326
Documenta Praehistorica XLVI (2019)
Use-wear experimental studies for differentiating flint tools
processing bamboo from wood
Jiying Liu, Hong Chen
*
, and Yiming Shen
1 Institute of Cultural Heritage and Museology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, PRC
hollychen@zju.edu.cn
ABSTRACT – Bamboo is widespread in south China and is one of the major organic resources in daily
use through history due to its similar potential use value as wood. Due to the unfavourable preserva-
tion conditions and taphonomic alteration, the rare discovery of well-preserved organic remains
from Palaeolithic sites means there is a lack of direct studies on the technology and behaviour of
early prehistoric humans. Use-wear analysis has been proved as a reliable method to detect evidence
left by working wood and bamboo on stone artefacts. This study aims to provide an experimental
reference of use-wear features and patterns to identify and interpret the exploration of bamboo and
wood resources in prehistory. In this experiment, 12 flint flakes were selected for processing bamboo
stems and pine branches with working motions of whittling, sawing, and chopping. The results show
that the use-wear features, including edge scarring, edge rounding, and polish, of bamboo-working
and wood-working are distinctive. Edge scarring is closely related to the working motion, and mod-
erate bright to very bright polish is a significant feature associated with bamboo-working. It is pos-
sible to distinguish wear traces caused by bamboo-working from those by wood-processing through
a combination of low-power and high-power techniques under a 3D digital microscope.
IZVLE∞EK – Bambus je ∏iroko raz∏irjen na jugu Kitajske in je eden od poglavitnih organskih virov,
ki je podobno kot les v dnevni rabi skozi celotno zgodovino. Zaradi neugodnih pogojev v depoziciji
in tafonomskih sprememb so dobro ohranjeni organski ostanki na paleolitskih najdi∏≠ih redki, kar
pomeni, da imamo na voljo malo neposrednih ∏tudij o tehnologiji in obna∏anju zgodnjih ljudi. Analiza
sledov uporabe na kamnitih orodjih se je izkazala za zanesljivo metodo pri prepoznavanju dokazov
o obdelavi lesa in bambusa. V pri≠ujo≠i ∏tudiji predstavljamo referen≠ne podatke, pridobljene s posku-
si, o zna≠ilnih sledovih in vzorcih uporabe na orodjih, da bi lahko prepoznali in razlagali uporabo
bambusa in lesa kot vira surovin v prazgodovini. Pri poskusu smo izbrali 12 kamnitih odbitkov za
obdelavo bambusovih debla in vej, pri ≠emer smo orodje uporabljali za rezanje, ∫aganje in sekanje.
Rezultati ka∫ejo, da lahko jasno razlo≠imo sledove uporabe, ki vklju≠ujejo po∏kodbe na robu, nastanek
zaobljenega roba in poliranje povr∏ine, pri delu z bambusom, od tistih, nastalih pri delu z lesom. Po∏-
kodbe na robu orodij so tesno povezane z delovnimi gibi, medtem ko lahko srednje do zelo svetla poli-
rana obmo≠ja povezujemo z obdelavo bambusa. Ugotavljamo, da lahko na podlagi kombinacije razli≠-
nih tehnik, ki jih opazujemo pod 3D digitalnim mikroskopom, jasno razlo≠imo, ali je bilo kamnito
orodje uporabljeno pri delu s bambusom ali lesom.
KEY WORDS – use-wear analysis; experimental study; flints; bamboo-working; wood-working
KLJU∞NE BESEDE – analiza sledov uporabe; poskusne ∏tudije; kamnita orodja; obdelava bambusa;
obdelava lesa
Poskusne [tudije sledov uporabe za razlo;evanje kamnitih orodij,
uporabljenih za obdelavo bambusa, od tistih, za obdelavo lesa
* Corresponding author
DOI> 10.4312\dp.46.20

Use-wear experimental studies for differentiating flint tools processing bamboo from wood
327
ily Poaceae, bamboo stems are usually woody and
hollow and are light and durable, with a great po-
tential for production and utilization in daily life.
