M w IZZIVI PRIHODNOSTI w f Challenges of the Future ISSN 2463-9281. Izdajatelj / Publisher: Fakulteta za organizacijske študije v Novem mestu / Faculty of organization studies. Glavni in odgovorni urednik / Editor in chief: Uroš Pinterič. Uredniški odbor / Editorial board: • Boris Bukovec, Faculty of Organisation Studies in Novo mesto, Slovenia. • Alois Paulin, Technical University Vienna, Austria. • Juraj Marušiak, Slovak Academy of Science, Slovakia. • Anisoara Popa, Danubius University, Romania. • Raluca Viman-Miller, University of North Georgia, Georgia, USA. • Anna Kolomycew, Rseszow University, Poland. • Jurgita Mikolaityte, Siauliai University, Lithuania. • Patricia Kaplanova, Faculty of Organisation Studies in Novo mesto, Slovenia. • Laura Davidel, Univeristy of Lorraine, France. • Ana Železnik, Ljubljana University, Slovenia. • Marko Vulic, Information Technology School - ITS ComTrade, Serbia. • Vita Jukneviciene, Siauliai University, Lithuania. • Mitja Durnik, Ljubljana University, Slovenia. Naslov uredništva / Editorial address: Fakulteta za organizacijske študije v Novem mestu, Novi trg 5, 8000 Novo mesto, Slovenija. © Copyright Fakulteta za organizacijske študije v Novem mestu. Faculty of Organisation Studies. Vse pravice zadržane. All rights reserved. Revija Izzivi prihodnosti je prosto dostopna pod pogoji Creative Commons CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 licence. Članki so brezplačno dostopni. Journal Challenges of the Future is an open access journal distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 License. No article submission or article processing fees are charged. Kazalo / Contents Anna Kolomycew, Boguslaw Kotarba Leadership Style, Political Interest and Rationality of Municipal Executive Bodies in the Implementation of Public Policies: the Case of Poland 121 Urška Metelko Definicija uspešnega menedžerja v družinskem podjetju 137 Diana Ludrovcova, Uroš Pinterič Decay of Human Rights in 21st Century 162 Monika Hergezelova Regional Development of Eastern Slovakia 178 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article Leadership style, political interest and rationality of municipal executive bodies in the implementation of public policies: the case of Poland1 Anna Kolomycew* Institute of Political Science, University of Rzeszow, al. Mjr. W. Kopisto 2a, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland anna.kolomycew@ur.edu.pl Boguslaw Kotarba Institute of Political Science, University of Rzeszow, al. Mjr. W. Kopisto 2a, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland boguslaw.kotarba@ur.edu.pl Abstract: Purpose and Originality: The article focuses on the circumstances influencing the political and social consequences of the rationalization of the school network with regard to the executive bodies of municipalities. The purpose of the article is to verify whether unpopular decisions made by the local authorities influence the range of political and social support. Method: The article is based on preliminary research. The analysis is mostly focused on the qualitative studies (in-depth interviews, semi-structured interviews) conducted among selected actors involved in local educational policy creation and implementation. The theoretical framework of the article defines the concept of transformational leadership. Results: Making unpopular decisions is inevitable for local authorities. Although they are rational from the point of view of the municipality as a whole, they can have negative consequences for local executive bodies. However, the results of the study show that not always the unpopular decision taken by the executive body results in the loss of political support. The study identifies situations in which the leadership style and mode of action were significant. Society: The research problem presented in this article has been present for several years in the Polish public debate as well as in the academic discourse. The question of the style of leadership and its impact on public policies implementation is particularly relevant due to the reform of the education system and consequently changes in the local educational policy. Limitations / further research: The results presented in the following paper are merely initial, but reflect the problem and allow to make only preliminary conclusions. It is necessary to conduct further research focused on the relationship between leadership style and the form of the implementation of public policies in municipalities. Keywords: leadership, public policy, educational policy, local governance, public administration. 1 The article was created within the research project funded by the National Science Center Poland no. 2015/19/D/HS5/03153. * Korespondenčni avtor / Correspondence author Prejeto: 1. julij 2017; revidirano: 8. julij 2017; sprejeto: 11. julij 2017. / Received: July 1, 2017; revised: July 8, 2017; accepted: July 11, 2017. 121 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article 1 Introduction The functioning of municipal executive bodies (mayors) has recently reemerged as the subject 2 3 of public and academic discussion . Controversial plans to limit the term of office of mayor have highlighted the particular role of the executive body in the structure of municipal authorities. The gradual strengthening of the position of mayors with respect to the municipality board, which culminated in the transformation of the collegiate executive body into a direct-elected monoclonal one, caused the local community representatives to identify the local authority with the mayor as a head of the municipality. Often, although wrongly, they areaccreditedpowers they do not actually hold. Associating local authorities with mayors and holding them fully responsible for the decisions that are taken also made them the subject of potential social discontent with the policy of the municipal authorities. In this article, the authors focus on the circumstances influencing the political and social consequences of the rationalization of the school network with regard to the executive bodies of municipalities. Decision-making bodies have been omitted on purpose, despite their crucial role in the process of rationalizing the network of municipal schools, have been decisive in their role. The purpose of the article is to verify whether unpopular decisions made by the municipal authorities translate into a loss of political and social support for executive bodies. The following hypothesis has been assumed, consequently: controversial decisions regarding the rationalization of the school network, including its most radical form, i.e. closure, do not always result in reduced public support, contrary to popular opinion and the conviction of the executing authorities themselves. The reaction of the local community to the planned changes in the municipal network depends largely on the current position of the executive body and the style of its leadership. The article is based on a two-stage research study. The first was done in 2012, while the other has been in course since 2016. The theoretical framework of analysis is the concept of transformational leadership, and the methods used include: institutional and legal analysis, behavioral and comparative methods. The text uses primary (mainly legal acts and official documents) and secondary sources (surveys and in-depth interviews). 2 The authors use the term "municipality" to describe the smallest administrative unit in the territorial division of Poland (Polish: gmina). The term municipality is used in the article to describe both rural and urban-rural units (municipalities). 3 In this article, the authors use the term "mayof' to describe the executive body of municipality (head of municipality). The term "mayor" will be use to describe municipal heads that function in both rural and urban-rural municipalities. In Polish, the name of the municipality head (executive body) is differentiated according to the type of municipality. In rural municipalities the executive body is called "wojt" (head of municipality) and in case of urban-rural municipalities "burmistrz" (mayor). For the purpose of this article no distinction will be made and the term "mayor" will be used to describe the executive body in both rural and urban-rural municipalities. 122 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article 2 Theoretical framework 2.1 Evolution of the electoral system of municipal bodies in Poland Restitution of local self-government in Poland began in 1990 with the establishment of municipal governments. In the Act amending the Constitution of the Republic of Poland (Journal of Laws 1990, No. 16, item. 94), it was decided that the municipal bodies would be the municipal council - the governing body and the governing board of the municipality - the executive body managed by the mayors. In the same legislative act (Article 1.7), the municipal council was elected by the citizens according to statutory rules and the choice of executive bodies was made by the municipal council. Detailed solutions were included in the system lawand in the electoral law of municipal councils (Journal of Laws 1990, No. 16 item. 95). In the years 1990-2002, the governing body of municipalities was elected by the council. In the 1990, an act was passed, according to which the functions of the executive body would be held by 4-7 members of the governing municipal council, managed by the mayor whose election was subject to several conditions: he or she had to be elected in a secret ballot and by an absolute majority of votes in the presence of at least 2/3 of the statutory council members. When it comes to the composition of the municipal council, the mayor had the opportunity to put forward candidates only for his or her deputies, while the other members would be elected by the council from among the councilors. Adoption of such solutions was the cause of political disputes within the decision-making bodies, with quorum often being broken and thus making it impossible to elect the head of the municipality and prolonging the state of uncertainty (Leonski, 1998, p. 87). This phenomenon intensified especially after the subsequent local elections in 1994. Consequently, changes were made to the Local Government Act (Journal of Laws 1995, No. 124, item. 601), setting a six-month term for appointing a board (otherwise, the municipal council was legally dissolved); % of the council required to be present at the election of the mayor (it was sufficient to obtain the absolute majority of votes in the presence of at least half of the statutory council composition) and the mayor was granted the right to nominate candidates for all members of the board, which strengthened their position in the local government. The indirect election system of multi-person executive bodies met with criticism. Among other things, the weakness of the municipal board, dependent on local political arrangements, or the dispersion of responsibility for collective decisions, were pointed out (Chmaj, Skrzydlo 2011, p. 176). In 2002, a major change in the municipal system was introduced - in place of the municipal board, a single direct-elected executive body were to be appointed (Journal of Laws 2002, No. 113 item. 984). The manner of elective the executive body exerts a significant influence on the relationship between the municipal authorities and to whom the executive body bears the political 123 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article responsibility for the actions taken (see: Kotarba, 2016, pp. 209-229). The early 1990s saw the subordination of executive bodies to municipal councils, resulting from the statutory division of powers4, but above all from the fact of the appointment and the possibility of dismissing the mayor and the board at any given moment (and without any special requirements). The stronger position of the municipal council in the realm of local authorities made the board responsible to it, with the mayor at the forefront. Obviously, the members of the board had to work for social support, but most of all for the majority of the governing body that entrusted them with the function. Their interest was the re-election of councilors who offered them support in the first place. This increased the likelihood of reappointing board members. The effects of the unpopular social decisions were also borne by the mayor and other members of the board, but indirectly, and the political costs spread between the two municipal bodies. Gradual strengthening of the municipal council's position5 did not result in the transfer of the main burden of responsibility to the executive body. However, it created the conditions that favored transforming the function of the mayors into an independent body with a strong position in the local authorities, stemming the legitimacy of the electorate (Piasecki, 2006, p. 71). By introducing a direct election of the executive body of the municipality and turning it from a collegial into a monocratic one, it was not entirely settled what role the mayor should play in the local power system. As noted by J. Regulski, when introducing the reform, it was necessary first to answer the question whether he or she were to be a politician or a manager. If the former, they should be a local authority dealing with local development policy, setting goals, priorities and assigning tasks to the executive body. If the latter, they should be an efficient manager, focusing on the management of the municipality and the exercise of public authority (Regulski, 2000, p. 309). Despite this normative vagueness, it seems that direct election works in favor of the mayor who is a politician, although it does not relieve them from managing the municipality and exercising public authority within its boundaries. As proved by practice, the mayor is, or should be, both a politician and a manager (Piasecki, 2006, p. 71). However, the question arises as to what extent a direct-elected mayor is a social leader, and to what extent - an entity exercising power and using their powers to operate the municipal unit and implement local public policies? Another question is: what is the consequence of maintaining public support in the context of making unpopular decisions motivated by the need for rational action from the perspective of the interests of the local government unit? 4 According to Z. Leonski, the municipal board was primarily the executive body of the council (Leonski, 1992, p. 61). 5 Initiated in 1995 by the amendment to the Local Self-Government Act, consisting in tightening the conditions for the dismissal of the head of the commune and the municipal board as well as its individual members, weakening the role of the chairman of the municipal council (limiting its powers merely to organizing the functioning of the municipality council), reducing the number of municipal council members, allcontributed to the increased importance of the head of the commune and their deputies. 124 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article 3 Direct-elected mayors and local leadership The direct election of the executive body has undoubtedly strengthened the position of the mayors, but it is difficult to say with certainty whether they enjoy broad public support, especially in the context of a low voter turnout for local elections (PKW, http; Krol, 2014; http; Panicz, 2011). Certainly, a direct-elected executive body has a formal authority to exercise power, but they should not automatically be called a social leader (although there are municipalities where the mayor is continuously reelected thanks to high social support (Gendzwill, Swianiewicz, 2017, p.2). Social support is crucial not only at the election stage but also during the term of office, as it also determines the future career of the mayors (that is, if they wish to continue it) and how to implement public policies. In the literature concerning leadership at the local level, formal leadership (Bennis, Nanus, 1988; Heifetz,Sinder, 1988, pp. 174-209) and the relationship between the leader and the local community (supporters) are strongly emphasized (Chaleff, 1995, pp. 142-148; Kelley,1988, pp. 142-148). Relationships between the ruling entities and the local community have become more important as the popularity of the governance model based increases. The increase in civic activity, the development of public participation instruments, created the conditions for cooperation and in a certain way "forced" the authorities to "open up" to other actors and their participation in the implementation of public policies. Thus, a formal leader becomes one of many actors, even though they have a special role to play (Crosby, Byson, Stone, 2010, pp. 200-204; G^sior-Niemiec, Kolomycew, 2013, p. 60).0n the basis of the growing activity of non-public actors, there is also a category of social leader, but most often it is identified with active social groups, NGOs, or a charismatic individual with the support of the local community, able to motivate it to act (Kotarba, 2013, p. 345). Due to the multitude of definitions and the different ways of understanding related categories of "ruler," "leader," "decision-maker" and "social leader," it is necessary to clarify how they are understood in this article. Under the concept of "the ruler", the authors understand the head of the local authority elected to have executive powers. It is referred to as a formal (or traditional) leader (van Wart, 2005, p. 26; Huxham, Vangen, 2000, pp. 1159-1175). Having (formal) power, however, is not to be confused with being a social leader. The authors clearly distinguish the two categories, emphasizing that the mayor is not always the real leader of the local community, i.e. social leader. The combination of these categories is an 125 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. ideological situation, although there are some municipalities where mayor does not enjoy broad public support6. Referring to P. Zukiewicz's definition, leadership is "a social process in which a social subject (e.g. a citizen, a social group or an organization) supports another social subject (...) because he recognizes them as the best fit for the current social ideal of a leader" (Zukiewicz, 2011, p. 48). In this sense, the leadership category the same with the leader category and it is similar to the concept of "social leader". Leadership requires time, labor, social acceptance for the activities being carried out, and the development of respect and social support for action (Zukiewicz, 2011, p.49). Leadership does not stem from the office held, but rather from the process of introducing measures that gain social approval (Habuda, 2007, p. 69). Thus, it can be said that the executive body, although in power, is not always a leader. At the same time, the leader may be an individual who is outside of the local authority but enjoys broad social support and trust (Kotarba, 2013, p. 345). Both the formal exercise of authority by the individual and the leadership process are time-based. In the first case, the time of power is determined by the law indicating the length of the term of office (possibly with the possibility of re-election or dismissal). In the second case, leadership time is determined by the local community expressing support for the leader -leadership ends with the end of this support. As per the former, the time of power is determined by the law indicating the length of the term of office (possibly with the possibility of re-election or dismissal). As per the latter, leadership time is determined by the local community expressing support for the leader and it ends with the end of this support. The ideal situation from the point of view of the effectiveness of the implementation of activities in a territorial self-government unit would be to combine formal authority with real leadership, manifested through broad public support. A social leader should not be identified solely as a representative of the social sector, an active local community7, or a particular environment. The local social leader can - and should - also be an authority. In the case of local communities, it is often the leaders of the community who are recognizable, have a lot of contacts, are deservedin a local unit are involved in its development, that become formal leaders. Social support, which guarantees acceptance of planned actions, seems to be a perquisite. In addition, social acceptance and trust of the community provides to the executive body facilitates the implementation of local public policies and the adaptation of plans to citizens' expectations, thus increasing the satisfaction of public service recipients. At the same time, it can facilitate the rationalization of activities that often violate the interests of certain social groups. 6 It should be noted that quite often the categories of the formally elected executive body, i.e. the formal leader and the social leader, are identified as the same. For more see: Indulski, 2001, p. 192; Nocon, 2008, p. 13; Sielski, 2012, pp. 51-64. 7 The term „local community" is used to describe the residents of the municipality, living in the area of municipality, connected with common interests and goals. 126 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article As E. Marciniak points out, leadership is also a set of personality traits (Marciniak, 2001, p. 98). Among those that decide whether a given individual is perceived as a local leader or not, one can point to, among others, authority (Krukowska-Szopa, Ruszlewicz, 1998, p. 41). A leader is an individual who stands apart from the rest, who is seen as trustworthy, whose knowledge and experience are appreciated by other people. On the basis of the theory of transformational leadership, the key characteristics of leaders are management competence, ability to introduce changes, adaptation to changing environment, determination, ability to motivate others and designate them, as well as the ability to estimate risk and responsibility. Possession of these qualities determines informal authority. In the case of mayors, it is possible to distinguish those who possess only the formal authority assigned to the position and those who have dual authority - i.e. formal and informal. In the first case, it is possible to say that they are "only" the mayor, while in the other case they are in charge of "the mayor - social leader". Having double authority - formal and informal - is an ideal situation, but it must be remembered that social support is not permanent. Local community leaders who plan further career must take this into account in their activities and o in their relationships with the local community (Legutko-Kobus, 2011, p. 128) . 4 Methods The explanation of the research problem, due to its complex and interdisciplinary nature, requires different methodological approaches used by such disciplines as political science, sociology, public policy and public management. The range of used research methods includes inter alia the institutional analysis. Thanks to this method, it was possible to recognize the legal, institutional and organizational framework of education policy at the local level. Another of the research method used was the comparative method. Its application helped to indicate and recognize similarities between municipalities as well as different solutions adopted by the local authorities in the field of education policy. This method was also useful to analyze adopted leadership styles. The research also required to use the analysis of academic discourse (including scientific studies/papers and elaborations, opinions, recommendations, reports) and the analysis of existing sources (desk research). In particular, the legal acts (including laws/acts adopted by the local national authorities), reports, research results and so far presented surveys, as well as expert's opinions. At the first stage of the research (to identify municipalities) the media discourse was analyzed. The qualitative part of the research (crucial for the considerations presented in this article) was completedbased on the questionnaire survey. Research, based on in-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted in selected rural and urban-rural municipalities of three Polish regions (targeted selection in both cases - regions and municipalities). The regions 8Legutko-Kobus, P., (2011). Rola lidera lokalnego w rozwoju gminy, „Kwartalnik Kolegium Ekonomiczno-Spolecznego. Studia i Prace", No. 2, p. 128. 