COBISS: 1.01
THE CHALLENGE OF ESTIMATING THE AGE OF SUBTERRANEAN LINEAGES: ExAMPLES FROM BRAZIL
IZZIV OCENJEVANJA STAROSTI PODZEMELJSKIH ŽIVALSKIH
LINIJ: PRIMERI IZ BRAZILIJE
Eleonora TRAJANO1
Abstract                                               UDC 551.44:597(81)
591.542(81)
Eleonora Trajano: Te challenge of estimating the age of sub-terranean lineages: examples from Brazil
Te applicability and efectiveness of diferent kinds of evidence used to estimate the age of lineages – morphological, molecu-lar, phylogenetic, biogeographical, geological – are discussed. Examples from the Brazilian subterranean fauna are presented, using mainly fshes, one of the best studied groups, as a model. Only three taxa including troglobites are object of molecular studies, all in progress. Terefore, molecular clocks cannot be applied yet, and indirect evidence is used. Few phylogenies are available, e.g. for the catfsh families Heptapteridae and Tricho-mycteridae. Teoretically, basal troglobitic clades are older than apical ones, but the possible existence of extinct epigean taxa belonging to such clades hampers the comparison. As well, the limitations of the use degrees of troglomorphism to estimate phylogenetic ages are analyzed with focus on the complexity of the mechanisms underlying morphological diferentiation. Paleoclimatic reconstructions based on dating of speleothems from caves in northeastern and southeastern Brazil are avail-able, but limited up to the last 200,000 years, thus useful for relatively recent lineages. Topographic isolation, probable for some fsh groups from Central Brazil, is also within the time range of 105 years. Older dated events (in the order of 106 years or more) that may represent vicariant events afecting aquatic lineages with subterranean derivatives are related to the establishment of the modern South American main river basins. In view of the paucity of data useful for estimating the age of Bra-zilian troglobitic lineages, combined evidence, including mor-phology, systematics and biogeography, seems to be the best approach at the moment.
Key words: evolution of troglobites, degree of troglomorphism, Brazil, subterranean fshes, diferentiation rates.
Izvlecek                                                UDK 551.44:597(81)
591.542(81)
Eleonora Trajano: Izziv ocenjevanja starosti podzemeljskih živalskih linij: primeri iz Brazilije
V prispevku je opisana uporabnost in ucinkovitost razlicnih pristopov za ocenjevanje starosti živalskih linij s pomocjo morfologije, molekularne flogenije, biogeografje in geologije. Predstavljeni so primeri podzemeljske favne iz Brazilije, predvsem rib kot najbolj raziskane skupine. Molekularno-biološke raziskave, ki vkljucujejo tudi troglobionte, opravljamo na zgolj treh taksonih. Molekularne ure zaenkrat še ne moreme uporabiti, vendar zgolj posredne dokaze. Na voljo imamo le nekaj flogenetskih podatkov, npr. za morske zmaje iz družin Hep-tapteridae in Trichomycteridae. Teoreticno so bazalni troglo-bitski kladi starejši od apikalnih, ceprav verjeten obstoj, sicer izumrlega epigejicnega taksona, ki pripada takim kladom, ovira primerjavo. Omejitve uporabe troglomorfzma za ocenjevanje flogenetske starosti smo analizirali s poudarkom na kompleksnosti mehanizmov, ki so osnova morfološkemu razlocevanju. Razpoložljiva paleoklimatska rekonstrukcija, ki temelji na dat-iranju kapnikov iz jam severovzhodne in jugovzhodne Brazilije, je omejena na zadnjih 200.000 let in je kot taka uporabna le za relativno recentne linije. Topografska izolacija, ki verjetno velja za nekaj skupin rib iz osrednje Brazilije, spada v casovno obdobje 105 let. Starejši datirani dogodki (obdobje 106 let ali vec), ki naj bi predstavljali vikariantske dogodke in ki so pomembni za vodne linije podzemeljskih sorodnikov, so povezane z razvojem današnjih glavnih južnoameriških porecij. Trenutno je, zaradi maloštevilnih podatkov, najboljša metoda za ocenjevanje starosti brazilskih troglobitskih linij kombinacija pristopov, ki vkljucujejo morfologijo, sistematiko in biogeografjo. Kljucne besede: evolucija troglobiontov, speleobiologija, stopnja troglomorfzma, Brazilija, podzemeljske ribe, razlocevalno razmerje.