Some scholars have proposed a ‘bamboo hypothesis’
to explain the lithic industry in Prehistoric Southeast
Asia, proposing that stone tools might coexist with
light organic materials like bamboo (Solheim 1972;
Pope 1989; Reynolds 2007). A few micro-wear stu-
dies showed evidence related to plant material pro-
cessing, which is widely interpreted as a result of
bamboo-working (Teodosio 2006; Pawlik 2010;
Xhauflair, Pawlik 2010).
In ancient China bamboo had notable economic and
cultural significance. According to ethnoecological
data, bamboo stems have been used as important
raw materials for numerous functions such as buil-
ding houses and making crafts over a long period of
time (e.g., Wang et al. 1990; Liao 1996). The earliest
archaeological evidence of bamboo objects in China
to date was uncovered from the Qianshanyang Neo-
lithic site, dating back to 4700 years ago, including
bamboo pieces and implements such as bamboo
mats (Zhejiang 1960; 2010).
Hermine Xhauflair et al. (2016) conducted a series
of replicated experiments particularly adapted to the
specific lithic materials and vegetation of Southeast
Asia. They aimed to provide a reference for identify-
ing bamboo-working traces on archaeological stone
tools, but the characteristics and pattern of use-wear
relevant to bamboo-working are not clear yet, espe-
cially in Chinese archaeological studies. This is pro-
bably due to the inadequate experimental interpre-
tative criteria concerning various working tasks on
bamboo. More importantly, it is difficult to distin-
guish bamboo-working traces from those caused by
wood or other hard organic materials (Mijares 2001;
Blench 2013).
The development of use-wear analysis is not only
characterized by establishing a reference collection,
but also by the effort of those who try to improve
the accuracy in the identification and recording of
wear traces. Low-power and high-power are two tra-
ditional approaches of use-wear analysis. The low-
power method (5–100x), using a stereomicroscope,
focuses on the identification and interpretation of
the edge scarring and edge rounding as indicators
of working activities and contact materials if possible
(e.g., Tringham et al. 1974; Odell 1977). The high-
power or microscopic method (100–1000x), using a
metallurgical microscope or scan electronic micro-
scope, allows distinguishing and classifying different
types of materials, in more detailed but limited areas,
Introduction
Early in 1958, Grahame Clark mentioned Stanley R.
Mitchell’s (1949) ethnological observation of Austra-
lian aborigines and pointed out that the most impor-
tant use of stone tools is most likely the making of
wooden weapons and utensils. Archaeologists have
discovered, though rare, a few preserved wooden
implements from Palaeolithic sites, as far back as
the Gesher Benot Ya’aqov assemblage with a date
of 780 000 BP (Belitzky et al. 1991; Goren-Inbar et
al. 1992) as well as at the Schöningen site (Thieme
1997; Schoch et al. 2015) and Lehringen site (Mar-
shack 1998) in Germany. Three pieces of pencil-
shaped pointed wooden objects with smooth surfa-
ces and longitudinal scars were uncovered from the
Ohalo II site in Israel. The excavators speculated
these were flaked and shaved by some sharp knives
(Nadel et al. 2006). Richard W. Yerkes et al. (2012)
claimed that light stone tools might be used to plane,
shave and clean branches rather than heavier tasks
like felling trees or splitting large logs.
Stone tools are generally regarded as the best evi-
dence of human technology in prehistory. The dis-
coveries mentioned above have proved that imple-
ments and objects made of wooden or organic ma-
terials might have long coexisted with, or been even
earlier than, stone tools as the main tools in prehi-
story. Due to the unfavourable preservation condi-
tions and taphonomic alteration, well-preserved or-
ganic remains are rarely uncovered in Palaeolithic
sites, resulting in a lack of direct studies on the tech-
nology and behaviour of early prehistoric humans.
A functional study might thus be a good complemen-
tary path to understand this kind of information
through use-wear and residue analyses.