127 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article were selected based on the available statistical data on the scale of school liquidation. For further research the authors selected units with the largest, medium and smallest number of closed schools. The authors analyzed the years 2006-2014, covering two full terms of office of the relevant local governments. The interviews were conducted with the representatives of the following categories: mayors, commune officials, councilors, village heads (village leaders - Polish soitys), school principals and teachers, members of social entities involved in educational services implementation (in case of municipalities, in which associations run local schools). In total 60 interviews were conducted and analyzed. In this article only a small part of the collected material were used. 5 Results and discussion 5.1 Political interest of public authorities and rationality in public policy implementation According to R. Herbut, "interest" can be understood as "the conscious pursuit of an individual or a group to accomplish a specific objective" (Herbut, 2006, p. 380). Within the power, we have to do with political interests, i.e. a conscious desire to direct public policy as a whole, or individual decisions regarding the distribution of political values, toward what is perceived by the interested party as necessary to achieve the previously realized and articulated objectives (Herbut, 1996, p. 41). In the case of mayors, the political interest is to maintain power, or to lead to a situation that allows him or her to pursue another kind of political or professional (planned) career. In the case of direct choice, pursuing such a defined political interest depends to a large extent on maintaining adequate social support. It is also possible that the mayor does not plan to be politically active after the end of their term of office, although it can then be assumed that maintaining the highest level of public support is desirable for them as it allows to complete the mission with a sense of satisfaction, subscribe to the memory of the local community and remain an informal leader - a social leader who works for the local community without seeking formal leadership. Under such circumstances, the mayor should pursue a local policy to meet the political interests in line with the expectations of the electorate. However, there are various conditions, including the ever-scarce resources that preclude the simultaneous satisfaction of the interests of the various social groups and the political interests of the commune head. This situation most often leads to the emergence of different aspirations, the need to choose priorities and even to local conflict (Kotarba, 2011, p. 9). The most "risky" for the executive bodies on the municipal level is not so much to refrain from making decisions (especially those that are socially acceptable and expected by the community members), but taking activities and making decisions that violate the existing interests of local communities, deprive their position and privileges. Members of local communities generally express their dissatisfaction even if decisions made by local authorities are justified by objective reasons. An example of public policy that increasingly requires the rationalization of such socially unpopular activities, is local education policy. 128 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article The statutory regulations adopted since 1990 have made local governments an important subject of educational policy. The municipalities responsible for elementary schools and junior high schools play a special role (until they are closed in connection with the newly introduced education reform (Journal of Laws 2017, item. 59; Journal of Laws 2017, item. 60). The Education System Act (Journal of Laws 2016, item. 1943) imposed a series of tasks on them. In particular the establishment of a network of public schools because of the organizational and financial implications. Social attitudes support the creation of a dense school network, but local governments also have to consider the economic aspect, which unfortunately adversely affects the ability to create a large number of schools. This is primarily due to the way in which education is financed, which is linked to the number of students, and that has been decreasing for some time (Prognoza, http). Demographic changes and the associated implications for municipal finances make it necessary to rationalize the school network, especially considering the share of educational expenditure in total municipal expenditure (Czudec, 2016, p. 98-103). The most "drastic" among the actions that reduce the costs of implementing local educational policies is school closure. It most often triggers social discontent, especially among parents and teachers, and it threatens to decline support for the mayor. It should be emphasized that although the formal decision to shut down a school is made by the governing body, the strong position of the mayor, as a result of direct election and further reinforced by formal and reliable (legally non-binding) powers, often attributes the responsibility for such decision to them. Additionally, the social perception of the problem is based on emotions and is generated either by direct contact with school decommissioning or by media reports, often involving specific cases, such as the violent protests of parents and the intensification of relations with local authorities (Kotarba, 2013, p. 166-167). The results of the research carried out among mayors in Podkarpackie Province confirmed their awareness of both the need to rationalize the school network by eliminating some of them (see Table 1) and the possibility of political costs involved in undertaking such activities (Table 2). Table 1. Number of schools that should be closed in the opinion of municipal executive bodies (mayors) (N = 70) Type of municipality Number of schools to be closed Number of municipalities with the need to rationalize the school network Share among the researched municipalities [%] one two Three ormore Urban (Ni=6) 3 0 3 6 100,0 Urban-rural (N2=12) 1 2 5 8 66,7 Rural (Ns=52) 4 13 14 31 58,5 129 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article Municipalities in total 8 15 22 45 63,4 Source: Kotarba, 2014, p. 58-59. Some respondents (35.6%) declared their willingness to transfer schools to other subjects, which would undermine (perhaps even neutralize) the negative social effects of rationalization in the field of local public policy regarding education. Table 2. Reasons for not rationalizing the school network, as indicated by municipal executive bodies (mayors) Reason for keeping the school network unchanged* % 1. As long as the municipality can bear additional costs, for social reasons schools should be maintained despite economic inefficiencies. 84,6 2. School closure is too difficult to perform. 23,1 3. School closure can lead to partial loss of social support by the local authorities. 7,7 4. Such a decision in my municipality is a „political suicide". 7,7 * the respondents could choose more than one answer Source: Kotarba, 2014, p. 60. The analysis indicated the reasons for the non-adoption of school closures were clearly confirmed by the effects of rationalization in the most drastic way. Although only two proposals were directly related to possible political expenses9, the others also indirectly suggested the mayors would face the consequences of a decision changing the status quo of schools. 23% of them believed that school closure was "too difficult to perform". Although it is difficult to fully verify this, it seems that this "difficulty" is mostly the expected resistance of the municipality. School decommissioning procedures are strictly defined by law and are not particularly complex in this layer. Similarly, according to 84.6% of the surveyed mayors, "as long as the municipality is able to bear additional costs, schools should be maintained in spite of economic inefficiencies for social reasons", which demonstrates the willingness to act in accordance with the expectations of the citizens. It may be assumed that the effect of meeting the expectations of the local community may be to maintain or even increase the social support granted to the mayor (and the municipal council). Indeed, attempting to shut down a school tends to favor social discontent, which sometimes takes the form of a violent conflict. In some cases, an attempt is made to dismiss the executive and/or governing body during their term of office (Walcz^..., 2011, http; Bialek-Madetko, 2012, http; B^dzie refendum..., 2012, http). But does conflict and social discontent in any case lead to the loss of social support resulting from the direct election of the mayor, affect his or her political interests and result in the loss of position? According to the results of research on the social and political effects of rationalizing the school network, there are municipalities where, despite the most dramatic form of rationalization (closure), there were no negative results for the municipality leaders (see Table 91) the liquidation of a school may lead to a partial loss of social support for the local authorities; 2) such a decision in my municipality is "a political suicide" - in both cases, 7.7% of the indications. 130 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. 3). In spite of shutting down several schools in some municipalities, their heads managed to renew their mandates in future elections. Table 3. School closure and reelection of municipal executive bodies (mayors) in 2006-2014 Province Municipality Number of closed Re-election of the executive body schools 2006-2014 2010 2014 Chçciny 5 Yes Yes Daleszyce 7 Yes Yes Swiçtokrzyskie L^czna 3 Yes Yes Sçdziszow 3 Yes Yes Wloszczowa 7 Yes No1J Kadzidlo 1 Yes Yes Baranowo 4 Yes Yes Mazowieckie Brudzen Dužy 3 No Yes Lyse 5 Yes No3 Starozreby 4 Yes Yes Kolbudy 1 Yes Yes Nowy Staw 1 Yes Yes Pomorskie Mikolajki Pomorskie 1 Yes Yes Nowa Wies Lçborska 1 Yes Yes Puck 1 Yes Yes 1) Lack of re-election was not related to school closure; School closures were carried out in 2008; 2) Lack of re-election was not related to school closure; The current mayors did not re-run for the office; 3) Lack of re-election was not related to school closure; The issue of school decommissioning was raised in 2014. Source: own study based on research. It may be assumed that in these cases we are dealing with mayors who are social leaders. It should be noted that in the absence of political and social implications for the executive bodies, the form of the rationalization of the school network was of crucial significance. Social resistance concerned the closure of the school, which, in the case of small local communities (especially in rural areas), also had functions other than educational, serving as a cultural and social center. The threat of school closure has in many cases become a motivating factor for expressing dissatisfaction with the local government's decision (Kopec, 2013, p. 365-366). With that being said, not always has the process leading to school closure had negative impacts on the executive body, manifested by the lack of support in successive elections or the organization of a referendum on their dismissal. Leadership style and the alternative offered for a school to be closed play an important role in that regard. For instance, in one of the Swi^tokrzyskie municipalities surveyed, the local conflict was the threat of shutting down five schools. The proposal of the mayor to hand them over to nonstate actors was a way of resolving the conflict. It turned out that for the local community it was of secondary importance who would manage the school (Interview S/1/W).In the process of rationalization of local education policy, the role of the mayor who: 1) appropriately 131 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article presented the situation of the municipality 2) explained the reason for the closure of the schools and 3) presented a solution to the problem and co-operated with non-state actors who overtook the management of the closed schools by offering them support, including that material. The results of the research show that the municipalities leaders that also a real social leaders not only, in many cases, maintained their support, but even increased them. The financial relief of the municipality financed by liquidation (or the transfer of a school to a non-public entity) has enabled the implementation of other public tasks that have benefited all residents, not just the schools. The results of the research show that the mayors who are social leaders not only in many cases maintained their support, but even increased it. The financial relief of the municipality resulting from the closure (or school takeover by a non-public entity) made possible the fulfillment of other public tasks benefiting all citizens, and not only school-related ones (Interview S/1/K). The way to resolve local conflicts over the closure of municipal schools by mayors who could be defined as social leaders can be analyzed on the basis of the concept of transformational leadership. This type of leadership assumes that a unit or group interacts with other actors, while the leader's support is a source of motivation, mobilization for action, and ethical behavior, rather than escalation of conflict (Burns, 1978, p. 20). J.M. Burns' transformational leadership model became the basis for a new leadership paradigm based on charisma, influence and values identified as key elements of leadership processes (Northouse, 2010, p. 188). Transformational leaders strive to introduce changes, but by gaining supporters, so first of all they want to win the favor of the environment (Burns, 1978; Sulkowski, 2001, p. 196). The key element of transformational leadership is a sustainable community and the generation of positive interpersonal relationships that can translate into the shape and development of the public sphere (Grill, 2006, p. 50). Referring to the concept of transformational leadership, B. M. Bass and R.E. Riggio pointed out that the role of a leader is to motivate, activate, intellectually influence the supporters to include them in social activities, but also to fulfill their protective and servant roles (Bass, Riggio, 2006, p. 224-225). A transformational leader must be open to changes that take place accordingly to the actions of motivated supporters, which in turn generate new expectations and create new circumstances in which the role and responsibilities of the leader in question also change. Therefore, the leader in the transformation approach is seen as an adaptive leader (Bass, Riggio, 2006, p. 224-225). 132 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article 6 Conclusions The evolution of the municipal executive body from the collegial board, elected by the municipal council to the monocratic entity - the mayor, directly elected by the citizens, brought with it a variety of consequences. Among them was the strengthening of the position and importance of the mayors in the local political system and the increase of their direct responsibility to the community. Maintaining a position and possible reelection require appropriate social support. This is difficult when the implementation of the public policy requires taking action beneficial to the territorial self-government unit as a whole, but affecting the interests of some part of its citizens. An example of this is local education policy. Demographic changes and the associated consequences for municipal finances often require the rationalization of the school network. These are unpopular actions, arousing discontent of residents and threatening the loss of social support by the mayor. However, as has been shown in the analysis, there are cases in which even the most drastic form of rationalization of education policy, manifesting itself as the closure of schools, does not necessarily lead to negative outcomes for the mayor. The circumstances determining that fact is the style of leadership. Mayors, who are social leaders, belong to the category of transformational leaders and have the ability to reconcile their environment in difficult situations, school closure certainly being one of them. In many cases, they motivate the local community to make efforts to run a school (founding a NGO), which strengthens the local community as an active actor in local public policy (regarding education), while not negatively impacting the level of community support for the mayors. The conclusions of the analysis positively validate the thesis. 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The Act of 14 December 2016, Education Law, Journal of Laws 2017, item. 59; Act of 14 December 2016 Provisions introducing the Act - Educational Law, Journal of Laws 2017, item. 60. 52. van Wart, M. (2005). Dynamics of Leadership in Public Service. Theory and Practice, Amonk, New York, London, 26. 135 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article 53. Walczq o szkolq, chcq referendum w sprawie odwoiania wojta, „Glos Koszalinski", 20 October 2011, http://www.gk24.pl/wiadomosci/slawno/art/4471331,walcza-o-szkole-chca-referendum-w-sprawie-odwolania-wojta,id,t.html (8 March 2017). 54. Zukiewicz, P. (2011). Przywodztwopolityczne. Teoria ipraktyka, Warsaw, 48; 49. *** Anna Kolomycew, Ph.D. is an assistant professor at the Department of Public Administration and Social Policy at the Institute of Political Sciences of the University of Rzeszow; anna.kolomycew@ur.edu.pl Boguslaw Kotarba, Ph.D. is an assistant professor at the Department of Public Administration and Social Policy at the Institute of Political Sciences of the University of Rzeszow; boguslaw.kotarba@ur.edu.pl Copyright (c) 2017 Anna Kolomycew, Boguslaw Kotarba Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. 136 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 137-136. Članek / Article Definicija uspešnega menedžerja v družinskem podjetju Urška Metelko* Fakulteta za organizacijske študije v Novem mestu, Novi trg 5, 8000 Novo mesto, Slovenija ursimetelko@hotmail.com Povzetek: Namen in originalnost: Namen članka je določiti glavne značilnosti uspešnih menedžerjev družinskih podjetij z različnih vidikov. Metoda: Uporabili smo metodo pregleda literature že obstoječega znanja o družinskih podjetjih in njihovih menedžerjih, organizacijskem vedenju in uspešnih menedžeijih na splošno. Rezultati: Raziskava je pokazala kakšne so osebnostne lastnosti uspešnih menedžerjev na splošno in uspešnih menedžerjev v družinskih podjetjih. Družba: Družba bo s pomočjo raziskave dobila opredelitev lastnosti in delovanja uspešnega menedžerja družinskega podjetja. Omejitve/nadaljnje raziskovanje: Raziskava je omejena s številom obstoječih virov, ki so uporabljeni. V prihodnosti bi bilo primerno teoretičnem delu dodati tudi empirični del za primer Slovenije ali ene od slovenskih regij. Smiselno bi bilo dodati tudi kvantitativno raziskavo. Ključne besede: družinsko podjetje, menedžer, vodenje, odnosi, menedžment, organizacijsko vedenje, koncepti. 1 Uvod Kdo so uspešni menedžerji v družinskih podjetjih, kaj je tisto, kar jih dela uspešne in kakšna je definicija uspešnega menedžerja v družinskem podjetju so vprašanja ne le naše raziskovalne naloge, temveč tudi vsakega menedžerja na nižji, srednji ali najvišji ravni in vsakega lastnika družinskega podjetja. Zanima nas katere osebnostne lastnosti opredeljujejo uspešnega menedžerja družinskega podjetja, kako razume motivacijo, kako se sooča s stresom, na podlagi česa sprejema odločitve, kaj meni o timski dinamiki in tim buildingu (slo. izgradnja tima), kako komunicira s svojimi podrejenimi, kakšno obliko moči uporablja, kako se sooča s konflikti in kako uspešen je v pogajanjih, na kakšen način vodi svoje podrejene in kakšno vlogo pri njegovem uspehu igra karizma. Namen preglednega članka je ugotoviti kaj je o družinskih podjetjih in uspešnih menedžerjih v družinskih podjetjih že znanega. Cilj raziskave pa je glede na ugotovitve različnih avtorjev definirati uspešnega menedžerja v družinskem podjetju. Prvo vprašanje, ki si ga moramo ob zadanem cilju postaviti je kaj so pravzaprav družinska podjetja in kako jih definiramo. Pomembno je tudi, da vemo kaj so njihove posebnosti, prednosti, slabosti ter v čem se razlikujejo od ostalih podjetij in kakšna je njihova vloga v * Korespondenčni avtor / Correspondence author Prejeto: 10. maj 2017; revidirano: 28. maj 2017; sprejeto: 11. julij 2017. / Received: May 10, 2017; revised: May 28, 2017; accepted: July 11, 2017. 137 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article gospodarstvu. Pomembno pa je tudi, da razumemo organizacijsko vedenje kot celoto. Le tako lahko določimo lastnosti uspešnih menedžerjev in posledično tudi lastnosti uspešnih menedžerjev v družinskih podjetjih. 2rr > • v • i i *v v Teoretična izhodišča 2.1 Vloga družinskih podjetij v gospodarstvu Več kot 80% podjetij po vsem svetu je v družinski lasti (Antončič, Auer Antončič & Juričič, 2015, str. 4). V Ameriki so družinska podjetja poimenovali kar hrbtenica gospodarstva. Po podatkih Conway Centra za družinsko podjetništvo je v ZDA med 80 in 90% podjetij v družinski lasti (Conway Center for family buisness, 2016) in zaposlujejo do 62% nacionalne delovne sile (Antončič, Auer Antončič & Juričič, 2015, str. 3). V Evropi je visok delež družinskih podjetij značilen za vse države, številka pa je odvisna tudi od same definicije družinskega podjetja v določeni državi (Duh, Tominc & Rebernik, 2006, str. 29). Definicije so si namreč podobne, a se glede na kulturne razlike posameznih držav tudi razlikujejo. Približno 83 % slovenskih podjetij je v družinski lasti in zaposluje cca 70% delovne sile, zato lahko rečemo, da so družinska podjetja tista, ki ženejo tudi slovensko gospodarstvo (Antončič, Auer Antončič & Juričič 2015, str. 3). Z izboljšanjem delovanja menedžerjev v družinskih podjetjih, bi torej predvidoma lahko izboljšali poslovne izide več kot 83% podjetjem v Sloveniji, hkrati pa omogočili višji zaslužek in boljše delovne pogoje za 70% slovenske delovne sile. Večina družinskih podjetij v Sloveniji zaposluje do 5 do 9 ljudi - 51 %, 10 do 19 pa 32% . Samo 3% slovenskih družinskih podjetij pa zaposluje več kot 100 ljudi (Antončič, Auer Antončič & Juričič 2015, str. 5). Največja družinska podjetja v svetu pa imajo tudi do 1,4 milijona zaposlenih, primer je ameriški Ford. Med znanimi največjimi družinskimi podjetji v svetu so še Facebook, Google, Oracle, Novartis, Roche, Nike, Samsung, Zara, Bershka, H&M, Ikea, Lidl, Hofer...Med slovenskimi so med največjimi Akrapovič, KLS Ljubno, SIBO Group, AJM okna - vrata - senčila d.o.o., Hidex in še mnoga druga velika uspešna podjetja (Bratanič, NP, 2017). 2.2 Klasifikacija družinskih podjetij V Evropi so družinska podjetja postala predmet resnejših raziskovanj v 90. letih 20. stoletja. Mnogo znanstvenikov jih je skušalo definirati, zato so skozi čas nastajale različne definicije. Povsod se ponavlja vpletenost družine (Duh, Tominc & Rebernik, 2006, str. 29-32). Največ raziskovalcev družinskega podjetništva prihaja iz ZDA, Italije, Nemčije in Velike Britanije, saj se je tam gospodarstvo razvijalo hitreje kot v drugih državah (Rajter, 2010, str. 29). Kot že ime samo pove, je družina temelj družinskega podjetja, česar so se zavedali vsi, ki so poizkušali sestaviti enotno definicijo. Glede ostalih vidikov pa so razmišljali zelo različno, 138 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article zato je prišlo do zelo različnih definicij, ki se dotikajo različnih področij družinskega podjetništva (Rajter, 2010, str. 32): Osredotočali so se na različne vidike, kot so ekonomska in sociološka povezanost družine in podjetja, na obseg vključenosti družinskih članov pri sprejemanju pomembnih odločitev, na stopnjo lastništva in vpletenost družinskih članov ter željo po prenosu podjetja na novo generacijo (Duh, Tominc & Rebernik, 2006, str. 29-32). Ena izmed sodobnih uradnih definicij prihaja s strani Evropsko družinsko podjetništvo, ki navaja preplet družine, lastništva in posla sicer pogosteje v manjših in srednjih, a tudi večjih podjetjih. Za poimenovanje nekega podjetja pa navaja štiri pogoje (European Family Buisnesess, 2013, NP): • Ustanovitelji podjetja/tisti, ki so pridobili osnovni kapital podjetja, imajo največjo moč odločanja v podjetju. Lahko pa ga imajo tudi njihovi ožji sorodniki - zakonci, starši, otroci ali potomci otrok. • Pogosto gre za posredno ali neposredno odločanje zgoraj naštetih. • Vsaj en predstavnik družine je uradno zastopan v vodstvu podjetja. • Ustanovitelji podjetja imajo v lasti vsaj 25 % podjetja. Izpostavljena je torej moč odločanja glede na ustanovitelja podjetja in njegove bližnje, možnost neposrednega odločanja, obvezno udeležbo v vodstvu podjetja s strani vsaj enega člana družine ter moč odločanja s strani vsaj 25% družinskega lastništva podjetja. Podjetje Ernst & Young pa v brošuri Družinsko podjetništvo, Značilnosti v Sloveniji navaja, da sta v uporabi dve definiciji oziroma opredelitvi družinskega podjetja. Široka opredelitev vključuje tista podjetja, kjer ima družina nadzor nad strateško usmeritvijo organizacije in ima v lasti vsaj 50 % delež podjetja, če gre za zasebno podjetje, ter vsaj 32 %, če gre za delniško družbo. Ožja opredelitev pa vključuje podjetja, ki so sestavljena iz več kot ene generacije in več kot enega družinskega člana na menedžerski poziciji (Antončič, Auer Antončič & Juričič, 2015, str. 4). V Sloveniji obstajata najmanj dve uradni definiciji. Ključna razlika med lastniškim in družinskim podjetjem je, da sta lastnik in podjetje pri obeh povezana, vendar je za razliko od lastniškega podjetja, kjer je družina povezana z lastnikom, ne pa tudi s podjetjem, pri družinskem podjetju vpletena tudi družina. (Duh, 2013, str. 18). Ta povezava prinaša za menedžerje podjetij in njihove zaposlene mnoge prednosti, hkrati pa tudi mnoge izzive tako v poslovnem kot v družinskem življenju. Prihaja namreč do prepletanja družinskih in poslovnih odnosov, ko je lahko partner, brat, otrok, starš ali drugi sorodnik istočasno tudi nadrejeni. V magistrski nalogi se bomo opredelili za t. i. široko opredelitev, ki je navedena v publikaciji Družinsko podjetništvo podjetja Ernst & Young in zajema večje število podjetij, saj ni omejena z več kot eno generacijo in več kot enim družinskim članom na menedžerski poziciji (Antončič, Auer Antončič & Juričič, 2015, str. 4). 