hrm Model in Tourism, Based on Dialectical Systems Theory
simona sarotar zizek
University ofMaribor, Slovenia simona.sarotar-zizek@um.si
sonja treven
University ofMaribor, Slovenia sonja.treven@um.si
matjaz mulej
University ofMaribor, Slovenia matjaz.mulej@um.si
A human resources management (hrm) model integrating trends in hrm with trends in tourism into a dialectical system by the Dialectical Systems Theory (dst). hrm strategy, integrated within the tourism organization's (to's) strategy is implemented through functional strategies helping their users to achieve a requisitely holistic (rh) hrm strategy replacing the prevailing one-sided ones. to's strategy covers: employees (1) planning, (2) acquisition and selection, (3) development and training, (4) diversity management, (5) teamwork and creativity, (6) motivation and rewarding, (7) stress reduction and health, (8) relationships, (9) personal holism, (10) well-being, (11) work and results assessment; etc. Everyone matters; their synergy is crucial. An innovated hrm model for tos, which applies employees', organizations' rh and integrates new knowledge about hrm. hrm belongs to central managers' tools. Their hrm must be adapted for tos, where employees are crucial.
Key words: tourism, human resources management, well-being, Dialectical Systems Theory, social responsibility, Organizational Cybernetics
The Selected Problem and Aspects of its Treatment
Human resources1 management crucially contributes to employees' optimal skills and behaviours enabling the organization's sustainable competitive advantage (Wright, Dunford, and Snell 2001). Competitors can hardly imitate innovations generated by employees due to significant time-lags in implementation of innovation-generating approaches and innovations and their impact on employees as the human capital pool.
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The following hypotheses are tested theoretically by analysis of findings collected in Kybernetes 43 (3-4) (see Lebe and Mulej 2014) based on most of the cited literature applied as criteria:
hi Some hrm practices in tos are more unprofessional and underdeveloped, than elsewhere; the given practices hardly generate employees'/co-workers' commitment, satisfaction, requisite personal holism, and motivation.
h2 tos, as service organizations, need specific rh hrm models.
methods
Scientific description is used to present the theoretical bases and describe the key facts, processes, techniques and methods that matter for tos' hrm and related research; one uses dialectical systems, i.e. synergetic networks of all, and only, crucial aspects (Mulej 2013; François 2004) and organizational cybernetics. The theoretical basis of the key concepts of the key contents (hrm, tourism) is defined by analysis. Within the given research frame compilation was used to summarize the other authors' findings related to the chosen research. Comparison enlightens facts, phenomena, processes and techniques for the discussed content by establishing similarities and differences concerning hrm and tos. Deduction uncovered important theoretical conclusions and hypotheses about connections between hrm and tos. Induction helped defining the meaningful-ness of the problem at the beginning and to empirically check the research hypotheses that were defined deductively.
Other methods include: the historical method (e.g. development of the positive psychology), qualitative modelling (presenting researched areas, e.g. hrm), systemic and contingency theory (determination of the basic research frame) and the cognitive process.
Human Resource Management
Good work of hosts and guests' and hosts' well-being (wb) depends crucially on rh behaviour in tos. hrm crucially impacts employees' personal rh and effectiveness in tos, hence tos' competitiveness by compilation of activities, which enables working people and the organization, which uses their skills to agree about the objectives and nature on their working relationships and also ensures that the agreement is fulfilled (Torrington, Hall, and Taylor 2008, 25).
Many writers stress active hrm addressing organizations' crucial, i.e. human, capital (Ployhart and Moliterno 2011; Wright and McMa-han 2011; Becker 2002; 2008; Petzinger 2000). Wilton (2011) defines
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hrm as 'the term commonly used to describe all those organizational activities concerned with recruiting and selecting, designing work for, training and developing, appraising and rewarding, directing, motivating and controlling workers. In other words, hrm refers to the framework of philosophies, policies, procedures and practices for the management of the relationship that exists between an employer and worker.'
Management of people at work influences human behaviour to help employees work with others and other resources to achieve the identified goals (Lipicnik 2002).
