Fagopyrum 35: 19-27 (2018) 
 
19 
 
 
Research paper  
 
Analysis of traditional preparation methods of 
buckwheat noodles in Japan 
 
Yuya ASAMI1, Yoshinobu YAMASHITA2, Takahiro OKA2, Takanori 
TERAO3, Satoshi ITO2, Sayoko IKEDA2, Ayumi NISHIHANA2, 
Natsumi MITSUMATA2 and Kiyokazu IKEDA*2 
 
1 Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture, Ryukoku University, 
Otsu 520-2194, Japan 
2 Faculty of Nutrition, Kobe Gakuin University, 
Nishi-ku, Kobe 651-2180, Japan 
3 Terao Milling Company, Himeji, Hyogo, Japan 
 
* Corresponding author: 
Prof. Kiyokazu Ikeda 
Faculty of Nutrition, Kobe Gakuin University, Nishi-ku Kobe 651-2180, Japan 
Fax +81 78 974 5689 
DOI https://doi.org/10.3986/fag0003 
Received September 30, 2017; accepted October 1, 2017 
Keywords: 
common buckwheat, mechanical characteristics, noodles, 
traditional buckwheat noodle method 
 
ABSTRACT  
The present study was undertaken to clarify two subjects, i.e., one subject is to clarify the 
mechanical characteristics on the kukuri (kneading) and kiku-neri (forming into a chrysanthemum 
flower-like shape) processes on the preparation of buckwheat noodles; and another problem, to 
compare mechanical characteristics with buckwheat flours with different particle size.  The 
present study shows some factors which lie behind traditional methods preparing buckwheat 
noodles, i.e., some factors behind the kukuri and kiku-neri processes. Furthermore, this present 
study shows that the particle size of buckwheat flour may be an important factor affecting the 
mechanical characteristics of buckwheat noodles.   
Asami et al.  
 
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INTRODUCTION 
Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum 
Moench) is an important crop in many 
countries of the world (Ikeda, 2002; Kreft et 
al., 2003). Buckwheat flour is processed 
into various products such as noodles, 
pasta etc. There is a large variety of 
buckwheat products globally. In view of 
their processing, increasing attention has 
been paid to clarifying scientific basis for 
the palatability and acceptability of various 
buckwheat products. 
Noodles made from buckwheat flour-water 
dough are popular in some regions 
including Japan (Ikeda, 2002). In Japan, 
buckwheat noodles are a popular, 
traditional food. Traditional methods 
preparing buckwheat noodles have been 
cultivated in the Japan for about four 
hundred years or over (Zen-men-kyo, 
2014; Asami et al., 2016). The traditional 
methods preparing buckwheat noodles 
generally consist of six successive 
processes.  The first process is mixing 
buckwheat flour by hand in a wooden bowl 
with water in the presence of some 
additives such as wheat flour to make 
dough. This process is called mizu-
mawashi which means mixing buckwheat 
flour with water. The second process is 
kneading buckwheat dough and foaming it 
into a circle form. This process is called 
kukuri which means kneading and forming. 
The third process, is binding the dough into 
a chrysanthemum flower-like shape (Fig. 1). 
This process is called kiku-neri: Kiku 
means chrysanthemum flower; and neri, 
binding. It is generally thought that both the 
kukuri and kiku-neri processes may be the 
most important ones in the preparation of 
buckwheat noodles. In addition, the fourth 
process is extending the ball-shaped 
dough into a thin, rectangular shape using 
a long wooden-bar. This process is called 
nobashi which means expanding. The fifth 
process is softly-folding the thin, rectangle-
shaped dough. This process is called 
tatami which means folding. The last 
process is cutting the folded dough using a 
big knife to prepare long resultant 
buckwheat noodles. This process is called 
houchou which means cutting with the knife. 
In general, buckwheat noodles with high 
palatability are prepared by the traditional 
method in Japan. Many Japanese people 
enjoy palatable buckwheat noodles. It 
appears that scientifically-excellent 
techniques may lie behind each process of 
such traditional methods. In viewpoint of 
food science, there are various questions 
concerning traditional methods for 
buckwheat noodles.   
Mechanical characteristics on human 
mastication may be important on various 
foods, especially buckwheat noodles. On 
the other hand, there are various kinds of 
buckwheat flour with different particle size 
of the flour. Such different buckwheat flours 
Fagopyrum 35: 19-27 (2018) 
 
21 
 
are widely utilized for the preparation of 
various buckwheat noodles in Japan.  It is 
also interesting to clarify what mechanical 
sense on human mastication may be arisen 
with each of various, different buckwheat 
flours, respectively. We have recently 
undertaken a series of studies to clarify the 
scientific basis responsible for traditional 
processing techniques for buckwheat 
noodles with special regards to mechanical 
analyses (Ikeda et al., 1997; Ikeda et al., 
1999; Asami et al., 2008; Asami et al., 
2009; Asami et al., 2010; Asami et al., 
2012; and Asami et al., 2016).  However,  
there are still many, unanswered questions 
for traditional, excellent techniques in the 
preparation of buckwheat noodles. 
Especially, the scientific reason for the 
ukuri and kinu-neri processes is the subject 
of much interest. In addition, comparison 
study on analysis of noodle preparing 
methods using various buckwheat flour 
with different particle sizes is also an 
interesting subject. The present study was 
undertaken to clarify two subjects, i.e., one 
subject is to clarify mechanical 
characteristics of the kukuri (kneading) and 
kiku-neri (forming buckwheat noodles into 
a chrysanthemum flower-like shape) 
processes on the preparation of buckwheat 
noodles; and another problem, to compare 
mechanical characteristics with various, 
different buckwheat flours. 
 