1 Departamento de Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, BRASIL; e-mail: etrajano@usp.br Received/Prejeto: 06.12.2006
TIME in KARST, POSTOJNA 2007, 191–198
ELEONORA TRAJANO
INTRODUCTION
Te problem of estimating ages for subterranean or any other lineages starts with the very defnition of age, whether the time since the isolation from the immediate sister-group (age of the cladogenetic event) or the begin-ning of diferentiation, either the genetic or the morpho-logical one (see Boutin & Coineau, 2000, for a discussion about the concept of phylogenetic ages). Diferent kinds of evidence have been used to establish ages of lineages, but their applicability depends on the aspect of age con-sidered. Molecular studies may provide ages of genetic diferentiation, independently of morphological change. Dating of potential geological isolation events, such as periods of climatic stress and large scale geological changes, may be used to infer the time in isolation. Infer-ences about relative times of isolation or diferentiation also come out from comparative morphological studies within a phylogenetic and biogeographic framework. Ideally, all evidence should be combined to produce co-herent hypotheses about the evolution of subterranean lineages in the temporal scale.
In Brazil, robust molecular studies encompassing exclusively subterranean (troglobitic) taxa started very recently and focus on a few fsh groups with very special-ized troglomorphic derivatives. Basically three groups are under study with focus on populations or species: the phreatobitic characiform Stygicthys typhlops, from a karst area in eastern Brazil (studied by F. P. L. Marques & C. R. Moreira); the Amazonian catfsh genus Phreatobius, with phreatobic species collected in wells situated in alluvial plains (studied by J. Muriel Cunha); and the hep-tapterid subterranean catfsh from Chapada Diamantina, northeastern Brazil, belonging to the genus Rhamdiopsis (F.A.Bockmann, pers. comm.), previously cited as a “new genus” (studied by R. Borowsky & M. E. Bichuette). Few phylogenetic studies with biogeographic analyses of larg-er groups including Brazilian troglobites are available.
Studies aiming to establish the ages of paleoclimatic fuctuations based on speleothem dating are also recent in Brazil, but are progressing quickly. Important climatic
changes have been recorded in diferent karst areas, from the presently semiarid northeast to wet areas in the sub-tropical southeast. However, these studies are restricted to the late quaternary, imposing limits to its application to the problem of establishing ages for subterranean lin-eages because many of these lineages probably have a more ancient origin. Older geological events, such as the Miocene – Plio-Pleistocene important changes that pro-duced the modern Amazon River system, are useful to estimate the age of some Brazilian lineages.
Classically, the degree of troglomorphism, basically the reduction of eyes and pigmentation, has been used as a measure of the phylogenetic age for troglobitic animals (Poulson, 1963; wilkens, 1973, 1982; Langecker, 2000). In spite of the many restrictions to its generalized application (see below), the degree of morphological special-ization may, in certain cases, provide relative ages of isolation in the subterranean environment, being a supplement to molecular and geological evidence.
In the phylogenetic context, a lineage is a branch which departs from one node to another (hypothetical “ancestor”), from a node to a terminal, or an “ancestral” branch plus all the derived terminals, including extinct taxa (which remain unnoticed unless a fossil is known). Te present discussion deals lineages including terminals. It must be noted that the ever present possibility of extinction of epigean terminals in a lineage leading to a troglobitic taxon is a source of bias that may produce overestimations of its time of isolation in the subterra-nean environment.
Among Brazilian subterranean taxa, fshes are by far the best studied group with focus on the currently dis-cussed aspects. Tus, I took basically examples from these animals. For the sake of simplicity, I use herein the term “subterranean” as synonym of “troglobitic” (exclusively subterranean) species, to the exclusion of the equally subterranean, although not exclusively, troglophilic and trogloxenic populations.
DEGREE OF TROGLOMORPHISM AND PHyLOGENETIC AGE:
Te use of the degree of troglomorphism to infer relative phylogenetic ages is based on the assumption that the rates of morphological diferentiation are fairly constant among subterranean taxa, at least those regarding eyes and pigmentation, which tend to be lost along the isolation in subterranean habitats. To accept this notion, it is
necessary to assume that the mechanisms of reduction are the same for each of these characters and that their reduction progress in parallel. However, there is strong evidence in contrary.
