International Journal of Management, Knowledge and Learning, 3(2), 151–164
Managerial Competencies
in Knowledge Context:
Comparative Analysis of Poland
and United Kingdom
Agnieszka Sitko-Lutek
Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Poland
Monika Jakubiak
Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Poland
The present study aims at defining the importance of the managerial com-
petencies, taking particular interest in knowledge, in students’ prospective
professional career and the level in which these competencies were gained
in the course of their studies. The empirical material was collected on the
basis of a diagnostic survey carried out from 2009 to 2010 in Lublin, Poland
and Huddersfield, Great Britain. The group of respondents consisted of the
final year university students of economics and management. The research
results revealed that, among both respondent groups, the importance of eval-
uated competencies exceeded the level of competencies gained during their
studies.
Keywords: managers’ education, knowledge, competencies
Introduction
Globalisation and internationalisation processes pose particular challenges
for the universities. Modern universities should implement such educational
process that would supply the students with comprehensive knowledge thus
enabling them to solve socio-economic problems. This is especially impor-
tant for the universities that provide education for potential managers –
courses in the field of economy and management.
In the process of globalisation and European integration, the free move-
ment of EU nationals, services, and capital seems fundamental for the
development of a single market. Furthermore, intellectual, educational, cul-
tural and social domains are no less important for the integration. These
domains are defined as ‘Europe of Knowledge’ and university studies con-
stitute its vital element.
The present study aims at defining the importance of the managerial
competencies, taking particular interest in knowledge, in students’ prospec-
tive professional career and the level in which these competencies were
gained in the course of their studies. On the basis of these stipulations, an
www.issbs.si/press/ISSN/2232-5697/3_151-164.pdf
152 Agnieszka Sitko-Lutek and Monika Jakubiak
attempt was made to define the competence gap (perceived as the differ-
ence in the level of competencies required vs. competencies gained).
The empirical material was collected on the basis of studies conducted
from 2009 to 2010 with the use of a diagnostic survey. The study included
final year students of management and economics from three state uni-
versities of Lublin, namely John Paul II Catholic University, Maria Curie-
Sklodowska University, and Lublin University of Technology, and also Busi-
ness School University of Huddersfield.
The Issue and Literature
In the modern global world of profound and rapid socio-economic and tech-
nological changes, the issue of competencies is frequently discussed in the
literature. Due to the fact that managerial competencies are considered by
researchers as complex, they are most frequently analysed among all the
competence types. However, acquiring the managerial competencies does
not ensure the competency of a manager, since they ought to also possess
other characteristics allowing them to put their skills and knowledge into
practice.
D. C. McClelland (1973, pp. 9–13) was the forerunner of research in
competencies. In the 1970s he put forward a statement that graduates’
professional success cannot be associated with university grades. In order
to diagnose the professional predispositions, he developed a test of com-
petencies. In the following years, the research in the field of competencies
was taken up by C. J. Constable who claimed that competencies constitute
the ability to implement knowledge and skills, thus helping the manager
to effectively fulfil their role. Therefore, all managerial skills could be re-
garded as competencies when used effectively (Constable, 1988). L. and
S. Spencer presented a similar point of view. They assumed that competen-
cies encompass the knowledge, skills, values, standards, motives, work
ethics, enthusiasm, and self-image (Spencer & Spencer, 1993, p. 388).
Modern authors emphasise the fact that, currently, knowledge and in-
formation have become a key factor in the success of an organisation.
Namely, modern organisations can swiftly react to changes in unsteady en-
vironments and use them to solve problems with the help of all employees.
It is possible that, due to considerable effort and streaming of resources
into the selection of appropriate talents as human resources, the compe-
tencies of talented leaders of change seem to be the fundamental success
factor (Prahalad & Krishnan, 2010, pp. 160–180).
The researchers studying the current issues of human resources are
unanimous in their claim that human resources ought to be developed and
perfected. Additionally, the organisational culture and effective training sys-
tems ought to be devised, which may benefit the employee development
(Sitko-Lutek, 2005, pp. 262–263; McCallum & O’Connell, 2009, pp. 152–
International Journal of Management, Knowledge and Learning
Managerial Competencies in Knowledge Context 153
166; Allio, 2009, pp. 4–12). In order to dominate the market, modern com-
panies attempt to gain competitive edge by developing their key competen-
cies (Prahalad & Hamel, 2000, pp. 3–22).