139 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article 2.3 Prednosti in slabosti družinskih podjetij V družinskih podjetjih lahko prednosti ob določenih pogojih postanejo tudi slabosti. Sem spada predvsem prilagajanje družinskim članom. Druge prednosti pa so še večja hitrost, večja solidarnost med zaposlenimi, otroci lastnikov podjetja tekom odraščanja pridobivajo mnoge pomembne izkušnje, bolj sproščeno vzdušje na delovnem mestu, večje zaupanje, večja kontrola nad poslom, zaradi vključevanja otrok v posel, lastniki podjetij ne izgubijo stika z novostmi in razmišljanjem mladih generacij (Fedex, NP, 2010). Večina prednosti, ki postanejo slabosti posledica prevelike skrbi staršev podjetnikov za njihove otroke oziroma posledica prenosa starševske, kot zaščitniške vloge v podjetje in s tem pridobljeni privilegiji otrok, ki si jih niso zaslužili z rezultati dela. Drugi največji problem pa so sestrsko bratski rivalski odnosi, tako pri poslu, kot prevzemu podjetja. (Vadnjal, 1999, str. 4 - 5) Poleg že omenjene rizične (pre)velike prilagodljivosti z vidika dela, časa in sredstev so prednosti družinskih podjetij naslednje. Večja privrženost družinskih članov, posebna znanja in izkušnje, dolgoročno razmišljanje, stabilna tradicija, hitro sprejemanje odločitev, zanesljivost in ponos, ter zvestoba zaposlenih, oziroma manjše menjave zaposlenih. (Leach v Vadnjal, 1999, str. 11). Lank dodaja skupno identiteto, življenje s podjetjem, večjo odgovornost in ustvarjanje novih delovnih mest (Lank v Vadnjal, 1999, str. 11). Vadnjal dodaja še večjo kredibilnost blagove znamke (Vadnjal, 1996, str. 71). Vsi omenjeni avtorji pa dajejo velik poudarek na predanosti zaposlenih podjetju, za katero lahko povzamemo, da je ena največjih, če ne delo največja prednost družinskega podjetja. Slabosti družinskih podjetij so togost, težava nasledstva, čustveni vpliv na poslovanje, vodstvo in njegova legitimnost, ter poslovni izzivi, kot so modernizacija zastarelih metod vodenja, upravljanje tranzicije ter pridobivanje kapitala (Leach v Vadnjal, 1999, str. 11). Lank dodaja dodaja še favoriziranje družinskih članov, težave nasledstva, različni interesi družinskih članov, pomanjkanje profesionalizma, zastarelost vodenja in družinske konflikte. Potencialne nevarnosti so še preveliko vpletanje čustev v poslovanje, nejasno opredeljeno vodstvo in vložek lastništva, ter težje pridobivanje tujega kapitala (Kunstič, 2009, str. 467). Največ slabosti izhaja iz posledic prevelikega vpliva družine na podjetje. Največjo vlogo torej igra zmožnost ločevanja družinskega in poslovnega razmišljanja vodilnih, oziroma sprejemanje odločitev, ki so v prvi vrsti dobra za podjetje, šele v drugi za družino in ne zgolj tistih, ki so dobra samo za družino. Uspešen vodja družinskega podjetja torej loči med tem kaj je dobro za podjetje in kaj je dobro za družino in sprejema nepristranske in skrbno premišljene poslovne odločitve. 140 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article 2.4 Organizacijsko vedenje v družinskih podjetjih Temelj vsakega tako družinskega, kot "ne družinskega" podjetja je organizacijsko vedenja. Izhajali bomo iz predpostavke, da je organizacijsko vedenje po svoji sestavi v družinskem podjetju enako kot v ostalih podjetjih . Po Robbinsonu (2013) moramo organizacijsko vedenje kot raziskovalno področje zaradi kompleksnosti razčleniti na več delov: 1. Organizacijsko vedenje je raziskovalno področje. 2. Organizacijsko vedenje proučuje tri skupine determinant: posameznike, skupino in strukturo. 3. Organizacijsko vedenje uporablja znanje o posameznikih, skupinah in učinku strukture na vedenje, da bi organizacije delovale učinkoviteje. (str. 10) Raziskovalci sodobne teorije organizacijskega vedenja, kot so Douglas McGregor, Chris Argyris, RensisLikert in Lyman Porter imajo bolj ali manj enako mnenje o tem, kateri so koncepti organizacijskega vedenja. Njihovo mnenje se do neke mere razlikuje o relativnem pomenu vseke izmed njih. Vsi pa so prepričan, da organizacijsko vedenje vključuje področje motivacije, medosebne komunikacije, pogajanje in reševanje konfliktov, učenje, oblikovanje dela, premagovanje stresa, vodenje, strukture skupin in spreminjanje procesov. (Treven, 2001, str. 29-32) Ker je družinsko podjetje v osnovi organizacija, bomo nadaljevanju predstavili naslednje koncepte organizacijskega vedenja: osebnost, motivacija, stres, odločanje, timska dinamika in tim building, komunikacija, moč, konflikt in pogajanje ter vodenje. 2.4.1 Osebnost Delo menedžerjev je po navadi zahtevno, odgovorno, naporno, stresno, a hkrati tudi pestro, dinamično, polno izzivov in dobro nagrajeno. Za opravljanje takšnih nalog je potrebno imeti določene osebnostne lastnosti, pa tudi primerno motivacijo, delovno okolje in ustrezen tim ljudi. Po Gordonu (navedeno v Treven, 2001, str. 102) se osebnost nanaša na množico edinstvenih osebnostnih lastnosti, na motive, čustva, vrednote, interese, vedenje in sposobnosti. Na te značilnosti v veliki meri vplivajo dednost in družbeno, kulturno ter družinsko življenje, v katerem posameznik živi. Stodgill (navedeno v Lubi, 2003) je med posameznimi avtorji kljub nesoglasji vendarle našel nekaj stičnih točk in povzel najbolj stabilne lastnosti uspešnega menedžerja: • sposobnost (inteligentnost, verbalna sposobnost, sposobnost presojanja), • znanje (dosežki), • odgovornost (zanesljivost, iniciativnost, vztrajnost, prodornost, samozaupanje, želja po uspehu), • participacija (aktivnost, sociabilnost, prilagodljivost, smisel za humor) in • status (socio-ekonomski položaj, popularnost). 141 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article Z rezultati te raziskave se je dokončno uveljavilo spoznanje, da se je mogoče vodenja (menedžmenta) v veliki meri naučiti in da so lahko pri tem prirojene lastnosti človeku samo v pomoč. Dokončno je bilo torej preseženo prepričanje, da so lahko menedžerji le tisti, ki so za to rojeni. V zvezi z lastnostmi menedžerjev je zanimiva še ena ugotovitev: menedžer se lahko spretnosti, ki so potrebne pri vodenju, nedvomno v veliki meri nauči (npr. kako učinkovito voditi seje, kako urejati odnose med nadrejenimi in podrejenimi, kako postaviti sistem napredovanja ipd.). Nečesa pa se ni mogoče naučiti - t. j., kako biti osebnost. Osebnost je treba postati. (str. 86-88) 2.4.2. Motivacija Ni ene skupne formule, ki bi zagotovila zadovoljstvo in motiviranost vseh zaposlenih, kar je pogojeno z motivi ki ženejo posameznika k zadovoljevanju potreb. Kadar motivacijo enačimo s hotenjem dosegamo boljše rezultate. Namesto, da se sprašujemo kako motivirati, bi se lahko vprašali, kaj storiti, da bi ljudje hoteli delati. (Možina in drugi, 2002, str. 478) V nadaljevanju želimo predstaviti ključne motivacijske teorije: • Hackman-Oldhamova teorija (kako lahko vodilni spremeni lastnosti dela, da bo motiviral zaposlene in jim omogočil zadovoljstvo, ki izhaja iz zaznavanja vrednosti dela, občutek osebne odgovornosti in poznavanja ravni uspešnosti (notranja motivacija) • Leavittova teorija (temelji na proučevanju procesa zadovoljevanja potreb: potreba, napetost, cilj, aktivnost in olajšanje) • Likertova teorija (produktivnost skupine je odvisna od načina vodenja (demokratsko ali avtokratsko) ter stališč članov skupine in njihovih vodij) • Teorija potreb - ClaytonAlderfer (teorija EGR: predelana Maslowova teorija potreb, podkrepljena z empiričnimi raziskavami: obstoj, pripadnost in razvoj so tri glavne skupine potreb) in David McClelland (potreba po dosežkih, potreba po sodelovanju in potreba po moči) • Teorija X in Y - Douglas McGregor (opisuje dva različna pogleda na ljudi, X - skrajno negativnega in Y - skrajno pozitivnega) • Teorija Z - W. J. Reddin (nadgradnja teorije X in Y, realni prikaz človekovega vedenja brez skrajnosti) Dolžnost menedžerjev je, da spoznajo in razumejo potrebe svojih sodelavcev, da bi lahko zanje izbrali najustreznejši sistem motivacije. (Treven, 2001, str. 146) 2.4.3. Stres Stres je definiran kot posebno stanje, pri katerem se kažejo določeni psihični, fizični in vedenjski znaki, ki nastanejo, kadar pride do preobremenjenosti. Posamezniki, ki so dalj časa izpostavljeni konfliktnim situacijam, nejasnostim v pričakovanjih glede vlog in neuspešnemu reševanju konfliktov, lahko doživijo precejšen stres. Zaposleni, ki dalj časa delajo pod hudimi 142 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article obremenitvami, zaidejo v stanje notranje iztrošenosti, prisoten je občutek fizične in osebnostne izžetosti, nemoči, ki vpliva na delovne dosežke in zadovoljstvo z delom; soočajo se z izgorelostjo (Možina in drugi, 2002, str. 603-606). Poznamo več stopenj stresa. Prva stopnja je predstavlja opozorilo - alarm, zanjo so značilni simptomi, kot so vznemirjenost, tesnoba, pobitost in strah. Na drugi stopnji stresa se oseba odloči, da ne želi nikomur pokazati svojega razočaranja. Za to stopnjo so značilni čustvena osamitev, oženje interesov in zatajevanje čustev. Kot tretja in zadnja stopnja se pojavi izčrpanost. Sem spadajo nespečnost, izguba samozavesti, nenavadno in prenapeto vedenje in telesne težave, kot so depresija, trzanje mišic, čir na želodcu in povišan krvni tlak (Dyck & Raber, 1992, str. 24-25). Osnova za reševanje problemov v zvezi s stresom je po mnenju Možine (2002) spoznavanje virov, ki vodijo k stresnim situacijam. Menedžer mora vedeti, kateri so možni vzroki in kako z njimi ravnati. V nadaljevanju prestavljamo nekaj načinov, kako omiliti ali odpraviti stres: • Jasno se je treba zavedati svojih zmožnosti in delovati v skladu z njimi. Oblikovati je potrebno zdravo samopodobo in samozavest. • Razmišljati je treba pozitivno in negativne misli nadomeščati s pozitivnimi in spodbudnimi. • Naučiti se je treba sprostiti in kontrolirati svoja čustva. Metoda MBSR je ena od najučinkovitejših metod soočanja s stresom, osnovana je na podlagi meditacije. • Privoščiti si je treba počitek, ki ga lahko kombinirate z ustrezno telovadbo. Naj vas vodi moto: »Zdrav duh v zdravem telesu«. • Kontrolirati je potrebno poživila. V opitem stanju ali pod vplivom drog ni možno nadzorovati situacije, zato se s takšnimi sredstvi situacija le poslabšuje. • Ostati je treba aktiven in se ne vdajti v usodo, situacijo lahko spremenite le vsak sam. Naučiti se je treba opravičevati brez občutka krivde in ponižanja. (str. 606-608) Stresu se torej ne moremo izogniti, lahko pa ga uspešno nadzorujemo. Uspešen menedžer v družinskem podjetju je sposoben prepoznati in nadzorovati stres tako pri sebi kot pri ostalih družinskih članih in zaposlenih v podjetju. Ta naloga je lahko lažja kot pri menedžerjih v drugih podjetjih, saj svoje družinske člane/zaposlene navadno bolje pozna. Po drugi strani pa lahko stres na delovnem mestu povzroči še več stresa med družinskimi člani, kadar se stres iz delovnega okolja prenaša v domače, družinsko okolje in obratno. 2.4.4. Odločanje Vsaka odločitev menedžerja ima direkten ali posreden vpliv na uspeh njegovega dela. Vsaka odločitev menedžerja v družinskem podjetju pa je še bolj kompleksna. Saj se mora zavedati vpliva tako na njegovo delo in s tem podjetje, kot tudi družino. Drucker (2004) pravi, da učinkoviti menedžer odločitve sprejema v sistematičnem procesu z jasno opredeljenimi elementi in v jasnem zaporedju korakov. Od učinkovitega menedžerja se pričakuje, da bo sprejemal odločitve, ki bodo pomembno in pozitivno vplivale na celotno organizacijo, njeno uspešnost in rezultate. Vsaka odločitev je sodba o tveganju. V kolikor v procesu odločanja ne sledimo vsem spodaj naštetim korakom, menedžer ne bo sprejel prave, 143 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article in gotovo ne učinkovite odločitve. Zato bomo v nadaljevanju povzeli korake, ki so del proces odločanja: 1. Uvrščanje problema. Je splošen? Je izjemen in edinstven? Ali pa je izraz neke nove vrste problemov, za katero še nismo razvili pravila? 2. Opredelitev problema. S čim imamo opravka? 3. Natančna razlaga odgovora na problem. Kateri so mejni pogoji? 4. Odločanje o tem, kaj je prav, ne pa o tem, kaj je sprejemljivo za izpolnitev mejnih pogojev. Kaj bo v celoti izpolnilo pogoje, preden se pozornost posveti kompromisom, prilagoditvam in opustitvam, ki so potrebne, da bi bila odločitev sprejemljiva? 5. Ukrepi za izvajanje odločitev. Kakšne ukrepe je potrebno sprejeti? Kdo vse mora biti obveščen? 6. Preverjanje veljavnosti in učinkovitosti odločitve v primerjavi z dejanskim potekom dogodkov. Kako se odločitev izvaja? So podmene, na katerih temelji, ustrezne ali zastarele? (str. 35-48) 2.4.5. Teamska dinamika Team je skupina, ki sodeluje pri odločanju in z medsebojno pomočjo opredeljuje in dosega cilje. Vsi teami so skupine, vse skupine pa niso teami (Možina, 2002, str. 542). V skupino vsak posameznik poleg delovnih nalog doprinese tudi še celo vrsto drugih interesov, kot so ideje, izkušnje, hotenja, iskanja, nasprotovanja, zato med člani skupine prihaja do medsebojnih interakcij oziroma skupinske dinamike. Vsak doprinos je enako pomemben, predvsem je dobrodošla raznolikost v izkušnjah in idejah članov, dobrodošla so različna mnenja, konstruktivna kritika in skupno reševanje dilem, vendar je zelo pomembno tudi to, da pri različnih mnenjih team ostane sodelovalen (Ivanko in Stare, 2007, str. 14-17). Značilnosti sodelovalnega teama so mišljenje članov skupine, da je lahko vsakdo drugačen, svoboda odklona, možnost formiranja podskupin ter diferenciacija položajev in vlog (Možina et al., 1994, str. 141). Količina nalog, ki naj bi jo opravil posameznik znotraj teama, je določena z normami, norma pa v skupini živi le, če ustreza standardom, dogovorom in sankcijam. Standardi so merila ravnanja oziroma dogovori o količini opravljenega dela pri posamezniku, ki jih sprejme večina v konkretnem primeru, nato pa skupina podpira sprejete standarde z negativnimi in pozitivnimi sankcijami (Možina, 2002, str. 554). Menimo, da je teamska dinamika znotraj družinskega podjetja lahko zahtevnejša od običajne, saj je potrebno upoštevati tudi družinske odnose znotraj teama. Prednost pa je večja želja po doprinosu posameznikov in boljše poznavanje sposobnosti posameznih članov. 2.4.6. Team building (izgradnja ekipe) Sodobna organiziranost temelji na teamski zasnovi dela. Team nastane takrat, ko se člani odločijo, da bodo sodelovali pri neki nalogi (Možina, 2002, str. 560). Odnosi v teamu so odvisni od tega, kako člani teama sodelujejo med sabo pri določenih situacijah in kakšne reakcije in občutja se pri tem tvorijo (Mahambe & Engelbrecht, 2013, str. 1-10). Kultura podjetja se namreč nanaša na poslovno klimo, v kateri deluje enota, in ima pomemben vpliv, 144 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article ki lahko bodisi poveča ali zmanjša učinkovitost skupine. Če člani skupine verjamejo, da njihov vodja skrbi za njihovo dobro počutje, se bodo bolj zavzemali za ekipo in bodo čutili večjo pripadnost. Zmožnost opazovanja in ocenjevanja sposobnosti posameznikov je zato ključna za izrabo znanja in talentov, ki jih posamezniki sami ponujajo. Pogum velikega vodje je, da uresniči vizijo, ki ni pogojena položajsko, pač pa izhaja iz njegove strasti (Ovsenik, 2013, str. 73). Povzamemo lahko, da odličen vodja v ospredje postavi sodelavce in gradi na dobrih odnosih, s tem pa jim pomaga pri uresničevanju lastnih ciljev in ciljev organizacije. Menedžerjeva glavna naloga v teamu je tudi obdržati ustrezno ozračje, predvsem ob nesoglasjih in spremembah oziroma pri reševanju težav, kar je glavni način za vzpostavitev zaupanja v vodjo in v sam team (Ivanko in Stare, 2007, str. 56-57). Veliko vlogo pa tako pri ustvarjanju poslovne klime kot pri načinih motiviranja igrajo karakteristike posameznih članov, sem spadajo občutek psihološke varnosti, sposobnost sprejemanja in dajanja kritik ter zmožnost sprejemanja odgovornosti (Mahambe in Engelbrecht, 2013, str. 1-10). Med najmanj zaželene in potencialno negativne vplive na ugodno poslovno klimo in teamski duh spadajo predvsem neodgovornost, pasivnost, nedisciplina, nepoštenost, sebičnost in nezmožnost podajanja konstruktivne kritike in sprejemanja kritike lastnega dela. Za temelje teamskega duha namreč veljajo altruizem, samodisciplina, poštenost, patriotizem in pogum, lenoba pa velja za virus, ki počasi ubija teamski duh (Marius, 2011, str. 131-135). Dober menedžer v družinskem podjetju, ki dobro pozna tako svojo družino kot druge zaposlene, lahko glede na negativne in pozitivne vplive lažje sestavi uspešen team. V družinskem podjetju team sestavljajo ustanovitelj podjetja in njegovi družinski člani ter ostali zaposleni v podjetju, zato lahko delitev dela in odgovornosti za vodjo teama predstavlja dodaten izziv, saj mora poleg odnosov v podjetju upoštevati tudi odnose znotraj družine in posledično kompatibilnost in sposobnosti določenih članov znotraj ene in druge enote. 2.4.7. Komunikacija Ena od definicij komuniciranja pravi, da je komuniciranje proces prenašanja informacij s ciljem medsebojnega sporazumevanja (Florjančič v Ivanko in Stare, 2007, str. 279). Komuniciranje poleg ustnega prenosa informacij zajema tudi mnogo drugih načinov komuniciranja, kot so recimo mimika obraza, zasedanje položaja v prostoru, komuniciranje preko elektronske pošte in klasične pošte in drugo. Komunikacijski model sestavljajo štiri glavne sestavine, to so pošiljatelj, prejemnik, sporočilo in komunikacijska pot (Možina, 1998 v Ivanko in Stare, 2007, str. 280). Pošiljatelj oblikuje sporočilo tako, da svoje misli in čustva prevede v primerno prenosno obliko. Nato izbere komunikacijski kanal za pošiljanje sporočila in ga pošlje. Prejemnik prejme sporočilo, ga prebere in s tem izzove prebujanje svojih misli in čustev ob prebranem, nato pa se na sporočilo odzove oziroma pošlje povratno informacijo. To imenujemo dvosmerni komunikacijski sistem, pri enosmernem pa pošiljatelj ne dobi povratne informacije (Ivanko in Stare, 2007, str. 280). 145 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article V organizacijah je najuspešnejša dvosmerna komunikacija, ker za razliko od enosmerne pošiljatelju omogoča prejem povratne informacije in s tem podatkov o razumevanju poslanih informacij. Najmanj prostora za napake dopušča osebna komunikacija, kjer je povratna informacija najhitrejša in tudi najbolj zgovorna, saj poleg besed vsebuje tudi ton glasu, način govora, mimiko obraza in govorico telesa. Menimo, da je prednost družinskih podjetij v tem, da so zaposleni in vodje hkrati tudi člani družine in se družijo tudi v svojem prostem času, zato je več možnosti za dvosmerno osebno komunikacijo, ki dopušča najmanj možnosti za napake oziroma napačne interpretacije. Prednost slovenskih družinskih podjetij pa je tudi majhno število zaposlenih, saj je več kot v polovici podjetij zaposlenih med 5 in 9 oseb (Antončič, Auer Antončič & Juričič, 2015, str. 5). V manjših skupinah ljudi je namreč lažje komunicirati na osebni ravni, brez uporabe spleta in posrednikov. 2.4.8. Moč Moč je zmožnost vplivati in usmerjati posameznika ali skupino proti določenim rezultatom. Moč je poglavitna za vsakega vodjo in se izraža z vplivom. Vpliv je proces s katerim vodja povzroči spremembo v skupini na strani stališč ali ravnanja. (Možina, 2002, str. 506-507) Obstajajo različni viri moči, ki jih vodje uporabljajo pri delu s svojimi podrejenimi (Možina, 2002, str. 506-507): • moč nagrajevanja temelji na dejstvu, da je vodja ti sti, ki ima vire za dajanje nagrad in moč odločitve komu jih bo podaril; • moč prisile temelji na strahu podrejenih, da je vodja tisti, ki ima moč kaznovanja. Sem spadajo odpoved, preprečitev napredovanja, dodeljevanje nezaželenih dolžnosti in odgovornosti ter odrekanje podpore. • zakonita moč je moč mesta in je osnovana na vlogi odje, ki jo ima ta v organizaciji; • referenčna moč je moč šarma oziroma karizme in temelji na identifikaciji podrejenih z vodjo; • moč znanja temelji na percepciji zaposlenih, da je vodja nekdo, ki ima posebno znanje oziroma ekspertnost na določenem področju. Viri moči so si med sabo soodvisni oziroma se uporabljajo istočasno ali pa se uporaba enega ali drugega načina prilagodi glede na situacijo. V družinskem podjetju je še posebej pomembno, da ne prihaja preveč do izraza zakonita moč ustanovitelja in njegovih družinskih članov. Priporočljiva je tudi uporaba ostalih oblik moči, sploh pozitivnih in neodvisnih od njihovih družinskih vezi, kot so referenčna moč in moč znanja. 2.4.9. Konflikti in pogajanje Poznamo več definicij konfliktov, ena od definicij pravi, da je konflikt nasprotovanje, ki nastane zaradi nezdružljivih ciljev, misli, čustev v posamezniku ali med člani v skupini ali organizaciji (Možina,1994, str. 641). 146 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article Poznamo upravljanje oziroma obvladovanje konfliktov in reševanje konfliktov. S konflikti se upravlja na 4 različne načine. Prvi način je način win - lose (slo. zmagam-izgubiš) v katerem vodja dobiva in podrejeni izgublja. Drugi je način win - lose v katerem podrejeni dobi in vodja izgubi. Najslabša možna varianta je lose - lose v kateri oba izgubita in odnos ne more napredovati. Najboljša možna varianta upravljanja s konflikti pa je win- win (slo. zmagam-zmagaš), kjer tako podrejeni, kot vodja dobivata, oba lahko imata prav ali narobe. Poudarja se sodelovanje in napredek, ki temelji na avtoriteti znanja. (Ivanko in Stare, 2007, str. 192-193) Na poslovanje v družinskem podjetju vplivata dve vrsti konfliktov, konflikti, ki se pojavljajo na delovnem mestu kot v vseh ostalih organizacijah, ter konflikti do katerih prihaja med družinskimi člani in so prav tako neposredno povezani s podjetjem. Po virih se konflikti delijo po naslednjih kriterijih: • Po vzrokih nastanka (konflikti interesov in konflikti vrednosti); • Po posledicah (konstruktivni in destruktivni konflikti); • Po udeležencih (konflikti blokiranja cilja, konflikti nestrinjanja s cilji, konflikti dvojne privlačnosti, konflikti dvostranske odbojnosti, konflikti vlog); • Konflikti med posamezniki (konflikti med člani skupine ali z drugimi osebami, konflikti med nosilci organizacijskih vlog, konflikti med skupinami v organizaciji kamor spadajo hierarhični konflikti, funkcionalni konflikti, konflikti stroke in konflikti formalne in neformalne organizacije. (Jurina,1994, v Ivanko in Stare, str. 184-185) Do najpogostejših konfliktov med družinskimi člani v podjetju prihaja, kadar gre za sodelovanje očeta in sina, v tem odnosu je pogosto zaslediti željo po tekmovalnosti, ki je v odnosu oče in hči ni, pogosti pa so tudi konflikti med sorojenci (Leach v Kunstič, 2009, str. 468). Med bolj poznanimi družinskimi podjetji v Sloveniji je dober primer sodelovanja med očetom in hčerko podjetje Medex, kjer uspešno sodelujeta ustanovitelj in solastnik podjetja Aleš Mižigoj in njegova hči Aleša Kandus, solastnica in direktorica podjetja (Ernst & Young, 2016, str. 20-25). 2.4.10. Vodenje Poznamo dve temeljni vodstveni filozofiji. Prva se imenuje teorija X, ki temelji na motivu prisile, kot načina motivacije. Teorija izhaja iz dejstva,da je človekov odpor do dela tako močan, da niti obljubljene nagrade na zadostujejo. Drugi način je teorija Y, ki temelji na motivu samouresničevanja in poistovetenja s cilji organizacije in sprejema trošenje fizičnega in umskega napora pri delu, kot popolnoma naraven pojav pri vsakem posamezniku. Kot protiutež se pojavi še teorija Z, ki na človeka gleda realistično in verjame, da je človek nagnjen tako k dobrem kot slabem in da so razmere in razum, tisti dejavniki, ki ga spodbujajo (Ivanko, 2005, str. 131-132). Poznamo mnogo različnih stilov vodenja in njihovih kombinacij, ni pravila kateri stil je uspešnejši, saj se v različnih situacijah lahko prav vsi stili in njihove kombinacije izkažejo za uspešne. 147 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Svojevrsten pristop k vodenju zahteva tudi raznolikost generacij, poseben izziv za vodenje predstavlja generacija y, ki v mnogih pogledih močno odstopa od prejšnjih generacij, zato potrebuje drugačen način dela in motivacije. Nagnjeni so predvsem k skupinskem delu in ne prenašajo vodenja s trdo roko in stroge hierarhije, ampak si želijo dinamičnih voditeljev, ki so jim hkrati vzorniki, a imajo z njimi še vedno lahko sproščene odnose. (Ellin, 2014, str. 62-66) Ključ do dobrega sodobnega vodenja je poznavanje lastnih slabosti in neprestana težnja k izboljšavam, ter vodenje s pomočjo pozitivnega zgleda (Jankovic, 2012, str. 73-84).