URBAN TOURISM IN SLOVENIA

Characteristics and Governance

editors

Naja Marot and Matjaž Uršič





URBAN TOURISM IN SLOVENIA

Characteristics and Governance

Editors

Naja Marot and Matjaž Uršič



Table of contents

1 Introduction

6

The project is funded by the European

Naja Marot and Matjaž Uršič

Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation

programme under contract number 870644.

Section A: Urban tourism as a type of tourism 18

2 Urban tourism in the 21st century

20

Naja Marot and Nina Stubičar

3 Urban destination Ljubljana

58

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Nina Stubičar

Authors Uroš Horvat, David Klepej, Manca Krošelj, Naja Marot,

4 Urban destination Maribor

96

Irena Ograjenšek, Nina Stubičar, Matjaž Uršič

Uroš Horvat

Editors Naja Marot, Matjaž Uršič

Design Manca Krošelj, Nina Stubičar

Illustrations Manca Krošelj

Section B: Urban tourism governance

134

Proofreading Bertie Dockerill, University of Manchester

Reviewers Dejan Cigale (University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts),

5 Territorial impact assessment as approach

136

Irena Mrak (Faculty of Environmental Protection)

to evaluate impacts of urban tourism

Publisher University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty

Naja Marot and Nina Stubičar

Publication is available at

6 Spatial aspects of the development

166

www.bf.uni-lj.si

and promotion of urban tourism

David Klepej, Nina Stubičar and Naja Marot

Electronic version

7 Limits of urban tourism in Ljubljana:

196

Ljubljana, November 2022

the views of different social groups

Matjaž Uršič

8 Territorial governance of urban tourism

224

David Klepej, Irena Ograjenšek,

Manca Krošelj and Naja Marot

Kataložni zapis o publikaciji (CIP) pripravili v

Narodni in univerzitetni knjižnici v Ljubljani

COBISS.SI-ID 129582851

9 Towards new urban tourism

256

ISBN 978-961-6379-71-7 (PDF)

Naja Marot, Uroš Horvat, David Klepej,

Manca Krošelj, Irena Ograjenšek,



Nina Stubičar and Matjaž Uršič

10 Summaries of the chapters

270

11 Glossary

282

12 Table of indicators

286

13 About the authors

294

14 About the projects MESTUR and SPOT

298



Chapter 1





Introduction


Naja Marot and Matjaž Uršič


9



Naja Marot

1 Introduction

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Matjaž Uršič

implementation of the project we gathered an interdisciplinary team of

To awaken quite alone in a strange town is one of the

spatial planners, geographers, economists, sociologists and landscape

most pleasant sensations in the world.

architects from University of Ljubljana and University of Maribor. In so

(Freya Stark)

doing, we combined knowledge from the various fields required to an-

swer the research questions of the project.

Urban tourism has become one of the main types of tourism of the 21st

The particular focus of this monograph and the project was the so-

century, both globally (UNWTO, 2020) and in Slovenia (Grah, Dimovski in

cio-spatial dimensions of urban tourism. With regard to the spatial di-

Peterlin, 2020). The index of growth of arrivals for the period 2010–2019 is,

mension we have in mind the physical spatial elements of the city which

of all types of tourism, highest in Ljubljana (262) and other city municipalities

are relevant to tourists such as infrastructure (signalisation, parking,

(236 altogether; SURS, 2022). Urban tourism, traditionally seen as cultural

transport), the density and spatial distribution of tourism attractions,

tourism, started to grow rapidly in 2010. In the last ten years we observed

accommodation, and the gastronomy sector. With regard to the social

the growth of low-cost airlines, the shared economy in accommodation pro-

dimension, we intended to look at, neglected “softer” (non-material)

vision, and the digitalisation of tourism; all significantly contributed to the

dimensions of impacts in the territory. The research shows that these

leap in arrivals and overnight stays in urban destinations (Shoval, 2018). If

dimensions particularly have great impact on how resilient and sus-

at the end of 20th century we had traditionally visited European capitals like

tainable urban tourism is or could be (for more see Thornton, 1997;

London, Vienna, and Paris because of their cultural attractions, now, in

MacCannell, 1999; Uršič and Imai, 2020). As part of the social-spatial

the 21st century, interest has shifted to other destinations. These des-

dimension the behavioural patterns of tourists that affect tourist flows

tinations, which beforehand were not really touristy, nowadays attract

in space are also considered. With the help of multilayer analysis of the

tourists because of their urban architecture, public open spaces and

different dimensions of tourism and spatial distribution of infrastructure

lifestyles. Here, we consider the cities with 100,000 to 1 million inhab-

we can divide city areas into more and less pressured ones when it

itants, which, especially due to low-cost travel, have become easily

comes to urban tourism (Lew and McKercher, 2006; Popp and McCole,

accessible, have been more heavily promoted and have, as a conse-

2016).

quence, become more attractive to tourists. The European Union has,

with the establishment of the free market, sped up mobility for work or

The MESTUR project and this monograph addressed two major re-

study which contributed to formulation of the so-called “VFR tourists“,

search questions:

meaning tourists who visit friends and relatives living in another country

1) What are the territorial and social impacts that urban tourism

or city for work or study. In this context, middle-size or, at a European

cause in cities?

scale, smaller cities such as Ljubljana are flourishing; the city combines

2) What (if any) solutions are spatial planning and tourism manage-

the functionality of a capital city with a strong presence with regards to

ment currently offering to address these impacts and what could

educational, research, and event sectors, as well as with reference to

they offer in the future?

specific geolocation strengths.

Figure 1.1

In the period 2010–2019 arrivals to Ljubljana almost tripled (from

Selected topics of

430,155 in 2010 to 1,127,904 in 2019, SURS, 2022). Similarly, overnight

the research in urban

stays tripled (from 841,220 in 2010 to 2,227,669 in 2019; SURS, 2022).

tourism

This growth was not only visible in statistics, but also within the city: in

the tourist flows in the city core, through the growth of investments in

accommodation capacities, and especially in the sector of the shared

economy and new tourist products; furthermore, capacities found in

other European cities. These economic, social, and spatial changes

1 Austrian research

need to be inspected thoroughly in research. As a multidisciplinary

agency FWF has not

group of researchers we have addressed a number of goals within this

decided to finance

project which is focused on the growth of urban tourism in Slovenia.

the project, so in the

end Graz was not

The research was financed by the Slovenian Research Agency, shorter

investigated. However,

ARRS. The first attempt to get financing was not successful, however,

due to the rules of

we managed to succeed in the 2019 call. We acquired financial re-

ARRS, we needed to

keep the city name in

sources for a research project entitled “Analysis of territorial and so-

the project title.

cial impacts on the urban tourism and its territorial governance: the

cases of Ljubljana, Graz and Maribor”1, abbreviated to MESTUR. For

10

11



Naja Marot

1 Introduction

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Matjaž Uršič

When framing the research, we considered the scheme of Ashworth

Figure 1.2

and Page (2011) which defined various themes of research in urban

Working scheme of

tourism (see Figure 1.1). The project addresses six of these topics: in-

the MESTUR project

frastructure, governance, planning, impacts, sustainability, and mod-

(Author: Barbara

Kostanjšek)

els and case studies of the cities. The answer to the first question was

provided via analysis of the characteristics of urban tourism which in-

cluded defining types of tourism and tourists and inhabitants’ views

of tourism. The results of this analysis was joined with the so-called city

profiles which are presented in Chapter 3 for Ljubljana and in Chapter

4 for Maribor. The basic analysis of urban tourism was undertaken in

Ljubljana and Maribor, and their competitor cities in Central Europe,

including Graz, Torino, Padova, Bratislava, Zagreb, Zurich, Poznan, and

Leipzig. The cities for comparison were selected on the basis of their

possessing similar scopes and scales of tourism as those of the case

study cities and on the basis of available data (in the annual report of

European Cities Marketing Association, 2018). Results of this analysis

are summarised in the first chapter on urban tourism. As illustrated in

the title of the project, the WP2 was dedicated to the spatial analysis of

the impacts and distribution of urban tourism. The impacts were iden-

tified with the so-called Territorial Impact Assessment which represents

the first attempt to use this method for urban tourism. The outcome of

this assessment was that the lack and non-accessibility of data requires

substantial engagement by researchers and can limit the outcomes of

such assessments. Results of this analysis are presented in Chapter 5, in

which we described short overview of existing impact assessments and

their use for the assessment of impacts caused by tourism. The spatial

dimension is described in more into detail in Chapter 6. This chapter

also provides conclusions about the research upon the connections

In the project we put a special emphasis on the governance aspect

between the promotion of tourist sights via guidebooks, on-line por-

of tourism. Governance has been one of the main research topics of

tals, and tourists’ movement around the city. For this purpose, we pre-

social research in the 21st century. In the field of spatial planning we talk

pared cartographic representations of the frequency of the promotion

more precisely about territorial governance and have examined which

of individual sights, hotels, services and tourist paths in the cities of

activities are more connected to spatial management broadly and not

Ljubljana and Maribor. Later, we also asked the tourists in the survey

only as planning. Instead, we looked at it more broadly, as an analysis

about the locations they visited, and how they orient themselves when

of stakeholders included in spatial planning, and processes, and influ-

walking around the city. They also reported where they had already

enced by society, politics and economy. We talked more about con-

been; already from which we have generated data on the density of

necting sectors and so-called integrative spatial planning which seeks

tourist flows in Ljubljana. The survey consisted of 26 questions, and was

better co-operation between sectors and co-operation in the prepara-

undertaken in Slovene and English language versions. The aim of the

tion and implementation of strategic policies. Potentials for connecting

survey was to differentiate between different profiles of urban tourists

tourism and urban planning were elaborated upon in 2008 by Bosley

who had visited both cities, and to determine in what way these two

and Brothers (2008). The concept of integration, meaning “connecting

destinations are different from the other urban destinations. In Ljublja-

and participation” has entered into the terminology of spatial planning

na, around 600 tourists participated in the survey, in Maribor there were

in the last 10 years (most references are dated from 2005 onwards)

63 respondents. Their answers were collected at different locations in

and this is likely to have been connected to environmental planning

the centre of Ljubljana (for example, Kongresni trg, Ljubljanski grad,

and policy analysis (Weingarten, 2010; Fischer et al., 2013; Tajima and

Tržnica, Prešernov trg in Tromostovje) and Maribor (e.g. Poštna ulica,

Fischer, 2013). Integration in planning theory derives from commu-

Lent, Mestni park).

nicative (Innes and Booher, 1999, 2004), participative (Healey, 2005),

and co-evolutionary planning (Boelens and de Roo, 2016; Mees et al.,

2016). All types of spatial planning put into focus co-operation with

stakeholders and seek to establish dialog between them. Dialogue

contributes to the development of joint solutions. Thus, in the MESTUR

12

13



Naja Marot

1 Introduction

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Matjaž Uršič

project we prepared a governance model, which was aimed to illustrate

The survey had a standardized form, however, some of the questions

the possibilities for better integration of tourism and spatial planning.

were different depending on the target group. For example, the survey

As stated in the report of the ESPON COMPASS project (ESPON, 2018)

for tourists consisted of 28 questions, and the emphasis was on the

which dedicated to territorial governance and systems of spatial plan-

evaluation of cultural offers and tourism experiences in Ljubljana as an

ning in Europe, the tourist sector currently has neutral impact on spatial

urban destination. In total 100 tourists answered the survey of which

planning. Furthermore, there were doubtful claims that tourism is as a

26 were domestic tourists and 74 were foreign tourist; a proportion

sector which, at the local level, was already connected to planning. For

that corresponds to the nationality-diversity of tourists in the city. The

Slovenia, the report identified a low level of integration, while planning

survey for inhabitants had more emphasis on evaluating the added

was recognised as mostly irrelevant to tourism.

value of tourism for local inhabitants and thus it also included financial

and cultural aspects, together with analysis of the interactions between

In the light of the recent growth of urban tourism, cities have devel-

tourists and inhabitants. Answers to 24 questions were collected via

oped various measures to improve governance practices in the field of

the on-line panel provided by the Valicon company. Altogether 306

tourism (UNWTO, 2019). These measures were evaluated in the con-

inhabitants responded. A survey with companies which included 39

text of selected destinations in our study. In Chapter 8 we introduce

questions was the most difficult to carry out; especially because of the

the territorial governance of tourism which was first used to identify the

pandemic which meant that many tourism suppliers were not willing to

state of tourism and territorial governance in Ljubljana and Maribor.

participate. Altogether, we gathered 40 respondents, of which 13 were

Afterwards, solutions were sought for identified problems. The model

accommodation suppliers, 12 were representatives of tourism attrac-

concerns inhabitants and stakeholders in spatial planning and urban

tions, 13 were of other types (a guide, tourism agency and so on), and

tourism. The basis of the model is general and, therefore, can be ap-

two were providers of gastronomy. In addition to information about

plied to other cities. In the context of the project, we also tested the

their functions and roles in cultural tourism, the suppliers also elabo-

model on Novo Mesto and Celje. In addition to the spatial aspect, this

rated on how they had adapted their services due to the pandemic

monograph also covers social aspects of urban tourism. The pressures

(Klepej et al., 2021).

of urban tourism not only bother local inhabitants, but also some of

the tourist who in the survey already identified some places in the city

centre as overcrowded (Romao et al., 2018; Namberger et al., 2019;

Figure 1.3

Novy and Colomb, 2019). Simultaneous to the recent rapid growth of

Scheme of working

tourism arrivals and overnight stays that resulted in economic benefits

steps in project SPOT

for Slovene society, we can also identify profound structural changes to

tourism. These structural changes signal about the potential depletion

of heterogeneity in the offer of cultural tourism offer in cities. Creating

generic tourist offers in Slovenian cities and towns could, in the long

term, potentially lead to a lowering of urban qualities of life. In Ljubljana

and Maribor such an impact cannot yet be depicted. However, Ljublja-

na inhabitants have become less welcoming to tourist activities. Previ-

ously, tourism was seen as an added value to the city (livelier cultural

and gastronomy offer); but in 2019 minor worries were expressed with

regard to the rapid growth of the sector (Marot et al., 2019). The view

of tourists and inhabitants regarding this growth and its relevance for

society is elaborated upon in Chapter 7.

Cultural tourism and social aspects of tourism were also the subject of

investigation in the SPOT project, financed by the horizon 2020 pro-

gramme. The project was entitled, "Innovative and social platform on

cultural tourism and its potential towards deepening Europeanisa-

tion", was started in January 2020 and represented another source of

contributions for this book. The organisation of work in this project is

visible from Figure 1.3. Although the focus of the project was on cul-

tural tourism and its changes in the 21st century, its contribution to this

monograph originated from the survey that was carried out in sum-

mer 2020 and included tourists, inhabitants and tourism suppliers.

14

15

Naja Marot

1 Introduction

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Matjaž Uršič

Year 2020 because of the pandemic significantly marked the work in

To conclude, we would like to wish you joyful reading of the publica-

both of the projects and certainly needs to be mentioned in this intro-

tion. Through it we wish to shed light on the phenomenon of urban

duction chapter. This was the year in which the pandemic started and

tourism and its new reality. Last but not least, the text is also intended

it not only interfered with the health of the people, but also strongly

to produce critical reflection and to fill the existent gap in research on

influenced the tourism sector as described in this book. Tourism be-

this topic in both Slovenia and Central Europe.

came ‘extinct’ overnight, tourism suppliers lost all their clientele, and

tourists were forced to stay in their homes. Not only was travel limited,

but was also, for a time, forbidden. Researchers needed to face this

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Fischer, T. B., Harashina, T., Tajima, R. and Gore, T. (2013). Policy integration between and Marot, 2021). In addition, the results of the surveys that were per-Environmental Assessment and Disaster Management. In: AIA13 Conference

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Grah, B., Dimovski, V. and Peterlin, J. (2020). Managing sustainable urban tourism

development: The case of Ljubljana. Sustainability, 12(3), pp. 792−809.

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we carried out the already mentioned field survey in 2021. The aim of

Healey, P. (2006). Territory, integration and spatial planning. In: Tewdwr–Jones, M. and P. Allmendinger (ed.), Territory, identity and spatial planning (str. 64–79). London: this survey was to find out how tourists move around, what they visit,

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how and where they get information, and what motivates them to visit

Horvat, U. and Stubičar, N. (2021). Profil mesta Maribor: Aktivnost 1.4 (eng. Profile of Ljubljana, Maribor and elsewhere. The results showed that more and

the Maribor city: Activity 1.4). Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, Biotehniška fakulteta, more individual tourists were coming to the cities who are interested in

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Innes, J. E. and Booher, D. E. (1999). Consensus building and complex adaptive

tourists had disappeared from European cities overnight. Some, par-

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21st century. Planning theory & practice, 5(4), pp. 419–436.

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trendov in upravljanja skozi ukrepe prostorskega načrtovanja (eng. Urban tourism in Central Europe area: overview of trends and governance through the measures of

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Section A

Urban tourism as a type of tourism





Chapter 2


Urban tourism in the 21st century


Naja Marot and Nina Stubičar

23





Naja Marot

2 Urban tourism in the 21st century

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

Nina Stubičar

they were polluted due to industry, and the quality of living was too low

Tourism has become a key contributor to the economic,

for people to spend extended holidays there.

social and cultural transformation that has marked the

world's cities over the past two decades.

Pollution and economic and social processes forced cities to transform

(Fainstein and Judd, 1999, p. 261)

and rebuild themselves in the mid-1980s (Butler, 2015). In North Amer-

ica and Europe, the renewal process of cities and their historic centres

focused on activities such as the recreation of images of cities, the con-

struction of new infrastructure, and functionally and architecturally re-

2.1 The development of urban tourism

fined buildings such as stadiums, conference centres, hotels, museums,

fairgrounds and so on. High investment in urban renewal improved

The origins of tourism date back to the early days of human history

the physical appearance of the area and the overall attractiveness of

when people first expressed their needs and desires to change their

the cities, a major advantage for this developing type of tourism. De-

place of residence. Urban tourism could be said to be as old as the an-

graded urban areas offered the opportunity to develop their property

cient cities, or even older, going back to prehistoric times. An example

markets, whilst historic towns and neighbourhoods strengthened their

of ancient urban travel is a visit to Babylon to see the hanging gardens

economies by exploiting culture, history and heritage (Verbeke and

and other achievements of civilisation. Later, during the classical period

Lievois, 1999; Ashworth and Tunbridge, 2000). As a result, existing ur-

and given cultural progress, the purpose of travel changed. People vis-

ban activities (service, commercial, etc.) were upgraded, and renovated

ited great architectural masterpieces, learned about new cultures and

parts of towns and cities were enriched by new green infrastructure,

languages, and explored the cuisine of different regions. Especially in

such as parks and cycle paths (Verbeke and Lievois, 1999; Ashworth

coastal areas, the Romans developed spas and health resorts intended

and Tunbridge, 2000). Shopping malls or entertainment venues have

for relaxation (Christou, 2022). In the Middle Ages and the early modern

been built in former industrial halls. One of the first examples of such

period, urban tourism took on a new dimension in the form of grand

a redevelopment project is the Albert Dock and its waterfront area in

tours. Grand tours were taken by English aristocrats who explored the

Liverpool, UK (Couch and Farr, 2000). The area of the former docks

European continent in the period 1550−1850, educating themselves

has been completely redeveloped and given new functions, including

about European political and religious life, daily life at court and so-

tourism, thanks to local initiatives and cooperation with the private sec-

cial customs. As Mary Shelly wrote in her book ''History of Six Weeks''

tor. The city's culture, history and unique look were all used to rede-

(Shelley, 2015, new edition), they were particularly interested in their

velop the site, making it one of the UK's main tourist attractions and a

interactions with European culture and its influence on their creativity

best practice example for all of the following redevelopment projects; Figure 2.1

and personal development. The purpose of such tours was education

Potsdamer Platz in Berlin (Wojnarowska, 2011), Hafencity in Hamburg Images of European and enjoyment. Tours as a new mode of travel mainly included Medi-

(Swierczewska-Pietras, 2015), the harbour area in Belfast (Muir, 2013) city destinations terranean cities such as Naples, Rome, Vienna, Paris or Florence, major

and others.

Hamburg (left) and

Oslo (right) (Author:

European cities at the time (Towner, 1984).

Naja Marot)

The Industrial Revolution greatly influenced the life style of people by

introducing a separation between work and residence. It was a time

of accelerated urban growth and development. London doubled its

population in the 19th century, from two million in 1851 to four million

thirty years later. In connection with industrial development, world ex-

hibitions were organised mainly to promote the industrial and colonial

powers and the ideology of capitalism. The first such exhibition was

organised in London, followed by the rest of the major European cities

(Paris, Turin, Brussels and others). The development of the automobile

before the First World War reinvented the mode and capacity to travel.

While WWII stopped tourism activities for almost a decade, the rebuild-

ing of society after the war brought welfare and a change of lifestyle

at the end of the 60s (Sezgin and Yolal, 2012). More free time, better

income, and the production of various products resulted in the emer-

gence of mass tourism. However, in the 1960s and 1970s, tourists were

predominantly concentrated in coastal and mountainous areas. In this

period, cities were not prone to mass tourism for a number of reasons:

24

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Naja Marot

2 Urban tourism in the 21st century

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

Nina Stubičar

The redevelopment of degraded areas was just one of the impulses

process is evident in high property prices, the limited range of services

behind the revival of urban tourism at the end of the 20th century. In

predominantly available to tourists in urban centres, the high proportion

addition to redevelopment areas, tourists at that time still traditionally

of housing available only for short-term rentals, and the increased flow of

relied on cultural tourism, including visits to the capitals of countries rich

people on the streets during tourist seasons. Several authors (Seraphin,

in cultural heritage, with museums and galleries. Among the primary

Sheeran and Pilato, 2018; Walmsley, 2017; Milano, Novelli and Cheer,

destinations (Table 2.1) in Europe are Vienna, London, Paris, Prague, Bar-

2019) have called this phenomenon ‘overtourism’, but some authors

celona, and others. These cities were also the most affected at the begin-

have also expressed scepticism about the term (Koens, Postma and

ning of the 21st century, when interest in them exploded due to factors

Papp, 2018), as the complexity of urban organisms makes it difficult to

such as: the emergence of low-cost airlines; accommodation, provided

distinguish whether the effects are caused by tourists or residents.

by the sharing economy concept; student exchanges; interest in week-

end breaks; and the development of online booking portals, as well as

the remaining digitalisation of supply and communication (Bock, 2015;

Figure 2.2

Nientied, 2020). On average, the number of visitors to cities in the 21st

Tourist arrivals in the

century is growing at an annual rate of 5% (Figure 2.2), but according to

period between the

data from the European Cities Marketing association, the cities with the

years 2000−2006

(Source: Maitland and

highest demand are also recording growth rates of 10-15% per year. For

Newman, 2014, p. 8)

example, Amsterdam, Berlin and Madrid recorded a change of 15% be-

tween 2009 and 2010 (Heeley, 2011). The growth of tourism in Ljubljana

is fully comparable with European trends, with the number of overnight

stays more than doubling between 2010 and 2017 (from 739,453 to

1,548,487), and the share of overnight stays increasing by 16% between

2016 and 2017 (SURS, 2019).

Arrivals (mio) Change of arrivals between years 2000 and 2006 (in %)

Table 2.1

Arrivals to major

London

26.2

-16

European destinations

Paris

16.3

11

in 2006 and their

change compared to

Rome

11.1

77

In 2020, the issue of overtourism in cities became obsolete overnight

year 2000 (Source:

Madrid

8.6

50

due to the pandemic that started in most countries in March 2020. The

Heeley, 2011, p. 26,

Barcelona

7.2

99

cities emptied overnight and this occasion represents the last major de-

original source: ECM,

velopment point of urban tourism. As reported by Anguera - Torrell et

2006)

Berlin

7.1

41

al. (2021), all major urban destinations have lost significant numbers of

Dublin

5.7

33

tourists; urban tourism as an economic sector has suffered significant

Amsterdam

4.7

16

setbacks. According to Koh (2020), the pandemic caused an immediate

Vienna

4.4

24

transition from a state of overtourism to a state of no tourism. Whereas

Munich

4.4

17

cities were previously bustling with life and presented a major magnet

for tourists, they now receive far fewer tourists, and their origin is pre-

Cities today are establishing smart city governance and sustainable re-

dominantly European (Šauer et al., 2021; Clois, 2021). As can be seen

source management with the intention of increasing their resilience to

in Chapter 3 on urban tourism in Ljubljana, the number of tourists in

unpredictable events (Panasiuk, 2021; Hua and Wondirad, 2020). At the

Ljubljana has returned to what it was in 1975. Some cities, such as Paris,

same time they are also supporting tourism as a sector that contributes

are even reporting having lost a larger number of residents; the French

significantly to their economic prosperity. As a result, new tourism infra-

capital has lost as much as 10% of its population. Residents have moved

structure is being built, including hotels, venue facilities and airports of

to their holiday homes in the countryside, as this offered them a better

regional importance. The significant increase in the number of future vis-

quality of life during the lock downs (Seraphin and Dosquet, 2020). The

itors has increased the pressure on certain parts of cities, such as old his-

same is reported from Sweden (Aberg and Tondelli, 2021). In this situa-

toric cores (Garcia - Hernandez, de la Calle - Vaquero and Yubero, 2017;

tion, cities have had to find new target groups of visitors - shifting towards

Martinez - Garcia, Raya - Vilchez and Gali, 2018), which have become

domestic tourists - and approach the development of new tourism prod-

heavily touristified. The term 'touristification' refers to 'the impact of tour-

ucts (Pasquinelli et al., 2021; Kunzmann, 2020; Kowalczyk - Aniol et al.,

ism on the environment, the socio-cultural changes of a given place, the

2021). How they have done this is described at the end of this section.

changes in the habits and customs of local people' (Renato, 2019). This

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Naja Marot

2 Urban tourism in the 21st century

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

Nina Stubičar

2.2 The development of urban tourism in Slovenia

Statistical data confirms that Slovenia is building its tourism industry

through its high diversity of landscapes and offers. Figure 2.3 shows

Before the 20th century, Slovenia did not have well-developed urban

that the importance of urban destinations, with the exception of Lju-

tourism, as the first types of tourism were not directly linked to cities.

bljana, has not changed much in Slovenia since the 1960s, with the

Before the 19th century we can speak of pilgrimage tourism, spa, moun-

share of registered overnight stays having decreased slightly. In con-

tain, and coastal tourism. While the period before 1960 was character-

trast, the share of overnight stays in Ljubljana out of all overnight stays

ised by the development of tourism linked to specific locations with

in Slovenia has more than doubled, from 5% in 1964 to 12% in 2019.

natural resources, such as Rogaška Slatina, Bled, Portorož, economic

In terms of the categorisation of tourist destinations, only health resorts

and social prosperity accelerated the development of other locations

have seen a steady increase; they have a higher share of domestic visi-

and other types of tourism as well (Jeršič, Vojvoda and Vogrin, 1985). In

tors. All other destinations, however, have experienced a decline since

the 1960s and 1970s, towns and cities became more attractive as tran-

the independence war. After a slow recovery, Slovenia - as elsewhere in

sit points, and for business and conference tourism. Moreover, cities

the world - saw a major leap in urban tourism development after 2000

were 'showcases' of the new social order and economic performance.

(SURS, 2021), as can also be seen in Figure 2.4.

Increased motorisation enabled residents to travel individually to cities

for day trips during the week or at weekends, or to visit them via organ-

Figure 2.4

ised travel. In addition to contributing to the increased quality of life of

Overnight stays in

the population, tourism has been recognised by the state as an impor-

Slovenia between 1948

tant economic sector (Banaszkiewicz et al., 2017; Yeomans, 2010). As a

and 2019 by type of

tourism destination

result, the state supported investments in tourism infrastructure and im-

(Source: SURS

provements to the quality of tourism services on a larger scale. Most of

Yearbooks, published

the major hotels in Slovenian cities were built at that time. Tourism as a

in Klepej and Marot,

2021)

topic of study also entered the university education system in the same

period: firstly, at the University of Maribor in year 1960, and secondly,

at the University of Ljubljana in year 1962. Tourism was not studied as a

major, instead tourism-related topics were integrated into the study of

economics and geography (Klepej and Marot, 2021).

Overall, the number of beds in cities increased by 150% between 1960

and 1985, to an average of 2,000 beds per year. This is higher than the

In Slovenia, 14 towns were marketed as historic towns in a joint promo-

current trend, as Ljubljana saw an increase of less than 1,000 beds from

tion brochure around 2010, including Celje, Idrija, Kamnik, Koper, Kranj,

2014 to 2018 (ECM, 2019). Investment and increased international co-

Ljubljana, Maribor, Novo mesto, Piran, Ptuj, Radovljica, Slovenske Kon-

operation between cities meant that in 1985, 16% of all foreign visitors

jice, Škofja Loka and Tržič. The brochure offered more detailed descrip-

to Yugoslavia visited the capital cities of the federal states (Gosar, 1989).

tions of what each city had to offer, the events and excursions available

in surrounding areas, and suggestions for intercity trips. Today, other

Figure 2.3

towns have also start to catch up with regard to tourism development.

Share of overnight

Examples include, amongst others, Nova Gorica, Ajdovščina, Trbovlje,

stays by type of

and Velenje. The Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia defines

tourist destination -

comparison between

eleven municipalities as urban destinations – and for which changes

years 1964 and 2019

in arrivals between years 2008 and 2017 are shown in Figure 2.5. The

(Source: SURS, 2021a)

first is Maribor, which earned the title of European Capital of Culture in

2012, and the second is Ljubljana, which has become one of Slovenia's

main tourist destinations in recent years (Horvat, 2012; 2018). Maribor

planned to establish itself as a key Central European destination based

on the title, and a broader regional impact as a consequence of the

title, was envisaged, as cultural projects and activities were implement-

ed together with five other partner cities (Ptuj, Slovenj Gradec, Murska

Sobota, Novo mesto and Velenje). The key tasks of cultural capital were:

connecting cities, strengthening Slovenia's cultural potential and rec-

ognition at city and regional level, promoting intercultural dialogue and

creativity in different fields, and educating tourist guides. According to

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2 Urban tourism in the 21st century

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

Nina Stubičar

the study, the project's objective of maximising the long-term effects

tourism, and have also renewed their marketing strategies and tourism

of the culture and tourism sectors was only partially achieved. Among

infrastructure; as shown, for instance, in the case of Kranj (Medja, 2021)

the impacts mentioned were 20% more overnight stays than in 2011

and Celje (Jurgec, 2020).

(355,000 in total), between 500 and 600 new jobs being created, and

four euros reimbursed for every public euro spent (Kovač and Srakar,

2013). As presented in more detail in Chapter 4, Maribor continues to

2.3 Definition of urban tourism

establish itself as the second largest city destination in Slovenia.

Urban tourism research started approximately thirty years ago. Ash-

Figure 2.5

worth was certainly a pioneer in this field (Ashworth and Voogd, 1988;

Tourist arrivals by

Ashworth and Tunbridge, 1990; Ashworth, 1992; Ashworth and Page,

municipality, 2008–

2011a). In 2011, he and Page identified twelve possible topics for the

2017. Ljubljana is not

study of urban tourism: e.g. cultural offers, regeneration, management

included in the figure

due to a high value

and planning and urban typology (Ashworth and Page, 2011b). Ac-

of the indicator. The

cording to Ashworth and Page, urban tourism is a distinctly interdisci-

change in arrivals

plinary field and best be explained by an interplay of different theories

for the city was from

391,431 arrivals in 2008

and concepts. Economists are concerned with the economic aspects

to 841,320 in 2017

of urban tourism, geographers with statistics and the spatial dimension

(Source: SURS, 2022b)

of tourism, sociologists with the social aspects of travel and destination

impacts, and other disciplines also study the field. It is therefore particu-

larly important that everyone agrees on the definition and terminology

of urban tourism. It is perhaps most useful to adopt the definition of the

World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO), which defines urban tourism

as 'travel and visitation by visitors and tourists in cities or places with

a high population density. The duration of such trips is usually short,

i.e. between one and three days' (UNWTO, 2022). One should bear in

mind that the general definition of a tourist is that he or she must spend

at least one night in a city in order to be considered a tourist and not

Ljubljana is one of the fastest growing destinations in Central Europe,

just a visitor to the city (SURS, 2022a).

more than doubling the number of tourist arrivals that it has welcomed

in the ten years between 2008 and 2017 (SURS, 2022b). Ljubljana,

Ashworth (1989) identified different ways of studying and perceiving

which also applied to become the European Capital of Culture for

urban tourism:

2025 in 2021 (but was unsuccessful), has been guided in its tourism

— spatial analysis of the locations of tourist attractions, facilities, infra-

development by the Ljubljana Tourism Board which was established in

structure, transport routes, hotels and business zones;

2001. Its aggressive promotion within global markets before the pan-

— the study of the morphological structures of urban areas and their

demic has significantly changed the origins of visitors to the city, with

interconnectedness, which includes the description and identifica-

an increase in Asian tourists in particular. Culinary and congress tourism

tion of functional zones or areas such as: the central business dis-

were also being developed rapidly before the pandemic, and the city

trict, the historic core, the commercial core and the industrial area,

is constantly developing new tourism products; more recently, the em-

all of which are linked to the tourist area;

phasis has been on tourist experiences of the city, active experiences of

— studying the city user (residents, visitors, tourists), looking at their

green spaces, and the redistribution of tourists to the rest of Ljubljana's

activities, characteristics, motivations and purpose;

city districts.