The literature with relevance for hrm exposes one of the following categories (although there are other issues, too): (1) employee personality and emotional intelligence, (2) emotional and aesthetic labour, (3) hrm practices, (4) internal marketing, (5) organizational culture and climate, (6) business and hrm strategy, and (7) employee job attitudes and behaviours (Kusluvan et al. 2010). tos are no exceptions: they need strategic and rh hrm.
strategic and requisitely holistic human resources management
hrm necessitates rh (Mulej 2013) as a part of business politics (Štrukelj 2015). This includes strategic, not only short-term criteria. The basic idea behind strategic hrm is simple (Dessler 2011): In formulating human resource management policies and activities, the manager's aim must be to produce the employee skills and behaviours that the company needs to achieve its strategic aims. The idea consists of formulating of strategic plan, at first. That plan implies certain workforce requirements. Given these requirements, hrm formulates hr strategies (policies and practices) to produce the desired workforce skills, competences, and behaviours. Finally, the hr manager identifies the measures he or she can use to gauge the extent to which its new policies and practices are actually producing the required employee skills and behaviours. These measures might include, for instance, 'hours of computing training per employee,' 'productivity per employee' and others.
Three theoretical approaches to strategic hrm are identified (Torrington, Hall, and Taylor 2008):
1.	'There is "one best way" of hrm aimed to improve business performance.'
2.'One	must align employment policies and practices with the business strategy whose requirements must be achieved for
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business success. Different types of hr strategies, presumably, suit different types of business strategies.'
3. 'Strategic hrm results from the resource-based view on the firm, and the perceived value of human capital.' This approach exposes quality of the available employees and their ability to learn and adapt more quickly than their competitors. This perspective challenges the need to assure hrm's mechanistic fit with business strategy; they focus, instead, on organisation's long-term sustainability and survival, through its human capital.
tos are no exceptions.
Bases for the New Model of hrm in Tourism Organizations
basic notions about tos
Tourism covers activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business or other purposes (World Tourism Organization 1999). Tourism has existed for millennia, but never in the modern extent.
The tourism, hospitality and leisure industry is enormous; it is the world's largest employer and, despite the global financial crisis, the decline in international tourism arrivals may have bottomed out (ibid). It encompasses virtually every country and culture and has its foundations (Baum 2006b).
tos' can become competitive: by lowering prices, unique manufacturing processes, skills, methods of providing services, appearance and location of the destination (Jerman, Uran, and Radi 2006). Their restructuring and improving the old products and service quality help, too. This requires highly qualified employees and hrm supporting them with rh approach aimed at requisite wholeness of outcomes (Mulej 2013). Because the environment in which employees work in tos is rapidly changing, the evolutionary aspect of organizations and human resources in hrm matters.
People are critical for successful tos' services; successful tos excellently apply knowledge about ways to recruit, manage, train, educate and develop optimal employees, to evaluate and reward them, and to ensure their vocational and personal development by their permanent learning (Failte Ireland 2005; Baum 2007) and up-dating of values, culture, ethic, and norms (vcen). hrm is critical for tos, as service organizations, crucially driven by humans (Kusluvan et al. 2010). This includes the necessity of a permanent and socially responsible hrm (Baum 2006b). The future challenges
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to hrm also matter (D'Annuzio-Green, Maxwell, and Watson 2004).
All these findings match the good times, but may be too one-sided in crisis when new, more holistic models might be necessary; hopefully, one will attain rh. Otherwise, crisis of affluence (Mulej 2013; Mulej and Dyck 2014) may hit tos, too, especially the one-sided and short-term oriented tos, forgetting that social responsibility (sr), i.e. one's responsibility for one's impacts on humans and nature, i.e. society (International Standards Organization 2014) enables rh and provides a way out from the current crisis, therefore (European Commission 2011).
dialectical systems theory and employees' requisite holism as bases for the new model of hrm
Dialectical Systems Theory methodologically supports rh to replace the usual specialists' one-sidedness through adding bridges for their interdisciplinary creative cooperation (Mulej 1974; Mulej 2013). The narrow specialization is unavoidable, but insufficient for humans' successful coping with contemporary complex situations.