Use-wear analysis, which refers to the study of wear
traces on the edges and/or surfaces of archaeological
artefacts caused by use (e.g., Odell 2004; Fullagar,
Matherson 2013), is considered as one of the keys to
the functional interpretation of archaeological re-
cords (Sterud 1978). Various working tasks and con-
tact materials of the archaeological tools, as well as
the economic, social and cultural implications for hu-
man behaviour, can be recognized based on the re-
sults of such analysis, and many use-wear studies
have successfully identified use-traces in relation to
wood-working on stone artefacts from Palaeolithic
sites (Keeley 1980; Odell 1996; Chen et al. 2002;
2014; Lemorini et al. 2014; Liu, Chen 2016).
Bamboo is widespread in South Asia, Southeast Asia,
and East Asia. Though classified into the grass fam-

Jiying Liu, Hong Chen, and Yiming Shen
328
with the emphasis on the observation of polish and
striations (e.g., Keeley 1980; Vaughan 1985). These
two approaches are complementary, and each of
them has strengths and limitations (Odell 2001).
During the last decades, researchers have gradually
attempted to use both techniques to improve the
methodology of use-wear analysis (e.g., Grace 1996;
Lombard 2005; Van Gijn 2010; Macdonald 2013).
A stereomicroscope is used to examine and ascertain
the relationship between the distribution of wear
traces on the overall tool, and an incident light mi-
croscope is mainly for the identification of the fun-
ction. The combination of both magnifications allows
a more comprehensive analysis. However, how to in-
tegrate those two techniques in a more effective way
is still under exploration.
Controlled experiment is considered crucial to im-
prove the standardization of use-wear analysis and
the rationality of functional interpretation. This
study carried out a set of experiments to better un-
derstand the use-wear resulting from bamboo-work-
ing, attempting to distinguish it from that by wood-
working. Employing a 3D digital microscope, we
wish to provide a set of experimental criteria of use-
wear features and patterns for identifying, in a more
practical way, possible organic resources exploration
and interpreting the functions of stone tools in pre-
history.
Experimental program
This study is first aimed at understanding the use-
wear features and patterns on flint artefacts result-
ing from bamboo-working under a 3D ultra-depth
microscope, and secondly to differentiate the bam-
boo-working use-wear from the wood-working use-
wear.
Experimental aim and design
As defined by George H. Odell (1981), whittling/
shaving is a motion transversal to the working edge
at an acute angle, whereas cutting/sawing is a mo-
tion longitudinal to the working edge in a position
approximately perpendicular to the contact materi-
als. Wood whittling/shaving often results in conti-
guous feather-terminated scars mainly on one side,
which sometimes have a conchoidal shape (Hou
1992). Wood cutting/sawing usually produces large
and medium longitudinal scars directionally on both
surfaces of a tool (Chen et al. 2008), and the work-
ing edge displays regular denticulation.
Twelve flakes with unretouched edges were selected
as specimens in this experimental program (Fig. 1).
The raw material of the specimens is flint collected
from Danjiang River (Henan Province) in the central
part of China. Among these specimens, two smaller
flakes with sharp straight edges were used for whit-
tling, and those flakes with larger edge angles for
chopping. The flakes for sawing have relatively long
and sharp edges that are straight or almost straight.
Bamboo and pine branches were chosen as the con-
tact materials, as these are readily available in most
parts of southern China. Considering the possible
working tasks performed on bamboo and wood in
the prehistoric period, three working motions were
determined: chopping, sawing and whittling. To have
Fig. 1. Specimens in this experiment (used edge and location indicated by red line).

Use-wear experimental studies for differentiating flint tools processing bamboo from wood
329
a better understanding of the formation of wear
traces during usage, we also conducted multi-stage
experiments (Odell et al. 1980; Chen et al. 2013) for
every specimen. The duration of each experiment,
the total time cost for processing the material with
each specimen, was 30 minutes.
A group of students was invited to participate in the
experiments in the laboratory. Given the detailed
plan of the experimental program, they were shown
how to perform the working tasks prior to the be-
ginning of the experiments, and throughout the pro-
cess their operations were closely monitored. One
goal of our experiments is to understand the corre-
lation between wear traces and contact materials and
working motions, thus possible variables which
would affect the wear traces were strictly controlled:
every specimen had to be operated by a certain ex-
perimenter with the same supposed working motion
and direction and with a steady force.