MATERIALS AND METHODS 
Materials  
Buckwheat flour (Fagopyrum esculentum 
Moench, var. Kitawase-soba), which was 
harvested in Hokkaido (in 2016), was used 
in this research.  Different buckwheat 
flours with different particle sizes and 
wheat medium flour were kindly provided 
prepared by Terao Milling Co. (Hyogo, 
Japan) and stored at -80℃ until use. 
Preparation of buckwheat noodles 
Buckwheat noodles were hand-made by Y. 
Yamashita and T. Oka, who are the present 
authors, and buckwheat noodle-
preparation experts. Y. Yamashita has the 
fifth grade, the highest grade, of preparing 
buckwheat noodles, which was awarded by 
the Japan Buckwheat Noodles Association 
(Zen-men-kyo).  T. Oka has the fourth 
grade awarded by the Zen-men-kyo. 
Buckwheat noodles were prepared by Y. 
Yamashita and T. Oka according to the 
traditional method described previously 
(Zen-men-kyo, 2014).  Two experiments, I 
and II, were conducted in the present study. 
Experiment I was performed to analyze the 
mechanical role of kiku-neri process of 
preparing buckwheat noodles, i.e., 
mechanical characteristics of buckwheat 
noodles prepared under three different 
conditions in the kiku-neri process were 
compared. Experiment II was performed to 
compare mechanical characteristics of 
three buckwheat noodles prepared with 
three different types of flour particle size.  
Asami et al.  
 
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Mechanical measurements  
Before mechanical measurements, 
prepared buckwheat noodles were cooked 
in boiling water for 40 sec and were 
subsequently cooled for 40 sec at 4℃. 
Immediately after cooling, mechanical 
measurements of the noodles were 
performed. Breaking characteristics of 
buckwheat noodles were evaluated using 
a Rheoner RE2-3305C (Yamaden Co. Ltd., 
Japan). Measurements of breaking 
analysis were performed with a load cell of 
2000N and a measurement speed of 0.50 
mm/sec. A wedge-style plunger (No.49: W 
13mm, D 30mm, H 25mm) was used in 
measurements with the Rheoner RE-3305. 
Mechanical measurements of the 
buckwheat noodles were repeated twenty 
times for each sample. 
Measurements of particle size 
Measurements of the particle size of 
buckwheat flours in experiment II were 
performed by Shimadzu Techno-Research, 
Inc., Japan.  Measurements of the 
particle size were performed using a 
SALD-2300 (Shimadzu, Japan). The 
easurements were performed with a 
cyclonic type dry measuring unit DS5, a 
dispersion pressure of 0.4MPa, a table 
lifting speed of 4mm/sec, a refractive index 
using 1.50-0.01i. 
 
 
Measurements of water absorption 
Measurements of maximum water 
absorption capacity (MaxWAC) of 
buckwheat flours in experiment II were 
assayed using the method of Hashimoto 
(1991). 
 
Statistical analysis 
Statistical analysis was conducted using a 
personal computer with the program Excel 
(Microsoft Co., USA) and Ekuseru-Toukei 
2015 (Social Survey Research Information 
Co., Japan). 
 
 
 
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION  
 
 
 
 
Experiment I: Analyze the role of dough-kneading and dough-forming 
in to a chrysanthemum-flower shape 
Fagopyrum 35: 19-27 (2018) 
 
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Fig. 1 Forming buckwheat dough into a chrysanthemum flour-form. This figure is cited from Asami 
et al., (2016) the reference in the present paper. (A, left) shows kukuri (kneading) process; (B, 
right), kiku-neri (forming into a chrysanthemum-flower shape) process.  
 
Fig. 2 Mechanical comparison of buckwheat noodles prepared by three different buckwheat noodles 
prepared by three different preparing methods in view both of kneading (kukuri process) and of 
forming a chrysanthemum flower-like dough (kiku-neri process).  (A), breaking stress and (B), 
breaking energy.  I, noodles prepared both with kneading and with forming into a 
chrysanthemum flower-like dough; II, noodles prepared with kneading but without forming into a 
chrysanthemum flower-like dough; and III, noodle prepared both without kneading and without 
forming into a chrysanthemum flower-like dough.  Vertical bars show standard deviations.  
Values that within the same row that are not followed by the same letter are significantly different 
at p<0.05. 
Asami et al.  
 