Now, iso 26000 on sr, supported by European Union' documents (International Standards Organization 2014; European Commission 2011), enables informal rh. sr claims that (1) interdependence/cooperation and (2) holistic approach replace independence-cum-dependence-and-one-sidedness, to solve the current global socioeconomic crisis by application of the seven principles of sr: accountability, transparency, ethical behaviour, the respect for stakeholders' interests, for the rule of law, for international norms and for human rights. sr is based on rh individuals' personal responsibility toward themselves and society (Šarotar Žižek 2012). By developing these attributes in synergy, tos' hrm increases (creativity-based) well-being (cbwb) of tourists and their hosts (Šarotar Žižek et al. 2014).
employees' well-being and interventions/strategies to increase well-being (wb)
wb is the main purpose of tourism. wb is complex and contested. One distinguishes: (1) hedonic and eudemonic wb; and (2) related objective and subjective measures (Sustainable Development Research Network 2005). The hedonic and eudemonic broad psychological traditions have historically been employed to explore well-being (Springer and Hauser 2006). In our research, presented here, the hedonic tradition is focussed.
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In the hedonic tradition, psychologists exposed 'subjective (emotional) well-being,' covering: (1) life satisfaction; (2) the presence of positive mood; and (3) the absence of negative mood. Their synergy is summarized as happiness (Ryan and Deci 2001). Subjective well-being (swb) evaluates individuals' lives through their positive emotions, work, life satisfaction and meaning (Diener and Seligman 2004). swb measures a person's wb including all life events, aspirations, achievements, failures, emotions and relations of humans, adding their neighbouring cultural and moral environment (Rojas 2004).
Humans can increase their creativity-based wb (cbwb) by learning from the happy ones, e.g.: pleasant appearance, meaningful activities, sociability, developing positive attitudes toward life, striving for healthy personality. One could positively contribute to the cbwb, e.g. by techniques for physical balance, spiritual maturity, social integration, and economic stability. Laziness is no productive basis of wb.
Because humans are frequently co-workers, their cbwb at work matters. So, organizations/employers should and can significantly increase their co-workers' cbwb. We expose: (1) motivation, (2) diversity management, (3) role and empowerment, (4) balancing working and personal lives, (5) enabling health improvement, (6) managing health risk and preventing harm, (7) management style and labour culture, (8) communication and conflicts management, (9) age management, (10) time management, (11) teamwork and creativity, (12) employees development, (13) personal rh, (14) interpersonal relations and (15) rewards and benefits (Šarotar Žižek 2012). See figure 1.
Our new hrm model is based on employees' cbwb model. Along with preconditions of employees' cbwb our new model also requires a new view facing the crisis with more rh and sr in tos.
important facts and issues of hrm in tos Before building the new model for hrm in tos, which could match the contemporary challenges, we reviewed various authors' related references. Some main findings, important for our study are presented now. Baum (2007) exposed facts why hrm is crucial for tourism and what are characteristic of hrm in tourism. Liu and Wall (2006) criticised: 'tourism's human resource issues are poorly conceptualised and the many studies of tourism development approaches, both theoretical and practical, provide no consolidation of useful recommendations to situate the human dimension as an
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integral part of a comprehensive planning framework for tourism.'
Two streams of research examined hrm practices in tos (Kuslu-van et al. 2010). The first stream integrates several studies examining individual hrm practices such as recruitment and selection (Janes 2004), empowerment and involvement (Lashley 2000), leadership and managerial styles (Deery and Jago 2001), performance appraisal (Woods, Sciarini, and Breiter 1998), and wages (Lee and Kang 1998). The second stream comprises a few studies analysing the state and impact of various bundles of hrm practices. This stream has the systems view emerging as the dominant trend in linking hrm practices to employee, customer, and organizational outcomes. Both streams of research concluded that individual, or bundles of, hrm practices in tos are unprofessional, underdeveloped, inferior to other industries, and poorly generate employee commitment, satisfaction, and motivation (Kusluvan et al. 2010; Head and Lucas 2004; Lucas and Deery 2004; Lucas 2002; Lucas 2004; Lucas et al. 2004; Timo and Davidson 2005). On this basis defining the current state of hrm
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practices is crucial. Related to that good hrm and hrm practice is only (and partially) observed in few large, foreign-owned, international chain estab-lishments (Kusluvan et al. 2010). Therefore, tos are reputed for poor hrm practices, using traditional and exploitative ways. Thus, tos are described as 'bleak houses,' or 'ugly' and 'bad' establishments in employment terms (Lucas 1996; Lebe and Vrecko 2014; Rok and Mulej 2014; Štrukelj and Šuligoj 2014; Zupan and Milfelner 2014). One should not disregard the increasing number of tos with highly effective hrm practices; regarding their consequences, individual and various combinations of hrm practices were related to employee, customer, and organizational outcomes, including turnover, organizational commitment, job satisfaction, service quality, customer satisfaction, and organizational performance (Kusluvan et al. 2010).