Analytical protocol
Two types of microscopes were employed in this ex-
periment. The primary examination of specimens
was carried out with a Nikon SMZ800 stereomicro-
scope with magnifications ranging from 10x to 63x,
which allowed us to identify the overall distribution
of the edge scarring, edge rounding and sometimes
polish across the employable edge. All the experi-
mental specimens were then observed and photo-
graphed under a 3D digital microscope Keyence
VHX-5000 with magnifications between 20x and
200x. This is an optical microscope with the func-
tion of live depth composition, which integrates ob-
servation, image capture, and measurement capabi-
lities, enabling detection of wear traces in a wider
area with higher magnification at the same time.
Compared to the approach of integrating two diffe-
rent kinds of microscopes, the automatic scanning
and image stitching capacity of this equipment helps
ease the workload considerably.
The recording criteria of use-wear patterns in this
study consist of micro-fractural scarring, edge round-
ing, polish and striations. Scarring is documented
and analysed by size (Chen 2011), termination (Ho
Ho Committee 1979), distribution pattern (Zhang
et al. 2010) and location. Edge rounding, an indica-
tor of the presence of abrasion, is divided into light,
medium and heavy according to the extent of wear
(Odell 1996). Polish is described mainly by bright-
ness, the texture of the surface and the presence or
absence of certain topographic features (Keeley
1980). Striations are often seen as linear traces indi-
cating possible motions and directions of tool use.
The presence of striations varies, and experimental
specimens do not exhibit them in most cases (Lom-
bard 2005).
Full-scale cleaning is necessary for each specimen
after each periodic experimental operation and be-
fore observation under the microscope. The experi-
menter must wear powder-free gloves while han-
dling the specimens during the whole experiment
to avoid any possible contamination. First, each spe-
cimen was immersed in a warm detergent solution
for 10–20 minutes. Then, JP-010T Sonic Cleanser was
used to make each specimen sink in an ultrasonic
bath of clean water for 10–20 minutes. The next
step is cleaning each piece with an alcohol solution
to remove finger grease. Finally, the specimens were
placed in an ultrasonic tank with clean water for
another 10–20 minutes and left to dry in the air.
The residue that remained on several specimens
after processing wood was difficult to remove, and
thus additional cleaning was conducted before the
final step, and this was immersion in warm NaOH
(20–30%) for 10–20 minutes. According to Lawrence
Keeley (1980), experimental tools are not required
to remove the mineral deposits, and thus the 10%
HCl solution was not used in our experiments. It is
worth noting that special care must be taken to pro-
tect the employable edge of the specimen from con-
tacting with the ultrasonic tank during the cleaning
process.
Experimental procedure
The basic information of the specimens was docu-
mented in detail, including: (1) morphological fea-
tures, technological characteristics, morphometric
parameters and raw material colours of the experi-
mental specimens; (2) working motions; (3) condi-
tions of contact materials; and (4) the gender and
grip strength of the operators.
Macroscopic photos were taken to record the orig-
inal state of each specimen. Microscopic photos of
the selected working edges before use were taken in
several main magnifications of 20x, 50x or 100x,
200x. Meanwhile, the overall shapes of specimens
were sketched to mark the employable locations.
The whole process of every task was divided into
six 5-min sections to ensure the working efficiency
of each operator. Details concerning operation times,
processing efficiency and alteration of the employ-
able edges, modification of the contact materials
were recorded during each interval. Based on this

Jiying Liu, Hong Chen, and Yiming Shen
330
information, each specimen was assigned to be ob-
served under the microscope after every 15 minutes
to record the wear traces.
After cleaning, each specimen was examined under
the stereomicroscope (Nikon SMZ800), and then
under the 3D digital microscope (Keyence VHX-5000)
from low to high magnifications, in order to compare
the results with their former conditions and be pho-
tographed. The characteristics of scarring, edge rou-
nding, polish and striations were also described.
Results
A total of twelve specimens developed wear traces
after use, and the results of microscopic observation
are presented in the following (Tab. 1).