At present, the researchers studying the issue of human resources are
unanimous in their claim that the employee competencies’ development
and perfection, and consequently fostering culture together with efficient
training system advantageous to the development of employees in organi-
zations, seem fundamental. It is estimated that, in the coming years, the
rise of competitiveness among organisations on the global market will lead
to the necessity of modifying the strategies regarding this issue. As a con-
sequence, the requirements for competencies of a leader will change. The
ability to adapt to rapidly changing situations and environment will become
the focus of this change fostering the ability among the employee groups.
Therefore, considerable employees’ competence flexibility and becoming
a learning organisation are required from a modern enterprise. The essence
of a knowledge-based organisation is constant change, brought about as
a result of continuous learning mainly via challenging the common think-
ing patterns, acting upon, and considering numerous possible scenarios of
own functioning (Chuen Huang & Shih, 2011, pp. 623–644). Such organi-
zations value knowledge, support competencies, and invest in employees’
perfecting.
In order to meet the requirements of the global knowledge-based econ-
omy (Drucker, 1993, pp. 6–20), companies implement modern methods of
knowledge management, competencies, and organisation’s perfecting. This
entails greater efficiency and effectiveness of the company’s operations
and translates directly into an improvement of its financial gains (Ubeda
Garcia & Liopis Vano, 2002, pp. 169–181). In the knowledge-based econ-
omy, the employees’ qualifications and competencies provide value for the
company. These valuable resources ought to be constantly supplemented
and developed in order to provide a means for creative and efficient prob-
lem solving (Kambil, 2010, pp. 43–45; Chadam & Pastuszak, 2005, pp.
459–475). Globalisation and internationalisation processes pose particular
challenges for the universities. The modern universities ought to implement
such educational process that would supply comprehensive knowledge and
consequently enable the students to solve socio-economic problems.
As a result of Poland’s accession to the European Union and ensuing
idea of creating the European Higher Education Area, the issue of gradu-
ates’ competencies gained particular importance. One of the main stipu-
lations of the Bologna process is the necessity of reforming the university
curricula in order to unify the competencies gained as a result of studying
a particular subject in individual EU member states. Changes in this re-
gard are to facilitate the occupational mobility among individual EU member
states (and consequently contribute to the opening of the labour market)
Volume 3, Issue 2, 2014
154 Agnieszka Sitko-Lutek and Monika Jakubiak
and promote life-long learning. The process was initiated by the emergence
of the Framework for European Higher Education Area (QF for EHEA), which
led to the development of the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) in
the signatory countries.
NQF is to become the reference point for individual university studies’
majors based upon the effects of education and competencies. In this case,
the competencies are understood as the combination of knowledge and
its understanding, occupational, interpersonal, intellectual, and practical
skills, as well as ethical values (Gonzalez & Wagenaar, 2003, pp. 4–5).
Such definition of competencies was applied in the methodology of the
present paper.
Currently, particular importance is attached to the development of man-
agement in organizations. In literature, the improvement of managers is
presented as the process of constant learning and regarded as the key suc-
cess factor, and also competitiveness tool (Sitko-Lutek, 2004, p. 76). The
process of managers’ shaping begins during the formal education stage,
namely in the course of university studies. Studies with particular influence
on the process of managers’ shaping are studies in the field of economics
and management. Therefore, for the purpose of the present paper, the re-
search was performed among the students of these majors. In Poland, the
studies in these fields became popular only recently – in 1990. The inter-
est was sparked off by economic changes (political transformation) and the
perception of economist’s profession – more of a manager than an office
worker. At present, the studies of economics are offered by more than 300
public and private universities and higher education schools.
A special term pertaining to the issue of competencies is the compe-
tence gap. It may be perceived as a certain lack or deficiency of skills. The
term may also be understood as ‘a difference between the required and real
competencies, the structure and level of management’s competencies, and
desired and required competencies’ (Loboda & Sitko-Lutek, 2007, p. 23).
Such an understanding of the competence gap was applied in this article.
The present study aims at defining the importance of the managerial
competencies, taking particular interest in knowledge, in students’ prospec-
tive professional career and the level in which these competencies were
gained in the course of their studies. On the basis of these stipulations, an
attempt was made to define the competence gap (perceived as the differ-
ence in the level of competencies required vs. competencies gained).