Te occurrence of diferent mosaics of character states in closely related taxa suggests diferent mecha-
192     TIME in KARST – 2007
THE CHALLENGE OF ESTIMATING THE AGE OF SUBTERRANEAN LINEAGES: ExAMPLES FROM BRAZIL
nisms acting at diferent rates in each population. An illustrative example is provided by the armored catfshes, Ancistrus cryptophthalmus, from Central Brazil: in the large population found in Angélica Cave, pigmentation is more reduced but eyes are less reduced than in the much smaller population from Passa Três Caves (Reis et al., 2006). A study based on geometric morphomet-rics showed that the four known populations also difer in general body shape, with a mosaic in the deformation axes, indicating divergence probably due (at least partial-ly) to topographic isolation (Reis et al., op. cit.). Other mosaics are also observed among related heptapterids – among the Rhamdiini, Pimelodella kronei presents eyes more reduced than Rhamdia enfurnada, the opposite be-ing observed for melanic pigmentation.
Such mosaics may encompass a larger number of characters, including behavioral and physiological ones. Tis is the case with the troglobitic amblyopsids, tradi-tionally ranked in order of increasing degree of reduction of eyes and pigmentation as: typhlichthys subterraneus < Amblyopsis spelaea < A. rosae (Poulson, 1963). Never-theless, A. spelaea presents more specialized life history traits and feeding behavior, while A. rosae is more de-rived as regards to agonistic behavior and metabolic rates (both subject to reduction); the otherwise less derived typhlichthys subterraneus is intermediate in relation to agonistic behavior and metabolic rates (Poulson, 1963; Bechler, 1983). Distinct selective pressures are likely to explain such mosaics. For this reason, attempts to rank species like these according to their degree of “adaptation” or specialization to the cave life are unconvincing.
In fact, the reduction of melanic pigmentation in subterranean fshes results from diferent, independent mechanisms, which may superpose. Morphological mechanisms afect the size and number of melanocytes, whereas physiological ones afect the ability to synthe-size melanin. Apparently, this ability may be lost due to diferent mutations afecting at least distinct two steps in the synthesis of eumelanin, one upstream and the other downstream the synthesis of DOPA: the frst cor-responds to completely depigmented fsh which respond to the administration of L-DOPA by synthesizing melanin, referred as DOPA(+) by Trajano & Pinna (1996) and tyrosinase-positive by Jefery (2006); the second correspond to depigmented fsh which to not respond to L-DOPA (DOPA(-) albinos; Trajano & Pinna, op. cit.). Among Brazilian completely depigmented subterranean fshes, Stygichthys typhlops, the new Rhamdiopsis from Chapada Diamantina and the armored catfsh, Ancistrus formoso are DOPA(+), the heptapterid “taunayia” sp. (actually a Rhamdiopsis – F.A. Bockmann, pers. comm.) is DOPA(-) (M.A. Visconti and V. Felice, pers. comm.), and one third of the population of the trichomycterid
trichomycterus itacarambiensis is DOPA(-), whereas the remaining two thirds have functional melanophores re-duced in density.
Te morphological mechanism is based on an additive polygenic system (wilkens, 1988), resulting in a continuous variation in the frst evolutionary steps and progressing towards complete depigmentation through-out the population at slower rates than that caused by the loss of the ability to synthesize melanin, which is based on monogenic systems (wilkens, 1988). For instance, it has been demonstrated that albinism in diferent popu-lations of Mexican Astyanax is caused by independent mutations in the same gene, Oca2 (Protas et al., 2005). Terefore, very pale but still pigmented fsh species, with scattered micromelanophores (such as the trichomycter-us undescribed species respectively from Bodoquena and from Serra do Ramalho karst areas, and the Ituglanis spp. from São Domingos karst areas) may be younger than any of those DOPA(+) “albinos”. Tus, the use of troglo-morphic pigmentation as a measure of relative age should be restricted to related taxa retaining melanin (i.e., to the exclusion of DOPA albinos), where the degree of pale-ness is due to mutations in the additive polygenic system underlying the morphological, gradual mechanism.