Use-wear resulting from bamboo-working
Sawing bamboo
Three specimens were selected for sawing bamboo
stems and show recognizable use-wear after 30 mi-
nutes of use (Fig. 2.a1, a2, b1, b2). The medium and
small scars, associated with a few large ones, distri-
bute continuously along the edge bifacially. Most are
oblique to the transversal axis of the edge, showing
feathered and snapped terminations. Some rolled-
over scars (Odell 1996; Chen et al. 2008), which re-
fer to the scars observed on dorsal or ventral sur-
faces, initiate from the opposite surface. The edge
for sawing dry bamboo exhibits relatively more scars
than the one for sawing fresh bamboo stems.
The moderate to highly bright polish is observed on
both surfaces, mainly displaying on the elevated parts
of the edge. Some polish links together as small zo-
nes. The most developed and extensive polish, cha-
racterized as very bright and smooth, was discovered
on the flakes for sawing fresh bamboo. In such ca-
ses, the well-linked polish extends
over the bulged parts of the edge
and less bright polish is present in-
side some scars. Heavy rounding was
observed on the employable edges
of these three specimens. Except for
some short striations parallel to the
working edge found occasionally on
the specimen for sawing fresh bam-
boo stems, no apparent striations
were recognized.
Chopping bamboo
Two specimens were selected for
chopping bamboo stems over 30 mi-
nutes. The use-wear is described as follows, includ-
ing resulting from chopping dry and fresh bamboo
stems (Fig. 2.c1, c2, d1, d2).
Stepped scars mainly of medium and large size dis-
tribute unevenly either on the dorsal or ventral sur-
faces, a few are overlapped. Small feathered scars
scatter along the very edge.
Heavy rounding developed on both surfaces, which
makes the edge ridge become dull. The specimen for
chopping fresh bamboo displays bright polish in a
relatively limited area. The polish seems not well-
linked but forms a domed shape, and most scatters
near the small scars. No apparent striations were
identified.
Whittling fresh bamboo
Specimen No. DJK-SY:3 was used for whittling fresh
bamboo stems over 30 minutes. Small and medium
feathered scars are continuously distributed main-
ly on the dorsal surface – the non-contact surface –
of the working edge. Several scars are oblique to the
transversal axis of the edge. Inside the large and
intrusive feathered and hinged scars, small feather-
ed scars were observed. There are also a few medi-
um stepped scars with rolled-over appearance. The
overall margin of the contact edge appears denticu-
lated. The employable edge on the non-contact sur-
face shows light and medium rounding, with heav-
ier rounding on the elevated part. Polish and stria-
tions were not recognized (Fig. 2.e1, e2).
Use-wear resulting from wood-working
Sawing wood
After 30 minutes of use, use-wear was observed on
the three experimental specimens for sawing pine
(Fig. 3.a1, a2, b1, b2). Both surfaces of the employ-
able edge are dominated by feathered and snapped
Specimen
Contact material
Working Duration Action
No. motion (min) (strikes)
DJK-SY>2 Dry bamboo stem sawing 30 3357
DJK-SY>6 Dry bamboo stem chopping 30 2515
DJK-SY>3 Fresh bamboo stem whittling 30 1695
DJK-SY>4 Fresh bamboo stem sawing 30 2249
DJK-SY>5 Fresh bamboo stem sawing 30 3013
DJK-SY>13 Fresh bamboo stem chopping 30 2549
DJK-SY>14 Dry pine branch whittling 30 2129
DJK-SY>9 Dry pine branch sawing 30 2789
DJK-SY>8 Dry pine branch chopping 30 2651
DJK-SY>10 Fresh pine branch sawing 30 2253
DJK-SY>15 Fresh pine branch sawing 30 2948
DJK-SY>11 Fresh pine branch chopping 30 2586
Tab. 1. Basic information of the experiments undertaken.

Use-wear experimental studies for differentiating flint tools processing bamboo from wood
331
Fig. 2. Use-wear resulting from bamboo-working. a1 sawing dry bamboo (No. DJK-SY:2), scarring D40x;
a2 polish, 30min, V400x; b1 sawing fresh bamboo (No. DJK-SY:4), scarring D40x; b2 polish, 30min D400x;
c1 chopping dry bamboo (No. DJK-SY:6), scarring D30x; c2 rounding, 30min, R30x; d1 chopping fresh
bamboo (No. DJK-SY:13), scarring V30x; d2 rounding, 30min, R50x; e1 whittling fresh bamboo (No. DJK-
SY:3), scarring D40x; e2 rounding, 30min, R50x.

