Science of Gymnastics Journal vol. 8, num. 2, year 2016 Published by Department of Gymnastics, Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana ISSN 1855-7171 Science of Gymnastics Journal (ScGYM®) Science of Gymnastics Journal (ScGYM®) (abrevated for citation is SCI GYMNASTICS J) is an international journal that provide a wide range of scientific information specific to gymnastics. The journal is publishing both empirical and theoretical contributions related to gymnastics from the natural, social and human sciences. It is aimed at enhancing gymnastics knowledge (theoretical and practical) based on research and scientific methodology. We welcome articles concerned with performance analysis, judges' analysis, biomechanical analysis of gymnastics elements, medical analysis in gymnastics, pedagogical analysis related to gymnastics, biographies of important gymnastics personalities and other historical analysis, social aspects of gymnastics, motor learning and motor control in gymnastics, methodology of learning gymnastics elements, etc. Manuscripts based on quality research and comprehensive research reviews will also be considered for publication. The journal welcomes papers from all types of research paradigms. Editor-in-Chief Ivan Čuk, Slovenia Responsible Editor Maja Bučar Pajek, Slovenia Science of Gymnastics Journal is indexed in Web of Science (ESCI data base, since 2015), EBSCOhost SPORTDiscus, SCOPUS, COBISS Editorial and Scientific Board Koichi Endo, Japan Marco Antonio Bortoleto, Brazil Nikolaj Georgievic Suchilin, Russia William Sands, USA Kamenka Zivcic Markovic, Croatia Ignacio Grande Rodriguez, Spain Warwick Forbes, Australia David McMinn, Scotland, UK Almir Atikovic, Bosnia and Herzegovina José Ferreirinha, Portugal Istvan Karacsony, Hungary Hardy Fink, FIG Academy, Canada Keith Russell, FIG Scientific Commission, Canada (IZUM), SIRC (Canada), ERIHPLUS, OPEN. J-GATE, GET CITED, ELECTRONIC JOURNALS SCHOLAR, PRO QUEST and INDEX COPERNICUS. ScGYM® (ISSN 1855-7171) is an international online journal published three times a year (February, June, October). ® Department of Gymnastics, Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana. All rights reserved. This journal and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under Copyright and Related Rights Act of the Republic of Slovenia. INDEX, SCIRUS, NEW JOUR, GOOGLE Front page design: Sandi Radovan, Slovenia. Editorial Office Address Science of Gymnastics Journal Faculty of Sport, Department of Gymnastics Gortanova 22, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia Telephone: +386 (0)1 520 7765 Fax: +386 (0)1 520 7750 E-mail: scgym@fsp.uni-lj.si Home page: http://www.scienceofgymnastics.com Science of Gymnastics Journal is supported by Foundation for financing sport organisations in Slovenia, Slovenian Research Agency and International Gymnastics Federation. Slovenian Research Agency SCIENCE OF GYMNASTICS JOURNAL Vol. 8 Issue 2: 2016 CONTENTS Ivan Čuk EDITORIAL 107 Sunčica Delaš Kalinski Almir Atikovic Igor Jelaska Mirjana Milic PERFORMACE ANALYSIS OF FEMALE GYMNASTS' VAULT IN ELITE COMPETITIONS FROM 2008 TO 2015 109 Christoph Schärer Klaus Hübner ACCURACY OF PREDICTION OF MAXIMUM RESISTANCE AT INCREASED HOLDING TIMES BASED ON A THREE SECONDS MAXIMUM STATIC STRENGTH TEST OF THE THREE MAIN STRENGTH ELEMENTS ON RINGS 125 Muhamed Tabakovic Almir Atikovic Elvir Kazazovic Senad Turkovic EFFECTS OF ISOKINETIC RESISTANCE TRAINING ON STRENGTH KNEE STABILIZERS AND PERFORMANCE EFFICIENCY OF ACROBATIC ELEMENTS IN ARTISTIC GYMNASTICS 135 George Dallas Kostas Dallas EFFECTS OF ANKLE JOINT INJURIES ON BALANCE IN MALE AND FEMALE GYMNASTS 149 Nebojša Trajkovic Dejan Madic Goran Sporiš Aleksandra Aleksic-Veljkovic Kamenka Živčič-Markovic IMPACT OF GYMNASTICS PROGRAM ON HEALTH-RELATED FITNESS IN ADOLESCENT PUPILS 157 Matej Majerič Janko Strel Marjeta Kovač THE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT EVALUATION METHODS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION - A CASE STUDY OF STRADDLE VAULT OVER THE BUCK 167 Maria-Raquel G. Silva Paulo Barata ATHLETES AND COACHES' GENDER INEQUALITY: THE CASE OF THE GYMNASTICS FEDERATION OF PORTUGAL 187 Anton Gajdoš HISTORICAL SHORT NOTES VI 197 SLOVENSKI IZVLEČKI / SLOVENE ABSTRACTS 201 NEW BOOKS / NOVE KNJIGE 205 105 SCIENCE OF GYMNASTICS JOURNAL Vol. 8 Issue 2: 2016 On April 4th 2016, at Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana we opened memorial museum room dedicated to the Slovenian father of gymnastics dr. Viktor Murnik. His work is important as with him started education of coaches, he started women gymnastics, established Slovenian Sokol Asociations, enter into FIG, he was gymnast, coach (3rd place with team at OG 1928), scientist, publisher. His heritage is now on permanent display. The Murnik's room was open by Republic of Slovenia President Borut Pahor. Dr. Viktor Murnik is saluting participants during WC1922 in Ljubljana From left: prof. Ivan Čuk-author of museum display, Slovenia President Borut Pahor, Faculty of Sport Dean prof. Milan Žvan, University of Ljubljana Rector prof. Ivan Svetlik, Primož Heinz -National Council, Janez Sodražnik - vice president of Slovene Olympic Committee, Dejan Crnek - president of Slovenian Sokol Union, photo Bogdan Martinčič From right: Borut Trekman - owner of dr. Viktor Murnik heritage, Miroslav Cerar -Olympic Champion, Tine Šrot - European Championship bronze medalist on vault, Janez Šlibar - coach of Yougoslav team at WC 1970 in Ljubljana - 4th place, Milica Rožman Šlibar - gymnast at OG 1948 and WC 1950., Aljaž Pegan - World Champion, Alojz Kolman -European Championship bronze medalist on high bar, Mitja Petkovšek - World Champion, photo Bogdan Martinčič 106 SCIENCE OF GYMNASTICS JOURNAL Vol. 8 Issue 2: 2016 EDITORIAL A few days ago SCOPUS published new values for SNIP, IPP and SJR for 2015. In SNIP The Science of Gymnastics has been upgraded and placed in the second quarter of journals. It is a great improvement! In IPP and SJR, we remain in the third quarter. I met and had talks with Hardy Fink, director of FIG Academy, and Prof. Keith Russell, Chairman of the FIG Scientific Commission. We all agree that we need a history section for our sport. Professor Anton Gajdoš, has been writing 'Historical notes' for our journal about important persons in our sport. But there are many important historic documents that should also be made public, such as documents relating to the foundation of FIG and national federations; how and when national federations entered FIG; documents about previous championships, medals, cups, diplomas; what were the requirements for compulsory and optional exercises and how they looked, etc. In our previous issue, an error occurred in the names of the authors of article Participation of the Pan-American Gymnastics Union in the 2011 World Gymnaestrada, for which we apologise. The Brazilian researchers lead by Elizabeth Paoliello were Eliana de Toledo, Daniela Bento Soares, Tabata Larissa Almeida, Cintia Moura, Andrea Desiderio, Michele Viviene Carbinatto, Carolina Gontijo Lopes, Bruno Barth Pinto Tucunduva and Marco Antonio Coelho Bortoleto. When sending an article, please make sure that the names of authors in ScholarOne are the same as in those in the cover letter to prevent such errors in the future. In line with the practice of other journals, from this year onward page numbers continue from the first issue to the third one rather than starting with page one in each new issue. In August, the Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil will start with our sports, artistic gymnastics, rhythmic gymnastics and trampolining. We hope our sports will continue to be successful in the Olympic family and hopefully some other disciplines can join them in the near future (sports aerobics, acrobatics). With enthusiastic participation of athletes, coaches, managers, researchers, scientists and media support we can succeed. In this issue there are seven articles. Their authors are from Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Switzerland, Serbia, Greece, Slovenia and Portugal. Topics are very diverse, including competition result analysis, strength development, injuries in relation to the balance abilities, health gymnastics, gymnastics knowledge evaluation and differences in gymnastics participants' gender. Just to remind you, if you quote the Journal: its abbreviation on the Web of Knowledge is SCI GYMN J. I wish you pleasant reading and a lot of inspiration for new research projects and articles, Ivan Čuk Editor-in-Chief 107 SCIENCE OF GYMNASTICS JOURNAL Vol. 8 Issue 2: 2016 From dr. Viktor Murnik heritage: cup for 4th place for Slovenia at World Championship in Torino 1911, the oldest Slovenian sports team trophy at Worlds 108 Delas Kalinski S., Atikovic A., Jelaska I., Milic M.: PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF FEMALE... Vol. 8 Issue 2: 109 - 123 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF FEMALE GYMNASTS' VAULT IN ELITE COMPETITIONS FROM 2008 TO 2015 Sunčica Delaš Kalinski1, Almir Atikovic2, Igor Jelaska1, Mirjana Milic1 University of Split, Faculty of Kinesiology, Croatia 2University of Tuzla, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Bosnia and Herzegovina _Original article Abstract Vault is an apparatus that slightly differs from other in women's artistic gymnastics in the way of judging, duration of performance, but also in the requirements for certain biomotor abilities of the competitors. Accordingly, the question of number of competitors in the Vault Qualifications arises. Of all the major competitions in the period from 2008 to 2015 only at the competitions that were Individual All-Around Finals and Individual Event Finals (WC2009 and WC2013) a high percentage of Vault Qualifiers (WC2009 = 81.03%; WC2013 = 90.90%) has been identified. At other competitions (0G2008, WC2010, WC2011, Q0G2012, 0G2012, WC2014, WC2015) only approximately 20% of the elite competitors competed Vault Qualifications. Furthermore, due to identification of the impact of Competitor type (Vault Qualifiers or All-Around competitors), Competition (0G2008, WC2009, WC2010, WC2011, Q0G2012, 0G2012, WC2013, WC2014, WC2015) and their interaction with vaults Difficulty Scores, Execution Scores and Total Scores between-between 2*9 factorial AN0VA was applied. Finally, it was concluded that biomotor skills and competitors' selected tactics probably generated the obtained significant differences. The results should be guidelines in planning and programming of training sessions for female elite competitors who aspire towards the Vault Finals. Keywords: female, artistic gymnastic, vault, development. INTRODUCTION Women Artistic Gymnastics (WAG) is a multidisciplinary sport where the All-Around competition (competition on all four apparatuses: vault, uneven bars, balance beam and floor) is considered to be the basic one. However, in accordance with their abilities, tactics and competition format, gymnasts have the possibility to choose to compete or not on all four apparatuses. Major competitions in WAG (Olympic Games and World Championships) are divided into several phases: Preliminaries (C-I competition), Individual All-Around Finals (C-II competition), Individual Event Finals (C-III competition) and Team Finals (C-IV competition), which are held on different days. Among those, the C-I competition is probably the most important event since all individual athletes and teams compete in it and the scores from that Science of Gymnastics Journal 109 Science of Gymnastics Journal Delas Kalinski S., Atikovic A., Jelaska I., Milic M.: PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF FEMALE... Vol. 8 Issue 2: 109 - 123 competition determine who qualifies for other competitions. The result in WAG competitions comes from judges' evaluation. In 2006, a new way of scoring was introduced in artistic gymnastics and in 2009 (FIG, 2009) it was slightly modified. According to it, Final Score (FS) on each apparatus is obtained by summing up the Difficulty Score (DS; the sum of the highest 8 difficulties, compositional requirements and connection values) and Execution Score (ES; deductions for errors in execution and artistry are added together and then deducted from 10.00P). Certain exceptions from this model of evaluation exist in judging Vault Qualifications and Vault Finals. Namely, each vault is presented in the Table of Vaults (CoP), together with its own number and predefined Difficulty Value (DV). Before performing each vault, according to the CoP (FIG, 2009; FIG 2013), a gymnast is responsible for flashing the intended vault number. In this way the judges, before the vault performance, know the DV, i.e., the DS of the vault. After the vault performance, judges need to: 1) determine whether the announced vault was performed; 2) determine whether the DV of the performed vault equals the DV of the announced vault; 3) determine the ES of the performed vault. Although WAG CoP for the vault reflects certain changes in each Olympic cycle, it generally prescribes the following: a) gymnasts in Preliminaries must perform one vault or two vaults if they want to qualify for the Vault Finals; b) the 1st vault score counts toward the Team and/or All-Around Total Score; c) in Preliminaries, with the aim of qualifying for the Vault Finals, gymnasts need to perform two vaults that show different repulsion phase (take off position from the vaulting table) (FIG, 2009), respectively two vaults from different groups and with different second flight phase (FIG, 2013); d) FS determines the rank of the gymnasts; e) FS in Preliminaries and Vault Finals is obtained by the simple average of the two vault's scores performed: FS = FS VT1 + FS VT2 2 e) top eight FS (achieved during Vault Qualifications at C-I) qualify for the Vault Finals (maximum of two gymnasts per national team). Major deduction for vault execution was introduced in CoP 2009 - 2012 (rules for landing in different places in/or outside of the Corridor Line) and has been slightly changed in WAG CoP 2013 - 2016. As movements, vaults are very complex motor skills that need to be performed in a very short time (most vaults, on average, do not last more than 7 seconds) and differ in time structure of one or more of 7 vault phases: approach, flight to springboard, springboard actions, the 1st flight phase, support, the 2nd flight phase and landing (Čuk & Karacsony, 2004; Atikovic, 2011; Atikovic, 2014). Taking this into account, the WAG CoP have classified all vaults into five groups: Group 1 - Vaults without salto (Handspring, Yamashita, Round-off) with or without longitudinal-axis turn in 1st and/or 2nd flight phase; Group 2 - Handspring forward with or without 1/1 turn (360°) in 1st flight phase -salto forward or backward with or without longitudinal-axis turn in 2nd flight phase; Group 3 - Handspring with H - / turn (90° - 180°) in 1st flight phase (Tsukahara) -salto backward with or without longitudinal-axis turn in 2nd flight phase; Group 4 -Round-off (Yurchenko) with or without % turn (270°) in 1st flight phase - salto backward with or without longitudinal-axis turn in 2nd flight phase; Group 5 - Roundoff with / turn (180°) in 1st flight phase -salto forward or backward with or without longitudinal-axis turn in 2nd flight phase (FIG, 2013). Regardless of the group that they belong to, judges evaluate only four phases of vaults: the 1st flight phase, the repulsion phase, the 2nd flight phase and the landing. Compared to other apparatuses, the vault is the most analysed apparatus (Prassas, Kwon, & Sands, 2006). Čuk and Karacsony (2004) and Atikovic and Smajlovic (2011) presented the results of Science of Gymnastics Journal 110 Science of Gymnastics Journal Delas Kalinski S., Atikovic A., Jelaska I., Milic M.: PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF FEMALE... Vol. 8 Issue 2: 109 - 123 various authors who analysed different stages and characteristics of vaults. Beside those studies, there are studies that analysed the quality of judging on the vault. Research conducted in Men's Artistic Gymnastics (Leskošek, Čuk, Karacsony, Pajek, & Bučar, 2010; Bučar Pajek, Forbes, Pajek, Leskošek, & Čuk, 2011; Leskošek, Čuk, Pajek, Forbes, & Bučar Pajek, 2012; Atikovic, Delaš Kalinski, Bijelic, & Avdibašic Vukadinovic, 2012; Perederij, 2013) have determined that: a) the vault is the most valuable apparatus for All-Around gymnasts; b) it is the easiest apparatus on which to obtain a high DS (Čuk & Atikovic, 2009) and the highest ES (Atikovic, Delaš Kalinski, Bijelic, & Avdibašic Vukadinovic, 2012; Atikovic, Delaš Kalinski, Kremnicky, Tabakovic, & Samardžija Pavletič, 2014). Previous study in WAG have determined that the Vault and Floor Finals were sessions with the highest scores and the lowest scores dispersion and it has been suggested that they should be inspected with special care in future judging analyses (Bučar et al., 2012). Another WAG study analysed the differences between junior and senior female gymnasts. It determined that senior gymnasts generally perform vaults better than junior gymnasts. They ascribed this to the increased anthropometric characteristics of senior compared to the junior gymnasts (Erceg, Delaš Kalinski, & Milic, 2014, Delaš Kalinski, 2015). The authors of this paper posed the problem of the paper on the empirical fact that only a small number of gymnasts compete two vaults, with the aim of qualifying for the Vault Finals. Accordingly, the first objective of this study was to determine the proportion of women gymnasts (from all C-I competitors) that compete two vaults. The second objective was to identify the impact of Competitor type (Vault Qualifiers or All-Around competitors), Competition and their interaction (Competitor Type*Competition) with competitors scores achieved in C-I competitions, at all major competitions, from 2008 to 2015. METHODS The sample included all the elite senior women gymnasts who participated in C-I competitions at the Olympic Games in 2008 and 2012 (0G2008, 0G2012), at World Championships in 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014 and 2015 (WC2009, WC2010, WC2011, WC2013, WC2014, WC2015) and in the Qualification Tournament for the Olympic Games in 2012 (Q0G2012). Elite competitors were divided into two groups (All-Around competitors and Vault Qualifiers) depending on their participation in All-Around or in both All-Around and Vault Qualifications. The variable sample is presented by: a) a set of Difficulty Scores (AA VTDS), Execution Scores (AA VTES) and Final Scores (AA VTFS) obtained for the performance of the 1st (and the only) vault of All-Around Competitors in C-I competition; b) by a set of Difficulty Scores of the 1st and the 2nd vault (VTQ VT1DS/VT2DS), Execution Scores of the 1st and the 2nd vault (VTQ VT1ES/VT2ES) and Total Scores of the 1st and the 2nd vault (VTQ VT1TS/VT2TS) of Vault Qualifiers in C-I competition. For the purpose of this study, Total Score (for Vault Qualifiers) presents a score of each vault, while Final Score for Vault Qualifiers (VTQ FS) is the average of the two vaults performed. The values of the mentioned scores were taken from the Internet. Reliability of those scores, that are the results of expert judging, have been established as generally satisfactory in previous studies (Bučar, Čuk, Pajek, Karacsony, & Leskošek, 2012; Bučar Pajek, Čuk, Pajek, Kovač, & Leskošek, 2013). Detailed descriptive parameters of the analysed variables, from the same competitions, have also been presented in some previous studies (Massida & Calo, 2012; Leskošek, Čuk, & Bučar, 2013; Atikovic, Delaš Kalinski, Kremnicky, Tabakovic, & Samardžija Pavletič, M., 2014; Erceg, Delaš Kalinski, & Milic, 2014). Data analysis included calculations of Mean±Standard deviations. Significance of Science of Gymnastics Journal 111 Science of Gymnastics Journal Delas Kalinski S., Atikovic A., Jelaska I., Milic M.: PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF FEMALE... Vol. 8 Issue 2: 109 - 123 differences between the observed frequencies of performed vaults was also presented. Data was checked for univariate and multivariate outliers. None was found (p > .05). Due to identification of influence of factors Competition (OG2008, WC2009, WC2010, WC2011, Q0G2012, 0G2012, WC2013, WC2014, WC2015) and Competitor Type (All-Around competitors or Vault Qualifiers) and their interaction with DS, ES, and FS/TS, between-between 2*9 factorial ANOVA was applied together with Bonferroni post hoc correction when needed. (Partial) n2 was used for effect size Since a different number of competitors competed at the analysed competitions, the percentage of those who competed two vaults, compared to those who competed only one vault, is the best indicator of the portion of Vault Qualifiers within all competitors at C-I, in the analysed competitions. Accordingly, the following was calculated: the highest percentage of gymnasts who competed two vaults was at assessment. Data was considered significant if p < .05. All the calculations were performed using the Statistica 12.0. software package (StatSoft, Tulsa, OK, USA). RESULTS The number of female competitors who, at C-I competition, competed only All-Around (and performed only one vault) and those who competed Vault Qualifications (and performed two vaults), during major competitions from 2008 to 2015, is shown in Figure 1. and Vault Qualifiers in C-I competitions at the WC2009 (81.03%) and at the WC2013 (90.90%). In other competitions, significantly lower percentages of gymnasts who competed two vaults compared to those who competed only one vault, were determined: at the OG2008 - 22.38%, at the WC2010 - 23.48%, at the WC2011 -16.56%, at the QOG2012 - 14.66%, at the OG2012 - 36.00%, at the WC2014 -15.13% and at the WC 2015 - 14.36%. WC 2015 WC 2014 WC 2013 OG 2012 QOG 2012 WC 2011 WC 2010 WC 2009 OG 2008 29 * 28 * IS* 11 * 27 * 15 50 55 50 75 * 47 58 163 149 ^m 67 50 100 150 VAULT QUALIFIERS BALL-AROUND COMPETITORS * significant difference between number of different competitors m 202 185 200 Figure 1. Number of All-Around women gymnasts different major competitions from 2008 to 2015. Science of Gymnastics Journal 112 Science of Gymnastics Journal Delas Kalinski S., Atikovic A., Jelaska I., Milic M.: PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF FEMALE... Vol. 8 Issue 2: 109 - 123 Descriptive parameters (Mean Values ± Standard Deviations) of variables DS, ES, FS and TS respectively, achieved at C-I, and differences between gymnasts who competed All-Around and those who competed Vault Qualifications (determined at OG2008, WC2009, WC2010, WC2011, QOG2012, 0G2012, WC2013, WC2014, WC2015), are presented in Figures 2-4. VAULT DIFFICULTY SCORES OF ALL-AROUND COMPETITORS/ DIFFICULTY SCORES OF FIRST VAULT OF VAULT QUALIFIERS 5.65+0.67 SAliO. A®, I,4>yO ¥.3 5.69±0.73 A 5.44+0.62 fS j 4.99 =0. =0.46 €,E " €,E 4JB7±Q52 \5.23±0.63 | * i i I 4.94=0.52 w 4.9S±0.53 W 4.91±0A4 €t OG 2003 WC20QS WC 2010 WC 2011 QQG 2012 OG 2012 WC 2013 WC 2014 WC 2015 —C-I AA VT DS C-I VTQ VT1 DS Figure 2. Difficulty scores on vault (all-around competitors vs first vault qualifiers). VAULT EXECUTION SCORES OF ALL-AROUND COMPETITORS/ EXECUTION SCORES OF FIRST VAULT OF VAULT QUALIFIERS aytf 9.20+0.35 ¥ 9.14±0 E,M>,d 8.67+0.41 8.85+0.44 ii E.