— managing tourism in the context of the city, including tourism pro-

motion and adaptation, infrastructure provision and destination

Slovenian urban tourism has faced several challenges in the wake of

marketing.

the pandemic. While the developments of the last ten years have high-

lighted Ljubljana as one of the main city destinations, and indeed as

Blank (1994), in contrast to Ashworth, emphasised the functional ap-

one of Slovenia’s main destinations, other cities are following a different

proach and the activities carried out in support of tourism as a business

pace of development. In light of the recent trends in urban tourism,

sector in the city, including: marketing, management of tourist facilities,

only Ljubljana can be singled out as a macrodestination, while other

destination marketing and others. In this monograph, we have tried to

cities serve as supporting destinations. Most city municipalities have

cover as many of these aspects as possible, but the main focus has

expanded their tourism offers from cultural tourism to other types of

remained on the spatial, user and management aspects.

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2 Urban tourism in the 21st century

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

Nina Stubičar

At first glance, the definition of urban tourism simplifies the complexity

economically and physically blended into the population within

of the relationships that are established in a city as a result of tourists’

them.

arrivals. Tourist consume the tourist offers, but also benefit from the rest

— Tourists make heavy use of the facilities, infrastructure and services

of the city's infrastructure, - including that which was originally intend-

of the city, which are created primarily for the inhabitants and not for

ed for residents (see Figure 2.6; Burtenshaw, Bateman and Ashworth,

tourism purposes.

1991). Thus, while tourists stimulate improvements in the supply of

— Cities that are most economically dependent on tourism have less

goods, the living environment, the infrastructure, and the art-historical

added value than those with a well-developed economic base which

image of the city through increased demand, they also put additional

are visited by a large number of tourists but are not dependent on

pressure on its urban space. The differentiation between the locals and

tourism.

the tourists gets difficult because tourists can easily become residents

— The tourism industry needs diverse, accessible, and flexible tourism

by coming to city to tele work. Such 'migrants' are also referred to as

products to function; cities that can offer such products do not need

'modern nomads', as they further blur, in addition to day visitors, the

tourism to function.

boundaries between residents and tourists. Today, we speak of so-

called urban travellers, those who are particularly interested in the ex-

Key to understanding urban tourism are concepts that are primarily

perience of getting to know and live in the (given) city as local residents

linked to urban development, such as urbanisation, gentrification, ‘Air-

(Novy, 2010; Pasquinelli, 2017; Stors et al., 2019). The issues raised in

bnbzation’ and others. Urbanisation is more commonly known as the

the study of the relationship between residents and tourists and their

expansion of cities and urban life styles, and is not fundamentally related

impact on urban development were also recognised in fieldwork car-

to tourism. However, the expansion of urban tourism and tourist offers

ried out in 2021, in which the nature of predominantly individual tour-

has also led to the recent emergence of terms such as ‘Airbnbzation’

ists made it difficult to separate them from the local population (Marot

and studentification. The former term describes the expansion of ac-

et al., 2021).

commodation available through the sharing economy and associated

social and spatial changes (Curto et al., 2021). The latter refers to the

Figure 2.6

expansion of the provisions made for (and number of) students and in-

The interaction of

cludes services as well as addressing student housing; thus, stimulating

residents and tourists

the growth of student arrivals in the city (Malet Calvo, 2018; Lin and Ma,

in a city (Source:

Burtenshaw, Bateman

2020). Both phenomena are associated with a reduction in the quality of

and Ashworth,1991)

life of residents and, in particular, with an increase in the price of real-es-

tate and a restriction in the supply of housing and services for residents.

All these processes have globalisation as a common denominator (An-

tić, 2020; more in Chapter 7), as cities and local communities take ad-

vantage of the international mobility of people, inexpensive flights and

digital services, and promote themselves as places to visit, to work in,

and to live in.

All these processes confront two groups of people, namely residents -

the expressed need for daily services, the established way of life in cities

- and visitors with motives and needs linked to a particular visit to a city.

On one hand, there are services primarily aimed at tourists, i.e. accom-

modation facilities, tourist attractions, travel agencies, and, on the other,

services for residents, e.g. health and education. At the same time, there

are services available in the city that are used by both residents and tour-

ists, whose consumption and capacity are, as a consequence, the most

In addition to the complexity of relationships, urban tourism is also mul-

difficult to plan. Ashworth and Page (2011b) describe the relationship

tidimensional in terms of tourist attractions. While in other types of tour-

between residents and tourists in terms of four principles that can be

ism, such as shopping, medical tourism, sports tourism, the main motive

used to best distinguish between the two groups:

of the tourist can be clearly defined, in the case of cities, the definition

— Selectivity: a tourist has a limited time in which to visit, certain knowl-

is linked to the place visited by the tourist and not a specific offer. Ash-

edge, and predefined expectations, and therefore "uses" the city less

worth and Page (2011b) argued that urban tourism is characterised by a

than a resident. The study of tourists’ movement and habits also con-

series of unusual paradoxes:

tributes to decision-making on urban projects. Tourists perceive and

— Cities, as multifunctional entities, attract crowds of tourists who are

use space selectively - based on their knowledge and preferences.

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Naja Marot

2 Urban tourism in the 21st century

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

Nina Stubičar

— Rapidity: tourists have short visits to cities, in contrast to other forms

Figure 2.7

of holiday; they consume tourist products and services quickly; their

Added value of the

visits to attractions are often measured in minutes.

cultural tourism for

— Repetition: tourists return to the same urban environment less fre-

the city of Ljubljana

(Source: Klepej et al.,

quently than to a natural or rural environment, which is linked to the

2021, p. 59)

authenticity of the city, its attractions and the availability of similar

destinations. The desire to encourage return visits is one of the rea-

sons why new marketing strategies are constantly being sought to

bring one-time visitors back to the city.

— Capriciousness: urban tourism is one of the types of tourism that

is constantly changing. It is a type of tourism that is dependent on

new social trends and changing lifestyles in cities. Some cities are

adapting well and others are either not adapting to these sudden

changes or deliberately choosing not to. Problems of adaptation

2.4 Types of urban destinations

arise when upgrading tourism products based on sites with histori-

cal significance and uniqueness.

Cities, as multifunctional entities, are based on diversity; thus only a

few of them are economically dependent on tourism alone. Within

The economic aspect of tourism is reflected in the competitive approach

cities we can find individual areas where tourism services are concen-

to promotion; cities try to be innovative with slogans and offers, their

trated, but only in a few cases have individual cities developed in the

use of social media, and their development of niche products that they

analogy of coastal resorts, i.e. as urban resorts. Based on this insight,

guarantee can only be found in their individual city (Paskaleva-Shapira,

Page (1995) developed a typology of cities in tourism, distinguishing

2007; Oguztimur, and Akturan, 2016; Zenker et al., 2013). By opening

between capital cities or capitals, metropolitan centres, major historic

up employment opportunities and economic benefits, urban tourism

cities, industrial and cultural cities, and so-called urban resorts. Capital

also plays important roles in urban planning and in catering to people's

cities and metropolitan centres are not tourist cities in terms of their

sense of well-being. Competition between cities not only leads to an

original function, but are major urban centres with a high concentration

accelerated growth in promotion, marketing, and competition for do-

of functions and services for residents of the settlement and the wider

mestic and foreign tourists, but also contributes to improved services

hinterland. Tourism is most often only one of the economic activities

and an overall higher standard of living for local residents. This view

in these cities, and tourist attractions are linked to historical develop-

was reinforced in the SPOT project, in which we asked residents about

ment (Figure 2.8). These towns host major sporting, musical and other Figure 2.8

the added value of cultural tourism for the city of Ljubljana. Accord-

cultural events, attracting a greater number of visitors, and they also Scenes from tourist-ing to them, the growth of cultural tourism contributed positively to

represent congress centres. Examples of such cities include classic Eu-

historical cities Siena

the development of the city (70% chose this answer), 22% considered

ropean city destinations such as Vienna, Paris, London and, last but not (left) and Budapest (right) (Author: Naja

the impact to be very high, and 17% were sceptical as they could not

least, Ljubljana.

Marot)

decide whether there had been a positive or a negative impact. The

word cloud (Figure 2.7) provides more detail on the impact of cultural

tourism on city life. In particular, residents highlighted the increased

variety of cultural offer as a factor that contributed to making a city more

vibrant, walkable and recognisable. Culinary offer and the quality of life

have also improved and are linked to an enriched knowledge of the

language, local offers, and socialising opportunities. There have also

been positive impacts in the economic sphere, including an increase in

investment, employment and business opportunities, as well as overall

tourism development. The interaction between tourism and space is

described in more detail in Chapter 6, and with regard to tourism and

society in Chapter 7.

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Naja Marot

2 Urban tourism in the 21st century

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

Nina Stubičar

Resort cities have been deliberately built for tourism purpose; such as

are also the most likely to have developed so-called cultural districts. The

Las Vegas in the USA (Figure 2.9). Mullins (1991) describes the process

most famous cultural districts are in Vienna (Museum Quarter) and Berlin

of constructing such a city as 'tourist urbanisation'. With regard to Las

(Museum Island). Ljubljana has a smaller cultural offer which does not

Vegas, the city was founded in 1905, shortly after the opening of the

attract as many foreign visitors as the above-mentioned examples (Koz-

rail link between Los Angeles and Salt Lake City. The station attracted

ina and Bole, 2018). Nevertheless, Ljubljana is working on establishing

farmers, most of whom came from Utah. Development was accelerat-

cultural quarters in the locations of Kino Šiška, Bežigrad and Metelkova,

ed by the fresh water the town received in 1911, but the biggest leap

while at the same time promoting the existing cultural offers in the city

in development came in 1931 when the Hoover Dam was built. In the

centre in a coherent way with the 'Five Minutes to Culture' campaign.

meantime, the town's convenient location made it a gathering place for

The cultural offers in cities can be divided into so-called high culture,

the young men who built the dam, and Vegas theatres and casinos were

which includes first-class attractions such as museums and galleries, her-

a place for their entertainment. Electrification made it possible to build

itage, architecture, and popular culture, such as cuisine, crafts, festivals

further hotels on Main Street. Howard Hughes tried to overcome this nar-

and street music.

row focus in 1966, when he wanted the town to become a family tourist

centre; what is now known as a mega-resort. The city tried to provide

Some cities have received special tourist stimulus as a consequence of

specific spatial characteristics, e.g. copying European architectural styles,

urban renewal processes. Generally, these are industrial citie, where the

accelerated building and planning, and rapid population growth based

process of transformation from industrial to post-industrial city has stim-

on a highly flexible system of production and consumption. In Slovenia,

ulated tourism development. Thus, industrial cities which were left by the

a similar urban development path was taken in Nova Gorica, where gam-

people to go elsewhere for their holidays, are becoming attractive tourist

bling started to develop two to three decades after the city was built.

destinations in the post-industrial era (Kennell, 2012). As these are often

vast empty areas, a comparison of renewal projects in Europe reveals a

Figure 2.9

uniformity of architecture and a lack of local identity, as they are mostly

View of Las Vegas

expensive properties built for foreign visitors and investors, rather than

(Author: Naja Marot)

for the local population (Spaans, 2004). The disadvantages of such rede-

velopment is that the involved design is primarily concerned with tourists

and visitors, and not so much with local contexts. Thus, in these areas,

cultural and café districts, congress centres and hotels are often built

without providing basic services. This process can also be linked to the

notion of gentrification, whereby areas with a socially weaker population

are slowly forced to move out because of constantly increasing prices of

property and everyday life costs because of the renovation (Breckner and

Menzl, 2012; del Biaggio and Harfst, 2009).

2.5 Scope and trends of urban tourism

In the following section, basic statistics on the main tourist destinations

and the shares of tourism within each city are presented. Starting at the

global level, we look at world cities as tourist destinations, we then look

at data at European and national levels. At the global level, it is best to 1 The Matercard Global use the data collected by Mastercard from its credit card customers1. Urban Destinations In 1999, Fainstein and Judd presented a slightly different typology of cit-For tourism destinations they have produced the ‘mastercard global Index ranks 200 cities based on international

ies, dividing them into resort cities, tourist-historic cities and transformed

destination index’ which consists of the number of international tour-

arrivals and cross-

cities. As in the previous division, it can be concluded that cities never fit

ists, visitor spending, and average length of stay. In the pre-pandem-

border spending in

only one model, instead, they are intertwined in terms of what they offer.

ic year of 2019, Bangkok was the number one city in terms of visitor the cities. It calculates visitor projections and

Historic cities are the basis for the development of urban tourism in Eu-

numbers, followed by two European cities, Paris and London, both with predicts spending rope; their offers are based on historical, architectural and cultural herit-around 19 million visitors (Table 2.2). The annual growth of these cities growth based on age and cultural identity. Tourist attractions are part of the existing urban

is low; up to 3% per year. In comparison to rates in Central Europe, at Mastercard usage.

fabric, and tourism activity is most often concentrated in one area. These

a global level only three cities had growth rates higher than 8% and

classic historic destinations in Europe include Paris, Vienna, Budapest,

10% per year respectively. Looking at the trend compared to 2018, all

Prague, Rome, Florence and other cities (Richards, 2001). These cities

cities except London with its 4% drop, recorded an increase in visitors.

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The city with the highest tourist expenditure was Dubai, where tourists

in central Europe, and smaller capitals or regional centres with less than

spend up to 553 USD per day. Although the dynamics of city-visiting

one million residents. For the purpose of analysing urban tourism in the

have changed and, as we will see later, visitors are also visiting small-

wider Central European region, we selected ten cities from eight coun-

er cities, the world's top ten destinations have remained the same for

tries (see Figure 2.10) that are most similar to Ljubljana and Maribor in

quite some time. Bangkok, London, and Paris have alternated between

terms of their spatial characteristics and tourism specifics. This allows

the top three places since 2010, and New York has also been a constant

our work to place Slovenian cities in a broader context based on the

on the list. Among other countries and areas, Asia needs to be noted

availability of statistical data and the comparability of tourism volumes.

as the number of Chinese tourists has soared to a point whereby they

represent, behind the USA, the second most important source market

Figure 2.10

for the top 200 city destiations.

Overview map of

selected case study

cities with registered

Table 2.2

2018

Growth

Average

Average

population and tourist

The most visited cities

(Number of

projections for length of visit

consumption

bed nights in 2018

globally (Source:

overnight visi-

2019

(nights)

per day (€)

(Eurostat, 2021; ECM;

Mastercard Global

tors; millions)

2019)

Index, 2019)

Bangkok

22.78

3.34%

4.8

167

Paris

19.10

2.24%

2.5

269

London

19.09

3.47%

5.8

134

Dubai

15.93

1.68%

3.5

503

Singapore

14.67

4.0%

4.2

247

Kuala Lumpur,

13.79

9.87%

5.7

129

Malaysia

New York

13.60

2.94%

7.9

138

Istanbul

13.40

8.14%

5.8

96

Tokyo

12.93

10.02%

5.4

178

Antalya, Turkey

12.41

8.14%

14.0

40

With regard to the pre pandemic period, it can be seen that in 2018

and 2019 (according to the ECM report, which includes 119 Europe-

an cities), that overnight stays grew by 4.2% per year. There were no

major changes among the cities with the most visits, except for Istan-

bul's immense growth (20% compared to the previous year, leaping

from eighth to fifth place). The top five cities in terms of overnight stays

were London with 71.2 million, Paris with 52.5 million, Berlin with 32.9

The selected cities include three national capitals (Bratislava, Ljubljana,

million, Rome with 28.5 million, and Istanbul with 21.0 million. The cit-

and Zagreb), four sub-national capitals (Graz, Poznan, Turin and Zurich),

ies with the highest levels, apart from Istanbul, were Munich (9%), Paris

and three cities without major political roles (Leipzig, Maribor, and Pad-

(9%), Amsterdam (7%) and Vienna (6%). The main source markets in

ua). While the cities are in different phases of tourism development,

Europe were Russia, China, the USA, Japan, Germany, the UK, France,

all of them have experienced increases in tourist arrivals in the years

Spain, and Italy, with some decline only being witnessed in the French

immediately preceding the Covid-19 pandemic.

and Russian markets. In terms of accommodation capacity, the highest

growth rates in the period 2014−2018 were in Seville (19%), Verona

The number of registered overnight stays increased in all of the select-

(16.4%) and Venice (16%). While the average occupancy rate for the

ed cities. The change in the growth rate between cities can be seen,

95 cities was 51%, some cities had occupancy rates as high as 79%

for example, in the case of Graz and Ljubljana, which recorded similar

(Barcelona), Rome (77%) and Helsinki (76%). Monaco, Bilbao, Belgrade

numbers of overnight stays in 2014. In the period up to 2018, Graz

and Lyon also had occupancy rates over 70%. These figures suggest

recorded a 10% growth in overnight stays, while Ljubljana more than

that Europe's main capitals were still the most visited.

doubled its number of tourist overnight stays (see Figure 2.11). Interna-

tional overnight stays accounted for a majority of registered overnight

Recently, new destinations have become more popular with tourists

stays in most cities, with the highest shares being in Ljubljana (95%),

and investors in the tourism sector. These include medium-sized cities

Maribor (88%) and Zagreb (84%). The lowest shares of overnight stays

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by international tourists in 2018 were recorded in Leipzig (16%) and in

were more susceptible to the phenomenon of overtourism. Graz (4.2),

Poznań and Turin (around a quarter in both cities). In cities with available

Maribor (4.1), Zagreb (3.2) and Poznan (2.7) had fewer than five over-

data, the number of bed nights increased over the period 2014-2018,

night stays per resident. The comparison of the number of overnight

with the highest increase being in Zagreb (+52%). The only exception

stays per 100 residents (Eurostat, 2020), also known as the Charvat In-

was Graz, with a 1% decrease in bed capacity. This data was not availa-

dex (Štefko et al., 2018; Capital City of Slovakia - Bratislava et al., 2018),

ble for Bratislava and Maribor in the ECM report (2019).

is another indicator of the extent and intensity of tourism in cities. Again,

Zurich had the highest value (5.7), followed by Turin (3.4), Padua (3.2),

Figure 2.11

Zagreb (3.2), Leipzig (3.1) and Graz (2.8). Poznan and Ljubljana had the

Increases in arrivals in

lowest Defert index (1.7 and 2.2 respectively). Museum visits were by

selected cities during

far the highest in Ljubljana (6.3 per capita), followed by Turin (3.9) and

the period between

2014 to 2018 (Source:

Zurich (2.8), and lowest in Poznan (0.6) and Zagreb (0.9).

ECM, 2019)

The attractiveness of the cities has been verified by the number of

international conferences and luxury hotels that each hosts. The data

collected showed that Zurich had by far the most five-star hotels (15),

followed by Leipzig (7), Bratislava (6), Zagreb (5), Turin (4), Poznan (3)

and Ljubljana (1). Graz, Maribor and Padua did not have five-star hotels.

Ljubljana (59), Zurich (49) and Zagreb (41) hosted the most internation-

al conferences in 2019, followed by Turin (26), Bratislava (25), Poznan

(23), Graz (18), Leipzig (15), Padua (8) and Maribor (6). All but two cities

(Graz and Maribor) also offered a tourist card. Padua was the only city

without a passenger airport, while Maribor airport had no regular pas-

The occupancy rates of existing bed capacities monitored by official

senger routes. The number of air passengers per resident was by far

statistics, and calculated as the total number of overnight stays divid-

the highest in Zurich.

ed by a 365-bed capacity, was between 40 and 50% in most cities. In

all the cities, there had been a significant increase in short-term tourist

accommodation based on the sharing economy (e.g. Airbnb) in recent

2.6 Types of urban tourism and types of visitors

years; this is often not recorded in official tourism statistics (Kadi, Plank

and Seidl, 2019; Postma and Schmuecker, 2017). In all of the selected

Urban tourism and the types of tourism that develop within cities de-

cities, the number of active rentals on Airbnb and Vrbo increased signif-

pend on three aspects: urban, which refers to the urban way of life and

icantly, and more than doubled in Poznań and Bratislava. In total, there

the enjoyment of the urban atmosphere; industrial, which refers to the

were more than 23,000 active rentals and approximately 89,000 beds.

past development of cities; and cultural, which refers to the individual

According to the ECM report (2019), the total bed capacity of the eight

locality’s rich history, the creativity of the local people, and the attrac-

cities with data from 2018 was almost 130,000; in the same year, there

tions available to visitors. Cultural attractions have long been a tradi-

were approximately 85,000 beds listed on Airbnb and Vrbo in these cit-

tional motiv for visiting cities, but at the beginning of the 21st century,

ies. According to AirDNA, there were more than 2,000 active providers

the motives for visiting cities began to change (Richards, 2022). Several

in Ljubljana at the beginning of 2020; these hosts could accommodate

authors (Boivin and Tanguay, 2019; Fueller and Michel, 2014; Elridge,

an average of 3.9 guests, exceeding the city's total accommodation

2019) suggest that people now come to cities to experience city life,

capacity as reported in the 2018 ECM report. This data points to there

appreciate architecture, and to enjoy open spaces and new products.

presently being a lack of measures by which to comprehensively cap-

Based on the main interest of tourists, the following main types of ur-

ture the scale of urban tourism.

ban tourism have been identified:

— Cultural tourism: travelling outside one's own domestic setting for

By comparing the number of overnight stays with the number of res-

cultural offer[s] or cultural life in order to visit or participate in cultural

idents (Eurostat, 2021; Statistics Poland, 2021; Statistik Austria, 2021),

activities, for example: visiting a museum, a concert, a historical site

we estimated the scope and intensity of tourism in cities. This also en-

or a landmark, but also including active participation in a folklore

abled us to potentially identify the negative effects of tourism in the

event or a gastronomy class, (Tourism and Culture Synergies, 2018).

selected areas. Zurich had the highest number of tourist nights per

There are several definitions depending on the focus and width

resident (12.8), followed by Padua (7.9), Ljubljana (7.5), Bratislava (6.2),

covered by this type of tourism, (Tourism and Culture Synergies,

Leipzig and Turin (both 5.8). On the basis of this index, which is called

2018). “In a broad sense, it is a tourism product that emphasises

the Charvat index (Marković et al., 2017), we estimated that these cities

uniqueness, sustainability, and the importance of marketing in order

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to satisfy the need for intellectual experiences. In a narrower sense,

cultural tourists, more specifically music, gastronomy and architectural

it is a trip with a cultural motive, or undertaken with a desire to learn

visitors; business or congress tourists, educational tourists; VFR tour-

about new cultures, attend cultural events and visit cultural attrac-

ists or visiting friends and relatives; and sports and shopping tourists.

tions" (Bujdosó et al., 2015, p. 312). "Here, the attraction is the basis

As cultural tourists are among the most typical tourists in the city, they

for a unique experience at the destination. Cultural tourism is also

should be defined more precisely. In general terms, cultural tourists can

called heritage or ethnic tourism, as it markets attractions with cul-

be divided into specialised and general cultural tourists. For the gener-

tural content, places and buildings with religious content, folklore

al cultural tourist, visiting different geographical areas is a hobby. With

traditions, and a way of life with the customs and traditions of a soci-

time and knowledge, however, the general cultural tourist can become

ety. The cultural tourist also learns about the history of the place and

specialised, and may focus on a smaller geographical area or a specific

the way of life of the people at the destination" (Azmi and Ismail,

cultural subject. A specialised cultural tourist is therefore often consid-

2016, p. 530). "The main motive for visiting a destination is to learn,

ered to go to a particular place, region, or country in search of a deeper

discover, experience and experience the tangible and intangible

cultural understanding. Or they may go to different places in search of

cultural attractions and tangible and intangible products at the tour-

a specific art, historical period, festival, or museum" (Defining Cultural

ism destination" (Tourism for Development - Volume I: Key Areas for

Tourism, 2016, p. 72). Rodzi, Zaki and Subli (2013) understand the tour-

Action, 2018, p. 80). When we talk about arts tourism, we refer to the

ist as one of the four elements of cultural tourism (alongside tourism,

arts in general, their products, and to various artistic activities (ballet,

cultural heritage and new experiences or use of a tourism product),

concert, festival, opera, museum workshops). Heritage tourism in-

and divide cultural tourists into five groups:

cludes: visits to preserved buildings and urban landscapes, as well

1. The dedicated cultural tourist - for whom cultural tourism is the pri-

as historical events and learning about historical persons.

mary motive for visiting a destination; it is a deeper form of cultural

— Religious tourism: tourists who explore their religion and visit reli-

experience.

gious tourist attractions and attend religious events such as pilgrim-

2. Active cultural tourist - although cultural tourism is also the primary

ages.

motive of the visit (e.g. sightseeing), it is a superficial cultural experi-

— Gastronomy tourism: tourist offers include traditional or other lo-

ence.

cally distinctive dishes. Tourists usually visit typical restaurants, taste

3. Unintentional cultural tourist - for whom culture is not the primary

local products, and see how they are produced. In this way, tourists

motive for visiting a destination, but who has an unintentional and

are educated about the culture of the city. The advantages of this

unexpected encounter with a deeper cultural experience at the des-

type of tourism are that it is unlimited in time and that it establishes

tination.

a cultural link between the city and the countryside; thereby contrib-

4. The casual cultural tourist - for him/her, culture is a weak motive for

uting to better spatial integration of tourism activities.

visiting a destination; if anything, he/she has a superficial cultural

— Youth tourism: concerns the 16 to 29 years old age group. Young

experience.

people, eager for adventure and new independent experiences

5. The accidental cultural tourist - for him/her culture is not a motive

and socialisation, travel to have new experiences and discover the

for visiting a destination; if at all, he/she receives a superficial cultural

world. They attend a wide range of events for young people and

experience.

typically stay in the most affordable types of accommodation such

as hostels, campsites, and apartments. These trips are usually short-

The Slovenian Tourist Board (STO, 2022) has identified 12 target groups

er and range from 1 to 3 days.

of foreign tourists in Slovenia; they are defined below as so-called ‘tour-

— Congress tourism: short trips made with an educational or business

ist personas’. They are divided into four main groups with the explorer

purpose, i.e. networking in different professional fields, often ac-

group definitely not being urban tourists, as he/she is mainly interested

companied by sightseeing. The scale of congress tourism can vary

in nature and sports activities, nor is the muse group, which is most inter-

greatly; from small events attracting a few hundred visitors to larger

ested in relaxation. Of the socialisers, who are one of the main persona

events attracting thousands.

groups and whose main motive is to socialise, the carefree youth and

— Shopping tourism: combines tourism as a leisure activity with the

the active nostalgic are to be found in cities. The carefree young people

desire for shopping. This type of tourism has led to the develop-

fit in with youth tourism, as they are interested in having fun and visiting

ment of alternative tourist destinations, which tourists visit primarily

tourist attractions; their visits are mainly seasonal and short-term. Active

to shop. This means that the economic impact of this type of tourism

nostalgics are those who are interested in music, film, and the objects

is high since tourists come to a destination to spend large amounts

of their youth, and usually come for a day. The most urban group is the

of money.

so-called 'mixed persona'; they combine aspects of the urban conscious,

the sociable 'foodie', the relaxed escapist, and the urban consumer:

The types of tourists in cities are defined according to their motives

1. Urban conscious tourist: persona learns about new and different

for travelling and visiting tourist destinations. As a result we can talk

environments and gains new experiences, especially in a city. They

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are thrifty and have a desire to experience local and everyday life as

optimistic with around 60% of decline, by the end of the year the most

much as possible. They are usually younger people travelling with

pessimistic scenario had come true. Europe has lost 71% of arrivals,

friends.

with the greatest losses being experienced by the Scandinavian coun-

2. Sociable 'foodie': the persona is organised, with a tendency to con-

tries, which - especially Norway - imposed very strict entry restrictions

sume. Interested in cultural experiences in the form of culinary ex-

in 2020. At the level of European Union Member States, the overall

periences. In addition to cuisine, she/he is also interested in history.

decline in tourist arrivals in 2020 was between 50 and 85%, with the

3. Relaxed escapist: the persona seeks carefree, calm, and special ex-

largest decline being in Cyprus (84%), while Austria saw the smallest

periences. They are looking for local culinary specialities and quality

decline in tourist nights in the same year, at 41%. However, the data for

hotel facilities.

2021 shows a decline in tourist arrivals in both periods, of around 96%

4. Urban consumer: the persona is interested in the main European

in the first half of 2021 and a slightly smaller percentage (of around

cities and is therefore likely to have a unique visit. She wants to expe-

70%) in the second half of 2021 (Figure 2.12) (Knežević et al., 2021).

rience the local culture and the main sights, usually travels by plane,

and spends a lot of money in order to see as much as possible in as

Figure 2.12

little time as possible.

Change in tourist

arrivals in the 2021

As the personas described in the previous paragraph indicate, the

pandemic year (Source:

Knežević et al., 2021)

most common motives for visiting a city are mainly social and sociable,

i.e. visiting relatives and friends, education, recreation, religion, culture,

entertainment, business, and leisure. When we talk about tourists’ visits

to a city, we are really talking about their experiences. The tourist experi-

ence is a concept that describes the experience of an individual, which

is influenced by: the environment, different situations, personal factors,

and the level of communication achieved. Experiences vary from one to

another, as tourism also has a variety of effects on individuals. Ashworth

and Tunbridge (1990) attempted to define the 'users' of a city in terms

of what infrastructure they need and what they visit in cities. These are:

— dedicated visitors from outside of the city (holidaymakers and herit-

age tourists);

— a dedicated visitor from the same city (use of recreational and enter-

tainment infrastructure);

— Incidental visitor from outside the city (business, congress, exhibi-

tion and visitors visiting relatives);

— the occasional visitor from the same city - city dwellers who are go-

Changes were also evident in European urban destinations which were

ing about their daily business and therefore have no need for recre-

more affected by the Covid-19 pandemic than rural tourist areas. Hotel

ational or tourist infrastructure.

occupancy rates decreased significantly, especially in Paris and Rome,

which saw occupancy rates of only 9%; Berlin and Madrid had occu-

These categories of visitors are particularly relevant for examining the

pancy rates of 11% and 16% whereas occupancy rates in cities in other

spatial aspects of urban tourism and tourist flows, as described in more

tourist regions (Asia, America, etc.) increased in the first half of 2021

detail in Chapter 6.

(Singapore 63%, Auckland 59%, Los Angeles 47%, etc.) (Knezevic et al.,

2021). The most significant changes were observed in 2020, when cities

saw an average decline of 60%. Rome (-82%) and Barcelona (-80%) ex-

2.7 Urban tourism and Covid-19

perienced the largest decreases in overnight stays compared to 2019,

while Hamburg (-55%) and Stockholm (-55%) experienced the smallest

2.7.1 Tourism statistics for the pandemic period

decreases (Figure 2.13; ECM, 2021). The effects of the Covid-19 pan-

Thus far in this chapter we have mostly talked about growth in rela-

demic on European cities, as well as on the rest of the world, were quite

tion to urban tourism. However, this is no longer the case following the

similar and are described in more detail in the next sub-section.

outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic in 2020. The Covid-19 pandemic

has had a major impact on the tourism sector, especially on urban tour-

ism, as cities are primarily dependent on foreign visitors. If the World

Tourism Organisation's forecasts at the beginning of 2020 were still

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Figure 2.13

In Ljubljana, the share of overnight stays generated by foreign tourists

The 15 most visited

in 2019 was 95%, while in 2020 the city lost 78% of overnight stays. The

European cities in a

origin markets have significantly changed, with European cities losing

pandemic year 2020

out especially in the Asian market, which was the biggest growth mar-

and the loss of visitors

in year 2020 compared

ket just before the pandemic. Figure 2.14 shows the change in arrivals

to the year 2019

and overnight stays in Ljubljana, while Figure 2.15 shows the change in

(Source: ECM, 2021)

arrivals and overnight stays in Maribor.