24 
 
 
Figure 2 shows mechanical comparison of 
buckwheat noodles prepared by three 
different buckwheat noodles prepared by 
three different preparing methods in view 
both of kneading, abbreviated as kukuri 
process, and of forming a chrysanthemum 
flower-like shape (abbr. as kiku-neri 
process).   
Fig. 3 Mechanical characteristics of three buckwheat noodles prepared with buckwheat flours with 
three different flour particle size.  (A), Breaking stress and (B), Breaking energy.  Noodles I was 
prepared with fine flour; noodles II, middle size flour; and noodles III, large flour. Vertical bars in 
the figure show standard deviations.  Values that within the same row that are not followed by 
the same letter are significantly different at P<0.05 
 
Buckwheat noodles I were prepared both 
with kukuri process and with kiku-neri 
process; noodles II, prepared with kukuri 
process but without kiku-neri process; and 
noodles III, prepared without kukuri 
process and without kiku-neri process. The 
mechanical values of noodles III (III in Fig. 
2 A and B) was significantly lower than 
those of noodles I and II (I and II in Fig. 2 A 
and B). This finding suggests that kukuri 
process, i.e., kneading process may be 
important in mechanical characteristics in  
preparation of buckwheat noodles. On the 
other hand, there was no significant 
difference in the mechanical values 
between noodles I and II shown in I and II  
 
in Fig. 1 (A) and (B)（P>0.05）. Noodles I 
were prepared both with kukuri process 
and kiku-neri  process, whereas noodles II 
were prepared with kukuri process but 
without kiku-neri process. This finding 
shown in Fig. 2 (A) and (B) suggests that 
kiku-neri process may exhibit little or 
substantially no effect on mechanical 
characteristics of buckwheat noodles. On 
the other hand, some cracks in buckwheat 
dough were often found in buckwheat 
dough prepared without kiku-neri process, 
whereas no cracks were found in 
buckwheat dough prepared with kiku-neri 
process (data not shown). Finally, the 
present study concludes that kiku-neri 
Fagopyrum 35: 19-27 (2018) 
 
25 
 
process, i.e., forming buckwheat dough 
into a chrysanthemum-like form maybe 
smoothly promotes subsequent 
procedures after kiku-neri process.  
Although there may be a possibility that the 
kikuneri process may remove air from 
buckwheat dough which may bring about 
some oxidation reaction in buckwheat 
dough. Further research is needed.  
 
 
 
Experiment II: Comparison of three 
buckwheat noodle samples prepared 
from three different particle size flours 
Figure 3 shows mechanical characteristics 
of three buckwheat noodles prepared with 
buckwheat flours with three different flour 
particle size.   Noodles I were prepared 
with fine flour; noodles II, middle size flour; 
and noodles III, large flour (Table 3). 
Table 1 shows the content of water (%) 
added to buckwheat flour prepared, shown 
in Fig. 3. Table 2 shows percentage of 
water absorption to buckwheat noodles 
presented in Fig. 3.  Table 3 shows 
average diameter of buckwheat flour 
particles used in Fig. 3. The mechanical 
values of noodles III (III in Fig. 3A and B) 
was significantly lower than those of 
noodles I and II (I and II in Fig. 3 A and B).  
Relationships were analyzed on various 
mechanical characteristics (Fig. 3 I to III) of 
buckwheat flour (Tables 1 to 3).  There 
was a significant positive correlation 
between the average diameter of 
buckwheat flour particles (Table 3) and 
maximum water absorption capacity 
(MaxWAC) (Table 2) of buckwheat flour (r= 
0.999, p<0.01). This is finding that 
buckwheat flour with larger particle size 
can exhibit higher MaxWAC than 
buckwheat flour with smaller particle size. 
On the other hand, there is a significant 
positive correlation between WAC of 
buckwheat flour (Table 2) and the particle 
size (Table 3) (r= 0.998, P<0.05). This 
finding well agrees with the above 
observed finding. Furthermore, a 
relationship of the obtained mechanical 
characteristics (Fig. 3) to the water addition 
rate at noodle preparing (Table 1) was 
analyzed. Interestingly, the MinWC (Table 
1) correlated negatively to breaking stress 
with r= -0.998 (P<0.05), to breaking energy 
with r= -0.998 (p<0.05). These findings 
show that the particle size of buckwheat 
flour may be an important factor affecting 
the mechanical characteristics of 
buckwheat noodles.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Asami et al.  
 
26 
 
 
Finally, the present study shows some 
factors which lie behind traditional 
methods preparing buckwheat noodles, 
i.e., some factors behind the kukuri 
(kneading) process and kiku-neri (forming 
into a chrysanthemum flower-like shape) 
process. Furthermore, the present study 
shows that the particle size of buckwheat 
flour may be an important factor affecting 
the mechanical characteristics of 
buckwheat noodles.    
The exact mechanisms involved in 
traditional preparation methods for 
buckwheat noodles will be an interesting 
subject in the future. 
 
 
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 
This work was supported by the Research Institute for Food and Agriculture of Ryukoku University, 
Japan.  
 
 
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