Če vodja ni zadovoljen z delom in vzdušjem v skupini, potem mora najprej spremeniti sebe, saj je za uspešno spremembo najprej potrebno spremeniti lastne zaznave (Covey v Jankovic, 2012, str. 73-84). Le to se večkrat izkaže za zelo težko nalogo, saj posamezniki svoje napake navadno težje opazi. Zelo pomembno je tudi, da se vodja neprestano izoblikuje, izboljšuje in prilagaja spremembam. Na izoblikovanje vodje vplivajo njegove dedne dispozicije, vzgoja, učenje ter umska in telesna prožnost ( Kovač, Mayer in Jesenko v Bižal, 2013, str. 117-128). Vodenje torej ni odvisno le od tega kakšni smo v osnovi, temveč tudi kako dobro se poznamo in koliko truda smo pripravljeni vložiti, da dosežemo izboljšave pri sebi in posledično pri svojem načinu vodenja. Vseživljenjsko učenje uspešnega vodje postaja nuja. 2.5 Značilnosti menedžerjev v družinskih podjetjih Družinska podjetja imajo različno strukturo zaposlenih oziroma družinskih članov, ki so v njih zastopani. V osnovi pa so v družinskih podjetjih zastopani naslednji člani. Prvi in najbolj pomemben je ustanovitelj, ki je istočasno tudi nosilec vseh večjih odločitev. Lahko gre za moža, ženo ali pa zakonski par (Gruber & Muller v Kunstič, 2009, str. 468). Je glava in srce podjetja, ki v začetku nosi odgovornost za vse odločitve, ko podjetje raste pa še vedno ostane glavi nosilec vseh pomembnejših odločitev. Od njega je tudi najbolj odvisen razvoj in uspeh podjetja. Če je lastnik družinskega podjetja moški, je navadno poročen, oče dveh otrok. Navadno gre za posameznika, ki je izredno sposoben v poslovnih vodah, nima pa formalne izobrazbe. Značajsko je zakomplicirana oseba, instinktivno prepričana, da ima vedno prav. Bolj kot denar cenijo zadovoljstvo ob doseganju osebnih ciljev, so karizmatični, inovativni, kreativni in polni energije. So ljudje akcije. Navadno želijo popolen nadzor tako v zasebnem kot v poslovnem življenju. Ker so bolj praktične narave jim je planiranje in formaliziranje podjetja odveč. Veliko vlogo v smislu podpore in skrbi za družino pa igra tudi njihova življenjska sopotnica. (Leach v Kunstič, 2009, str. 468) Ženska, kot lastnica družinskega podjetja je bolj svobodna in samozadostna. Samozadovoljstvo ji pomeni več kot denar. Je kreativnejša, pogosto je njeno znanje večje od moškega, saj se mora bolj dokazovati, da doseže isto pozicijo kot moški. Tudi pri ženskah podjetnicah je opaziti veliko željo po nadzoru nad celotnim dogajanjem in vsem aktivnostim v 148 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article podjetju. Tako kot moški podjetnik, pa tudi ženska potrebuje podporo partnerja. (Leach v Kunstič, 2009, str. 468) Zakonski par kot lastnika podjetja lahko za določen par pomeni težavo ali celo ločitev, spet za druge pa obogatitev, nadgradnjo zakona ali zveze. Pomembno je, da znata sodelovati teamsko, si deliti delo, pristojnosti in dobiček in sprejemati pravilne odločitve. (Kunstič, 2009, str. 468) Sinovi in hčere so prav tako možni lastniki podjetij v drugi generaciji. Navadno podjetje deduje sin, izjema je, kadar so samo hčerke ali kadar je hčerka starejši otrok. Tudi če se oče in sin v zasebnem življenju dobro razumeta, pa je večja možnost, da bo med njima v podjetju prihajalo do konfliktov, kot v primeru, če podjetje nasledi hči. (Leach v Kunstič, 2009, str. 468) Pogosteje družinsko podjetje prevzame hči tudi v primerih, če sama meni, da njen brat ni dovolj močan vodja, če si sama ne ustvari družine oziroma nima partnerja ali če s strani očeta dobi povabilo, da se pridruži podjetju . (Bianco, 2015). Ne glede na to, če je lastnik mož, žena, mož in žena kot par ali v drugi generaciji njuni otroci pa je uspeh podjetja odvisen tudi od osebnih lastnosti posameznikov. Določene osebne lastnosti so se namreč v praksi izkazale za bolj uspešne in zato so ljudje, ki jih imajo boljši in sposobnejši vodje družinskih podjetij. Tudi glede dedovanja prihaja do pomembnih spremeb in podjetja vse pogosteje namesto sinov prevzemajo hčerke, pojavlja, pa se tudi nov vzorec, ko družinsko podjetje prevzame nečak, ali pa nekdo povsem tretji, ki z lastniki družinskega podjetja ni v sorodu. Pogosto kljub dejstvu, da imata lastnika družinskega podjetja otroke, le ti niso zainteresirani za prevzem. Poznamo pa tudi primere "razširjenih družinskih podjetij", ko podjetje s skupnimi močmi vodijo vnuki ali celo pravnuki ustanoviteljev, torej sorodstveno gledano bratranci in sestrične ali celo potomci bratrancev in sestričen (Bianco, NP, 2015). Vendar je takih podjetij manj, saj je prenos podjetja na vsako naslednjo generacijo tvegan proces, ki pogosto pripelje do propada podjetja. Težave pri prenosu podjetja na naslednjo generacijo nastanejo tudi s strani samih ustanoviteljev, ki svojim naslednikom niso pripravljeni prepustiti polne moči odločanja. Dober menedžer oziroma vodja namreč ni le tisti, ki sam dobro vodi podjetje, ampak tisti, ki je sposoben druge naučiti teh veščin in jim dati priložnost, da se izkažejo in osamosvojijo (Allem & Islam, 2010, str. 7-10). Svetovno znan primer pa je tovarna avtomobilov Ford. Ustanovitelj podjetja Henry Ford starejši se je pri starosti 80 let odločil, da bo mesto predsednika upravnega odbora podjetja predal svojemu sinu, a ga je ta zavrnil, ker je bil sam že nekaj let upokojen (Vadnjal, NP, 2016). 2.6 Uspešni menedžerji v Sloveniji in po svetu Različni avtorji različno definirajo značilnosti uspešnega menedžerja. Dober menedžer mora poznati svoje naloge, sebe, svoje prednosti in slabosti in se jih zavedati, sprejemati mora 149 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article povratne informacije o sebi, sposoben mora biti prepoznati vrline drugih, sprejemati mnenja drugih, reševati spore in ustvarjati si okolje, v katerem nenehno pridobiva nova znanja (Adizes v Bernik, 2000, str. 30). Možina uspešnega menedžerja opisuje kot nekoga, ki je odgovoren za lasten prispevek v organizaciji, poleg tega pa je aktiven vodja, ki ustvarja pozitivno delovno okolje, v katerem spodbuja dosežke zaposlenih, delo in razvoj (Možina, 1994, str. 29-31). Dober menedžer mora znati načrtovati delo in oceniti sposobnosti svojih ljudi, preučevati možnosti boljših delovnih metod, razložiti, zakaj želi izvršitev dela, pravilno ukrepati, znati sprejemati predloge, znati ljudi navdušiti za delo, ki ga opravljajo, vedno držati besedo, dajati pozitiven zgled in pazljivo poslušati (Bizjak in Peterin, v Nabernik 2010, str. 13). Po mnenju revije Forbes mora imeti uspešen sodobni menedžer naslednjih pet lastnosti oziroma si prizadevati za naslednjih pet ciljev (Morgan v Forbes, 2013, NP): 1. Prizadevati si mora za uspeh in rast zaposlenih in jim pomagati premagovati vse ovire na poti do uspeha. Namesto tradicionalnega pristopa, pri katerem zaposleni delajo za uspeh menedžerja, uspešen sodobni menedžer dela za njih in z njimi. 2. Dajati mora dober zgled - ne samo z verbalno podporo dejanja, ampak z lastnim vključevanjem in trudom. Zaposleni bodo bolj motivirani za lasten napredek, če bodo videli, da enako počne tudi njihov menedžer. 3. Mora si upati pokazati, da je človek in da je ranljiv. Tudi ranljivost je vir napredka. Vojaški tip vodenja organizacije, kjer menedžer deluje kot bitje brez čustev, je preteklost. 4. Verjeti mora v širjenje/deljenje znanja v smislu, da svoje znanje deli z zaposlenimi in tudi njih spodbuja, da ga delijo z njim in med seboj, ter jih vključuje v pomembne odločitve, ki so jih nekoč menedžerji sprejemali sami. 5. Razumeti mora tehnologijo, kar pa ni isto kot tehnično znanje; razumeti jo mora predvsem v smislu razumevanja odjemalca, njegovega okolja, njegove "mreže" tehnologije in podatkov, ki so mu na voljo. Povzamemo lahko, da je uspešen menedžer aktiven vodja, spodbuja učenj e in razvoj, ustvarja ugodno delovno okolje in omogoča priložnosti za visoke dosežke (Možina, 2002, str. 29). 2.7 Uspešni menedžerji v družinskih podjetjih v Sloveniji Povprečen slovenski menedžer v družinskem podjetju je moški, starejši od 50 let, z bogatimi delovnimi izkušnjami, ki je tudi sam otrok staršev, ki so bili podjetniki. V Sloveniji je namreč kar 62 % menedžerjev v družinskih podjetjih moških, 68 % je večinskih lastnikov podjetja. Kar 38 % jih je bilo prisotnih ob ustanovitvi podjetja in so eni izmed ustanoviteljev, 31 % pa 150 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article jih je edini ustanovitelj podjetja. Podjetništvo jim predstavlja način življenja, saj jih ima 87 % starše, ki so tudi sami podjetniki. Največ je starejših od 50 let - 39 %, sledi starostna skupina med 41 in 50 let - 31 %, 24 % je starih med 31 in 40 let, le 6 % pa je starih med 21 in 30 let. Lahko se pohvalijo tudi z bogatimi delovnimi izkušnjami, več kot tretjina - 35 % - jih ima namreč več kot 30 let delovnih izkušenj. Malo manjši delež - 31 % - ima več kot 20 in manj kot 30 let delovne dobe. Sledi 24 %, ki jih ima več kot 10 in manj kot 20 let delovne dobe, ter 8 % s 5 do 10 let delovne dobe in le 3 % s 5 let delovne dobe ali manj (Antončič, Auer Antončič & Juričič 2015, str. 12-14). Glede na starost slovenskih menedžerjev v družinskem podjetju je moč predvideti, da se bo večji delež menedžerjev v naslednjih nekaj letih upokojil in bo podjetje prešlo v roke njihovih naslednikov ali kupcev. Del njih - 40% - je zgodnji prenos podjetja že začelo (Antončič, Auer Antončič & Juričič 2015, str. 15-16). Vsi zgoraj navedeni ustvarijo 69 % celotne prodaje, 67 % dodane vrednosti in zaposlujejo 70 % ljudi v Sloveniji (Antončič, Auer Antončič & Juričič 2015, str. 15-16). Družinska podjetja, ki jih je v letu 2016 podjetje Ernst in Young prepoznalo kot najuspešnejša, kot ključne za uspeh navajajo naslednje pogoje oziroma poteze menedžerjev. Dober menedžer v družinskem podjetju mora imeti rad svoje delo, mora biti predan ciljem, biti pripravljen na nove izzive, biti mora vztrajen, pošten, zanesljiv, delaven, sposoben samokritike, entuziastičen, kreativen, sposoben, pogumen, inovativen, energičen, tako pri zaposlenih kot pri strankah pa mora vzbujati zaupanje. Verjeti pa mora tudi v lokalno odgovornost, ekološko osveščenost, tradicijo, dober odnos z zaposlenimi, zmožnost priprave zaposlenih za samostojno delo, vlaganje v tehnologijo, nenehne izboljšave, podjetniški duh, kakovost, dobro komunikacijo, povezovanje, trajnostni razvoj in mednarodnost (Ernst & Young, 2016, str. 11 - 67) . 3 Metoda 3.1 Zbiranje podatkov Opravljen je bil pregled strokovnih del na temo organizacijskega vedenja, podjetništva, družinskega podjetništva, organizacije in vodenja. Uporabljena je analiza del tujih in slovenskih avtorjev. Razložili smo pomen družinskih podjetij v gospodarstvu v Sloveniji in po svetu in na ta način upravičili smiselnost raziskave iskanja definicije uspešnega menedžerja v družinskem podjetju. Navedli smo definicijo družinskega podjetja oziroma več definicij, ki so v uporabi. Opredelili smo prednosti in slabosti družinskih podjetij in najpogostejše izzive s katerimi se soočajo, ter razlog za nastanek le teh. Za to smo uporabili nekoliko starejše vire, saj gre ze definicije in navedbe, ki se z leti niso spreminjale. Razložili smo organizacijsko vedenje v (družinskih) podjetjih in preko značilnosti menedžerjev v družinskih podjetjih in značilnosti uspešnih menedžerjev na splošno pridobili definicijo 151 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article uspešnih menedžerjev v družinskem podjetju in podobo povprečnega menedžerja v družinskem podjetju v Sloveniji. Pri pridobivanju podatkov za Slovenijo, nam je bila v veliko pomoč brošura Družinsko podjetništvo - Značilnosti v Sloveniji iz leta 2015 in leta 2016. 3.2 Model raziskave Model raziskave prikazuje vidike, ki smo jih upoštevali pri iskanju definicije uspešnega menedžerja v družinskem podjetju. Sem spada iskanje definicij kdo je pravzaprav uspešni menedžer. Sledi upoštevanje prednosti družinskih podjetij in s tem vseh prednosti, ki jih ima nekdo, ki je menedžer v družinskem podjetju v primerjavi z nekom, ki je samo menedžer. Sledili so izziv menedžerjev v družinskih podjetjih, kjer smo našteli vse potencialne nevarnosti s katerimi se menedžerji družinskih podjetij soočajo in določili kakšen mora biti menedžer, da se v kriznih situacijah pravilno odloči. Dodali pa smo tudi vidik uspešnih slovenskih menedžerjev, kjer so našteli vse lastnosti in dejstva, ki so njim pomagala do uspeha ter statistično gledano kakšen je bil povprečen slovenski menedžer v družinskem podjetju leta 2015. Slika 1: Model raziskave 152 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article 4 Rezultati 4.1 Rezultati 1 - Organizacijsko vedenje v družinskih podjetjih Rezultati so pokazali, da je zaradi velikega odstotka družinskih podjetij v Sloveniji in po svetu, deležu populacije zaposlene v družinskih podjetjih ter svetovnem uspehu in prepoznavnosti družinskih podjetij, več kot smiselno iskati definicijo uspešnega menedžerja v družinskem podjetju. Posebnost družinskega podjetja je v tem, da je da gre za povezavo med podjetjem, lastnikom in družino in prepletanje družinskih, sorodstvenih ter poslovnih odnosov (Duh, 2013, str.18). To lahko za menedžerja v družinskem podjetju istočasno pomeni prednosti in slabosti. Pomembno je da se je menedžer sposoben prilagoditi svojim družinskim članom/zaposlenim, a le do mere, ko zaradi pretiranega prilagajanja ne škoduje podjetju. Pomembno je, da menedžer v družinskem podjetju ni preveč čustven, sposoben mora biti ohraniti profesionalnost in sprejemati nepristranske odločitve tudi, ko gre za njegove najbližje. Kot osebnost mora biti sposoben, imeti mora določena znanja, biti mora odgovoren, vedno pripravljen na sodelovanje in imeti mora določen status tako z vidika socio - ekonomskega položaja, kot popularnosti. Ni pa nujno, da bodoči menedžer v družinskem podjetju te lastnosti že ima. Lahko jih pridobi tekom formalnega in neformalnega izobraževanja ter z osebno rastjo. Osebnosti se namreč ni moč naučiti, osebnost moraš postati. Dolžnost vsakega menedžerja v družinskem podjetju je, da se vpraša kaj bi lahko naredil, da bi si ljudje želeli delati. Pri tem je pomembno, da svoje sodelavce pozna in jih razume (Treven, 2001, str.146). Dober menedžer v družinskem podjetju se mora znati soočati s stresom, tako pri sebi, kot svojih zaposlenih. Mora ga znati prepoznati, najti njegov izvor, se z njim uspešno soočiti in ga premagati z pozitivno naravnanostjo in zdravim življenjskim slogom. Mora sprejemati pravilne odločitve za rast in napredek podjetja in hkrati tudi družino. Vedno se mora vprašati kaj je prav in ne kaj je sprejemljivo za izpolnitev mejnih pogojev (Drucker, 2004, str. 35 - 48). Hkrati mora znati ohranjati timski duh in sestaviti uspešen in sodelovalen tim. Tukaj je menedžer družinskega podjetja v prednosti, saj svoje družinske člane navadno dobro pozna, pripravljenost za sodelovanje le teh pa je navadno večja. Odličen vodja v osredje postavi sodelavce in gradi na dobrih odnosih, ter se hkrati trudi tako za uresničevanje osebnih ciljev zaposlenih, kot ciljev organizacije. Njegova glavna naloga je obdržati ustrezno ozračje tudi kadar pride do težav in stresnih situacij, kar je glavni način za vzpostavitev zaupanja v vodjo in sam tim (Ivanko in Stare, 2007, str.56 - 57). Najbolj uspešna komunikacija, ki jo lahko izbere menedžer je dvosmerna osebna komunikacija, saj le ta pušča najmanj možnosti za napake. Pomembno je tudi, da zna oblikovati jasna sporočila, ki so primerno kodirana in hkrati izražajo empatijo do sodelujočih (Ivanko in Stare, 2007, str. 293). Dober menedžer v družinskem podjetju ve, da zakonita moč ustanovitelja ni dovolj za uspešno delo s podrejenimi in se zanaša predvsem na moč znanja in referenčno moč. Zaveda se, da je konflikte možno reševati na način, ki prinaša zmago oziroma pridobitev za obe smeri in temelji na sodelovanju in napredku. Kot vodja se zateka k 153 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article teoriji Y in je usmerjen v ljudi ter način vodenja prilagaja njihovim potrebam. Pri vodenju izhaja iz sebe in se trudi dajati pozitiven zgled z izboljšavami pri sebi in svojem načinu vodenja. 4.2 Rezultati 2 - Menedžerji v družinskih podjetjih Menedžer v družinskem podjetju, kot ustanovitelj podjetja, je lahko moški, ženska ali par. Tipičen moški lastnik družinskega podjetja je izrednos sposoben v poslovnih vodah, a brez formalne izobrazbe, značajsko komplicirana oseba, vedno prepričan, da ima prav, bolj kot denar ceni zadovoljstvo ob doseganju ciljev, je karizmatičen, inovativen, kreativen in energičen. Želi popolen nadzor tako v zasebnem, kot v poslovnem življenju, ker je praktične narave, pa mu je planiranje in formaliziranje podjetja odveč. V njegovem življenju igra veliko vlogo njegova življenjska sopotnica, v smislu podpore in skrbi za družino. (Leach v Kunstič, 2009, str. 468) Tipična ženska predstavnica ustanoviteljica/lastnica družinskega podjetja je svobodna, samozadostna, samozadovoljstvo ceni bolj kot denar, je kreativnejša in se pogosto ponaša z večjim znanjem, kot moški. Ima veliko željo po popolnem nadzoru in tako kot moški potrebuje podporo partnerja. (Leach v Kunstič, 2009, str. 468) Kot par lahko delujeta pozitivno in podjetje dojemata kot skupen projekt, nadgradnjo zveze. Lahko pa podjetje na njuno zvezo vpliva tudi negativno. Pomembno je, da znata sodelovati, si deliti pristojnost, delo in dobiček in se skupaj pravilno odločati. (Leach v Kunstič, 2009, str. 468) V drugi generaciji podjetje pogosteje prevzamejo sinovi, v redkejših primerih hčerke. Lahko pa tudi drugi sorodniki ali pa nekdo povsem tretji, ker potomcev ni, ali pa niso zainteresirani. Ne glede na to kdo se znajde v vlogi menedžerja pa si mora preizadevati za naslednjih 5 lastnosti (Morgan v Forbes, 2013): • Prizadevati si mora za uspeh in rast zaposlenih. • Dajati dober zgled, z vključevanjem in trudom. • Mora pokazati, da je samo človek, čustven, ranljiv. • Verjeti mora v širjenje in deljenje znanja, ter svoje zaposlene vključevati v pomembne odločitve. • Razumeti mora svoje odjemalce, njihovo okolje, tehnologijo in podatke, ki so jim na voljo. 4.3. Rezultati 3 - Uspešni menedžerji v družinskih podjetjih v Sloveniji Povprečen slovenski menedžer v družinskem podjetju je moški, starejši od 50 let, z bogatimi delovnimi izkušnjami, tudi sam potomec staršev, ki so bili podjetniki. 154 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 137-161. Glede na mnenje uspešnih slovenskih menedžerjev v družinskih podjetjih pa mora imeti naslednje lastnosti: ljubezen do dela, predanost ciljem, pripravljenost na nove izzive, vztrajnost, poštenost, zanesljivost, delavnost, sposobnost samokritike, entuziazem, kreativnost, sposobnost, pogum, inovativnost, energijo, tako v zaposlenih kot v strankah pa mora vzbujati zaupanje. Verjeti pa mora tudi v lokalno odgovornost, ekološko osveščenost, tradicijo, dober odnos z zaposlenimi, zmožnost priprave zaposlenih za samostojno delo, vlaganje v tehnologijo, nenehne izboljšave, podjetniški duh, kakovost, dobro komunikacijo, povezovanje, trajnostni razvoj in mednarodnost. 4.3.1. Rezultati Tabela 1. Primerjava mnenja stroke glede lastnosti uspešnega menedžerja v družinskem podjetju z mnenjem _uspešnih slovenskih menedžerjev v družinskih podjetjih_ Mnenje stroke Mnenje uspešnih slov. men. v druž. podjetjih Prilagodljiv Profesionalen Nepristranski Sposoben Ustrezno znanje Ne preveč čustven Pripravljen na sodelovanje Imeti mora ugled/status Pozna svoje zaposlene Zna jih motivirati Uspešno nadzoruje stres Sprejema odločitve za dobrobit podjetja Uspešen v timskem delu Ohranja timski duh Zaposlene postavlja na prvo mesto Zaposlene vključuje v odločitve Vzbuja zaupanje Ljubezen do dela Predanost ciljem Pripravljen na nove izive Vztrajnost Poštenost Delavnost Samokritičnost Entuziazem Zanesljivost Pogum Energičnost Inovativnost Kreativnost Sposobnost Vzbujati mora zaupanje Lokalna odgovornost Tradicija Dober odnos z zaposlenimi Poudarja pomen dvosmerne komunikacije Zmožnost priprave zaposlenih na samostojno delo Zanaša se na referenčno in moč znanja Daje pozitiven zgled Konflikte rešuje z win win strategijo Človeški Verjame v širjenje in deljenje znanja Razume svoje odjemalce Vlaganje v tehnologijo Nenehne izboljšave Podjetniški duh Kakovost Dobra komunikacija Povezovanje Trajnostni razvoj Mednarodnost 155 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article 5 Razprava Rezultati so pokazali, da je v Sloveniji, kar 80% družinskih podjetij. Podoben odstotek se pojavlja tudi drugje v svetu, zato je iskanje definicije uspešnega menedžerja v družinskem podjetju več kot smiselno. Navadno so menedžerji in menedžerji v družinskih podjetjih moški, tako v prvi, kot v drugi in vseh nadaljnih generacijah, ki vodijo družinsko podjetje. Nekoliko v manjšem številu so zastopane ženske, ki tudi redkeje prevzamejo podjetje svojih staršev. Če se pojavijo v tej vlogi, pa se od moškega menedžerja v družinskem podjetju razlikujejo predvsem po večji neodvisnosti in navadno večjem znanju. Oba pa imata željo po popolnem nadzoru v podjetju,več kot denar jima pomeni zadovoljstvo ob doseganju ciljev in oba potrebujeta partnerja, ki njuno delo ceni in podpira ter skrbi za družino. Oba sta kreativna, a ženske veljajo za kreativnejše. Moški je navadno še izredno sposoben v poslovnih vodah, a brez formalne izobrazbe, značajsko komplicirana oseba, vedno prepričan, da ima prav, je karizmatičen in energičen. Je praktične narave, pa mu je planiranje in formaliziranje podjetja odveč. Glede na opisano se lahko vprašamo, če je glede na lastnosti morda primerneje, da podjetje vodi ženska? V praksi se je namreč izkazalo, da so podjetja pri prenosu v naslednjo generacijo lažje poslovala, če je podjetje prevzela hčerka. Ker ni prihajalo do tipičnega rivalstva med očetom in sinom, saj oče in hči eden na drugega ne gledata kot na tekmeca in se zato ne čutita ogroženo. Pa vendar hčerke redko prevzemajo vajeti družinskega podjetja. Morda pa recept za uspešno vodenje podjetja vključuje par, moškega in žensko kot zakonca, ki na podjetje gledata kot na nadgradnjo zakona, skupaj sodelujeta in se dopolnjujeta . Povprečen slovenski menedžer družinskega podjetja je moški, starejši od 50 let, navadno poročen in oče 2 otrok. Zopet se ženske pojavljajo v manjšem številu, zaskrbljujoč pa je tudi podatek o starosti, saj je le majhno število družinskih podjetij v rokah mladih podjetnikov. Vseeno pa se mladi pojavljajo kot zaposleni v družinskih podjetjih, ki bodo v naslednjih letih prevzeli vajeti v podjetju, ali pa so proces prevzema podjetja že začeli. Kljub prevzemu podjetja pa njihovi starši, ali eden od staršev pogosto ostanejo v podjetju in vplivajo na pomembne odločitve o poslovanju. Torej lahko izpostavimo pomembno lastnost uspešnih družinskih podjetnikov, to so življenjske in delovne izkušnje. Hkrati pa opozorimo na nevarnost, ko starejši podjetja ne želijo predati svojim naslednikom in upoštevati novih trendov, sprememb, napredka. Zopet lahko dilemo rešimo s sovodenjem družinskega podjetnika na primer oče in hči, mati in sin, kjer starejša generacija prispeva življenske in delovne izkušnje, mlajša pa prinaša napredek in nove ideje. Tudi med mendežerji uspešnih slovenskih družinskih podjetij smo zasledili tovrstno vodenje, ko staršem z pomočjo otrok uspeva uspešno voditi podjetje, oziroma obratno, ko otroci že prevzamejo podjetje, starši pa so jim s svojimi bogatimi izkušnjami še vedno v pomoč in oporo. Glede lastnosti, ki naj bi jih imeli uspešni menedžerji in uspešni menedžerji v družinskih podjetjih sta si stroka in mnenje uspešnih menedžerjev v družinskih podjetjih v Sloveniji na določenih točkah usklajena, vseeno pa tako stroka kot menedžerji dodajajo še par novih 156 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article priporočil. Stroka navaja, da je pomembno, da je menedžer družinskega podjetja prilagodljiv, kar je hkrati tudi prednost družinskih podjetij. Menedžerji dodajajo, da mora biti hkrati tudi tradiconalen a vseeno se mora zavedati pomena napredka, novosti in vlaganja v nove tehnologije. Če združimo oboje se mora dober menedžer v družinskem podjetju zavedati pomena svoje tradicije, a se hkrati prilagajati novostim in razmeram na trgu in vlagati v razvoj. Stroka pravi, da mora biti menedžer profesionalen, menedžerji, dodajo, da mora dajati poudarek na kakvosti. Torej je kakovost dela v obeh primerih temeljna. Po mnenju stroke mora biti menedžer ne preveč čustven in nepristranski, sicer ga lahko hitro zanese in podjetje prilagaja potrebam njegovi zaposlenih družinskih članov in ne obratno. Hkrati pa mora ostati človeški in svojim zaposlenim pokazati, da ima čustva in jih vodi kot človek, ne kot robot. Oboji se strinjajo glede odnosov z zaposlenimi, da jih mora dobro poznati, z njimi komunicirati, jih motivirati in pripraviti na samostojno delo in sprejemanje odločitev. Zaposleni morajo biti na prvem mestu, menedžer mora vzbujati zaupanje. Če povzamemo mora biti menedžer zanesljiva in človeška oseba, ki je zaposlenim dostopna in se je sposobna prilagoditi zaposlenim in družinskim članom, a mora vseeno skrbeti, da ga pri odločanju ne zanese in se vedno odloča v korist podjetja. Po mnenju stroke mora biti menedžer sposoben, imeti mora znanje in ugled. Znašati se mora na referenčno in moč znanja. S tem se strinjajo tudi menedžerji, ki večkrat omenjajo sposobnost. Menimo, da je posebej pomembno kadar družinsko podjetje prevzame nova generacija, da se zanaša na moč znanja in ne le na pozicijo, ki so jo podedovali od svojih staršev. Ni dovolj biti lastnik ali solastnik podjetja, pomembno je biti sposoben za vodenje. Stroka