2.7.2 Effects of the pandemic in general

In general, today almost every tourist and professional in the tourism

industry recognises some of the general effects of the pandemic on

people's daily lives and on tourist destinations. In the short time that the

global health crisis has lasted, many authors have looked at the impact

of the pandemic on urban tourism in particular, and have used a variety

of approaches to examine the effects of the pandemic from social, eco-

nomic and/or spatial points of view. Anguera-Torrell, Vives-Perez and

Figure 2.14

Aznar-Alarcon (2021) first defined the effects of the pandemic on urban

The loss of arrivals

tourism in general terms and then used the Urban Tourism Performance

and overnight stays,

Index (UTPI) to assess the performance of urban tourism in 16 selected

comparison between

major urban destinations, such as Bangkok, Paris, London, Dubai, and

years 2019 and 2020

in Ljubljana (Source:

other similar cities. Among the measures and impacts highlighted were

SURS, 2020a, b)

the restrictions on international travel which affected urban destinations

the most as they depend on international tourist arrivals. In line with the

restrictive measures, tourists chose to travel to close-by destinations,

mainly natural or rural areas, where they could avoid the crowding of

urban tourism; a consideration which further contributed to the decline

in tourist arrivals during the pandemic. Another reason for the decline

in visits was the 'dictate' of keeping to social distances and changes in

travel habits. Liang, Leng, Yuan and Yuan (2021) identified similar ef-

fects of the pandemic, and on the topic of increased visits to rural areas,

they found that with restrictive measures, booking and rental prices fell,

and at the same time people were more likely to rent in a rural area. The

shift of tourism flows to rural areas was also confirmed by Åberg and

Tondelli (2021), Anguera-Torrell, Vives-Perez and Aznar-Alarcon (2021).

Figure 2.15

Other effects mentioned included a global decline in air travel, cruise

Loss of arrivals and

ships, car and other transport rentals, and a decline in the use of hotel

overnight stays,

accommodation, restaurants, and other similar services.

comparison between

2019 and 2020 in

Maribor (Source: SURS,

Šauer, Vystoupil, Novotná and Widawski (2021) examined tourist flows

2020a, b)

in Central European countries before the pandemic (see Figure 2.16)

to show the demands of the tourist market and the different types of

tourists. At the same time, at a spatial level, the maps were intended

to act as a tool for strategic planning and sustainable development of

the tourism sector, as well as for balancing social and environmental

impacts. They found that tourists travelled shorter distances, travelled

individually, and that cities that were not visited as often by tourists be-

fore the pandemic became more attractive.

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Figure 2.16

Figure 2.18

Tourist flows in Central

Changes in the tourist

Europe during the

experience in cities

pandemic (Source:

(Source: Klepej et al.,

Šauer et al., 2021;

2021, p. 38)

published with

permission of the

authors)

2.7.3 Tourism sector response to the pandemic

Measures to address the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic have been

taken at both EU and Member State level, and have generally been

linked to the re-launch of tourism sectors and the creation of safe inter-

national travel. One of the measures, which applied to all countries and

was aimed in particular at restoring tourists' confidence to travel, was

The decline in travel was also reflected in a change of visitors’ struc-

linked to the European Digital Certificate. It came into effect on 1 July

ture. In urban destinations, domestic tourists started to dominate over

2021 and was valid if a person had been vaccinated with approved vac-

foreign tourists; a reversal of the situation that had existed prior to the

cines and had received a certain number of doses, had overcome the

pandemic. Related to this, Santos and Moreira (2021) in their research

infection, or had a negative test result. This measure was instrumental

in Portugal found that it was the increase in domestic tourist arrivals

in reducing the number of infections and attracting tourists and visitors,

that mitigated the negative effects of the pandemic, and that domestic

including for international travel, and contributed to a slow recovery of

tourism should be particularly targeted by the state when taking meas-

the tourism sector. Countries have taken rapid and accelerated meas-

ures to revitalise the tourism sector of urban destinations.

ures to address the negative effects of the pandemic, and especially

with regards to those that impacted urban destinations. Pre-pandemic

The changed habits of tourists in Ljubljana were confirmed through a

trends had already indicated the need to change the ways in which

survey carried out in August 2020 as part of the SPOT research project.

the tourism sector operates, but now sustainable and green tourism

We interviewed 100 tourists: half of them said that the pandemic had

development and investments in digitalisation and energy-efficient in-

had a strong or very strong effect on the ways in which they travelled

frastructure have come even more to the foreground (Knežević et al.,

(Figure 2.17). This was most evident in the increased attention to hy-

2021).

giene habits and the provision of health protection, as well as in the

choices of destinations; they were increasingly within a radius of 500

At a city level, research on the measures is limited. For example, we

km from individuals’ places of residence. There has also been a change

found an article on adaptation in the Polish city of Krakow. The city

in views on reservations and travel planning, with a preference for indi-

reacted quickly to the pandemic. The first steps relied on the use of

vidual travel by private car (see Figure 2.18).

online networks, notably Facebook, which was used by tourism provid-

ers to refocus attention on supporting residents' activities, especially

Figure 2.17

in the arena of gastronomy (food for takeaway). Residents were also

Changes in way of

encouraged to order local products online. The digital shift formed the

travelling due to

basis for the development of locally supported programmes. Financial

Covid-19, N = 100

support was provided to the tourism sector through a newly estab-

(Source: Klepej et al.,

2021, p. 38).

lished Pause programme, which introduced other measures such as tax

reductions and room rentals, and the creation of online platforms to

help promote tourism providers. Special attention was also paid to the

involvement of the population in the tourism industry. By organising

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free city tours, better-promoted tourist offers (Krakow Undiscovered),

activities and communication with customers, and the target markets of

and lower prices for local products, more attention was paid to attract-

tourism promotion also changed. Neighbouring countries such as Austria,

ing domestic visitors. All measures were the result of good cooperation

Germany, Italy, and Hungary returned to the fore.

between different levels and following changing trends (Kowalczyk -

Anioł, Grochowicz and Pawlusinski, 2021).

Stakeholders

Consequences

Adjustments

Impact

Table 2.3

Travel agencies,

Less traffic, fewer consumers Change in sales offer

Maximum

The impact of the

With regard to adaptations in Slovenia, in May and June 2020, the per-

service

pandemic on different

spective of representatives of the tourism sector - providers and man-

intermediaries

stakeholders in urban

tourism and measures

agers - on preparedness and response to the pandemic was obtained,

Event organisers

Event cancellations

Postponement of events into

they have introduced to

as well as their views on the impacts and the far-reaching consequenc-

the year 2021

adapt to the pandemic

Vouchers worth the value of

es it will have on tourism. In June 2020, stakeholders estimated that

tickets purchased

situation (Source: Marot

Business models with online

et al., 2020)

everyone in the tourism sector would be affected to some extent, but

offer

especially travel agencies, tourist attractions, and event organisers (see

Congress tourism

Event cancellations

Organisation of online events

Table 2.3). The hospitality industry was considered to be the sector that

Tourist attractions

Closed, no visitors

New offers, new tickets,

Bigger

would most easily overcome the crisis, as it was able to operate to some

discounts

extent throughout the quarantine period (food delivery), and because

Cultural institutions Closed, no visitors

Creating a new offer (web)

their services are used by domestic guests. It was felt that hoteliers

Airline providers

Prohibition of flights

Modified protocols

and accommodation providers would take longer to recover than the

Termination of certain

connections

food service industry; tourism vouchers were expected to help them

to recover. There would also be a difference in the impact on hotel-

Hotels

Closed

Longer closure period

Bigger/

Transfer issues to the

Compliance with hygiene

Medium

iers in terms of ownership and investment capacity - accommodation

destination, cleaning,

standards

providers who have incurred debt for investment due to the sector's

airing and food service

Use of tourist vouchers

and drinks

steep growth and have not yet recovered this debt before the crisis

*Difference according to

were certainly likely to be more affected. In their case, there may also

size

be reallocations of property or sales. With regards to the differential

Overnight stays

Mistrust in cleaning

Compliance with hygiene

Medium

through the

protocols

standards

impacts of the crisis on the private and the public sectors, according to

sharing economy

Illiquidity does not allow

Transition from tourism to

stakeholders, both were expected to feel the effects of the pandemic.

repayment of credits

housing market

While the public sector was expected to suffer less as a result of the

Restaurant

Closed

Delivery

Smaller

Reduced capacity due to

New systems (Wolt, eHrana)

public funding system, it also included cultural institutions and tourist

distance required

Different table layout

attractions, which were closed to visitors during the quarantine period

Remain closed

and were not specifically addressed by the Slovenian Government in

Souvenir providers

Closed

Remains closed

its 2020 measures.

The situation after the end of the main season of the first pandemic year

Figure 2.19

was further highlighted by the responses of 40 tourism providers who took

Rating the impacts of

part in the survey in October 2020. All 27 providers who answered the

Covid-19 on business

questionnaire in full were affected by the pandemic. Figure 2.19 shows

(N = 27) (Source: Klepej

et al., 2020, p. 80)

their assessment of what had had the greatest impact on their activities.

All agreed that it was the decrease in the number of foreign tourists due

to the closure of Slovenian borders to non-urgent travel. This was followed

by the cancellation of events, cancellations of bookings, reduced numbers

of bookings, and forced closures. The least problematic effect was a de-

crease in the number of domestic tourists.

In Ljubljana (Klepej et al., 2021), the crisis caused by the coronavirus pan-

demic required most stakeholders to adjust their activities and develop

new products (Table 2.3). While certain adjustments were required by the

state in the context of anti-coronavirus regulations (closure of catering and

tourist facilities, working from home, hygiene regulations and so on), stake-

holders themselves also implemented certain measures to ensure regular

50

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2 Urban tourism in the 21st century

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Section A

Nina Stubičar

During the pandemic, companies implemented various measures to

and descriptions of the tourist personas. The chapter concluded by

address the negative effects. Among these, the most important were

highlighting the impact of the pandemic on urban destinations. It is

connections with consumers and business partners, strengthening

the urban destinations that have been most affected by the pandemic.

existing digital services and/or developing new ones, new products,

By comparing Ljubljana and Maribor with selected Central European

and promotion in new markets. One third of companies continued with

cities, it was concluded that they can be placed side by side, and even

their regular promotional activities. One of the participating providers

among the main Central European destinations not only in terms of

mentioned more events in public spaces, and other providers extend-

development but also in terms of their economic and social impor-

ed their activities to neighbourhoods outside the city centre where they

tance. We found that Ljubljana's well-planned promotional strategy in

had not been present.

the years preceding the pandemic had put it ahead of Slovenia's near-

est neighbours and, thanks to its role as a capital city, established it as

Companies also changed their employment policies. Seven compa-

one of the main destinations in this part of Central Europe. The City of

nies put their workers on hold with full compensation, 9 with partial

Ljubljana has transformed itself from a classic urban destination into a

compensation, 8 companies reassigned workers to new assignments,

destination that is attractive for its lifestyle, urban transformation, and

and the same number of companies made workers redundant. Other

authentic products.

measures affecting employees include zero-hours contracts or the sus-

pension of recruitment of new workers; planned before the pandemic.

The text also highlights the main theoretical challenges in the field of

Only four companies did not change their employment policies. The

tourism. They relate in particular to defining and describing the rela-

vast majority of companies received assistance from the state, either in

tionship between local people and tourists. On the one hand, tourists

the form of financial aid for workers on hold, additional loans, or advice.

intervene in the everyday life of the inhabitants, occupy public spaces,

In this way the pandemic reopened the role of the state in tourism,

and use services; on the other hand they bring international influence

otherwise a primary economic activity (see Chapter 8 for more).

and vibrancy to the city. The ways in which the relationship between

residents and tourists is established in a city and the dynamics of this

In addressing pandemic measures, research of the last two years has

relationship have been the subject of much recent research. Currently,

followed a similar pattern. In addition to more thorough and contin-

the conclusion is that the boundary between tourists and residents is

uous collection of data, which has provided insights into the state of

more and more vague, and that urban tourism no longer relies on cul-

the tourism sector and helped to inform the decisions of the various

tural tourism. Modern urban tourism is increasingly becoming new ur-

authorities, digitisation and the use of various online platforms have

ban tourism, and new forms of cultural tourism are also emerging, with

come to the fore, and have made it possible to promote the (given)

an emphasis on experience and local-specific. The tourist thus comes

tourist destination and to establish communication with tourists and

to the city not to see the main tourist attractions, but mainly to con-

residents. Accordingly, cities have focused in particular on domestic

sume city life, to 'hide' among the urban residents and to experience

tourists, who, due to restrictions, have been forced to travel to nearby

the city as a local resident. This has been made possible by changed

places. The restrictions and measures have had a significant impact on

ways of working and also by the pandemic, which has greatly increased

the arrival of foreign tourists. There has also been greater involvement

remote working and thus enabled greater labour mobility. This trend is

of residents, who, through various campaigns or new tourism products

also supported by cities themselves, which are aware of this potential;

(which have also often become more affordable), have got to know

they are orienting the promotion and content of their strategic docu-

their city, have been concerned about the functioning of services, and

ments accordingly. The role of urban tourism in tourism industry has

have become increasingly aware of the value and contribution of de-

been growing for a long time, although the circumstances of its devel-

veloped tourism. The tourism sector has taken various steps to restore

opment change regularly (low-budget travel, sharing economy and so

itself to its pre-pandemic position, but this time with a stronger focus

on). The (slow) recovery of tourism after the pandemic also suggests

on sustainability.

that tourism will continue to play important roles in urban development

and living in the future.

2.8 Conclusion

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Chapter 3


Urban destination Ljubljana


Nina Stubičar

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Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

by Padua (7.9 nights and 409,000 inhabitants), Ljubljana with 7.5 tourist

nights per inhabitant, Bratislava (62 nights and 430 thousand inhabit-

ants), and Leipzig and Turin with 5.8 nights. Despite the high share of

3.1 Introduction

overnight stays per inhabitant, the results of the survey showed, among

other things, a shortage of bed capacity and a correspondingly higher

Cities are living, ever-changing organisms that need a multitude of

demand for alternative categories of accommodation; confirmed by

resources to function and survive, especially in an era of accelerated

AirDNA data (AirDNA, 2020) relating to sharing economy accommo-

technological development and digitalisation. The most important of

dation (Figure 3.1).

all these resources is human beings who, through their actions, also

impact urban space. One of the most important impulses for the devel-

Figure 3.1

opment of cities is urban tourism. As a fast-growing economic sector,

Shares of total

which recorded a total growth of 5% in 2018, or a total of 1.4 billion in-

overnight stays in

ternational tourist arrivals (UNWTO, 2019), it intervenes with urban form

selected cities between

years 2018 and 2019

and the physical appearance of cities, while also steering the overall

(Source: ECM, 2020)

development of cities at the strategic and management levels. Urban

tourism is thus defined as a global multidimensional phenomenon that

attracts different types of visitors to tourist destinations (Bellini and Pas-

quinelli, 2017). A global view shows that Europe produces the largest

share of international tourist arrivals (51% in 2018) (UNWTO, 2019),

with London (85.1 million), Paris (52.5 million), Berlin (34.1 million),

Rome (29.7 million), Madrid (20.7 million) and Vienna (18.6 million)

accounting for the largest number of overnight stays in 2019 (Statista,

2022). In addition to these well-known destinations, urban destinations

with smaller spatial and touristic scales, such as Bologna, Zagreb, Lju-

bljana, have gained places on the global tourism map over the last few

years (Klepej and Marot, 2021). Their growing popularity is attributed

to changed perceptions of holidays and travel and the growing interest

shown by investors in the development of the tourism industry.

By reviewing the European context of tourism development in similar

In this chapter, we place Ljubljana alongside similar Central European

cities, we have introduced a more detailed analysis of the situation and

destinations. The statistics show rising numbers of international arrivals;

development of urban tourism in Ljubljana. The Ljubljana City Profile

in some cities, rates have increased by more than 50% in the period

(Marot et al., 2021) was prepared in order to provide an insight into

2013–2018. Among these, Ljubljana (+112%) and Maribor (+97%)

the basic characteristics of urban tourism in Ljubljana, and provides the

recorded the highest increases, followed by Bratislava (69%), Zagreb

basis for the more detailed analysis presented in Section B of this mon-

(68%) and Turin (52%) (Klepej and Marot, 2022). Destinations are also

ograph. We have carried out a very detailed review of the main tourism

strengthening their recognition by obtaining various global and Euro-

statistics for the period 1960-2021, including data on the number of

pean titles, such as European Green Capital, European Capital of Cul-

tourists, overnight stays, the ratio of domestic to foreign tourists, and

the length of stay of tourists. We present the types of tourism present

ture, UNESCO City and UNESCO World Heritage Site; such accolades

in Ljubljana, and the types of tourists arriving in Ljubljana, and sum-

place them on the global map and further contribute to their promo-

marise the results of surveys carried out by the Statistical Office of the

tion at a transnational level (Koufodontis and Gaki, 2022; West, 2022).

Republic of Slovenia and the MESTUR project (Marot et al, 2022) and

SPOT (Klepej et al., 2021). In order to obtain a comprehensive view of

As can be seen from the report by Klepej and Marot (2021), the se-

Ljubljana as a tourist destination, we also examined the impact of tour-

lected cities share not only spatial and demographic dimensions, but

ism development on employment in the tourism sector. In this chapter,

also tourism scopes. For example, the number of inhabitants ranges

we are interested in the characteristics of urban tourism and tourists in

from 110,000 to 880,000 and if we put Ljubljana in this context, it ranks

Ljubljana, how these are reflected in the development of existing and

sixth with almost 290,000 inhabitants; only Graz, Padua and Maribor

new supply, and the city's inhabitants. This chapter, which is essentially

have fewer inhabitants. In terms of tourist nights per inhabitant, Ljublja-

descriptive, thus presents Ljubljana as an urban destination in a com-

na is followed by cities with at least double the amount of inhabitants

prehensive way.

(400,000 or more). Zurich, for example, has the highest number of tour-

ist nights per inhabitant (12.8 nights and 409,000 inhabitants), followed

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Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

3.2 Brief historical development of the city with a focus

the tourist destination, the establishment and management of a net-

on tourism

work of tourism stakeholders, the establishment of tourist information

points, and cooperation with the Congress Bureau. Until the pandemic

In order to understand the development of urban tourism and the rea-

period, Ljubljana, on the basis of the activities of the above-mentioned

sons for the city's recognition at a global level, we need to know some

institution, successfully developed and marketed, in particular, tourist

of the basic features that have influenced the city's breakthrough onto

attractions in the city centre, which, as we can read in Chapter 6, led to

the global tourism map. Particularly in the case of European cities, we

an excessive concentration of tourists in the city centre. In recent years,

can talk about the different political and social eras that have created

therefore, the focus has been on the development of tourist products,

the most tourist-oriented corners of the world. Ljubljana, as the political

such as alternative tours, which would take tourists to other neighbour-

and administrative centre of the Central Slovenia region - with its strate-

hoods in the city centre as well as the wider region (Stubičar and Marot,

gic location in the Ljubljana basin - is situated at the crossroads of main

2019).

transport routes and at the junction of the Ljubljanica and Sava rivers.

On the one hand, it is a starting point for tours of the Alps, discovery of

Figure 3.2

wine traditions, and strolls along the coast; on the other, it is a centre

The sights of Ljubljana

of cultural and economic activity and a reference for the development

(Author: David Klepej)

of urban tourism for other Slovenian cities. This is also influenced, to a

certain extent, by its predominantly continental climate, which, with its

changes of season, enable a diversity of tourist products.

Ljubljana's diverse history, which has evolved under the influence of dif-

ferent empires, countries, and authorities since 2000 BC, together with

its cultural diversity, has been a lever for the development of the desti-

nation. The city's history is reflected in the remains of the bridge-build-

er’s dwellings, the Roman Empire, in the image of the beginnings of

medieval urbanism, and in the influence of various artistic periods, with

the Baroque, Renaissance, and Art Nouveau periods being the most

prominent. The biggest leap in development took place in the 19th cen-

tury, when the tramway was established alongside existent water and

electricity infrastructure, and with the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian

monarchy in the 20th century when the city became the administrative

and political centre of the country, attracting more and more visitors with

its appearance and the development of its economy. Along with the

redefinition of leisure and the development of the automobile, tourist

infrastructure developed in the period 1950-1960 (Banaszkiewicz et al.,

2017; Yeomans, 2010). Hotels and other forms of accommodation, in

addition to their basic function, were social centres for inhabitants. The

construction of hotel infrastructure peaked in the period 1960-1985,

when the number of beds in the whole country increased by 150%,

while in the period 1964-2019 in Ljubljana, bed capacities increased

by only a good tenth (+12%) (Klepej and Marot, 2021). The twentieth

The population, which exceeds that of other cities in Slovenia (294,054

century was a period that witnesses the more visible development of

inhabitants in 2022) (SURS, 2022a), indicates Ljubljana's role as a na-

cultural tourism, with an emphasis on visits to cultural institutions and

tional capital and service centre. This also explains the high population

events (Klepej and Marot, 2021). With a majority of day visitors, busi-

density (1,068.3 inhabitants/km2), which exceeds the national pop-

ness tourism started to develop alongside cultural tourism (MOL, 2020;

ulation density (104 inhabitants/km2) (SURS, 2022a), and conditions

Figure 3.2).

urban planning decisions for the city. In this context, one of the key

physical characteristics of urban tourism is the transformation of the

The beginning of the 21st century marked the start of more intensive

urban fabric; the need to make it attractive to different types of visitors.

period of development for the tourism industry and led to the estab-

In Ljubljana, for example, the main urban trajectories that are still visible

lishment of the Ljubljana Tourism Public Institution in 2001. The activ-

and recognisable today were defined by design decisions in the 19th

ities of the institution were, and still are, focused on the promotion of

and 20th centuries, which were most often driven by the need for func-

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Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

tionality, and only then aesthetics. The pre-designed medieval streets

has also benefitted from the development of various products and oth-

and the open spaces of the Roman empire created intimate spaces

er, mainly private, accommodation (Airbnb), the upgrading of tourist

that meander through the narrow streets into the planned open spaces

infrastructure, and an increase in the country's transit capacity and the

of the city. Despite the established urban structure, the spaces have

number of airline flights. The number of tourists (Figure 3.3) before the

been involved in renovation and renewal projects, particularly in the

start of the pandemic in 2019 was 1,127.904 tourist arrivals; this marked

last decade, which have sought to improve accessibility and walkability.

the beginning of the phenomenon of overtourism in the destination.

In these projects, the main focus has been on pedestrians and cyclists

This figure dropped drastically with the outbreak of the Covid-19 pan-

as traffic management follows the principle of the reversed traffic pyr-

demic in 2020, reaching a similar level of tourism to that recorded in

amid (IPoP, 2016). This is reflected in the development of zero-traffic

the 1970-1975 period.

streets, areas closed to traffic, and the promotion of public transport

that prioritises more vulnerable user groups (MOL, 2012). In addition

Figure 3.3

to transport improvements in the city centre, there have also been new

Number of tourist

investments in tourism infrastructure, which are described in more de-

and overnight stays

tail in sub-chapter 3.5.1 and Table 3.2.

in Ljubljana between

1961 and 2021

(Source: Survey results

1961-2001, SURS,

3.3 Scope and characteristics of tourist arrivals

2022b, c, d and e)

3.3.1 Number of tourists and overnight stays

Note: Data between

Like any urban destination, Ljubljana has evolved through different

1961 and 2007

phases of tourism development; since the 1970s these have been as-

refers to the city of

Ljubljana, between

sociated with major political changes and crises, such as the most re-

1992 and 2021 refers

cent pandemic. Figure 3.3 shows the number of tourists and overnight

to City Municipality

stays (in thousands) between 1961 and 2021, and evidences a clear

of Ljubljana. Data

between 2010

increase and decrease in the number of tourists and overnight stays

and 2021 is also

in the years of major change. The period from the early 1960s to the

calculated by the

end of the 1980s is perceived as a stable period of gradual tourist de-

new methodology

velopment. The first peak of development was in the mid-1980s, when

SURS (M2018). See

methodological note

the number of tourists and overnight stays almost quadrupled (over-

SURS: https://www.

night stays from 200,000 to 750,000 and the number of tourists from

stat.si/StatWeb/File/

130,000 to 525,000). Tourist arrivals in that period were mainly linked to

DocSysFile/7779.

hotels and similar accommodation establishments. The largest share of

tourists were foreign tourists from other republics of the former Yugo-

In addition to the previously mentioned factors, the increase in tourist

slavia, and led to the development of business and transit tourism. The

arrivals can be attributed to the destination's increasing integration into

first tourism crisis, linked to the collapse of the former Yugoslavia and

the international environment. Over the last twenty years, Ljubljana has

the war in the Western Balkans, marked the period of the 1990s.

established itself as an international green destination; its small size

enables comfortable travel to the destination and its surrounding ar-

The rebound of the tourism sector at the turn of the millennium is evi-

eas. The development of airlines and the proximity of the airport have

dent. In parallel with the development of the Ljubljana Tourism Board,

attracted an increasing number of foreign tourists who have chosen

which was responsible for the development and marketing of prod-

Ljubljana as a final destination for a short city break or as a starting point

ucts, the destination's offers were developed, improved, and upgrad-

for visiting other Slovenian destinations or neighbouring countries. The

ed. The development of tourism in this period can be attributed to the

increase in tourist arrivals after 2000 was reflected in an increasing share

stabilisation of the conditions in the Western Balkans, Slovenia's acces-

of overnight stays by foreign tourists and a stagnation in the share of

sion to the European Union in 2004, and the adoption of the European

overnight stays by domestic tourists (5%). A comparison of the shares of

currency in 2007. In line with these political and national changes, the

foreign and domestic tourists (Figure 3.4) shows the largest fluctuations

development of the tourism sector was accompanied by an upgrading

between tourists from the former Yugoslavia and from other countries,

of tourist infrastructure. This, in turn, led to the development of the city

with the largest changes occurring after Slovenia's independence. The

as a transit destination, with consequences that are also of interest at

share of tourists from these groups of countries reversed during this

an international level. Since the beginning of the 21st century, Ljubljana

period. The share of tourists from the former Yugoslavia was higher in

has seen a constant increase in the number of tourists each year, and

the decade before Slovenia's independence, but fell significantly after

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3 Urban destination Ljubljana

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

Figure 3.4

independence, while the share of tourists from foreign countries (not

Share of overnight

including the former Yugoslavia) increased drastically. This change was

stays of domestic

a consequence of the country’s independence and the performance of

and foreign tourists

in Ljubljana between

the Ljubljana Tourism Board.

1960 and 2021

(Source: Survey results

The increasing share of overnight stays by tourists from 20 countries

1971-2001, SURS,

(Figure 3.5) reveals in more detail that, at the beginning of the 21st cen-

2022a, c and d)

tury, nearby European countries distinguished themselves with a share

Note: The data series

of up to 10%; only Italian and domestic tourists contributing more than

between 1960 and

10%. If the share of domestic tourists was at its highest in 2001, the

2009 refer to the city

of Ljubljana, while

trend in 2019 was rather different. Domestic tourists were in seventh

between 1992 and

place, confirming the change in the approach to destination marketing

2021 it refers to the

and also indicating a shift in the motives and destinations of domestic

City Municipality of

tourists. In 2019, Italy (10%), Germany (9%) and the USA (6%) occupied

Ljubljana. Between

2010 and 2021 the

the top three positions with shares ranging from 6% to 10%.

data is calculated

according to the new

Figure 3.6

SURS methodology

(M2018). Tourists from

Slovenia

Share of overnight stays

other republics of the

in Ljubljana 2008 to

former Yugoslavia are

2021 by area of arrival

From Slovenia – city

From other countries – municipality (M2018)

Foreign countries

shown in the category

From Slovenia – municipality

From other rep. of the former Yug. – city

of tourists (Source:

''From other countries''

From other countries – city

From other countries (without other rep. of the former Yug.

SURS, 2022b and c).

Neighbouring

throughout the period,

countries

and also separately

Note: Data refers to

(broken line) in the

Other countries of

the City Municipality

period 1960-2009.

former Yugoslavia

of Ljubljana. Category

"Foreign" also includes

Europe

tourists from other

republics of the former

Figure 3.5

Outside Europe

Yugoslavia.

Share of overnight

stays of tourists from

Asia

the 20 countries with

the highest share of

North America

overnight stays in

Ljubljana in 2001 and

2019 (Source: SURS,

2019a, b, c)

In the years immediately before the pandemic, visits from non-European

Note: Data for 2001

countries increased significantly. In 2019, tourists from other continents

are collected based on

accounted for as much as 26% of all tourists and 25% of all overnight

the old methodology,

while for 2019 they

stays. In particular, the number of tourists from Asia increased significant-

are based on the new

ly. In 2019, Ljubljana recorded around 40,000 tourists from China, 16,000

SURS methodology

from Korea, 74,000 from other Asian countries, 61,000 from the USA and

(M2018). See SURS

more than 10,000 from Australia, Israel, Japan, Brazil and Canada.

methodological

note: https://www.

stat.si/StatWeb/File/

Just over 85% of overnight stays in the last ten years were accounted for

DocSysFile/7779.

by tourists from foreign countries, including the countries of the former

Yugoslavia. Interestingly, the shares of overnight stays in 2008 and 2019

are quite similar, i.e. higher than, for example, the shares in 2020 and

2021; this is most likely the result of the Covid-19 pandemic. The same

applies to European tourists, while the shares of overnight stays by do-

mestic tourists and tourists from neighbouring countries were highest in

2020 (Figure 3.6).

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Section A

3.3.2 Seasonal distribution of tourist arrivals

Slovenian tourists stayed almost 1.9 nights in Ljubljana. In the last five

The seasonality of tourist arrivals in the period 2010-2019 changed in

years in particular, Ljubljana Tourism has strived to increase the length

line with the development and upgrading of tourist offers. The num-

of stays of foreign tourists, which - according to the data - has not been

ber of tourists has increased every year, while the number of domestic

successful. In fact, they have not been able to extend the length of stays

tourists has remained relatively similar. The peak tourist season during

of tourists and reach the target of three days. However, in the last five

the period described was always the summer season, i.e. from July to

years, the length of stays has stabilised at 2 days. In 2001 and 2019,

September. The second peak season, which became particularly pro-

only representatives from more distant European countries (Finland,

nounced in December, can be attributed to the growing pre-holiday

Iceland, Malta) or from other non-European countries stayed in Ljublja-

atmosphere, accompanied by the decorating of the town and the in-

na for more than two days.

stallation of stalls with a variety of culinary offerings.

Figure 3.7

The seasonal distribution of overnight stays in 2020 and 2021 was

Number of overnight

strongly affected by the pandemic, as tourism, like other activities, was

stays of domestic and

subject to various restrictive measures. The number of overnight stays

foreign tourists in

Ljubljana in the period

by domestic and especially foreign tourists (Figure 3.7) showed posi-

between 2018 and

tive trends in 2018-2019, while the same indicator showed a significant

2021 (Source: SURS,

decline from March 2020 to April 2021. The significantly lower figures

2022f and g)

are due to the closure during the pandemic, reduction of tourism activ-

ities and availability of accommodation capacities. The lowest number

of overnight stays was in the period April-May 2020, when the country

completely closed down as a consequence of the start of the pandemic

in March 2020. The most interesting aspect of the situation is the ratio

of domestic to foreign tourists. The second wave of the pandemic, al-

though it lasted the longest (November 2020 to April 2021), did not

cause as severe a decline in overnight stays as the first wave, but the

ch

ch

ch

ch

numbers were still remarkably low. Similar to 2020, activities opened in

May

July

May

July

May

July

May

July

Mar

Mar

Mar

Mar

the summer season of 2021, leading to an almost 50 per cent increase

September

November

September

November

September

November

September

November

in the number of overnight stays.

January 2018

January 2019

January 2020

January 2021

3.3.3 Average length of tourist stay

Figure 3.8

The average length of stays of domestic and foreign tourists (Figure

Average length of

3.8) in Ljubljana was rather stable in the period 1961-1980. The average

stay (days) of tourists

length of stays was 1.8 days. Most of the overnight stays were done by

in Ljubljana between

1960 and 2020 (Source

domestic visitors predominating until the end of the 1970s, but in the

of data: SURS, 2022b,

1980s this share decreased to an average of 1.3 days. With the chang-

c and d)

es leading to independence in 1991, the length of stays of domestic

visitors increased to 1.5 days and that of foreign tourists to 1.8 days.