Jiying Liu, Hong Chen, and Yiming Shen
332
scars in large, medium and small sizes. A few large
scars occur in rolled-over appearance. The small
scars distribute more closely to the edge margin.
Some unevenly distributed scars in association with
hinged terminations were also found on the speci-
men used for sawing dry pine. For the specimen
sawing fresh pine, scars with occasional stepped ter-
minations are distributed continuously.
The specimen for sawing dry pine (No. DJK-SY:9)
shows heavy rounding, while the one for sawing
fresh pine (No. DJK-SY:10) presents medium round-
ing. Moderate bright to bright polish was observed
on both surfaces of the edge, of which some devel-
oped polishes with the occurrence of short lines.
More developed polish appears on the specimen for
sawing fresh pine, and very bright and smooth polish
is only observed on the elevated part of the edge. In
this case, no obvious striations were observed.
Chopping wood
The specimens No. DJK-SY:8 and No. DJK-SY:11 were
used for experimentally chopping dry and fresh pine
branches for about 30 minutes (Fig. 3.c1, c2, d1, d2).
Small feathered scars, and medium scars with step-
ped and snapped terminations, distribute unevenly
on these two specimens. Scars on the specimen for
chopping dry pine are mainly on the dorsal surface,
while several notches of different sizes distribute on
the ventral surface.
Both specimens exhibit medium and heavy round-
ing on the used edges, and the specimen for chop-
ping fresh pine shows heavier rounding. Moderate
bright and dull polish were identified on both spec-
imens, with few striations.
Whittling dry wood
One flake (No. DJK-SY:14) was used for whittling dry
pine for around 30 minutes and presents obvious
use-wear (Fig. 3.e1, e2).
Scars were mainly observed on the non-contact side
of the working edge, the dorsal surface, and these
are medium and small scars with feathered and step-
ped terminations in relatively continuous distribu-
tion with few overlapping. There are also several
hinged scars scattering along the dorsal side. The
overall shape of the edge margin of the ventral con-
tact surface appears denticulated.
Most part of the working edge shows medium round-
ing, while the elevated part of edge ridge displays
heavy rounding. Only the contact surface of the
working edge presents moderate bright and rough
polish. Striations were not identified.
Discussion
The experimental results suggest that wear traces
caused by bamboo-working and wood-working are
distinctive. According to multi-stage experiments,
the formation of scarring and polish appears diffe-
rently. For the working motions of sawing and chop-
ping, most scars were produced within the first 15
minutes, allowing the easy identification of working
tasks. In the latter 15-min stage, only some small
feathered scars were produced along the edge mar-
gin. On the other hand, the polish becomes more
and more developed over the whole 30 minutes.
Use-wear features and patterns of bamboo-
working
The bamboo-working experiments by Armand S. B.
Mijares (2001), as well as Xhauflair and his collea-
gues (2016), show that medium to very large micro-
fractural scarring, mainly in stepped terminations,
would occur; the polish created by bamboo-working
is well-developed, which is smooth and bright, very
domed and often well-linked; and numerous brush-
stroke striations were also produced, though not on
every specimen.
According to our results from the bamboo-working
experiments, besides the stepped scars, feathered
and snapped scars were also recognized on every
specimen. The small scars in feathered termination
tend to distribute continuously along the edge mar-
gin. The features of scarring are complex, which
might be affected by working motions. Continuous-
ly distributed scars often occur during whittling and
sawing, while uneven and overlapped scars appear
with chopping. Rolled-over scars (Odell 1996; Chen
et al. 2008), also described as hinged cross-section
scars (Xhauflair et al. 2016), appear frequently. Pro-
cessing dry bamboo stem tends to produce hinged-
terminated scars. Medium to heavy rounding usu-
ally occurs on the edges of tools used for bamboo-
working.