&3+0.45 SB ±0.41 -------* €,¥,1u 14.B5±0.93 4 i OG 300B WC 3009 WC 3010 WC 3011 QOG 20L2 OG 2012 WC 3013 WC 3014 WC 2013 -■-MflflVIB —i-C-IVTQVr2I5 Figure 7. Final scores on vault (all-around competitors vs second vault qualifiers). VAULT FINAL SCORES OF ALL-AROUND COMPETITORS/ FINAL SCORES OF VAULT QUALIFIERS ¥JH,AJ sejij (Jijii 14.70=0. aa 4 i-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1- OG 300B WC 3009 WC 3010 WC 3011 QOG 2012 OG 2012 WC 3013 WC 3014 WC 3015 -B-C-IAAVTF5 -4-C-l VT QVT FS Figure 8. Final scores on vault (all-around competitors vs vault qualifiers). Figures 5-8. Data are presented as Mean±Standard Deviation. OG2008 - Olympic Games held in 2008, WC 2009/2010/2011/2013/2014/2015 - World Championships held in 2009/2010/2011/2013/2014/2015, QOG 2012 -Qualification Tournament for Olympic Games held in 2012, OG2012 - Olympic Games held in 2012, AA - All-Around Competitors, VTQ - Vault Qualifiers, € - significant difference from the scores determined at OG2008, ¥ -significant difference from the scores determined at WC2009, n - significant difference from the scores determined at WC2010, X - significant difference from the scores determined at WC2011, s - significant difference from the scores determined at QOG2012, £ - significant difference from the scores determined at OG2012, E - significant difference from the scores determined at WC2013, $ - significant difference from the scores determined at WC2014, u - significant difference from the scores determined at WC2015, *- significant differences between only vault of All-Around competitors and second vault/average score of Vault Qualifiers. Significance of differences was examined by using Bonferroni post hoc correction of main effects and interaction effects of 2*9 factorial ANOVA. Science of Gymnastics Journal 116 Science of Gymnastics Journal Delas Kalinski S., Atikovic A., Jelaska I., Milic M.: PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF FEMALE... Vol. 8 Issue 2: 109 - 123 Regarding the 1st vault of All-Around competitors and the 2nd vault of Vault Qualifiers, main effect of Competition was found to be significant for the DS (F8,1246 = 16.576; p < .001; n2 = .096), ES (Fs,i246 = 43.658; p < .001; n2 = .219) and the FS/TS2 (F8,1246 = 27.513; p < .001; n2 = .150). Main effect of Competitor Type was not found to be significant for the DS (F1,1246 = 1.3 5 9; p = .244; n2 = .001), ES (FW246 = .153; p = .695; n2 = 000) and the FS/TS2 (FU246 = .642; p = .423; n2 = 001). Interaction Competition*Competitor Type was significant for the DS (F8,1246 = 4.135; p<0.01; n2 = .026), ES (F8,1246 = 2.322; p = .018; n2 = 015), but not for the FS/TS2 (F8,1246 = 1.503; p = .152; n2 = 010). By analysing the FS of the 1st vault of All-Around competitors and the FS of Vault Qualifiers, main effect of Competition was found to be significant (F8,1250 = 20.142; p < .001; n2 = .114) together with main effect of Competitor Type (F14250 = 14.486; p < .001; n2 = .011) and interaction Competition*Competitor Type (F8,1250 = 2.334; p = .017; n2 = .015). DISCUSSION Regardless of the fact that the vault is the most studied apparatus and also the best understood one (Prassas, Kwon, & Sands, 2006), the number of gymnasts who compete two vaults is probably lower than the number of competitors who compete on other apparatuses in order to qualify for Apparatus Finals. However, this conclusion requires further scientific research. Determined percentages of the gymnasts who competed Vault Qualifications (and performed two vaults), compared to those who competed All-Around (and performed only one vault), according to the authors, are the result of: 1) the rules and different formats of the analysed competitions; 2) specific biomotor characteristics of competitors that are needed in order to perform structurally more complex vaults; vaults of higher DV; 3) competitors' and national (expert) teams' tactics. Different rules and systems of qualification for major events, together with different subjective factors of gymnasts, resulted in a different number/percentage of Vault Qualifiers at C-I competition. Competitions with the highest percentage of Vault Qualifiers (WC2009 and WC2013), by their format, were Individual All-Around Finals (C-II competition) and Individual Event Finals (C-III competition). In general, these are competitions where the results have no impact on competitors' future participation at the following Olympic Games (probably the main goal of most gymnasts and their national teams). At such competitions, gymnasts exclusively compete for their own results and test their knowledge/skills/chances for the upcoming Olympic cycle. A large number of Vault Qualifiers, in the aforementioned competitions, is most likely the result of the fact that the 2nd vault score (according to the CoP's) does not jeopardize their All-Around Results, but provides them information on their position within the group. In accordance with the previous results, expert teams should (and probably they did) plan and program further training of their competitors. By identifying that a competitor does not have a real chance of entering the Vault Finals in the following major competitions, they probably did not spend too much time on their training sessions in improving both vaults. This conclusion primarily relates to the periods before major competitions in which competitors competed only All-Around. In contrast to the abovementioned competitions (C-II and C-III competitions), in Team Finals (C-IV competition), national (expert) teams (and accordingly gymnast) do not have space for any calculation and/or experimentation with uncertain performances on any apparatus of All-Around (including the vault). Confirmation for these conclusions can be perceived from the results of all other major competitions (from 2008 to 2015) which, in addition to C-II and C-III competition, were also the Team Finals (C-IV competition). As shown in Figure 1, in those competitions, less than Science of Gymnastics Journal 117 Science of Gymnastics Journal Delas Kalinski S., Atikovic A., Jelaska I., Milic M.: PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF FEMALE... Vol. 8 Issue 2: 109 - 123 20% gymnasts competed in Vault Qualification. Generally speaking, a review of results in Figure 1 and 2 shows that the trend in the results of AA VTDS, VTQ VT1DS, AA VTFS and VTQ VT1TS were very similar, while the trend in AA VTES and VTQ VT1ES results were slightly different (Figure 3). At the same time, it is important to point out that the results of VTQ VT1DS and VTQ VT1TS, in all the analysed competitions, were numerically higher and in some competitions even significantly higher in comparison to the results of AA VTDS and AA VTFS. Since the scores of the 1st vault of Vault Qualifiers count for Team Result and Individual All-Around Result (FIG, 2009, 2013), it is not surprising that for the 1st vault they chose vaults whose DVs are numerically higher (and sometimes significantly higher) from those performed by All-Around Competitors. The size of the determined differences between All-Around Competitors and Vault Qualifiers become additionally important if we take into account two facts: 1) possible weak discrimination of competitors in the DS; 2) non-differentiation among Vault Qualifiers and All-Around competitors in the ES. Namely, if we assume that there is a similarity between the MAG CoP and the WAG CoP, and if we review the results of some previous studies on the MAG scores (according to which in the Vault Qualifications there is not enough discrimination between competitors in the DS; Čuk & Atikovic, 2009; Čuk & Forbes, 2010; Bučar Pajek, Forbes, Pajek, & Leskošek, 2011; Bučar, Čuk, Pajek, Karacsony, & Leskošek, 2012; Bučar Pajek, Čuk, Pajek, Kovač, & Leskošek, 2013), then we can conclude that the determined differences are large; independently from the fact that they numerically range only from 0.23 (0G2008) to 0.74 (WC2015). The fact that significant differences were not determined in the ES values between Vault Qualifiers and All-Around Competitors suggests that All-Around Competitors perform their only and less demanding vault technically and aesthetically as well as the Vault Qualifiers. The results of this study showed that the DS, on average, makes around 36.85% of the FS/TS1/TS2 (percentage range of the DS in the FS/TS1/TS2 is from 36.16% (WC2014) up to 40.74 (0G2012)) while the ES, on average, makes approximately 63.29% of the FS/TS1/TS2 (the ES percentage in the FS/TS1/TS2 range from 59.61% (0G2012) up to 64.07% (WC2014)). The obtained results don't confirm conclusions from previous studies which state that the DS generally determines the VTFS/VTTS1/VTTS2 (Čuk & Atikovic, 2009; Čuk & Forbes, 2010; Bučar Pajek, Forbes, Pajek, & Leskošek, 2011; Bučar, Čuk, Pajek, Karacsony, & Leskošek, 2012; Bučar Pajek, Čuk, Pajek, Kovač, & Leskošek, 2013; Massida & Calo, 2012). According to those results, the ES is the main score in determining FS/TS. The present study aims at underlining the fact that the vault DS is the parameter that affects the difference between VT1TS of Vault Qualifiers and VTFS of All-Around Competitors. However, according to research Čuk, Fink & Leskošek (2012), there is a possibility of neglecting the above-mentioned fact. Namely, the authors show that the proportion between the DS and the ES, according to different formulas, can range from 17% to 67% .With the different proportions in the FS calculations, the number of changes in the rankings is high: 81% in C-I and C-II 61% and 35% and C-III. Trend in the DS results in C-I competitions, in both groups of competitors, showed a sinusoidal trend of results between the two analysed Olympic Games. After the 0G2008 and the 0G2012 (where generally the highest values of all the analysed variables were determined) there has been some numerical decrease in DV's of the performed vaults. However, this statement is not entirely accurate due to the changes that occurred in the CoP at the beginning of each new 0lympic cycle and duration of the career of most women All-Around Competitors. Science of Gymnastics Journal 118 Science of Gymnastics Journal Delas Kalinski S., Atikovic A., Jelaska I., Milic M.: PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF FEMALE... Vol. 8 Issue 2: 109 - 123 Establishing high frequencies of certain vaults at major competitions often results in a reduction of the DV in one of the following CoP. This might lead to weak differentiation between competitors, such as in Men's Artistic Gymnastics (Čuk & Atikovic, 2009; Čuk & Forbes, 2010; Bučar Pajek, Forbes, Pajek, & Leskošek, 2011; Bučar, Čuk, Pajek, Karacsony, & Leskošek, 2012; Bučar Pajek, Čuk, Pajek, Kovač, & Leskošek, 2013; Massida & Calo, 2012). The same situation occurred in every CoP after 2005, to some vaults that had high or the highest DV. If the aforementioned is related to some extent to findings in this study, we may claim that it is likely that a large number of competitors performed precisely those vaults whose DV (after certain OG) has been reduced. Also, it is possible that there was no decline in the difficulty of the performed vaults, i.e., determined numerical reduction is the result of the CoP DV decrease. Yet, further research on the issue should be done in the future. Participation in the Olympic Games is usually the main goal in every gymnast's career. After participating at the OG a large number of competitors, in particular All-Around Competitors, very often end their careers. This was probably the case with the 0G2008 and the 0G2012 after which 'new' competitors entered the game. If it is known that female gymnasts' biological maturation comes later compared to the average population (Malina, 1994; Malina, 1998; Bass et al., 2000; Courtei, Jaffre, Obert, & Benhamou, 2001; Baxter-Jones, Thompson, & Malina, 2002; Bass, Daly, & Cane, 2002; Caine, Bass, & Daly, 2003; Baxter-Jones, Maffulli, & Mirwald, 2003; Daly, Caine, Bass, Pieter, & Broekhoff, 2005; Erlandson, Sherar, Mirwald, Maffulli, & Baxter-Jones, 2008), and, accordingly, their biological maturity characterized by the stability of the motor programs (Arkaiev & Suchilin, 2009), it is possible that a number of 'new' female seniors was not biologically mature. Younger gymnasts, particularly those who have not yet gone through puberty, tend to be lighter and smaller (Claessens et al., 1991, 2006), more pliable and flexible, have better strength-to-weight ratio than older gymnasts. When a female gymnast hits puberty, growth spurts and weight gain may affect her center of gravity, causing mental and physical stress as she must adjust, and in some cases relearn, her moves to compensate (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age require ments_in_gymnastics). And while such characteristics are desirable for other apparatuses, the authors believe that they do not contribute to better performance of the vault. Furthermore, the opinion of the author relies on the Arkaev and Suchilin (2009) statement that somewhat higher and heavier female gymnasts will probably perform vaults better. How many competitors with such anthropometric characteristics there were, and how are these important for the better performance of the vault remains to be examined in future research. The importance of morphological characteristics in vault performance in men's artistic gymnasts was found in the study conducted by Možnik et al. (2013). The authors found that the best ranked gymnasts on the vault have lower body height and weight compared to the best gymnasts on parallel bars and high bar. Accordingly, due to anthropometric characteristics (Erceg, Delaš Kalinski, & Milic, 2014), and, according to practical point of view, due to different factors of limitation in motor learning processes (Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008), those gymnasts were likely not able to perform, in their first year of competition in senior category, vaults that had DV's similar to those determined in the previous Olympic Games. However, through their biological maturation and automatization of their performances (Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008), by the end of the Olympic cycle, they achieved equal DV's to those determined at the previous Olympic Games. Achieving the same and/or even higher results than the ones from the previous Olympic Games, with reduced DV's of vaults compared to the DV's of the same vaults at the previous Science of Gymnastics Journal 119 Science of Gymnastics Journal Delas Kalinski S., Atikovic A., Jelaska I., Milic M.: PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF FEMALE... Vol. 8 Issue 2: 109 - 123 Olympic Games, simply confirms the thesis about progress in the quality and complexity of vaults in WAG. Taking into account the trend of the results after the OG2012, especially the ones determined at the WC2015, it is to assume that at the OG2016 the results of All-Around Competitors would be similar to the ones from the OG2012. For the Vault Qualifiers at the OG2016, we can expect numerically slightly higher results from the ones determined at the OG2012. Trend of the ES results also shows that Vault Qualifiers, in almost all the analysed competitions, had numerically higher values than All-Around Competitors. In contrast to the sinusoidal trend of the DS results, we can say that the results of the ES showed significant decrease only after the OG2008. It was probably due to the introduction of the rules of landing within the 'CORIDOR'. Numerically higher values of All-Around Competitors, compared to Vault Qualifiers, in the ES determined at the QOG2012, emphasize the quality of the performance, i.e., readiness of All-Around Competitors for this competition: their "last train for Olympics 2012". After the OG2012 and after certain changes in the rules of landing, steady progress of the ES, both for All-Around Competitor and Vault Qualifiers was determined. Since the introduction of the 'new method of judging' (FIG, 2006) had the intention of improving competitors performance, based on these results, we may conclude that the competition on vault definitely does go in that direction. It is obvious that for all competitors the performance of vaults becomes '... more important and making vault seem more like a full routine instead of two separate skills in which if you mess up on those, you can make up for it on the other' (https ://betweentheolympics.wordpress.com /2012/04/02/vault-in-the-proposed-2013-2016-code-of-points/). As mentioned above, it has been determined that the development of the FS/TS1 is similar to the trend of the DS results: after the OG2008 and the OG2012 value of the FS/TS1 decreased, while the values of the FS/TS1 between those competitions increased. Slightly different from the trend in the DS, significant difference between All-Around Competitors and Vault Qualifiers in the FS/TS1 was determined only in two competitions (WC2014 and WC2015). Since the FS/TS1 is a composite of the DS and the ES, the obtained results confirm previously established progress in performance of All-Around Competitors. Review of results in Figures 5-8 (values of different variables of the only vault of All-Around Competitors and of the 2nd jump of Vault Qualifiers) generally present similarity between those vaults. Similarity is also confirmed by not determining significant differences in any variables between those two vaults. The result should be viewed through the abovementioned rules for competing in Vault Qualifications: according to the CoP 2009 it was necessary to perform two vaults that are different in the 1st and the 2nd phase of the flight; according to the CoP 2013 it was necessary to perform two vaults in different groups and with different second flight phase. This leads to the conclusion that female Vault Qualifiers generally cannot perform equally good vaults that are structurally different. The authors believe that there are several reasons for this: 1) shorter time that gymnasts dedicate to vault training compared to the time invested in training of other apparatuses, (Čuk & Karacsony, 2004); 2) complexity of those motor skills (vaults); 3) anthropometric characteristics of gymnasts (Erceg, Delaš Kalinski, & Milic, 2014; Delaš Kalinski, 2015). Moreover, the authors claim that the contained results raise the question (for further research) of the real equality of the DV's of vaults that classified in different vault groups in the WAG CoP. CONCLUSION The percentage of female competitors, who participated in Vault Qualifications with the aim to qualify for Vault Finals at the analysed competitions (from 2008 to Science of Gymnastics Journal 120 Science of Gymnastics Journal Delas Kalinski S., Atikovic A., Jelaska I., Milic M.: PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF FEMALE... Vol. 8 Issue 2: 109 - 123 2015), depended on the format of the competition. At the competitions which were not Team Finals Competition (C-IV), the percentage of Vault Qualifiers was 81.03% (WC2009) and 90.90% (WC2013). At the other analysed competitions, only 20% of competitors were Vault Qualifiers. Although all the analysed competitions were of the highest level, we conclude that some factors from anthropological status, motor learning process and competitors' tactics caused numerical differences and in some competitions even significant differences (in the DS between the only vault of All-Around Competitors and the 1st vault of Vault Qualifiers). Consequently, in some competitions the differences were determined between VTFS of All-Around Competitors and VT1TS of Vault Qualifiers. Significant differences were not determined between variables of the 2nd vault of Vault Qualifiers and variables of the only vault of All-Around Competitors. Based on the determined results, we claim that the structural complexity of two different vaults (regardless of the fact that those are the only two skills, which is significantly less when compared to the number of elements performed during an exercise on other apparatuses) is such that most female gymnasts cannot perform them equally well. Regardless of the DV's of vaults that they performed, significant differences between All-Around Competitors and Vault Qualifiers were not determined in the ES. This leads to the conclusion that both female competitor groups performed their vaults equal in technical and aesthetical sense. Since the vault is an apparatus that constantly develops in the direction of more and more difficult vaults, the results of this study should be taken into account when planning and programming training sessions for competitors who aspire toward the Vault Finals. REFERENCES Arkaiev, L.I., & Suchilin, N.G. (2009). Gymnastics: How to create champions (2nd ed.). 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In Samardžic Pavletič, M. & Bučar Pajek, M. (Eds.) 2nd International Scientific Congress Organized by the Slovenian Gymnastics Federation. (p. 66-78). Ljubljana: Slovenian Gymnastics Federation. Erceg, T., Delaš Kalinski S., & Milic, M. (2014). The score differences between elite European junior and senior female gymnasts. Kinesiology, 46(Suppl 1), 88-94. Erlandson, M.C., Sherar, L.B., Mirwald, R.L., Maffulli, N., & Baxter-Jones, A.D. (2008). Growth and maturation of adolescent female gymnasts, swimmers, and tennis players. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 40(1), 34-42. Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (2006). Code of points for Women's Artistic Gymnastics. Moutier: Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique. Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (2009). Code of points for women artistic gymnastics competitions. Retrieved October 1, 2009, From Science of Gymnastics Journal 122 Science of Gymnastics Journal Delas Kalinski S., Atikovic A., Jelaska I., Milic M.: PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF FEMALE... Vol. 8 Issue 2: 109 - 123 http://figdocs.lx2.sportcentric.com/external/ serve.php?document1205 Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (2013). 2013-2016 Code of Points (Women's Artistic Gymnastics). Available at: http://www.figgymnastics.com/publicdir/rul es/files/wag/WAG%20CoP%2020132020% 20(English)%20Aug%202013.pdf http://www.gymnasticsresults.com. Georgopoulos, N.A., Theodoropoulou, A., Leglise, M., Vagenakis, A.G., & Markou, KB. (2004). Growth and skeletal maturation in male and female artistic gymnasts. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 89, 43774382. Leskošek, B., Čuk, I., Karâcsony, I., Pajek, J. & Bučar, M. (2010). Reliability and validity of judging in men's artistic gymnastics at the 2009 University Games. Science of Gymnastics Journal, 2, 25-34. Leskošek, B., Čuk, I., & Bučar Pajek, M. (2013). Trends in E and D scores and their influence on final results of male gymnasts at European Championships 2005-2011. Science of Gymnastics Journal, 5(1), 29-38. Leskošek, B., Čuk, I., Pajek, J., Forbes, W., & Bučar Pajek, M. (2012). Bias of judging in men's artistic gymnastics at the European Championship 2011. Biology of Sport, 29(2), 107-113. Malina, RM. (1994). Physical Growth and Biological Maturation of Young Athletes. Exercise and Sports Science Review, 22, 389-434. Massida, M., & Calo, C.M. (2012). Performance scores and standing during the 43rd Artistic Gymnastics World Championships, 2011. Journal of Sports Science, 30(13), 1415-1420. Možnik, M., Hraski, Ž., & Hraski, M. (2013). Height, weight and age of male toplevel gymnasts in year 2007 and 2011. Croatian Sports Medicine Journal, 28, 1423. Perederij, V.V. (2013). The problem of the quality of judging in rhythmic gymnastics. Pedagogics, psychology, medical-biological problems of physical training and sports, 3, 43-46. Prassas, S., Kwon, Y.H., & Sands, W. A. (2006). Biomechanical research in artistic gymnastics: a review. Sports Biomechanics, 5(2), 261-291. Schmidt, R. A., & Wrisberg, C.A. (2008). Motor Learning and Performance, (4th ed.) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Corresponding author: Sunčica Delaš Kalinski, PhD University of Split Faculty of Kinesiology 6, Teslina 21000 Split Croatia Phone: +385 21 302 440;+385 91 502 97 51 e-mail: suncica@kifst.hr Science of Gymnastics Journal 123 Science of Gymnastics Journal Delas Kalinski S., Atikovic A., Jelaska I., Milic M.: PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF FEMALE... Vol. 8 Issue 2: 109 - 123 Science of Gymnastics Journal 124 Science of Gymnastics Journal Schärer K., Hübner K.: PREDICTION OF MAXIMUM RESISTANCE ACCURACY AT FIVE. Vol. 8 Issue 2: 125 - 134 ACCURACY OF PREDICTION OF MAXIMUM RESISTANCE AT INCREASED HOLDING TIMES BASED ON A THREE SECONDS MAXIMUM STATIC STRENGTH TEST OF THE THREE MAIN STRENGTH ELEMENTS ON RINGS Christoph Schärer, Klaus Hübner Swiss Federal Institute of Sports Magglingen, Switzerland _Original article Abstract On rings in men's artistic gymnastics, a high degree of relative maximum strength is crucial to present up to seven strength elements in the required quality in the routine. To increase this specific strength and strength endurance the coaches often prolong the holding times of those elements by using the devices counterweight and additional weight in training. The purpose of this study was to investigate the predictability of the maximum resistance (MR) (minimal counterweight/maximum additional weight) at five and seven seconds holding times based on the MR at three seconds of the elements Iron Cross (C), Support Scale (SS) and Swallow (S) and to provide coaches with a reliable conversion table that predicts the individual training weights at different holding times. Ten male gymnasts of the Swiss National Team performed a specific static MR-Test (three, five and seven seconds holding time) of the elements C, SS and S. The results showed a significant decrease in MR as holding time increased (t-Test: p < 0.001). The standard error of estimate (SEE) and explained variance (R2) revealed that the prediction of MR at five seconds (SEE 0.52 kg to 1.03 kg, R2 0.92 to 1.00) was more accurate than at seven seconds holding time (SEE 0.95 kg to 2.08 kg, R2 0.88 to 0.98). Based on the linear regression equations, a useful conversion table was established that predicts the MR at five and seven seconds holding time based on the three seconds MR at each of the tested elements. Keywords: Artistic Gymnastics, rings, strength, swallow, cross, support scale. INTRODUCTION The Code of Points (CoP) of the International Gymnastics Federation (FIG) (FIG, 2013) regulates the scoring of elements and amongst others, prescribes the composition of the routines for each of the six disciplines in men's artistic gymnastics (MAG). On rings, a routine can include a maximum of seven strength elements, which have to be held in a perfect hold position, prescribed in the CoP, for at least two seconds. All angular deviations and reduction of holding time will result in deductions or non-recognition by the jury (FIG, 2013). In order to present a routine in the prescribed quality, a high level of relative maximum strength in the different hold positions is required. To increase this specific strength, it is essential that the strengthening exercises are similar, if not identical, to the holding positions of the ring elements, and that exercise intensity is optimal. Traditionally, the hold elements are trained with help of the coaches who guide Science of Gymnastics Journal 125 Science of Gymnastics Journal Schärer K., Hübner K.: PREDICTION OF MAXIMUM RESISTANCE ACCURACY AT FIVE. Vol. 8 Issue 2: 126 - 134 athletes' motion or partially support their body weight. The disadvantage of spotting is that the intensity of the strength training cannot be modulated optimally. On the other hand, common strengthening exercises with barbells or dumbbells, while allowing intensity to be controlled precisely, do not elicit muscle activation patterns similar to those during elements on rings (Bernasconi, Tordi, Parratte & Rouillon, 2009). Furthermore only a few preconditioning exercises seem to be strongly correlated to the holding elements on rings (Hubner & Scharer, 2015). As specificity and progression are both fundamental principles of strength training and as the development of the specific relative maximum strength is one of the most important goals in training for the rings, there is a need for training devices that meet both demands - specificity and control of intensity. Moreover, considering the fact that coaches need to continuously adapt training stimuli to maximize progress of the athletes, they are in need of easily applicable measurement tools to regularly assess the specific maximum strength. Previously published studies have focused on the application of a specific force measurement device (Starischka & Tschiene, 1977), force plates (Gorosito, 2013; Dunlavy et al., 2007) or electromyography (Bernasconi et al., 2009; Bernasconi, Tordi, Parratte, Rouillon & Monnier, 2006). Tests using those devices must be conducted by experts and the testing procedures developed in these studies only assess the athletes' current condition. Thus, coaches cannot deduce the essential stimulus intensity needed for training. The training devices "Counterweight" (CW) (figure 1) and "Additional Weight" (AW) (figure 2) present simple and practical means of training and testing maximum resistance (MR) in all hold positions on rings. The CW diminishes the gymnast's body weight by a pulley and activates similar muscle patterns to the ones activated without device (Bernasconi et al., 2009). The AW increases the resistance during the hold element by adding weight to a belt. Thus, it is possible that coaches can determine athletes' individual MR represented by either the minimal counterweight or maximal additional weight in each holding position during regular training sessions. As a result, the optimal specific training intensity can be deduced, which according to Mironov & Schinkar (1995) is an effective way to improve the individual level of relative maximal strength. In addition, with these devices, athletes have direct feedback regarding their training progress, which is important for their future motivation in strength training. Coaches are constantly on the lookout for new, more effective strength training methods, which may allow athletes to include more difficult strength elements with a higher quality in their routines on the rings. A limiting factor for integrating new skills into a routine may be the specific maximal strength endurance in each holding position. Hence coaches often increase the holding times of the hold elements during the training sessions to five or even seven seconds in order to possess a higher level of MR than required during their routine. This is according to Arkaev and Suchilin (2004) crucial for presenting a routine in high quality. Until now, gymnasts needed several attempts to find the ideal counterweight or additional weight in order to hold the elements for five or seven seconds during training. To facilitate the determination of the training weights for the different holding times for the athletes and coaches, a conversion table (based on the MR at three seconds) would be of interest. In this manner, the exhaustive estimation of MR at longer holding times doesn't have to be conducted, and the risk of severe shoulder injuries due to excessive resistance can be minimized. The aim of this study was to determine the predictability of maximum resistance (MR), in terms of counterweight or additional weight, at different holding times (five and seven seconds) based on the MR at three seconds of the hold elements Iron Cross (C), Support Scale (SS) and Swallow Science of Gymnastics Journal 125 Science of Gymnastics Journal Schärer K., Hübner K.: PREDICTION OF MAXIMUM RESISTANCE ACCURACY AT FIVE. Vol. 8 Issue 2: 127 - 134 (S) on rings, and to provide coaches with a reliable conversion table (CT) for predicting the training weight needed to hold an element for five and seven seconds based on individual MR for a three seconds holding time. Research question is what is the accuracy of prediction of maximum resistance at five and seven seconds holding times based on a three seconds static maximum strength test of the elements Iron Cross, Support Scale and Swallow on rings using the devices counterweight or additional weight? We hypothesized that accuracy of prediction of maximum resistance decreases with increasing holding times at the elements C, SS and S. METHODS To estimate MR in the hold positions of C, SS and S, two devices were used: the CW and the AW (Figures 1-6). For athletes who have not mastered the hold elements under original conditions, CW was used, whereas those who were able to execute the elements performed them either without any weight or with AW. The MR will be indicated as a negative value if CW was used and as positive value if the holding element was performed with AW. Figure 1. CW iron cross. Figure 2. AW iron cross. Figures 3. CW Support scale. Figures 4. AW Support scale. Figures 5. CW Swallow. Figures 6. AW Swallow. Ten top-level gymnasts from the Men's Artistic Gymnastics Swiss National Team (Age: 21.5 ± 2.5 years; Weight: 65.0 ± 5.0 kg; Height: 168.6 ± 4.5 cm) volunteered to participate in this study. All gymnasts invest more than 25 hours per week in a professional gymnastics training. Athletes were informed in advance about the test procedures, which were accepted by an ethics committee. The tests were conducted on two separate days. On the first day, athletes performed the C; on the second day, they performed the SS and S. After an individual 20-minute warm-up, all gymnasts executed the strength elements for three, five and seven seconds in three randomized trials. Athletes had maximum three attempts per element and holding time in order to execute the element for the required time with maximal resistance. Between attempts, athletes had a twenty minutes break. After adjusting the weight, athletes had to lower themselves into the correct position out of the support position and hold the element for the required time. All trials were captured by a video camera (Sony HDR-CX730E, Sony, Japan) positioned in front (for C) or on the side (for SS and S). Angular deviations and the time the Science of Gymnastics Journal 125 Science of Gymnastics Journal Schärer K., Hübner K.: PREDICTION OF MAXIMUM RESISTANCE ACCURACY AT FIVE. Vol. 8 Issue 2: 128 - 134 elements were held were analyzed with Kinovea Software 0.8.15 (www.kinovea.org). Attempts were only valid if the angular deviations were within the requirements of the CoP (< 45°) (FIG, 2013). Time measurement started when a complete stop position was reached (maintaining the holding position during at least two subsequent video frames) and stopped by the time the athlete aborted the hold position or if the hold element would no longer have been recognized according the rules of the COP due to angular deviations of more than 45° (figure 7). Joint angles were estimated by marking the relevant joint centers (wrist, shoulder, hips or ankle) with the angular measurement tool of the software. This two-dimensional joint-angle video-analysis method showed high intratester reliability (Stensrud, Myklebust, Kristianslund, Bahr, Krosshaug, 2010) and concurrent validity (Norris & Olson, 2011) in medical test settings. Small error Medium error Large error Nofi-recognition D-jury up to 15° 16s-30' > 30° >45' Examples: Figure 7. FIG (2013) error definition. Mean value (M) and standard deviation (SD) of all variables were calculated. A simple linear regression equation (y = ax + b), the variance explained (R2) (multiple regression analysis) and the standard error of estimate (SEE) were determined to describe the relationship between the MR and the different holding times for each element (C, SS, S). A t-Test was used to describe the differences between the MR at the different holding times. Using the obtained simple linear regression equations, a conversion table was calculated for the training weights at five and seven seconds holding time based on the weights at three seconds. The level of significance was set to p < 0.05. All statistics were performed using SPSS 22 software (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL). RESULTS Due to elbow pain resulting from a previous trauma one athlete was unable to execute the tests of C and S and felt pain holding the element SS. For this reason his results were excluded from the calculations. None of the other athletes were previously injured nor did they experience pain during the tests. Descriptive data and achieved performances of MR at the elements C, SS and S and the effective holding times are shown in table 1. All athletes showed the C without counterweight for the three seconds holding time. For the five and seven seconds holding times, two and four athletes, respectively, needed a counterweight in order to hold the position for the required time. The SS was hold by two athletes with additional weight. For the S, counterweights were required with the exception of one athlete for the three seconds holding time. There were mostly minor differences between the prescribed and mean measured holding times except at the seven seconds holding time of the element S. Mean values of the MR and the effective holding times as well as regressions and simple equation formulas for the C, SS and S are shown in Figures 8 to 10. Table 1 Science of Gymnastics Journal 125 Science of Gymnastics Journal Schärer K., Hübner K.: PREDICTION OF MAXIMUM RESISTANCE ACCURACY AT FIVE. Vol. 8 Issue 2: 129 - 134 Descriptive data and achieved performances of MR and the effective holding times Athlete 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 MR 3 s (kg) 0.00 3.00 6.00 4.00 8.00 1.00 7.00 0.00 1.00 MR 5 s (kg) -5.00 2.00 5.00 2.00 6.00 0.00 5.00 -3.75 0.00 Iron MR 7s (kg) -10.00 0.00 2.00 0.00 5.00 -2.50 2.00 -7.50 -7.50 Cross Time 3s 3.12 2.32 2.48 3.80 3.92 3.00 3.52 3.52 2.96 Time 5s 5.92 4.76 4.56 5.92 5.56 5.56 4.96 4.24 4.88 Time 7s 8.20 6.68 6.52 7.92 6.88 7.64 7.44 7.72 7.08 MR 3 s (kg) -10.00 -8.75 -7.50 0.00 1.00 -10.00 1.00 -17.50 -5.00 MR 5 s (kg) -13.75 -12.50 -10.00 -2.50 0.00 -15.00 0.00 -20.00 -6.25 Support Scale MR 7s (kg) -15.00 -15.00 -12.50 -3.75 -3.75 -17.50 -2.50 -22.50 -7.50 Time 3s 3.64 3.60 3.08 3.56 2.92 2.80 3.56 3.08 2.24 Time 5s 4.52 5.44 5.40 5.64 4.60 5.12 5.60 4.80 4.28 Time 7s 7.04 7.16 10.00 8.16 5.92 8.11 8.24 9.08 6.76 Swallow MR 3 s (kg) MR 5 s (kg) MR 7s (kg) Time 3s Time 5s Time 7s -17.50 -7.50 -11.25 -7.50 -7.50 -17.50 0.00 -25.00 -12.50 -20.00 -10.00 -12.50 -10.00 -8.75 -18.75 -1.25 -28.75 -15.00 -22.50 -15.00 -13.75 -11.25 -10.00 -20.00 -2.50 -30.00 -20.00 3.28 3.68 1.48 4.25 3.72 4.20 3.12 3.92 3.40 4.64 5.48 5.56 5.72 4.88 5.92 4.00 7.44 4.92 10.08 9.12 8.60 7.44 6.88 6.24 7.28 8.68 8.36 Science of Gymnastics Journal 125 Science of Gymnastics Journal Schärer K., Hübner K.: PREDICTION OF MAXIMUM RESISTANCE ACCURACY AT FIVE. Vol. 8 Issue 2: 125 - 134 Figure 8. Mean values of the MR, the effective holding times, regressions and simple equation formulas. Support Scale V =-l-0123x-3.3565 -5 tb c -10 -15 -20 -25 3 4 5 6 7 Holding time (s) 10 Figure 9. Mean values of the MR, the effective holding times, regressions and simple equation formulas. 0 "M -1£ c Swallow V =-0.9246x-8.7199 Maximum Resistance ( J NJ h-» n O Ln O I i— —i ► —1 23456789 10 Holding Time (s) Figure 10. Mean values of the MR, the effective holding times, regressions and simple equation formulas. Table 2 Mean values of the MR, the effective holding times, regressions and simple equation formulas. Iron Cross Support Scale Swallow Holding time 5s 7s 5s 7s 5s 7s MD (%) of MR 96.3% 92.2% 96.6% 92.9% 96.5% 92.8% (SD) (1.6%) (3.4%) (1.1%) (2.5%) (1.3%) (2.9%) R2 0.92 0.88 0.99 0.98 1 0.96 SEE (kg) 1.03 1.81 0.82 0.95 0.52 1.69 Table 3 MR for the three, five and seven seconds holding time prediction. Iron Cross_Support Scale_Swallow Science of Gymnastics Journal 125 Science of Gymnastics Journal Schärer K., Hübner K.: PREDICTION OF MAXIMUM RESISTANCE ACCURACY AT FIVE. Vol. 8 Issue 2: 125 - 134 Time 3s 5s 7s 3s 5s 7s 3s 5s 7s 5.00 3.00 0.00 5.00 2.00 0.00 5.00 3.00 2.00 4.00 2.00 -1.25 4.00 1.00 -1.25 4.00 2.00 1.00 3.00 1.00 -1.25 3.00 0.00 -1.25 3.00 1.00 0.00 2.00 0.00 -2.50 2.00 0.00 -2.50 2.00 0.00 -1.25 <%) (%) 1 (F) 2.07 1.7 88 88 95 2 (RF) 0.72 3.8 74 90 89 3 (R) 0.52 5.4 72 95 84 A (HB) 0.47 4.8 84 99 81 5 (B) 1.25 1.3 72 76 85 6 (LB) 0.50 5 1 94 104 72 7 (L) 0 66 2-9 91 98 94 S (LF) 0.61 3.8 81 86 91 sec 2.0 1.6 1.2 0.8 0.4 0.0 Reaction Time(RT) 1.37 3 87 003 0 56 M d eg/sec Movement Velocity(MVL) 10 0 8 0 Forward Back Right Left Comp % Endpoint&Max Excursions(EPE&MXE) 120 s.o 4.0 2.0 0 0 % 100 60 4 9 4.3 1 Forward Bach Right Left Comp Directional Control(DCL) 85 -88" 07 Forward Back Right Left Comp Figure 1. Assessment of Limits of Stability. Science of Gymnastics Journal 149 Science of Gymnastics Journal Dallas G., Dallas K.: EFFECTS OF ANKLE JOINT INJURIES ON BALANCE IN MALE. Vol. 8 Issue 2: 149 - 156 In this test, each gymnast shifted the CoG from the center to each of eight peripheral targets, with both feet on the floor. On command, she/he moved the CoG cursor as quickly and accurately as possible towards of the targets located at the limits of stability perimeter and then held a position as close to the target as possible. The LOS measurements, with respect to reaction time (RT), movement velocity (MVL) and endpoint excursion (EPE) are presented in Table 1. The split half method was used to assess the reliability of the postural stability test (LOS), with respect to the RT, MVL and ERE assessments. The results revealed coefficients of .762, .941 and .850 for RT, MVL and EPE, respectively. The construct validity was assessed through multivariate comparisons between the present sample and a separate sample of highly competitive rhythmic gymnasts, without previous experience of ankle injuries (Tsopani et al., 2014). The results provided construct validity evidence since the non injured rhythmic gymnasts had higher scores, compared to artistic gymnasts in the RT (A = .544, F = 2.752, p = .031, n2 = 456), MVL (A = .635, F = 2.875, p = .035, n2 = .365) and EPE (A =.352, F =5.064, p = .001, n2 = .648) measures, respectively. A MANCOVA was used to examine gender differences in the postural stability test, while the number of injuries served as a covariate. Univariate ANCOVAs used for post hoc comparisons. The significance level was set at a = 0.05. RESULTS Female gymnasts showed significantly lower number of injuries than male gymnasts (p= .025). The MANCOVA on LOS test was significant for: a) Reaction Time (RT) (Wilk's A= .225, F= 4.299, p= .017, n2=775); b) Movement Velocity (MVL) (Wilk's A= .164, F= 6.354, p= .004, n 2=.836); and c) Endpoint Excursion (EPE) (Wilk's A= .213, F= 4.628, p= .014, n 2=.787). The post hoc ANCOVAs were significant for: a) RT in Right Backward direction (F = 5.614, p = .030, n2 = .248), approached significance for RT in Forward direction (F = 4.341, p = .053, n2 = .203), b) and were significant for the MVL in Right Forward direction (MVLRF) (F= 8.159, p= .011, n2 =.324). Examination of the adjusted balance mean score in LOS RT in Right Backward direction (LOS RT RB) showed that the group of female gymnasts scored lower than their male counterparts. However, female gymnasts scored higher in MVL Right Forward direction (LOS MVL RF) than their male counterparts. The ANCOVA findings with respect to the injuries (covariate) balance scores and adjusted balance scores for female and male gymnasts are found in table 2. DISCUSSION This was the first study on postural stability on artistic gymnasts. Results of the present study revealed that female gymnasts have better postural stability, compared to male gymnasts, with respect to the reaction time right backwards and movement velocity right forward. These findings may be attributed to the effective proprioception of the ankle joints. This finding supports previous data, which showed that Reaction Time (RT) could be one of the supporting factors for better dynamic balance performance (Bressel, Yonker, Kras, & Heath, 2007). Additionally, the lower RT of female gymnasts in the Right-Backward direction may be related to the apparatus requirements. For example, on the balance beam, due to the apparatus dimensions, (female) gymnasts loose balance mostly in the lateral direction on account of restricted surface. This requirement makes them more adaptable to this type of balance perturbations. Furthermore, female's ability to move forward with speed was more effective towards the Right direction, compared to males. Female gymnasts therefore, as they move faster to this direction, balance their body more effectively than males. Science of Gymnastics Journal 149 Science of Gymnastics Journal Dallas G., Dallas K.: EFFECTS OF ANKLE JOINT INJURIES ON BALANCE IN MALE. Vol. 8 Issue 2: 149 - 156 Table 1 Description of the measured parameters. Parameter Description Reaction Time (RT) _(sec)_ RT was defined as the time in seconds between the signal to move and the initiation of movement COG velocity (MVL) (deg/sec) MVL was defined as the average speed of COG movement (expressed in degrees per second) between 5% and 95% of the distance to the primary endpoint_ DCL is a comparison of the amount of movement in the intended direction (toward the target) to the amount of extraneous movement (away from the target) Directional Control (DCL) (%) EPE was defined as the distance of the 1st movement toward the designed target, expressed as a percentage of maximum LOS distance. The endpoint is considered to be the point at which the initial movement toward the target ceases_ End Point Excursion (EPE) (%) maximum excursion (MXE) (%) MXE is the maximum distance achieved during the trial Table 2 Means and adjusted means in Limits of Stability Test of Reaction Time Right Forward (LOS RT RF) (sec) and Movement Velocity in Right Forward direction (LOS MVL RF) (deg/sec) for female and male gymnasts. Female Male Number of injuries 1.50 (1.08) 2.50 (0.71) LOS RT RB (sec) 0.59 (0.19) 0.83 (0.30) Adjusted LOS RT RB (sec) 0.56 (0.08) 0.86 (0.08) LOS MVL RF (deg/sec) 4.76 (1.52) 3.09 (0.42) Adjusted LOS MVL RF (deg/sec) 4.77 (0.39) 3.08 (0.39) Table 3 Questions to the participants._ 1) How long ago did you sustain a lower limb injury? 2) What type of injury did you sustain? 3) Where you required to stop training and if yes, for how long? 4) Where you hospitalized? and if yes, for how long? 5) When you returned to training had you fully recovered from your injury/injuries? The results of the present study verify data of Ekdalh, Jarnl, and Andersson (1989), who found that females demonstrate better balance than males. The ability to maintain balance is dependent on visual cues, vestibular function, and somatosensory feedback from structures in the lower limb (Nashner, 1993). Impaired balance in turn and deficits in postural stability were reported for individuals with ankle injuries (McKeon & Hertel, 2008; Ryan, 1994; Wikstrom, Fournier, & McKeon, 2010). The present results extend previous data which support that not only acute musculoskeletal injury (Bonfim, Grossi, Paccola, & Barela, 2008) but also Science of Gymnastics Journal 149 Science of Gymnastics Journal Dallas G., Dallas K.: EFFECTS OF ANKLE JOINT INJURIES ON BALANCE IN MALE. Vol. 8 Issue 2: 149 - 156 chronic musculoskeletal conditions, including ankle instability, can impair postural control (McKeon & Hertel, 2008). The musculo-tendinous changes around the ankle or the loss of proprioceptive information may contribute to the deficient postural control mechanisms after injury. Female gymnasts may have used the ankle strategy more effectively than males which means that they may have used the ankle joint as a pivot point to move their body. The postural adjustments are controlled by the ankle muscles, restoring the Center of Mass (CoM) to a central position (Winter, Patla, & Frank, 1990). The decreased number of injuries therefore did not impair the somatosensory feedback from the ankle joint of females to the same extent compared to their male counterparts. Certain limitations do not allow generalization of the present findings without caution. The external focus of attention for example may be a factor that differentiates female and male gymnasts (McNevin & Wulf, 2002). Researchers have reported that boys are less attentive and more agitated during the postural stability tests (Steindl, Kunz, Schrott-Fischer, & Schholt, 2006). Attention however was not recorded in the present study. Second, certain anthropometric variables affecting postural balance, such as vision (Alonso et al, 2012) were not examined. The proprioception is produced through the simultaneous action of the visual, vestibular and sensorimotor systems, and each of them has an important role to play in maintaining postural stability (Liaw, Chen, Pei, Leong, & Lau, 2009). Finally, the effect of relevant factors such as the somatotype, body size, body mass, etc (McKeon & Hertel, 2008) may have had an impact upon the postural tests. The above limitations may be useful for future consideration. CONCLUSIONS The present findings indicate that elite female gymnasts exhibit better postural stability scores compared to elite males, when controlling their ankle injuries. Taking into account that these injuries occurred 7 to 17 months prior to the test (M =11.20 SD = 2.65), it appears that ASI affect postural control long after acute injury recovery. However, the rehabilitation (treatment) as well as the training requirements of both female and male gymnasts may have also an impact upon their postural stability. Males for example compete only in two events where they support mainly with their feet (vaulting horse and floor exercises), compared to females who compete in three such apparatus (balance beam, vaulting horse, floor exercises). In other words, females are spending more training time using their lower limbs. Further, the balance beam, an apparatus requiring extensive balance training, is exclusively a female event and skill. The event requirements therefore may have assisted to a wider extent the female athletes to overcome their post ASI postural deficiencies examined and to exhibit better postural stabilitywhen compared to their male counterparts. It is recommended that: a) a postural stability/balance evaluation is carried out prior to the gymnast's return to training and competition, b) the gymnast is fully rehabilitated (or has fully recovered from injury) prior to his/her return to training and competition, c) the way the injury happened and the exercise that created the injury, is registered and d) the muscular strength of the injured member is registered. REFERENCES Alonso, A.C., Luna, N.M.S., Mochizuki, L.L., Barbieri, F., Santos, S., & Greve, J.M. (2012). The influence of anthropometric factors on postural balance: the relationship between body composition and posturographic measurements in young adults. Clinics, 67, 1433-1441. Blackburn, T., Guskiewicz, K.M., Petschauer, M.A., et al. (2000). Balance and joint stability: The relative contributions of proprioception and muscular strength. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation, 9, 315-328. Bonfim, T.R., Grossi, D.B., Paccola, C.C.A.J., & Barela, J.A. (2008). 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Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 48(6), 477482. Science of Gymnastics Journal 149 Science of Gymnastics Journal Dallas G., Dallas K.: EFFECTS OF ANKLE JOINT INJURIES ON BALANCE IN MALE. Vol. 8 Issue 2: 149 - 156 Tropp, H. (1986). Pronator muscle weakness in functional instability of the ankle joint. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 22, 601-605. Tsopani, D., Dallas, G., Tsiganos, G., Papouliakos, S., DiCagno, A., Korres, et al. (2014). Short-term effect of whole-body vibration training on balance, flexibility and lower limb explosive strength in elite rhythmic gymnasts. Human Movement Science, 33, 149-158. Uchiyama, M., & Demura, S. (2009). The role of eye movement in upright postural control. Sport Science Health, 5, 21-27. Vuillerme, N., Danion, F., Marin, L., et al. (2001). The effect of expertise in gymnastics on postural control. Neuroscience Letter, 303, 83-86. Wikstrom, E., Fournier, K., and McKeon, P. (2010). Postural control differs between those with and without chronic ankle instability. Gait & Posture, 32, 82-86. Winter, D.A., Patla, A.E., & Frank, J.S. (1990). Assessment of balance control in humans. Medical Progress through Technology, 16, 31-51. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT No funding was provided for, and there was no conflict of interest in, the designing and implementation of the present study. Corresponding author: George Dallas Chlois & Chrisoupoleos, 19002 Paiania, Athens Greece Mobile phone: 0030 6936 592 665 Fax: +0030 210 72 76028 Email: gdallas@phed.uoa.gr Science of Gymnastics Journal 149 Science of Gymnastics Journal Trajkovic N., Madic D., Sporis G., Aleksic-Velkovic A., Zivcic-Markovic K.: IMPACT OF Vol. 8 Issue 2: 157 - 166 IMPACT OF GYMNASTICS PROGRAM ON HEALTH-RELATED FITNESS IN ADOLESCENT PUPILS Nebojsa Trajkovic1, Dejan Madic2, Goran Sporis3, Aleksandra Aleksic-Veljkovic1 and Kamenka Zivcic-Markovic3 1Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Nis, Nis, Serbia 2Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia 3Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia _Original article Abstract The aim of this study was to determine the effects of gymnastics program in school on health related fitness in adolescent pupils. The study involved 58 adolescent pupils (14.82±0.44 years) attending the first grade at high school involved in a 12 week of gymnastics classes. The variables were selected within the battery of tests Eurofit, measuring abdominal strength, flexibility, aerobic fitness and upper and lower body strength, speed and agility. The results showed average initial level and later dynamic increase in the physical fitness of the participants. Pre-test to post-test values showed significant improvements in all tested variables (p<0.05), except for the 4x10m test. Therefore, participation in gymnastics must be recommended as a positive foundational activity for school-aged children, from early childhood to adulthood. Additionally, the results can provide useful information in optimizing the training loads of pupils involved in gymnastic training throughout Physical Education classes. Keywords: effects, PE classes, training, physical fitness. INTRODUCTION Health-related physical fitness includes the characteristics of functional capacity and is affected by the physical activity level and other lifestyle factors. Regular participation in moderate and vigorous levels of exercise increases physical fitness, which can lead to many health benefits (Ruiz et al., 2006). Fitness, physical activity behavior and motor skill development are important components of the Physical Education (PE) curricula and are potentially indicators of child health (Lloyd, Colley, & Tremblay, 2010). Physical fitness in children and adolescents has also been linked to positive health outcomes in adults (Kvaavik, Klepp, Tell, Meyer, & Batty, 2009). Moreover, motor skills can be used for talent identification to predict sport success in children (Grice, 2003). Gymnastics is an excellent mechanism for the teaching basic motor skills and promoting health-related fitness in children of all ages (Coelho, 2010; Donham-Foutch, 2007). Many agree that involvement in gymnastic training can contribute significantly to the all-around development of a child (Sloan, 2007) and that a physical education program including gymnastics benefits children in many areas (Werner, Williams, & Hall, 2012). Gymnastics is Science of Gymnastics Journal 157 Science of Gymnastics Journal Trajkovic N., Madic D., Sporis G., Aleksic-Velkovic A., Zivcic-Markovic K.: IMPACT OF Vol. 8 Issue 2: 157 - 166 commonly included in PE programs across the world. It represents an activity with many benefits, to the point that it has been described as a fundamental and critical part of the PE curriculum that should be offered in preschool through faculty (Donham-Foutch, 2007). One such benefit is that it promotes abilities related to health and fitness (Werner et al., 2012; Baumgartner & Pagnano-Richardson, 2010). There are several well-known, health-related fitness batteries to assess fitness in all its dimensions in young people. A good example in Europe is the Eurofit battery (Committee of Experts on Sports Research EUROFIT, 1993). Many authors have reported that modern artistic gymnastics requires greater strength and power because of the ever-increasing technical difficulty required through revision of the Code of Points (Jemni, Sands, Friemel, Stone & Cooke, 2006). Previous research has demonstrated the positive effects of a four-week after school programme addressing motor skills and fitness can have in young children (Matvienko & Iradge, 2009). Madic et al. (2009) conducted research on a sample of 250 girls involved in the program of gymnastics development as well as on the 580 girls who were not involved in sports. The authors applied a battery of eight motor tests, emphasizing that the research results clearly confirm that the gymnastic facilities have a positive impact on motor abilities. Delas Kalinski, Miletic & Bozanic (2011) found out that gymnastics skills learned at the age of 6.5 are retained over time after a period without any practice which makes them suitable for PE classes. Learning gymnastics skills in childhood can increase children's capacity for skill performance and improve their motor abilities. One of the major benefits of children's participation in gymnastics compared to that of untrained participants in other sports is enhanced strength (Andersson, Sward, & Thorstensson, 1988; Benke, Damsgaard, Saekmose, Jorgensen, & Klausen, 2002; Maffulli, King & Helms, 1994). Understanding the benefits of participation in gymnastics training implemented in schools would provide relevant information for this area. It is widely known that PE classes have positive impact on the children's physical fitness. However, a great amount of researches were conducted on preadolescent children or younger because of early specialization in Gymnastics. However, establishing normative ranges for these physical tests in adolescent children will be valuable for practitioners conducting similar physical fitness testing in the future. Therefore, the aim of this research is to determine the effects of gymnastics program in school on health related fitness in adolescent pupils. METHODS Fifty eight adolescent pupils (14.82±0.44 age) from a High School in Leskovac, Serbia, participated in the present study. They were enrolled in Artistic gymnastics classes. All participants were male. They were informed of the nature and possible inconveniences associated with the experiment. Ethical approval was granted by the University Ethics Committee. Prior to data collection parental consent and child assent was obtained. No child had any reported history of learning difficulties or any behavioral, neurological or orthopedic problems that would qualify as exclusionary criteria for this study. Children participated in 45 minutes per session of sport gymnastics training that included activities based on fundamental movement skills. Data was collected during two sessions, before and after the eight-week gymnastics training programme in school. Table 1 Baseline physical characteristics._ Initial Final Height 175.00±6.65 177.45±6.56 P= =0.220 (m) Body 68.69±11.82 66.54±10.45 P= =0.938 Mass (kg) BMI 22.05±2.57 21.46±2.34 P= =0.970 (kgm-2) Science of Gymnastics Journal 157 Science of Gymnastics Journal Trajkovic N., Madic D., Sporis G., Aleksic-Velkovic A., Zivcic-Markovic K.: IMPACT OF Vol. 8 Issue 2: 157 - 166 The variables were selected within the battery of tests Eurofit so that the research results could later be compared with the results of other research studies carried out in Europe. The measuring instruments were either the same as or similar to, but of the same metric characteristics, those prescribed and described in the instructions for the realization of Eurofit testing. Anthropometric variables were measured according to the guidelines of the International Biological Program. Body height was measured to the nearest 0.1 cm by a metric measuring tape. Body weight was measured to the nearest 0.01 kg using a digital scale. BMI stands for Body Mass Index. It is a measure of body composition. BMI is calculated by taking a person's weight and dividing by their height squared. Health related physical tests Traditional practice of testing which assessed the so-called latent dimensions of motor space (e.g., speed, strength, coordination, etc.), has been replaced by tests that assess the health-related physical fitness of children (Hastad & Lacy, 1998). First grade pupils were chosen because of certain past experience with artistic gymnastics skills and because their motor development is still in progress. Also, it is expected that their activity and inactivity outside of school would be similar. All tests were performed at similar times in the morning on different days. At least 2 hours separated each test from the preceding meal. Diet was not controlled during the study. All subjects were instructed to have a light breakfast, and to avoid coffee and cigarettes during the testing day. They were also instructed not to engage in strenuous activity during the day before an exercise test. The day before the test, the motor test battery was introduced to all the pupils, who did three test trials. Pupils were measured indoor, after standard warm up (5 minutes of running, and 10 minutes of dynamic stretching). They were encouraged to show maximum effort in all tests. If a subject made a procedure error during the tests, instructions and demonstrations of the task were repeated, before the child made a new attempt. Sit and reach test (flexibility): sit and reach test apparatus was used to determine the trunk flexibility. Children were seated with the extended knees and the feet totally leaning in the seat. The subject tried to reach the largest distance slowly with the hands, without bending the legs. The measures were taken three times, with the best attempt recorded in centimeters. Standing long jump (explosive strength): the child started with her feet in parallel behind a starting line, one shoulder width apart. After a signal the subject was allowed to swing her arms backwards and forwards and tried to jump as far as possible. The jump distance was measured in centimeters. The measures were taken two times and the highest value was recorded at the two attempts. Vertical jump (explosive strength): the person stands side on to a wall and reaches up with the hand closest to the wall. Keeping the feet flat on the ground, the point of the fingertips is marked or recorded. This is called the standing reach. The person puts chalk on their finger-tips to mark the wall at the height of their jump. The person then stands away from the wall, and jumps vertically as high as possible using both arms and legs to assist in projecting the body upwards. Attempt to touch the wall at the highest point of the jump. The difference in distance between the standing reach height and the jump height is the score. The best of three attempts is recorded. Sit-ups (abdominal strength and muscular endurance): A standard procedure for the 30 sec bent-knee sit-up test was applied (Semenick, 1994). The subject lay supine on a gymnastic mat with his knees bent and feet fixed on the floor 25-30 cm apart. The subject's fingers were interlocked behind the neck, and the backs of the hands touched the mat. The sit-up was correctly completed when the elbows touched the thighs and the subject returned to the starting position until the upper portion of Science of Gymnastics Journal 157 Science of Gymnastics Journal Trajkovic N., Madic D., Sporis G., Aleksic-Velkovic A., Zivcic-Markovic K.: IMPACT OF Vol. 8 Issue 2: 157 - 166 the back made contact with the mat. The number of sit-ups correctly completed in 30 sec became the score. Bent arm hanging (strength and endurance): The child was hung on the uneven bar with an overhand grasp with the assistant's support. She raised her body off the floor to a position in which the chin is above the bar; elbows were flexed and chest was close to the bar. Upon a signal, stopwatch was started and the hanging time was recorded. 4x10m (test of speed and agility). Marker cones and/or lines are placed five meters apart. Start with a foot at one marker. When instructed by the timer, the subject runs to the opposite marker, turns and returns to the starting line. This is repeated four times without stopping (covering 40 meters total). At each marker both feet must fully cross the line. Result is a record of the total time taken to complete 40 m. Push - up (strength and endurance): The subject did a push - up position on the mat with hands placed wider than the shoulders; fingers stretched out and whole body went straight on the mat. Then the subject lowered the body using the arms until the elbows bent at a 90 degree angle, and upper arms were parallel to the floor. The subject pushed up and continued in the movement until the arms were straight on each repetition. The score was the number of 90 degree push - ups performed (The Cooper Institute, 2007). Aerobic fitness was assessed using the 20 m Shuttle Run Test or the Beep Test; it was first described by Leger and Lambert (Leger & Lambert, 1982) and identified in a recent review as a reliable and valid field test for use among children and adolescents. (Freedson, Curetan & Heath 2000). Pupils are required to run between two lines 20 m apart (one "lap"), starting at 8.5 km/h and increasing by 0.5 km/h every two minutes, in synchrony with a cadence tape. Students were tested in groups of about 15, and the test was supervised by at least two of the field team. The number of laps completed was determined by the student failing to keep pace with the cadence tape on two consecutive laps or voluntarily withdrawing. The last completed stage or half-stage at which the participant drops out was scored. These tests were chosen because they have been clearly defined and validated in other studies (Beurden, Barnett, Zask, Dietrich, Brooks, & Beard, 2003; Espana Romero, Artero, Jimenez-Pavon, Cuenca-Garcia, Ortega, & Castro-Piaero, 2010; Fjortoft, 2000), they are easy to administer, and time efficient, and they cover a variety of skill components. Experimental program The experimental program was implemented during the school year 20132014 in a period of twelve weeks in the high school in Leskovac. The fundamental aim of the training process was to influence the improvement of motor abilities, to help pupils to learn to implement some gymnastics elements and to prepare them for the exam of the subject. One week before the training program players performed the general conditioning in order to prevent possible injuries. None of the players was performing any additional resistance or aerobic training outside of the 2 PE gymnastics classes. The sport gymnastics program was conducted two times a week. Each session lasted for a 45 minutes. Pupils were divided in two groups with equal number of participants. All workouts were supervised by trained artistic gymnastics instructors and a PE teacher. Both groups had the same conditions and the same instructors and teachers. Each class unit contained three training phases (Table 2): First phase started with a warm-up which included slow running and stretching and ended with a polygon with different kind of movements. This was followed by a set of gymnastic exercises. The third phase of class was focus on restoring the normal level of emotional, mental and physiological bodily functions and re-establishing the same state that the pupils were in before the beginning of the practice period. The experimental treatment included basic gymnastics skills, according to apparatus available at the moment: Science of Gymnastics Journal 157 Science of Gymnastics Journal Trajkovic N., Madic D., Sporis G., Aleksic-Velkovic A., Zivcic-Markovic K.: IMPACT OF Vol. 8 Issue 2: 157 - 166 Acrobatic, vault, mini trampoline, parallel bars (Table 2). The basic learning and teaching method was the synthetic method, with the analytic method used if there was an acquisition of new motor skills. Information was presented to the pupils participating in the practice or PE lessons by means of oral presentation, motor demonstration or performance of simple motor tasks. The most commonly used methodological organizational forms of work was work in groups of 6 to 8, and frontal work. Class was divided into four groups. Pupils change their place/apparatus according to number of repetitions or when the planned time for that apparatus ends. Training impact (loads) were primarily administered on four gymnastics apparatuses (7-8 min on each): (1) acrobatics: 10-15 repetitions for roles and cartwheel ; 7-10 repetitions other skills ; (2) parallel bars : 15-20 repetitions in 3 sets for swings; 5-10 repetitions in 3 sets for dips; 810 repetitions for dismounts (3) Mini trampoline: 15-20 jumps; and (4) Vault: 1520 jumps. Training load was determined according to the level of skills. In the first six weeks pupils performed easier gymnastic skills, which referred to a greater amount of repetitions. Other six weeks included more complex skills, as well as connected elements into exercise, which influenced the lower number of repetitions. Statistical analysis All data analyses were performed in IBM SPSS Statistics 19.0 statistical program. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to assess normal distribution of the variables. Basic descriptive statistics were calculated (mean value and standard deviation). Comparisons between baseline and the 12 week post-study testing for all performance variables were performed using a paired-samples t-test. Effect sizes (ES) were also calculated to determine the magnitude of the group differences. ES (Cohen's d) were classified as follows: <0.2 was defined as trivial, 0.2-0.6 was defined as small, 0.6-1.2 was defined as moderate, 1.2-2.0 was defined as large, and >2.0 was defined as very large (Hopkins, Marshall, Batterham, & Hanin, 2009). In additional, percent changes were determined for all variables after 12-weeks training program. In all cases, the level of significance was accepted at p<0.05. RESULTS Table 1 shows the results of the basic anthropometric characteristics of tested pupils in both trials (pre and post-) and the significance of differences between the variables. Table 2 Training program used between weeks 1 and 12. Goal: improvement of motor abilities and health related fitness _Sessions 1-24 (Tuesday -Friday)_ Exercises Warm up (8-10 min) Acrobatic Vault General warm up followed by polygon with different kind of movements. Five circles were performed with 20 sec break between. Rolls, dive roll, rolls combined with other elements , cartwheel, handstand, handstand and roll forward; roll backward to handstand, forward handspring Split and squat jump on soft mats with assistant support, straddle through Mm trampoline Straight jump, split jump, tucked jump, piked jump, piked split jump Parallel bars (30-32 min) Stretching (3-5) Swing in hang and support, -dip, dip swing, - back swing dismount, back swing dismount tucked half turn with support, front swing dismount 5 minutes of stretching for the muscle groups mainly involved in sessions_ Science of Gymnastics Journal 157 Science of Gymnastics Journal Trajkovic N., Madic D., Sporis G., Aleksic-Velkovic A., Zivcic-Markovic K.: IMPACT OF Vol. 8 Issue 2: 157 - 166 Table 3 Results of the health related physical tests in adolescent pupils (N=58). Test Initial Final ES A changes P value Standing long jump 173.62±28.08 186.45±26.56 0.46 7.4% 0.009 Vertical jump 41.937±8.132 47.564±7.65 0.71 13.4% 0.001 Sit-ups 20.84±3.98 26.35±4.24 1.34 26.4% 0.001 Bent arm hanging 39.23±19.31 43.56±17.23 0.24 11.0% 0.019 Push - up 20.12±10.57 24.5±9.36 0.44 21.8% 0.001 Sit and reach 7.85±8.7 10.15±7.4 0.28 29.3% 0.005 Shuttle-run 6.4±2.3 6.9±2.1 0.23 7.8% 0.025 4x10m 11.79±1.56 11.24±1.36 -0.38 -4.7% 0.998 Table 3 shows the participants' results in eight Eurofit tests. Results for the pre-test post-test values of the experimental programme showed significant improvements in all tested variables (p<0.05), except for the 4x10m test. There was no statistically significant difference between the two measurements with regard to speed and agility testing. DISCUSSION We have tested the hypothesis that 12 weeks of gymnastic PE class program would lead to significant improvements in fitness performance in healthy boys. It was observed that pupils who added gymnastic training to their PE program were able to achieve great improvements in Eurofit testing battery. The average height and mass of boys was 175.00±6.65 cm and 68.69±11.82 kg. The results were similar or better compared to the norms for body height and mass in comparison with the general population of boys in this age group founded in several researches (Lovecchio, Casolo, Invernizzi, & Eid, 2012; Vaid, Kaur, & Lehri, 2009; Lissau et al., 2004). Body mass index (BMI) in both trials was little higher than the general population norms of boys in other researches (Lissau et al., 2004). Lovecchio et al. (2012) found BMI values for 15-year-old students of 20.20±2.70 which is lower than values obtained by our research. Table 3 shows the participants' results in the eight Eurofit tests. The results of the test measuring flexibility (sit-and-reach test) were at a very low level at baseline. Katic (1995) showed that 6-month athletic training did not significantly improve flexibility in contrast to Violan et al. (1997), 6-month karate training. In our study adolescents were exclusively submitted to lower body stretching at each session. However, as with other components of physical fitness, flexibility is a parameter that has to be emphasized specifically. Limited flexibility of hamstring in adolescents might cause low-back pain in any age groups (Rodriguez, Santonja, Lopez-Minorro, Sainz de Baranda, & Yuste, 2008). Our results show significant improvement in the sit and reach test after the 12 week of gymnastics PE program. Therefore, similar programs for increasing flexibility should be implemented in the classes. The test results of lower limb explosive power (standing long jump and vertical jump) showed great improvement with statistical significance p<0.05. The increase in explosive power noted in the present study is in accordance with previous research that also found increased lower body power in young girls with a similar protocol involving gymnastic training (Boraczynski, Boraczynski, Boraczynska, & Michels, 2013). Gymnasts generally use their own body weight to carry out specific conditioning exercises using gymnastics apparatus. Moreover, it is considered that skill-learning itself represent specific strength conditioning, because gymnasts have to repeat the exercise while carrying their body weight in different positions, switching from one to another position, sometimes with added weights (Jemni, Sands, Friemel, Stone, & Cooke, 2006). Science of Gymnastics Journal 157 Science of Gymnastics Journal Trajkovic N., Madic D., Sporis G., Aleksic-Velkovic A., Zivcic-Markovic K.: IMPACT OF Vol. 8 Issue 2: 157 - 166 This gymnastic training implemented in PE classes certainly results in lower body power enhancement in adolescent pupils. Similar level of performance at baseline (20.84±3.98) was found in the sit-ups test compared to Hungarian and Finnish adolescents as well as among Americans in the study Kaj, Nemeth, Tekus, & Wilhelm (2013). However, above mentioned study included younger adolescents compared to those in our study. Significant improvement was noted at post-test (p<0.01) following 12 weeks of PE gymnastic program. Very high performance was observed in the test of arm and shoulder muscular endurance (bent-arm hang test), showing very high progress at post-test (p=0.01). One of the major benefits of children's participation in gymnastics compared to that of untrained participants in other sports is enhanced strength (Halin, Germain, Buttelli, & Kapitaniak, 2002). However, general strength results for children tend to plateau and in some cases decline in late adolescence and adulthood (Hunsicker & Reiff, 1976). Therefore, it is important to provide an indispensable approach for this strength training in early childhood, late childhood and adolescence. Gymnastics participation, as well other active sport activities, plays an important role here. The results of 20m shuttle run test were significantly higher in final measurement compared to initial (p<0.05). This finding is an indicator that participating in this kind of sports activities could regularly improve VO2 consumption. Similar results were found in other studies conducted on European adolescents (Ortega et al., 