Note: The data

The peak was recorded in 1992, when the length of stays increased by

between 1960 and

an average of 1.3 days, i.e. 3 days for domestic tourists and 2.9 days for

2009 refers to the

City of Ljubljana,

foreign tourists. Two more peaks in the length of stays of domestic tour-

and between 2010

ists occurred in 1964 (1.8 days) and 1976 (1.7 days), but after the year

and 2021 to the

2000, the length of stays of foreign tourists has since then continuously

City Municipality of

Ljubljana, and were

prevailed, with an average length of stay of 2.0 days.

calculated according to

the new methodology.

Based on the average length of stays, prevailing offers and the profile

Tourists from other

of foreign tourists, Ljubljana has established itself in the last decade

republics of the former

Yugoslavia are shown

as a "city break" destination, a starting point for visiting the sights of

in the category "From

other places and countries, and an excursion point for foreign tourists.

Other countries".

On average, tourists stay in Ljubljana for 1.8-2.0 days. For example, for-

eign tourists stayed an average of 2.1 nights in Ljubljana in 2019, while

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Section A

3.3.4 Overnight stays in Ljubljana during the Covid-19 pandemic

As a result, tourist arrivals in Ljubljana in 2020 fell by more than

In the last pre-pandemic year, 2019, Ljubljana contributed 14% of all

three-quarters compared to 2019; a greater decline than during Slo-

tourist beds in Slovenia, 14% of all overnight stays, and 17% of all tour-

venia's transition to independence between 1990 and 1992 (by two-

ists who stayed at least one night in Slovenia (Figure 3.9). However, af-

thirds). As a result, Ljubljana's share of all tourist arrivals in Slovenia de-

ter intensive growth over the last two decades, the Covid-19 pandemic

creased again. It decreased to 8% of all tourists and 6% of all overnight

changed the situation significantly in 2020.

stays in Slovenia; the same level as that recorded in 2000.

3.4 Types of tourism and visitors

In the past Ljubljana developed mainly as a cultural centre of Slovenia,

but in recent years it has sought to establish itself as a European cultural

tourist destination. The development of cultural tourism as the main

type of urban tourism can be attributed to its strong historical and ar-

chitectural character, and in line with this, there has been an historically

strong emphasis on the promotion of cultural institutions, especially

galleries and museums. For example, in 2017, the Slovenian Tourist

Board published the brochure Cultural Experiences Slovenia (STO,

2017a), which presented the cultural and natural heritage as well as the

sights and local specialities of Slovenian cities. In recent years, Ljubljana

has developed not only cultural tourism, but also branches of culinary,

congress and business tourism, as well as location-specific tourism. The

development of gastronomy at the level of culinary festivals, together

with the small size of the city, has also contributed to the development

of Ljubljana as a congress and business destination. All these types of

tourism are identified as urban tourism and are also represented as

products in Slovenia's macro destinations as elaborated upon in the

national tourism strategy.

Macro destination model offer a comprehensive approach to the mar-

keting of tourism products, the establishment of communications at na-

tional and international level, and a way of strengthening the identity of

Figure 3.9

a city (STO, 2017b). Ljubljana, as Slovenia's strongest tourist destination,

Average length of

Slovenian tourism recorded, in year 2019, 51% fewer arrivals and 42%

belongs to the macro destination of Central Slovenia and Ljubljana and

stay for tourists from

fewer overnight stays than in 2019. While foreign tourist arrivals fell by

is based on four supporting products. The macro destination of Cen-

selected countries

74% and overnight stays by 71%, the season was partly 'saved' by do-

in Ljubljana in 2001

tral Slovenia and Ljubljana is the most important tourism destination

(left) and 2019 (right)

mestic tourists. The number of domestic tourist arrivals from Slovenia

in Slovenia. The first product is defined as seasonally limited business

(Source: SURS, 2019a,

increased by 21% compared to the previous year, while the number of

meetings and events, such as conferences, and motivational or other

b, c)

overnight stays increased by 33%, as the summer season was mainly

meetings, and support events that attract business guests for several

Note: Data for 2001 is

supported by domestic tourists through the so-called "tourist vouch-

days. The second product is culture and also includes the notion of city

collected according to

ers" introduced by the Slovenian Government to help the tourism

breaks and discovering the city, based on its rich history, festivals and

the old methodology

economy. They were mainly used in seaside, mountain, and spa resorts,

and for 2019

events, as well as its contemporary and alternative art offerings. Circular

according to the new

while demand in urban areas was relatively low. According to the Fi-

trips - as the third product - are characteristic of Ljubljana, as it often

SURS methodology

nancial Administration of the Republic of Slovenia, between 1,000 and

serves as a starting point for discovering the rest of Slovenia. The last

(M2018). See SURS

2,000 tourist vouchers were redeemed in Ljubljana, which was less than

product is culinary tourism. The main products, of lesser importance

methodological

note: https://www.

half the number recorded in seaside resorts where between 4,000 and

and scope, are supported by secondary products. Secondary products

stat.si/StatWeb/File/

more than 10,000 vouchers were redeemed (FURS, 2020). Although

include: outdoor, shopping, special interests, nature experiences, gam-

DocSysFile/7779.

Ljubljana is a well-developed tourist destination with a wide range of

bling and sports tourism. The supporting and secondary products are

facilities, during the pandemic outdoor leisure activities came to the

dictated by the types of tourism in Ljubljana, which are presented in

centre of attention due to restrictions upon indoor socialising.

more detail in Table 3.1.

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3 Urban destination Ljubljana

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

Cultural tourism is the most promoted and widespread type of tourism

Type of

Key

Level of

in Ljubljana; this can be attributed to city's rich history, focusing on three

tourism

characteristics

Key offer

Who it attracts

development

main historical periods: the Renaissance, the Baroque, and the Art Nou-

Cultural

History and culture Ljubljana Castle, National

Domestic, foreign visitors,

3

veau, and the fact that the city is the capital of the country. A large part

of the city (sights,

Museum (the oldest

day visitors with an interest in

cultural institutions, musical instrument), City

history and culture

of the city’s tourist offers in this regard are based on its well-preserved

contemporary art)

Museum Ljubljana (the

tangible and intangible heritage which embraces various monuments,

oldest wooden bicycle),

archaeological remains (mainly linked to the Roman Emona period)

National Gallery, Modern

Gallery, Plečnik's house

and also architectural buildings which are included, to a large extent, in

Architectural City architecture

Plečnik's Ljubljana, Art

Tourists with an interest in

2

the European Art Nouveau Cultural Tour. In accordance with the Local

and an overview

Nouvea, Dragon bridge,

architecture

Self-Government Act, the City Municipality of Ljubljana also prioritises

of the historical

Prešern square, public

the protection of cultural heritage, which is being promoted as a tour-

periods of urban

spaces

ist product in cooperation with three major stakeholders in the field of

development

art and culture: the Ljubljana Museums and Galleries, the International

Gastronomy Culinary festivals,

Odprta kuhna, restaurants

Tourists with a motive to learn 4

local and other

in Michelin guidebook,

about different, especially

Centre of Graphic Arts, and Ljubljana Castle. As part of the promotion

food offers

Market, Beer experience

local, tastes, insight into food

of cultural heritage as a cultural tourism product, they are working in

Ljubljane, Gourmet

preparation and experience

partnership with the Ljubljana Tourism Board. The protection and pres-

Ljubljana, Ljubljana wine

of the location

ervation of cultural heritage is primarily the domain of the Institute for

route, dinner in the castle

vineyard, Distillery tour

the Protection of Cultural Heritage which evaluates and prepares pro-

Broken Bones

posals for entries into the Register of Cultural Heritage; managed and

Business

Conferences and

Congress/conference

Individual tourists or guests

3

supervised by the Ministry of Culture.

meetings also at

centres: Gospodarsko

with business, educational or

international level

razstavišče, Cankarjev

research motives

dom, Grand hotel Union,

The Ljubljana Tourism Board is currently actively developing a tourist

Hotel Lev, Intercontinental

product of cultural quarters, which would attract visitors from the city

Ljubljana, Kristalna palača

centre to wider areas of the city, and thereby relieve pressure on the city

Sports

Sports activities and Krajinski park Tivoli,

Tourists visit the destination

2/3

centre. The pilot quarter of this project is Kino Šiška and its surround-

events, recreation

Rožnik, Šišenski hrib, Bike

for other purposes, sports

ings, and in the future the development of this product will also include

outside or inside

park Ljubljana, Brko tura,

tourism is an added value of

the city, hosting of

Plečnikova kolesarska pot,

the city

the city districts of Bežigrad, Vič and Moste, with their specific character-

sports events

Pot spominov in tovarištva

istics, such as: modernist neighbourhoods, lifestyle and the cultural and

Shopping

Shopping centres,

BTC City Ljubljana, Galerija The purpose of a visit to

2/3

artistic activities of individual or collective stakeholders (Visit Ljubljana,

specialised and

Emporium, Plečnik's

a destination is shopping,

2022).

boutique shops

Market

usually for day visitors

selling local

products

One of the sub-sectors of cultural tourism is architectural tourism; based

on architectural buildings. In this type of tourism, one of the best known

Table 3.1

and promoted products is Plečnik's works, which were included on the

Types of tourism with

Table 3.1, in addition to presenting the types of tourism in terms of their

UNESCO World Heritage List in 2021. The nomination of his works was

main characteristics,

main attractions and supply, also provides an assessment of the potential

led by the Museum of Architecture and Design under the Ministry of

offer and type of tourist

of each type of tourism for further development. As can be seen, the po-

Culture, and roughly includes the embankments of the Ljubljanica River

Level of development:

tential of culinary tourism is almost fully utilized, as shown by the almost

with bridges, the National and University Library, the Congress Square

1-potential not fully

majority of developed tourist products, such as Odprta kuhna, Market,

and Park Zvezda, the Roman Wall, and the Žale Cemetery (ZAPS, 2021).

utilised: 2-potential

Gourmet Ljubljana, and so forth. Cultural tourism, although a traditional

weakly utilised;

In addition to the planned preservation and protection of architectural

3-potential partially

type of tourism in Ljubljana, has not yet fully exploited its potential; there

heritage, being included on the UNESCO list provides added value in

utilised; 4-potential

is a lack of globally known attractions that could attract foreign visitors

the promotion and marketing of Ljubljana as an urban destination. As

already fully utilised

to existing cultural institutions (Figure 3.10). A similar situation can be

part of architectural tourism in Ljubljana, thematic tours are organised

seen in the case of business tourism. The existing conference centres

which, in addition to architectural works, also reference other influences

(the Economic Exhibition Centre, the Grand Hotel Union, and so on.)

and contributors to Ljubljana's urban planning.

are sufficiently developed to organise conferences and meetings, even

at an international level, but their capacities are not sufficient to organise

In addition to culinary festivals and events, culinary tourism is best

large-scale conferences.

known under the Gourmet Ljubljana brand. The small open spaces in

the Old Town are an attractive setting for tourists to discover the main

characteristics of the destination while enjoying its food. In this con-

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3 Urban destination Ljubljana

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

text, we can refer to 'place-based tourism', or location-specific tourism,

Figure 3.10

which, as a new concept in urban tourism, does not yet have an agreed

Tourist offers in Ljubljana

definition. While various authors have referred to specific aspects of this

(Author: David Klepej)

type of tourism, it generally refers to a visit to a destination based on

the experience of an authentic environment (Krošelj, 2020), including

culinary experiences. These are accessible through various events, e.g.

Odprta kuhna, the Wine Festival and others (SPOT, 2021). Culinary tour-

ism is seasonally limited to the period from late spring to early autumn.

In addition to the Odprta Kuhna, tourists can visit a market, a brewery,

a wine distillery, a wine trail, and gourmet evenings or restaurants of

different classes (see Chapter 6).

Business tourism, unlike culinary festivals and events, is a seasonally

unlimited type of tourism. Ljubljana, with its smaller scale but well-de-

veloped tourist infrastructure also offers the possibility of organising

international events and business meetings. Business tourists can also

use the other tourist offers such as sightseeing, visiting galleries and mu-

seums, and so on. Although Ljubljana is a well-developed business des-

tination and both business and congress tourism are one of the main

products of the macro destination, the lack of accommodation facilities

makes comparison with major European destinations such as Vienna,

Lisbon, London and others almost impossible.

Sports tourism is one of the less important types of tourism. In addition

to leisure recreation in parks, green spaces and landscaped recreational

3.5 Accommodation capacities

areas, it generally includes the organisation of sporting events of na-

tional or European importance, which can attract a large number of do-

Accommodation facilities are a key element of tourism infrastructure.

mestic and foreign visitors. Recently, Ljubljana has been intensively inte-

The development of accommodation in Slovenia dates back to the

grating the possibility of spending leisure time in nature into its offers,

1960s. In the period 1960-1980, the total number of beds in Ljubljana

promoting the green areas of Rožnik, Tivoli Park and Grajski Hill, while

almost doubled, to a total of almost 4,500 beds. For example, the num-

the Ljubljanica and Špica embankments in the city centre have been

ber of beds in hotel and similar accommodation increased by 60-70%

referred to as a recommended place for a stroll. Recreational walking or

in the 1970s and 1980s, and by 70-85% in the crisis of the 1990s, when

cycling tours include the Path of Remembrance and Comradeship and

most of complementary accommodation facilities closed, resulting in

several other trails linking the city to the surrounding area.

a decrease in the total number of beds to 3,500 (Horvat and Stubičar,

2021).

Shopping tourism, unlike sports tourism, is a type of tourism that is

more suited to the city. It includes visits to large and well-known shop-

The new millennium with its modernisation of, amongst other aspects,

ping centres, as well as specialised boutique shops with local offers. In

tourism infrastructure, has witnessed a growth in hotel and non-hotel

Ljubljana, the large BTC shopping centre and the entire shopping com-

accommodation, with the number of beds available rising from 4,000

plex, which in the last year also opened an Ikea, has been relocated to a

2000 to 11,500 in 2017, while the number of beds in hotels stagnated

business centre in the north-eastern part of the city. The entire complex,

at 6,200 in the same year. However, with the new SURS methodology,

which can accommodate around 300,000 visitors, attracts not only do-

which also included beds in private rooms and apartments that are part

mestic visitors (80% from Ljubljana and its surroundings) but also for-

of the sharing economy (Airbnb), there was a larger deviation in the

eign visitors from neighbouring countries, mainly Croatia. The majority

number of beds in 2018, which, according to this data, although not

of foreign visitors are also day visitors who spend a lot of money. The

directly comparable with previous methodology, amounted to 23,300

centre is mostly visited for small boutique and specialised shops selling

tourist beds, as shown in Figure 3.11 (Horvat and Stubičar, 2021).

local products and produce; such offerings mainly attract foreign tour-

ists with their relatively higher purchasing powers.

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3 Urban destination Ljubljana

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

Fgure 3.11

Figure 3.12

Number of tourist beds

The distribution of

in Ljubljana between

hotels and similar

the years 2000 to 2019

accommodation in

(Source: SURS, 2019d,

2021

e, f)

Note: Data for the

period between

2000 to 2017 was

collected using the old

Table 3.2

methodology, for the

Overview of existing

period between 2010

development projects

and 2019 the data was

already in the process

collected using new

of elaboration of

methodology. See

documentation and

SURS methodological

acquisition or concrete

note1.

implementation

(Source: MOL, 2020;

ESI, 2020; Hacler, 2019;

1 Following the

Pušnik, 2018; Matejčič,

implementation of the

2019; Visit Ljubljana,

new methodology, SURS

2019; Jelesijević, 2015)

uses classifications of the

type of accommodation

establishments, which is

Project

Project name

End of the Project description

Project contribution to the tourism sector

in line with the Hospitality

Private accommodation, part of the sharing economy and most often

no.

(source)

project

Act. When publishing

marketed through online platforms such as Airbnb or Vrbo, have grown

1

Centre Rog

2022

Urban regeneration as revitalisation of

Connection between Ljubljana's city centre

monthly data at the level

(MOL, 2020a)

a degraded area, creation of a centre of

and other cultural, creative institutions;

of municipalities, the

significantly over the last few years, as shown by the figures noted above

culture and creativity and connection to

development of high quality open space,

data on tourist arrivals by

(23,300 tourist beds). Their expanding presence is having additional

the city centre, Metelkova, the new Gallery, multifunctional space (exhibitions, edu-type of accommodation

Cukrarna and the Cukrarna Palace.

cation, etc.); development for residents,

establishment is shown

impacts on the increasing number of visitors and the unavailability of

visitors, tourists.

only for the following

rental housing, as well as on the rising prices of accommodation for res-

three aggregated groups

2

Ljubljana Castle

2021

Demolition of the existing building

Accommodation facilities near the castle;

(categories): 1) hotels and

idents. In Ljubljana, compared to private accommodation, hotels and

– Na Stolbi 8

and construction of a new building to

more varied cultural and artistic offer;

similar establishments

similar accommodation are very limited. As can be seen in Figure 3.12,

(MOL, 2020a)

house the administrative premises of the

attracting also foreign artists; contribution

(in addition to hotels,

Ljubljana Castle Public Institute and to

to cultural tourism.

they also include motels,

the majority of hotel accommodation is located within the City Centre

accommodate visiting artists.

boarding houses,

quarter, more specifically within the city centre. Private accommodation,

3

Family park

2021

The park is located between Nove

Attracting residents and visitors from other

guesthouses and bed and

Muste (MOL,

Fužine and Štepanjsko naselje. The park is municipalities; green oasis in an urban

breakfast establishments,

while mostly concentrated in the city centre, is also spread out into oth-

2020a)

accessible to all visitors, it is adapted for

area; suitable for all persons; development

apartment and holiday

er districts, with the highest number of the same being sited along the

the physically handicapped, and there is a attracts people from the city centre to

villages); 2) campsites;

children's playground within the park. The another part of Ljubljana.

3) other accommodation

main traffic arteries leading into the city centre (Stubičar and Marot,

construction of an adventure bridge over

establishments

2022).

the Ljubljanica River is planned.

(comprising tourist farms

with accommodation,

4

Wooden

2020

Operational Programme for the Imple-

A unit intended for short-term stays; for the

private rooms, apartments

Increased tourist demands and the growing number of visitors have, in

self-contained

mentation of the European Cohesion

purposes of exploration, tourism, hiking.

and cottages, mountain

housing unit

Policy 2014-2020; The wooden modular

lodges and chalets,

line with the development of congress and business tourism, increased

(EU, 2020)

unit is designed to meet various needs in

workers' holiday homes

the need for hotels and similar accommodation facilities. For this rea-

terms of exploration, tourism and hiking.

and apartments, youth

It has been used as a vertical library at the

hostels, children's

son, a number of projects have been prepared in recent years (Table

Ljubljana Castle.

and young people's

3.2). Cumulatively, these have addressed the expansion of existing ac-

5

Hotel Atower

-

Construction of a high-end hotel in the

New accommodation capacities, espe-

holiday homes, other

(Hacler, 2019)

Bavarski dvor, with around 300 rooms

cially for tourists; possibility of using the

accommodation

commodation, such as the Lev Hotel, the Central Hotel and the Slon

and conference facilities. The investor is

remaining facilities and thus developing

establishments, temporary

Hotel, as well as the construction of new hotel accommodation.

Zlatarna Celje

congress tourism.

accommodation and

marinas).

6

Hotel Bellevue

2021

Reconstruction of the 105-room Bellevue

Increasing accommodation capacity also

(Pušnik, 2018)

Hotel, at the top of Šišenski hrib.

for tourists; promoting the facility.

7

Hotel Mons

-

Expansion of an existing 114-room hotel

Increasing accommodation capacity also

(Matejčič, 2019)

in Brdo. The expansion will add another

for tourists.

112 rooms

8

Centre Šumi

-

Center will offer a 151-room hotel in addi-

Accommodations for tourists; deve-

(Visit Ljubljana,

tion to catering and retail activities. Center lopment of commercial and catering

2019)

is located next to Congress square.

activities.

9

Neahus (Visit

2021

The building is under construction on

New accommodations for tourists and

Ljubljana 2019)

Kolodvorska Street. The hotel is planned

residents.

78

to have 49 rooms and 7 apartments.

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3 Urban destination Ljubljana

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

3.6 Types of visitors

Ljubljana is a well-developed tourist destination, which, through the con-

tinuous development of new tourist products, meets the demands of the

Types of tourism also dictate the types of visitors to a city. When it comes to

tourist market and the types of tourists who visit urban destinations. Cultur-

urban tourism, knowledge of these is important for the continuous devel-

al, business, congress, and culinary tourism are the main focus of the city,

opment of tourism products and the proper marketing of urban tourism

which at the same time also represent the main supporting products of

destinations. To illustrate the tourist personas that are found in Ljubljana,

the macro-destination of Central Slovenia and Ljubljana. Given this, four

we refer to the study Segmentation - identification of target groups of Slo-

dominant tourist personas have been identified. On one hand, personas

venian tourism, which was carried out by the Slovenian Tourist Board (STB)

(carefree young people, urban conscious, social foodie, urban consumer)

and identified 12 target groups of tourists in Slovenia. The groups have

are more suited to cultural and gastronomic tourism as is already present,

been used to help promote the destination as green, boutique, active and

however, on the other hand, this shows potential to identify new personas

healthy, to develop new tourism products, and have also served as a basis

more suited to develop business tourism.

for the development of tourism strategies (STO, 2016b).

Tourism personas are derived from three main motives in tourism. The ex-

3.7 Visitors and tourists of the destination

periences segment, for example, has a primary motive linked to the active

individual, and is therefore assigned the basic persona of the explorer who

The main driver of the tourism sector is tourists and visitors. The acceler-

strives for a complete and active experience of the visited destination. The

ated development of tourism in Ljubljana and the increasing number of

socialising segment has a primary motive linked to company or family. The

foreign tourists in particular dictate new tourism products and new ways of

socialiser (social butterflies) tends to experience the destination in as re-

meeting the requirements of a particular profile of foreign tourists. In or-

laxed and sociable a manner as possible. The care for oneself segment has

der to study the demands and expectations of the tourism market, surveys

a primary motive linked to the individual or couple and his/her experience

are regularly carried out in Slovenia and Ljubljana. The Statistical Office

of the destination as a muse on both physical and mental levels. In addi-

of the Republic of Slovenia (SURS), the database containing the largest

tion to these three main groups - explorers, social butterflies, and muses - a

set of statistical data in the field of tourism at the national and municipal

fourth segment has emerged due to the interplay of motives, namely the

level, conducted surveys in 2015 and 2019 (STO, 2016a; STO and Valicon,

mixed persona, which includes urban conscious, sociable foodies, relaxed

2021), which provided insights into the trends of tourism in Slovenia. We

escapists, and urban consumers.

looked at the data for Ljubljana only in order to compare the two years in

more detail and to identify changes in the profile of foreign visitors. The

Four tourist personas interested in visiting Ljubljana were identified. Care-

surveys were compared with the SPOT survey below to see the similarities

free young people (youth) are mainly seasonal visitors to Ljubljana, and

and differences in the results of the two surveys.

mostly comprised of students from abroad who are interested in the most

promoted tourist attractions in addition to having fun. Their visit to the

3.7.1 Visitor characteristics in 2015 and 2019 (SURS survey)

destination, which is usually only one of the destinations on their itinerary,

The samples of tourists surveyed were somewhat different due to a change

typically lasts for a few days. Urban conscious people always visit differ-

in the presentation of the data and a change to the way in which the survey

ent destinations as they strive for new experiences and adventures. They

was carried out. In 2015, the sample of tourists was 4,300, while for 2019,

visit as many sights as possible and experience local life. Ljubljana is just

which was presented in two-month periods, the sample for each period

one of their visited destinations. Travelling with friends is the most notable

(April-May, September-October, December-January) was 1,700 tourists. A

characteristic of such persons. The social foodie is a good representative

comparison of the main seasons clearly shows that in 2015 (Figure 3.13),

of cultural tourism, as is the urban conscious persona; both partake of the

55% of hotel and camping guests visited Slovenia during the main season,

cultural experiences of the destination. The urban consumer organises his/

while in 2019 this share was only 43%. The change in the share of tourists

her trips in such a way as to be able to visit places and offers outside the

staying in hotels, campsites, and similar accommodation for the duration

primary destination of the visit. Ljubljana is the perfect destination for this

of their visits was due to the development of private accommodation

type of person; especially given its diverse gastronomic offers. The urban

which are more or less advertised on online platforms such as Airbnb, Trip

consumer is similar to the urban conscious person in his or her unique visit

Advisor and Vrbo; these are not considered in the collection of data on the

to a destination - and the sociable foodie in his or her desire to experience

number of tourists choosing private accommodation.

the destination as wholesomely as possible, but in addition to sightsee-

ing and experiencing local life, the urban consumer also reserves time

The largest share of tourists (Figure 3.14) to Slovenia in 2015 came from

for shopping and evening entertainment; Ljubljana offers this through

Italy (17%), Germany (11%), Austria (10%), England (6%). Croatia and the

its shopping malls, boutiques, local shops, and a wide range of catering

Netherlands had the same percentage share (5%), and a similar share of

services.

tourists came from the first three countries in 2019.

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3 Urban destination Ljubljana

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

The shares in certain age groups remained almost the same. In 2019 (Fig-

To gain more detailed insights into the changes in the tourist profile, we

ure 3.15), the 25-44 age group was more represented (44%), three percent

compared – as detailed below - motives for arrival, travel companies,

more than in 2015; while the 45-64 age group (39%) and the over-65 age

the timings of decisions to visit and the organisation of trips. To this we

group (12%) recorded one percent less than in 2015. In both years, more

added the types of trips and the mode of transports used to visit the

men than women visited Slovenia (55% in 2015, and 53.4% in 2019).

destination. The data is shown in Table 3.3.

A comparison of the basic indicators over the years shows very little

Data

2015

2019

change. Looking at the first three countries, the source market for for-

Motive to visit holidays/relaxation/recreation = 73%;

holidays/relaxation/recreation = 70%;

eign tourists has not changed. The same is true for the age groups

– Slovenia

business = 14%;

business = 12%;

represented and the proportion of men who visit. These indicators also

visiting relatives/culture/religion/shopping =

visiting relatives/culture/religion/shopping =

10 %

14%

reflect the predominant types of persons in the city. They are active visi-

tors, and eager for cultural, historical, and gourmet experiences.

Motive to visit personal safety = 10%;

personal safety = 11%;

– Ljubljana

friendliness of the local people = 11%;

friendliness of the local people = 10 %;

cleanliness of the destination = 9%;

cleanliness of the destination = / %;

Intact nature = 6%;

Intact nature = 14 %;

Figure 3.13

quality of accommodation = 7%;

quality of accommodation = / %;

gastronomy = 6%;

gastronomy = 9 %;

Share of tourists in off

accessibility of tourist information = 6%

accessibility of tourist information = 8 %

season and in high

season by type of

Travel

alone = 21%;

alone = 21 %;

accommodation, 2015

company

with partner/family = 56%;

with partner/family = 61 %;

and 2019 (Source:

with friends = 16%;

with friends = 11 %;

STO, 2016a; STO and

business = 7%

business = 7 %

Valicon, 2021)

Type of

car, van = 33%;

car, van = 43 %;

transport

airplane = 58%;

airplane = 48 %;

bus = 4%;

bus = 3 %;

train = 3%

train = 2 %

Food options

(semi)guest house = 20%;

(semi)guest house = 12 %;

restaurant = 62%;

restaurant = 79 %;

prepare themselves = 6 %;

prepare themselves = 4 %;

restaurant and self-preparation = 12 %

restaurant and self-preparation = 5 %

Structure

accommodation = 51%;

accommodation = 57 %;

of daily

food = 20%; transportation = 8%

food = 22 %;

expenditure

offer = 8%;

transportation = 6 %;

Figure 3.14

shopping = 12%;

offer = 6 %;

services = 3%

shopping = 8 %;

Share of foreign

services = 1 %

tourists in Ljubljana and

share of tourists with

Time of

less than a month = 32%;

less than a month = 27 %;

Slovenia as their only

decision

more than a month = 25%;

more than a month = 38 %;

destination; left 2015

more than 3 months = 29%;

more than 3 months = 21 %;

and right 2019 (Source:

more than 6 months = 14%

more than 6 months = 14 %

STO, 2016a; STO and

Travel

directly at the accommodation = 24%;

directly at the accommodation = 25 %;

Valicon, 2021)

organisation

online reservation system = 38%;

online reservation system = 48 %;

tourist agency = 4%;

tourist agency = 13 %;

no booking in advance = 7%

no booking in advance = 7 %

Use of the

internet usage = 80%;

internet usage = 92 %; obtaining information

internet –

obtaining information = 84%;

= 80 %; accommodation reservation = 59 %

Slovenia

accommodation reservation = 56%

Impression

better than anticipated = 59%;

better than anticipated = 59 %;

Figure 3.15

of the

within the expected limits = 41%

within the expected limits = 41 %

destination

Age groups and share

of tourists within age

Table 3.3

groups; top in 2015

and bottom in 2019

Comparison of survey

(Source: STO, 2016a;

results with foreign

STO and Valicon, 2021)

tourists in 2015 and

2019

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3 Urban destination Ljubljana

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

The data on motives at the Slovenian level indicates that in 2015, com-

dation capacities were all factors in the decrease of the share of tourists

pared to 2019, 3% more of tourists chose to visit the destination for holi-

who decided to visit a destination more than three months in advance. The

days, relaxation and recreation, and 2% more of tourists visited Ljubljana

proportion of such tourists fell by less than one tenth over the five-year pe-

for business purposes, while the share of tourists visiting relatives, cultural

riod, as booking options have become quicker and more accessible. The

attractions or shopping was 4% higher in 2019. At the level of the tourist

same factors have also influenced changes in the way travel is organised.

destination as a whole, the motives of intact nature (14%), gastronomy (9%),

In 2019, the use of online booking systems (48%) and the use of a travel

and the accessibility of tourist information (8%) distinguished themselves

agencies (13%) increased by around a tenth, while the share of tourists

with percentage shares each being slightly higher in 2019. This data con-

organising their trip without pre-booking remained stable. Internet use has

firms the development of the city over the five-year period in the field of

also increased by 12% over the period, with more tourists using it to book

technology and product marketing, and the destination as being a clean,

accommodation (59%) in 2019.

green and culinary-rich capital of Slovenia overall. In 2019, the urban tour-

ist destination was also more attractive to tourists from all over the world.

The perception of the destination remained the same; more than half of

The data also illustrated a change in the perception of the importance of

the tourists had a better impression than they expected. However, satis-

leisure; it is now mostly focused on relaxation and experience.

faction and dissatisfaction at the Slovenian level changed. In both years,

tourists were more than satisfied with personal safety (a percentage score

It is interesting to see data on travel companies, means of travelling, the

of more than 90%), while the friendliness of the local population and the

manner of eating, and the structure of tourists’ expenditure in the destina-

cleanliness of the destination were also considered among the more sat-

tion during their visits. More than half of the foreign tourists in both periods

isfactory things in 2015. In 2019, they were most satisfied with the natural

travelled with a family or partner, while just under a third (21%) travelled

environment and the opportunities to rest and relax.

alone. Plane travel was the most common choice, although the share of

passengers travelling by plane decreased by 10% in 2019, while travelling

3.7.1 Visitor characteristics in 2020 (survey in SPOT project)

by car or van increased by the same proportion compared to 2015. This is

The research of the SPOT project (Social and innovative Platform On

not to say that the destination itself has not worked on its accessibility, as

cultural Tourism and its potential towards Deepening Europeanisation)

the choice of means of travel depends on factors other than promoting

was carried out in the field in August 2020 and via the online platform

the (given) destination’s accessibility.