The Role of Knowledge in the Bologna Process
In the process of globalisation and European integration, the free movement
of EU nationals, services, and capital seems fundamental for the develop-
ment of a single market. Furthermore, intellectual, educational, cultural and
International Journal of Management, Knowledge and Learning
Managerial Competencies in Knowledge Context 155
social domains are no less important for the integration. These domains
are defined as the ‘Europe of Knowledge’ with university studies constitut-
ing its vital element. Economists are unanimous in the opinion that, in order
to establish a European global knowledge-based economy, a well-organised
and competitive educational system, providing an opportunity for solving
economic and social problems, is crucial (Teaching and Learning Research
Programme 2008).
As early as the second half of the 20th century, the Council of Europe de-
veloped a series of regulations enabling education and research in various
EU countries. However, the issues concerning the recognition of diplomas
and the heterogeneous character of educational systems in individual coun-
tries still existed. Projects and programmes such as ERASMUS , Tempus or
ECTS system seem vital for the development of the European Higher Edu-
cation Area. These programmes aim at harmonisation of higher education
systems and uniformisation of education in individual countries.
The Bologna Declaration, signed on the 19th of June 1999 by the min-
isters of education representing 29 European countries, greatly contributed
to harmonisation of higher education systems and uniformisation of educa-
tion in individual countries. The document defines the activities necessary
for the establishment of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) up to
2010 (Bologna Working Group on Qualifications Frameworks, 2004, pp. 8).
Activities undertaken in the framework of the Bologna Declaration ini-
tiated the so-called Bologna Process, which represents the basis for the
undertakings aimed at the regulation of the higher education system (car-
ried out with the establishment of common values, rules concerning the
educational process, and development of common guidelines) while, at the
same time, maintaining systemic and cultural independence of regions and
countries participating in the process, as well as the autonomy and aca-
demic traditions of individual universities (Cardoso, Portelay, Sà, & Alexan-
dre, 2008, pp. 231–234).
The implementation of the Bologna Process is to facilitate the students’
and researchers’ mobility among the countries and universities, and boost
the flexibility of the system, especially in regard to its adaptation to the
changing requirements of the global labour market. Initiators of the pro-
cess also aim at attracting the students from outside Europe to undertake
studies at the universities belonging to the EHEA, which would improve the
European universities’ competitiveness (Mechtenberg & Strausz, 2008, pp.
109–130).
The stipulations of the process also emphasise the necessity of close co-
operation between the universities and the employers in order to facilitate a
swift transfer from education to employment and maintain life-long learning
ability, which provides the capacity to fulfil the economy’s requirements for
Volume 3, Issue 2, 2014
156 Agnieszka Sitko-Lutek and Monika Jakubiak
new qualifications. The graduates’ mobility on the European labour market
is to be ensured with the ability to compare and recognise the qualifica-
tions and degrees obtained during their studies in various EHEA countries
(Bologna Process, 2007).
Currently, the European universities face a new challenge – the intro-
duction of the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) for higher education
system. These are to constitute a part of a comprehensive NQF system.
The NQF for higher education system is a presentation of an individual
country’s higher education system, which is understandable in an interna-
tional context, and defines the results of the studies in a way which enables
their comparison among various countries. In accordance with the European
Qualifications Framework, the NQF descriptors for the results of the studies
are divided into the following three categories:
1. Knowledge (theoretical or factographic) as a result of the acquisition
of information by learning and a collection of facts, regulations, theo-
ries, and practices connected with a particular science.
2. Skills, divided into intellectual (logical thinking, intuition, and creativ-
ity) and practical (utilisation of methods and tools), denote the ability
to use knowledge to solve problems and undertake activities.
3. Competencies (responsibility and autonomy), which denote a proven
ability to use knowledge, skills, personal, social, and methodological
competencies at work, education or personal and professional devel-
opment.
The literature of the subject devotes much attention to the necessity
of improving the practical aspect of education, which ought to be pursued
regardless of the field of study. Currently, universities are encouraged to
establish more favourable conditions for the cooperation with the surround-
ing socio-economic elements. By including the employers in the process
of education, enabling students’ participation in trainings and internships,
the universities can considerably improve the results of studies and conse-
quently positively influence the students’ preparedness when entering the
labour market.
