intervals between the practice 
session and the post-test. We could expect 
that the forgetting curve, as a function of 
time, would follow the same features of the 
one under physical practice conditions, 
wherein the faster forgetting rate occurs 
immediately after acquisition (Murre & 
Dros, 2015). Additionally, future studies 
could investigate the interaction between 
mental practice and factors such as the 
quantity of practice and sleep duration. 
Since fewer practice trials and shorter 
sleep times maximize forgetting processes 
(Krause et al., 2017; Lage et al., 2017), the 
benefits of mental practice could be better 
observed under conditions with more trials 
or after a period of sleep. More than 
behavioral research, given the neural 
correlations found between mental and 
physical practice (Hardwick et al., 2018), 
studies investigating brain areas and 
cognitive processes related to LTM 
consolidation could help to explain the 
mechanisms underlying the decreased 
forgetting under mental practice. In 
addition to studying the effects of mental 
practice in LTM and forgetfulness, 
investigating the role of combined practice 
(physical + mental practice) in forgetting 
processes should be the next step, since 
this type of practice seems to produce 
increased benefits compared to physical or 
mental practice alone. 
 
CONCLUSION 
 
The results of this study suggest that 
mental practice of a gymnastics skill 
lessens forgetting rate compared to a no-
practice condition. Also, the forgetting 
rates of mental practice and physical 
practice do not seem to differ from each 
other, suggesting that these two practice 
conditions share mechanisms that diminish 
forgetting, favouring LTM consolidation. 
Although incipient, our results broaden the 
possibilities of future studies, since the 
relation between mental practice and 

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forgetting processes were not strongly 
investigated in the literature yet. In terms 
of practical implications, this study 
supports the use of mental practice to 
improve motor performance of gymnastics 
skills. Especially in cases in which 
physical practice is not an option, such as 
in injury conditions, mental practice can be 
a viable alternative to practice in order to 
acquire new motor skills.  
 
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Corresponding author: 
 
Bárbara de Paula Ferreira  
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais 
Av. Presidente Carlos Luz, 6627. 
Pampulha. Belo Horizonte – MG.  
CEP 31270-901 
E-mail: barbaradepaulaf@gmail.com 
Tel and fax num: +55 31 98726-3103 
 
 
Article received: 6.8.2020 
Article accepted: 16.9.2020