1ka. The sample size was 100 respondents, representing 0.2% of all

visitors to Ljubljana in August 2020 (SURS, 2021a). Most tourists came

The decline in air passengers can be viewed as a logical consequence of

from Germany (32 persons) and almost the same number (26 persons)

the start of Airline Adria's decline in 2019, when most routes were can-

were domestic tourists. Just over a tenth of tourists came from France

celled. This led to an increase in the use of cars or vans by foreign tourists

(17 people), four people came from the Netherlands and Italy, two

who, in recent years have, in addition to partaking in less air travel, have fol-

tourists travelled from the Czech Republic and six people came from

lowed the trend of a new lifestyle based on "full time travel", or the concept other countries such as Austria, Croatia and Hungary. The majority of

of living on the move, which allows for more flexible travel and decisions

tourists who stayed overnight at the destination (70 people) stayed in

about when to visit places.

a hotel (23 people), with a good tenth staying in hostels (14 people)

and private Airbnb accommodation (13 people). Unlike other surveys

The data also confirms the development of gastronomy as a distinct tourist

carried out in Ljubljana (Marot, 2019) and in contrast to the SURS sur-

offering; there was a 17% increase in the share of tourists visiting restau-

vey (STO and Valicon, 2021), the most represented age groups were

rants in 2019. This was followed by a 22% increase in daily expenditure

20-30 year olds (43%) and 30-40 year olds (31%). Less than one tenth

on food in the same year. The biggest changes to the structure of daily

of the respondents belonged to the 40-50 year old age group (12%;

expenditure were in accommodation; upon which tourists spent just over

significantly lower than in the SURS survey.

half (51%) of their budget in 2015, and shopping which accounted for

just 8% of their budget in 2019, rather than just over a 10th in 2015. The

Architecture was the most frequent motivation for visiting the destina-

development of gastronomic offers is a key aspect upon which Ljubljana is

tion (51%), local traditions (48%), nature (36%) and history (33%). The

building its recognition as a global visitor destination. Gastronomic offers

motives point to changes in the types of urban tourism. They are no

have developed in line with this, and are mostly concentrated (and varied)

longer focused on traditional offers such as museums and galleries,

in the city centre, where they are easily accessible.

but are moving towards a new branch of tourism, namely place-based

tourism or "place-specific tourism". The most important factors for vis-

In 2019, tourists decided to visit a destination more than one month in

iting Ljubljana were personal interest (85%), price (63%) and location

advance (38%), which is slightly more than a tenth higher than the percent-

(54%),; indicating an improved promotion of the destination, which

age of tourists who did so in 2015. The availability of information, different

is on the one hand a product of Tourism Ljubljana, and on the other

online platforms, developed offers, and the increase in private accommo-

a result of the increased use of personal online platforms (Instagram,

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Section A

Facebook,and so on). The motives mentioned differ from the SURS sur-

attracted to the destination mainly by its intact nature, the well-devel-

veys (STO, 2016a; STO and Valicon, 2021) due to the orientation of the

oped gastronomic offers, and the accessibility of tourist information.

survey. The SPOT survey focused more specifically on cultural tourism,

The travel companies did not change during the period under analysis,

while the SURS survey was more general. Similar differences were also

as visits were still most often made with a partner or with a family who

evident for other indicators.

travelled to the destination by plane. Visits to restaurants were more fre-

quent, as confirmed by the structure of daily expenditure, and visitors

Most tourists visited the destination with a partner (36%) and almost

spent slightly more on food and accommodation in 2019. In the same

a third of visitors (26%) visited in a self-organised group. Slightly few-

year, tourists tended to decide to visit a destination just one month

er tourists (21%) came to Ljubljana with their families. Similar groups

before the actual visit, and most booked accommodation through an

of tourists are represented when compared to the SURS survey. In the

online booking system to make their trip run as smoothly as possible.

SPOT survey, the couple and family groups were separated, whereas in

Accelerated digitisation has enabled closer contact and the rapid ex-

the SURS survey the two groups were merged, which means that there

change of information between tourism organisations and tourists. In

was no change in the total. If we compare the travel companies with

turn, this has led to a higher profile for the destination, and it has de-

the age groups, we can see that in summer 2020, when the Covid-19

veloped tourism products linked to culture, gastronomy and congress

pandemic had already developed, more young people visited the des-

meetings.

tination; most often as couple.

This is also confirmed by the 2020 SPOT survey with tourists, which

The results for means of transport put the use of cars and vans top

asked how satisfied tourists and visitors were with the destination’s

of the list (53%). Compared to SURS, the use of trains (18%) and bus-

tourist offers, what interested them in the destination and what they

es (14%) also increased. Less than one tenth of the respondents (6%)

would like to see in the city. Visitors and tourists were most satisfied

used air transport. The change in means of transport, with the emphasis

with the security in the city. Other satisfactory factors mentioned includ-

remaining on private transport, but with an increase in train and bus

ed affordable prices, accessibility, quality of services, and the diversity

usage, is attributed to the pandemic. The pandemic has restricted or

of cultural offers available. For example, they were most impressed by

prevented the use of public transport through a variety of measures;

historical sites and areas and by visiting restaurants (Klepej et al., 2021).

particularly evident with regard to air passenger transport.

The structure of daily expenditure in the survey included accommoda-

3.8 Structure of the urban tourism labour force

tion, food and beverages and other expenses. In the summer of 2020,

when pandemic measures were in place which affected the availability

Residents are part of the city and the city is part of their identity. They

of different services and offers, the per person per day expenditure was

use the space to provide services, to spend their leisure time within,

significantly lower compared to other surveys. Almost half (40%) spent

and to build their careers. Ljubljana, as a political and administrative

€40 per day, while around a tenth of respondents spent less than €10

centre and a meeting point for all major industries and services in the

(10%), €20-40 (13%), €60-80 (10%) and €80-100 (11%).

country, offers diverse job opportunities. The development of tourism

also creates new jobs which, in certain segments, are seasonally limited

Tourists most frequently used various online platforms (71%); more than

or require a certain type of workforce. This importance of tourism was

a third followed recommendations from acquaintances (36%), and less

also highlighted in the SPOT project survey (Klepej et al., 2021), where

than a third obtained information from social networks (24%). These

residents repeatedly pointed out that cultural tourism provides a variety

results can be linked to the increased use of various social networks,

of jobs and business opportunities. In this subsection, we present the

which represent one source of tourism promotion. When asked about

categories of occupations and their employability and representation

the recommendation of the destination, nine tenths indicated that they

in tourism, as well as the changes in the number of people employed

would be very likely (53%) or likely (35%) to recommend Ljubljana as a

in relation to tourism development - including during the pandemic

destination to visit.

period.

3.7.2 Comparison of survey results

3.8.1 Structure of the working population

Comparison of the results of the survey with foreign tourists in Slovenia,

Data on the working population in the tourism sector in 2020 was ob-

(which were mostly considered at the level of Ljubljana, complemented

tained from the Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia, which de-

with statistical data from SURS), showed that the motives and trends

fined the main categories of occupations in the Standard Classification

of visits changed in line with the destination, with demand, and with

of Occupations (CAP-08, more at: https://www.stat.si/skp/), namely:

the development of the tourist offers available. Tourists and visitors in

2019 were visiting the destination to visit relatives and friends and were

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Section A

– 5.2 Accommodation services for visitors (hotels and similar establish-

The representation of the categories is quite logical given the marketing

ments)

of the city’s tourist offers, the number of tourists, and the spatial distri-

– 5.3 Other accommodation services (camps, hostel and similar establish-

bution of the offers and services in the city. Food and beverage services

ments)

are the most widespread type of offer, targeting tourists and, above

– 5.4 Food and beverage serving activities

all, residents. This category is most widespread in the city centre, more

– 5.5 Passenger transportation

specifically in the area of the old centre and upon the embankments

– 5.6 Travel agencies and other reservation services activities

of the Ljubljanica river. The high level of supply, which corresponds to

– 5.7 Other tourism industries (covering tourism operators and the

the demand of the tourist market and the needs of the population,

creative sector)

requires a corresponding increase in the number of employees. The

same is true for the category of other tourism industries which covers

Data on the structure of the workforce (Figure 3.16) and changes by

a wide range of activities. It includes various tourism providers offering

major occupational group (Figure 3.18) are shown for the period 2014-

sightseeing tours, visits to galleries and museums, and tourist tours, as

2019, while data by occupational categories is only shown for the year

well as the creative sector; including various fields of art and culture.

2019. Due to the large dataset within occupational categories, only the

The creative sector in particular developed strongly in 2019, as can be

data with the highest shares are shown.

seen in the chart, and has been more intensively involved in shaping

tourism products, which - as in the previous category - requires an in-

A detailed overview of the structure of the workforce by year over the

crease in the number of employees. In Ljubljana, this sector is strongly

period 2014-2019 (Figure 3.16) clearly shows a year-on-year increase

linked to the idea of creating a cultural quarter so that visitors are en-

in the number of employees. Over the six-year period, there has been

couraged to visit other locations – beyond the overcrowded city centre

a 30% increase in the number of employees, with the most significant

– when visit Ljubljana.

growth occurring in the food and beverage category, (individual year

growth rates were as high as 8.5% and 5.8% in 2018-2019). With a few

A comparison of the number of employed residents at the national

exceptions, growth in the number of employees in slightly lower pro-

level over the same period confirms the development of tourism in the

portions can be observed in all categories. For example, in the oth-

destination; number of people employed increased by a good tenth

er accommodation services category, we saw a smaller decline in the

from 2014 to 2019 (204,202 in 2014 and 234,606 in 2019), which also

number of employees in 2019, and we also saw a smaller decline in the

brought an increase in the share of people employed in tourism indus-

travel agencies and other reservation services category, even in 2018.

tries. In 2019, the 15,631 employees in the tourism industry accounted

There is also a strong representation of individual categories, with food

for 6.7% of the 234,606 total employees in Ljubljana, compared with

and beverage services strongly dominating, followed by the other tour-

a slightly lower share in 2014 (5.9%). In terms of the representation of

ism industries category which includes a variety of tourism providers as

individual categories in 2019, the food and beverage service industry

well as the creative sector.

stood out with 38%, followed by other tourism activities with just under

a third (25%), passenger transportation with 21%, and the visitor ac-

Figure 3.16

16,000

commodation services category with just under a tenth (7%). This was

Structure of the labour

followed by travel agencies and other reservation services with 5% and

14,000

force by year, 2014-

other accommodation services with the smallest share of 3% (SURS,

2019 (Source: SURS,

12,000

2020).

2020)

10,000

8,000

The accommodation services for visitors category (5.2), which includes

hotels and similar establishments, employed total of 1,163 workers, of

6,000

whom hotel receptionists (26%) and cleaners, servers and helpers in

4,000

offices, hotels and other accommodation (26%) account for the major-

2,000

ity of the total. The other accommodation services category (5.2) em-

ployed 1,163 workers (5.3), which includes campsites, hostels and sim-

ilar establishments, had a total of 423 employees, which is the smallest

share of all employees in the tourism sector in Ljubljana (3%). Cleaners,

5.2 Accommodation services for visitors (hotels and similar establishments)

servers and helpers in offices, hotels and other accommodations (28%)

5.3 Other accommodation services (camps, hostel and similar establishments)

5.4 Food and beverage serving activities

and cooks (27%) dominate with less than a third of them. The small

5.5 Passenger transportation

share is in line with the limited offer of campsites and similar accommo-

5.6 Travel agencies and other reservation services activities

dation. Ljubljana is an urban destination which, on the one hand, keeps

5.7 Other tourism industries (covering tourism operators and the creative sector)

its offer very much in the city centre and, on the other hand, still limits

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the expansion of its offers to urban activities and urban areas. Camp-

which occupations dominate. The first category includes occupations

sites are therefore often not part of the tourist offer; they do not repre-

engaged in catering, while the second category includes occupations

sent an activity that a visitor to an urban destination would undertake.

primarily engaged in developing activities in the other tourism indus-

tries category. Both categories are the result of the targeted marketing

The category of food and beverage service activities (5.4), which dom-

of the tourist offers in Ljubljana, which emphasis the predominance of

inated the total of all employees in tourism in Ljubljana with a share of

the cultural offer whilst also – through advertising and recommenda-

38%, employed a total of 6,001 persons, which also represents 2.5% of

tions on catering services - further reinforce the growing presence and

all persons employed in Ljubljana (not only in the tourism sector). The

importance of gastronomy. This sector has adapted to the demand on

category is dominated by waiters (49%) and cooks (30%), with almost

the tourist market, while at the same time stimulating the demand for

half of waiters (49%) and a third of cooks (30%), which is consistent with

more employees.

the prevalence of the catering sector in the city of Ljubljana (5.3). Pubs,

bars, cafés and restaurants are mostly present in the city centre, while

The working population also includes students. Data on student work

fast food places are dispersed around the city centre. The number of

is excluded from the SURS database due to the nature of the work as

gastronomy establishments is by far the highest when placed along-

it is not linked to employment contracts such as those for permanent

side the number of other services and facilities. At the same time, these

or temporary workers. Nevertheless, this area is still addressed, but to a

services require a large number of employees due to the nature of the

lesser extent than other aspects, in this chapter. Student work includes

work (two-shifts or weekend work) and the number of people who par-

seasonal work, which, according to the categories listed, could be main-

take of these services.

ly ascribed to the food and beverage service, hotel accommodation or

other tourism industries. The demand for staff for catering, reception

The total number of employees in the category Passenger transporta-

or promotional work is very high, especially in the high tourist season.

tion (5.5) was as follows: 3,292 persons, with bus drivers (84%) and only

Most students work in the summer - on the one hand because of their

5% of cashiers and ticket sellers, the highest proportion of whom did

own availability (end of semester and study commitments), and on the

not appear in any category. This high share of a particular occupation is

other because of the increase in tourist arrivals and the consequent

attributed to the assumption that most transport companies have their

demand for temporary labour at short notice. Data on hourly rates of

headquarters in Ljubljana, where the structure of public transport is

pay, the number of hours worked, and the available working months in

highly developed; it is used by both residents and visitors.

tourism for the period between 1 September 2018 and 30 September

2019 were obtained from one student service that covers the majority

The category of employees in travel agencies and other reservation

of student work placements in Ljubljana. In total, there were 616.4 jobs

services (5.6) is the second least represented, but unlike category 5.3, it

in the 'tourism and catering' service, and 1,700 hours are required for

has only half as many employees, i.e. 844 employees. The most prom-

one job. Students worked an average of 326 hours over the 13 months,

inent occupations are tourist products development and sales profes-

with a total of 3,211 students working in student jobs. In 2019, there

sionals (30%) and, with less than a third, travel agency managers (23%).

were 2,333 advertisements for student work, and in 2020, there were

Overall, the number of travel agencies in Ljubljana is still rather low (but

half as many (1,277), due to the beginning of the Covid-19 pandemic,

higher than in other cities), which is probably due to the low demand

which severely disrupted opportunities for student work. The declared

for this service among Slovenians and the digitisation of the sector in

epidemic and the closure of activities caused students to lose their jobs

recent years.

and made them subject to an unstable and precarious financial situ-

ation. Given such factors, demand for student work was significantly

The last category (5.7) of employees in other tourism industries also

lower, which explains why number of the job advertisements published

includes other tourism providers and the creative sector; it had 3,898

in 2020 was half that of 2019.

employees in 2019. This category is dominated by occupation groups

not mentioned in any of the other categories, namely sports, recrea-

3.8.2 Comparison of employement between 2014 and 2019

tion, and cultural centre managers (17%), and artistic, cultural and culi-

Analysis of changes in employment over the period 2014-2019 (Figure

nary associate professionals (16%). Graphic and multimedia designers

3.17) shows an overall increase in employment of just under a quarter;

and assistants in galleries, museums and libraries are also represented

23%. Tourism experienced the strongest growth over this period, as

and accounted for less than a tenth of the total number of employees

shown by almost half the growth (43%) in the passenger transport cat-

within this sector.

egory, 36% growth in the hotel category, and 35% growth in the food

and beverage service category. The smallest growth was recorded in

The two categories with the most employees were food and beverage

the other tourism industries category (15%). If we relate the changes

service activities and other tourism industries. The chart above confirms

over the period to the occupations within the individual categories

the presentation and description of each category and clearly shows

which recorded growth of more than 50%, we see that in these cate-

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Section A

gories (5.3, 5.4, 5.6) the occupations Marketing and Sales Managers

highlighted measures such as maintaining relationships with existing

stands out. Other occupations that have experienced similar growth

and new customers, upgrading existing digital services, and devel-

are mainly sales, advertising, marketing and tourism product develop-

oping new products and digital services. At the same time, they were

ment professionals, and freelancers in galleries and museums. These

forced to change the ways in which they worked, with the most com-

occupational groups indicate a more supported development and

mon measures being reduced hours and pay, reassignment, and re-

promotion of cultural tourism, which takes place at the level of cultural

dundancies.

attractions or institutions.

Figure 3.18

Figure 3.17

Comparison of the

Changes in employees

number of employees

2014-2019 by main

between 2019 and

occupational groups

2020 (Source: SURS,

(Source: SURS, 2020)

2020)

3.8.3 Employment before and during Covid-19 pandemic

The overview and the dataset demonstrate that tourism is an impor-

Figure 3.17 shows the changes in the categories examined, and a clear

tant economic sector that provides a variety of work opportunities for

and evident growth in line with the development of tourism. Figure

Ljubljana's residents, including students. The growth of tourism in the

3.18 shows a period that was strongly marked in the beginning by the

last five years before the pandemic successfully recruited a workforce

Covid-19 phenomenon. The data is shown for the period 2019-2020

that declined sharply with the advent of Covid-19. This is a cooperative

and shows mainly negative figures, with the exception of the category

cycle, whereby the growth in tourism increases the demand for labour,

of other accommodation services, which had growth of 2%, and other

and an increasing number of workers who can do efficient and fast

tourism industries, which did not see any change. On the other hand,

work, i.e. keep up with the needs of the market, attract and increase the

the biggest declines were seen in the hotel category (-30%) and in trav-

number of tourists.

el agencies (-27%) – both were hit hard by the pandemic. As in the case

of cultural institutions, where we refer mainly to galleries and museums,

the outbreak of the epidemic, the changes in measures, and the clo-

3.9

Conclusion



sure of the country triggered a wave of events that made it impossible

for the two main areas of tourism to function normally. The closure of

Tourism was present in Ljubljana from the very beginning of the city's

the country prevented the entry of foreign tourists, and the closure of

formation. If the first form of tourism was pilgrimage, "modern pilgrim-

municipalities prevented the movement of citizens. The sharp decline

age" has been upgraded with various contents, which are based on

in the number of tourists paralysed many accommodation establish-

physical space and the attractiveness of the city as a living environment.

ments which, as a result, laid off employees or ceased operating alto-

The establishment of the Ljubljana Tourism Public Institution at the be-

gether. Associated travel agencies, which often work in partnership with

ginning of the new millennium, in parallel with global developments,

hotels, followed a similar path.

laid the foundations for the accelerated development of tourism in Lju-

bljana, which, especially in recent years, has developed to the point of

Service providers implemented various measures to mitigate against

destination recognition at an international level. The creation of new

the impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic. The SPOT survey (2021) con-

products and the first information points attracted mainly domestic visi-

ducted with accommodation, hospitality and attractions providers

tors in the early years, but in the last decade, with the support of strong

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Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

digitisation, technological development, infrastructure upgrades and

to preserve its identity and authenticity. With tourist products that re-

the development of new tourism products, they have been far out-

spect this, it builds on the remnants of its cultural, architectural and

paced by foreign tourists and visitors.

gastronomic history; a process that has been reinforced by its gaining

UNESCO and European titles. At the same time, it is improving the

The tourist offers available in the city have certainly been successful-

city's infrastructure and continually seeks new opportunities to raise its

ly in adapting to the demand and requirements of the tourist market.

profile in the wider global tourist sector.

In addition to the constant search for opportunities to develop new

products, development is also focused on improvements to the infra-

structure of the city – such as building new hotels, and creating new

3.10 References

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Klepej, D. and Marot, N. (2021). Planning urban tourism infrastructure in post-war

to being a well-developed gastronomy destination which offers a mix

socialist Slovenia: The case of city hotels. In: Benkő, M. (ed.). Facing post-socialist of tastes, and suits different visitor profiles. In Ljubljana, in addition to

urban heritage. DOCONF 2021: 8. - 9. October 2021, Budapest, Hungary (pp. 206-the urban conscious the carefree youth, the urban consumer and the

215). Budapest: BME - Department of Urban Planning and Design.

sociable foodie, the four types of persons identified, they want above

Klepej, D., Krošelj, M., Stubičar, N. and Marot, N. (2021). The city municipality of all business visitors to visit the destination. The awareness of the main

Ljubljana, Slovenia, year 2020: Deliverable 1.4a: case study report. SPOT – Social and innovative platform on cultural tourism and its potential towards. Ljubljana:

stakeholders in the tourism industry of the importance of the destina-

Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Landscape Architecture.

tion dictates the formulation of strategies for the development, expan-

Koufodontis, N. I. and Gaki, E. (2022). UNESCO urban world heritage sites: Tourists'

sion and management of tourism, including creating and expanding

awareness in the era of social media. Cities, online edition. Available at: https://www.

new jobs and business opportunities.

sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264275122001834 (June 2022) Krošelj, M. (2020). Place-based or place-specific tourism: study. SPOT – Social and In conclusion, Ljubljana has become a developed and recognised city

innovative platform on cultural tourism and its potential towards. Ljubljana:

destination. While its size is not comparable to the world's capitals, it

Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Landscape Architecture.

has already taken its place on the world's tourist map with well-devel-

Marot, N. (2019). Vrste turizma. Predavanje v okviru MSc študija krajinske arhitekture oped tourist offers and promotion. Like other similar European cities,

(eng. Types of tourism. Lecture in the MSc in Landscape Architecture Programme).

Ljubljana: Biotehniška fakulteta.

it is successfully following global trends, while at the same time trying

94

95

Nina Stubičar

3 Urban destination Ljubljana

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

Marot, N., Stubičar, N., Horvat, U., Klepej, D., Ograjenšek, I., and Perviz, L. (2021).

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[old methodology], Slovenia, 1960 – 2008. Available at: https://pxweb.stat.si/

Biotehniška fakulteta.

SiStatData/pxweb/en/Data/-/2161401S.px/ (November 2021)

Marot, N., Stubičar, N., Klepej, D., Uršič, M., Ograjenšek, I. and Horvat, U. (2022).

SURS (2019e). Accommodation facilities by groups of tourist accommodations,

MESTUR: Anketni vprašalnik za turiste s poudarkom na prostorskih vidikih (eng. Tourist municipalities, Slovenia, 2008 – 2017. Available at: https://pxweb.stat.si/SiStatData/

questionnaire with emphasis on spatial aspects). Ljubljana: Biotehniška fakulteta.

pxweb/en/Data/Data/2164504S.px/ (November 2021)

Matejčič, K. (2019). Zaradi izjemnega turizma v Ljubljani več kot 1.000 novih sob (eng.

SURS (2019f). Accommodation establishments capacity, tourist arrivals and overnight Ljubljana's tourism boom brings more than 1,000 new rooms). 24ur.com. Available

stays by types of tourist municipalities, Slovenia, annually. Available at: https://pxweb.

at: https://www.24ur.com/novice/slovenija/zaradi-izjemnega-turizma-v-ljubljani-vec-

stat.si/SiStatData/pxweb/sl/Data/-/2164521S.PX (November 2021)

kot-1000-novih-hotelskih-sob.html (April 2020).

SURS (2020). Employees in tourism according to ISCO-08. Data retrieved from the Mestna občina Ljubljana (MOL) (2012). Navodila za načrtovanje prometnih ureditev v Statistical Office of Republic of Slovenia. Ljubljana: SURS.

MOL (eng. Guidelines for the design of transport regulations in MOL). Available at:

https://www.ljubljana.si/assets/Uploads/PDF2.pdf (March 2022).

SURS (2021a). Tourist arrivals and overnight stays by countries, municipalities, Slovenia, monthly. Available at: https://pxweb.stat.si/SiStatData/pxweb/sl/Data/-/2164466S.px/

Mestna občina Ljubljana (MOL) (2020). Turizem v Ljubljani (eng. Tourism in Ljubljana).

table/tableViewLayout2/ (January 2022).

Available at: https://www.ljubljana.si/sl/moja-ljubljana/turizem-v-ljubljani/ (April 2020).

SURS (2022a). Number of residents in Ljubljana in year 2022. Available at: https://

Pušnik, M. (2018). Središče Ljubljane bo kmalu bogatejše za dva hotela (eng. Ljubljana

pxweb.stat.si/SiStat/sl/Podrocja/Index/100/prebivalstvo (January 2022).

city centre will soon be richer for two more hotels). Delo. Available at: https://www.

delo.si/lokalno/ljubljana-in-okolica/sredisce-ljubljane-bo-kmalu-bogatejse-za-dva-

SURS (2022b). Tourist arrivals and overnight stays by countries and by types of tourist

hotela-90309.html (April 2020).

accommodations [old methodology], municipalities, Slovenia, 2003 – 2009. Available at: https://pxweb.stat.si/SiStatData/pxweb/sl/Data/-/2118102S.px (March 2022).

Statista (2022). Leading European city tourism destinations in 2019 and 2020, by

number of bed nights. Available at: https://www.statista.com/statistics/314340/

SURS (2022c). T ourist arrivals and overnight stays by groups of tourist accommodations

leading-european-city-tourism-destinations-by-number-of-bednights/ (March 2022).

and countries, municipalities, Slovenia, 2008 – 2017. Available at: https://pxweb.stat.

si/SiStatData/pxweb/sl/Data/-/2164507S.px (March 2022).

STO (2016a). Tuji turisti v Sloveniji. Analiza ankete o tujih turistih v Sloveniji 2015 (eng.

Foreign tourists in Slovenia. Analysis of survey with foreign tourists in Slovenia 2015).

SURS (2022d). Tourist arrivals and overnight stays by countries, municipalities, Slovenia, Ljubljana: Slovenska turistična organizacija. Available at: https://www.slovenia.info/

annually. Available at: https://pxweb.stat.si/SiStatData/pxweb/sl/Data/-/2164526S.px

uploads/dokumenti/Tuji_turisti_v_Sloveniji_2015_short_21609.pdf (January, 2022).

(April 2022).

STO (2016b). Persone ciljnih skupin slovenskega turizma (eng. Personas of Slovenian SURS (2022e). Arrivals and overnight stays of domestic and foreign tourists,

tourism target groups). Ljubljana: Slovenska turistična organizacija. Available at:

municipalities, Slovenia, 2018M01 - 2019M12. Available at: https://pxweb.stat.si/

https://www.slovenia.info/uploads/dokumenti/raziskave/sto157_persone_ciljnih_

SiStatData/pxweb/sl/Data/-/2164437S.px (March 2022).

skupin_slo_turizma.pdf (January 2022).

SURS (2022f). Tourist arrivals and overnight stays by countries, municipalities, Slovenia, STO (2017a). Doživetja kulture (eng. Cultural Experiences Slovenia). Slovenija. Available monthly. Available at: https://pxweb.stat.si/SiStatData/pxweb/sl/Data/-/2164466S.px

at: https://www.slovenia.info/uploads/publikacije/slo/katalog_kultura_web_

(April 2022).

enoppansko_1.pdf (March 2022).

SURS (2022g). Accommodation establishments capacity by municipalities, Slovenia,

STO (2017b). Model makrodestinacij (eng. Macro-destination model). Ljubljana: annually. Available at: https://pxweb.stat.si/SiStatData/pxweb/sl/Data/-/2164527S.px

Slovenska turistična organizacija. Available at: https://www.rra-posavje.si/pdf/

(May 2022).

dokumenti/Predstavitev-Model-makro-destinacij-12-10-2017.pdf (January 2022).

UNWTO (2019). International Tourism Highlights, 2019 Edition. Madrid: United

STO and Valicon (2021). Analiza ankete o tujih turistih v Sloveniji 2019/2020

Nations World Tourism Organisation. Available at: https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/

(eng. Analysis of survey with foreign tourists in Slovenia 2019/2020). Ljubljana:

pdf/10.18111/9789284421152 (January 2022).

Slovenska turistična oganizacija. Available at: https://www.slovenia.info/uploads/

Visit Ljubljana (2019). Začetek novega leta v Ljubljani zaznamuje močan investicijski cikel

dokumenti/anketa_o_tujih_turistih_2019/koncni%20porocili/A_TU-T_Tuji_turisti_v_

(eng: A strong investment cycle marks the beginning of 2019 in ljubljana). Ljubljana.

Sloveniji_2019_splosno_porocilo.pdf (March 2021).

Turizem Ljubljana. Available at: https://www.visitljubljana.com/sl/kongresni-urad-

Stubičar, N. and Marot, N. (2019). MESTUR: Poročilo delavnice v Ljubljani (eng. Report

ljubljane/novice/zacetek-novega-leta-v-ljubljani-zaznamuje-mocan-investicijski-cikel/

of the workshop in Ljubljana). Ljubljana: Biotehniška fakulteta.

(April 2020).

Stubičar, N. and Marot, N. (2022). MESTUR: Poročilo prostorske analize mestnega

Visit Ljubljana (2022). Kulturne četrti Ljubljane (eng. Cultural quarters in Ljubljana).

turizma (eng. Urban Tourism Spatial Analysis Report). Ljubljana: Biotehniška fakulteta.

Ljubljana: Turizem Ljubljana. Available at: https://www.visitljubljana.com/sl/turizem-

ljubljana/projekti-turizma-ljubljana/kulturne-cetrti-ljubljane/ (July 2020).

SURS (2019a). Tourist arrivals and overnight stays by countries, municipalities, Slovenia, annually. Available at: https://pxweb.stat.si/SiStatData/pxweb/en/Data/-/2164526S.

West, T. (2022). Liverpool’s European Capital of Culture legacy narrative: a selective

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heritage? European Planning Studies, 30(3), pp. 534−553.

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stays by types of tourist resorts [old classification of resorts] [old methodology], Ideology in Communist Yugoslavia. In: Grandits, H. and Taylor, K. (ed.), Yugoslavia’s Slovenia, 1961 – 2008. Available at: https://pxweb.stat.si/SiStatData/pxweb/en/Data/-

Sunny Side: A history of Tourism in Socialism (1950s–1980s), (pp. 69–106). Budapest:

/2161403S.px/ (November 2021)

Central European University Press.

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Slovenia, 1985 – 2008. Available at: https://pxweb.stat.si/SiStatData/pxweb/en/Data/-

Unescovem seznamu (eng. Plečnik’s works on the UNESCO list). Available at: https://

/2161404S.px/ (November 2021)

zaps.si/novice/plecnikova-dela-na-unescovem-seznamu/ (March 2022).

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Chapter 4


Urban destination Maribor


Uroš Horvat

99

Uroš Horvat

4 Urban destination Maribor

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

which attracts an increasing number of tourists to the city due to its rich

history, numerous businesses, cultural, entertainment, sports and eth-

nological events. In addition to the city centre, tourists are also attracted

4.1 Introduction

by the city’s diverse surroundings, which present great potential for the

development of tourism in the wider region.