Dhar's (2015) study presents an integrated model examining the effect of high performance human resource practices on the commitment level of the tourist hotel employees. Commitment of employees is important for service innovative behavior. This can be regarded as the core demand of hotel employees who serve their customers in the best possible manner. Commitment is conected to the employee's satisfaction on work. Paek at al. (2015) mentioned that work engagement partially mediates the effect of psychological capital on job satisfaction and affective organizational commitment.
For to's is very important to build satisfied employee's because this has a positive impact on customer satisfaction. Jung and Yoon (2014,1) exposed that their research results showed that employees' satisfaction did not have a significant, direct impact on customer loyalty, but showed an indirect influence via customer satisfaction. In addition, customer satisfaction was positively associated with customer loyalty. Davidson, McPhail, and Barry (2011) exposed the following challenging perspectives:
• hrm in tos is at a crossroad: either hrm will evolve, adapt and become more important or hrm will disappear and be replaced by outsourcing and technology. It matters also that the existing type of organisation and work culture will determine which ones of these possibilities eventuate in tos (Woods 1999). So hrm may become the to's integral component following the Strategic Human Resource Management (shrm) model. Of course, this requires a shift from administrative to strategic, from a functional to a business-based model, from one-sidedness to rh (Štrukelj 2015).
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•	Lucas and Deery (2004) found review of 100 papers concerning hrm in five leading hospitality journals: hrm research in tos predominately replicated the mainstream hrm research. They suggest that tos' hrm researchers should investigate several key issues including the ownership of career development and the boundary-less career, the role of hrm in managing the 24/7 work environment, the impact of shift work on health, and managing the employees' safety and wellbeing in dangerous environments. Examination of the conflict between the cultural values of the owners and managers of large global tos and of their host communities also matters.
•	While the same hrm's elements - strategic partner, change agent, administrative expert, and employee champion - are used across organisations, the balance of how they are applied differs widely (Raub, Alvarez, and Khanna 2006): the corporate level shows much more balanced approaches, whereas at the department level the administrative element and employee champion roles predominate. The appropriate balance for the corporate level must be more strategic and the unit level more balanced (Raub, Alvarez, and Khanna 2006). The positive relationship exists between some hrm practices and shareholder values, including evidence supporting the proposition that some hrm practices assist firms to achieve their strategic objectives (Warech and Tracey 2004).
Hence, hypothesis hi is confirmed: Some hrm practices in tos are unprofessional, underdeveloped, and inferior to other industries, and generate poor employee commitment, satisfaction, and motivation; literature review confirms it (Head and Lucas 2004; Lucas and Deery 2004; Lucas 2002; Lucas 2004; Lucas et al., 2004; Timo and Davidson 2005; Lebe and Mulej 2014).
Literature review confirmed also the hypothesis H2: tos need a rh hrm model specified for tos (Lucas 2004; Liu and Wall 2006,162; Kazlauskaite, Buciuniene, and Turauskas 2012, 143).
The New Model of Human Resource Management
for Increasing Creativity-Based Well-Being of Employees
in Tourism
The given crisis challenges the current hrm models. Based on the presented starting-points we suggest a new model of tos' hrm combining in synergy:
•	The Harvard hrm model (Beer et al. 1984)
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•	Model Management and Human Resources Based on Business (Boxall 1996)
•	The hrm Model (Anthony, Perrewe, and Kacmar 1993)
•	The European Model of hrm (Brewster and Bournois 1991)
•	The Linear Model of hrm
•	The human resource cycle and strategic management and environment pressures.
Their common purpose must be employees' cbwb, resulting in guests' wellbeing leading also to tos' economic success.