Moderate to very bright polish is a significant fea-
ture of use-wear in connection with bamboo-work-
ing (Fig. 4). The extent of polish expands when it is
well-developed; the polish on the elevated part of
the edge appears linked together, but the linkage of
polish caused by chopping is much poorer. Polish
produced by processing fresh bamboo is generally

Use-wear experimental studies for differentiating flint tools processing bamboo from wood
333
Fig. 3. Use-wear resulting from wood-working. a1 sawing dry pine (No. DJK-SY:9), scarring V30x; a2 po-
lish, 30min, V400x; b1 sawing fresh pine (No. DJK-SY:10), scarring V30x; b2 polish, 30min D400x; c1 chop-
ping dry pine (No. DJK-SY:8), scarring D30x; c2 rounding, 30min, R50x; d1 chopping fresh pine (No. DJK-
SY:11), scarring D50x; d2 rounding, 30min, R60x; e1 whittling dry wood (No. DJK-SY:14), scarring; e2
rounding, 30min, R100x.

Jiying Liu, Hong Chen, and Yiming Shen
334
more developed than that by dry bamboo, but an
exception is found on one specimen for sawing fresh
bamboo, which develops polish less bright than that
resulting from sawing dry bamboo. Based on the dy-
namic observation of the multi-stage experiments, it
can be suggested that the development of use-wear
is more probably affected by working intensity.
No apparent striations were observed under the op-
tical microscope in our experiment. The development
and appearance of the striations might be influen-
ced by various factors, which needs to be further ex-
plored in the future.
Use-wear features and patterns of wood-work-
ing
Many experimental and archaeological studies have
been conducted to explore the characteristics of wood-
working traces. It is summarized that the use-wear
resulting from working on woody materials of me-
dium hardness mainly consists of two categories: first,
the more common smooth, bright and domed polish
with occasional flat striations (Shea 1992; Yerkes et
al. 2003; 2012); second, the continuous distribution
of shallow feathered scars of large and/or medium
size, and especially with the typical marks of rolled-
over shaped scars along the working edges (see Chen
et al. 2008.Fig. 3.8; Odell 1981; 1996; Shen 2001).
Comparison of use-wear patterns between bam-
boo-working and wood-working
Our experiments show that
there are some similarities
and differences between the
use-wear resulting from bam-
boo-working and wood-work-
ing on flints (Fig. 5).
Rolled-over scars are com-
monly produced by process-
ing both bamboo and wood,
and are indicative of working
with other woody materials,
as suggested in previous ex-
periments (e.g., Odell 1996;
Shen 2001; Chen et al. 2008).
The characteristics of micro-
fractural scarring, especially
its distribution patterns, are
in close relation to the work-
ing motion. The patterns of
scars caused by whittling and
sawing these two materials
are similar. More differences
can be observed on the specimens for chopping ac-
tivity: bamboo-chopping tends to produce more scars
with stepped termination and overlapped distribu-
tion, while scars produced by chopping wood are re-
latively smaller, presenting some medium and small
notches on the edge ridge. Hinged scars often exist
in association with processing dry wood and bam-
boo.
It has been demonstrated by a large number of ex-
periments that a distinctive polish can be formed by
different types of wood and various working mo-
tions. Usually bright or very bright with a smooth
texture, the surface of the polish is rarely flat but
appears to have a fluted or domed morphology (e.g.,
Keeley 1980; Shen 2001; Wang 2008). Similar featu-
res correspond to the polish produced on specimens
for bamboo-sawing and bamboo-chopping. More si-
milarities exist on the edge rounding, which is cha-
racterized by medium and heavy rounding.
In addition, rough and moderate bright polish was
observed in the wood-working experiments. How-
ever, under approximately the same conditions the
range and distribution of polish resulting from bam-
boo-working are more extensive and well-linked. In
the sawing task, bamboo polish tends to link toge-
ther and seems like a net in a zone, but wood polish
tends to form numerous short lines. Bamboo polish
is brighter than wood polish caused by chopping. Ge-
nerally, soft and fresh wood or bamboo produces
Fig. 4. Polish resulting from different bamboo-working activities: a saw-
ing fresh bamboo (No. DJK-SY:4), 30min, D400x; b sawing fresh bamboo
(No. DJK-SY:5), 30min, D400x; c sawing dry bamboo (No. DJK-SY:2),
30min, V400x; d chopping fresh bamboo (No. DJK-SY:13), 30min, V400x.