Maribor is an important economic, cultural and educational centre of

north eastern Slovenia, and the second largest city in the country. It

Tourist development in Maribor began after the construction of the

lies on the banks of the Drava River, where five different regional units

Southern Railway between Vienna and Trieste and accelerated at the

meet: the Drava Valley with its great transport and energy importance,

end of the 19th century. In 1909, around 15,600 overnight stays were

the Pohorje Mountain, formerly mostly known for its extensive forests

recorded. Tourists stayed in smaller city hotels and guesthouses. Be-

but today mainly known for its developed summer and winter tourism,

tween the two world wars, some new accommodation facilities were

the borderline Kozjak Hills, the fertile Drava Plain with its extensive culti-

built, and tourist visits also increased. In 1935, around 56,300 overnight

vated areas, and the Slovenske Gorice hills with its developed fruit and

stays were recorded (Janša Zorn, 1996).

viticulture. 97,019 inhabitants live in the city of Maribor within an area

of 41 km2 (at the beginning of 2021). The city covers the central part of

After the Second World War, Maribor experienced intensive industri-

the municipality of Maribor, in which 113,778 inhabitants lived within

al and spatial development. This was followed by the development of

an area of 147.5 km2 (at the beginning of 2021) (SURS, 2022a).

tourism in the 1960s. The number of tourists has increased significantly,

and the data shows that before 1990, Maribor regularly ranked among

The city began to develop along the Drava River in the 12th century. The

the top ten tourist places in Slovenia with regards to the number of

fortress or castle on the hill above the settlement was called "Burg in

overnight stays. Apart from Ljubljana, it was the only place within the list

der Mark" and was first mentioned in a document from 1164 as "cas-

to have developed urban tourism. A large part of its tourism was com-

trum Marchburch" (Mlinarič, 2000; Ravnikar, 2020). The Slovenian name

prised of business tourism with tourists, most of which came from oth-

Maribor was first written down in 1836 by Stanko Vraz. Between the 16th

er republics of the former Yugoslavia. The peak of visits (with 235,000

and 18th centuries, it was a small craft and trading settlement. The de-

overnight stays) was recorded in the late 1970s and the late 1980s. After

velopment of it was affected by numerous economic crises, fires, Turk-

1990, however, due to the war in the territories of the other republics

ish sieges, "wine wars" with the neighbouring city of Ptuj, and plague

of the former Yugoslavia and the collapse of large Maribor companies,

epidemics. Due to relatively slow growth, only around 2,200 inhabitants

tourist visits decreased sharply (by a factor of more than 5 ) and in 1995

lived in the town at the beginning of the 19th century. After the con-

only around 40,000 overnight stays were recorded (Horvat, 2012a).

struction of a railway line between Vienna and Trieste in the middle of

the 19th century, trade and industry began to develop, and this gave

With the entry of Slovenia into the European Union in 2004, the re-es-

rise to the rapid growth of the settlement. After the First and Second

tablishment of transit flows towards South-Eastern Europe, the restruc-

World Wars, the city's economy advanced greatly, and Maribor became

turing of the economy, and the expansion of tourist infrastructure as

one of the most industrialized centres of Slovenia.

well as offerings, tourism once again became an important economic

activity in the city. The period between 2015 and 2019 represents the

In 1981, around 106,000 people lived in the city; the highest number

period that has witnessed the city’s fastest growth in tourist visits. Num-

in its history. When the common Yugoslav market fell apart in the late

bers reached a peak in 2018 with around 466,000 overnight stays and

1980s and early 1990s, Maribor’s industry, which was mostly depend-

in 2019 with around 218,000 tourists (Horvat, 2021).

ent on it, fell into a major crisis. All major industrial companies were

closed, including those metal and textile sector companies which had

The city is located only 18 km from the state border with Austria at the

previously employed almost 40% of the population. This, in addition to

junction of the 5th and 10th pan-European transport corridors. This ena-

the process of suburbanization and the aging of the population, affect-

bles it to have good transport connections with the regions of Central

ed the city’s demographic development and the number of inhabitants

Europe. It is also an important entry point on the way to the Balkans

in the city decreased to around 94,000 in 2002 (Horvat, 2019a).

and South-Eastern Europe. It has good road and rail connections with

Ljubljana, Graz, and Zagreb. In 1976, an airport was built nearby, which

At the end of the 1990s, with the development of small and medi-

was renamed Edvard Rusjan Maribor Airport in 2008. The airport is suit-

um-sized enterprises, the economic situation began to improve again.

able for international commercial air traffic, but unfortunately, it has not

The leading role in development was taken by the service sector and

had any scheduled airlines for many years; representing a huge unused

the financial sector. Based on the number of employees, the University

potential.

Clinical Centre and the University of Maribor are among the largest

employers in the city. Tourism is also an important economic sector

100

101



Uroš Horvat

4 Urban destination Maribor

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

In 2000, the municipality of Maribor established the Public Econom-

After the year 2000, there was an intensive restructuring of tourist in-

ic Institute for Tourism Maribor which, in 2012, was renamed to the

frastructure, modernization and expansion. As a result, new hotel and

Maribor – Pohorje Tourist Board and in September 2020 to the Mari-

other facilities (e.g., hotels Arena, Bajt, Bau, Draš, Milena, Tabor, Terano,

bor Tourist Board (VisitMaribor, 2021a). The institution acts as a central

Maribor, Maribor Inn, and so on) were built. Most of the new accommo-

tourist organization for the implementation of public services, promot-

dation facilities are located on the outskirts of the city, and especially at

ing tourism, creating and promoting a comprehensive tourist offer in

the foot of the Pohorje Mountain where, in addition to the Habakuk Ho-

the region, promoting the development of tourist infrastructure and

tel and the Arena Sports Hotel, there are several smaller family hotels,

informing visitors.

lodgings, and guesthouses. The construction of new accommodation

intensified further after 2006, when new hotels were built on the out-

skirts of the city and in the city centre as well (among them the Betnava

4.2 Tourist infrastructure and number of beds

Hotel in 2007, and the City Hotel in 2011) (Horvat, 2012b).

The construction of modern tourist infrastructure began in the 1960s.

The number of beds in hotels and similar accommodation increased

At the time, tourist offers were dominated by three city hotels and two

from around 740 in 2001 to over 1,000 in 2007, and to over 2,000 in

further hotels which were located below and on top of Pohorje Moun-

2011, while the number of all tourist beds increased from around 1,000

tain. In 1963, the city's largest hotel, Slavija was built – this was closed in

in 2003 to over 2,000 in 2008, and to over 4,000 in 2011. In 2017, there

2001 and then converted into a business centre in 2012. In 1966, the

were around 4,200 beds available, of which around half were in hotels

Turist Hotel was expanded, and subsequently converted into the Piram-

and similar accommodation. The decrease of the share of tourist beds

ida Business Hotel in 1995. It was subsequently renovated again be-

in hotels is especially important from the point of view of expanding

tween 2010 and 2012. In 1969, the city's oldest Hotel Orel (from 1928)

the variety of the tourist offer and the availability of differently priced

was modernized and in 1989 connected to the former hotel Zamorc. In

accommodation facilities.

2006, part of the hotel was closed and converted into a shopping cen-

tre, a second part was renovated, and third part was turned into a Uni

Figure 4.1

youth hostel. Outside the city centre one may find the Habakuk Hotel

Distribution of

which was converted into a 5-star hotel in 1998, and above it, next to

hotels and similar

the upper station of the Pohorska Vzpenjača cable car, is the Bellevue

accommodation in

the centre of Maribor

Hotel, which was renovated in 2007. The named hotels were owned by

(Source: Report on

the largest hotel company in Maribor, Terme Maribor, until 2011, after

spatial analysis of urban

which they fell into the ownership of foreign investors (from the Russian

tourism, 2021)

Federation, and in 2019, companies in Cyprus) (Večer, 2020).

Table 4.1

Year

1966

1971

1981

1991

2001

2006

2011

2017

2019

2021

Type of

city

city

city

city

muni-

m

m

m

m

m

Number of all tourist

accommo-

cipality

beds in Maribor

dations

(m)

between 1966 and

Hotels and

551

643

898

870

736

882

2,027

2,128

-

-

2021 (Source: Results

similar acco-

of Surveys; SURS,

mmodations

2022b, c)

Other

180

474

31

58

70

135

1,518

2,099

-

-

accommo-

dations

Note: The data for

Total

731

1,117

929

928

806

1,017

3,545

4,227

6,160

4,897

the period between

1966 and 1991

From the beginning of the 1970s to the end of the 1980s, the number

refer to the city of

Maribor, between

of tourist beds in Maribor decreased, but the number available in ho-

2001 and 2021 to the

tels and similar accommodations increased by more than half (Table

Municipality of Maribor.

4.1). This was the period in which the city experiences its first peak of

Based on the new data collection and processing methodology (SURS,

The data for the period

between 2001 and

tourist visits, and it coincided with the city’s peak of economic develop-

2021), The Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia detected 6,160

2017 are collected

ment. Between 820 and 930 beds were available in hotels during this

beds in Maribor in 2019 (of which 5,628 are permanent) (Table 4.1).

according to the old

period; 70-80% of all tourist beds. During the crisis period in the mid-

The Maribor Tourist Board stated in its annual report that according

methodology, for the

1990s, the number of all beds fluctuated greatly and, in some years,

period between 2019

to the data of the "taksa.si" program, 6,446 permanent tourist beds

and 2021 according to

decreased to around 800, whilst the number of hotel beds available

were available in 214 facilities in the municipality in the same year. Of all

the new methodology

fell to around 500.

available beds, 29% were in hotel and motel accommodation, 36% in

102

of SURS (M2018).

103

Uroš Horvat

4 Urban destination Maribor

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

apartments, lodging houses, tourist farms and guesthouses, and 35% in

via the sharing economy, such as Airbnb), and the data is collected from

student dormitories and youth hostels (ZTMP, 2019, 2020a). Among indi-

administrative sources. According to the new methodology (M2018),

vidual types of accommodation, Maribor is noticeably lacking in camping

some annual data was recalculated for the period 2010–2017 and this is

facilities - there are only a few in the vicinity of the city. Based on the above,

available in the SiStat database.

we can conclude that the total number of tourist beds has increased sig-

nificantly in recent years, with the increase mainly due to beds in student

Due to the mentioned changes in the methodology, in this analysis, the

dormitories and smaller accommodation facilities, (especially in private

data showing a longer period refer to different areas which actually over-

rooms and apartments that are rented out through various online provid-

lap in some time period. For the period between 1960 and 2009, the set

ers, including providers based on the principle of the sharing economy

of data shown refers to the city of Maribor, and in parallel, a set of data is

such as Airbnb).

also shown for the period between 1992 and 2009 that refers to the Mu-

nicipality of Maribor. It is noticeable that the data between the settlement

In contrast to Ljubljana, where in 2019 there were more than 1,600 units

and the municipality of Maribor do not differ significantly; almost all tourist

available from private providers via the sharing economy, there were only

visits registered in the municipality represent a visit to the city of Maribor. A

about 180 in Maribor. Their number decreased to about 150 units in

parallel set of data is also shown for the period between 2010 and 2017;

2020, and according to the latest data the figure now stands at less than

in this period the data is shown according to both methodologies and

130 (AirDNA, 2020). It is expected that due to Covid-19 pandemic, the

then continues until 2021 according to the new methodology (M2018).

number of accommodation units will decrease further. Among available

housing units, around 75% were in detached apartments or residential

4.3.1 Number of tourists and overnight stays

buildings, and 25% of the units were rooms within apartments (AirDNA,

Based on the volume and characteristics of stationary tourist visits in Mar-

2020).

ibor in the period between 1961 and 2021, the overall period can be di-

vided into several development periods. The period from the beginning

The first consequences of the crisis and the decrease in tourist visits were

of the 1970s to the end of the 1980s was a period of gradual tourism

the cessation of operation of some facilities, e.g., the bankruptcy of the

development which led to the city’s first peak in tourist arrivals. It coincid-

Hotel Betnava (STA, 2021), the closure of the Habakuk hotel and the

ed with the city’s peak of general economic development. The number of

announcement of the sale of the city hotels owned by Terme Maribor

tourists varied between 120,000 and 150,000, and the number of over-

company (MariborInfo, 2020a; RTVSLO, 2020a). According to SURS data

night stays varied between 200,000 and 245,000 annually (Figure 4.2).

(SURS, 2022c), in 2020 the number of tourist beds decreased to 5,297

Based on the mentioned volume of tourist visits, Maribor was an impor-

beds (of which 4,989 permanent beds), which represents a decrease of

tant tourist destination in Slovenia at that time and was included in the list

14%. In 2021, there was a further reduction to 4,897 beds (of which 4,650

of the ten most important Slovenian tourist destinations by number of

are permanent), i.e., 7.6%.

overnight stays (Horvat, 2012a).

The period between the end of the 1980s and the end of the 1990s was

4.3 Scope and characteristics of the tourist visit

marked by the biggest crisis in tourism since the Second World War. The

period coincided with the rapid collapse of large industrial companies in

We analysed the data collected by the Statistical Office of the Republic of

Maribor, the war in the area of the former Yugoslavia, and consequently

Slovenia (SURS) on stationary tourists and their overnight stays. When us-

a noticeable change (and decrease) in transit flows towards Southeast-

ing the data, it should be noted that the time series has been interrupted

ern Europe. In the first half of the 1990s, the number of tourists dropped

twice (SURS, 2021a). The first break in the time series was due to a change

to less than 30,000, and the number of overnight stays fell to fewer than

in the statistical survey methodology in 2008 which introduced a differ-

60,000.

ent way of preparing the framework of observed units and inserting data

for units that did not report data on time. A new way of publishing data

With the stabilization of the political situation in the Balkans, the entry of

was also introduced. Before that, data was published by settlements and

Slovenia into the European Union (in 2004), the adoption of the Euro as

municipalities (the latter from 1994 onwards), but with the new approach

the common European currency (in 2007) and the modernization, re-

from 2009 onwards, only by municipalities. The research methodology

structuring and development of new tourist infrastructure (Horvat, 2012b),

was changed for a second time in 2018, when it adapted new European

the start of the new millennium witnessed a period of renewed tourism

regulations in the field of tourism statistics. As a result, data before and

development. In contrast to Ljubljana, tourist visits in Maribor increased

after that (2009) change in methodology are not completely compara-

more slowly and were still significantly behind compared to the previous

ble. With the new methodology (referred to below as M2018), the way of

period. The number of overnight stays in Maribor reached the level of the

preparing the framework of observed units was changed again and in-

mid-1960s only in 2003, and its peak from 1978 was exceeded only in

troduced complete data coverage (including providers of tourist services

2012 (Figure 4.2).

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Section A

Figure 4.2

4.3.2 Domestic and foreign tourists

Number of tourists

In the 1980s, most tourists in Maribor came from other republics of

and overnight stays in

the former Yugoslavia. The share of their overnight stays ranged from

Maribor between 1960

53-64%, and among them the most represented tourists were from

and 2021 (Source:

Results of Surveys;

Serbia (they accounted for around 27% of all overnight stays) (Figure

SURS, 2022d, e, f)

4.3). Tourists from other countries accounted for only about a third of

overnight stays (Horvat, 2012a). Business and transit tourists dominated

among tourists from Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina; evidenced

by the relatively short average length of tourist stays in the city. In the

1990s, the share of overnight stays by foreign tourists gradually began

to increase, with tourists from nearby Central European countries dom-

inating. The share of their overnight stays gradually increased to 62%. If

we add to this the overnight stays of tourists from other republics of the

former Yugoslavia (defined as foreign tourists after 1991), the share of

foreign tourists increased from 65% to 78%.

After 2000, tourist visits to Maribor increased mainly as a consequence

of an increase in the number of visits by foreign tourists; the share of

overnight stays by domestic tourists slowly decreased from 25% to

around 15%, and stabilized at less than 15% by 2019 (Figure 4.3). The

share of overnight stays by tourists from other countries that originat-

If we compare the increase in tourist visits in Slovenia, Ljubljana, and

ed in the area of the former Yugoslavia also stagnated (around 13%).

Maribor between 2010 and 2019 based on the new SURS methodology

Both shares are still, however, much higher in Maribor than in Ljubljana,

from 2018 (M2018), we find that during this period the number of tour-

where tourists from Slovenia register less than 5% of overnight stays

ists in Slovenia increased by 89%, in Ljubljana by 162%, and in Maribor

(Horvat, 2019b). In 2011, Maribor was visited by around 77,000 foreign

by 126%. In the same period, the number of overnight stays in Slovenia

tourists, who spent, in total, around 165,000 nights in the city. Most of

increased by 60%, in Ljubljana by as much as 165%, and in Maribor by

these visits were from countries that already dominated the internation-

110%. In contrast to Ljubljana, accommodation capacity in Maribor did

al market of tourists in the city; Germany (9.1%), Croatia (7.1%), Italy

not increase as much, and the airport also failed to introduce any regular

(7.0%), Austria (5.3%) and Serbia (5.1%).

flights. Nevertheless, the period between 2015 and 2019 is the period

that has witnessed the fastest growth in tourist visits to Maribor; in 2019

Figure 4.3

the number of tourists exceeded 217,000, and the number of overnight

Share of overnight

stays was 466,000.

stays by domestic

and foreign tourists in

Maribor between 1960-

Tourist stakeholders predicted further growth in tourist arrivals in 2020

2021 (Source: Results

as well, but growth slowed down in the second half of 2019 and was

of Surveys; SURS,

then completely paralysed in 2020 as a consequence of the Covid-19

2022d, e, f)

pandemic. Tourist arrivals fell to the level of recorded in the 1970s,

Note: Tourists from

and in 2020 reached only 33% of the number recorded for 2019. With

other republics of the

around 72,000 in 2020 was lower than before 1964 and also lower than

former Yugoslavia are

shown in the category

in the period between 1991 and 2007. There was a smaller decrease

"From other countries"

in the number of overnight stays, which in 2020 reached 43% of the

throughout the period,

number recorded 2019. With around 196,000 in 2020 was lower than

and separately (dashed

line) in the period

before 1974 and also lower than in the period between 1990 and 2007.

between 1960 and

The data for 2021 however showed growth again; compared to the fig-

2009.

ures recorded for 2020, those for 2021 exhibited an increase of about

43% in the number of tourists, while the number of overnight stays rose

by around 26%. 103,000 tourists in 2021 represent only around 47% of

tourists from 2019, and 247,000 overnight stays in 2021 represents only

From other countries – city Mb.

From other countries (without other rep. of the former Yug.)

From Slovenia – city Mb.

From other countries – municipality Mb. (M2018)

around 54% of overnight stays from 2019.

From other rep. of the former Yug.

From Slovenia – municipality Mb. (M2018)

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Section A

In 2019, the share of overnight stays by tourists from other countries

Despite the significantly smaller volume of visits that Maribor enjoys com-

reached approximately 87%. The most represented tourists for overnight

pared to Ljubljana, the index of the increase in the number of tourists be-

stays were from Germany (9.1%) and Croatia (6.4%), followed by Poland

tween 2008 and 2019 shows that during this period Maribor also became

(5.5%), Serbia (5.3%), Italy (5.2%) and Austria (5.1%) (Figure 4.4). These per-

an important destination for tourists from other continents, as their number

centage shares show that the gravitational area from which tourists come

increased by circa 300 per cent. Asia stands out as the area that accounted

is still mainly Central and Eastern Europe, as well as Western Europe, only

for the greatest growth. The number of tourists from Korea increased by

tourists from the Netherlands and Spain contributed more than 2% of

40 times, from China more than 10 times (Figure 4.5). Unfortunately, the

overnight stays.

circumstances related to the Covid-19 pandemic completely changed this

favourable trend in 2020 and their number decreased to a total of little

In the years immediately before the Covid-19 pandemic, visits from

more than a tenth of that recorded in 2019.

non-European countries also increased significantly. Before 1991, tourists

from this area contributed less than 4,000 overnight stays in Maribor an-

Year

2008-2019

2019-2020

2020-2021

Table 4.2

nually, (about 3% of the total). After 2000, their share increased to over 5%,

Tourist arrival area

Tourists

Over-

Tourists

Over-

Tourists

Over-

Index of changes in the

and in 2019, there were around 17,000 tourists from non-European coun-

nights

nights

nights

number of tourists in

tries who, cumulatively, accounted for just under 42,000 overnight stays,

Maribor between 2008

Slovenia

136.4

96.0

71.0

78.0

108.8

107.9

and 2021 according

or 9.2% of the total. In 2019, the most tourists came from Korea (around

Abroad

274.6

270.3

27.4

38.5

141.4

113.6

to the area of arrival of

4,000), China (3,100), from other Asian countries (3,300), and from the

tourists (Source: SURS,

Other countries in the area

258.7

294.0

35.6

55.3

83.6

92.2

USA (2,500), but the shares of their overnight stays were lower due to the

of the former Yugoslavia

2022e, f)

shorter average lengths of their stays. Despite the growth, the number of

Neighbouring countries of

210.5

208.6

30.1

38.4

106.3

91.5

tourists who came from other continents was significantly lower in Maribor

Slovenia

(at least 10 to 20 times lower) compared to those who visited Ljubljana in

Outside of Europe

312.3

269.3

11.3

17.1

102.0

104.8

the same period.

Asia

590.6

475.8

9.5

12.8

77.0

91.4

North America

158.9

155.3

12.8

14.2

165.5

158.4

Figure 4.4

Share of overnight

stays by tourists from

Figure 4.6

20 countries with

the highest share of

Share of overnight

overnight stays in

stays by tourists from

Maribor in 2019 (left)

20 countries with

(Source: SURS, 2022e, f)

the highest share of

overnight stays in

Figure 4.5

Maribor in 2020 (left)

Index of changes in

(Source: SURS, 2022e, f)

the number of tourists

Figure 4.7

in Maribor by selected

countries of arrival

Index of changes in

between 2008 and 2019

the number of tourists

(right) (Source: SURS,

in Maribor by selected

2022e, f)

countries of arrival

between 2019 and 2020

(right) (Source: SURS,

2022e, f)

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The Covid-19 pandemic significantly reduced tourist arrivals in 2020. The

stand out with higher shares. Overnight stays by foreign tourists in 2019

biggest contributor to this was the decline in the number of foreign tour-

were above average in two summer months, in July (12.5%) and August

ists (Table 4.2). Compared to 2019, their number decreased by as much

(13.3%), when more than a quarter of all foreign overnight stays for the

as 73% (from around 189,000 in 2019 to around 51,000 in 2020) and the

year were registered.

share of foreign overnight stays as a percentage of the total fell to 78%. The

drop was most noticeable with regard to tourists from other continents,

Figure 4.8

whose number of overnight stays fell by almost 83%, while those from Eu-

Share of overnight stays

ropean countries fell by an average of 59%. Tourists from China (decrease

by season in Maribor

by more than 96%), other Asian countries (93%), Israel (92%), the USA and

between 1960 and

2021 (Source: Results

Australia (87%) and Korea (85%) experienced the biggest decrease in the

of Surveys; SURS,

number of tourists (Figure 4.7). Among European countries, the number

2022g, h, i)

of tourists decreased the most from more distant countries, such as Swe-

den (by around 89%), Spain and Turkey (83%), and the Netherlands (81%).

Apart from Slovenia (decrease of around 29%), the decrease was smallest

among tourists from nearby countries (Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina,

Slovakia, Germany, and Serbia).

In 2021, the increase in tourist arrivals was mainly a consequence of vis-

its from foreign tourists from nearby European countries. Among the top

eight countries with the highest share of overnight stays were countries

within a radius of 300-700 km from Maribor (Germany, Croatia, Serbia,

Bosnia and Herzegovina, Italy, Hungary, Austria, Czech Republic); a major-

ity of the same travelled by car.

4.3.3 Seasonal distribution of tourist visits

From April to Sept. – city Mb.

From April to Sept. – municipality Mb.

From April to Sept. – municipality Mb. (M2018)

From June to Sept. – municipality Mb.

The data shows that between 1990 and 2010, an average of 47-52% of

From June to Sept. – municipality Mb.

(M2018)

all annual overnight stays were registered in Maribor during the sum-

mer season (from April to September) (Figure 4.8). During this period,

The Covid-19 pandemic had a strong impact on the seasonal distribu-

business tourism was of greatest importance. Historically, the 1990s

tion of overnight stays (Horvat, 2021). With more than 30,000 overnight

stood as having a lower share, when in more than half of the years, less

stays per month, the winter season in 2020 (January and February) start-

than 50% of overnight stays were during the summer period (with the

ed quite successfully (Figure 4.9), and then, with the spread of the epi-

lowest share being in 1991 when the Slovenian War of Independence

demic, trips were cancelled, and the number of reservations decreased.

took place at the beginning of the summer). After 2006, with a strong

A Covid-19 epidemic was declared in Slovenia on 12 March 2020, and

increase in tourist visits and an upsurge in foreign tourists, the share

the first wave lasted until 31 May 2020 (GovSi, 2020; Pis, 2020a). With

of overnight stays in the summer period increased, to around 60% of

the tightening of measures to contain the spread of the virus, pressure

yearly totals between 2011 and 2019.

on the tourist economy increased. "Lockdown" resulted in the closure

of all overnight establishments. Nevertheless, in April and May 2020,

The analysis of the share of overnight stays by month also shows that

SURS still recorded a little less than 5,000 overnight stays in Maribor

in the last decade the summer months (June, July, August) have been

per month, most of which could be attributed to foreign students who

most favourable. Tourists are attracted by various events, and most for-

stayed in the city.

eign tourists stop in Maribor for a day or two as transit tourists or as

visitors to other destinations in Slovenia. Due to the proximity of the Po-

With the abatement of the epidemic in the short summer season of

horje Mountain, some winter months (January, February) are also well

2020, tourist accommodation reopened, and in the months of July, Au-

represented though figures here depend, partly, on the availability of

gust and September, 20,000 to 30,000 overnight stays were registered

skiing. The lowest number of visitors (less than 7% of annual overnight

per month; half the number of the same months in 2019. The decrease

stays) arrive during the spring months (March, April) and late autumn

was due to a significant decrease in the number of foreign tourists. The

(November). During these two times, share of foreign tourists is also at

total number of nights that they stayed decreased from around 53,000

its lowest. The distribution of overnight stays by month for 2019 also

in August 2019 to around 17,000 in August 2020. At the same time, the

shows that overnight stays by tourists from Slovenia were evenly repre-

share of their overnight stays also decreased (to 60-65%).

sented throughout the year, only February (10.6%) and August (10.3%)

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Section A

With the worsening pandemic crisis, the Government of the Republic

trend. Due to less interest (or ability) to travel abroad and the possibility

of Slovenia once again declared an epidemic for 30 days on 19 Octo-

of using "tourist vouchers", which were awarded to citizens of Slove-

ber 2020 (Pis, 2020b); consequently, various measures restricted the

nia by the government of the Republic of Slovenia (FURS, 2021), the

movement of people and the operation of various activities. Between

number of overnight stays by domestic tourists increased in Maribor. In

1st and 11th April 2021, a complete lockdown of the country was or-

August 2020, as much as 96% more overnight stays by domestic tour-

dered. In the spring of 2021, intensive vaccination of the population

ists than in August 2019 were recorded. Slovenians thus contributed

began, and with a certificate of recovery, vaccination, or a negative test

as much as 39% of all overnight stays in August 2020; well above the

it was o possible to use tourist accommodation again. The result of all

average of previous years.

these events was that between November 2020 and April 2021 (Fig-

ure 4.9), less than 5,000 overnight stays were recorded in Maribor per

4.3.4 Average length of stay of tourists

month; those that were recorded were, once again, predominantly a

In the period before 2000, the average length of stay of tourists in Mar-

result of foreign students who stayed in the city, but the figures also

ibor was less than 2 days (Figure 4.10). Most tourists visited the city

recorded some to workers who lived in accommodation facilities. The

for business reasons, but recreational motives (especially winter and

data on the average length of stay of tourists was 10-15 days during

summer recreation on the Pohorje Mountain) and transit were also

the "lockdown" in November 2020 and December 2020, and that it

important. Tourists from other countries stayed in Maribor slightly less

otherwise varied between 1.5-3 days in the other months when a larger

than the average (from 1.3 to 1.6 days), with a pronounced influence of

number of tourists visited.

transit tourism being evident in this period.

Figure 4.10

Figure 4.9

Average length of stay

Number of overnight

of tourists (in nights) in

stays by domestics

Maribor between 1960

and foreign tourists in

and 2021 (Source:

Maribor after months in

Results of Surveys;

period between years

SURS, 2022d, e, f)

2018 and 2021 (Source:

Note: Tourists from

SURS, 2022h, i)

other republics of the

former Yugoslavia are

shown in the "From

other countries"

category throughout

the entire period.

ch

ch

ch

ch

May

July

May

July

May

July

May

July

Mar

Mar

Mar

Mar

September

November

September

November

September

November

September

November

January 2018

January 2019

January 2020

January 2021

From Slovenia – city Mb.

From Slovenia – municipality Mb. (M2018)

From other countries – city Mb.

From other countries. – municipality Mb. (M2018)

In May and June 2021, tourist visits began to gradually increase, reach-

ing a peak in the summer and autumn of 2021. Between July and Oc-

After 2000, the average length of stay of tourists increased above 2 days

tober 2021, an average of 30,000 to 40,000 overnight stays were re-

(Figure 4.10). In the period between 2001 and 2012, domestic tourists

corded in Maribor per month, and in November and December 2021

mainly contributed to this increase, with values (in terms of number of

around 26,000. The most overnight stays were recorded in August

days) fluctuating between 2.8 and 3.7 days in the s period between

2021 (around 44,000); an increase of 54% compared to August 2020,

2002 and 2008. Tourists from other republics of the former Yugoslavia,

but still 25% less than August 2019.

who began to return to Maribor, also contributed. The increase in the

length of their stays in the winter is especially noticeable, since at that

In the summer and autumn of 2021, foreign tourists returned in greater

time they represented a significant part of the visitors to the Pohorje

numbers, and accounting for approximately 80% of all overnight stays

Mountain (Horvat, 2012a). After 2012, the average length of stay of do-

in the city on average. In August 2021, they contributed around 36,000

mestic tourists again equalled that of foreign tourists and ranged from

overnight stays, which was still around 32% less than in August 2019.

2.0 to 2.2 days. Based on the above, it is obvious that Maribor does not

The summer of 2020 and 2021 brought another interesting tourist

represent a sufficiently large and recognizable tourist destination that

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Section A

attracts tourists as a result of its tourist potential and offers to stay there

2020 (Figure 4.11) also shows a slightly different order of countries ac-

for a long time.

cording to the average lengths of stay, but it should be noted that the

conditions for travel due to the Covid-19 pandemic were completely

In 2019, tourists from other republics of the former Yugoslavia and

different from previous years and that there were large differences in

some more distant European countries had the longest average

the lengths of stay and these were influenced by the small number of

lengths of stay (Figure 4.11). Tourists from Macedonia (4.4 days), Mon-

tourists.

tenegro (3.7) and the Russian Federation (3.5) stood out, followed by

those from China, Serbia, Finland, Canada and Croatia (2.5–2.7 days).

4.3.5 Share of tourist visits to Maribor within Slovenia

On the other hand, tourists from Korea spent, on average, only one

During the period of intensive tourism development before the Cov-

night in Maribor followed by tourists from Denmark (1.3), Poland (1.4)

id-19 pandemic, the municipality of Maribor regained its place among

and Romania (1.6). Tourists from nearby Austria (1.5) and Germany (1.7)

the most touristic municipalities in Slovenia. In 2017, Maribor was rep-

also had short average lengths of stay.

resented by 3.1% of all beds in the country, and in 2019 by 2.9% of all

overnight stays and 3.5% of all tourists who spent at least one night

In 2019, the average length of stays of tourists by month was the long-

in Slovenia. According to the number of tourists, it ranked 6th in 2019

est for foreign tourists in the winter months (3.1 days in January and 3.4

(behind the municipalities of Ljubljana, Piran, Bled, Kranjska Gora and

days in February), and the shortest periods were in the summer months

Bohinj), whilst it ranked in 10th place with regard to the number of over-

(1.6 days in July and 1.5 in August), but the opposite was true for do-

night stays (behind the municipalities of Ljubljana, Piran, Bled, Kranjska

mestic tourists. In the winter months, the Pohorje Mountain is an im-

Gora, Brežice, Bohinj, Moravske Toplice, Izola and Bovec).

portant destination for skiers from neighbouring countries, especially

Croatia and Hungary, while in the summer months most foreign tourists

Due to the Covid-19 pandemic, tourist visits to Maribor in 2020 de-

stop in the city of Maribor whilst ‘in transit; resultantly, they tend to only

creased by almost two thirds compared to 2019; just over 10 percent-

stay for a day or two.

age points less than the largest decrease during and after Slovenia's

independence (between 1990 and 1995). As a result, Maribor's share

Figure 4.11

of tourist visits to Slovenia also decreased. The share of tourists in Mar-

Average length of

ibor in 2020 was 2.4% of all those recorded for the whole of Slovenia,

stay of tourists from

and the share of overnight stays was 2.1%; mirroring the in 2010.

selected countries

in Maribor in 2019

(left) and 2020 (right)

In 2020, the Municipality of Maribor fell from 6th to 11th place with re-

(Source: SURS, 2022f)

gard to the number of tourists (in addition to those listed above, it was

overtaken by the municipalities of Bovec, Brežice, Moravske Toplice,

Izola and Podčetrtek), and from 10th to 12th with regard to the number

of overnight stays (in addition to the ones listed above, it was overtak-

en by the municipalities of Podčetrtek and Zreče). Mainly due to the

cashing out of "tourist vouchers", in 2020 and in 2021, the number of

domestic tourists increased the most in mountain, seaside and spa mu-

nicipalities, while significantly fewer people used the vouchers in urban

destinations. Data for Maribor shows that in the period from June 2020

to August 2021, around 10.4 thousand tourist vouchers with a total

value of €1.282 million were redeemed in the municipality of Maribor

0.67% of all value in Slovenia (MariborInfo, 2021).

4.4 Types of tourism

The basic tourist potential of Maribor is represented by the city centre

with its rich historical and cultural roots, cultural offers, numerous festi-

In the last two years, there has been a noticeable increase in the aver-

vals and sports events, the Drava River, the outskirts of the city with the

age length of stays of foreign tourists. This can be attributed to their

forests on the Pohorje Mountain. The rich sports offer include: skiing,

small number during the Covid-19 pandemic, when mostly only for-

hiking, cycling, adrenaline experiences, football, tennis, various outdoor

eign students were seen in the city during the "lockdown". The data for

and indoor sports and other forms of recreation and exercise in nature.