Actually, in the 21st Century, which is called ‘the age of the knowledge-
based economy’ (Besenyei, 2010, pp. 3–9), there are many debates about
the role and the future of the European higher education system. Nowadays,
the perceptions of the role of universities and their expectations have been
modified due to the fact the learning process often takes place outside of
them. That is why higher education institutions will be facing functioning
problems in the future. The answer could be in Life Long Learning (LLL),
which is becoming more meaningful and important for the universities. The
International Journal of Management, Knowledge and Learning
Managerial Competencies in Knowledge Context 157
higher education sector may play a special role in this process, progres-
sively increasing its provision of LLL. The universities should, therefore,
commit to promoting LLL (Bikfalvi, Rafart, & Mancebo, 2013, p. 8), which
is formalized in the document of the European Association of Universities
(2008). The document emphasizes the role of universities as model institu-
tions of LLL.
Research Methodology
The empirical analyses presented in this article were conducted on the
basis of authors’ own questionnaire.
The respondents were asked to assess ten managerial competencies,
such as:
1. Managing change
2. Specialist knowledge
3. Knowledge concerning management
4. Knowledge of strategic management
5. Knowledge of HRM
6. Knowledge of law
7. Knowledge of financial issues
8. Knowledge of marketing
9. Global thinking and action
10. Professional experience
The competencies were evaluated based on the following two aspects:
•their role in the respondents’ future professional career,
•the level of competencies gained by the respondent while at the uni-
versity.
Cafeteria-style answer evaluation ranging from 1 (none, of low signifi-
cance) and up to 4 (significant) was proposed.
Empirical material was collected on the basis of studies conducted in
2009–2010 with the use of a diagnostic survey. Studies encompassed two
respondent groups. The first group included 278 students of the final, fifth,
year at three state universities in Lublin, namely:
•Maria Curie-Sklodowska University (UMCS) – Economics, Manage-
ment, and Finance and Accounting majors;
•Lublin University of Technology (LUT) – Management and Marketing
majors;
•John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin (KUL) – Management majors.
Volume 3, Issue 2, 2014
158 Agnieszka Sitko-Lutek and Monika Jakubiak
Table 1 The Structure of Respondent Groups
Specification Polish students (n = 278) British students (n = 50)
n % n %
Sex Female 169 61 34 68
Male 109 39 16 32
Place of residence Rural area 97 35 11 22
Urban area 181 65 39 78
Work for money Yes 82 29 34 68
No 196 71 16 32
Material status Good 75 27 7 14
Average 177 64 35 70
Low 26 9 8 16
The second group of respondents consisted of 50 students of Business
School University of Huddersfield. The collected empirical data provided
the opportunity for simultaneous comparative analysis regarding the impor-
tance of the evaluated competencies and the level of competencies gained
by the two groups of respondents.
Women (61%) and persons residing permanently in cities (approximately
2/3) constituted the majority of researched Polish students. The majority of
respondents were unemployed (71%) and defined their economic situation
as average (64%).
In the case of the respondents from the British university, women (64%)
and persons residing permanently in cities (78%) constituted the majority
of respondents as well. As opposed to the respondents from universities
in Lublin, their British colleagues were employed (more than 2/3) despite
attending a full-time course. This may be due to the fact that British univer-
sities charge tuition fees, whereas full-time studies at Polish public univer-
sities are free of charge.
Respondents studying in Huddersfield, similarly to their Polish counter-
parts, defined their economic situation as average (70%). 16% and 14% of
respondents defined their economic situation as either poor or good respec-
tively.
Research Outcome
Table 2 presents self-evaluation of managerial competencies as seen by
Polish and British students.
Each of the assessed groups of competencies was evaluated much lower
in comparison with the opinion expressed in reference to their role at work.
This fact seems to confirm the existence of a competence gap related to all
evaluated competencies. The most significant differences occurred in rela-
tion to a professional experience, which was evaluated as the most vital in
International Journal of Management, Knowledge and Learning
Managerial Competencies in Knowledge Context 159
Table 2 Competence Gap As Self-Evaluated by Polish and British University Students
Competencies Polish students British students
(1) (2) (1) (2)
Managing change 2,76 2,42 2,92 2,23
Specialist knowledge 2,82 2,36 3,49 2,18
Knowledge concerning management 2,96 2,50 3,23 2,80
Knowledge of strategic management 2,74 2,34 3,09 2,59
Knowledge of the HRM 2,60 2,06 3,09 2,65
Knowledge of the law 2,52 1,98 2,86 2,30
Knowledge of financial issues 2,92 2,44 3,21 2,61
Knowledge of marketing 2,92 2,44 3,21 2,86
Global thinking and action 2,70 2,34 2,97 2,28
Professional experience 3,52 2,10 3,66 1,65
Notes Column headings are as follows: (1) role in professional career, (2) Level reached at
university.