Regression of eyes is also due to complex genetic systems. In the blind Mexican tetra characins, genus As-tyanax, it has been shown that regression is caused by the inactivation of several genes that take part in the developmental control, and that growth factors acting at a lower level of this control appear to be involved in the degeneration of the eyes (Langecker, 2000). Clearly, studies on a much large sample of troglobitic species are needed before any inference about diferentiation rates can be made.
Two other factors infuence the rates of divergence: population sizes and life cycle strategies. Small popula-tions tend to diferentiate faster due to phenomena as ge-netic drif. Population sizes are highly infuenced by eco-logical factors such as nutrient availability and the extent of habitats suitable for colonization. It is noteworthy that energy is higher in streams (higher carrying capacity), but phreatic habitats occupy larger areas and volumes. Because there is no taxonomic correlation with these fac-tors, related species may difer in population sizes (for instance, populations respectively with 20,000 and 1,000 individuals were estimated for A. cryptophthalmus in An-gélica and in Passa Três caves – Trajano, 2001a), thus in divergence rates. As well, nutrient availability may also be “perceived” diferently even by taxonomically related species, depending on the efciency of energy use. Such efciency may be improved along the adaptation to the subterranean life, allowing for increase in population sizes, then in lowered diferentiation rates.
TIME in KARST – 2007      193
ELEONORA TRAJANO
K-selected life strategies imply lower diferentia-tion rates due to delayed ages for frst maturation and low reproductive rates (few individuals reproducing at given times), which work on opposite directions: delayed frst maturation implies slow divergence rates (longer re-productive generations), whereas low reproductive rates result in lowered efective populations, which would ac-celerate divergence rates..
In conclusion, there is a complex balance between diferent genetic, ecological and biological factors, which may act in diferent directions to produce the actual di-vergence rates. Such rates may difer among related taxa, and even among diferent characters. Terefore, the de-gree of troglomorphism as a measure of age of subterra-nean lineages should be used with extreme caution.
GEOLOGICAL, PALEOCLIMATIC AND BIOGEOGRAPHICAL EVIDENCE:
Dating of paleoclimatic events based on growth phases of speleothems and similar deposits may be applied to sub-terranean lineages within the framework of the paleocli-matic model (Barr, 1968; wilkens et al., 2000). However, its cyclical nature imposes serious limitations because, without biological data (molecular, morphological, phy-logenetic), it is not possible to establish in which phase the isolation frst took place. As a matter of fact, isolation with diferentiation may occur along several subsequent unfavorable phases intercalated with coalition phases, thus what really counts to produce genetic and/or mor-phological divergence is the sum of isolation periods (Trajano, 1995), and not simply the time since the frst isolation event.
For instance, in northeastern Brazil there were nine dry phases (no speleothem growth) in the last 210,000 years, intercalated with short wet phases lasting from several hundreds to a few thousand years each. Overall, these periods of speleothem growth occupied only 8% of the studied period, i.e., around 20,000 years in con-trast with 190,000 years with dry conditions, like the one prevalent nowadays in the region (wang et al., 2004). Hence, at least in the late Pleistocene, there was a much extended period of isolation for the hypogean fauna in northeastern Brazil – for lineages already established in subterranean habitats, from 190,000 to 210,000 years, de-pending on the occurrence or not of introgression with epigean relatives during the wet periods. As a matter of fact, several of the most highly specialized Brazilian tro-globites have been found in this region (e.g., Rhamdiopsis catfshes, Spelaeogammarus amphipods, Pongicarcinia xi-phidophorum isopods, Coarazuphium beetles), as well as the only Brazilian troglobitic scorpions, cockroaches and Ctenid spiders.
On the other hand, climatic changes were not as dominant in the subtropical southeast Brazil and dry phases were shorter, at least for the last 116,200 years (Cruz-Jr. et al., 2005). Terefore, total time of isolation in subterranean habitats during the late Pleistocene was shorter in SE than in NE Brazil. Hypothetically, a pop-194     TIME in KARST – 2007
ulation that became frst isolated at a given time in the northeast would be much more diferentiated, both ge-netically and morphologically, than another population frst isolated at the same time in the southeast. If one con-siders “age” as the time of the frst isolation, these two lineages have the same age; if “age” is the total time in isolation, then the frst one is older. It is clear that, in a cyclical model, the degree of genetic diferentiation do not provide a good evidence of age without a precise determination of the duration of each phase.