poudarja, da mora biti dober menedžer vedno pripravljen na sodelovanje, menedžerji pa dodajajo povezovanje in sodelovanje z okoljem. Hkrati pa tudi povezovanje na mednarodni ravni. Menedžerji v tem primeru razmišljajo širše in vidijo priložnosti tudi izven meja naše države, kar je izjemno pozitivno, saj je Slovenija majhen trg. Stroka navaja, da uspešen menedžer uspešno nadzoruje stres, menedžerji pa da je vedno pripravljen na nove izzive, saj ga ženeta entuziazem, pogum, predanost ciljem in ljubezen do dela. Predvidevamo, da vidijo ljubezen do dela kot protiutež stresu, oziroma zadovoljstvo ob dobro opravljenem delu kot nagrado za morebiten stres, ki nastanja pri delu. Po mnenju stroke, mora sprejemati odločitve za dobrobit podjetja in ne "približke" tem odločitvam. Menedžerji tega ne navajajo, navajajo pa samokritičnost in poštenost. Kar tudi lahko razumemo kot sprejemanje ukrepov ne v svojo korist, temveč v korist podjetja. Zmožnost da opazimo lastne napake in pošten odnos tako do sebe, kot do zaposlenih in poslovnih partnerjev. Stroka omenja tudi uspeh v timskem delu in ohranjanje timskega duha, menedžerji pa podjetniški duh, kar lahko razumemo kot, da oboji strmijo k ohranjanju dobrega vzdušja znotraj podjetja, povezovanja, uspešnega sodelovanja s sodelavci in pozitivne naravnanosti za delo. Stroka pravi, da dober menedžer vedno daje pozitiven zgled, menedžerji to opišejo z lastnostmi pozitivnega zgleda, kot so vztrajnost, delavnost, energičnost, inovativnost in kreativnost. Stroka predvidi reševanje konfliktov z win - win strategijo, pri menedžerjih pa omenjanja te strategije nismo zasledili, da bi jo izpostavili kot eno izmed pomembnih vodil za uspeh. Po mnenju stroke menedžer verjame v širjenje in deljenje znanja. Menedžerji pa sicer omenjajo znanje, tradicijo, izkušnje, sodelovanje, ne pa tudi deljenje znanja z zaposlenimi. Lahko predvidevamo, da se bolj bojijo da bi jim kdo ukradel idejo, si prilastil njihove zasluge 157 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article za delo, bojijo se konkurence, ki jo dojemajo bolj negativno kot stroka. Stroki je pomembno, da menedžer razume svoje odjemalce. Odjemalce menedžerji omenjajo z vidka vzbujanja zaupanja, ne pa toliko poznavanja njihovega načina razmišljanja, dostopa do podatkov. Menedžerjem je pomemben tudi trajnostni razvoj, ki ga stroka ne omenja. Menimo, da je to lastnost družinskih podjetij, ker ne razmišljajo samo o tem, kako bo podjetje delovalo za čas njihove delovne aktivnosti, temveč tudi kako bo delovalo, ko ga bodo prevzeli njihovi potomci. Zato v razvoj podjetja vlagajo več dela in sredstev in so na svoje delo emocionalno vezani in večkrat poudarjajo ljubezen do svojega dela in entuziazem. Menimo, da je uspešen menedžer družinskega podjetja lahko moški ali ženska, par, eden od staršev z otroci, tudi sorojenca ali drugi sorodniki. Vsak izmed naštetih se sicer sooča s specifičnimi težavami, a imajo skupni cilj - uspešno poslovanje družinskega podjetja. Uspeh menedžerja ni odvisen od njegove starosti, ampak njegove sposobnosti. Je pa za mlajšega menedžerja pozitivno, če si lahko pomaga z bogatimi izkušnjami starejše generacije. Za starejšega pa če si lahko pomaga z novimi idejami, tehnologijami in entuziazmom, ki jih prinaša mlajša generacija. Stroka navaja svoje definicije, ki jim uspešni menedžerji dodajajo svoje življenjske izkušnje in nasvete iz prakse. Mnogih stvari se lahko menedžer nauči, ne more pa se naučiti kako postati oseba, saj se oseba izoblikuje, ne nauči. Zato je pozitivno, če ima določene lastnosti že v sebi, oziroma če si jih je pridobil med odraščanjem in pomočjo v družinskem podjetju. Tukaj se stroka in menedžerji zopet "srečajo", saj menedžerji poudarjajo kako zelo pomembno je, da so otroci od malega v podjetju in si pridobivajo pomembne izkušnje in s podjetjem "rastejo". To je prednost otrok, katerih starši so lastniki družinskega podjetja. Raziskave pa so pokazale, da se pogosto odločajo za pot podjetništva, ne le v smislu prevzema, ampak tudi v smislu ustanovitve svojega podjetja. Tudi med uspešnimi menedžerji v slovenskih družinskih podjetjih smo zasledili primere, ko so otroci ustanovili nova podjetja, ki so del podjetij njihovih staršev ali pa z njimi sodelujejo. 6 Zaključek V Sloveniji je cca 80% podjetij družinskih, kar upraviči smiselnost iskanja uspešnega menedžerja v družinskem podjetju. Raziskava je pokazala kakšen je tipičen menedžer družinskega podjetja, to je moški, starejši od 50 let, sposoben in delaven, a brez formalne izobrazbe, a vseeno so lahko uspešni tudi mlajši menedžerji, menedžerji z visoko izobrazbo, ženske... Prednosti vidimo v menedžerju družinskega podjetja, ki je bodisi povezan s svojimi otroci, bodisi starši in skupaj vodijo podjetje, ali pa paru, ki vidi nadgradnjo svoje zveze/zakona v podjetništvu, kot skupnem projektu. Stroka in uspešni podjetniki družinskih podjetij v Sloveniji navajajo različne, a sorodne lastnosti, ki so pomembene za uspeh. Med sabo se dopolnjujejo. Delno se jih lahko naučimo, delno pa jih pridobimo z osebno rastjo, pozitivno pa je če nekatere od njih posedujemo že sami po sebi. Sem spadajo prilagodljivost, strokovnost, odgovornost, pripravljenost na sodelovanje, človeškost - ranljivost, ljubezen do dela, predanost ciljem, pripravljenost na nove izzive, pripravljenost na sodelovanje, vztrajnost, poštenost, pogum, zanesljivost, energičnost, inovativnost, samokritičnost in entuziazem, vera v deljenje in širjenje znanja. Lahko pa se priučimo znanja, lahko si 158 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article pridobimo ugled in status, lahko dobro spoznamo svoje zaposlene in se naučimo kaj jih motivira, lahko se naučimo biti hkrati pripravljeni se prilagoditi delavcem in družini in se hkrati odločati v dobro podjetja, lahko se priučimo uspešnega timskega dela, s svojimi dejanji vzbujamo zaupanje med zaposlenimi in strankami, konflikte rešujemo na način win - win, dajemo pozitiven zgled, lahko vzljubimo družinsko tradicijo, postanemo bolj ekološko osveščeni in povezani z okoljem, bolj trajnostno usmerjeni, lahko se naučimo vzpostaviti dobre odnose z zaposlenimi in kako jih pripraviti na samostojno delo, kako vzpostaviti dobro komunikacijo in kako se usmeriti v mednarodnost. Veliko od naštetega se otroci lastnikov družinskih podjetij naučijo z zgodnjim vključevanjem in pomočjo v podjetju, kar jim pomaga tudi pri osebni rasti. Raziskava definira uspešnega menedžerja v družinskem podjetju z upoštevanjem mnenja stroke, ki vključuje prednosti in izzive družinskega podjetništva, definicije uspešnih menedžerjev, podatke o povprečnih menežerjih v družinskih podjetjih in mnenje menedžerjev v uspešnih družinskih podjetjih v Sloveniji. Družba bo s pomočjo članka dobila opredelitev lastnosti in delovanja uspešnega menedžerja v družinskem podjetju. Menedžerji pa pomoč oziroma priporočilo za izboljšanje svojega delovanja. Članek je lahko v pomoč tudi pri prenosu podjetja na naslednjo generacijo vsem mladim menedžerjem v družinskih podjetjih, ki se s to vlogo srečujejo na novo in jim pomaga postati bolj uspešni. Raziskava je omejena s strani samo teoretičnih podatkov in števila menedžerjev, ki so podali svoje mnenje. Smiselno bi jo bilo nadgraditi še z empiričnim delom oziroma uporabiti večje število mnenj uspešnih slovenskih menedžerjev v družinskih podjetjih in mnenje posameznih raziskovalcev s področja družinskega podjetništva. Reference 1. Allem, M. & Islam, S. (2009). Successful Succession in Family Businesses: Individual Level Factors and Sucession Planning Models. Pridoblj eno 21. maj 2016, na https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:222186/FULLTEXT01 .pdf 2. Antončič, B., Auer Antončič, J., & Juričič, D. (2015). Družinsko podjetništvo: Značilnosti v Sloveniji. Ljubljana: Ernst in Young, d. o. o., 3-16. 3. Bianco, P. D. (2015). Family-Owned Businesses. Pridobljeno 25. maj 2016, na http: //www .referenceforbusiness.com/encyclopedia/Fa-For/Family-Owned-Businesses.html 4. Bižal, U. (2013). Raziskava vpliva stila vodenja na spodbujanje ustvarjalnosti v skupini. Revija za univerzalno odličnost, 2 (3), 117-128. 5. Bratanič, J. (2016). Vse ostane v družini. Svet kapitala. 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Robbins, S., Judge, T. A., Millett, B., & Boyle, M. (2013). Organisational behaviour. Pearson Higher Education AU. 30. Rajter, M. (2010). Družinska podjetja in njihov pomen v slovenskem gospodarstvu. Doktorska disertacija. Univerza na Primorskem. Fakulteta za management: Koper. 31. Treven, S., & Sriča, V. (2001). Mednarodno organizacijsko vedenje. Ljubljana: GV založba. 32. Vadnjal, J. (1996). Družinsko podjetništvo v Sloveniji. Magistrsko delo. Ekonomska fakulteta: Ljubljana. 33. Vadnjal, J. (1999). Družinsko podjetništvo. Ekonomska fakulteta: Ljubljana. 34. Vadnjal, J. (2016). Družinska podjetja so tudi inkubatorji novih podjetij. Akademija finance. Pridobljeno 20.2.2016 na https://akademija.finance.si/8804195. *** Urška Metelko je diplomirala na Fakulteti za turistične študije Turistica v Portorožu in pridobila strokovni naziv diplomirani organizator turizma. Zaposlena je v podjetju Čistilni servis Danica Metelko s.p. kot analitičarka poslovnih procesov in organizacije dela. 160 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article Abstract: Purpose and originality: The purpose of this article is to identify the main characteristics of successful managers of family businesses from different perspectives. Method: We used the method of literature review of existing knowledge on family businesses and their managers, on organisational behaviour and on successful managers in general. Results: The research has highlighted the personality traits of successful managers in general, and specifically successful managers in family businesses. Society: Society will benefit from the research findings by obtaining identification of characteristics and activities of a successful manager of family business. Limitations / further research: This research is limited by the number of existing sources that were used. In the future, it would be suitable to augment the theoretical part with an empirical research on the case of Slovenia or one of its regions. It would also be sensible to add a quantitative research. Keywords: Family business, Manager, Leadership, Relationships, Management, Organisational behaviour, Concepts. Copyright (c) 2017 Urška Metelko Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. 161 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 162-136. Članek / Article Decay of Human Rights in 21st century * Diana Ludrovcova Faculty of philosophy and arts, Trnava university in Trnava, Hornopotočna 23, 918 43 Trnava d.ludrovcova@gmail.com . * Uroš Pinterič Faculty of philosophy and arts, Trnava university in Trnava, Hornopotočna 23, 918 43 Trnava uros.pinteric@gmail.com Abstract: Purpose and Originality: The article is aimed to assess the development and current state of the human rights. Modern reality requires redefinition of human rights, due to the events, which are re-establishing realist approach to global politics. Method: Method is combination of focused synthesis and inverse deduction. Results: The article supports the basic assumption that the human rights are endangered, not only in non- or semi-democratic regimes, but also in the states which are considered to be functional democracies. Society: The article provides insight in one of most overlooked and underestimated concepts in the contemporary political science. It requires people to re-assess the human rights as concept as well as its implementation. Limitations / further research: Article is limited to the argumentation with limited empirical support to the arguments, and it is based on non-neutral assumption that human rights today are ideological concept and not universal category. Keywords: human rights, ideology, USA, contemporary world. 1 Introduction Human rights are one of most endangered and misused concepts (together with the democracy) in the western hemisphere1. On one hand, it shall be important for all the people to have their rights respected. On the other hand there is more and more legally justified violations of these rights by the states. 1 Based on current societal processes, limiting the legal predictability (state of law), religious freedoms (dicrimination towards particular religion), state control (espionage on the general population), freedom of press and information, freedom of movement, etc in practically all countries from Poland, Hungary, Turkey, France, USA and long list of others. If in the recent history, there was ideological connection between democracy and human rights, today democracy can be as oppressing as any communist regime. * Korespondencni avtor / Correspondence author Prejeto: 20. junij 2017; revidirano: 2. julij 2017; sprejeto: 24. julij 2017. / Received: June 20, 2017; revised: July 2, 2017; accepted: July 24, 2017. 162 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article Human rights are granted on the philosophical, legal and practical level in order to assure individuals with two main commodities. Freedom and security. Freedom, which can be limited only by the same freedom of the fellow human being. Security, which does not limit the freedoms and which does not protect only survival but life in its full quality, including protection of dignity and privacy of an individual. In this manner the article is trying to highlight certain aspects of human rights in the 21st century. We are trying to test the modern western civilisation human rights standards towards the basic human rights protection documents. We argue that the human rights in 21st century are becoming cheap excuse to justify political, economic and military pressure on different countries with very little concern when the stability of the current political system is in question. In this manner it is of utmost importance to systematically address this issue, point out lack of respect for human rights in the modern world as well as the need to maintain civic engagement, for protecting what was the pre-condition for democracy. Hereby we argue human rights are precondition for democracy, since only people who are not endangered in expressing their political views can demand responsibility of the government and have power to change it, when the government is not ruling for their benefit. In order to prove this argument we will rely on focused synthesis as predominant descriptive method and support the argumentation by different cases and deductive reasoning. 2 Theoretical framework 2.1 Human rights definition Human rights are moral, legal and political device protecting the dignity, wellbeing, and survival of human beings. A right is a freedom of some kind. It is something to what you are ideally entitled by solely being a human (Cerar, 1996). Human rights are based on the principle of respecting each individual. Fundamental assumption is that each person is a moral and rational being, who deserves to be treated with dignity. Precondition of humanity is incorporating the universality of the concept. While nations or specific groups can enjoy specific rights that apply only to them, human rights are the rights to which each person is entitled, regardless of any other personal specific. (Human Rights Educators' Network, 1998) The horror of two great wars in 20th century lead to preparation of Universal Declaration of Human rights, adopted in 1948 by the United Nations Organization (Human Rights Educators' Network, 1998), in further years supported by additional conventions dealing with special sets of rights (political, economic, etc.). However, main postulate is that any human being should be free from any oppression, due to national, religious, gender or other personal circumstance, should have right to the political participation and should be free from existential fear. 46 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article However, practical history of last seventy years presents, more than universal respect, universal violation of human rights. If initially it was utopically believed that human rights violations are consequence of lack of political will to protect them (Pinteric, 2004, p. 2), today it becomes more and more evident that human rights violations are ordered by the states, justified by legislation and judicial system which assesses the legislation within nondiscrimination paradigm, which means that abolishment of certain right can be justified if it is abolished for everyone, and not only for a specific group of people. 2.2 Brief history of human rights Human rights, as we define them today, are not self-evident and from the beginning of time. In the manner as human society developed also different political concepts emerged over the time. In the historical perspective, one can distinct for major periods in human rights development. In the early times (antique and afterwards renaissance and enlightenment era) the focus was primarily on political rights, after the industrial revolution, economic and social rights were promoted, after the second world war, so called third generation of human rights, dealing with individuals' wellbeing became important and it was followed by the cyber rights, which were not that much new rights, but started to implement the previous sets of rights in newly developing virtual environment. Often forgotten is reciprocity conceptualisation or reverses principle, where human right of one becomes responsibility of others towards the one (Cerar, 1996). Even more radical perspective on human rights is offered by the concept of "human duties", where there is no initial right, but only one's duty to properly treat the others, without any right of the others. Such cases exist in the collectivist societies, where the role of individual is put behind the collective (Cerar, 1996). Throughout much of history, people executed/enjoyed their rights and responsibilities within different social groups - a family, nation, religion, class, community, or a state. Regardles of historical and geographical background, most societies have traditions similar to the "golden rule" of "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you." The Hindu Vedas, the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi, the Bible, the Koran, and the Analects of Confucius are five of the oldest written sources which address questions of people's duties, rights, and responsibilities. Nowadays, reciprocity principle still exists in religious context or in certain societies (e.g. in many Far East societies or in certain African tribes). In addition, the Inca and Aztec codes of conduct and justice, and an Iroquois Constitution were Native American sources of proper treatment that existed well before the 18th century. Basically, all societies have had (oral or written) systems of propriety and justice as well as ways of tending to the health and welfare of their members. Within the context of "Western civilisation", documents asserting individual rights, such the Magna Carta (1215), Habes Corpus Act (1679), the English Bill of Rights (1689), the French Declaration on the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789), and the US Constitution (1787) and Bill of Rights (1791) are the written precursors to many of today's human rights documents. 47 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article For the first time in history, Magna Carta established the principle that everybody, including the king, is subject to the law. Although nearly a third of the text was deleted or substantially rewritten and almost all the clauses have been repealed in modern times, Magna Carta remains a cornerstone of the British constitutionality. Within the Magna Carta, there was a number of fundamental values that both challenged the autocracy of the king and proved highly adaptable in future centuries. Most famously, the 39th clause gave all 'free men' the right to justice and a fair trial. Some of Magna Carta's core principles echoed in the United States Bill of Rights (1791) and in many other constitutional documents around the world, as well as in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and the European Convention on Human Rights (1950). (Breay, Harrison, 2015) The English Bill of Rights was a British Law, passed by the Parliament of Great Britain in 1689 that declared the rights and liberties of the people. The document in question have had a massive influence on the colonies in North America and the Constitution of the United States. The most elements of the Bill of Rights are as follows: • A frequently summoned Parliament and free elections • Members should have freedom of speech in Parliament • No armies should be raised in peacetime • No taxes could be levied, without the authority of parliament • Laws should not be dispensed with, or suspended, without the consent of parliament • No excessive fines should imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted (Land of the Brave, 2017) In 1789, French National Assembly accepted the Declaration of Rights of man and the Citizen (fr. Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen), served as the preamble to the French Constitution of 1791. The basic principle of the Declaration was that all "men are born and remain free and equal in rights" (Article 1), which were specified as the rights of liberty, private property, the inviolability of the person, and resistance to oppression (Article 2). All citizens were equal before the law and were to have the right to participate in legislation directly or indirectly (Article 6); no one was to be arrested without a judicial order (Article 7). Freedom of religion (Article 10) and freedom of speech (Article 11) were safeguarded within the bounds of public "order" and "law." The document reflects the interests of the elites who wrote it: property was given the status of an inviolable right, which could be taken by the state only if an indemnity were given (Article 17); offices and position were opened to all citizens (Article 6). (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2005) The Constitution of the United States of America prepared in 1787 is the fundamental law of the US federal system of government. It is one of the oldest written national constitutions (Based on the fact that United Kingdom has constitutionality packed in different legal documents, including aforementioned Magna Carta) in use and defines the principal organs of government and their jurisdictions and the basic rights of citizens. 