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Section A

Table 4.3

Main products

Supporting products

the world (Stara trta, 2021) and it is registered in the Guinness Book of

Main and supporting

- Culture - discovering the city,

- Events and entertainment - festivals,

World Records. The revitalization of this part of the city began in the

tourist products in

sights, history, cultural institutions,

events

1980s, when the western part of Lent was renovated, and in addition

Maribor

contemporary and alternative art, …

- Wine and cuisine - a mix of urban

to the residential part, many cafes and restaurants were established.

- Sport and recreation - recreation of the

cuisine and rural cuisine, wine cellars

population and tourists, organisation

and wine roads

The most important areas and buildings on Lent are the remains of the

and implementation of sports events,

- Wellness

medieval walls (built in the 13th century and subsequently expanded in

…

- Nature experiences

the 16th), the Water Tower with a wine cellar, the Jewish Square in the

- Business meetings and events - year-

- Special interests - shopping,

former Jewish ghetto with a preserved synagogue from the 15th century

round business tourism, conferences

education, gambling, …

and congresses (together with

(which is one of the oldest preserved synagogues in Central Europe),

supporting events), motivational

the Old Vine House, the Minorite complex, and the Court Tower. Lent

meetings, …

comes especially to life in the summer, when the international multicul-

tural Lent Festival takes place and the embankment along the Drava

The basic type of tourism in Maribor is urban tourism. In recent years,

River is full of cultural events and entertainment. A tourist boat runs

this has been one of the fastest growing types of tourism, but research

along the river, and the tradition of rafting is also renewed every year.

shows that there is no general market profile of urban tourists. Each

city is very specific in terms of their identities; therefore, they (individu-

Also, within the city centre are the extensive Slomškov trg with the

al) attract different profiles of tourists, which are defined according to

Cathedral and Grajski trg with the City Castle (Figure 4.12). The main

how they perceive the given city and the tourist experiences available

tourist attractions and locations in Maribor are well described in numer-

in them. Given this, we can define several types of tourism within urban

ous tourist guides (both online and in book format) They are also well

tourism including, cultural, business or congress tourism, shopping, cu-

presented on the website of the Maribor Tourist Board (VisitMaribor,

linary, sports tourism, and so on (UNWTO, 2020).

2021b).

Cultural tourism, business tourism, and sports tourism can be also

Figure 4.12

defined as the main products of urban tourism in Maribor, while sup-

The main tourist

porting products include events and entertainment, wine and cuisine,

attractions in the city:

wellness, nature experiences and special interests (Table 4.3).

Lent with the Old Vine

House (above), the

Main Square with the

4.4.1 Cultural tourism

Plague Column and

Cultural tourism is based on the history and culture of the visited place.

the Castle Square with

Maribor Castle (below)

With regard to Malibor, and in addition to a historical view of the) city,

(Author: David Klepej,

such as sites, museums, archaeological sites, architecture, it also offers

2020)

the opportunity to learn about modern art and current cultural trends.

This form of tourism therefore attracts tourists and visitors who are not

only interested in relaxing, but also getting to know the culture of the

place (Konakoğlu and Kurdoğlu, 2019). For this type of tourism, it must

be emphasized that attractions are not only intended for tourists, but

also ensure a higher quality of life and satisfaction of the higher living

needs of the local population.

As in many other European cities that boast a medieval tradition, the

most interesting part of Maribor is its narrow city centre with its narrow

Special emphasis should also be placed on the most important cultural

streets and squares and houses built on small plots. It was built in the

and event institutions. Slovene National Theatre Maribor combines dra-

Middle Ages, when it was surrounded by city walls, and although these

matic, musical and dance expression. It is also the host and organizer of

features have been obscured many times due to numerous and exten-

the annual central festival of Slovenian drama theatres, Borštnik's Meet-

sive renovations over the centuries, they are still visible and interesting

ing, and competitions of young singing talents. Narodni Dom Maribor

to visitors today. The largest area of the city centre is the Main Square

is an event centre with programs intended for all generations, lovers of

with the Town Hall, and south of the Main Square where, on the left

music, theatre performances, and contemporary performing arts. The

bank of the Drava River, the oldest part of the city called Lent is located

Maribor Art Gallery is one of the central museums for modern and con-

(Figure 4.12). The biggest tourist attraction of Maribor is located here.

temporary art in Slovenia with a collection of works of art by Slovenian

A more than 400 years old vine is considered to be the oldest vine in

authors from the end of the 19th century to the present day. Many other

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Section A

museums and galleries can also be found in Maribor.

car to the top of the Pohorje was built in 1957, and the current one was

built in 2009. In its six decades of operation, the Pohorje cable car has

Undoubtedly, the fact that Maribor was the holder of the title of Euro-

carried close to 18 million passengers (Marprom, 2020). Traditionally,

pean Capital of Culture 2012 represents its pinnacle achievement in

since 1964, Pohorje hosted the annual competition for the FIS World

the field of cultural tourism and is also the largest and most recogniz-

Cup in women's skiing, called the Golden Fox, as well as World Cup

able cultural project in the history of Slovenia. In addition to the direct

competitions in mountain biking.

influence on cultural activity and its development, which otherwise

would not have been fully utilized, it also had a great influence on the

Climate change is increasingly affecting the possibility of skiing, espe-

promotion of Maribor, partner cities, and Slovenia in general. It had

cially in the lower part of the ski area, which extends to the outskirts of

significant positive effects in the economic field, as, among others,

the city and is located at an altitude of about 340 m. The long-term

in 2012 Maribor gained around 19% more tourists (and around 17%

average number of days with snow cover is 51 (days with snow cover

more overnight stays) than the year before, and increased tourist visits

are those days when the ground is covered with snow at 7:00 a.m.),

were maintained in the following years as well (Horvat, 2013).

but between 1951 and 2017 the number of days with snow cover has

decreased at a rate of 4.7 days per 10 years (ARSO, 2001). Although the

4.4.2 Sports tourism, sport and recreation

last winter season, when there were more than 65 days with snow cover,

Sports tourism is a type of tourism focused on sports activities and

was in the 2009/10, the operators of the Mariborsko Pohorje ski resort

sports events. It covers all types of recreation and sports events outside

still provide more than 100 skiing days per season with the help of arti-

and inside the city (Termania, 2020). For cities, this type of tourism is

ficial snow. The data provided is mainly related to the upper part of the

usually not the primary type that brings tourists to the (given) destina-

ski resort on Areh, which is located at altitudes between 1000 and 1330

tion, but existing offers can certainly enrich their stay. Another aspect of

m, where there have been an average of 111 operational days between

sports tourism is the organization of sports events of regional, national,

2010 and 2016 (Delo, 2016).

continental or world importance; these can attract many visitors, espe-

cially if they are attractive for spectators. In this regard, Maribor does not

Maribor is also an important stop on the Drava cycling route which runs

have large enough sports infrastructure capacities (e.g., a large enough

along the Drava River and connects four countries on a route of around

stadium or sports hall) to be able to host very large events of global

710 km. The route starts in the immediate vicinity of the spring of the

importance.

Drava River in Italy, continues through Austrian Carinthia, progresses

through Slovenia, and ends in Croatia. In 2015, the German cycling

Despite this, in 2018, Maribor held the title European City of Sport

club ADFC rated the Drava cycling route in Austria with five stars, the

2018, as a result of its being home to top athletes and sports teams,

highest possible rating for a single route in Europe; one of only four

and at the same time, around half of the city's residents were active in

cycling routes with the highest rating. RRA Podravje – Maribor is the

sports (VisitMaribor, 2021c). There are several sports facilities and areas

leading partner of the Dravska kolesarska pot project. The main goal

in the city, among which the "city ski resort" on the outskirts of the city at of the project is the complition of the Drava cycling route in 18 mu-the foot of the Pohorje Mountain stands out. The Ljudski vrt football sta-

nicipalities in Slovenia. The total length of cycling routes in Slovenia is

dium, home of the Maribor Football Club, a 15-time national champion

around 145 km; of which more than 60 km have been arranged since

and a 3-time participant in the elite European competition, the Cham-

the beginning of the project (RRA Podravje, 2020).

pions League, is also in the city. In 2008, the stadium was expanded so

that it could accommodate around 12,000 spectators, and in 2021, the

4.4.3 Business and congress tourism

western stand was renovated. In 2021, Maribor hosted several matches

Business tourism is divided into individual business tourism, in which

in U-21 European Football Championship.

a person or a small group usually participates in work duties, and con-

gress tourism, in which many people meet for business, educational,

Pohorje is the most important sports and recreation area for Maribor.

or research purposes. Business tourists come to the city for business

Every year it attracts many hikers, mountain bikers, mountaineers, and

purposes, but at the same time they can also visit tourist attractions and

fans of skiing and sledding. The Pohorje Adrenaline Park offers various

use other services. With this type of tourism, it is important to note that

polygons, bike paths for mountain biking, and the PohorJET tobog-

participants spend up to three times more money than classic tourists.

gan run. The Mariborsko Pohorje ski resort is one of the largest winter

Another advantage is that this form of tourism is not seasonally limit-

sport centres in Slovenia and envelops an area of around 250 ha. The

ed; this form of tourism helps to fill capacities outside the main tourist

ski slopes are about 43 km long (of which 7 km are suitable for night

season.

skiing), and the cross-country ski runs are about 27 km long. A circular

cable car operates year-round, and in the winter season there are three

Business and congress tourism is present in Maribor to a significantly

two-seaters, a four-seater, a six-seater and 14 lifts. The first circular cable

lesser extent than in Ljubljana and other major congress centres in Slo-

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venia, although in the past (i.e., in the period of the former Yugoslavia)

4.5 Types of visitors

it had a very important role. Although some tourist providers promote

themselves as business hotels and conference service providers, this

In Slovenia, periodic surveys in the field of tourism are carried out by

form tourism in Maribor is underrepresented; such tourists are pre-

the Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia. It conducted a survey

dominantly regional or nationally-based.

among foreign tourists in Slovenia in 2015 and 2019. In contrast to Lju-

bljana, for which the results of these surveys are representative, this is

4.4.4 Supporting tourist products

not the case for Maribor. This is because the sample included in the

Supporting tourist products includes events and entertainment, wine

survey was too small. The only large-scale research in this field in the last

and cuisine, wellness, nature experiences and special interests (shop-

decade was carried out by the Valicon marketing consulting company,

ping, education, gambling, and so on) In many cases these can also

which in 2018, commissioned by the Maribor-Pohorje Tourist Board,

become the main motive for visiting a certain city. They can also be

conducted a field survey of visitor flows in the city of Maribor during

seen to complement and enrich primary tourist offers.

the summer season (Valicon, 2018). The main purpose of the research

was to find out the composition of tourists, target groups, points of

Maribor is the venue of the largest Slovenian open-air multicultural

interest, what products they were looking for, what they liked and what

festival called the Festival Lent. It incorporates a series of events in the

they found to be lacking. 305 respondents were included in the survey,

fields of music, ethnology, theater, sports activities, cuisine, and so on.

including day visitors as well as tourists staying overnight in the city or

The city hosts the most prestigious Slovenian theatre Festival Borštnik's

surrounding area.

Meeting, the music Festival Maribor, many (mainly ethnological) events

related to Stara trta vine, and many others. Culinary offers are also in-

An important part of the research was aimed at identifying target groups

creasing and supplement the excellent wine offers available in the city's

of Slovenian tourism, so-called "tourist personas". Each segment group

surroundings. The natural environment of Maribor and its surroundings

is characterized by different motives and benefits, interests or activities,

allow for a variety of experiences. Maribor has one of the most beautiful

as well as expectations and fears. The basic three segment groups of

city parks in Slovenia; it is surrounded by the wine hills of the sunny

guests, which arise from three overarching motives and their related

Slovenske gorice hills. The green forests of the Pohorje Mountain are

interests (and are further divided into twelve tourist personas) are:

interspersed with many hiking and cycling trails. The Drava River mean-

"explorers" (looking for experiences), "social butterflies" (looking for ders through Maribor and further along the Drava Valley, and upon this

socializing) and "muses" (taking care of yourself). Explorers put expe-

you can ride a traditional raft, and the international Drava cycling route

riences in the foreground and four groups of tourist personas emerge

also runs along the river. In the last decade, niche tourist products from

from this group: green explorers, adventurers, active families, and ur-

several areas (e.g., Chocolate Village along the Drava River) have been

ban conscious. The second group is the sociable people who prioritize

expanding more and more (RTVSLO, 2020b; MariborInfo, 2020b), all

spending time with their company or family; five groups of tourist per-

with the aim of diversifying the offers available to tourists and attracting

sonalities emerge from this group: devoted mothers, active nostalgic,

more of the same to the city (and for longer).

carefree youth, urban consumers, and social foodies. The third group

is represented by the so-called "muses", who prioritize self-care; three

Based on our analysis of tourist potential and offers, we estimate that

groups of tourist personalities emerge from this group: spoiled lovers

sports tourism is the most developed in Maribor, but it still has some

of beauty, forever young, and relaxed escapists.

further untapped potential, especially with regards to issues of infra-

structure and advertising, as well as the use of the Drava River which is

Four groups of tourist personas were most represented in Maribor.

underutilized. Sports tourism is followed by events tourism. Here, the

The dominant group was represented by so called green explorers (as

problem is the concentration of events during the summer season. Cul-

much as 41% of all respondents) who want to learn about new lands

tural, business tourism, culinary and shopping tourism are moderately

and experience diversity. They consider a developed infrastructure for

developed. In the field of cultural tourism, more offers could be aimed

cyclists, pedestrians and public transport to be important. They are in-

at families, while business tourism has limited development opportuni-

terested in nature and culture; they prefer to discover the world around

ties due to the size of the city’s capacities. Culinary tourism needs more

them by themselves. In this segment, compared to others, the points

advertising and the cooperation of providers, implementation in open-

of interest are much more concentrated in the Pohorje Mountain area

air spaces, while shopping tourism needs the city to provide a greater

than in the city centre.

variety of offers and more specialized stores.

This group was followed by the urban consumers group (12%) who

like to visit capitals, enjoy cities and pamper themselves (spa, wellness).

Their primary motives for traveling are socializing and spending time

with friends. They are interested in cities, consumption, entertainment,

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and pleasure. 8% of them ranked in a group of carefree youth who

In 2018, approximately two-thirds (65%) of the surveyed visitors were

want to visit the main tourist attractions and have fun at the same time.

in Maribor for the first time, and in 2021, this proportion was circa 62%.

Spending time with their friends means a lot to them. Reasonable pric-

Almost four fifths of them came to the city planned, the rest sponta-

es are important, but they are also willing to spend a little more money

neously. Visitors who visited other destinations before visiting Maribor

for nights out with friends. Likewise, 8% of the respondents were also

decided to visit Maribor more spontaneously than visitors who came

included in the so called forever young group. Health means the most

to Maribor directly from home. In 2018, it was noted that less than half

to them, which is why they like to use medical wellness centres or servic-

(44%) of the surveyed visitors came to Maribor as a couple, and that an-

es that offer them comprehensive medical examinations and therapies

other good quarter (27%) came with their families. In 2021, the findings

when they travel. In addition, when traveling, they want to get to know

were similar, with the difference being that the share of family trips was

the (given) country (nature, history, cuisine).

slightly lower (17%). The findings from both surveys point to the fact

that Maribor is not a family destination for the most part. It is more often

In contrast to Ljubljana, in which a similar analysis found that in addi-

visited by couples, groups of friends (together they represent more than

tion to urban consumers and carefree young tourists, urban conscious

half of all respondents in 2021) or individuals (approximately one fifth of

and social foodies are also among the more frequent tourist types, the

respondents in 2021).

latter two groups in Maribor are among the least frequent (only 3% of

respondents each). Urban conscious people are mainly interested in

In 2018, almost two-fifths of the surveyed visitors spent at least one night

culture and cities, and they are attracted by differences, variety, and less

in one of the hotels in Maribor or the surrounding area, and in 2021

typical tourist offers. Most likely, Maribor is too small a city for this type

this proportion decreased to about a quarter. The growing importance

of tourist segment, and it may also be the case that it is also too simi-

of other accommodation facilities is indicated by the fact that in 2021,

lar to other medium-sized cities in the wider region. The same is most

almost half of them (49%) used accommodation in the form of B&B,

likely true for the social foodies group, whose primary motive is to taste

boarding house, hostel or Airbnb. Most of the reservations were made

and experience culinary excesses. Maribor does offer some offerings of

through the Booking.com portal, and for booking a hostel, apartment or

this kind, but it is still not sufficiently developed and recognized among

private room, the Airbnb service was the most widely used.

consumers with regards to the same.



4.5.2 Motives for visiting the city and tourist satisfaction

4.5.1 Basic characteristics of tourists

In 2018, surveyed visitors to Maribor (Valicon, 2018) cited relaxation, get-

For the purposes of our research, we conducted a survey of tourists in

ting to know new things (country, people), visiting cities, experiencing

Maribor in the summer season of 2021. However, due to the Covid-19

other cultures, and visiting a beautiful destination as the main motives

pandemic we only managed to gain a small number of respondents (n

that guided them when choosing a tourist destination. The most impor-

= 63). It should also be noted that a condition for inclusion in the re-

tant activities for them on vacation were visiting the old city centre (65%),

search was that the respondents had spent at least one night in the city.

recreation (45%), contact with nature (43%), sports activities (39%), visit-

Despite the small number of respondents, we can draw some conclu-

ing the main tourist attractions (30%), and gastronomic pleasures (29%).

sions. We also our findings with findings from 2018 (n = 305) (Valicon,

As the survey was conducted during the summer season, only 3% of re-

2018).

spondents mentioned a business motive. In another survey conducted

by the Maribor Tourist Board in August 2019 and January 2020 (ZTMP,

As in 2018, when a good half (56%) of all respondents represented the

2020b), 43% of them stated that they came to Maribor to see the sites,

so-called travellers “in transit” who came to Maribor from other desti-

18% to visit friends or relatives, and 10% for business or other reasons.

nations and there after continued their journeys to other destinations,

we found that for half (51%) of the 2021 respondents, Maribor was

Our research in 2021 revealed similar findings. Among the most nu-

only a stop on the way. Therefore, it is not surprising that almost three

merous motives were sightseeing, cultural events, sports events, visiting

quarters of them arrived in Maribor by car. This shows the extremely

friends and relatives, spending a vacation, gastronomic pleasures, and

high dependence of tourism in Maribor on transit tourists. Most of the

so on. We also emphasize the business and educational motives (stu-

surveyed visitors to Maribor in Slovenia also visited Ljubljana, the coast,

dents through the Erasmus+ exchange) and the fact that as many as 5%

or the Gorenska region (Bled, Bohinj); all of which are among the most

of respondents benefited from "tourist vouchers". According to SURS

visited tourist destinations in the country. The research showed that, giv-

data, in 2021 the average length of stay of tourists was 2.4 days (SURS,

en the geographical position of Maribor and the locations of the main

2022); of the surveyed visitors half of them (57%) spent one night in

tourist destinations in Slovenia, Maribor can expect mainly day visitors

Maribor, while less than a third (30%) stayed for more than two nights.

and transit tourists. For this reason, the promotion of Maribor in the fu-

ture should be directed primarily to those areas from which the city can

In 2021, more than two-thirds of respondents indicated at least one

expect a greater share of tourists who will spend the night in the city.

thing that particularly impressed them during their visit. The most com-

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mon elements of enthusiasm were the beauty of the city (almost half of

Maribor is shown in more detail in Chapter 7. Most of the routes around

them), and the calmness and friendliness of the locals. This was followed

the city were made by tourists on foot and they only used cars to visit

by beautiful nature ("green city"), good food, safety, and cleanliness.

the area below Pohorje Mountain. The results also reflect the fact that

More than a fifth of the respondents also pointed out that Maribor is a

tourists predominantly visit Maribor only for a day or two. This contrasts

small city and that there are not enough events, especially performanc-

with the efforts of the tourism promoters in Maribor, who promote and

es on the streets.

invite tourists to extend their visits to Maribor by presenting many ex-

periences in the city and the surrounding area, which are intended for

4.5.3 Interest in tourist attractions and locations in the city

“lovers of wine and cuisine”, “explorations in nature”, and sports activi-

In the research, we also wanted to find out to what extent visitors and

ties. In the case of locations that are slightly further away from the city,

tourists in Maribor know and visit individual tourist attractions in the city.

the important fact is that visitors mostly come to Maribor by car and

As expected, the most recognized attractions and locations in Maribor,

therefore visits to these locations are relatively easily accessible.

which are also mentioned most often in guides and blogs, were visited

by more persons. More than 90% of the respondents recognized the

photographs of the Main Square, Plague Column and Castle Square,

4.6 Composition of employment in tourism and catering

and 80-90% recognized the Town Hall, Freedom Square, Slomškov

Square and the Cathedral. The most important open spaces (squares

The group of employees in the field of tourism in Slovenia also includes

and streets) were also recognized by a high percentage of respondents

employees in catering and transportation. The group is divided into six

(Horvat and Stubičar, 2021).

categories: 5.2 – accommodation services for visitors (hotels, etc.); 5.3

– other accommodations; 5.4 – food and beverage service; 5.5 – trans-

The results of visits to tourist attractions and locations were quite sim-

portation of passengers; 5.6 – organization of travel; 5.7 – other tourist

ilar. More than 90% of the respondents visited the Main Square and

industries. The categories are defined within the Standard Classification

Plague Column, and 80-90% visited Castle Square, City Hall, Slomškov

of Professions (SKP-08). We obtained the data from the Statistical Office

Square and Freedom Square. Due to the distance from the strict city

of the Republic of Slovenia in 2021 (SURS, 2021b). The data does not

centre, only 75% of respondents had visited Lent at the time of the

include students employed in the field of tourism. According to the

survey. Open spaces stand out with higher shares, meaning that tour-

e-student service data we received for the years 2019 and 2020, ap-

ists prefer to enjoy the city life atmosphere than visiting classical muse-

proximately 12% of all student work is done in the field of catering and

ums. Among the alternative attractions and locations with the highest

tourism. In 2019, 1,349 advertisements were published, of which 71%

percentages of visitors were Maribor marketplace (40%), the shopping

were in service, 17% for work in kitchens, 7% for promotions, hostesses

centre Europark (38%) and Piramida hill (30%), while the lowest were

and tastings, and 5% for work in receptions. In 2020, the number of

establishments for which an entrance fee must be paid, e.g., the Art

advertisements decreased by 25% (1,034 advertisements), but the ratio

Gallery and Museum of National Liberation (13%).

between jobs advertised remained the same.

The Military Museum of the Slovenian Army (58% of respondents)

We note that, in line with the increase in tourist visits to Maribor, the

stands out among the sights and locations that respondents declared

number of people employed in tourism, catering and transportation

they were not interested in and did not intend to visit them, followed

has also increased (Figure 4.13), namely from 3,811 people in 2014 to

by 40-50% for Maribor marketplace, Ljudski vrt football stadium, Mari-

4,272 in 2019; an increase of 12.1 %. At the same time, their percent-

bor Island area, Minoritski monastery and driving along the Drava River.

age share as a fraction of all employees in Maribor decreased, as in

Even for many cultural institutions, interest was relatively low. It is in-

2014 it was 6.9% (3,811 out of 55,310 total employees), and in 2019

teresting that a significant number of the respondents showed great

it was 6.7% (4,272 out of 63,643 total employees). In 2019, according

interest in some locations, while at the same time a large proportion of

to individual categories, 43% were employed in food and beverage

people who were not interested in the same was also apparent; for in-

services, 23% in other tourist industries, 13% in passenger transport,

stance, Maribor marketplace and the Maribor Island area on the Drava

10% in accommodation services for visitors (hotels, etc.), 5% in travel

River.

agencies and other reservation services, and 4% in other accommoda-

tion services (SURS, 2021b).

The results of the survey confirmed that most tourists are only interest-

ed in visiting the main tourist attractions and locations in the city cen-

We particularly emphasize the composition of occupations within three

tre, and the area at the foot of the Pohorje Mountain, with e interest in

categories. A total of 458 people were employed in the category of ac-

alternative tourist locations being very low. Interest in aspects beyond

commodation services for visitors (hotels and similar establishments) in

the city centre was more typical only for visitors who had previous ex-

2019. The majority were waiters (30%), followed by hotel receptionists

perience of Maribor. The spatial distribution of the routes they took in

(21%), cleaners, servers and domestic helpers in offices, hotels, and

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Section A

other institutions (21%), chefs and cooks (16%). Other professions were

Figure 4.14

represented by sales, advertising and marketing specialists, marketing

Change in the

and sales managers, foremen in cleaning activities in hotels and similar

number and share of

establishments, and managers in restaurants and similar catering estab-

employees between

2014 and 2019

lishments (around 7%).

according to the main

groups of professions

4,500

Figure 4.13

in tourism and catering

4,000

in the municipality of

Composition of

3,500

Maribor (Source: SURS,

employees in tourism

2021b)

and hospitality in the

3,000

municipality of Maribor

2,500

in the period between

2,000

2014 and 2019

(Source: SURS, 2021b)

1,500

1,000

500

5.2 Accommodation services for visitors (hotels and similar establishments)

5.3 Other accommodation services (camps, hostel and similar establishments)

Figure 4.15

5.4 Food and beverage serving activities

Comparison of the

5.5 Passenger transportation

number and share of

5.6 Travel agencies and other reservation services activities

employees between

5.7 Other tourism industries (covering tourism operators and the creative sector)

2019 and 2020

according to the main

groups of professions

In 2019, 1,839 people were employed in food and beverage services,

in tourism and catering

in the municipality of

which represented around 3% of all employees in Maribor, and around

Maribor (Source: SURS,

43% of all employees engaged in tourism. It is one of the more diverse

2021b)

occupational categories (11 groups), in which waiters dominate with

61%, followed by chefs and cooks (23%), managers in restaurants and

similar catering establishments (9%). The "other category" group in-

cludes professions such as: managers for personnel and general affairs,

trade managers and foremen in cleaning activities in hotels and other

institutions which accounted for only 22 persons or 2%.

In the category of employees in travel agencies, 226 people were em-

ployed in 2019, among whom the group of agents in tourist and travel

Due to the Covid-19 pandemic, there was a large decrease in the num-

agencies dominated with 62%, followed by guides (13%) and experts in

ber of employees in the tourism and catering industry in the municipality

the development and sale of tourist products. The category of profes-

of Maribor in 2020; their number decreased by 22% compared to 2019

sionals and managers accounted for less than 5%.

(Figure 4.15). Due to the closure of hotels and similar establishments

during the pandemic, the category of accommodation services for vis-

In the period between 2014 and 2019, the category of employees in

itors had the biggest decrease (-27%), followed by the travel agencies

the group of other accommodation services stands out as having under-

and other reservation services (-19%). The smallest negative was in the

gone the greatest change. Their number increased by 27%, followed by

category of other tourism industry (–2%) and other accommodation ser-

the category of passenger transportation with 22% and accommodation

vices (–4%). In terms of the number of employees, the largest category

services for visitors (hotels, etc.) with 21% (Figure 4.14). The food and

of activities was food and beverage services; the number of employees

beverage service category had the largest number of employees (1,839

decreased by 272 people during the period under consideration.

people in 2019), so the increase compared to 2014 was smaller (10%).

The category of travel agencies and other reservation services is the only

The change in the labour force on a monthly basis showed a slight sea-

one in which there was a decrease in the number of employees detect-

sonal increase, namely by around 2% in the summer season between

ed. In 2014, 238 people were employed in this category, and in 2019,

May and August 2019, while in September and October 2019 there

there were 226 people (a decrease of 5%).

was a decrease of 2.6%. In 2020, the monthly fluctuations were even

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greater, especially in the food and beverage service categories, pas-

Maribor should focus more on its comparative advantages in its tourist

senger transportation, travel agencies and other reservation services,

promotions and offers. In addition to so called "white" Pohorje tour-

and other tourism industries; all impacted by the Covid-19 pandemic.

ism should better valorise use of the "green" Pohorje, both banks of

It should be emphasized that this is an analysis of full-time employees.

the Drava River and the vineyard surroundings, since the vineyards are

This analysis does not, therefore, include casual jobs (especially student

almost in the middle of the town, and Maribor's Stara trta is even the

work), which are particularly common or even dominant in the category

oldest vine in the world. In addition, there were also opinions suggest-

of food and beverage service activities, and which were especially af-

ing tourist development in Maribor is insufficiently planned and that

fected by the pandemic.

everything depends too much on the skills, knowledge and ambitions

of individual providers (MariborInfo, 2020c).

4.7 Residents' views on tourism

4.8 Conclusion

Zavod za turizem Maribor – Pohorje je v letu 2019 (ZTMP, 2020b) izveIn

2019, the Maribor – Pohorje Tourist Board (ZTMP, 2020b) conducted

After Ljubljana, Maribor is the second most important urban tourist des-

a survey that analysed the views and satisfaction of Maribor residents

tination in Slovenia. Regarding the number of tourists, the municipality

with regards to tourism in the locality. All 82 respondents supported

of Maribor was ranked 6th in 2019, and with regard to the number of

the tourist development of the destination. On a rating scale of 1 (do

overnight stays, it ranked 10th among all the municipalities of Slovenia.

not agree at all) to 5 (strongly agree), the mean score was 4.0, they

The growth in the number of stays was highest in the years before the

estimated that the positive effects of tourism in the city outweighed

Covid-19 pandemic and reached its peak in 2018 with about 466.000

the negative ones. With a score of 4.0, they estimated that tourism in

stays. The more intensive development of tourism in Maribor has been

Maribor was developing better than other economic sectors. 4.4 was

slowed down by its relatively poor international railway connections, as

the assessment of the statement that an increase in the number of

well as the absence of regular air connections at the domestic airport;

tourists led to the development of the local economy. With a score of

both represent great unused potential. As a result of such deficiencies,

4.5, respondents estimated that the entire local community benefitted

tourism remains largely dependent on transit tourists who travel pre-

from tourism, and with a score of 3.5, that the residents of the city also

dominantly by car.

benefit. With a score of 4.5, they also estimated that tourism has had

a positive impact on local identity, culture and heritage. A score of 3.6

Because of these varied factors, Maribor has a significantly smaller grav-

was awarded with regard to the idea that tourism cares for the protec-

itational draw to tourists than Ljubljana. The city attracts mostly tourists

tion and preservation of nature, with the same score being given with

from the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, such as Germany,

regard to tourism strengthening ecological awareness. That the devel-

Croatia, Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania and Ukraine,

opment of tourism contributes to the quality of life at the destination

and the share of their overnight stays in Maribor is at least twice as high

received a score of 4.0.

as that of Ljubljana. At the same time, however, the share of overnight

stays by tourists from the USA, China, Australia and other overseas

The residents of the city rated statements about the negative effects of

countries is much lower in Maribor. In 2019, tourists from outside Eu-

tourism with rather low scores. The statement that tourism causes pollu-

rope contributed only about 9% of overnight stays, while they account-

tion was awarded an average score of 2.5, whilst the statemen that the

ed for about 25% in Ljubljana.

growth of tourism increases traffic problems in the destination received

a score of 2.7. The respondents least agreed with the statement that the

The Covid-19 pandemic had strong impacts on tourist visits to Mar-

number of tourists in the high season is disturbing (1.6); from which we

ibor. In 2020, only one-third of the visitors from 2019 visited the city,

can assess that tourism in Maribor does not yet bring major negative ef-

and overnight stays fell by 57% to pre-1970s levels. Due to the city’s

fects and we cannot yet, therefore, talk about overtourism. With a score

dependence on transit tourists from Central and Eastern Europe, this

of 3.0, respondents estimated that they can participate in planning the

decrease was somewhat smaller than in Ljubljana, where the number of

sustainable development of tourism. They also agreed that they are rel-

tourists and overnight stays decreased by as much as 76%. The data for

atively well informed about the development of tourism. Satisfaction

2021 shows growth again, but the 103,000 tourists who visited in 2021

with the work of the organization that takes care of the development of

still represents only 47% of the total number of tourists who visited in

tourism was given an average score of 3.9.

2019, and the 247,000 overnight stays in 2021 is equivalent to only

54% of the number of overnight stays in 2019.