Geological and geographical events over larger temporal scales may provide more robust evidence. Te genus Phreatobius is distributed around the Amazon basin, in tributary basins from both margins of the Amazon River. Te frst described species, P. cisternarum, lives underground in the alluvial fan around the Amazon delta, being collected in shallow hand-dug wells. Much latter, in the 1990´s, other species were found deeply buried in submerged litter banks in shallow “igarapés” (small tributaries) along the lef margin of the Negro and Amazon rivers. More recently, a second phreatobic species was discovered in wells in the State of Rondônia, Rio Madeira basin, in the right margin of the Amazon drainage (J. Muriel-Cunha & J. Zuanon, pers. comm..; description in progress by J. Muriel-Cunha & M. de Pinna). Tis wide, peripheral distribution of the Phreatobius genus around the Amazon basin may be explained by an origin between the late Miocene and the late Pliocene (~2.5 Ma), when a gigantic lake, or a series of interconnected mega-lakes occasionally united to cover most or all of lowland Amazonia to a shallow depth (Campbell et al., 2006). In fact, Phreatobius cat-fshes are adapted to shallow, hypoxic conditions, with dark pink to red skin indicating cutaneous breathing; since all known species exhibit this conspicuous trait, this is probably an ancestral condition for the genus. I suggest that the fragmentation of the lacustrine habitat during the late Pliocene, leading to the establishment of the modern Amazon River drainage system, may have been an isolation event for the ancestors of the extant
THE CHALLENGE OF ESTIMATING THE AGE OF SUBTERRANEAN LINEAGES: ExAMPLES FROM BRAZIL
an older origin for cannot be
species. Nevertheless, ruled out.
On the other hand, P. cisternarum has been found not only north and south of the Amazon River mouth but also in the large Marajó Island in between, with no unequivo-cal morphological diferentiation so far detected between these localities (Muriel-Cunha & Pinna, 2005). Tese pop-ulations were isolated during the formation of the Amazon delta, ~2.5 Ma ago, suggesting a high evolutionary stability, at least at the morphological level, possibly due to the envi-ronmental stability of the subterranean habitat.
Te disjunct distribution also points to a very ancient origin for the Calabozoidea isopods. So far, this taxon is composed exclusively by three extant phreatobic species, one from the Orinoco basin, in Venezuela (Calabozoa pellucida), e two from Brazil, respectively from the São Francisco (Pongycarcinia xiphidiourus) and the Paraguay (undescribed species) river basins. Te only connection between these regions is through the Amazon basin, and I speculate that the ancestors may have dispersed during
or prior to the formation of the huge Lago Amazonas. Actually, the São Francisco lineage would be older, at least 5 Ma, which is the estimated age of separation of this basin based on studies of the biogeographical patterns in Brazilian freshwater fshes (Hubert & Renno, 2006). Messana et al., (2002) argue for a close relationship between the Calabozoidea and the Oniscoidea isopods, thus both lineages have the same phylogenetic age, which goes back to the Jurassic-Cretaceous (gondwanic origin – L. A. Souza, pers. comm.). A phylogenetic study, that could add more light to this interesting problem, is waiting for the collection of additional specimens, what is proving to be very difcult in spite of the eforts of biologists and cave divers. Apparently these animals are very rare and/ or live mainly in inaccessible, deep phreatic habitats.
Geomorphological events as alluvial erosion pro-ducing waterfalls that split populations (topographical isolation), once dated, also provide data useful to esti-mate the age of lineages such as the diferent populations of the armored catfsh, A. cryptophthalmus.
PHyLOGENETIC AND MOLECULAR EVIDENCE:
In order to be minimally reliable and useful, molecular clocks must be based on well corroborated phylogenies with at least one node correlated to geographic or geo-logical isolation events of known age. In cyclical models, such correlation is hampered when cycles are relatively short and repetitive, as is the case with the paleoclimatic fuctuations in the late Pleistocene in Brazil, adding a great deal of uncertainty to the molecular clock. Marine transgressions, which have been used to establish dates for vicariant events in epigean Brazilian taxa such as freshwater fshes, are of no use for subterranean lin-eages because almost all karst areas in Brazil are above the maximum sea levels. In any case, the conclusion of the molecular studies on Phreatobius spp., S. typhlops and Rhamdiopsis sp. from Chapada Diamantina will certainly open new interesting avenues in this feld.