48 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article The first ten amendments to the Constitution, known as the Bill of Rights (not to be confused with British document with the same name), came into effect on December 15, 1791, limiting the powers of the federal government of the United States and protecting the rights of all citizens, residents and visitors in American territory. The Bill of Rights protects freedom of speech, freedom of religion, the right to keep and bear arms, the freedom of assembly and the freedom to petition. It also prohibits unreasonable search and seizure, cruel and unusual punishment and compelled self-incrimination. Among the legal protections it affords, the Bill of Rights prohibits Congress from making any law respecting establishment of religion and prohibits the federal government from depriving any person of life, liberty or property without due process of law. In federal criminal cases it requires indictment by a grand jury for any capital offense, or infamous crime, guarantees a speedy public trial with an impartial jury in the district in which the crime occurred, and prohibits double jeopardy. (United for Human Rights, n.d.) Yet many of these documents, when originally translated into policy, excluded different groups of population, such as women, people of colour, and members of certain social, religious, economic, and political groups. Nevertheless, oppressed people throughout the world have drawn on the principles these documents express to support revolutions that assert the right to self-determination. (Human Rights Educators' Network, 1998) Establishment of the United Nations Organisation and its efforts in protection of the human rights have its basis in unsuccessful or limited successful previous attempts to recognise the value of human being in the time of war and peace. Among such efforts are, for instance 19th century attempts of the slave trade prohibition. In 1919, countries established the International Labour Organization (ILO) to oversee treaties protecting workers with respect to their rights, including their health and safety. Concern over the protection of certain minority groups was raised by the League of Nations at the end of the First World War which was also the first attempt to limit the war activities by implying so called concept of jus ad bellum (which defined the principles of starting the war). Unfortunately the League lost its credibility because the United States refused to join and further more failed to prevent Japan's invasion of China and Manchuria (1931) and Italy's attack on Ethiopia (1935), and all in all it failed to prevent raise and military activities of Hitler, which caused the Second World War (1939 when Germany refused to step down, and occupied Austria and Poland). The idea of human rights emerged stronger after World War II. The extermination by Nazi Germany of over six million Jews, Sinti and Romani (gypsies), homosexuals, and persons with disabilities horrified the world. Trials were held in Nuremberg and Tokyo after World War II, and officials from the defeated countries were punished for committing war crimes, "crimes against peace", and "crimes against humanity." Governments then committed themselves to establishing the United Nations, with the primary goal of bolstering international peace and preventing conflict. People wanted to ensure that 49 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article never again would anyone be unjustly denied life, freedom, food, shelter, and nationality. The essence of these emerging human rights principles was captured in President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's 1941 State of the Union Address when he spoke of a world founded on four essential freedoms: freedom of speech and religion and freedom from want and fear. The calls came from across the globe for human rights standards to protect citizens from abuses by their governments, standards against which nations could be held accountable for the treatment of those living within their borders. These voices played a critical role in the San Francisco meeting that drafted the United Nations Charter in 1945. (United for Human Rights, n.d.) 2.2.1 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights On December 10, 1948 United Nations Organisation adopted Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Roosevelt, credited with its inspiration, referred to the Declaration as the international Magna Carta for all mankind. In its preamble and in Article 1, the Declaration unequivocally proclaims the inherent rights of all human beings: "Disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people...All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights." The Member States of the United Nations pledged to work together to promote the thirty Articles of human rights that, for the first time in history, had been assembled and codified into a single document. In consequence, many of these rights, in various forms, are today part of the constitutional laws of democratic nations. (United for Human Rights, n.d.) 2.3 Cultural context of human rights Human rights are essential to the protection of individuals, communities, and peoples regardless of the cultural context. However, in every cultural context different issues arise in the execution of human rights. For example, some of the distinct ethnic or cultural groups in Africa and other regions owe their current boundaries and definition in part of European colonial powers that imposed distinctions based on racial categories. Race is a culturally constructed category (though it may use biologically influenced variations in appearance as social markers) because the choice of categories, the ways of assigning people to the categories, and the uses of this distinction are all determined by cultural practices. The 50 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. meaning of these categories changes with social context, but racial categories have usually been imposed by a group or society to justify its domination, exploitation, or annihilation of another group (Fredrickson, 2002). Cultural stereotypes can have the same invidious effects as racial stereotypes. The conceptual difficulties with notions of culture and their history of abuse, have led many to argue that it would be best to dispense with culture entirely. However, this is problematic for scientific, moral, and political reasons. Scientifically, it is clear that we are cultural beings, requiring culture to achieve our full functioning. The human brain is essentially an organ of culture, and the ways in which we can become ill reflect culture as much as biology. Morally, since culture is the source of our individual values and the means by which we organize communities, recognizing culture is essential to our recognizing and respecting each other's commitments and concerns. Finally, every political system, no matter how much it strives for equality and neutrality, privileges some (usually predominant) cultural groups while ignoring or disadvantaging others. Acknowledging the domain of culture and recognizing specific ethno-cultural groups are essential to identifying and correcting these biases and inequalities. (Kirmayer, 2008) Historically, cultures have been viewed as homogeneous, self-justifying, closed worlds of moral meaning and practice. In reality, cultures are complex, open, hybrid, and contested from within. This makes it difficult to appeal to a cultural norm as part of a cohesive and consistent body of knowledge and practice adhered to by a community. Cultures are not finely tuned homeostatic systems that insure the well-being of all members of the community. (Edgerton, 1992) There may be conflict, inequalities, and injustices within groups due to internal structures that advantage some members of a society while oppressing and exploiting others. This is particularly clear in the case of gender, age, or other forms of discrimination. Simply appealing to cultural tradition or collective values does not address the vulnerability of children, women, and minorities to systemic violence and injustice. Rights language provides a way to speak back to power in social and political struggles that cut across diverse cultures. Human rights offer a potentially useful strategy for the weak and vulnerable in any social system to gain support for challenges to the status quo. (Kirmayer, 2008) The massive violations of human rights in genocides and other forms of organized violence have been fuelled by processes of dehumanizing the other as somehow not fully or really human. We have psychological mechanisms for dehumanizing some individuals as subhuman, primitive and animalistic or non-human, machine-like and devoid of the capacity for empathy (Haslam, 2006). These pave the way for excluding others from the human community and allow acts of violence to proceed without the empathic recognition of the other as vulnerable or suffering human being that might otherwise limit our aggression. In some communities, humans may be labelled with inhuman qualities - for example as witches or demons. These claims 51 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article undermine the humanness of the accused and make it possible for others to attack them with impunity. (Kirmayer, 2008) Global survival depends on our ability to extend our empathy, identification and concern beyond local tribalisms to encompass humanity as a whole. Nationalism and ethnic loyalty may forge ties to a larger group but they define insiders and outsiders, "us and them", in ways that can undermine our sense of connection to humanity as a whole. National identities may be constructed a number of ways but in some respects are tribal identities writ large. The creation of nation states has mapped the world in terms of citizenship, giving everyone a place where they legally belong. This creates the possibility of being pushed outside the state, into an ambiguous place where individuals do not belong to the land on which they stand. This extraterritoriality creates a new kind of vulnerability that requires new forms of protection, like those embodied in the UN conventions on refugees (Gibney, 2004). 2.4 Ideological positioning After the Second World War, human rights became mantra of western world. Ignatieff (2001) named them also language of modern world in accordance of his relationship to them. At the same time Ignatieff (2001, pp. 9-10) also argues that human rights are never objective, and always defending some option. In his context NGOs despite using universal language of human rights are far from fighting for everyone, but only on behalf of some "political" option . In this manner we have to say that no political option is neutral, because it has its own values that prefers. In values framework it is always possible to recognise some kind of ideology. In case of human rights promoted by western culture liberal individual ideology stands behind. The last shape of it, connected with economical globalization and political internationalization, is neo-liberalism. According to the situation it seems that human rights are moral imperative translated into a language of law for political purpose. It is quite evident that human rights are translated in a language of law and nobody is hiding this. Much more unpleasant and also hidden is connection between human rights and policies and especially politics. Despite Ignatieff (see above) suggests that human rights are and should be political issue, everyone want to keep human rights as something that is above politics and has power to control it. According to this Boli-Bennett (1981, p. 173) argues that "the ideology of the expanding state constantly co-opts the ideology of individualism by translating human rights into citizen rights, a process that serves not much to strengthen the possibility of individual choice as to expand state jurisdiction over the lives of citizens". In this context rights are more and more defined as subject to restriction by the state, rather than inherent in the individual without restriction 2 Here, we cannot forget Plato's idea that human is different from other beings because of ability to take political decisions - zoon politicon. 52 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article (Boli-Bennett, 1981, p. 174). Main problem of Boli-Bennett concept is in his dialectical approach. He separates human rights ideology and state authority as two dialectical concepts. Despite he confesses that human rights are tool for controlling the state, his missed the point of the dialectic approach . Much more than searching dialectics in this relation it is appropriate to think about human rights as tool of state authority to rule over the citizens. He is trying to show correlation between human duties, human rights and state authority as crucial "ideological" problem. He argues, stronger than human rights are, weaker are human duties and state authority. In this context he sees human rights as protection of individuals from government and dominant classes and at the same time also as "incorporation of the individual in the state structure and the ideology of state authority over society" (Boli-Bennett, 1981, p. 176). On a first glance he seems right, but we are not allowed to forget that there are different power relations that make incorporation of individuals into state structure prevailing and reducing individual's protection from others or state interference into his/her privacy. In context of politics, human rights are becoming more and more just a political tool. If before human rights were described more as the ideology, in next paragraph we will try to show human rights as tool used by politicians in their daily activities to keep their political function. In fact it is about (ab)use of human rights discourse in political purpose. Human rights are not absolute categories. It means that each person is entitled to exercise his or her rights in a way that does not interfere with rights of other people or legitimate public interests. For example, freedom of speech does not mean that one can speak about any topic at any time and place. Freedom of press does not allow a person to intentionally publish false, harmful information about another person. However, individual rights are not subordinate to common good. In complex, democratic societies such as the United States, the primary goal is striking the proper balance between individual rights and public interest. (Milovanovich, n.d.). Different human rights protection organizations regularly report on police abuse, racial differences, denying freedom of decision-making (abortion), confused voting system that excludes significant number of potential voters (especially those from society margins). With death penal U.S. are together in alliance of such states as China, Cuba, etc. (Pinteric, 2004, pp. 22-23). The idea of human rights accepts that some limitations on rights are permissible but the limitations are themselves strictly limited by law. Public emergency, national security, and public order are examples of situations that indicate important societal interests, but they cannot be lightly or loosely invoked to unnecessarily invade or violate individual rights. Limitations are permitted only to the extent strictly required by the exigencies of the particular situation. However, the government may under no circumstances go so far as to 3 According to dialectics, human rights and state authority could not exist separated one form another, and they should legitimize each other in perpetual circle. In praxis, we know, that state authority can be maintained by the other ways than human rights maintenance (just promised or also fulfilled). 53 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article invade the right to life, or implement torture, inhuman punishment, slavery, or violate freedom of thought, conscience, or religion. Concern for human rights protection is of paramount importance in any type of society. Even in countries that take pride in their human rights record, there are areas that call for improved treatment of human rights. For example, the respect for civil and political rights has been greatly emphasized in the United States and American government is actively promoting those rights all over the world. On the other hand, the very same government does not recognize health care, work, homelessness, environmental pollution, and other social and economic concerns as human rights issues. Rather, they are viewed as mere aspirations or goals to be met someday in the distant future when they are feasible. Such approach has very serious consequences for quality of democracy in this country. Being deprived of their economic and social rights, people cannot effectively exercise their civil and political rights. For example, national wealth implies that there should be no hunger in the US. In reality, problem of hunger is very much present in this country. As a consequence, people affected by such depravation cannot be expected to actively exercise their political freedoms. Civil and political rights should not be measured by the existence of laws protecting democratic principles, but by a citizen's capability to exercise these rights. The paper right to participate in a democratic system does not guarantee inclusion in practice. While the government cannot remove all barriers to ability, it should eradicate the most basic impediments like hunger - particularly in the richest nation in the world. (Milovanovich, n.d.) In the American history meaning of freedom is connected to the desire to the better world many first settlers were searching for on their travel over the sea. According to psychoanalysis point of view it is understandable desire of many people who wanted to start new life in new country with new opportunities not only as practical but also as symbolic one. One of behaviour rules in America was also that nobody is allowed to ask for someone's name4. This can be understood as beginning of development of today's American individualism. At the same time beginning of the American (ultra) liberalism we can find in rule that someone can do everything for satisfying his needs, until he does not endangers other people or restrict same right to them. Today's theory of human rights in US is mainly based upon the official administrational statements supported by uncritical mass media. There are many cases when US administration violated article one of America Bill of Rights and misleads or misinforms American citizens. According to the American culture it is hard to speak about serious development of human rights theory in US apart from existing political praxis. Human Rights transformed from 4 Among people in America there were a lot of criminals who escaped or were exported to colonies and who did not want to show their identity. (Pinteric, 2004) 54 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article theoretical concepts into the measurable tool for evaluating world, usually for the political purpose. International framework of human rights is base on the International Declaration of Human rights from 1949 and two covenants from 1966 (International Covenant on Civil and political rights and International Covenant on Economic and Social rights). US ratified the International Covenant on Civil and political rights only in 1992. As an excuse they usually argue that political and civil rights are in US defined well enough with national legislation and that they do not need international regulation. At the same time US ensured themselves numbers of reservations and understandings that weaken power of this document. (Pinteric, 2004). Table 1. Household food-insecurity rates in the USA 2013-2015 Country Percentage Mississippi 20,8% Arkansas 19,2% Louisiana 18,4% Alabama 17,6% Kentucky 17,6% Ohio 16,1% Oregon 16,1% North Carolina 15,9% Maine 15,8% Oklahoma 15,5% Texas 15,4% Tennessee 15,1% Note.* states stated in the table exhibited statistically significantly higher household food-insecurity rates than the U.S. national average 2013-2015 (<13.7%). 5 "Western" philosophic foundations of human rights are not universally accepted. Today in the world there is no general consensus about positive definitions of human rights. Bills of rights differ from nation to nation. Even in the Western world scope and exercise of human rights differ from one country to another. In non-Western countries, observance of human rights is based on quite different premises. For example, socialist and communist countries have emphasized social-welfare rights, such 5 Feeding America's Hunger and Poverty Facts and Statistics (2015). 55 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article as right to education, right to job, and right to health care. However, their citizens often have limited civil and political rights. In some cultures, the Western idea of human rights as individual rights is completely rejected. Emphasis on individual is viewed as egocentric, egoistic, and divisive. For example, in Islamic countries religious concerns that dominate social life have distinct primacy over individual rights. Unlike Western law, which is primarily concerned with regulating public affairs of citizens and protecting individual rights, the Islamic law seeks to regulate the entirety of human existence leaving very little room for some civil rights and individual freedoms. In some traditional societies, like Japan and India, concepts of personal loyalty and obligation have been given far more weight than individual aspirations. In those societies, self-worth and identity are viewed as stemming from groups to which the person belongs rather than from what that person has accomplished. (Milovanovich, n.d.) 3 Discussion Human rights are not equal for everyone and are not fully enforceable. Different cultures different rights and their protection is understand in different way. In this sense freedom of speech can be in different countries understand in different way and in different scope. Same is about human life and all other rights and freedoms. However main arguments why we cannot accept idea about human rights universality are their violations in the culture that created this construct. However, it seems most valid to say that there is kind of universal value system in the world, but it is different understand and implemented in different cultures. (Pinteric, 2004, p. 22) At the same time it is equally important that human rights are together with the democracy among the concepts which shall not be simply culturally questioned but should be, within the cultural context, provided to all people by following the main principle, which reaches over the Western civilisation principles and becomes humanitarian and thus universal in the aforementioned principle of not treating others in the manner as one would not like to be treated. In this democratic-utopical perspective one shall not forget the reality of economic and social inequality, clearly showing the distribution of power between general population and the elites as well as recognising the inability to overcome this situation only by "petitioning" for the better living conditions. If Western perspective on human rights exposes predominantly the violations/disrespect of human rights in other cultural contexts, it is important not to neglect the decrease of human rights in the Western civilisation per se. Even if we ignore historical violation of human rights (already in the time when human rights were recognised as important societal concept), which can be strongly responsible for lots of global turmoil today, we cannot overlook the fact that certain "limitations" of human rights are culturally conditioned in the geographical perspective. Among such tradition is Islamic covering of the 56 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article body, where more precise analysis shows that what is today proclaimed as oppression of women's rights is historically nothing more nor less than protection from desert sun, which was implied also to the men. However, France (and few other countries') ban on burka is violation of the right to freely express the religion, since it is selective and discriminates against singular, defined religious group). Increasing surveillance over the general population is hardly anything else than reduction of individual's right to privacy. Especially in the perspective of decreasing personal security. In the fairness, we need to add that never before, world was safer from different terrorist acts (in opposition to general media reporting), but people are at the same time much more endangered by the poverty and social exclusion than by possibility of being victims of terrorist acts. In this perspective increased surveillance can hardly be justified by increased security of citizens, since their main threats are most often of non-violent nature6. 4 Conclusion Human Rights are a set of rights and freedoms that are defined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other documents in the UN system for all human beings on earth. They are universal and equal for everyone. Civil rights and freedoms are defined by international documents, states' legal documents, and are guaranteed to all citizens. Non-democratic states provide fewer civil rights than stated in the International Human Rights Document. The difference is between the legal enactment of human rights and the actual practice of individual states. Today, technically, only few countries openly refuse the idea about being democratic and respecting human rights. However, when it comes to human rights execution/provision, we can see that in many cases state as guarantor of human rights is failing more and more miserably by legalising religious discrimination, reducing the media and speech freedom, reducing the privacy of individuals, limiting the possibilities for political activism, etc. In this perspective, it is necessary to stress that golden era of human rights is over and that human rights can be only kept by fight against political and economic elitism, where symbolism of anonymous mask from V for Vendetta is not only shallow symbol of hiding but it will represent people's internalisation of the idea, of which government shall be afraid. Research is limited by its rather speculative nature and is more discussion for further strengthening the debate on human right conceptualisation, as well as it shall present provocative entry point for further debate on the topic. 6 One can argue that we are in this manner returning to the times of the inquisition, where plague, famine and nature disasters were blamed on witches as external enemies, "few" people were scarified as a proof that the political system performs its role, while population did not feel any relieve. Only the political elite managed to channelize the frustration of the people away from themselves as responsible holders of political power. 57 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article References 1. Boli-Bennett, J. (1981): Human rights or States Expansion. In V. P. Nanada, J. R. Scarritt & G. W. Shepherd Jr. (ed.): Global human rights: Public policies, Comparative measures and NGO strategies. Boulder: A Westview special study. (pp: 173-193). 2. Cerar M. ml. (1996): Večrazsežnost človekovih pravic in dolžnosti. Znanstveno in publicistično središče, Ljubljana. 3. Cornelius Murphy (1972). Ideological Interpretations of Human Rights , 21 DePaul L. Rev. 286. Retrieved from: http://via.library.depaul.edu/law-review/vol21/iss272 4. Edgerton, R. B. (1992). Sick Societies: Challenging the Myth of Primitive Harmony. NewYork: The Free Press. 