Our guideline in developing this model was: people - owners, managers, co-workers, local population, partners, competitors, and co-workers - are the critical dimension for successful implementation of services; thus, the successful tos excellently apply knowledge about ways to recruit, manage, train, educate and develop their optimal employees, to evaluate and reward their work, and to ensure their vocational and personal development by means of the permanent learning (Fáilte Ireland 2005; Baum 2007) and updating of values-culture-ethics and norms (vcen) (Potocan and Mulej 2007) by a rh knowledge-cum-values management (Šarotar Žižek et al. 2014). So, the key themes of contemporary hrm in the proposed modern hrm model include (Page and Connell 2006):
•	Creating work reputation
•	Employees education and training
•	Considering the influence of globalization
•	Employing and preserving the number of employees considering their fluctuation
•	Flexible employment forms
•	Providing the necessary skills
•	Creating adequate wages politics along with remuneration and facilities
•	Gaining a balance between work and non-work
•	Consideration of legislation and government measures
•	Ensuring competitiveness.
As a starting point we also considered the necessity of a permanently socially responsible hrm (Baum 2006a). This is typical e.g. for to Amon from Podčetrtek, Slovenia.
The proposed hrm model comprises the future challenges to hrm (D'Annuzio-Green, Maxwell, and Watson 2004). Some relevant challenges include:
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•	Ensuring affiliation
•	Employees' loyalty in organizations
•	Employees' education and training
•	Services quality
•	Recruiting and selection of employees
•	Team building
•	Management development
•	Managerial professionalization
•	Employees' business and finance awareness
•	Career planning
•	Flexibility of employees
•	Personal efficiency of managers
•	Manner of appearance, etc.
The principal aims of hrm include linking all functions of co-workers into rh forms to reach tos' strategic goals. Reasons for implementation of the suggested model (figure 2) include: (1) restructuring of the market, (2) decentralization, internationalization, mergers and acquisitions of companies, (3) endeavours for better quality of products and services, (4) technological and other changes, etc.
According to this model, the individual and organizational attributes, and the environmental influences,2 determine the global strategy, which determines the orientation of functional strategies, including the hrm strategy. The top management first selects (in a sr rh approach!) the organizational strategy and then its functional strategies, to realize its primary chosen global strategy. Every functional strategy affects the global strategy, too. Before choosing its strategy, the top management must consider the existent functional strategies. This includes the strategy concerning co-workers and their accomplishments; it enables estimation, how successful the chosen global strategy will be.
Figure 2 demonstrates integration of the over-all company strategy with its hrm strategy: several functional strategies are required, contributing to tos' realization of their rh hrm strategy. They particularly tackle: (1) hrm planning strategies concerning: (2) recruiting and selecting, (3) development and training, (4) appraisal of work performance and turnover of co-workers, (5) teamwork and creativity, (6) motivation and remuneration, (7) diversity, (8) relations between employees, (9) health and safety, (10) well-being strategies, (11) holism-related strategies, etc. Following the Nickson's (2006)
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suggestion, at determining the strategies we considered the crucial importance of reaching hospitableness and ensuring top-innovative services and adequate organizational vcen.
The mentioned functional strategies result in human behaviour in organizations: it creates numerous advantages including employees' better motivation, health, relations and communication, (team) work, appreciation to their organization, enrichment of knowledge and experiences, work performance, etc. When implementing rh and sr hrm strategies employees: (1) do the right things in the right way at the right time, (2) are efficient and productive, (3) create excellent results, (4) are satisfied with their work, (5) are good motivators, (6) have good self-esteem, (7) expand their social network in personal and professional contexts, (8) have particularly positive emotions, and therefore fewer negative emotions, (9) express more self-initiative, (10) have greater self-control, (11) have inner-place control, etc.
These advantages have a long-term effect reflecting in tos' higher efficiency, subjective and objective welfare of each individual, and in social welfare/well-being. Specifically, it increases employees' satisfaction, productivity and loyalty, and lowers absenteeism. Well-being becomes cbwb (Šarotar Žižek, Mulej, and Treven 2014). Important impact on strategic planning has also social responsibility.