a professional career with the average of 3.66 on a 4 point scale; however,
this competence was at the same time acquired the least in the course of
studies (1.65 points). In addition, significant differences pertained to spe-
cialist knowledge, whose importance in professional career scored 3.49
points, but its realization in the course of studies received only 2.18 points.
In the case of the remaining competencies connected with knowledge, the
differences were not as considerable; however, they were statistically signif-
icant.
Similar to the case of the Polish students, statistically significant dif-
ferences were also found in the competencies related to the professional
career and their level exhibited by the British students. Professional expe-
rience was evaluated as the most significant for prospective employment
(average 3.52), but at the same time achieved the least in the course of
studies (2.10 points). In the case of the remaining competencies, the differ-
ences in ranking were slightly lower and amounted to 0.5 percentage points.
Unlike the Polish students’ rankings, the individual competencies received
similar scores in both rankings. The following areas scored the lowest in
both classifications: law (averages respectively 2.52 and 1.98) and human
resources management (average 2.60 and 2.06).
From the perspective of the present paper, the comparison of compe-
tencies evaluated by both the British and the Polish final year students
seemed interesting. The results of the comparative analyses are displayed
in Table 3.
The analysis of the significance of competencies in regard to the pro-
fessional career indicated that the greatest convergence applied to profes-
sional experience (1st place in both rankings), global thinking and action
Volume 3, Issue 2, 2014
160 Agnieszka Sitko-Lutek and Monika Jakubiak
Table 3 A Comparison of the Managerial Competencies As Assessed
by Both Groups of Students
Competencies Role in professional career Level reached at university
PL UK Diff. PL UK Diff.
Managing change 9.0 6.0 3.0 8.0 4.0 4.0
Specialist knowledge 2.0 5.0 –3.0 9.0 5.0 4.0
Knowledge concerning manag. 3.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0
Knowledge of strategic manag. 6.5 7.0 –0.5 5.0 6.0 –1.0
Knowledge of the HRM 6.5 9.0 –2.5 3.0 9.0 –6.0
Knowledge of the law 10.0 10.0 0.0 6.0 10.0 –4.0
Knowledge of financial issues 4.5 3.5 1.0 4.0 2.5 1.5
Knowledge of marketing 4.5 3.5 1.0 1.0 2.5 –1.5
Global thinking and action 8.0 8.0 0.0 7.0 7.0 0.0
Professional experience 1.0 1.0 0.0 10.0 8.0 2.0
Notes Column headings are as follows: PL – Polish students, UK – British students.
(8th place), and knowledge of law, which was evaluated as the lowest by
both respondent groups (10th place). Slight differences pertained to the
knowledge of strategic management, knowledge concerning management,
knowledge of financial issues, and knowledge of marketing.
A comparative analysis regarding the knowledge gained in the course of
the studies indicated greater disparities. Only global thinking and action was
evaluated in the same way (7th place among both respondent groups). The
least significant differences pertained to the knowledge concerning man-
agement, strategic management and financial issues, and marketing.
Conclusions
As discussed in the course of this study, globalisation and internationalisa-
tion processes pose particular challenges for the universities all over the
world. This is a particularly important challenge for the higher education
institutions in the European countries, due to the Bologna Process and the
formation of the European Higher Education Area.
Improving the practical aspect of education, which ought to be pur-
sued regardless of the field of study, has become crucial for the univer-
sities. In the 21st century, the universities are encouraged to establish
more favourable conditions for the cooperation with the surrounding socio-
economic elements. By including the employers in the process of education,
and enabling students’ participation in trainings and internships, the univer-
sities can considerably improve the results of their studies and positively
influence the students’ preparedness when entering the labour market.
The authors of the present work conducted a diagnostic survey among
the final year students of economics and management university courses
International Journal of Management, Knowledge and Learning
Managerial Competencies in Knowledge Context 161
in Lublin, Poland and Huddersfield, Great Britain. The research results re-
vealed that, among both respondent groups, the importance of evaluated
competencies exceeded the level of competencies gained in the course
of studies. The level of declared managerial competencies gained in the
course of studies differs in a statistically significant manner in favour of the
students from Polish universities.