2008; Ortega et al., 2011). Conceptually, gymnastics is very different from running. Current understanding would suggest that energetic requirements during gymnastics are mainly anaerobic in nature because of the high intensity and short duration of competitive routines (Jemni, Sands, Friemel, Stone, & Cooke, 2006). Nonetheless, a considerable improvement in shuttle run test was recorded in our pupils following eight weeks of gymnastic program. Possible reason could be found in the fact that training sessions were shorter and intense compared to training of professional gymnasts. Moreover, the results have been supported by Hoff et al. (1999) and Millet et al. (2002), who demonstrated that even though typical strength training has minimal effects on maximal oxygen uptake, it may be possible that stronger athletes are more efficient and economical, leading to enhanced endurance capabilities as a result of performing less work for a given task. There were no statistically significant improvements after 12 weeks of gymnastic training only in the speed agility test (4 x 10 m). Agility is very important in gymnastics because with floor routines you need to be able to change direction under control. Possible reason could be found in the fact that PE and the most gymnastics floor apparatus consists of several mats in line which is different from official floor apparatus. This fact points to the need for more in-depth analysis of the training process used by trainers with focus on the applied methods. In studies on young elite gymnasts in three age groups, increasing age and competitive level was correlated with improved motor abilities both in regards to fitness level and coordination ability (Sawczyn, 2000; Kioumourtzoglou, Derri, Mertzanidou, & Tzetzis, 1997). Overall, the level of physical fitness of the participants improved significantly in seven of the Eurofit motor fitness tests. Our results are similar with ten weeks study conducted in children following gymnastics training which improved flexibility, explosive/static strength, muscular endurance, speed and balance parameters (Alpkaya, 2013). Although it is considered that the best period for learning gymnastic skills is at the early age because of early specialization model (Jayanthi et al, 2012), this study has shown that motor abilities can also be improved in later years using an appropriate training programme. In addition to our results is statement from Ismail, (1976) who claimed that the development of physical abilities of pupils aged 8 and over improves Science of Gymnastics Journal 157 Science of Gymnastics Journal Trajkovic N., Madic D., Sporis G., Aleksic-Velkovic A., Zivcic-Markovic K.: IMPACT OF Vol. 8 Issue 2: 157 - 166 steadily and gradually over the years the ages 18 to 19. Sawczyn (1985) underlined the importance of physical fitness in gymnastics, showing systematically increasing differences over time between gymnasts and non-trained subjects aged 1015 years in flexibility, speed, strength, agility and endurance tests. However, it is very hard to try to isolate the effects of gymnastics training on physical fitness. This is in line with some researchers (Beunen, Malina, & Thomis, 1999; Caine et al., 2001) who have stated that it is not currently possible to establish a cause-effect relationship between training and performance in gymnastics due to limitations in the available data, inadequate descriptions of the training processes, thus taking into account covariates such as age, body size, and physical maturity. A limitation of this short-term study is that a control group which was involved in a regular physical exercise program in school was not included. However, having in mind that regularly classes include basketball, volleyball, handball, educational-athletic games, running and jumping, it was very difficult to explain the structure and intensity of that program. Thus, the focus of the present study was on discovering the effects of twelve weeks of gymnastic training in adolescent pupils. 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Corresponding author: Nebojsa Trajkovic, PhD Faculty of Sport and Physical Education Carnojeviceva 10a 18000 Nis Tel: + 381 69 680 314 E-mail: nele trajce@yahoo.com Science of Gymnastics Journal 157 Science of Gymnastics Journal Majeric M., Stiel J., Kovac M.: THE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT EVALUATION METHODS.. .Vol. 8 Issue 2: 167 - 186 THE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT EVALUATION METHODS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION - A CASE STUDY OF STRADDLE VAULT OVER THE BUCK Matej Majeric, Janko Strel, Marjeta Kovac Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia _Original article Abstract This article presents a study of three different evaluation methods for one of the most frequently evaluated skills in physical education: straddle vault over the buck. The sample of measured subjects included 193 13-year-old boys, whose video-recorded performances were evaluated by three evaluators. We analysed the differences in the reliability, objectivity and time efficiency of three different evaluation methods. The calculation of Cronbach's alpha coefficients and analysis of the variance has been used. The analysis of reliability revealed that the combined evaluation method (alpha: 0.928) was the most reliable, the holistic method was less reliable (alpha: 0.879), and the least reliable was the analytical evaluation method (alpha: 0.833). The analysis of objectivity showed that the analytical evaluation method was the most objective (alpha: 0.854), the combined method was less objective (alpha: 0.791), and that the holistic evaluation methods were the least objective method (alpha: 0.778). The analysis of time efficiency revealed that the least time had been spent in the holistic evaluation method and much more in analytical and combined evaluation method. Analysis of the three evaluators, using three different evaluation methods showed no statistically significant differences (p=0.638) between the holistic and combined evaluation method. In contrast, statistically significant differences have been found between the holistic and analytical method (p=0.000) and combined and analytical method (p=0.000). According to the analysis, we can conclude that all three evaluation methods are appropriate for the evaluation of pupils' knowledge in physical education. Keywords: Physical education, gymnastics, test task, evaluation guidelines. INTRODUCTION For several years, knowledge evaluation has been among the most influential and simultaneously most complex conceptual educational challenges (Colby & Witt, 2000; Hay, 2006; LopezPastor et al., 2013). Recently, experts have started to emphasize the importance of formative assessment of pupils in which the aim of evaluation is providing the subjects with qualitative feedback information about their knowledge, whilst simultaneously treating each pupil as a unique individual (Blanchard, 2009; Holcar, 2014; Georgakis, Wilson, & Evans, 2015; Leirhaug & Annerstedt, 2015). Formative assessment is a demanding process, as the primary school teacher evaluates the knowledge of pupils according Science of Gymnastics Journal 167 Science of Gymnastics Journal Majeric M., Stiel J., Kovac M.: THE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT EVALUATION METHODS.. .Vol. 8 Issue 2: 167 - 186 to the standards set in the curriculum. Technically speaking, in order to complete the lessons, the task of a teacher is to plan a learning process and teach selected contents in such a way that pupils can acquire them. Additionally, when seen from the aspect of modern paradigm, where pupils are a focal centrepiece, evaluation is merely a means or a guide to their knowledge. In fulfilling this task, teachers have to consider the individual particularities of each pupil. As a result, the teaching process is differentiated and individualized, aiming for pupils to recognize, understand and acquire long-lasting knowledge. This is particularly important in physical education (PE), as the acquired knowledge represents the motor literacy of pupils and as such will undoubtedly influence their sporting participation in their free time and later stages of life (Kovač, Jurak, & Strel, 2003). In Slovenia, the physical education curriculum (Kovač, & Novak, 2006) sets the guidelines for the monitoring, evaluation and marking of pupils. Monitoring is carried out by guiding pupils from general into specific and in-depth knowledge. Evaluation is carried out by providing feedback to pupils and enabling them to develop and broaden their knowledge, whilst upgrading their general knowledge into more specific knowledge. Marking is carried out through formal appraisal of pupils' knowledge in a form of a score. Marks given should represent an encouragement for pupils to acquire further knowledge. The curriculum sets the standards for the evaluation and marking of learning goals, prescribed at the end of every three-year period. Teachers decide on the goals and contents themselves, as the curriculum provides merely a general framework, which is adjusted to the specific features of the school and lesson realization. In marking, teachers possess wide autonomy, leaving the choice of criteria to their reasoning (Kovač, & Novak, 2006; Plevnik, 2008). Teachers record the marking criteria in the annual working plan and present them to the pupils at the beginning of each academic year. One of the prescribed standards at the end of the second three-year period of primary school is also the knowledge of straddle vault over the buck, performed in a way as described in the present article. The ability of teachers to use different ways of evaluation (holistic, pondered and analytical) facilitates better precision and more objective marking of pupils' knowledge. In physical education, motor abilities, skills and knowledge are strongly interlinked. Curriculum (Kovač, & Novak, 2006) defines motor abilities as hereditary and being responsible for the execution of movement (e.g. strength, speed, coordination, etc.). In contrast, motor abilities should not be mistaken for acquired skills and learned knowledge (e.g. standing long jump, vault over the buck, etc.). Teachers agree that in order to evaluate the knowledge of pupils, the most appropriate way is by setting them a task, which will reflect the knowledge acquired according to certain sets standards in the curriculum. In comparison to other academic subjects, PE possesses numerous specific features, as the evaluation comprises both theoretical and practical knowledge as well as the motor abilities of pupils. Assessment of "theoretical" knowledge in PE is done in a conventional fashion consistent with other more established subjects, i.e. by examination, essay or multiple choice questions. Assessment of "practical work" is less easily done. Various practices have emerged, including the use of motor skills and fitness tests, tables of points awarded for performance in areas such as games, swimming and athletics, and the subjective assessment of teachers on matters such as game performance. Assessment of motor skills is mostly done with fitness tests (Lopez-Pastor, 1999, 2006). Such specifics pose a problem for setting the criteria for evaluation. According to the subject and problem in question, a focus of the study was the evaluation of motor skills in the task of straddle vault over the buck. The summary of various sources on evaluation in similar tasks (Bajec et al., 2002; Dežman & Kovač, 2002; Kovač, Science of Gymnastics Journal 167 Science of Gymnastics Journal Majeric M., Stiel J., Kovac M.: THE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT EVALUATION METHODS.. .Vol. 8 Issue 2: 167 - 186 2012; Kovač et al., 2002; Lorenci et al., 2002; Majerič, 2004; Premlč, 2002; Štemberger, 2003; Voglar & Kovač, 2002; Zadražnik, 2002) revealed that teachers most often set the criteria in an analytical and holistic way when making assessments. The analyses show that in PE many teachers use so-called holistic evaluation for gymnastics, dance, and game performance (Brau-Antony & David, 2002; Estrabaud, Marigneux, & Tixier-Viricel, 2000; Lockwood & Newton, 2004; Kovač, 2012; Majerič, 2004). Teachers assess pupils' skills through observation, using their own professional expertise. The task is evaluated as an entity and is not divided into separate parts. This type of subjective assessment is undoubtedly time-efficient; however, it has several limitations, as it is usually intuitive and adjusted to the level of knowledge and social relationships of the group (Brau-Antony & David, 2002; Estrabaud, Marigneux, & Tixier-Viricel, 2000; Rutar Ilc, 2003). Professional recommendations suggest analytical assessment with the use of evaluation criteria (Newton & Bowler, 2010). For each evaluated task, teachers set precise criteria and descriptions for various parts of it. Nevertheless, some teachers are of the opinion that certain contents cannot be objectively assessed in either a holistic or analytical way (e.g. athletics); therefore, they use a special so-called combined assessment, which includes characteristics of both holistic and analytical types of evaluation (Majerič, 2004; Tomažin et al., 2001a, b, c; 2002). When using this "pondered" type of assessment, teachers consider some parts of the task to be of hierarchical value according to their role in the task. Criteria and descriptions are defined as ponders, ensuring the hierarchical structure according to the importance of each task. It is also important for teachers to be efficient with the time of evaluation, as the administrative part should not burden them or require too much time from the teaching process. The time should namely be used for the strengthening and expanding of pupils' knowledge. It is estimated that the structured use of all three evaluation methods (holistic, combined and analytical) could also result in better time efficiency and higher quality of lesson realization. This study has examined an evaluation of one of the most common gymnastics skills: straddle vault over the buck. Numerous authors whose research deals with the assessment of skills in PE agree that the performance of pupils needs to be evaluated with deliberation and by using diverse methods (Avalos Ramos, Martinez Ruiz, & Merma Molina, 2014; Brau-Antony & David, 2002; Burton, 1998; Kovač, Strel, & Majerič, 2008; Newton & Bowler, 2010). The main goal of the study was to analyse the differences between three different evaluation methods of the straddle vault over the buck in order to determine the most appropriate way for assessing primary school pupils. Therefore, the measurement characteristics of three different methods (holistic, combined, and analytical) of task evaluation were analysed. As the evaluation is only a part of the systematic teaching process, it should not take too much of the teacher's time; therefore, the time efficiency of each evaluation method has also been observed. METHODS The study included 222 boys enrolled in the seventh grade from 11 different Slovenian primary schools, aged 13 years (± 6 months), not exempted from PE classes due to health reasons, and whose parents had given written consent for participation in the research "The Analysis of Children's Development in Slovenia" (Strel et al., 2007). The test sample included 193 boys, whose video recordings were of sufficient quality for the evaluators to be able to assess both attempts. The gymnastic test task was prepared by Kovač and Čuk (2003) for the purpose of external assessment of PE in the Slovenian school system and transformed for the purpose of this study by Majerič (2004). It included a) descriptions of technically appropriate movement in separate phases of Science of Gymnastics Journal 167 Science of Gymnastics Journal Majeric M., Stiel J., Kovac M.: THE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT EVALUATION METHODS.. .Vol. 8 Issue 2: 167 - 186 the task and b) criteria with a measurement scale and description of standards. The holistic, combined and analytical evaluation methods were used. A six-level measurement scale (0 to 5 points) was used in all three evaluation methods. Space: Gymnasium, 18 meters x 2 meters. Accessories: vaulting buck, 110 cm high; three mats (2 meters x 1 meter), 6 to 12 cm high; springboard, 20 to 25 cm high, 120 cm long, 60 cm wide. Set-up: run-up distance was optional, allowing the pupils at least 12 meters from the start of the run-up to the springboard, which was placed in front of the vaulting buck at an appropriate distance, by the pupils themselves. Several mats with 6- to 12-cm thickness were placed behind the buck next to each other. The length of the mats was parallel to the axis of the apparatus and at the right angle to the runup. A third mat was placed on top of these two mats. Description (technique) and figure of skill straddle vault over the buck Kovač & Čuk (2003) 1) Run-up 2) Hurdle step onto the springboard 3) Take-off from the springboard 4) First flight phase 5) Approach and push-off from the vaulting buck 6) Second flight phase 7) Landing I/"/"/ fl 'it ■ (f Run-up length is 12 Take-off from Take-off The body is Hands are The upper Landing to 14 m long. one foot is from both extended or placed part of the in a still followed by feet with slightly piked. shoulder body is stand landing with two arms Legs straddle width, hips elevated; with feet feet on the swinging just before the travel high legs are together. highest part of a forward. contact of above the straddled springboard, hands with apparatus, and placed which is marked the apparatus. followed by a together just with a line. Toes strong push before the touch the line; from the landing. arms are behind hands. the body. Description of evaluation methods Description of the holistic evaluation method In the holistic evaluation method, a evaluator assessed the entire presentation of a pupil without "deliberating" the (lack of) knowledge, but merely by "intuitively" forming a mark on the basis of his/her own evaluation standards (Jurman, 1989). For various marks or grades, the teacher simultaneously combined several criteria, which were more realistic according to Rutar Ilc (2003). Criteria were based on the comparison of the quality of a pupil's performance with the ideal (technically correct) model. Each evaluator marked the first and second attempts. In each attempt, the execution werw classified according to the deviation from correct execution on a scale of 0 to 5. The correct execution were marked with the highest number of points (5) whereas no points (0) were awarded when a pupil did not perform a task or else the execution was not in accordance with the description of individual parts of the task. Attempts that deviated from correct performance were marked on a scale of 1 to 4 according to the description of the task Science of Gymnastics Journal 167 Science of Gymnastics Journal Majeric M., Stiel J., Kovac M.: THE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT EVALUATION METHODS.. .Vol. 8 Issue 2: 167 - 186 and the expert knowledge and experience of the evaluator. Criteria for the holistic evaluation method by Kovač & Čuk (2003) Criteria for Points Description of standards marking: 5 Correct execution. 4 Deviation from the correct execution. 3 Deviation from the correct execution. 2 Deviation from the correct execution. 1 Incorrect execution. 0 Not executed or executed not according to the guidelines. Marking Mark Number of points scale: 1 (unsatisfactory) 0 and 1 2 (satisfactory) 2 3(good) 3 4 (very good) 4 5 (excellent) 5 Description notes for a holistic evaluation method The evaluator assesseed the first and second attempts at the task and noted the number of points in an appropriate field on a Description of the combined evaluation method In the combined (pondered) method of assessment, a teacher evaluated pupils' attempts of the task whilst considering individual parts of the task having a hierarchical value according to their importance for the execution of the entire task. In this way, the description notes included "ponders", which were defined in a way of ensuring the hierarchical structure according to the importance for the technically correct execution of the movement in the individual task. form. The attempt with the higher number of points was selected, transformed into a mark, and written in a final mark field. If it was necessary, the evaluator's notes was written in the appropriate field. In this method, the evaluator assessed both attempts with points from 0 to 10. The movement in each attempt was divided into several phases, each of them with a set maximum number of available points. The evaluator assessed individual phases of movement according to the expert knowledge following the criteria, where 0 represented incorrect execution, and the highest value (ponder) in a certain phase of movement a correct execution was noted with 1, 2 or 3). The total number of points for individual phases of movement were marked down. Pupil no.: Attempt Evaluator's notes Number of points Final mark 1. 2. Science of Gymnastics Journal 167 Science of Gymnastics Journal Majeric M., Stiel J., Kovac M.: THE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT EVALUATION METHODS.. .Vol. 8 Issue 2: 167 - 186 Criteria for the combined evaluation method adjusted to Tomazin et al. (2001a, b, c). Criteria for evaluation of various ponders: Value of ponder Description of standards Incorrect execution Correct execution 1 0 1 2 0 2 3 0 1 2 3 Marking scale: Mark Sum of ponders (number of points achieved) 1 (unsatisfactory) <3 2 (satisfactory) 3-4 3 (good) 5-6 4 (very good) 7-8 5 (excellent) 9-10 Final mark Description notes for the combined evaluation method adjusted to Tomazin et al. (2001a, b, c). The evaluator marked points for individual phases of movement and entered the sum: the final score for each attempt onto an evaluation form. The attempt with the higher number of points was transformed into a final mark. Pupil no.: Phase of movement Highest number of available points in final score (ponder) Attempt 1 Attempt 2 Incorrect execution Correct execution Incorrect execution Correct execution 1) Rhythmically coordinated run-up - not eva luated not evaluated 2) Step onto and a take-off from the springboard 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 3) First flight phase 1 0 0 4) Contact and takeoff from apparatus 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 5) Second flight phase 2 0 2 0 2 6) Landing 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 TOTAL NUMBER O] F POINTS Final mark 1 (unsatisfactory) 2 (satisfactory) 3 (good) 4 (very good) 5 (excellent) <3 points 3-4 points 5-6 points 7-8 points 9-10 points Science of Gymnastics Journal 167 Science of Gymnastics Journal Majeric M., Stiel J., Kovac M.: THE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT EVALUATION METHODS.. .Vol. 8 Issue 2: 167 - 186 Description of the analytical evaluation method In the analytical method, the teacher first weighed knowledge and a lack of it and finally set a mark according to the evaluation scale and descriptions. Criteria were very precise (multi-level with a description for every level). Such an analytical approach was based on a highly precise identification of deviations (mistakes) from correct execution. The evaluator assessed both attempts with points from 0 to 5 according to the description notes. In each attempt, the movement was divided into individual phases. Each phase contained the previously defined most common mistakes (see the column "Mistakes" in the execution of movement), which could occur in this part of the task. The evaluator assesseed individual phases according to the table provided. According to their structure, mistakes were divided in technical (deviation of technique from ideal execution) and aesthetic (deviation in elegance and poise of execution) mistakes; according to the severity of deviation, mistakes were either small or large. Small mistakes do not have a significant effect on the execution skill, but rather create a small instability in execution. Large mistakes that significantly influenced the correct execution or else prevent the pupil from performing a skill. Measurement scale (points) Mistakes Description of standards 5 No or small technical or aesthetic mistakes Autonomous and reliable execution of straddle vault over the buck without mistakes or with one small technical or aesthetic mistake. 4 Several small technical or aesthetic mistakes Autonomous and reliable execution of straddle vault over the buck with several small technical or aesthetic mistakes. 3 Several small technical and aesthetic mistakes; one large technical or aesthetic mistakes and several small technical or aesthetic mistakes Autonomous but not entirely reliable execution of straddle vault over the buck with several small technical and aesthetic mistakes or one large technical and several small technical or aesthetic mistakes. 2 Large technical and/or aesthetic mistakes Autonomous but not entirely reliable execution of straddle vault over the buck with large technical and/or aesthetic mistakes. 