5. Feeding America's Hunger and Poverty Facts and Statistics (2015). Retrieved from: http://www.feedingamerica.org/hunger-in-america/impact-of-hunger/hunger-and-poverty/hunger-and-poverty-fact-sheet.html?referrer=https://www.google.sk/ 6. Fight Hunger with Knowledge - Hunger Notes's 2016 World Hunger and Poverty Facts and Statistics (n.d.). retrieved from: http://www.worldhunger.org/2015-world-hunger-and-poverty-facts-and-statistics/#hunger-number 7. Fredrickson, G. M. (2002). Racism: a short history. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. 8. Gibney, M. J. (2004). The ethics and politics of asylum: liberal democracy and theresponse to refugees. New York: Cambridge University Press. 9. Haslam, N. (2006). Dehumanization: an integrative review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10. 10. Human Rights Educators' Network's A Short History of Human Rights (1998). Retrieved from: http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/edumat/hreduseries/hereandnow/Part-1/short-history.htm 11. Ignatieff, M. (2001): Human rights as Politics and Idolatry. In A. Gutmann (ed.): Human rights as Politics and Idolatry. Princeton, Oxford: Princeton university Press. 12. Land of the Brave's Colonial America (n.d.). Retrieved from: https: //www .landofthebrave.info/colonial -america-copyright.htm 2017 13. Laurence J. Kirmayer, M.D. (2008). Culture and Context in Human Rights (p. 5). 14. Milovanovich Zoran (n.d.). Retrieved from: http: //www .lincoln.edu/criminalj ustice/hr/Introduction.htm 15. Pinterič, Uroš (2004). Theory and praxis of Human Rights in Contemporary World. 16. The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (2005). Retrieved from: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Declaration-of-the-Rights-of-Man-and-of-the-Citizen 17. United for Human Rights's A Brief History of Human Rights (n.d). Retrieved from: http://www.humanrights.com/what-are-human-rights/brief-history/ 18. United for Human Rights's Human Rights Defined (n.d.). http://www.humanrights.com/what-are-human-rights/ 58 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article Diana Ludrovcova is the second year student of political sceince, at the Faculty of philosophy and arts, Trnava university in Trnava. Her first article was published at Faculty of organisational studies' Challenges of the Future.) *** Uros Pinteric, PhD. is a professor of political science at the Trnava University (Slovakia), Faculty of Organisation studies in Novo mesto (Slovenia). His research is focused in different aspects of changes in modern society. Copyright (c) 2017 Diana Ludrovcova, Uroš Pinterič Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. 59 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 60-136. Članek / Article Regional Development of Eastern Slovakia Monika Hergezelova* Trnava University in Trnava, Faculty of Arts, Department of Political Science, Hornopotocna 23, 917 01 Trnava, Slovakia monika.hergezelova@gmail.com Abstract: Purpose and Originality: The aim of the work is to provide an overview of regional development in Eastern Slovakia, where are Kosice and Presov Region. The originality of the work lies in the work of enriching the SWOT analysis from the author Eve Rajcakova, which is given in the book deals with the issue of Regional development and regional policy of the European Union and Slovakia. Research question: The conditions of life of people in eastern Slovakia. Method: For writing this contribution will be used method of analysis and statistics. Knowledge on this subject have been looking on the internet and in books and sources of information publicly available. Using the data collected, we dealt with the issue of regional development in the Kosice and Presov regions. Results: The topic was the beginning focused on the overall characteristics of eastern Slovakia. Furthermore, we are at work we dealt with social and economic phenomena in both regions of eastern Slovakia. We focused on GDP, unemployment and tourism, which is in the region is widespread. Society: It is well known that there are obviously different living conditions in eastern Slovakia as in other parts of Slovakia. People are forced to, mainly because of employment, leave their region to move or commute to work to the west. The paper point out the right of this negative phenomenon that is quite visible - high unemployment. Limitations: The limits of work are limited by problems of regional development in eastern Slovakia, mainly focusing on economic and social phenomena in the society. Key words: Regional development. Region. Eastern Slovakia. Kosice region. Presov Region. Social conditions. Economic conditions. Geographical characteristics. 1 Introduction In this paper on the Regional Development of Eastern Slovakia, we discuss essential concepts which are important for a reader to understand the paper properly in the introduction of our work. Regional policy is one of basic concepts. We define it from a perspectives of several authors in the paper. Next, we write about a key term, which is regional development. In that section of work, we explain the meaning of development and regional development. In regard to the fact that regional development is the main topic of our work, we consider it relevant to describe and clarify the concept in greater detail. Region as a term is introduced in a separate * Korespondencni avtor / Correspondence author Prejeto: 14. april 2017; revidirano: 5. julij 2017; sprejeto: 8. julij 2017. / Received: April 14, 2017; revised: July 5, 2017; accepted: July 8, 2017. 178 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article subchapter. In order to enrich our work, we give a SWOT-analysis - a profile of Eastern Slovakia Region. The analysis focuses on an industrial and service sector, agriculture and rural areas, infrastructure, environment and human resources. Then, we characterize Eastern Slovakia as a whole in a second main chapter. The chapter is devoted to the Kosice Region and Presov Region, which are at first defined from a geographical viewpoint. Both regions are characterised from an economic as well as social perspective. The work includes an appendix where we compare differences between the individual Slovak regions and which contains the latest available map presenting an overview of unemployment in Slovakia. 2 Regional policy Firstly, it is necessary to point out that regional policy and regional development are constantly evolving. The first aspect of regional policy aims at making regional disparities smaller. An original idea of balanced development of all regions has been replaced by an idea of the so-called equality of opportunity and the mobilization of common financial resources for financing regional policy. An effective financial investment requirement is a new opinion which is implemented. The funded projects have to solve local issues. Simultaneously, they have to have a nature of the so-called growth effect. The second aspect includes a hypothesis on regional differences, which are the determinants of growth - highly-developed regions are supposed to provide the economic entities of weaker regions with significant economic opportunities. This should lead to the natural transformation of underdeveloped or affected regions. The significant growth determinants are manifested by the increase of state and regional competitiveness as well as strong centres being the bearers of regional economic development. (Rajcakova 2009, p.8) A number of authors have characterized regional policy. We report several characterizations in our work. Regional policy is a set of goals, measures and instruments focused on making considerable regional differences smaller at a socio-economic level. (Zak 2002 in Stejskal, Kovarnik 2009, p.14) From a macroeconomic perspective, regional policy can be defined as a conceptual and executive activity of national government and its regional authorities. (Lacina, Obrsalova, Stejskal 2005 in Stejskal, Kovarnik 2009, p.14) Regional policy is a part of national policy affecting the distribution of main economic resources and activities across the whole territory of state or in its part. It includes, on the one hand, measures which are designed to encourage a growth of economic activities in a territory having a high unemployment rate and low potential for the natural economic growth, and on the other hand, measures which are intended to control economic activities in the territories which show the above-average growth. (Goodall 1987 in Stejskal, Kovarnik 2009, p.12) Regional policy is a part of economic policy. Thus, it is an activity done by the national government which is aimed at affecting the development of public matters without regard to who is an agent. With this in mind, we may state that economic policy involves specific 178 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article activities pursued with the aim of correcting the unbalanced inter-regional development and intra-regional disparities. Regional policy refers to an active impact of national government and self-governing regions on the speed and structure of regional development and changes in the conditions and structure of spatial distribution of national economy. It is a part of macro-economic national policy and it is implemented closely considering sectoral policies. (Kern 1998 in Stejskal, Kovarnik 2009, p.13) Regional policy is represented by all the direct as well as indirect interventions of government, regions, municipalities and towns into the better spatial distribution of economic and non-economic activities. In this sense, an effort is made to coordinate certain spatial consequences of free market economy with the aim of achieving the two mutually-dependant targets, namely the economic growth and the improvement of social distribution. (Adamcik 1998 in Stejskal, Kovarnik 2009, p.13) 1.1 Regional development Development is a process which aims at improving an original state or changing the original state into the better one. Development is conceived as a process of progress leading to a better version in comparison with the original version it was based on. On contrary, Stagnation is an opposite process to development - There is no progress and what occurs is the halt or recession. Development is often used in association with the process of forming human personality, when we talk about personal development. Next, it is applied also in connection with construction, when it refers to the development of enterprise, cities etc. Sustainable development is thus a social progress which preserves successful environment inevitable for constant development. (Metodika tvorby programov hospodárskeho a sociálneho rozvoja obce/obcí/VÚC 2016, p.9) Regional development is a set of social, economic, cultural and environmental processes and relationships which are implemented in a region and which encourages the growth of regional competitiveness, sustainable development, social and land development, and the reduction of economic and social disparities between regions. Regional development is a qualitative change in all the material and non-material values in time and space. Regional development aims at making citizens' life very good and people living in the quality environment satisfied due to the sustainable economic progress. (Metodika tvorby programov hospodárskeho a sociálneho rozvoja obce/obcí/VÚC 2016, p.9) In Slovakia as of 1st January 2017, all regional development powers rest with the Government Office of the Slovak Republic. Regional policy has its weaknesses, for instance, especially the significant regional disparities (between regions, and between districts especially). In general, we can assert that the up-to-date tendencies in regional development have also been caused by the absence of effective 180 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article regional policy. If we consider the fact that national regional policy is implemented in the developed European countries and the regional policy of European Union is only a supplementary policy, what arises is the question whether Slovakia has the sufficient resources for the implementation of effective national regional policy. A significant role is played by the institutions which coordinate the development of regions, especially the public authorities and the institutions which elaborate, implement and assess the projects having impact on regional development. The above-mentioned system should be embedded in legislation and the powers of individual agents affecting regional development should be defined by law. (Falfan, Pasiak 2004, p.49) In the context of regional development, we can identify tendencies which have affected the increase of regional competitiveness or the marginalisation of individual regions and which will affect it to a certain extent in the following period. In regard to the distribution of the quality of human and social potential, the fact that (from the perspective of population, education and lifestyle) a quality human and social potential is still concentrated predominantly in bigger towns makes the commencement of development trends complex especially in rural areas and smaller towns. However, there are also considerable regional disparities, what creates significantly different "starting" conditions and development preconditions. With respect to making profiles of the regions of poverty, it is particularly the East Slovak regions and a southern part of central Slovakia which are frequently referred to as "the regions of poverty". They are defined by the high and constantly growing number of the unemployed and the permanently unemployed, the growth of the number of people dependant on social benefits, economically active inhabitants with low income, the low economic growth as well as the insufficient lifestyle facilities. Finally, concerning a social and economic level of border districts situated next to south-east and north-east borders of the Slovak Republic, the insufficient connection of Slovak territories like this (but also other territories) to main roads (international roads and a capital city) is still a reality, what strengthens the lack of interest of especially foreign investors in these territories. The relationship of centre - periphery is a dominant property of the economic structure and potential of Slovak regions. In the majority of economic activities and indicators, the central status of Bratislava and secondly Kosice stands out, and from a wider assessment perspective, they are followed by the districts with significantly developed and urbanised centres - Zilina, Banskâ Bystrica, Presov, Trnava, Trencin a Nitra (current seats of regions). (Falfan, Pasiak 2004, p.51) 1.2 Region Region as a term itself may be defined as a spatially-related dynamic system of qualitative and quantitative variables which have impact on each other, e. g. a natural, social and economic potential. The identification of region, the intensity and stability of connections between system elements and structures are directly related. The spatially determined system 181 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article like this shows the specific dynamics of behaviour and effects the character of region. Simultaneously, it stimulates the economic and social development. In recent years, regions have gained in importance due to the social conception of space. It is exactly this approach what is applied to the conception of regions in regional development. Regions can also be seen as the specific and dynamic manifestation of social processes, which depends on people's behaviour. (Rajcâkovâ 2009, p.9) Regions can be understood from several perspectives. The political dimension means the that regions are considered from a political and administrative viewpoint, including competition and cooperation links on a local, regional, national and transnational level. To give an illustration, let's look at the so-called learning regions. It is the initiative intended to unite professionals, laymen and organisations working in the field of life-long learning and other fields which encourage overall regional development. The formation of network like this is a precondition for the regions to be able to use public and private resources for the implementation of development activities effectively. Next, it is the economic dimension, which is significant from the viewpoint of international companies and their localization in regions. The economic dimension is also important in establishing regional production clusters. From the perspective of social and cultural dimension, regions are considered in regard to the role of regional media and the importance of regional culture. The strategic dimension is important in planning and supporting the formation of networks, partnerships in solving social issues on all the hierarchical levels. (Rajcâkovâ 2009, p.10) The following paragraphs briefly describe the classification and typology of regions which is used most frequently. Rural regions have an agricultural and eco-stabilization function. Regional policy aims at creating favourable economic, social and cultural conditions to reduce the migration of inhabitants from rural to urban areas. The main problem of urban regions is the goal-directed progress, which should proceed in line with the maintenance of quality environment. Special attention is paid to the development of infrastructure and the renovation of historical monuments. The full cooperation with the regions situated on the other side of border, the economic progress and the development of infrastructure are of top priority for the border regions. Mountain regions have a high and significant natural potential. They fulfil forestry, agricultural and protective functions. Regional policy focuses on the development of tourism in these regions. Declining regions have arisen as a result of the long-term impact of negative development factors like the long-term unemployment in a region, the absence of infrastructure, demographic regression etc. The support concentrates on the restructuring of the economy, infrastructure modernisation and social environment stabilization. Underdeveloped regions differ from the above-mentioned type of regions in the long-term economic recession accompanied by the continuous decrease of production, need and demand, and the growth of social issues. For the problems like this to be solved, the long-term assistance and support of the government is vital. Open regions have a leading position in the economy of a country. They have outstanding advantages, which are manifested by the "openness" of the region toward the development of internal and external activities regarding, for instance, the transformation of labour markets and the entry of foreign capital. Seaside 182 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article regions and islands are characterized by their location in the proximity of sea. (Rajcakova 2009, p.14) Regions can be assessed applying various methods. Because regional development is most frequently associated with the economic growth, the economic power of regions is most often expressed by the indicators of gross domestic product (GDP) calculated per capita. The SWOT-analysis is one of the methods which are applied most frequently to regional development. It is used to analyse and assess the situation in regions, identify crucial areas and make decisions. 3 Eastern Slovakia Despite its small area, Slovakia is a country with considerable regional disparities. Eastern Slovakia belongs to the most underdeveloped Slovak regions. There are several reasons to the situation like this and they can be identified on an international, national as well as regional level. The economic backwardness of the Region is encouraged by the fact that it is detached by natural barriers (the Tatras, the Pieniny and the Poloniny mountain range) and an external EU border, which is common with the Ukraine to the east and which makes the movement of people, goods, services and capital more difficult. (Angelovič, Benč 2014, p.86) Eastern Slovakia is characterized by a hilly terrain in the north and lowlands in the south. It borders with three countries: Poland, the Ukraine and Hungary. (Travel in Slovakia - Good Idea 2015) The area of Eastern Slovakia is 15,729 km2 (32 % of the area of Slovakia). From the administrative perspective, the region is divided into the Košice and Prešov self-governing regions. They are further subdivided into 24 districts, where there are 40 seats having the status of town. The urbanization amounts to approximately 51 % (2013). The Region has undergone a difficult development. Historically, it includes the regions of Spiš, Šariš, Zemplin and Hont. (Angelovič, Benč 2014, p.87) 3.1 Public Investments in Eastern Slovakia The economy of Eastern Slovakia has been the weakest economy in the country for a long time, as it was also the case in former Czechoslovakia. The Region suffers from a high unemployment rate and emigration as well as a low standard of living. At the time of socialist Czechoslovakia, the strongly agrarian Region was focused on the economic progress main due to "forced industrialization" and it was closely associated with armament production. Considerable investments were also made into health-care, an educational system and science and research infrastructure.. The Fall of Communism brought about the significant restructuring of the East Slovak economy as a part of the transition of Slovakia to the market economy. The collapse of industrial production and the fall of socialist agriculture had a devastating impact on the regional performance and employment. Eastern Slovakia rapidly 183 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article became the most problem area of the new independent Slovak Republic (after the dissolution of Czechoslovak Federation in 1992). (Kupcik 2016) In comparison with other Slovak regions, Eastern Slovakia has the lowest GDP per capita, lower salaries, a lower level of labour productivity and the higher unemployment rate. Eastern Slovakia produces 20 % of national GDP, being on the same level as Central Slovakia, but it is lagging behind Western Slovakia and the Bratislava Region. Taking the number of inhabitants into account, Eastern Slovakia is lagging behind each of the three other regions, having the lowest GDP per capita (8,667 Euro in 2011). Even though GDP per capita has been increasing in all the regions throughout the time (except the year of 2009 when the financial crisis occurred), regional disparities have increased considerably. (Martins 2015, p50) 4 Kosice Region 4.1 Geographic Characterization of the Kosice Region The Kosice Region is located in the south-east of the Slovak Republic. A southern border is a common state border with Hungary and it is an internal boundary located within the Schengen area. An eastern common border with the Ukraine (Carpatho-Ukrain) is also an eastern boundary of the EU. The Kosice Region borders with the Presov Region to the north and with the Banska Bystrica Region to the south. Having the area of 6,755 km , the Kosice Region is one of the largest Slovak regions. The Region stretches from the east to the west. It covers the whole southern part of Eastern Slovakia. The territory of the Kosice Region covers the Eastern Slovak Lowland, the Zemplin Mountains, a part of the Kosice Basin, the highland of Bodvianska Pahorkatina, the mountain ranges of Slanske vrchy and Vihorlatske vrchy. The mountains of Slanske vrchy range across the centre of Region. The Region ranges to the Slovak Ore Mountains it the west. It reaches to the Hornad Basin and the mountain range of Branisko to the north. The highest point in the Region is the hill of Stolica (1,476 m.s.l.) and its lowest point is the village of Klin nad Bodrodom (94 m.s.l.) located in the District of Trebisov, which is the lowest place in Slovakia as well. The eastern section of the Region - the Eastern Slovak Flat and the Eastern Slovak Hills - is predominantly formed by lowlands. Its western part is formed by highlands. In the south, there is the Slovak Karst there. (Kosicky samospravny kraj 2015, p. 1) There are four reserves in the territory of the Kosice Region, namely the National Park of Slovak Paradise and the Slovak Karst, and the protected landscape areas of Latorica and Vihorlat. The Dobsinska Ice Cave and the geyser of Herl'any are natural objects which are unique in Europe. The water reservoirs of Zemlinska sirava, Bukovec, Ruzin and Dobsina are also important from an economic and recreational perspective. Forests cover two fifths of the territory. They cover up to three quarters of the land especially in the most forested district of 184 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article Slovakia - in Gelnica. They are situated predominantly in the mountain areas in the north and south-west of the Region. There are bottomland forests in the south-east. The Region has resources of energetic, ore and non-metallic raw materials. In regard to energetic raw materials, there are reserves of oil and natural gas there. The resources of geothermal energy are located in the District of Kosice-okolie. Iron and silver ores can be found in the Districts of Roznava and Spisska Nova Ves. There are also important reserves of magnesite in the proximity of Kosice, stone salt in the District of Michalovce, talc and gypsum in the Districts of Roznava and Spisska Nova Ves. The Region has the resources of various types of building stone, brick clay, limestone, kaolin, gravel sand and others. (Statisticky urad SR 2016) 4.2 Regional Development Regional development can be understood as an effort to satisfy regional inhabitants' personal and social needs. In the Kosice Region, the effort like this is referred to as the quality of life. Therefore the Department of Regional Development of the Kosice Self-Governing Region aims at ensuring the quality of life of the inhabitants who live in the territory of the Kosice Region. The main instrument the Department uses to achieve its regional goals is strategic planning. In these constantly changing times, strategic planning is mainly a set of activities which has to respond to the changes in the close environment in an active way and focus on the achievement of the goal set as well as ensure the quality of regional inhabitants' life. This kind of activities concerns the whole spectrum of fields ranging from economic to social, legislative, conceptual as well as implementation field. 