As already mentioned, few phylogenetic studies of groups including Brazilian troglobites are available, most at the genus level and incomplete in terms of taxa encom-passed. Among fshes, the heptapterid catfshes were ob-ject of a phylogenetic study, but the cave species were not included (Bockmann, 1998). Phylogenetic and molecular studies on heptapterids are in progress, but the position of the Phreatobius genus and of the troglobitic Rhamdi-opsis species within this genus are still unclear. Recently analyzed morphological data indicate that, within the genus Rhamdiopsis, “taunayia” sp. is basal whereas the spe-cies from Chapada Diamantina have a more apical posi-
tion in the phylogeny (F. A. Bockmann, pers. comm.). Tese two species independently adapted to the same kind of habitat, the upper phreatic zone connected to the surface through caves (Trajano, 2001b), having devel-oped advanced characters states related to the hypogean life, including miniaturization. “taunayia” sp., however, is even more specialized, presenting a hypertrophied lateral line system in the head, with behavioral evidence of enhanced mechano-sensory sensitivity. Tis, associated with its putative basal position in the Rhamdiopsis phy-logeny, points to an older age for the lineage to which the troglobitic “taunyaia” sp. belongs, much anterior to the late Pleistocene.
Te phylogeny of the catfsh family Trichomycteri-dae was also studied (wosiack, 2002), but only one among 10+ troglobitic species presently known, trichomycterus itacarambiensis, was included. It is an apical taxa in the phylogeny, indicating a relatively recent origin. A recent derivation of t. itacarambiensis from an epigean ancestor from the Upper São Francisco River basin is consistent with the morphological variation observed in eyes and pigmentation and also with the notion of a quick fxation of genes for albinism, since one third of the population is made of albinos. However, in the absence of a correlation between some node and dated geographic or geological isolation events, it is not possible to estimate an absolute age, even approximate, for this cave lineage.
TIME in KARST – 2007      195
ELEONORA TRAJANO
COMBINED EVIDENCE:
For extremes in the inter-taxa variation, the troglomor-phism degree may provide good evidence of relative ages. For instance, it is reasonable to suppose that fshes with slightly reduced eyes and pigmentation such as the heptapterids Rhamdiopsis sp. from Cordisburgo (east-ern Brazil) and Pimelodella spelaea, from São Domingos (Central Brazil), are younger than the highly troglomor-phic Rhamdiopsis sp. from Chapada Diamantina and “taunaya” sp., from Campo Formoso. Te two former species probably have been isolated topographically be-cause they inhabit streams several meters above the base level, and an isolation period in the order of 105 years (es-timated time for the erosional processes lead to the cur-rent landscape – A. Auler, pers. comm..) may be estimat-ed. Te two latter species inhabit presently semiarid karst areas in northeastern Brazil subject to extended periods of isolation at least during the last 210,000 years, but they probably became isolated well before. Tus, an estimate in the order of 105-106 years seems reasonable.
A molecular study focusing on the hypervariable Region I of MtDNA did not fnd any evidence of divergence between the cave populations of Ancistrus cryptophthalmus (Moller & Parzefall, 2001). However, geometric morphometric analyses showed a clear, statis-tically signifcant diference between these populations, but with some superposition with the epigean closest relatives (Reis et al., 2006). Taken together, these data in-dicate a recent isolation of the cave populations from the epigean ones and also from each other, in the order of 104 -105 years.
Preliminary molecular studies on Ituglanis spe-cies from São Domingos karst area are consistent with the observed morphological diferences (Bichuette et al., 2001) justifying the recognition of four species, each one in a separate microbasin that runs parallel westwards (Bichuette & Trajano, 2004). Tese catfshes are sym-patric with the morphologically less specialized A. cryp-
tophthalmus, P. spelaea and Eigenmannia vicentespelaea (Gymnotiformes), making São Domingos karst area a world hotspot of biodiversity for subterranean fshes. All the Ituglanis catfshes have eyes more reduced and are paler than the other species, presenting scattered mela-nophores, i.e., they are not DOPA albinos. Tree among these Ituglanis species occupy a very specialized habitat, with adaptations to the phreatic environment that include miniaturization. Moreover, I. epikarsticus, and prob-ably also I. bambui and I. ramiroi (Trajano & Bichuette, unpubl. data), live and disperse through the epikarst, whereas the other species are typical stream-dwellers, like their epigean relatives. In spite of intensive collect-ing eforts, no epigean Ituglanis catfsh was found in São Domingos (the same is true for Pimelodella; Bichuette & Trajano, 2003). Taken together, these evidences indicate a longer time in isolation for the Ituglanis catfshes. In con-clusion, the rich troglobitic ichthyofauna from São Domingos seems to be the result of anachronous isolation events, including both the extinction of epigean relatives due to unknown factors (for Ituglanis and Pimelodella) and topographic isolation (for Ituglanis spp. and also A. cryptophthalmus).