1 Large and small technical and aesthetic mistakes Execution of straddle vault over the buck in easier circumstances and adjusted way (sit on the buck; help of the teacher needed; fall in transition over the apparatus or landing) with large and small technical and aesthetic mistakes. 0 Not executed or not according to the instructions Straddle vault over the buck is not performed (run by the buck, stopping in front of the buck). Criteria for analytical evaluation method by Kovač & Čuk (2003) Science of Gymnastics Journal 167 Science of Gymnastics Journal Majeric M., Stiel J., Kovac M.: THE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT EVALUATION METHODS.. .Vol. 8 Issue 2: 167 - 186 Mistakes in execution of straddle vault over the buck by Kovač & Cuk (2003) 1) Run-up 5) Contact and push-off from the vaulting buck - Run-up is not being assessed. TML Low hips in transition over the buck. 2) Step on the springboard TML Very bent arms. TML Step onto the first part of springboard. TML Push-off is too late and weak. TML Step on the springboard with body leaning forward too much. TML Insufficient straddling of the legs and touching of buck with legs. TML Step on with very bent legs. TMS Insufficiently elevated hips. TML Take-off from flat feet. TMS Slightly bent arms. TMS Step on the last but not optimum part of springboard. TMS Hands are not parallel on the buck. TMS Wrong arm movement (arms upwards before the take-off). AML Very bent and completely relaxed legs and feet. AML Completely relaxed body. AMS Slightly bent and relaxed legs and feet. AMS Slightly relaxed body. N Fall off the buck. N Run by the springboard. 6) Second flight phase 3) Take-off from springboard TML Short and low flight. TML Very poor execution of take-off (very bent legs in the air after takeoff). TMS Insufficient straddle of the legs. TML Low take-off. TMS Swing with straddled legs forward. TML Hesitation on the springboard before take-off. TMS Body is not upright before landing. TMS Take-off is not completed (legs are slightly bent in the air after take-off). AML Very bent and completely relaxed legs and feet. AML Completely relaxed body, very bent legs and feet. AMS Slightly bent and relaxed legs and feet. AMS Slightly relaxed body, very bent legs and feet. 7) Landing N Run and stop at the vaulting buck. TML Loss of balance: two or more additional steps. 4) First flight phase TML Landing in a deep squat. TML Springboard is too close to the buck, and the flight is low. TMS Landing with legs straight (non-elastic). TML Too early contact with hands on the apparatus. TMS Loss of balance: additional step. TMS Incorrect arm swing (too high or too low). TMS Landing outside of direction. TMS Too early straddling of the legs in flight. AML Completely relaxed body. AML Very bent and completely relaxed legs and feet. AMS Slightly bent arms; relaxed head position; relaxed body. AMS Slightly bent and relaxed legs and feet. N Fall at landing. TMS - Technical mistake (small); TML - Tec mistake (small); AML - Aesthetic mistake (lar inical mistake (large); AMS - Aesthetic ge). Science of Gymnastics Journal 167 Science of Gymnastics Journal Majeric M., Stiel J., Kovac M.: THE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT EVALUATION METHODS.. .Vol. 8 Issue 2: 167 - 186 Description notes for analytical evaluation method The evaluator totalled the mistakes and entered them in the field "sum of mistakes" After warming up, six different test tasks (two gymnastics, two track and field, one basketball, and one volleyball) were explained and demonstrated to pupils who then performed each test task three times under the same conditions. The second and third attempts were video recorded; the study examines the evaluation of the gymnastics task straddle vault over the buck. Three PE teachers evaluated the performance of tasks with a use of each protocol. For the purpose of correct evaluation, they received special training. Before the assessment, evaluators carefully read the description and the evaluation criteria of the task. Afterward, they independently evaluated both video-recorded performances in normal speed. The recordings could not be stopped, and the evaluators could not view them in slow motion or more than once. For evaluation, three different evaluation methods were used. First, the performances were evaluated with the holistic method, then with the combined method, and finally with analytical evaluation method. For each pupil, the better score of two attempts was used for further statistical analysis. In order to monitor the reliability of the study, all three evaluators repeated the evaluation of the first ten performances at for the first and second attempts, separately. The better attempt (with fewer mistakes) was marked, and points were transformed into the final mark. 30-day intervals. In order to examine the time efficiency of the different evaluation methods, the time needed for evaluation has been measured three times. First, time measuring was carried out for the first twenty measured subjects, then for twenty measured subjects from the middle of the sample (subjects 100-120) and finally for the last twenty subjects from the sample (subjects 203-222). Data were processed with the use of SPSS for Windows software. Cronbach's reliability coefficient alpha and calculation of the concordance between respective evaluator's grades and the common test object were used for the evaluation of reliability and objectivity. Analysis of the variance was used to analyse the differences in scores between three evaluators. All statistics used an alpha level ofp < 0.05. Pupil no.: Mistakes Sum of mistakes Final mark Attempt 1 Attempt 2 TML TMS AMS AML TMS - Technical mistake (small): TML - Technical mistake (large); AMS - Aesthetic mistake (small); AML -Aesthetic mistake (large). Science of Gymnastics Journal 167 Science of Gymnastics Journal Majeric M., Stiel J., Kovac M.: THE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT EVALUATION METHODS.. .Vol. 8 Issue 2: 167 - 186 RESULTS Reliability of evaluation Table 1 Reliability of evaluation - descriptive (simple) statistic parameters._ Simple statistics - first evaluation Simple statistics - control evaluation N min max M SD N min max M SD HMA E 1 10 3.00 5.00 4.00 0.47 CE1 10 3.00 4.00 3.30 0.48 E 2 10 2.00 4.00 3.20 0.79 CE 2 10 2.00 4.00 3.10 0.88 E 3 10 2.00 4.00 3.10 0.74 CE 3 10 2.00 4.00 3.10 0.88 AOE 10 3.00 4.33 3.43 0.47 CA AOE 10 2.33 4.00 3.16 0.57 CMA E 1 10 2.00 4.00 3.70 0.48 CE1 10 3.00 4.00 3.40 0.52 E 2 10 1.00 4.00 3.00 0.82 CE 2 10 2.00 4.00 2.90 0.74 E 3 10 3.00 5.00 3.90 0.57 CE 3 10 2.00 4.00 3.20 0.63 AOE 10 2.67 4.00 3.53 0.45 CA AOE 10 2.33 4.00 3.16 0.50 AMA E 1 10 2.00 3.00 2.40 0.52 CE1 10 2.00 4.00 2.50 0.71 E 2 10 2.00 4.00 2.70 0.82 CE 2 10 2.00 4.00 2.70 0.82 E 3 10 2.00 5.00 3.60 0.84 CE 3 10 2.00 4.00 3.30 0.82 AOE 10 2.00 4.00 2.90 0.62 CA AOE 10 2.33 3.67 2.83 0.52 Key: HMA - holistic evaluation method, CMA - combined evaluation method, AMA - analytical evaluation method, E 1 - first evaluator, E 2 - second evaluator, E 3 - third evaluator; AOE - average of three evaluators; CA E1 - first evaluator - control (second) evaluation; CA E2 - second evaluator - control (second) evaluation; CA E3 -third evaluator - control (second) evaluation; CA AOE - average of three evaluators - control (second) evaluation. Table 2 Reliability of evaluation- correlations between the evaluators. Correlation between the marks HMO E 1 E1 1.000 E 2 1.000 E 3 1.000 AOE 1.000 E 2 CA 0.488 1.000 CA 0.933 1.000 CA 0.498 1.000 CA 0.799 1.000 E1 E2 E3 AOE AOE alpha 0.655 alpha 0.962 alpha 0.659 alpha 0.879 CMO E 1 E 1 1.000 E2 1.000 E 3 1.000 AOE 1.000 E 2 CA 0.534 1.000 CA 0.922 1.000 CA 0.371 1.000 CA 0.872 1.000 E1 E2 E3 AOE AOE alpha 0.695 alpha 0.956 alpha 0.539 alpha 0.928 AMA E 1 E 1 1.000 E 2 1.000 E 3 1.000 AOE 1.000 E 2 CA 0.304 1.000 CA 1.000 1.000 CA 0.352 1.000 CA 0.725 1.000 E1 E2 E3 AOE AOE alpha 0.449 alpha 1.000 alpha 0.520 alpha 0.833 Key: HMA - holistic evaluation method, CMA - combined evaluation method, AMA - analytical evaluation method, E 1 - first evaluator, E 2 - second evaluator, E 3 - third evaluator; AOE - average of three evaluators; CA E1 - first evaluator - control (second) evaluation; CA E2 - second evaluator - control (second) evaluation; CA E3 -third evaluator - control (second) evaluation; CA AOE - average of three evaluators - control (second) evaluation. Science of Gymnastics Journal 167 Science of Gymnastics Journal Majeric M., Stiel J., Kovac M.: THE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT EVALUATION METHODS.. .Vol. 8 Issue 2: 167 - 186 Table 3 Objectivity of evaluation - descriptive (simple) statistic parameters._ Evaluation Evaluator min Max M SE SD method_ HMA E 1 1.00 5.00 3.22 1.02 7.34 E 2 1.00 5.00 2.12 1.10 7.90 E 3 1.00 5.00 3.29 1.10 7.94 _SUM_1.00_5.00_2.88_120_4.98 CMA E 1 1.00 5.00 3.18 0.90 6.46 E 2 1.00 4.00 1.83 0.83 5.94 E 3 1.00 5.00 3.74 0.97 6.99 _SUM_1.00_5.00_292_120_5.00 AMA E 1 1.00 4.00 1.78 0.80 5.78 E 2 1.00 4.00 1.77 0.83 6.00 E 3 1.00 5.00 2.57 1.04 7.52 SUM 1.00 5.00 2.04 0.97 4.05 Key: HMA - holistic evaluation method, CMA - combined evaluation method, AMA - analytical evaluation method, E 1 - first evaluator, E 2 - second evaluator, E 3 - third evaluator; AOE - average of three evaluators Table 4 Objectivity of evaluation correlation between evaluators. Correlation between evaluators and between the evaluators and K1 Communalities HMA E 1 1.000 0.613 0.586 0.888 0.788 E 2 0.613 1.000 0.430 0.815 0.664 E 3 0.586 0.430 1.000 0.799 0.638 K1 1 cum % alpha 2.090 69.680 0.778 CMA E 1 1.000 0.639 0.568 0.880 0.774 E 2 0.639 1.000 0.486 0.842 0.710 E 3 0.568 0.486 1.000 0.804 0.647 K1 1 cum % alpha 2.131 71.021 0.791 AMA E 1 E 2 E 3 K1 1.000 0.834 0.559 1 2.38 0.834 1.000 0.667 cum % 79.323 0.559 0.667 1.000 0.903 0.943 0.822 alpha 0.854 0.815 0.889 0.676 Table 5 Time efficiency of evaluation HMA CMA AMA Time of evaluation E 1 E 2 E 3 AOE E 1 E 2 E 3 AOE E 1 E 2 E 3 AOE subjects 1 to 20 9.10 17.55 10.30 12.32 14.12 26.13 23.53 21.26 17.14 25.18 19.38 20.57 subjects 100 to 120 8.18 9.15 8.30 8.54 12.26 14.38 20.13 15.59 10.42 19.25 9.05 12.91 subjects 203 to 222 8.17 8.10 7.10 7.79 11.29 17.19 18.32 15.60 11.29 16.49 8.47 12.08 Key: HMA - holistic evaluation method, CMA - combined evaluation method, AMA - analytical evaluation method; E 1 - first evaluator, E 2 - second evaluator, E 3 - third evaluator; AOE - average of three evaluators; time of evaluation in minutes Science of Gymnastics Journal 167 Science of Gymnastics Journal Majeric M., Stiel J., Kovac M.: THE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT EVALUATION METHODS.. .Vol. 8 Issue 2: 167 - 186 Table 6 Analysis of the variance between the holistic, pondered and analytical evaluation methods. Comparison Type of Simple statistics Homogeneity variance Analysis of the variance evaluation test _N Min max M SD F Sig. F Sig. HMA/ HMA 193 1.00 5.00 2.88 0.89 AMA AMA 193 1.00 4.33 2.04 0.79 _Total 386 1.00 5.00 2.46 0.94 2.340 0.127 95.328 0.000 HMA/ HMA 193 1.00 5.00 2.88 0.89 CMA CMA 193 1.00 4.67 2.92 0.76 _Total 386 1.00 5.00 2.90 0.83 5.791 0.017 0.222 0.638 CMA/ CMA 193 1.00 4.67 2.92 0.76 AMA AMA 193 1.00 4.33 2.04 0.79 _Total 386 1.00 4.67 2.48 0.89 0.891 0.346 124.402 0.000 Key: HMA - holistic evaluation method, CMA - combined evaluation method, AMA - analytical evaluation method Key: HMA - holistic evaluation method, CMA - combined evaluation method, AMA - analytical evaluation method, E 1 - first evaluator, E 2 - second evaluator, E 3 - third evaluator Analysis (Table 1) of the mean values of the average marks of three evaluators revealed the highest marks in the first evaluation by all three methods (HMA mean of marks in first evaluation: 3.43, mean of marks in control evaluation: 3.16; CMA mean of marks in first evaluation: 3.53, mean of marks in control evaluation: 3.16; AMA mean of marks in first evaluation: 2.90, mean of marks in control evaluation: 2.83) This has shown that all three evaluators gave lower marks in the second (control) evaluation. The analysis (Table 2) revealed that the combined evaluation method was the most reliable since Cronbach's alpha coefficient was greatest for the average mark of the three evaluators (alpha: 0.928); the holistic method was less reliable (alpha: 0.879), whilst the least reliable method was the analytical evaluation method (alpha: 0.833). Nevertheless, the Cronbach's alpha coefficient was high enough that the reliability of the evaluators was adequate in all three evaluation methods could be observed. Objectivity of evaluation The analysis (Table 3) showed that the third evaluator (mean values of the average marks by HMA: 3.29, CMA: 3.74, AMA: 2.57) gave the highest marks, the first a little lower (mean values of the average marks by HMA: 3.22, CMA: 3.18, AMA: 1.78) and the second the lowest (mean values of the average marks by HMA: 2.12, CMA: 1.83, AMA: 1.77). This has been typical and evident with all three evaluation methods. Compatibility between the scores of individual evaluators and the common object of assessment (the first main component of the scores of all three evaluators) was verified in order to monitor the objectivity of the evaluation. The analysis (Table 4) revealed that the analytical evaluation method was the most objective because Cronbach's alpha coefficient was the highest (alpha: 0.854); the combined method was less objective (alpha: 0.791), whilst the least objective method was the holistic evaluation methods (alpha: 0.778). Nevertheless, the Cronbach's alpha coefficient was high enough that it could be observed that the objectivity of the evaluators was adequate in all three evaluation methods. Time efficiency of evaluation The average evaluation time of all three evaluators revealed that the least time had been spent in the holistic evaluation method (subject 1 to 20 evaluation: 9.10 minutes, subject 100 to 120: 8.18 minutes, subject 203 to 222: 8.17 minutes). The most time has been spent in the combined evaluation method (subject 1 to 20 evaluation: 21.26 Science of Gymnastics Journal 167 Science of Gymnastics Journal Majeric M., Stiel J., Kovac M.: THE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT EVALUATION METHODS.. .Vol. 8 Issue 2: 167 - 186 minutes, subject 100 to 120: 15.59 minutes, subject 203 to 222: 15.60 minutes). It is interesting that the combined evaluation method took more time for evaluation than the analytical method did (subject 1 to 20 evaluation: 20.57 minutes, subject 100 to 120: 12.91 minutes, subject 203 to 222: 12.08 minutes), which has been the most complex (Table 5). The analysis showed that the evaluations with all three methods were economical. Evaluators for the knowledge evaluation of 20 pupils took less than half of the school lesson time, which was defined as 45 minutes. Analysis of differences between the holistic, pondered, and analytical evaluation methods of motor skills The arithmetical mean value (evaluation marks) was the highest with the combined evaluation method (2.92), followed by the holistic (2.88) and analytical methods (2.04), indicating the analytical method to be the most critical. Differences in average marks between the three evaluators, using the holistic, combined, and analytical evaluation methods, have been examined with the use of analysis of the variance. No statistically significant differences (p=0.638) have been found between the marks acquired with the holistic and combined evaluation methods (see Table 6). In contrast, statistically significant differences have been found between the holistic and analytical marks (p=0.000) as well as between the combined and analytical marks (p=0.000). DISCUSSION School marks would be reliable if the same teachers in the re-evaluation of knowledge would give for equal marks the same knowledge (result) (Marentic Pozarnik, 2000). To analyse the reliability of the evaluation in our test, all three evaluators assessed the first ten performances of the straddle vault over the buck (out of 222) twice within a 30-day interval. It has been observed that the reliability of the evaluators was adequate in all evaluation methods. The analysis (see Table 2) revealed that the combined evaluation method was the most reliable since Cronbach's alpha coefficient was greatest for the average mark of the three evaluators (0.928); the holistic method was less reliable (0.879), whilst the least reliable method was the analytical evaluation method (0.833). We have found that in our case the reliability of the evaluation was very good. For the determination of the reliability of the measurement of constructed variables the criterion by Ferligoj, Leskovšek and Kogovšek was normally used (1995). This criterion indicated the reliability of the measurement as very good, if the Cronbach's alpha coefficient was greater than or equal to 0.80, and as good if it was greater than or equal to 0.70. It has also been revealed that all three evaluators were more critical in the second (repeated) evaluation (see Table 1), indicating better insight into the perception of mistakes due to greater experience with evaluation. The extremely high reliability of the second evaluator has been observed in all three evaluation methods, in particular in the analytical method. Significantly, the lower reliability of the other two evaluators was evident, particularly in the analytical method, confirming the findings of Marentič Požarnik (2000), who stated that evaluation with the analytical method is very reliable when the criteria are well known, whilst decreases in the criteria awareness and experience also result in reduced reliability. The findings of this study are interesting, as they indicate that the holistic evaluation method is relatively reliable despite having the least defined evaluation criteria. These confirm findings regarding the measuring characteristics (Brau-Antony & David, 2002; Estrabaud, Marigneux, & Tixier-Viricel, 2000; Lockwood & Newton, 2004; Majerič, 2004), in which the authors recommended the holistic evaluation method in gymnastics. Other researchers (Bajec et al., 2002; Dežman & Kovač, 2002; Kovač, 2012; Kovač et al., 2002; Lorenci et al., 2002; Majerič, 2004; Premlč, 2002; Štemberger, 2003; Voglar & Kovač, 2002; Science of Gymnastics Journal 167 Science of Gymnastics Journal Majeric M., Stiel J., Kovac M.: THE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT EVALUATION METHODS.. .Vol. 8 Issue 2: 167 - 186 Zadražnik, 2002) who analysed the reliability of analytical and holistic evaluation also reported that such evaluations were reliable enough for school assessment. The values of Cronbach's alpha coefficients in these studies were according to Ferligoj et. al (1995) comparable with our results, nevertheless some researchers calculated in different test task slightly higher values of Cronbach's alpha coefficients 0.950 (Bajec et. al, 2002); 0.987 (Dežman & Kovač, 2002), 0.980 (Kovač et al., 2002); 0.970 (Lorenci et al, 2002); 0.994 (Zadražnik, 2002). We assumed that the differences in slightly higher values of Cronbach's alpha coefficients in the cited studies were due to different times that had elapsed between the first and second evaluations (a few days in these studies, 30 days in our study); different number of evaluators, motivation and special skills and expertise of evaluators (in these studies, the tasks were evaluated by specialists for individual sports; in our study physical education teachers from practice). From this point of view, our study was closer to real school practice. The evaluation would be objective if the pupils got the same marks for the same results by different evaluators. Jurman (1989) cited various studies and concluded that Cronbach's alpha coefficients between different evaluators were between 0.70 to 0.80. He marked this values as good. In our case, regarding the objectivity of evaluation for the average evaluators' marks, the results revealed (see Table 4) the highest Cronbach's alpha coefficient in the analytical evaluation method (0.854), followed by the combined (0.791) and holistic evaluation method (0.778). Similar consistency between the evaluators was also observed by Majerič, Kovač, Dežman and Strel (2005) in an evaluation of long jump (holistic evaluation method Cronbach's alpha: 0.809; combined evaluation method Cronbach's alpha: 0.811; analytical evaluation method Cronbach's alpha: 0.836). Quite similar results have (Cronbach's alpha: 0.880) been found by Bajec, Bon, Dežman and Kovač (2002) in the analytical evaluation method test of throwing the ball to the goal in handball. Therefore, it can be concluded that with better-defined criteria PE teachers could more objectively evaluate different motor skills. From the perspective of the formative monitoring of pupils, this information is important because specifically defined criteria provide precise feedback information about their knowledge whilst simultaneously signalling to the other subjects that the mark is objective for all and thus unbiased. The subjectivity of the teacher could, therefore, be largely excluded. In determining the time efficiency of evaluation, we considered the time spent by three different evaluators while they evaluated the pupil's knowledge by three different evaluation methods. The average evaluation time of all three evaluators revealed that the least time had been spent in the holistic method and the most time in the combined evaluation method (see Table 5). Such results were expected, as the criteria were the simplest in the holistic and most complex in the combined and analytical evaluation method. In comparison to the first timed period (subjects 1 to 20), the evaluation time to the last timed period (the last twenty subjects) was reduced in all three evaluation methods. Specifically, in the holistic and analytical evaluation methods, the time was nearly halved, whereas it was shortened by a third in the pondered (combined) method. It can be concluded that in the first batch of measured subjects (1 to 10), individual evaluators were acquiring evaluation skills for the set criteria, whereas in the second (100-120) and third (203-222) timed batches of subjects' work had already been carried out routinely. According to the data and theoretical suggestions of several authors (Airasian, 1996; Burton 1998; Rutar Ilc, 2000, 2003), it has been concluded that evaluation is predominantly organizational and thus a technical challenge, which could be carried out with higher time efficiency by providing continuous training for teachers. As the time-efficient evaluation procedures Science of Gymnastics Journal 167 Science of Gymnastics Journal Majeric M., Stiel J., Kovac M.: THE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT EVALUATION METHODS.. .Vol. 8 Issue 2: 167 - 186 are those that with the sensible use of time and energy provide the highest quality results (possess good measuring evaluation characteristics) (Marentič Požarnik, 2000), time efficiency also needs to be considered in correlation with the reliability and objectivity of evaluation. Specifically, even the most time-efficient evaluation methods are not justified without reliability and objectivity (Kodelja, 2000). In our case, all three methods were economical. Evaluators for the knowledge evaluation of 20 pupils took less than half of the school lesson time, which was defined by 45 minutes. We did not find similar studies that would identify the time efficiency of evaluation of the test tasks. Differences in the average marks between the three evaluators, using the holistic, combined, and analytical evaluation methods, were found between the analytical and holistic and between the analytical and combined evaluation method. In an evaluation of long jump, Majerič, Kovač, Dežman and Strel (2005) found differences in all three evaluations. We did not find other similar studies that analyse the differences between holistic, combined, and analytical evaluation methods. In our case, we have found that the arithmetical mean value was the highest with the combined evaluation method, followed by the holistic and analytical methods, indicating the analytical method to be the most critical. When comparing the values expressed in the form of school marks, the difference between the average values is a full mark, which is quite considerable. In simple terms, pupils would receive a mark of 4 (very good) for the evaluated knowledge when the holistic and combined methods are used and only a mark of 3 (good) when evaluated with the analytical method. Consequently, and considering the modern paradigm of the formative monitoring of pupils, the authors recommend that teachers in the teaching process for 13-year-old pupils to use more detailed, i.e. analytical criteria in the evaluation of knowledge. Pupils will, as a result, receive feedback information about their knowledge; they will recognize their mistakes and understand what needs to be improved. In the formal assessment, the authors recommend that teachers to use criteria in