Use-wear experimental studies for differentiating flint tools processing bamboo from wood
335
more polish on the tool surface
than hard and dry wood or bam-
boo after the same use duration
(also see Keeley 1980; Vaughan
1985).
Conclusion
The experiments and results de-
scribed above indicate that the
features and patterns of micro-
fractural scarring, edge round-
ing and polish caused by bam-
boo-working and wood-work-
ing could be identified under
the 3D digital microscope.
Based on our experiment and
other similar studies, it is de-
monstrated that more similari-
ties exist between the use-wear
resulting from bamboo-working
and wood-working on flints, in-
cluding the pattern and distribu-
tion of scarring, as well as edge
rounding. The distinction and
connection to working motions
appear stronger than that to the contact materials.
The characteristics of scarring can be used to under-
stand the movement of tools, the brightness, mor-
phology, and distribution of polish are also useful
to identify the specific working motion.
Notably, there are a few differences allowing us to
distinguish the use-wear caused by bamboo-working
from that by wood-working, which should be con-
sidered in terms of a set of features rather than a
single element. The most obvious distinction is that
more stepped and overlapped scars and brighter po-
lish are produced by bamboo-working than wood-
working. Moreover, the range and distribution of po-
lish resulting from bamboo-working are more exten-
sive and well-linked. In the case of sawing activity,
bamboo polish tends to link together and seems like
a net in a zone, but wood polish tends to form nu-
merous short lines. Although the resulting bamboo-
working polish seems like that from reed processing
(see Vaughan 1985; Jensen 1994), it is distinguish-
able when the light edge rounding and small feath-
ered scarring are taken into consideration.
It is worth noting that striations are often seen as
linear indicators of working motion in the high-po-
wer analysis. However, our experimental results
show that the distribution of scarring and polish is
closely related to the specific movement of the tools,
which could be used to infer the working motion.
The absence of striations on most specimens might
be attributed to the raw material or other factors.
This study also proves that the optical 3D digital
microscope used in this work has great potential to
conduct integrative use-wear analysis. The capabili-
ties of live depth composition and advanced imag-
ing enable observation and documentation of wear
traces and their formation with more details and in
more extensive areas on tools. The presentation and
description of traces can be more readily perceived
and easily understood, which could be helpful for
analysing a large sample of stone tools. Since nume-
rous variables might influence the development of
use-wear, more experiments and use-wear analyses
on archaeological stone tools are needed in the fu-
ture.
Fig. 5. Comparison between the use-wear resulting from bamboo-work-
ing and wood-working. a1 sawing fresh bamboo (No. DJK-SY:4), 30min,
well-linked brighter polish, D400x; a2 chopping dry bamboo (No. DJK-
SY:6), stepped and overlapped scarring, 30min, D30x; a3 chopping
fresh bamboo (No. DJK-SY:13), 30min, stepped scarring, V30x; b1 saw-
ing fresh pine (No. DJK-SY:10), 30min, bright polish, D400x; b2 chop-
ping dry pine (No. DJK- SY:8), 30min, scarring, D30x; b3 chopping
fresh pine (No. DJK-SY:11), 30min, scarring, D50x.

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This paper was supported by the Provincial Social Science Foundation of Zhejiang (Grant No. 18NDJC165YB),
The Fundamental Research Funds for the Central University, National Social Science Foundation of China (Grant
No. 15CKG003), Provincial Science Foundation of Zhejiang (Grant No. LY16D020001), and Zhijiang Junior So-
cial Science Scholars Program of Zhejiang Province. Thanks to Professor Guoding Song at the Department of
Scientific History and Archaeometry, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, for providing us with stone raw
materials to manufacture experimental specimens. We would also like to thank all the operators from the De-
partment of Cultural Heritage and Museology, Zhejiang University for helping in conducting the experiments.
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