Anachronous isolation, possibly in association with diferent divergence rates, may also explain the disparity in troglomorphic degree observed for the subterranean fauna from the Upper Ribeira Valley karst area, SE Brazil. Tis fauna includes very specialized species, such as the pseudoscorpion Spelaeobochica muchmorei and the deca-pod Aegla microphthalma, to moderately troglomorphic species, such as the opilionid Pachylospeleus strinatii, the carabid beetle Schizogenius ocellatus and the catfsh Pimelodella kronei. within the framework of the paleo-climatic model, in view of the short isolation periods (= dry phases) during the late Pleistocene (see above) it is probable that all these species became frst isolated in caves before this period.
ACKNOwLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to Augusto Auler, Fernando P. L. Marques and Janice Muriel Cunha for the discussion of ideas and criticisms, and to Richard Borowsky for the critical read-ing and revision of the English style of an early version of the manuscript. Many data were gathered during stud-
ies sponsored by the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo – FAPESP (grant n. 03/00794-5, among others). Te author studies are also supported by the CNPq (fellowship and grant n. 302174/2004-4).
196     TIME in KARST – 2007
THE CHALLENGE OF ESTIMATING THE AGE OF SUBTERRANEAN LINEAGES: ExAMPLES FROM BRAZIL
REFERENCES:
Bechler, D. L., 1983: Te evolution of agonistic behavior in amblyopsid fshes. Behavioral Ecology and Socio-biology, 12, 35-42, Heidelberg.
Bichuette, M. E., Garz, A. & D. Möller., 2001: Preiminary study on cave-dwelling catfshes, Ituglanis sp., from Goiás, Brazil, p. 22. In: E. Trajano. & R. Pinto-da-Rocha (eds.). xV International Symposium of Bio-speleology, Société Internationale de Biospéologie, São Paulo.
Bichuette, M. E. & E. Trajano., 2003: Epigean and subter-ranean ichthyofauna from São Domingos karst area, Upper Tocantins river basin, Central Brazil. Journal of Fish Biology, 63, 1100-1121, London.
Bichuette, M. E. & E. Trajano., 2004: Tree new subterra-nean species of Ituglanis from Central Brazil (Siluri-formes: Trichomycteridae). Ichthyological Explora-tions of Freshwaters, 15, 3, 243-256, München.
Bockmann, F. A., 1998: Análise flogenética da família heptapteridae (teleostei, Ostariophysi, Siluriformes) e redefnição de seus gêneros. - PhD Tesis, Universi-dade de São Paulo, São Paulo, 589 p.
Boutin, C. & N. Coineau., 2000: Evolutionary rates and phylogenetic age in some stygobiontic species, p. 433-451. In: wilkens, H., Culver, D.C. & w.F. Hum-phreys (eds.). Ecosystems of the world 30. Subter-ranean Ecosystems (eds.). Elsevier, Amsterdan.
Campbell Jr., K. E., Frailey, C. D. & L. Romero-Pittman., 2006. Te Pan-Amazonian Ucayali Peneplain, late Neogene sedimentation in Amazonia, and the birth of the modern River system. Palaeogeography, Pa-laeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 239, 166-219, Am-sterdan.
Cruz Jr., F. w. , Burns, S. J., Karmann, I., Sharp, w. D., Vuille, M., Cardoso, A. O., Ferrari, J. A., Dias, P. L. S. & O. Viana Jr., 2005: Insolation-friven changes in atmospheric circulation over the past 116,000 years in subtropical Brazil. Nature, 434, 63-66, London.