In the hrm model for to's we foresee several functional strategies. The implementation of these strategies helps tos create competitive advantages concerning hrm, e.g. employees' higher motivation, better health, better mutual relations, more successful teamwork, higher affiliation to the organization, enrichment of knowledge and experiences, etc. All of them positively influence the organizational success, including the individual's subjective and objective cbwb and welfare (as the material part of wb). Thus, employees/co-workers in tos will be happy, creative, motivated, helpful, friendly. All outcomes will be delivered to customers, benefiting from to's services' quality. Guests will spend more, will be more loyal etc. Results can be summarized as presence of iso 26000 in this research; see table 1.
A case study which was performed in May 2013 helped us to better understand hrm in e.g. Slovenian tos, including three different and important tos: Terme Olimia, Terme Maribor and City Hotel Maribor.
Summarized, these Slovenian tourism companies practice sr: they are employee-friendly and care for hrm; all stress internal communication, free schedule of working hours, rewarding system, team
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Attributes of globalisation
Challenges of environment
Attributes of individual
Social responsibility
Strategies for planning hr
Holism strategies
Recruiting and selecting strategies
Wellbeing strategies
Development and training strategies
Age management
Communication
Health and safety strategies
Time management
Strategies for relation between hr
Strategies of appraisal and turnover of hr
Diversity strategies
Teamwork and creativity strategies
Motivation and remuneration strategies
figure 2 Model of hr Management in tos (adapted from Šarotar Žižek 2012)
work, well-being and safety of employees, and the yearly interviews including employees' knowledge. The survey also showed Slovenian tos' deficiencies, including too little learning, coaching and involvement of employees in the main organizational processes. The case study results influenced our new model to help Slovenian and other tos to improve their hrm.
Based on these case study and new knowledge brought by the articles collected in Kybernetes 43 (3-4) (see Lebe and Mulej 2014) and presented earlier in this paper, we confirmed both research hypothesis:
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table 1 Presence of iso 26000 in This Study
Principles	(1) (2)	Topics (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Accountability	+ +	+ + + + +
Transparency	+ +	+ + + + +
Ethical behaviour	+ +	+ + + + +
Respect for stakeholder interests	+ +	+ + + + +
Respect for the rule of law	+ +	+ + + + +
Respect for international norms of behaviour	+ +	+ + + + +
Respect for human rights	+ +	+ + + + +
notes Column headings are as follows: (1) organization, management and governance, (2) human rights, (3) labour practices, (4) environment, (5) fair operating practices, (6) consumer issues, (7) community involvement and development.
hi Some hrm practices in tos are more unprofessional and underdeveloped, than elsewhere; the given practices hardly generate employees'/co-workers' commitment, satisfaction, requisite personal holism, and motivation.
h2 tos, as service organizations, need specific rh hrm models.
Conclusion
Tourism will grow, especially in the developing economies whose cultural backgrounds vastly differ from the dominant international tos. This will enable many different ways of handling hrm and the likelihood of very location-specific models portend a challenging, innovative and somewhat volatile future for hrm (Davidson, McPhail, and Barry 2011).
A new modern model of hrm for tos, which is based also on employees' cbwb, will support tos' accelerated development. The model is based on tos' evolution, attributes of their individuals and organization, as well as on challenges from environment. All these factors influence tos' strategic management. During this process the to's strategy is determined first, i.e. management/owners using rh and sr define the global strategy. Based on the global strategy managers define functional strategies, including the hrm strategy with the rh&sr approach. This approach should realize the global strategy including the tos' aims, employees' expectations, with rh&sr.
Notes
1. In tourism, at least, one should better speak about human capital (Ciekanowski 2013). This expresses more respect for co-workers, who are not only 'resources.' Thus, more room would exist for
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social responsibility in managers', owners', employees', partners', and guests' behaviour (O'Sullivan 2013). However, the main-stream makes us use 'hrm,' which is more respectful than 'personnel,' although not matching Mulej/Kajzer's law of rh (Mulej 2013) and principles of sr in iso 26000 (International Standards Organization 2014). 'Co-workers' would be even more respectful.
2. The environmental influences include the opportunities and risks in: (1) economy and employment market, (2) branch and competition, (3) society and demographic influence, (4) politics and law, (5) international influence and (6) technology concerning humans and nature.
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