the holistic or combined methods whilst still paying conscious attention to adequate objectivity. The low marks received were a result of straddle vault over the buck being quite a demanding skill for 13-year-old pupils, particularly when performed autonomously (without the assistance of the teacher). Pupils have to connect a run-up, takeoff from a springboard from two feet and the contact/push-off with the arms from the apparatus, whereas the second flight phase has to be high and adequately long with legs straddled and straight; all movement has to finish in a stable landing. Due to the progressively lower motor abilities of pupils, which are reflected in decreased muscular strength of arms and shoulders and power strength (Strel et al., 2007), pupils could experience difficulties in the take-off from springboard and consequently with arms from the apparatus. As a result, the flight is low and short, resulting in low marks for the executed task. CONCLUSION Gymnastic contents are included in all PE curricula and at each level of education (Živčic Markovic, Sporiš, & Čavar, 2011). In recent primary school PE curricula, gymnastics remains one of the most important elements around the world (Hardman, Murphy, Routen, & Tones, 2014), as it offers a great range of locomotive, stability and body control movements, which are highly important for the development of children (Kovač & Novak, 2001; Živčic Markovic et al., 2011). Gymnastics requires a great diversity of movements: control of body movement during transitions from dynamic to static elements and vice versa, and body balance during frequent changes of the body position in space (Novak, Kovač, & Čuk, 2008; Živčic Markovic et al., 2011). Science of Gymnastics Journal 167 Science of Gymnastics Journal Majeric M., Stiel J., Kovac M.: THE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT EVALUATION METHODS.. .Vol. 8 Issue 2: 167 - 186 Jumps and vaults are very important in the development of children. The straddle vault over the buck is one of the most common items in PE contents in all grades. Bučar et al. (2010) reported that more than 94% of PE teachers implemented this vault in the last three grades of Slovenian primary school. By including different vaults in the lessons plan, teachers will be able to improve or, at a minumum, maintain the level of motor abilities in their pupils throughout the years. Successful performance of vaults requires accurate muscular activity of specific intensity (muscular strength in arms and shoulders; explosive strength of legs during the takeoff from springboard), the right moment (timing) during the take-off from the vault and flexibility (during the flight phase) and balanced landing (Novak et al., 2008). All three evaluation methods for the straddle vault over the buck showed high reliability and objectivity evaluation, indicating the appropriate selection of test criteria and descriptions. Some differences between the three evaluation methods were not significant. Nevertheless, data for the evaluation of straddle vault over the buck revealed that the pondered evaluation method is the most reliable with regards to the measuring characteristics, whereas the analytical evaluation method is the most objective, and the holistic evaluation method the most time-efficient. The measuring characteristics of all three evaluation methods were revealed to be appropriate; therefore, in conformity with the autonomy of teachers, it is mostly up to them to decide which evaluation method they will use as long as it is adjusted to the knowledge level of their pupils. For formative assessment, the measuring scales and criteria should be different according to the purpose of evaluation (internal, external), the developmental stage of pupils, and the complexity of the evaluated movement. As a result, the authors recommend that teachers use the analytical or combined methods in the monitoring stage of the teaching process. A prepared analytical or combined model tasks with a description of movement, common mistakes and precise criteria focuses on the learning of each pupil whilst providing suitable feedback. The process can serve as an important function in further teaching, as teachers could identify the problems of pupils and adapt the teaching process. Well-learnt gymnastics skills can generate feelings of satisfaction in pupils and encourage the practice of physical activity (Simunkova, Novotna, & Chrudimsky, 2013). In the final formal assessment of the skill, teachers should use the most time-efficient, i.e. the holistic evaluation method, for this age group, as it will allow more time for the previous phases in the teaching process. Teachers give the greatest importance to correct technique in gymnastics skills (Avalos Ramos et al., 2014); therefore, the task, selected for the evaluation in the present study by three evaluators, also placed an emphasis on the technically correct execution. At the same time, Avalos Ramos, Martinez Ruiz, and Merma Molina (2014) pointed out great contradictions in the evaluation of school gymnastics. The divergences between the use and evaluation of learning activities indicate that teachers do not employ a great deal of reflection in their planning, nor in their decision-making (Tsui, 2009). As a result, teachers need to be adequately prepared for evaluation, as the process of evaluation itself can be considered a skill (AAHPERD, 1999; Burton, 1998; Pangrazi, 1998) that can be developed in PE teachers. In order to develop this skill, continuous training in various evaluation methods has to be provided at conferences or by using various material (e.g. video recordings on the internet). Undoubtedly, quality teaching is of key importance, as only then the pupils will acquire diverse motor skills necessary for their physical and motor development. We can confirm that the major weakness of the study was the evaluation process. The evaluators did not evaluate the knowledge of the pupils in real school situations, but the knowledge recorded on videotape. This type of evaluation was Science of Gymnastics Journal 167 Science of Gymnastics Journal Majeric M., Stiel J., Kovac M.: THE IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT EVALUATION METHODS.. .Vol. 8 Issue 2: 167 - 186 rarely used in practice. However, we found useful information from many teachers. It is important to point out that the evaluators were teachers in our study, while the evaluators were sport experts in other similar studies. From this perspective, it can be concluded, that all three evaluation methods were good tools for teachers to evaluate pupils' knowledge. Despite the reliability, objectivity and time efficiency being found in all three evaluation methods, in the future the assessment procedures in PE will need to be even more adjusted to the spirit of modern formative monitoring of pupils, encouraging the evaluation in very authentic situations. 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Initial state of motor skills in sports gymnastics among students at Faculty of Kinesiology. Acta Kinesiologica 5(1), 67-72. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Funding for the study has been provided by the Slovenian Research Agency (ID No. L5-6448-C). The study would not be conducted without exceptionally voluntary work of all testers (students and researchers) and all three PE teachers - external evaluators. Corresponding author: Matej Majeric, Ph.D. University of Ljubljana - Faculty of sport Gortanova 22 Ljubljana 1000 Slovenia Tel: + 386 31 753 333 E-mail: matej.majeric@fsp.uni-lj.si Science of Gymnastics Journal 167 Science of Gymnastics Journal Silva M-R.G., Barata P.: ATHLETES AND COACHES' GENDER INEQUALITY: THE CASE OF. Vol. 8 Issue 2: 187 - 196 ATHLETES AND COACHES' GENDER INEQUALITY: THE CASE OF THE GYMNASTICS FEDERATION OF PORTUGAL Scientific Commission of the Gymnastics Federation of Portugal, Lisbon, Portugal 2Faculty of Health Sciences, University Fernando Pessoa, Oporto, Portugal 3Research Centre for Anthropology and Health, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal ^National School of Gymnastics, Gymnastics Federation of Portugal, Lisbon, Portugal The aim of this study was to analyze the gender-participation among Portuguese gymnasts and Portuguese coaches, according to gymnastics' disciplines and geographical areas of Portugal. An individual-authorized data base of all national gymnasts involved in the National School of Gymnastics of the Gymnastics Federation of Portugal (Federagao de Ginastica de Portugal) during three athletic seasons, namely 2012/2013, 2013/2014 and 2014/2015. Data from coaches was only available for the season of 2012/2013. In the athletic season of 2012/2013, from a sample of 14742 gymnasts, 81.2% were female and only 18.7% were male (P< 0.01). Similar results were found in the next two seasons as follows: 83.2% were female and 16.7% were male in 2013/2014 and 84.9% were female and 15.1% were male in 2014/2015. Significantly gymnasts-gender differences (P<0.01) were observed for all disciplines. In RG, WAG and MAG no differences between genders were observed due to the exclusive sport participation of female or male gymnasts, respectively. The same tendency of gymnasts' genderparticipation was observed for coaches; thus, the majority of Portuguese coaches (57.7%) was female and 42.3% were male. The inclusion of gymnastics in sport events can increase female participation due to its characteristics. Keywords: Gender-participation, gymnastics, disciplines, athletes, coaches. Maria-Raquel G. Silva1-3, Paulo Barata 4 Original article Abstract INTRODUCTION Participation in sport has been linked to several physical and psychological benefitssuch as increased resistance, strength, agility, coordination and improves mood, self-esteem and self-confidence (Slater & Tiggemann, 2011). However, gender has beenconsidered a significant indicator in athletic performance's differences and gender-participation rates are different and the potential reasons are namely sports availabilityand stereotypes (Davis et al., 2006). According to the International Federation of Gymnastics (Fédération Internationale deGymnastique - FIG, 2015), Gymnastics is divided into seven disciplines as follows:Gymnastics for All (GfA), Men's Artistic Gymnastics (MAG), Women's Artistic Gymnastics (WAG), Rhythmic Gymnastics (RG), Trampoline Gymnastics (TRA), Aerobic Gymnastics (AER) and Acrobatic Science of Gymnastics Journal 187 Science of Gymnastics Journal Silva M-R.G., Barata P.: ATHLETES AND COACHES' GENDER INEQUALITY: THE CASE OF. Vol. 8 Issue 2: 187 - 196 Gymnastics (ACRO). Independently of the gymnastics' discipline and gymnast's gender, competitive routines Result from a combination of several different body elements that require high-intensity Effort with, in some cases, a unique dexterous manipulation of apparatus (Silva & Paiva, 2015a). Dynamic and static balance is necessary in balance positions, jumps and rotations; explosive strength is a determinant for dynamic elements with rotation and throw, jumps and pre-acrobatic movements; flexibility is dominant during all body elements; and coordination is a determinant for apparatus mastery (Calavalle et al., 2008; Silva & Paiva, 2015a).Gymnastics is an aesthetic sport that emphasizes creativity, in which athlete's peak of performance is typically obtained earlier than in team sports (Baker, Janning, Wong, Cobley, & Schorer, 2014), since gymnasts train intensively from very young ages and maintain that training regime during adolescence and early adulthood (Silva & Paiva, 2015a, 2015b). Pre-pubertal growth in children (from 2 to 10 years old) is linear and occurs at a relatively constant rate (6 cm per year) (Jeukendrup & Cronin, 2011). However, in adolescence, significant changes in body size occur, influencing physiological and physical performance (Silva & Paiva, 2015a) in both female and male gymnasts (i.e. males tend to have more fat-free mass and a lower body fat than females). In addition, leanness is also a valuable prerequisite for technical performance and is considered more aesthetically pleasing to judges and for selection at an elite level (D'Alessandro et al., 2007; Michopoulou et al., 2011; Silva & Paiva, 2015c). Coaches play an important role regarding the gymnasts' health (Schubring & Thiel, 2014). However, a reduced body mass often leads gymnasts to inadequate energy intake compromising adequate energy availability levels for gymnasts' growth, daily activities and athletic performance (Silva & Paiva, 2015a, 2015b). In spite of gymnastics being recently considered as an "early specialization" sport, characterized by a higher number of female participants than male ones (Bakeret al., 2014), McManus & Armstrong (2011) highlighted that there are much less published studies in female athletes than in males. This may be due to the fact that in the short term, energy availability is required to improve gymnasts' health, to prevent injury and, in the long term, sustained low energy availability may predispose the female athletes to various health hazards such as irregular menstruation, infertility and osteoporosis (Loucks, Kiens, & Wright, 2011; Omiya et al., 2014; Silva & Paiva, 2015a, 2015c). Thus, female athletes may be a more difficult group to study, especially in relation to health issues, including body composition and menstrual function, than male athletes. On the other hand, the cultural environment and regional tradition in a typical sport also influences sport participation (Weir, Smith, Paterson, & Horton, 2010). In addition, gender is a socially category constructed in interaction between the individual and the society and self-actualization (Boykoff & Yasuoka, 2013). Therefore, this study aims to analyze the gender-participation among Portuguese gymnastics gymnasts and Portuguese coaches, according to gymnastics' disciplines and geographical areas of Portugal. METHODS During the sport season of 2012/2013, 1323 Portuguese coaches of gymnastics (764female and 559 male) and 15980 Portuguese gymnasts (13028 female and 2953 male) were included in this study. Also from the next two athletic seasons, 15880 gymnasts (13225 female and 2655 male) in 2013/2014 and 15469 gymnasts (13139 female and 2330 male) in 2014/2015 were included; no coaches' information was available. Data was analyzed from an individual-authorized data base of all national gymnasts involved in the Science of Gymnastics Journal 187 Science of Gymnastics Journal Silva M-R.G., Barata P.: ATHLETES AND COACHES' GENDER INEQUALITY: THE CASE OF. Vol. 8 Issue 2: 187 - 196 National School of Gymnastics of the Gymnastics Federation of Portugal (Federaçao de Ginâstica de Portugal -FGP) during three athletic seasons, namely 2012/2013, 2013/2014 and 2014/2015. Data from coaches was only available for the season of 2012/2013. This data base was constructed by technical staff of the general directorate office of the FGP and formal permission for full access of the mentioned data base was given by the director of the National School of Gymnastics of the FGP. Regarding gymnastics' disciplines, the FGP involves seven international disciplines mentioned before and two others, such as Hip Hop (HH) (organizing Open competitions and the National Championship Competition), and Teamgym (TG), a Union Européenne de Gymnastique (UEG) discipline that promotes group gymnastics competition. Thus, disciplines analyzed were as follows: GfA, MAG, WAG, RG, TRA, AER, ACRO, HH and TG. Eleven associations of gymnastics were involved in the National School of Gymnastics of the FGP and were divided into 3 main geographic areas in accordance with an equitable number of athletes: Area 1 included the North and Centre of Portugal; Area 2 included the metropolitan area of Lisbon (the capital of the country and where is located the FGP); and Area 3 represented the South of the country. Therefore, the following variables were then analyzed: gender, geographical area, involvement in gymnastics, i.e. coach or gymnast, and gymnastics discipline represented. Regarding the statistical analysis, characteristics of the participants are described with proportions for categorical variables. Spearman correlation coefficient was used to determine associations between categorical and continuous variables; due to the number of subjects evaluated the significance level used was 5% (p<0.05). Data was analyzed using SPSS statistical software version 22.0 for Windows (New York, USA). RESULTS Independently of the sport season, the gymnastics discipline most practiced in Portugal was GfA (p<0.01), as shown in Figure 1. This may be due to the possibility of participants of both genders being able to participate in this sport, as it is so-called "for all". In addition, GfA was followed by TRA and ACRO (p<0.05), with exception for the season of 2014/2015 (p>0.05), where more participants were involved in ACRO rather than in TRA. All others disciplines were highly less practiced as follows: RG, WAG, TG, AER, MAG and HH (Figure 1).T-tests indicate that in the athletic season of 2012/2013, from a sample of 14742 gymnasts, 81.2% were female and only 18.7% were male (p< 0.01). Similar results were found in the next two seasons as follows: 83.2% were female and 16.7% were male in 2013/2014 and 84.9% were female and 15.1% were male in 2014/2015. However, in RG, WAG and MAG nosignificant differenceswereobserveddue to the exclusive sport participation of female or male gymnasts, respectively. In an intra-athletic season analysis, a significant increase of the number of female gymnasts was shown in ACRO, RG and WAG from 2012/2013 to 2013/2014 (p<0.05) (Figure 2). Although not significant, only GfA and AER presented more participants in the last athletic season. However, a significant decrease of female gymnasts was observed in HH in the last athletic season (p=0.003) (Figure 2). Regarding the male participation, MAG, AER and HH presented a significant increase of the number of participants (p<0.05) from the athletic season of 2012/2013 (Figure 3). Interestingly, GfA and ACRO have been losing participants during the last three seasons (p<0.05); TG also has, but not significantly (p>0.05). Science of Gymnastics Journal 187 Science of Gymnastics Journal Silva M-R.G., Barata P.: ATHLETES AND COACHES' GENDER INEQUALITY: THE CASE OF. Vol. 8 Issue 2: 187 - 196 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 GfA TRA ACRO RG WAG TG AER MAG HH ■ 2012/2013 "2013/2014 "2014/2015 Figure 1. Number of gymnasts participating in the several disciplines of the FGP during the seasons of 2012/2013, 2013/2014 and 2014/2015 (GfA: Gymnastics for All. TRA: Trampoline Gymnastics. ACRO: Acrobatic Gymnastics. RG: Rhythmic Gymnastics. WAG: Women's Artistic Gymnastics. TG: Teamgym. AER: Aerobic Gymnastics. MAG: Men's Artistic Gymnastics. HH: Hip Hop). Figure 2. Number of female gymnasts participating in the several disciplines of the FGP during three athletic seasons: 2012/2013, 2013/2014 and 2014/2015 (GfA: Gymnastics for All. ACRO: Acrobatic Gymnastics. TRA: Trampoline Gymnastics. RG: Rhythmic Gymnastics. WAG: Women's Artistic Gymnastics. AER: Aerobic Gymnastics. TG: Teamgym. HH: Hip Hop). Science of Gymnastics Journal 187 Science of Gymnastics Journal Silva M-R.G., Barata P.: ATHLETES AND COACHES' GENDER INEQUALITY: THE CASE OF. Vol. 8 Issue 2: 187 - 196 Figure 3. Number of male gymnasts participating in the several disciplines of the FGP during three athletic seasons: 2012/2013, 2013/2014 and 2014/2015 (GfA: Gymnastics for All. ACRO: Acrobatic Gymnastics. TRA: Trampoline Gymnastics. RG: Rhythmic Gymnastics. WAG: Women's Artistic Gymnastics. AER: Aerobic Gymnastics. TG: Teamgym. HH: Hip Hop). Figure 4. Percentage of female (n=764) and male coaches (n=559) during the season 2012/2013 through the 3 main geographic areas of Portugal: area 1 (North and Centre), area 2 (Lisbon) and area 3 (South of Portugal). Science of Gymnastics Journal 187 Science of Gymnastics Journal Silva M-R.G., Barata P.: ATHLETES AND COACHES' GENDER INEQUALITY: THE CASE OF. Vol. 8 Issue 2: 187 - 196 Figure 5. Percentage of Portuguese coaches working in the several disciplines of the FGP during the season 2012/2013 (GfA: Gymnastics for All. TRA: Trampoline Gymnastics. ACRO: Acrobatic Gymnastics. WAG: Women's Artistic Gymnastics. RG: Rhythmic Gymnastics. MAG: Men's Artistic Gymnastics. AER: Aerobic Gymnastics). As mentioned before, data about Portuguese gymnastics coaches was only available for the athletic season of 2012/2013. The same tendency of gymnasts' gender-participation was observed for coaches; thus, the majority of coaches (57.7%) was female and 42.3% were male. Regarding the 3 main geographic areas, significant differences (p< 0.01) were observed between the first two areas and Area 3, since 48.5% of coaches (n= 642) were mainly from Area 2 (Lisbon) and 41.4% (n= 544) were from Area 1 (the North and the Centre), and only 10.4% of coaches (n= 137) worked in Area 3 (the South of Portugal). In spite of no significant differences (p> 0.05) were observed for gender differences, Lisbon and South areas (Areas 2 and 3) presented a higher number of male coaches than females, respectively (49.0% and 12.2% versus 48.2% and 9.0% - Figure 4). However, the opposite was observed in Area 1, where there were more female coaches (42.8%) than male ones (38.8%). Interestingly, gymnastics disciplines with the highest number of coaches were those where participants of both genders are allowed, as follow: GfA (41%; n=545) followed by TRA (19%; n=248), ACRO (15%; n=201), with exception for AER (3%; n=40). On the other hand, disciplines of typically one gender participation presented the lowest number of coaches such as WAG (9%; n=118), RG (7.2%; n= 95) and MAG (5.7%; n=76). In a disciplines' intra-analysis with relation to the coaches' presence, there were more coaches of GfA (48%) and RG (9%) working in the metropolitan area of Lisbon (Area 2), WAG (14%) and MAG (7%) coaches were mainly teaching in Area 1, and TRA (22%) and ACRO (25%) coaches were mainly working in the South of the country, Area 3 - Figure 5). DISCUSSION Although several studies have been conducted in athletes, most of them are Science of Gymnastics Journal 187 Science of Gymnastics Journal Silva M-R.G., Barata P.: ATHLETES AND COACHES' GENDER INEQUALITY: THE CASE OF. Vol. 8 Issue 2: 187 - 196 reported to males. From our knowledge, this is the first study evaluating gender-participation in both gymnasts and coaches. Significantly gender differences (p<0.01) were observed for all disciplines with a female participation's rate much higher than the male one. As expected, no differences between genders were observed for RG, WAG and MAG due to the exclusive sport participation of female or male gymnasts, respectively. The most practiced disciplines in Portugal were mainly those where gender selection is not a prerequisite for sport's participation, such as GfA, TRA and ACRO; this was also observed for Portuguese coaches, with exception for AER. Portuguese coaches were significantly (p< 0.01) concentrated in the metropolitan area of Lisbon (48.5%: 49% male and 48.2% female) and in the North of Portugal (41.4%: 42.8% female and 38.8% male, contrarily to Lisbon). The South of Portugal showed the lowest number of Portuguese coaches (10.4%: 12.2% male and 9.0% female). These results may be due to facilities allocated to clubs and respective coaches. Contrarily, competitive disciplines of typically one gender participation (WAG, RG and MAG) presented the lowest number of coaches and gymnasts. In accordance with Barker, Barker-Ruchti, Wals & Tinning (2014) and Silva & Paiva (2015b), most athletes choose to persist with competitive sport voluntarily, so may be more specialized coaches of WAG, RG and MAG should be necessary in the near future. A new challenge stands up for the sport worldwide, which is that there is a clearly inequality of gender-participation in gymnastics, since both Portuguese female gymnasts and coaches presented a high and significant presence in the Portuguese Gymnastics (p<0.05). This should be interpreted as part of a solution for the so called "gender inequality in sport", according to recent literature (Baker et al., 2014; Claringbould, Knoppers & Jacobs, 2015; Di Cagno et al., 2009; Godoy-Pressland &Griggs, 2014; Mackintosh et al., 2014). A plausible explanation might be related to the dominant gender in the social system around that sport, i.e. female sport produces a different environment governed by distinct social and developmental factors than those important in male sport (Barkeret al.,2014). Weir, Smith, Paterson, & Horton (2010) in a study about the age of sport participation concluded that the number of sport participants may vary due to cultural importance of different sports with the most capable athletes, the relative older ones going to sports with the greatest cultural relevance. Jacques Rogge (2012), the former president of the International Olympic Committee (IOC), highlighted at the Games Opening Ceremony that "For the first time in Olympic history, all the participating teams will have had female athletes, and this is a major boost for gender equality". In a gender equality audit about the London 2012 Olympics, Donnelly and Donnelly (2013) reported that 4835 female athletes participated in the 2012 London Olympic Games, no countries excluded female athletes and women competed in every sport. In contrast, in the London 2012 Olympics, there were 39 men-only events, including the pommel horse and rings in gymnastics, and only two women-only events, such as RG and synchronized swimming (Boykoff & Yasuoka, 2013). One of the 'Fundamental Principles of Olympism' is that "Any form of discrimination with regard to a country or a person on grounds of race, religion, politics, gender or otherwise is incompatible with belonging to the Olympic Movement" (IOC, 2011). In addition to physical and cognitive demands, gymnasts should also integrate a high degree of technical (Barker et al., 2014) and artistic skills into their dynamic and aesthetic exercises (Di Cagno et al., 2009). On the other hand, gymnastics is known to be the oldest sport ever practiced and is often sought to be the better sport to develop physical and mentally the "raw material" in very young ages (Bakeret al.,2014; Silva & Science of Gymnastics Journal 187 Science of Gymnastics Journal Silva M-R.G., Barata P.: ATHLETES AND COACHES' GENDER INEQUALITY: THE CASE OF. Vol. 8 Issue 2: 187 - 196 Paiva, 2015a). Although not significantly, Portuguese female gymnasts' participation only increased in GfA and AER in the last athletic season, and the same was demonstrated by male participants in WAG. Considering that when gymnasts are relatively older, they transfer to other sports (Barker et al, 2014) and that a combination of factors might be responsible for that (Omiya et al., 2014), a problem stands up for the FGP. Age was not available for this study, but it might have a major influence in sport-participation. Education sessions to increase future gymnasts' and coaches' participation should be implemented as a new perspective of increasing both female and male participation in geographical areas with fewer participants. The limitations of this study should be taken into account when interpreting these results. First, age was not a studied variable, as mentioned before. Although its relative effects have been studied (Schorer, Cobley, Büsch, Bräutigam, & Baker, 2009), we assumed that gymnastics' disciplines would be of greater interest for this publication. Longitudinal studies are going to be implemented in the FGP in order to study the possible relation between the prevalence of a specific gymnastics' discipline according to the geographic area and gymnasts' results in national and international competitions. They would be also interesting and necessary in evaluating gymnastics' evolution in relation to gender, relative age effects and sport participation. 