The research results in both respondent groups revealed the existence of
a competence gap in relation to all evaluated competencies associated with
knowledge. In the light of this research, undertaking corrective measures
in order to fill the gap between the significance of individual competencies
in professional career (in students’ opinion) and the level of these com-
petencies exhibited by graduating students seems vital. For that reason,
greater students’ involvement in the process of gaining knowledge, skills,
and social competencies is crucial.
Due to the fact that a diagnosis of the predispositions and skills of an
individual takes place in the course of their studies, students ought to make
greater use of the available forms of professional development support of-
fered by the universities via the university career services (i.e. professional
counselling, workshops, trainings). Furthermore, the students ought to be
made aware of the necessity of greater activity during the course of their
studies, involvement in social and scientific activities, student exchange,
and university life.
The empirical data revealed the greatest gap, in regard to professional
experience, which implicates the necessity of a greater involvement of stu-
dents in acquiring such experience during the course of their studies. The
time of their studies should be used in order to attempt cooperation with
various organizations not only in the form of full or part-time work, but mainly
in the framework of internships or voluntary work.
Filling the competence gap is not possible without the involvement of
universities, who are responsible for the education of the students of eco-
nomics and management, as well as potential employers employing their
graduates. For that reason, the universities ought to devote more attention
to cultivating not only the theoretical knowledge, but also providing the abil-
ity of implementing knowledge in practice, as well as emphasize problem
solving. In response to the European Commission’s guidelines presented
in ‘The European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning’ (EQF), the
youth ought to be supported in gaining the competencies that are funda-
mental when entering the labour market. The last three levels of the com-
petencies defined in the guidelines are concerned with the effects of the
studies in the higher education level. The following items belong to these
levels: knowledge, personal, and professional skills (Bohlinger, 2007, pp.
96–118).
Volume 3, Issue 2, 2014
162 Agnieszka Sitko-Lutek and Monika Jakubiak
In order to support the development of the students’ competencies in re-
gard to knowledge and practical experiences, the involvement of the univer-
sities in establishing the cooperation with businesses or employers’ organi-
zations seems advisable, especially in terms of reinforcement of practical
aspects of education by:
• introducing more practical classes performed not only at the univer-
sity, but also in companies;
•organizing student and graduate internships in cooperation with busi-
nesses;
• inviting experienced entrepreneurs to conduct classes for students;
•emphasising the practical character and applicability of diploma the-
ses, which should address the possible solutions of the real problems
of businesses;
• joint organization of conferences, job fairs, panel meetings, competi-
tions, study visits to inspect production lines, etc.
Conducting supportive activities for young people, assisting them in the
development of their talents by organizing additional activities, enabling par-
ticipation in science clubs, etc. is worthwhile. A vital role is also played by
supportive activities assisting students in making decisions regarding their
career and developing their competencies (including social competencies)
e.g. personal support services, group workshops or professional trainings.
It is obvious that the present study and the authors’ analysis have limita-
tions that require further research, particularly in the area of the preparation
of the graduates for the requirements of the global labour market. Thus,
both the content of the study and the survey results represent a contribu-
tion to the discussion on the importance of knowledge in the graduates’
professional career.
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Dr Agnieszka Sitko-Lutek is a professor at the Economics Department of
Maria Curie-Sklodowska University. She is the Head of the Institute of Man-
agement and the Project ‘Synergy’ concerning business-science cooperation.
She is the author of over 100 publications, especially in the area of organi-
zational culture, competencies and social capital, as well as a consultant in
the field of human resource management. lutek@ramzes.umcs.lublin.pl
Dr Monika Jakubiak, graduate of management and economy studies, Post-
graduate at the Interdisciplinary College of European Studies, scholar of
Universidade Portucalense Porto, Portugal, graduate of Metrum Coaching
School. Her research focuses on graduates’ competencies in terms of re-
quirements posed by the contemporary labour market. She is the author of
several papers on management, professional training, and labour market.
Furthermore, she is a Coordinator of Career Services at the Lublin University
of Technology. m_jakubiak@o2.pl
This paper is published under the terms of the Attribution-
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License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
International Journal of Management, Knowledge and Learning