4.3 Key Activities of the Kosice Self-Governing Region: • elaboration, implementation and assessment of the Economic and Social Development Programme of the Kosice Self-Governing Region; • elaboration and implementation of sectoral strategies and other development plans; • elaboration of analytical documents and feasibility studies; • marketing and searching for investment opportunities, communication with potential investors; • elaboration of expert opinions and comments on regional, governmental and European policies and intents which may affect the socio-economic development of the Region; • analysis and monitoring of socio-economic activities in the territory; • conceptual draft projects and the implementation of development projects in the selected areas; • promotion and development of partnership cooperation with public, private and academic sector; 185 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. • organisation of professional meetings and discussions on the topics related to the development of the Region; • monitoring of development, technological and business opportunities and trends in the selected spheres of the economy and social agenda in Europe and across the world. The mission of the Košice self-governing region is to propose effective instruments and seek active cooperation and partnerships with the aim of ensuring the socio-economic development of the Košice Region and increasing its regional competitiveness, and thus creating the quality conditions for life and work for the people who live the Region. (Archiv KSK 2012 4.4 Powers and Legislation The Kosice Self-Governing Region ensures and coordinates the elaboration and implementation of the economic and social development programme of the Self-Governing Region. It cooperates with the Ministries and other public bodies in elaborating the national regional development strategy and updating the plan of the territorial development of Slovakia and the framework programme documentation for drawing resources on the EU funds. It formulates a regional innovation strategy and elaborates the draft of regional innovation policy. It creates the conditions for the establishment and development of territorial cooperation and partnerships as well as the improvement of business environment. The Region collaborates with other regions and higher territorial units, universities, the Association of Slovak Towns and Municipalities, micro regions, municipalities and various entities located in the territory. It has competence in the elaboration of non-investment project applications focused on the development of human resources, the use of renewable sources of energy and the revitalization of the territory. (Archiv KSK 2013) The Kosice Self-Governing Region acts in line with the Act No 539/2008 Coll on the promotion of regional development, Act No 302/2001 Coll on the self-government of higher territorial units as amended, Act No 416/2001 Coll on the transfer of certain competencies from state administration bodies to municipalities and higher territorial units, Act No 446/2001 Coll on higher territorial units assets as amended, Act No 50/1976 Coll on land use planning and building order (Building Act) as well as other related Acts and generally binding legal regulations. The essential document of regional development in the Kosice Self-Governing Region is the Economic and Social Development Programme. (Archiv KSK 2013) 4.5 Economic and Social Particularities As of 31st December 2013, 66 thousand organisational entities were active in the districts of the Region. The natural persons - entrepreneurs - accounted for 60.4 %. The number of entrepreneurs decreased by 0.03 % year over year and they amounted to 39.8 thousand. The largest group amounting to 35.6 thousand consisted of the self-employed and the number of 186 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article them decreased by 0.5 % year over year. At the end of 2013, the number or registered entities amounted to 26.1 thousand. In other words, it was by 6.5 % more than in the previous year. 18.2 thousand enterprises focused on generating the profit. From the perspective of legal form, commercial companies prevailed (66 %). The most numerous group of 87.1 % consisted of small enterprises having up to 19 employees. Entrepreneurial activities were done especially in the field of business, science, industry, construction and in professional and technical fields. (Statisticky urad SR 2016) From the viewpoint of the regional share in generating the gross domestic product in the Slovak Republic (11.4 % in 2011) and the existing economic base, the Region belongs to one of the most significant regions in the Slovak Republic. On the average, an inhabitant of the Kosice region made the gross domestic product amounting to 9,898 Euro in 2011. The high unemployment rate still exists in the Region. Following the Presov Region and Banska Bystrica Region, it was the third highest unemployment rate in Slovakia at the end of 2013 and it amounted to 17.23 %. The unemployment rate in the Kosice Region was by 3.37 % higher than the Slovak rate whereas it decreased by 2.35 year over year. The highest rate of official unemployment was recorded in the district of Roznava (24.83 %) and Trebisov (22.4 %). Approximately every fifth economically active inhabitant was unemployed. The lowest unemployment rate is permanently in Kosice. Out of the total number of 71.054, up to 60.9 % of unemployed were registered with the Office of Labour, Social Affairs and Family for more than 12 months at the end of 2013. The area of the Slovak Ore Mountains is a raw material base of the Region, which encouraged mining, metallurgy of non-ferrous metals and engineering. These industries are essential due to the dominant position of modern metals-processing plants and chemistry enterprises. Industry (metallurgy, engineering, food processing, electro technical, mining, construction materials, fuels and energy), construction and agriculture are the most important economic sectors. Food processing industry processing the agricultural products plays a significant role in the Region. Agricultural production is concentrated in the districts of Kosice-okolie, Trebisov, Michalovce and Sobrace. (Statisticky urad SR 2016) The farmland covers 335 thousand hectares, what is a half of the area of the Region. Its three fifths are consist of arable land and its one third includes grass land. Forests cover almost two fifths of the land. The total length of roads located in the Region is 2,382.5 km. The Region has railways with the length of 788.6 km. A land harbour in Cierna nad Tisou is has a significant function. There is an airport of international significance in Kosice. The network of business, services, financial institutions, health-care and social facilities, scientific and cultural institutions is well-developed. Institutions of higher education are 187 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. concentrated in Košice where there are four advanced education institutions there (Pavol Jozef Šafárik University, the Technical University of Košice, the University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice and the private University of Security Management in Košice) (Štatisticky úrad SR 2016) Being one of the significant economic fields in the territory, tourism has a very good potential for the development in all the districts of the Region. Natural wonders of the Slovak Paradise are unique. The Slovak Karst full of caves, cloughs, plateaus and other peculiarities is unsurpassed. The Districts of Michalovce, Spišská Nová Ves, Rožhava and Košice I show the best results in the tourism development thanks to good natural conditions. Natural wonders, numerous cultural and historical monuments and peculiarities are significant elements which motivate domestic and foreign tourists to visit these districts. (Štatisticky úrad SR 2016) 5 Prešov Region The Prešov Region is situated in a north-eastern part of the Slovak Republic and it contains mainly small municipalities. It is the most populous region among all the regions. In regard to its area, it is the second largest region in Slovakia. It is made of historical regions of North, Central and partially Southern Spiš, Upper and Lower Šariš and Upper Zemplin. The Region stretches from the west to the east. Its length is 250 kilometres, what makes its length three times greater than its width. The Region covers the whole north-eastern part of Slovakia (it is the easternmost region in the Slovak Republic). The Prešov Region has a common borders with Poland, the Ukraine and the three Slovak Regions of Košice, Banska Bystrica and Žilina. From an administrative perspective, the Prešov region is divided into 13 districts. (Prešovsky samospravky kraj 2008) The highest point of the Region which is also the highest point of Slovakia is Mount Gerlach (2,655 m above sea level). The lowest place is near the place where the Ondava River leaves the Region in the cadaster of Nižny Hrušov Municipality (105 m above sea level). The relative height difference is 2,550 m. Due to the different altitude and uneven surface, the territory of the Region is divided into three climatic areas, namely a cold area, slightly warm area and warm area. The Region has rich reserves of raw materials, for instance, the most important of them are the reserves of salt, limestone, building stone, brick materials, zeolite and manganite ore. (Štatisticky urad SR 2016) 188 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article 5.1 Economic and Social Particularities The region has the highest birth rate and shows the highest increase in population. However, the overall increase in population is the second highest in the Slovak Republic due to migration. In regard to its age structure, the size of pre-productive group is decreasing while the size of productive and post-productive group is increasing. With respect to the slight increase in the average age (37.24 years) of its inhabitants, the Region is one of the youngest regions in Slovakia. (Statisticky urad SR 2016) In the economic sense, the Presov Region is the weakest Slovak region, namely also due to its predominantly rural character. Industry is varied and it is not significantly oriented to some production fields. Metal processing, wood processing, food processing, electro technical, engineering, chemical, textile and clothing industry plays a significant role in the Region. It concentrates mainly in the capital towns of districts. The following companies belong to the most important enterprises in the Region: Tatravagonka in Poprad, Lear Corporation Seating Slovakia in Presov, Pivovary TOPVAR, as., MECOM GROUP in Humenne, MILK-AGRO in Presov, Nexis Fibers in Humenne, Bukoza Export-Import in Vranov nad Topl'ou, Chemosvit folie in Svit, Bukocel in Hencovce and others. The farmland covers 42.4 % of the overall area of the Region. Its two fifths include arable land which is used for growing cereal crops, forage crops, oil crops and potatoes. The Region is one of the biggest producers of potatoes in the Slovak Republic. Regarding livestock production, the breeding of bovine prevails. Along with the Banska Bystrica Region, it farms the largest forest areas. The entrepreneurial activities of its inhabitants are affected by the conditions and opportunities created in the given Region. More than 16 thousand firms and 55.5 thousand self-employed persons are active in the territory of the Region. They are focused on the generation of profit. They are doing business mainly in construction, trade and industrial production. With respect to the number of employees, small-sized enterprises account for 95 % of total companies (having up to 49 employees). Middle-sized enterprises account for 1.6 % (50 - 249 employees) and large enterprises account for 0.3 % (over 250 employees). Statisticky urad SR 2016) The highest number of people is employed in the sector of services (56.8 %), industry and construction (around 37 %). Next, lots of inhabitants work in the field of education (overall 17.26 %) as well as health-care and social services (10 %). Overall, 6.1 % of the employed worked in the sector of agriculture in 2008, what is above the Slovak average. Even though the unemployment had a decreasing tendency after 2004, the decreasing tendency has been gradually changing since 2008. In 2006, the rate reached 13.68 %, and in 2007, it dropped to 12.31 %, what equals to 45,392 jobseekers. It significantly surpassed the Slovak average. In 189 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article 2008, the unemployment rate reached 12.9 %. The growth of economically active inhabitants did not occur in the Presov Region but it dropped to the halt, with the total number of Regional inhabitants amounting to 374.8 thousand, what is 46.8 %. In regard to the structure of the unemployed, the Region has the highest number of unemployed graduates (27,504), the third highest number of permanently unemployed and one of the highest unemployment rates in the age group of 35 - 49 in the Slovak Republic. In addition to the unemployed, the economically active people commuting to work to other regions or abroad can be considered to be a potential source of workforce. In case of the Presov Region, the number of economically active inhabitants amounts to approximately 42,000. The average nominal monthly wage amounted to 632.17 Euro in 2008 and it was lower than the average monthly wage in Slovakia in all the sectors. In 2008, the degree of economic activity amounted to 58.1 % of the activity in the Slovak Republic and its development stagnated. Since 2004, average monthly financial income per capita had been increasing on the national as well as regional level. In 2008, it was 309.2 Euro in the Presov Region. It remained below the average of the Slovak Republic. Household expenditures were increasing due to the growing income and in the Presov Region, they amounted to 268.3 Euro of which 22.5 % was spent on food and nonalcoholic beverages and 20.4 % represented housing expenditures. (Spisska regionalna rozvojova agentura 2015, p. 95) Nature is the most precious wealth of the Region. Natural wonders and suitable climatic conditions create favourable preconditions for the development of tourism. One fifth of total number of accommodation facilities in Slovakia is located there. Their services are used by about 700 thousand visitors each year. The region of High Tatras and the districts of Bardejov, Kezmarok, Presov and Stara Eubovna are the most visited areas in the Region. The Presov Region has a significant status in the field of tourism in Slovakia and it is one of the most frequently visited regions. The educational system includes a wide network of pre-school facilities and elementary schools. There are 39 grammar schools and 74 vocational high schools there. Concerning tertiary schools, the University of Presov and the International School of Management Slovakia are located in the Region. A network of health-care facilities involve popular centres for medical and preventive treatment, for instance, the treatment of diseases of the respiratory system in the High Tatras, the digestive system in the spa of Bardejovske Kupel'e and the circulatory system in Vysne Ruzbachy. The Region prides itself in having cultural and historical monuments. The towns of Levoca, Presov, Bardejov, Poprad and Kezmarok deserve special attention. The town of Presov is an administrative, economic, cultural and social centre of the Region, where significant administrative instructions of Orthodox Church, Greek Catholic Church and Evangelic Church are also located there. (Statisticky urad SR 2016) 190 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article 6 Conclusion At the beginning of the paper, we became familiar with the theoretical starting points of the topic. In its main section, we examined the Region of Eastern Slovakia which is divided into the Kosice Region and Presov Region. In regard to the area they cover, both regions belong to the largest regions in Slovakia. Based on the geographical characterization, we found out that the Region is very rich in its natural wonders. This is one of the main reasons why tourism prospers there. In addition to other peculiarities, significant national parks and our High Tatras, which are famous across the world, are situated in the territory of Eastern Slovakia. Our work is predominantly focused on the economic and social particularities of above-mentioned Regions. We have dealt with agriculture, entrepreneurial activities, GDP and the unemployment rate. It is the unemployment rate, especially, what is a long-term negative phenomena occurring in the given Region. Living in Western Slovakia, it was interesting for us to observe how big regional disparities exist between the regions of one country which is one of the small countries in the world. References 1. Angelovic, M. - Bene, V. (2014). Región vychodného Slovenska - Socioekonomické postavenie v Slovenskej republike a regionálny rozvoj. Presov, Slovenská republika: Presovská univerzita v Presove. 2. Archív KSS. (2013). Kompetencie a legislativa. [online]. Available 25.3.2017 in https://web.vucke.sk/sk/kompetencie/regionalny-rozvoj/kompetencie-legislativa/ 3. Falt'an, L. - Pasiak, J. (2004). Regionálny rozvoj Slovenska. Bratislava, Slovenská republika: SAV. 4. Kosicky samosprávny kraj. (2015). Geografická charakteristika Kosického kraja. [online]. Available 20.3.2017 in https: //web.vucke.sk/files/dokumenty/pub/regionalny_rozvoj /phsr/phsr_kapitola_13_1_2_2.pdf 5. Kupcik, P. (2016). Verejné investície na Vychodnom Slovensku. [online]. Available 17.3.2017 in https://web.vucke.sk/sk/kompetencie/regionalny-rozvoj/koncepcne-materialy.html 6. Martins, J. (2015). Verejné investivie na Vychodnom Slovensku. [online]. Available 17.3.2017 in https: //web.vucke.sk/files/regionalny_rozvoj /2016/eastern_slovakia_crc_dad14_12_15_final .pdf 7. Ministerstvo dopravy, vystavby a regionálneho rozvoja. (2016). Metodika tvorby programov hospodárskeho a sociálneho rozvoja obce/obcí/VÚC. Bratislava, Slovenská republika. 8. Rajcáková, E. (2009). Regionálny rozvoj a regionálna politika Európskej únie a Slovenska. Bratislava, Slovenská republika: Geografika. 9. Stejskal, J. - Kovárník, J. (2009). Regionální politika a její nástroje. Praha, Ceská republika: Portál. 191 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. 10. Statisticky urad SR. (2016). Košicky kraj - charakteristika region. [online]. Available 21.3. 2017 in https://slovak.statistics.Sk/wps/portal/ext/themes/regional/kosicky%20kraj/about/lut/p/b1/jZDBTo QwFEW_SHpLW1qWHcyUGkQ6pTh2Y9AYQyIzLozGvxdxXFrn7V5yzns3l0SyJ_Ewvk_P49t0 PIwv33ss7oemU5sN1TCyp7Bt68OgHLuu6QLcLUBldM1lA6j GCFhdh13pGINm5_n4YzRWf-u7XJfcVJe 7my 1sX- XKN0U0_PoJIPXfyZ0fAP7Jf0Xi9DBnH49zhoyCljwXUgqoQvGCkVsS1wupglYg1cAK0Gl_M ighsWTwARi8caVMA7oXJyBVUvJFx0lbH- cn8jqHEPaf3k724gs1RJew/dl4/d5/L2dBISEvZ0FBIS9nQSEh/ 11. Travel in Slovakia - Good Idea. (2015). Vychodne Slovensko (on-line sprievodca). [online]. Available 10.3.2017 in http://slovakia.travel/vychodne-slovensko-knizny-sprievodca Appendix Strengths Weaknesses Industry and Services • Developed structure of industry, with the long-established production tradition especially in the fields of metallurgy, mechanical engineering, food-processing industry, chemical, textile, electro-technical and wood-processing industry and others • Usable raw material resources of interregional importance (talc, magnesite, calcite salt), wood and the conditions for the use of alternative energy resources • Large natural areas as well as cultural heritage create the potential of the Region for tourism • Insufficient micro-economic adaptation to the market economy conditions • Insufficient research basis and its absence in the fields which are promising from the economic development perspective Agriculture and Rural Areas • High soil and climate potential for traditional agricultural production, suitable for crop farming and livestock production, fruit production, vegetable production, and viticulture in the southern and south-eastern parts of the region • Backwardness of agriculture in regard to technologies and machines 192 »Se nadaljuje« Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article »nadaljevanje« • Quality forest soil and a high degree of forest coverage, the renewable forest reserves, which are suitable for wood production and long-term traditional forest production Infrastructure and Environment • Convenient geographic location with a common border with three states in Central Europe (a part of borders of the Schengen Area). • International airports in Poprad and Kosice • Presence of colleges and universities, scientific institutes for highly-qualified professionals, what along with the relatively developed industry creates opportunities for the use of high-technologies and the implementation of scientific and technical research results in practice. • Insufficient road infrastructure consisting of low-quality roads of regional importance in the north-east and a low level of accessibility of the Region • Absence of highways, which are essential for foreign investors to come to the region • Bad environmental conditions resulting from past industrial activities and missing technical infrastructure Human Resources • Well-educated workforce suitable for the current economic level of the Region, sufficient qualified workforce with complete high-school and vocational education • Concentration of educational, scientific, research and cultural institutions in Kosice • Long-term high unemployment rate and the increasing number of the permanently unemployed • High number of inhabitants with elementary education • Social disparities and the high number of inhabitants dependent on social benefits Opportunities Threats Industry and Services • Free space convenient for the construction of industrial parks • Use of resources from EU structural funds • Use of natural potential for tourism and spa business, and the use of geothermal energy for heating • Lack of financial resources for production development and modernisation »Se nadaljuje« 193 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Avgust / August 2017, leto / year 2, številka / number 3, str. / pp. 121-136. Članek / Article »nadaljevanje« Agriculture and Rural Areas • Development of wood-processing and furniture industry • Development of agrotourism and untraditional forms of tourism • Use of resources from EU structural funds for the implementation of development programmes • Low productivity of work and the low economic effectiveness of enterprises in agriculture • Insufficient exploitation of rural areas potential for doing small and medium business and agrotourism Infrastructure and Environment • Accumulation of financial resources for the improvement of environmental quality • Lack of financial resources for the further construction and renovation of roads • Environmental accident risk Human Resources • Opportunity to draw on the funds supporting breeding, education and science and apply for the assistance of educational institutions related to the labour market • Strengthening of civil society elements and the encouragement of nongovernmental non-profit and governmental organisation cooperation • Above-average natural mobility of Romani • Increasing overall and long-term unemployment • Emigration of qualified workforce • Negative impacts of the restructuring of industry on the labour market Figure 1: Eastern Slovakia Profile (SWOT-analysis) (Source: book of Eva Rajcakova with name Regionalny rozvoj a regionalna politika Europskej unie a Slovenska) *** Monika Hergezelova is an BA in political science from Trnava Universty, Faculty of Arts. *** Copyright (c) 2017 Monika Hergezelova Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. 194