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Talent Development and Excellence, 2, 209-217. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work is financed by National Founds from FCT - Foundation for Science and Technology regarding the reference's project: PEst- OE/SADG/UI0283/2015. Corresponding author: Maria-Raquel G. Silva Rua Carlos da Maia, 296 4200-150 Oporto PORTUGAL Tel: +351 22 5074630 Fax: +351 225074637 E-mail: raquel@ufp.edu.pt Science of Gymnastics Journal 187 Science of Gymnastics Journal GAJDOŠ A. SHORT HISTORICAL NOTES VII Vol. 8 Issue 3: 446 - 298 SHORT HISTORICAL NOTES VI Anton Gajdoš, Bratislava, Slovakia Ph.D. Anton Gajdoš born on 1.6.1940 in Dubriniči (today Ukraine) lives most of his life in Bratislava (ex TCH, nowadays SVK). He comes from gymnastics family (his brother Pavel have world championship medals) and he devoted his life to gymnastics. His last achievement is establishment of Narodna encyklopedia športu Slovenska (www.sportency.sk). Among his passion is collecting photos and signatures of gymnasts. As we tend to forget old champions and important gymnasts, judges and coaches, we decided to publish part of his archive under title Short historical notes. All information on these pages is from Anton's archives and collected through years. MEN TEAM USA 1964 Despite Men team USA 1964 did not took any medals at the World Championship or Olympic Games, it was important moment for USA gymnastics to attend competitions in preparations for ongoing generations. Many members of the team later became coaches, with extraordinary gymnasts and were probably reason of excellent USA gymnasts results 15 years later. It was also in political sense important to have contacts between communist east and democratic west via sport. At Olympic Games in Tokyo 1964 USA team took 7th place and their best gymnast was Makato Sakamoto who was 20th in all around. From left to right are: Tom Maloney (team manager), Makato Sakamoto, Armando Vega, Gregor Weis, Ronald Barack, Rusty Mitchell, Arthur Shurlock, Larry Banner, John Muir (coach). Science of Gymnastics Journal 197 Science of Gymnastics Journal GAJDOŠ A. SHORT HISTORICAL NOTES VII Vol. 8 Issue 3: 447 - 298 LADISLAV VACHA (CZE, ex TCH) Ladislav Vacha (born March 21, 1899 in Brno - died June 28, 1943in Zlin). Ladislav's the first major international competition was 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris. At 1924 OG gymnasts competed for the last time also in rope climbing. Gymnasts have to climb on 8 meters long rope and with diameter of 28 mm and time measured automatically by electric stopwatch. Those who were climbing more than 12 seconds recived 0 points and those who were faster than 9 second received 10 points for all around result. The best in rope climbing was Supcik (TCH) with result of 7 1/5 second, Ladislav was third with result 7 4/5 second. In Paris Ladislav took also bronze medal on rings. At next OG 1928 in Amsterdam received a gold medal in parallel bars, and silver medals in rings and team exercises. At World Championship in Lyon 1926 he was the third in all around and four years later in Luxemburg he was the fifth. On bellow photo is one example of Ladislav vault over long horse. Despite the precise date of photo is not clear (it is from year 1928 in preparation in Praque for Olympic Games in Amsterdam), it is very informative how our sport look like. Performance is outdoor training session with spectators. Instead of mats, landing is on sands. Horse height is at coaches (Miroslav Klinger, also very famous Czech gymnast and coach) height (we can asume it is about 1,6 meter), springboard is much higher than it is nowdays, with leaf steal springs. Hecht vault as Ladislav show on photo is in terms of modern gymnastics historical vault as nobody performs it anymore. Science of Gymnastics Journal 197 Science of Gymnastics Journal GAJDOŠ A. SHORT HISTORICAL NOTES VII Vol. 8 Issue 3: 197 - 298 SERGEJ ANATOLIJEVIC ALEKPEROV Professor Alekperov (born on 6th January, 1925, Baku; died 3rd December, 2011, St. Petersburg) belonged to the top Soviet Union and Russia gymnasts, trainers, judges and gymnastics experts. He was member of Soviet Union Army and in 1948 he won 3rd place in all around at Championships of armed forces of Soviet Union. He was the first that finished composition at parallel bars with a salto backward straight in 1948 at Soviet Union Championships in Moscow. People used to say he is „the teacher from God". He prepared and trained 28 masters of sport (highest level of athletes in Soviet Union) From 1st September, 1975 until 1993 he was the director of Gymnastics department of the Pyotr Leshaft State Order of Lenin and Order of the Red Banner Academy of Physical training St. Petersburg. He wrote more than 110 publications, books, articles where he was engaged about techniques and methodic of gymnastics. His most important book was Parallel bars exercises and had 3 editions, and was translated into Japanese language. His Ph.D. students were among others Eudmila Turisceva, Vladimir Aksenov, Vjaceslav Mironov and me Anton Gajdos. Many years he was devoted to complex research work for preparing soviet gymnasts for Championships, Olympic Games. Together with his leadership many movies were prepared about techniques and methodic of complex exercises, kinograms which helped and still help to Science of Gymnastics Journal 197 Science of Gymnastics Journal GAJDOŠ A. SHORT HISTORICAL NOTES VII Vol. 8 Issue 3: 449 - 298 improve preparation, training of gymnasts not only in Russia but also around the world. Bellow is Professor Alekperov photo, front page of his most important book from 1976 Exercises on parallel bars (Upraznenia na brusjah) and front page of last edition, where it was part of J. Gaverdovskij's book Artistic Gymnastics all around - men disciplines from 1987. Materials were prepared with help of prof. Raisa Terechiny. CD CD O * a a o (DO 12 fcS Ctf 5 My>KCKne BMflbl Science of Gymnastics Journal 197 Science of Gymnastics Journal SLOVENSKI IZVLEČKI / SLOVENE ABSTRACTS Vol. 8 Issue 2: 201 - 204 Slovenski izvlečki / Slovene Abstracts Sunčica Delaš Kalinski, Almir Atikovic, Igor Jelaska, Mirjana Milic ANALIZA USPEŠNOSTI TELOVADK NA PRESKOKU NA VELIKIH TEKMOVANJIH OD 2008 DO 2015 Preskok je disciplina, ki se nekoliko razlikuje od ostalih disciplin ženske orodne telovadbe glede na način ocenjevanja, trajanje tekmovalnega nastopa in gibalnih sposobnostih pomebnih za uspešen nastop. Temu primerno je tudi število telovadk, ki sodelujejo na preskoku v predtekmovanju. Na velikih tekmovanjih v obdobju od 2008 do 2015, kjer je bilo izvedeno finale v mnogoboju in na posameznih orodjih je sodeloval visok odstotek telovadk (SP2009=81,03% in SP2013=90,90%) Na ostalih tekmovanjih (OI 2008, 2012, kvalifikacije za OI 2012, SP 2014, 2015) je sodelovalo le okoli 20% najboljših telovadk v predtekmovanju na preskoku. Na osnovi vseh rezultatov velikih tekmovanj je bila narejena ANOVA in ugotovljeno je bilo, da na odločitev za tekmovanje v predtekmovanje na preskoku vplivajo gibalne sposobnosti telovadk, njihovo znanje in taktika. Rezultati lahko služijo trenerjem pri načrtovanju vadbe na preskoku. Ključne besede: ženska orodna telovadba, preskok, razvoj. Christoph Schärer, Klaus Hübner NAPOVEDOVANJE NATANČNOSTI NAJVEČJEGA UPORA PRI PET DO SEDEM SEKUNDAH DRŽE IZ TESTA TREH SEKUND NAJVEČJE IZOMETRIČNE SILE PRI RAZPORI, RAZOVKI V OPORI IN RAZOVKI VODORAVNO Na krogih se zahteva visoka stopnja relativne največje sile, da lahko telovadec v sestavi izvede do sedem prvin moči s primerno kakovostjo izvedbe. Vaditelji pri razvoju največje sile podaljšujejo trajanje drže s trenažerjem s protiutežjo oziroma obtežilnim pasom. Namen študije je bil ugotoviti ali lahko napovedujemo največji upor (MR)(najmanjšo protiutež/največjo dodatno obtežitev) pri petih ali sedmih sekundah trajanja drže ob upoštevanju kriterija MR trajanja 3 sekund pri razpori, razovki v opori in razovki vodoravno ter pripraviti vaditeljem primerno tabelo obremenitve. Deset članov švicarske reprezentance je izvedlo MR test pri 3, 5, 7 sekundah pri vseh prvinah. Rezultati so pokazali, da se s povečanjem trajanja drže, zmanjšuje MR. Povezanost med testi in linearna regresija je bila izjemno visoka (R2>0.88) in skoraj linearna, zato so bile pripravljene ustrezne tabele. Ključne besede: moški, orodna telovadba, sila, razovka, razpora, razovka vodoravno. Science of Gymnastics Journal 201 Science of Gymnastics Journal SLOVENSKI IZVLEČKI / SLOVENE ABSTRACTS Vol. 8 Issue 2: 201 - 204 Muhamed Tabakovic, Almir Atikovic, Elvir Kazazovic, Senad Turkovic UČINEK IZOKINETIČNE VADBE NA JAKOST MIŠIC KOLENA IN USPEŠNOST IZVEDBE AKROBATSKIH PRVIN Namen raziskave je bil ugotoviti ali dodatna izokinetična vadba vpliva na jakost mišic kolena in kako to vpliva na kvaliteto izvedbe akrobatskih prvin. Izokinetična vadba je potekala na napravi Biodex 3 (60°s-1). V raziskavi je sodelovalo (N = 80) študentov Fakultete za šport in telesno vzgojo (starost, 19.8 ± 1.7 let; masa, 75.2 ± 2,9 kg; višina 179.7 ± 6.4 cm). Kontrolna skupina (N = 40) je med začetkom in koncem poskusa izvjala le običajno vadbo akrobatskih prvin. Poskusna skupina (N = 40) je poleg običajne vadbe akrobatskih prvin izvajala tudi izokinetično vadbo. Poskusna skupina je močno izboljšala največjo silo (tudi navor, delo in moč) upogibalk in iztegovalk kolena. Povečana jakost mišič kolena je pomebno izboljšala izvedbo akrobatskih prvin: preval letno, premet nazaj, salto naprej skrčeno in salto nazaj skrčeno. Ključne besede: izokinetika, največji navor, moč, delo, akrobatske prvine. George Dallas, Kostas Dallas VPLIV POŠKODBE GLEŽNJA NA RAVNOTEŽJE PRI TELOVADCIH IN TELOVADKAH Orodna telovadba je šport, jer je vedno prisotna nevarnost telesne poškodbe. Poškodba telovadca, naključna ali dolgotrajna je boleč slučajen poseg v telovadcev razvoj. Poškodbe imajo pomemben negativen vpliv na telovadčevo ravnotežje, še posebej pa poškodbe nog. Namen raziskave je bil ugotoviti kako poškodbe gležnja v preteklosti na eni ali obeh nogah vplivajo na ohranjanje ravnotežja. Deset telovadk (starost= 16.66 ± 3.20 let, masa = 47.30 ± 8.00 kg, višina = 158.00 ± 5.75 cm)in deset telovadcev (starost = 22.30 ± 1.77 let, masa = 62.00 ± 3.33 kg, višina = 168.50 ± 3.03 cm) je sodelovalo v presečni študiji. Sodelujočim so bile izmerjene meje stabilnosti (reakcijski čas, hitrost gibanja težišča telesa, smer gibanja telesa, skrajna točka ohranjanja ravnotežja, največja pot gibanja težišča telesa) in izračunan je bil vpliv poškodbe na ravnotežje merjen z Equitest Computerized Dynamic Posturography sistemom. Rezultati so pokazali, da imajo ženske manj poškodb, in imajo boljše reakcijske čase ter višjo hitrost gibanja težišča telesa kot moški. Večje število poškodb gležnja vpliva na spremembe v mišično vezivnem sistemu okoli gležnja in zmanjšano proprioreceptivno zaznavanje ter privede do pomanjkanja mehanizmov za ohranjanje ravnotežja. To velja tudi za samo enkratno poškodbo gležnja. Ključne besede: meje stabilnosti, reakcijski časskrajna točka ohranjanja ravnotežja, največja pot gibanja težišča telesa. Science of Gymnastics Journal 201 Science of Gymnastics Journal SLOVENSKI IZVLEČKI / SLOVENE ABSTRACTS Vol. 8 Issue 2: 201 - 204 Nebojša Trajkovic, Dejan Madic, Goran Sporiš, Aleksandra Aleksic-Veljkovic, Kamenka Živčic-Markovic VPLIV ORODNE TELOVADBE NA ZDRAVJE IN PRIPRAVLJENOST MLADOSTNIKOV Cilj raziskave je bil ugotoviti učinke programa orodne telovadbe v srednji šoli na zdravje in telesno pripravljenost mladostnikov. V raziskavi je sodelovalo 58 mladostnikov učencev (starih 14,82 ± 0,44 let), ki so obiskovali prvi razred srednje šole. Poskus z vadbo orodne telovadbe je trajal 12 tednov. Izmerjene so bile vrednosti spremenljivke testov sklopa EUROFIT, moč, gibljivost, aerobna vzdržljivost in moč rok in nog, hitrost in okretnost. Rezultati so pokazali povprečno začetno raven in kasneje dinamično povečanje telesne pripravljenosti udeležencev. Analiza pred in po vadbi je pokazala pomembno izboljšanje v vseh testiranih spremenljivk (p <0,05), razen za 4x10m. Zato je treba sodelovanje pri orodni telovadbi priporočati kot pozitivno temeljno dejavnost za šolske otroke, od zgodnjega otroštva do odraslosti. Ključne besede: telovadba, telesna vzgoja, vadba, telesna pripravljenost. Matej Majerič, Janko Strel, Marjeta Kovač POMEMBNOST RAZLIČNIH METOD OCENJEVANJA PRI ŠPORTNI VZGOJI - ŠTUDIJA PRIMERA PRESKOKA ČEZ KOZO Raziskava predstavlja študijo treh različnih metod vrednotenja za eno izmed najpogosteje ovrednotenih spretnosti na področju telesne vzgoje: raznožko čez kozo. V vzorec merjencev je bilo vključenih 193 trinajst letnih dečkovs, katerih video posnete preskoke so ocenili trije ocenjevalci. Analizirali smo razlike v zanesljivosti, objektivnosti in časovno učinkovitost v treh različnih metod vrednotenja. Cronbachova analiza zanesljivosti je pokazala, da je kombinirana metoda vrednotenja (alfa: 0,928) je najbolj zanesljiva, celovit način je manj zanesljiv (alfa: 0,879), in najmanj zanesljiva metoda je bila analitična ocena (alfa: 0.833). Analiza objektivnosti je pokazala, da je bila metoda analitičnega vrednotenja najbolj objektivna (alfa: 0,854), kombinirana metoda manj objektivna (alfa: 0,791), in da je bile celovita metode vrednotenja, najmanj objektivna metoda (alfa: 0,778). Analiza časovne učinkovitosti je razkrila, da je bilo najmanj časa za analizo potrebno pri metodi celostnega ocenjevanja, veliko več v analitični in kombinirane metode ocenjevanja. Analiza treh ocenjevalcev, z uporabo treh različnih metod vrednotenja ni pokazala statistično pomembne razlike (p = 0,638) med celostno in kombinirano metodo ocenjevanja. V nasprotju s tem pa so bili razlike med celostno in analitično metodo (p = 0,000) in kombinirano metodo ter analitsko metodo (p = 0,000) statistično pomembne. Glede na analizo, lahko sklepamo, da so vse tri metode vrednotenja primeren za ocenjevanje znanja učencev pri športni vzgoji. Ključne besede: telesna vzgoja, orodna telovadba, merski postopki, znanje, smernice. Science of Gymnastics Journal 201 Science of Gymnastics Journal SLOVENSKI IZVLEČKI / SLOVENE ABSTRACTS Vol. 8 Issue 2: 201 - 204 Maria-Raquel G. Silva, Paulo Barata NEENAKOST MED SPOLOMA PRI TELOVADCIH IN VADITELJIH: PRIMER GIMNASTIČNE ZVEZE PORTUGALSKE Cilj te raziskave je bil analizirati vključenost spolov med telovadci in vaditelji, po panogah telovadbe in geografskih območjih Portugalske. Analizirana je bila podatkovna zbirka vseh telovadcev vključenih v nacionalne šole telovadbe v treh športnih sezonah, in sicer 2012/2013, 2013/2014 in 2014/2015. Podatki za vaditelje so bili na voljo samo za sezono 2012/2013. V sezoni 2012/2013 je bilo 14742 telovadcev, od tega 81,2% žensk in le 18,7% moških (p <0,01). Podobni rezultati so bili na voljo v naslednjih dveh sezonah, kot sledi: 83,2% žensk in 16,7% moških v sezoni 2013/2014 in 84,9% žensk in 15,1% moških v sezoni 2014/2015. Pri vseh panogah so značilne razlike med spoloma (p <0,01). V ritmiki, ženski orodni telovadbi in moški orodni telovadbi ni razlik zaradi izključno sodelovanja žensk ali moških telovadci, enako velja za vaditelje. Tako je bila večina portugalskih trenerjev 57,7% žensk in 42,3% moških. Ključne besede: spol, udeležba, telovadba, panoge, športniki, trenerji. Science of Gymnastics Journal 201 Science of Gymnastics Journal NEW BOOKS / NOVE KNJIGE Vol. 8 Issue 2: 205 - 208 Ivan Cuk, Istvan Karacsony Parallel Bars (Methods, Ideas, Curiosities, History) 2016 ISBN 978-961-283-639-9 Science of Gymnastics Journal 205 Science of Gymnastics Journal NEW BOOKS / NOVE KNJIGE Vol. 8 Issue 2: 205 - 208 Content Preface by Huang Li Ping Friedrich Ludwig Jahn inventor of parallel bars Why and how are changing the content of the parallel bar exercises? Historical development of parallel bars exercises Olympic Champions on Parallel Bars World Champions on Parallel Bars Coach should not forget general didactic guidelines Basic statement: the execution of basic skills must be though perfectly! Support... maybe "hang"? Basic swing in support, swing to handstand and swing from handstand Upper arm hang. Swings in upper arm hang Swings to and from support Cast to upper arm hang Glide kip to straddle cut backward to support position Basket to handstand Basket with ^ turn to handstand Salto backward to handstand Stützkehr forward to handstand Swing forward with 1/1 or 5/4 turn on one arm to handstand (Diamidov) Healy to support Salto forward from support to support Giant swing backward to handstand Giant swing backward with Diamidov to handstand From hang double salto backward to upper arm hang Tippelt Dismounts Salto forward Salto backward straight Double salto backward piked Index Bibliography Science of Gymnastics Journal 205 Science of Gymnastics Journal NEW BOOKS / NOVE KNJIGE Vol. 8 Issue 2: 205 - 208 Spdrts and Athletics Preparation, Performance, and Psychology Thomas Heinen V Ivan Cuk Ruben Goebel Kostas Velentzas oymnastics Performance and Motor Learning Principles and Applications Science of Gymnastics Journal 205 Science of Gymnastics Journal NEW BOOKS / NOVE KNJIGE Vol. 8 Issue 2: 205 - 208 Gymnastics Performance and Motor Learning: Principles and Applications Editors: Thomas Heinen (University of Hildesheim, Germany), Ivan Čuk (University of Ljubljana, Slovenia), Ruben Goebel (Qatar University, Qatar), Kostas Velentzas (Bielefeld University, Germany) Book Description: The book Gymnastics Performance and Motor Learning: Principles and Applications is a state-of-the-art discussion forum for topics that are of high interest in the field of gymnastics. Experts from different countries and with different scientific backgrounds such as psychology, pedagogy, training science, sports science, and movement science provide a number of significant contributions covering recent theoretical developments, current research evidence, as well as implications for practical applications concerning the different gymnastics disciplines. Topics discussed in the book include gymnasts gaze behavior in complex skills, spotting and guiding techniques, observational learning, augmented feedback, imagery, mental rotation, directional tendencies, interpersonal coordination, lost skill syndrome, performance indicators, as well as apparatus developments. Given the wide range of topics, Gymnastics Performance and Motor Learning: Principles and Applications may be an important source of information for graduate students, researchers, and practitioners (coaches and gymnasts) who work in the field of gymnastics. (Imprint: Nova) Table of Contents: Preface Chapter 1. Relationships between Gaze Behavior and Motor Behavior in Complex Aerial Skills (Yusuke Sato, Konstantinos Velentzas, Thomas Heinen, College of Commerce, Nihon University, Japan, and others) Chapter 2. Spotting and Guiding in Artistic Gymnastics from a Daily Practical Perspective (Rainer Schrempf and Damian Jeraj, State Coach of Swabian Gymnastics Federation, Stuttgart, Germany, and others) Chapter 3. Observational Learning in the Context of Skill Acquisition (Carolin Braun, Research Centre for Physical Education and Sports of Children and Young People (FoSS), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Germany) Chapter 4. Augmented Feedback for Movement Error Correction in Gymnastics (Juliane Veit, Damian Jeraj and Babett H. Lobinger, Institute of Psychology, German Sport University Cologne, Germany, and others) Chapter 5. Imagery in Gymnastics: Theories and Empirical Findings (Bianca A. Simonsmeier and Cornelia Frank, University of Trier, Educational Psychology, Germany, and others) Science of Gymnastics Journal 205 Science of Gymnastics Journal NEW BOOKS / NOVE KNJIGE Vol. 8 Issue 2: 205 - 208 Chapter 6. Motor Expertise and Mental Rotation Performance in Gymnastics (Käthe Bersiner and Thomas Heinen, Institute of Sport Science, University of Hildesheim, Germany) Chapter 7. The Measurement of Mental Representations within the Context of Motor Actions (Linda Hennig, Konstantinos Velentzas and Damian Jeraj, Institute of Sport Science, University of Hildesheim, Germany, and others) Chapter 8. Directional Tendencies in Artistic Gymnastics (Flavio Bessi, Dieter Hofmann, Christoph von Laßberg, and Thomas Heinen, Institute of Sport and Sport Science, University of Freiburg, Germany, and others) Chapter 9. Interpersonal Coordination in Gymnastics (Thomas Heinen and Marc Nicolaus, Institute of Sport Science, University of Hildesheim, Germany) Chapter 10. Lost Skill Syndrome in Gymnastics (Thomas Heinen, Mohammad Ghesneh and Hardy Fink, University of Hildesheim, Institute of Sport Science, Germany, and others) Chapter 11. Performance of German Wheel Gymnasts and Artistic Gymnasts: Implications for Training Processes (Kathrin Schad, Institute of Professional Sport Education and Sport Qualifications, German Sport University Cologne, Germany) Chapter 12. Uneven Bars Revolution - A Question of National Tradition and Motor Learning (Swantje Scharenberg, Research Centre for Physical Education and Sports of Children and Young People, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Germany) Index Series: Sports and Athletics Preparation, Performance, and Psychology Binding: Hardcover Pub. Date: 2016 - 3rd Quarter Pages: 6x9 - (NBC-C) ISBN: 978-1-63485-737-6 For more information visit: https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product info.php?products id=59263 Science of Gymnastics Journal 205 Science of Gymnastics Journal NEW BOOKS / NOVE KNJIGE Vol. 8 Issue 2: 205 - 208 "I highly recommend this book as it contains a tremendous knowledge of gymnastics. The fact that experts from different countries and with different scientific backgrounds have contributed increases its relevance. I am looking forward to see a new stage in the world of gymnastics." —Koichi Endo, Managing Director of Japanese Gymnastics Association, Associate Professor, Nihon University, Japan. "The book Gymnastics Performance and Motor Learning: Principles and Applications provides a comprehensive coverage of important topics with regard to performance and motor learning in gymnastics and related disciplines." ^ _ D „ D .. nur. r —Gert-Peter Bruggemann, PhD, Professor of Biomechanics, German Sport University Cologne, Germany. Science of Gymnastics Journal 205 Science of Gymnastics Journal