Hubert, N. & J.-F. Renno., 2006: Historical biogeogra-phy of South American freshwater fshes. Journal of Biogeography, p. 1-23 [www.blackwellpublishing. com/jbi]
Jefery, w. R., 2006: Convergence of pigment regression in cave animals: developmental, biochemical, and genetic progress toward understanding evolution of the colorless phenotype., p. 38. In: Moldovan, O. T. (ed.). xVIIIth International Symposium of Biospel-eology – 100 years of Biospeleology, Cluj-Napoca, SIBIOS – Société Internationale de Biospéologie.
Langecker, T.G., 2000: Te efects of continuous darkness on cave ecology and and cavernicolous evolution, p. 135-157. In: wilkens, H., Culver, D.C. & w.F. Hum-phreys (eds.). Ecosystems of the world 30. Subter-ranean Ecosystems (Eds.). Elsevier, Amsterdan.
Messana, G., Baratti, M. & D. Benvenuti., 2002: Pongy-carcinia xiphidiourus n. gen. n. sp., a new Brazilian Calabozoidae (Crustacea Isopoda). Tropical Zool-ogy, 15, 243-252, Firenze.
Muriel-Cunha, J. & M. de Pinna., 2005: New data on cistern catfsh, Phreatobius cisternarum, from sub-terranean waters at the mouth of the Amazon River (Siluriformes, Incertae Sedis). Papéis avulses de Zoologia, 45, 26, 327-339, São Paulo.
Moller, D. & J. Parzefall., 2001: Single or multiple origin of the subterranean catfsh Ancistrus cryptophthal-mus. what we can learn from molecular data, p. 38. In: Trajano, E. & R. Pinto-da-Rocha (eds.). xV International Symposium of Biospeleology, Société Internationale de Biospéologie, São Paulo.
Poulson, T. L., 1963: Cave adaptation in Amblyopsid fshes. American Midland Naturalist, 70, 2, 257-290, Notre Dame.
Protas, M. E., Hersey, C., Kochanek, D., Zhou, y., wilkens, H., Jefery, w. R., Zon, L. I. Borowsky, R. & C. J. Tabin., 2005: Genetic analysis of cavefsh reveals molecular convergence in the evolution of albinism. Nature Genetics, Advance Online Publication, Letters, p. 1-5 [published online 11 December 2005]
Reis, R. E., Trajano, E. & E. Hingst-Zaher., 2006: Shape variation in surface and cave populations of the armoured catfsh Ancistrus (Siluriformes: Lori-cariidae) from the São Domingos karst area, Upper Tocantins River, Brazil. Journal of Fish Biology, 68, 414-429, London.
Trajano, E., 1995: Evolution of tropical troglobites: Ap-plicability of the model of quaternary climatic fuc-tuations. Mémoires de Biospéologie, 22, 203-209, Moulis.
Trajano, E., 2001: Habitat and population data of tro-globitic armoured cave catfshes, Ancistrus cryp-tophthalmus Reis 1987, from Central Brazil (Silu-riformes: Loricariidae). Environmental Biology of Fishes, 62, 1-3, 195-200, Dordrecht.
Trajano, E., 2001: Ecology of subterranean fshes: an overview. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 62, 1-3, 133-160, Dordrecht.
TIME in KARST – 2007      197
ELEONORA TRAJANO
Trajano, E. & M.C.C. Pinna., 1996: A new cave species of trichomycterus from eastern Brazil (Siluriformes, Trichomycteridae). Revue française d’Aquariologie, 23, 3-4, 85-90, Nancy.
wang, x., Auler, A. S., Edwards, R. L., Cheng, H., Cris-talli, P. S., Smart, P. L., Richards, D. A. & C.-C. Shen., 2004: wet periods in northeastern Brazil over the past 210 kyr linked to distant climate anomalies. Nature, 432, 740-743, London.
wilkens, H., 1973: Ancienneté phylogénetique et degrees de reduction chez les animaux cavernicoles. Annales de Spéléologie, 28, 2, 327-330, Paris.
wilkens, H., 1982: Regressive evolution and phylogenetic age: the history of colonization of freshwaters of yu-catan by fsh and Crustacea. Texas Memorial Museum Bulletin, 28, 237-243.
wilkens, H., 1988: Evolution and genetics of epigean and cave Astyanax fasciatus (Characidae, Pisces). Evolu-tionary Biology, 23, 271-367, New york.
198     TIME in KARST – 2007