A review of the responses of the population and individual stake-

holders in tourism in the local newspapers also evidences some weak

From the data on the volume of tourist visits (Table 4.4), Maribor can

points. Among the interesting opinions we mention the following, that

be seen to lag far behind visits to nearby larger cities. In the triangle

128

129

Uroš Horvat

4 Urban destination Maribor

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

between Ljubljana, Zagreb and Graz, Maribor is a smaller urban des-

Maribor

Ljubljana Graz

Zagreb

Table 4.4

tination, both in terms of its population and the number of overnight

(AT)

(CRO)

Selected indicators of

stays that take place therein. In contrast, Zagreb has, for example, 6.8

Number of overnight stays (in thousands) 2019

454

2,228

1,250

2,639

tourist visits in Maribor

times more inhabitants, while Graz and Ljubljana are 2.6 times larger

Number of overnight stays (in thousands) 2021

247

866

701

1,375

and neighbouring city

destinations in the

in population terms. Since Ljubljana and Zagreb are capital cities, both

Number of nights per 1 night in Maribor 2010

1.0

3.9

3.8

4.8

period between 2010

saw several times more overnight stays in 2019; Zagreb 5.8 times more,

Number of nights per 1 night in Maribor 2019

1.0

4.9

2,6

5.8

and 2021 (Source:

and Ljubljana 4.9 times, while the ratio with Graz was the same as for

SURS, 2022f; WIBIS,

Number of nights per 1 night in Maribor 2021

1.0

3.5

2.8

5.6

2022; DZSRH, 2022)

the population (2.6 times more).

Change in the number of overnight stays 2010-2019

+110%

+165%

+52%

+156%

Change in the number of overnight stays 2019-2020

–57%

–76%

–53%

–70%

If we convert the absolute data into relative data, we find that according

Change in the number of overnight stays 2020-2021

+26%

+60%

+20%

+76%

to some indicators, Maribor is not so far behind either the two cap-

ital cities or the second largest city in Austria. Maribor city takes first

Share of overnight stays by foreign tourists in 2019

88%

96%

52%

83%

place according to the data on the intensity of the tourist visit, which

Share of overnight stays by foreign tourists in 2021

79%

86%

45%

74%

is expressed by the ratio between the number of overnight stays and

Average length of stay of tourists (days) 2019

2.1

2.0

1.8

1.8

the number of residents in the tourist destination (Table 4.4). In 2019,

Average length of stay of tourists (days) 2021

2.4

2.1

1.9

2.2

Ljubljana stood out with an above-average number of tourist visits with

Number of overnight stays per inhabitant 2019

4.0

7.6

4.3

1.9

7.7 nights/inhabitant, while the values in Graz and Maribor were sim-

Number of overnight stays per inhabitant 2021

2.2

2.9

2.4

1.8

ilar (4.3 and 4.0), and in Zagreb the figure was only 1.8. With a sharp

decrease in tourist visits in 2021, the values in all cities decreased and

became more equal (in Ljubljana, for example, the figure fell to 2.9, in

Maribor has a relatively rich historical and cultural heritage, but due to

Maribor it fell to 2.2, and in Graz it fell to 2.4). These are typical figures

its regional importance, it has not fully realised its international tour-

or destinations with developed urban tourism, in which no excessive

ist potential. Only Lent stands out with the oldest vine in the world,

phenomenon of overtourism has yet been detected. Gusman et al.

which should become one of the most important elements of tour-

(2020) provides data for some European cities for 2016, among which

ism promotion for the city. The important tourist potential of the city is

Venice stands out with a value of 39.9 overnight stays/inhabitant, while

also represented by internationally recognized cultural institutions and

the figures for Barcelona and Berlin were 12.6 and 8.8 respectively.

events, including mass cultural events. From this point of view, the fact

that Maribor held the title of European Capital of Culture in 2012 is

There were similarly equalized values for the indicator of the average

important; it should be used more in international promotion, although

length of stays of tourists. The fact is that in 2019 and in 2021, Maribor

the title itself, as shown by the study of Kovač and Srakar (2013), did

stood out with the longest period (2.1 overnight stays/tourist in 2019

not have long-term effects on development of cultural offers in the city.

and 2.4 in 2021), while the values in the other cities in 2019 were 1,

8-2.0 nights, and in 2021 1.9-2.2 nights. Maribor was also not far be-

Equally important is sports-recreational tourism, mainly due to good

hind in terms of the share of overnight stays by foreign tourists, which

conditions in the winter and summer seasons. The Pohorje Mountain

in 2019 ranged from 83-96% in Zagreb, Maribor and Ljubljana, while

and many internationally recognized sports events are extremely im-

Graz stood out with a lower share (52%). In 2021, the shares in all cities

portant elements in the city's international visibility. Due to dilapidation,

decreased slightly, but even in this year Maribor was in second place,

it would be necessary to renovate and expand some facilities. Another

behind Ljubljana, with 79%.

and very important issue is climate change as it limits the implementa-

tion of winter sports events, and especially those related to the e World

As noted, the basic tourist potential of Maribor is represented by the

Ski Cup. There is also a spring of thermal water in the town, the use of

city center with its historical and cultural roots, cultural offers, numerous

which for recreational and health purposes is currently limited. In the

festivals and sports events, the Drava River, the outskirts of the city with

future, this offer should be intensified and connected more with exist-

the forests on the Pohorje Mountain, the sunny wine-growing land-

ing wellness and medical therapeutic offers by developing modern spa

scape and its developed tourist infrastructure. Analysis, including the

tourism. The area along the Drava River should also be better set out

findings of the workshop on urban tourism and spatial planning within

and its use for recreational purposes should be intensified.

the MESTUR project (Stubičar and Marot, 2020), show that the tourist

potential of the city and its surroundings should be used more in the

The city has modern and diverse accommodation facilities that offer

future, while at the same time tourist offers should be supplemented,

good conditions for business tourism and the holding of various meet-

so that more tourists c visit the city and stay for longer.

ings and congresses. With targeted marketing and the specialization

of individual tourist providers, as well targeted expansion of capacities,

Maribor could develop into one of the most important event and con-

130

131

Uroš Horvat

4 Urban destination Maribor

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section A

gress destinations in Slovenia. Unfortunately, Covid-19 greatly weak-

Horvat, U. (2013). The impact of the project European Capital of Culture 2012 on the

tourist visit in Maribor. Journal for Geography, 8(1), pp. 113−128.

ened the financial situation and additionally contributed to the closure

of some accommodation facilities.

Horvat, U. (2019a). Population of Maribor: Development and Demographic

Characteristics. Spaces. Maribor: University of Maribor Press.

When designing tourist development and strategies, the positive atti-

Horvat, U. (2019b). Development and characteristics of tourist visits to Ljubljana after 1960. Revija za geografijo, 14(2), pp. 53−75.

tude of the residents of Maribor should also be considered; they are in

favour of the development of tourism and believe that it has a positive

Horvat, U. (2021). The impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on tourist visits to Maribor in 2020 and 2021. Revija za geografijo, 16(1), pp. 119−140.

effect on local identity, culture and heritage, as well as the protection

and preservation of nature. According to them, tourism does not yet

Horvat, U. and Stubičar, N. (2021). Frequency and recognizability of the main tourist attractions and locations in Maribor. Revija za geografijo, 16(2), pp. 7−32.

bring negative effects. An expert workshop on the topic of strategic

management of tourism and spatial planning in Maribor (Stubičar and

Janša Zorn, O. (1996). Turizem v Sloveniji v času med vojnama (1918–1941) (eng.

Tourism in Slovenia between the wars (1918–1941)). In: Rozman, F. and Lazarević, Ž.

Marot, 2020) also showed that spatial planning supports or follows the

(eds.), 28th congress of Slovenian historians, (pp. 78-95). Ljubljana.

development of tourism, while also providing appropriate measures

Konakoğlu, S. K. and Kurdoğlu, B. C. (2019). Tourism and Tourist Types in Urban Tourism.

for spatial limitation and the monitoring of tourist activities.

In: Efe, R., Koleva, I., Öztürk, M., Arabaci, R. (Eds.), Recent Advances in Social Sciences (pp. 172−188). Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

In the end, we can summarize that the tourist potential and capacities

Kovač B. and Srakar A. (2013). Ekonomski učinki projekta Maribor. 2012 – EPK (eng.

of Maribor and its surroundings are not yet sufficiently utilized in terms

Economic effects of the Maribor project. 2012 – European Capital of Culture).

of tourist flows and offers. The results of the survey confirmed that most

Ljubljana: Ekonomska fakulteta.

tourists were only interested in visiting the main tourist attractions and

Meetologue (2019). Destination Guide – Maribor. Available at: https://www.visitmaribor.

locations in the city centre, and beyond that the area at the foot of Po-

si/media/1513/mtlg_mb_-_guide_to_destination_final_pages_24-7-2019.pdf

(December 2021).

horje Mountain, while interest shown in alternative tourist locations was

very small. Interest outside the city centre was greater for those who had

MariborInfo (2020a). Terme Maribor prodajajo vse tri mestne hotele (eng. Terme Maribor is selling all three city hotels). Available at: https://mariborinfo.com/novica/

previously visited. In the future, the management and planning of ac-

lokalno/terme-maribor-prodajajo-vse-tri-mestnehotele/329810 (December 2021).

commodation capacities should also be improved, and from the point

MariborInfo (2020b). Čokoladna atrakcija iz Maribora navdušila največje svetovne medije of view of economic justification, better utilized outside the main tourist

(eng. The chocolate attraction from Maribor impressed the world's largest media).

season. Considering Maribor’s comprehensive offers, this should not

Available at: https://mariborinfo.com/novica/lokalno/cokoladna-atrakcija-izmaribora-

be a major problem, but a challenge for the future.

navdusila-najvecje-svetovne-medije/311834 (December 2021).

MariborInfo (2020c). Turizem se ne dogaja slučajno (eng. Tourism does not happen by accident). Available at: https://mariborinfo.com/novica/slovenija/turizem-se-nam-

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134

135



Section B

Urban tourism governance





Chapter 5


Territorial impact assessment


as approach to evaluate impacts

of urban tourism

Naja Marot and Nina Stubičar

139

Naja Marot

5 Territorial impact assessment as approach to evaluate impacts of urban

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Nina Stubičar

tourism

Several methodological approaches are also combined when using

during mixed-method assessment as this relies on both qualitative and

quantitative approaches. In such cases, the qualitative data is used to

5.1 Introduction



provide a more complete picture than just numerical data. Lindlof and

Taylor (2002) used such an approach in their inquiry into tourism im-

Tourism is an important economic activity; it contributes to local eco-

pacts and suggested that the use of structural interviews enable the col-

nomic development, and it enables the exchange of ideas, experience,

lection of data with a set of sub questions. In this case, the quantitative

and culture. In this way tourism activities contributes to the creation of

data explains more about the growth of property prices and services

a higher quality of life in tourist destinations, while at the same time

related to the economic picture of the destination, and qualitative data

causing negative impacts that there being too many tourists and vis-

was used to describe the relationships that inhabitants have towards

itors to some destinations (Frent, 2016; Riberiro et al., 2017). These

tourism (Gursoy and Nunkoo, 2019). Another example of the mixed

impacts are often described as multipliers, i.e. they have impacts on

method approach to the impact assessment of urban tourism is the

several thematic fields at the same time and are identified as either

carrying capacity of the destination approach (Shelby and Heberlein,

negative or positive. Due to the increasing scale of these impacts in ur-

1986). The World Tourism Organisation defines carrying capacity as the

ban and other destinations, various methods of evaluating them have

maximum number of people who can visit a destination at the same

been developed. Simply, these can be divided into qualitative and

time without affecting its cultural, physical and economic characteristics

quantitative methods of assessment. In quantitative assessments, one

and the quality of life of the population in the area (WTO, 2022). The

relies on numerical indicators and objective data, drawn from different

carrying capacity therefore determines the maximum number of visi-

databases, to define more precisely what and how big the power of

tors that a destination can accommodate over a given period of time.

impacts is (Dimitrov, 2009, Gursoy and Nunkoo, 2019). Such evalua-

tion approaches are implemented by economists who use modelling,

The concept of carrying capacity is defined more precisely depend-

multivariate statistical methods, and correlation analysis to identify links

ing on the type of the area and the thematic field concerning capacity.

between the causes of impacts and their consequences. For example,

The classification of the different types of carrying capacity was derived

Shoval and Raveh (2004) utilized a multivariant analysis to determine

from the ESPON project, devoted specifically to this concept (Schuh

the links between the type of travel to a chosen city destination and the

et al., 2020; Wikipedia, 2021). Physical carrying capacity is defined by

tourist attractions that tourists visit. Quantitative evaluation methods in-

the maximum number of people who can be received at a specific

clude a survey questionnaire as well, especially if data is captured and

area or tourism attraction whilst still allowing the movement of peo-

processed across a large sample of a population. The most frequent-

ple. Economic carrying capacity is bounded to the level of admissible

ly used indicators in quantitative assessments include the number of

change in a local economy or the level to which the destination can

nights stayed, the number of domestic and foreign tourists, arrivals

adapt to tourism without losing its functions. Social carrying capacity

(annual and monthly), average overnight stays in terms of length, and

depends on the negative impacts of tourism, namely the lowering of

tourist consumption (monetary).

residents’ acceptance level of tourism and proof experiences of visitors.

Biophysical carrying capacity is connected to the natural environment

Qualitative methods of assessing the impacts of tourism are based on

and describes the scale of adapting the natural environment to tourist

the collection of information from different thematic fields; most of-

pressures. After reaching the maximum point of carrying capacity, the

ten these are not measurable or are not available in public databases.

environment cannot regenerate anymore, and negative environmental

Qualitative assessment gives a broader picture of impacts, but cannot

and other impacts become permanent. The carrying capacity concept

be generalised as they have been captured using a smaller sample.

is most efficient if integrated into the spatial planning process and tour-

Qualitatively, we also cannot clearly estimate the extent of the impacts,

ism management of areas. Although, frequently applied, in research

however, their characteristics can be described in more detail. Qualita-

there have been multiple critical views of the approach (Lindberg and

tive assessment methods include: cost-benefit analysis (CBA) (Mules

McCool, 1998; McCool and Lime, 2001). The reason for this is ‘subjec-

and Dwyer, 2005; Baez and Herreo, 2012), usually applied to evaluate

tivity’ to setting the acceptable conditions, which tourism managers can

impacts of an investment and development interventions, observa-

set freely, or due to the calculation of the maximum allowed number of

tions (Milan, Novelli and Cheer, 2019), and interview (Nepal and Jamal,

visitors which does not tell enough about the behaviour of tourists that

2011), which allow for the acquisition of more in-depth information, a

actually causes the impacts.

focus group (Bellato and Cheer, 2021). Most commonly, a case study

approach is also used; this combines several data retrieve approaches

In response to criticisms of carrying capacity, new approaches have

(Gursoy and Nunkoo, 2019).

been developed, e.g. the limits of acceptable change approach. The

acceptable change approach relies on the principle of constant su-

pervision of the activity in the area/destination and tracing established

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tourism

management objectives. The approach consists of nine steps, from

SWOT - Analysis of

Using SWOT analysis to identify the strengths, weaknesses,

Genoa, Italy (need to

identifying site/destination impacts to a set of indicators, identification

strengths, weaknesses,

opportunities and threats tourism brings to destinations, the

balance the advantages and

opportunity and threats

economy and society. At the same time we can analyse as well

disadvantages of tourism

Table 5.1

of alternatives, and monitoring of the destination. Examples of appli-

(Galdini, 2007)

strategic conditions that can contribute to the revitalisation of cities

development in cities and

through tourism policies. The aim is to examine the main economic

the interplay between the

Examples of qualitative

cation of this approach relate, in particular, to natural areas (McCool,

weaknesses and strengths associated with tourism development.

different aspects of tourism

and quantitative

1994; Stankey, 1984; Newall et al., 2015; Jordão et al., 2021), while in

development - economic,

evaluations of the

urban tourism, the method has been rarely used; one notable excep-

time, spatial components).

impact of urban

Regression (Yang in Fik,

The method assesses two types of spatial effects in regional tourism

342 cities in China (local

tourism (summarised

tion being a study into the case of Porto city centre (Jordão et al., 2021).

2014)

growth: spatial spill-over and spatial heterogeneity. To this end, spatial economic growth has from various sources)

growth regression estimation is used to model regional tourism

been identified as the most

growth and to identify the economic and spatial factors explaining the important factor in the variability of tourism growth using the case of 342 cities in China. The

variation of tourism growth,

Method

Method description

Case study and key findings

analysis identifies several important factors, including local economic

as it influences the growth

Cost-benefit analysis

Identifying costs and benefits as a way of determining the impacts

Assessing the impact of

growth, the localisation of the economy, tourism resources, hotel

of domestic and foreign

(Dwyer, Forsyth in Spurr, of tourism. Most often in relation to assessing the feasibility of an sporting events on the

infrastructure, as well as spatial spillovers related to tourism resources

tourism).

2006; Mules and Dwyer, investment, e.g. when investing into new tourism infrastructure. There economy of the selected

and hotel infrastructure.

2005)

are two main methods, namely input-output and general equilibrium

destination.

The concept of carrying

The approach consists of five steps: 1. A general overview of the

Nova Gorica, Slovenia.

modelling.

capacity (ESPON, 2020)

destination, carried out through different impact measurement

Literature review and

The mixed method - a literature review and the collection and

Global level (the result is

approaches, a review of strategies and policies, and interviews. 2.

evaluation, compilation

compilation of national statistics to assess the environmental

the identification of areas to

Identification of accidental loops between tourism and the spatial

of statistical data and its

impacts of travel on individual countries - addresses the following

which development tourism

context, through the identification of key spatial 3. Measurement of

extrapolation (Gossling,

impact areas: land-use change, energy use and related impacts,

contributes. The population

the tourism flow of a destination through data collection, estimations

2002)

exchange of biota across geographical barriers, spread of disease,

of developing countries

and forecasts of tourism flow. 4. identification of tourism impacts. The

psychological consequences of travel, and changes in perception of

is more affected by the

key here is to combine tourism and spatial indicators into tourism

the environment.

negative impacts).

impacts and to interpret these impacts. 5. Identification of carrying

capacity in the context of the workshop, drawing conclusions and

Ecosystem services

The analysis of dynamic changes in habitat quality 2007-2017 presents Huangshan, Anhui Province, recommendations which, together with the previous steps, provide a

valuation method,

a comprehensive method for evaluating impacts, based on the

China - a typical tourist

final assessment of carrying capacity.

Habitat Quality Index,

assessment of ecosystem services, the Habitat Quality Index (HQI)

city (lower habitat quality

Habitat Quality

and the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), the Habitat

limited to urban areas, with

Assessment model

Quality Assessment Model (HQAM) and the spatial analysis method.

the poorest quality near the

(Peng et al., 2021)

city centre - this is the result

The literature review and Table 5.1 point to individual approaches that

of parallel development of

can be used to assess urban tourism impacts; they are often not com-

tourism and urban areas).

prehensive (Sans and Quaglieri, 2016). As several authors note, such an

Quantitative data

Mixed method comprising of literature review, analysis of locally

Lisbon city centre,

compilation, risk

available data and reports, risk mapping and fieldwork - interviews

Portugal (built tangible

approach is partial, since tourism manifests itself as a multidimensional

mapping, interview

with local residents and tourists on perceptions of risk of impacts on

and intangible cultural

and complex problem (Koens, Postma and Papp, 2018). Furthermore,

(Martins et al., 2021)

cultural heritage and loss of identity.

heritage, identification of

the vulnerability factors of

compared to natural attractions such as national parks, we also encoun-

cultural heritage in relation

ter – in the case of cities - the challenge of distinguishing the impacts

to natural hazards and those

caused by man or tourists).

of tourist activities from the impacts of other activities in the (given)

city. This can be illustrated in the case of urban regeneration projects,

Life Cycle Assessment

A modified lifetime assessment method was applied to Life Cycle

Dalian city, China

method (Qi idr., 2019)

Assessment (LCA) in urban areas to assess the environmental impacts

(environmental impacts

implemented in the cities mainly to improve the quality of urban space,

of rapid economic and urban development and to evaluate the

increase over time; most

yet later appear to become an important tourist attraction as well (Gald-

effectiveness of method. It was adapted to the characteristics of the

impacts are caused by

region and the urban area. Land use functions were revised on the

industry).

ini, 2007).

basis of the existing LCA, an inventory analysis and impact assessment

were carried out, and an interpretation of

land use function was prepared.

When assessing the impacts of tourism on the city, we must pay par-

Hotspot identification

The study method is based on the identification and visualisation

Barcelona, Spain

ticular attention to the view of the resident populations. Several authors

and visualisation (Valls in of hot spots of visitor activity using more than one million geo-

(visualisation of tourist

have pointed this out: Alam and Paramati (2016), Haley, Snaith and Mill-

Roca, 2021)

referenced public images (images obtained from Flickr). The

flows as input for

method is designed to be generalised/adapted to different urban

stakeholder interviews).

er (2005), Strickland - Munro, Allison and Moore (2010), as they believe

environments, reducing the cost of implementation and capturing the

residents are a key factor in the development and existence of life in

behaviour of a larger number of people. The most important result

was a graphical representation that serves as a tool in the conversation

the city. They are also aware of this in Ljubljana, as Tourism Ljubljana

with stakeholders.

carries out an annual survey questionnaire ‘Attitudes of the locals to-

Case studies, interviews, The qualitative research on the effects of overtourism was carried First project: Amsterdam,

wards tourism’ to check the impacts of tourism on life in the city as a

focus groups (Koens in

out by surveying 13 European countries and 80 stakeholders. The

Barcelona, Berlin,

Postma Papp, 2018)

methodology covers two research projects. The first involves well-

Copenhagen, Lisbon and

whole and, specifically, in the city centre as the most exposed urban

known urban destinations experiencing the effects of overtourism,

Munich.

area (Oseli and Podlogar, 2017; Lizard and North, 2018; Ninamedia,

while the second project involves smaller cities with less developed

Second project: Antwerp,

tourism. The focus was on the perception and management of

Bruges, Ghent, Leuven,

2019). Despite the annual repetition of the survey, the results are not

overtourism and the causes triggering it. This was followed by

Mechelen, Salzburg and

entirely comparable, as the questionnaire varies from year to year.

interviews with 150 residents in the first six cities and workshops with

Tallinn (effects of overtourism

stakeholders to address previously unanswered questions.

in cities are complex but

cannot be explained by

An introductory overview of the approaches to impact assessments of

tourism growth alone).

urban tourism can be concluded with the following findings: the as-

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Section B

Nina Stubičar

tourism

sessment of tourism impacts in cities differs from such assessments in

fying spatial impacts in selected spatial units at national, regional, and

natural areas. For now, we do not have a single approach that can be

local levels. The method can be carried out before, during, or after the

applied to best measure the content and complexity of these impacts.

implementation of a policy or regulation. TIA distinguishes between

In order to fill this gap, this chapter presents a method of Territorial

quantitative approaches involving computer-based macroeconomic

Impact Assessment (TIA). TIA has been selected as an appropriate

models; qualitative approaches, where the main concern is user-friend-

method to provide a comprehensive picture of the impacts of urban

liness, in this case for officials, participatory approaches to assessment

tourism on the economy, society, environment and space and territo-

(involving stakeholders); and mixed methodological approaches. The

rial governance of selected area. The implementation of a TIA is most

choice of approach depends on the time and financial framework, the

often participatory and demands the involvement of different stake-

administrative level at which the assessment is to be carried out, the

holders (Fischer et al., 2015). This approach is presented in the second

spatial context, and the experience and knowledge of the expert. The

subchapter, first through a description of the methodology, and then

content of a particular assessment depends on the policies and meas-

through a presentation of the results and a description of the method-

ures that the policy is implementing, the capacity of the institutional

ology adapted to the needs of the MESTUR project. In the conclusion

framework to apply the policies, the spatial units in which the impact

we comment on the usefulness of Territorial Impact Assessments for

is expected to occur, and the potential impacts and their magnitude

evaluating the impacts of urban tourism.

(Marot et al. 2021). In most cases, existing statistical data is used for the

assessment. According to published studies and literature, TIA has not

yet been carried out with regard to tourism.

5.2 Territorial Impact Assessment as approach to measure

impacts

Figure 5.1

Steps of the Territorial

Territorial Impact Assessment is a tool for the strategic assessment of

Impact Assessment

policies, developed at the initiative of the European Commission under

procedure (Author:

Manca Krošelj, based

the ESPON programme at the beginning of 21st century. The European

on Golobič and Marot,

spatial development perspectives (ESDP) emphasised balanced and

2011)

sustainable development, and expressed the need for more territorially

specific policies which would address economic, social, environmental

and cultural aspects of sustainability. Here, the big emphasis was on

impacts, which European policies have in the fields of transport, ener-

gy and the environment. At the same time, there has been a focus on

strengthening the involvement and integration of local and regional

stakeholders in policy development and implementation. The initial

aim of the TIA was to discover the extent to which the policy/legisla-

tion in preparation would contribute to achieving the goal of territorial

cohesion, and was rooted in the idea that people should not be de-

privileged because of where they lived (CEC, 2004; 2008). First viewed,

the approach resembles the well established strategic environmental

impact assessments or sustainability impact assessments which some

of European countries (Great Britain, Switzerland) have used to check if

their policies contribute to the global goals of sustainability (Marot, Ko-

stanjšek and Krošelj, 2022). It should be emphasized that assessments

should be used to show that policies and regulation impacts also in-

clude a spatial dimension.

A territorial impact is an impact on the territory, the territorial govern-

ance, society, or environment in the selected territorial unit which arises

as a result of a policy (Fischer et al., 2015, Marot et al., 2021). This is a

very broad definition of impact which aims to highlight that the charac-

teristics of space – more specifically of cities and regions – vary and thus

affect people's access to economic and social opportunities, and their

quality of life (Davoudi, 2005). TIA is a method of assessing and identi-

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tourism

For the purpose of assessing the impacts of urban tourism growth in

Ljubljana and Maribor, we followed the TIA approach developed in the

ESPON EATIA project (Fischer et al., 2012; Marot, Kolarič and Golo-

bič, 2013). As shown in Figure 5.1, it consists of four steps (screening

- identification of the need for assessment, scoping, assessment, and

evaluation). For the purpose of assessing the growth of urban tourism

we adapted the approach in the evaluation phase. The steps of the

assessment were as follows:

– Steps 1 and 2: Screening and scoping: for each city we identified

the main policies in the field of tourism and spatial development and

mapped their objectives and measures in the form of a logical chain

(see Figure 5.2). In a workshop format, we carried out a brainstorming

exercise on the potential impacts of tourism growth on the selected

cities, (two workshops were separately organised for Ljubljana and Mar-

ibor). The workshop participants first wrote down all possible impacts,

evaluated the direction of the impacts (positive/negative), and then

reported and confronted their findings in a discussion. The resulting

very broad list of impacts served as the basis for the numerical impact

assessment.

– Step 3: Assessment: based on the qualitatively identified impacts,

we searched for quantitative data in various publicly accessible data-

bases. Some of the data, e.g. about crime rates, had to be requested

separately, with varying degrees of success. In total, data was extracted

from more than 10 sources (SI-STAT, police, student work providers,

municipalities, Surveying and Mapping Authority of the Republic of

The workshops related to steps 1 and 2 of the impact assessment Figure 5.2

Slovenia, Fraport, Ljubljana bus station, internet archives); in total, data

were held separately, first in Ljubljana (December 2019) and then in Example of a logic was extracted for 78 indicators. The set of indicators differed for the

Maribor (January 2020). In Ljubljana, in addition to the project team chain for strategic two cities, as the City Municipality of Maribor provided us with data

(seven members), the workshop was attended by six participants from documents steering tourism development

concerning the use of municipal public spaces for tourism, while the

the tourism and spatial planning sector. In Maribor, in addition to the in Ljubljana (Author: City Municipality of Ljubljana did not. Based on the data obtained for

four members of the project team, the workshop was attended by David Klepej)

2014 and 2019, we were able to assess the trends and magnitude of

seven participants from the tourism and spatial planning sector. Both

tourism growth, as well as the quantity of its effects. These impacts were

workshops were focused upon qualitative impact assessment. In the

then assessed by the project's expert group with regards to their direc-

first part, we presented the main project starting points and then intro-

tion (positive and negative) and the strength of the impact (2 - large,

duced the participants to the strategic documents and policies guiding

1 - small, 0 - no impact). The assessment was first carried out individu-

tourism development in both cities. After the introductory presentation,

ally, and then conflicting assessments were discussed with a common

individual identification of potential impacts of urban tourism followed.

assessment of each impact being subsequently agreed upon.

The participants classified the written impacts into spatial and environ-

ment, economic, social, and territorial governance thematic fields and

– Step 4: Evaluation: this was done by asking whether we thought that

evaluated them according to whether they were positive (very positive

the individual numerical effects were due to the growth of tourism or

impact, positive impact), negative (very negative impact, negative im-

whether we thought that other factors were also influencing it. The eval-

pact) and positive or negative impacts. In addition to the evaluation

uation was carried out using the following rating scale: 3 - the impact

and grouping of impacts, the frequency of their occurrence was also

occurs to a greater extent due to the growth of urban tourism; 2 - the

considered, as can be seen from the tables in subsection 5.3.1.

impact is to a lesser extent due to the growth of urban tourism; 1 - the

impact is not due to the growth of urban tourism; 0 - I cannot evalu-

The second workshop focused on providing a quantitative assessment

ate. The evaluation was also carried out by each individual expert; the

of impacts. An assessment matrix was provided to the participants of

scores were averaged and, in the face of conflicting opinions were, if

the first workshop; eight responded. We then presented the results of

possible, agreed upon via debate and discussion.

the individual evaluation, including the discrepant scores, at the work-

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tourism

shop and tried to reconcile them in a discussion. The second workshop

Positive

Negative

was attended by 10 participants in addition to the project team (seven

Economic impacts

members). The discussion was held in three groups - two in Ljubljana

+ new employment for locals, including in low season (5 x)

- more expensive life for city residents, e.g. higher cost of

and one in Maribor.

+ earning potential and improved purchasing power for

services, municipal infrastructure (4 x)

residents (3 x)

- property price increasing due to renting (4 x)

+ higher incomes, more money to invest in development,

- shortage of shops to provide basic needs

infrastructure, renovation of residential buildings (3 x)

- Airbnb problem

+ multiplier effect of tourism (2 x)

- Increased costs for population mobility

5.3 Results of the Territorial Impact Assessment



+ better promotion and valorisation of the cultural offer

- grey economy

– measured urban tourism impacts before the pandemic

+ greater diversity of services offered in the area of tourism

- poor airport connectivity

cities

Environmental and spatial impacts

5.3.1 Qualitative assessment based on brainstorming exercise

+ closed and improved city centre, improved public space,

- traffic congestion inside and outside the city (longer travel

In the first results subsection, we present the results of the qualitative

more green spaces and new urban infrastructure (6 x)*

times, tourists and commuters) (6 x)**

assessment. In Ljubljana (Table 5.2), the highest impacts were found in

+ distribution of tourism capacities in the area (limit in the city - environmental pollution (CO2 emissions, litter, noise the areas of the economy, space, and the environment. The main iden-centre, stimulate in the wider area and hinterland) (2 x)

pollution) (3 x)

+ better physical accessibility for disadvantaged groups

- congestion and overcrowding in certain areas of the city

tified negative impacts were: the cost of living for the city's residents,

+ construction of hotels and accommodation

(centre) due to tourist flow, but not in other areas (3 x)

rising property prices (due to private accommodation being rented out

+ cleaner Ljubljana

- lack of parking spaces (2 x)

+ better mobility - creation of inter-regional transfers and bus

- lack, reduction of pedestrian areas (sidewalks occupied

to tourists), traffic congestion around the city, the high density of peo-

services

by tables), poorer accessibility (with wheelchairs, cyclists,

ple and the associated excessive tourist flow in some parts of the city, a

+ development of new activities in the city

disabled) (2 x)

- lack of space for public services - tourism is displacing other

lack of space for public services, and environmental pollution (Stubičar

functions of the city, lack of basic care services for the local

and Marot, 2019). In Maribor (Table 5.3), where the positive economic

population (2 x)

- gentrification of the central part of the city (3 x)

and social impacts stood out, the negative ones included the pressures

- deterioration of the visual appearance of the city centre

of car traffic and how it crowds out other users and increases the need

(souvenir shops, signs, poorer quality of architecture) (3 x)

- conflicts between different groups of users

for parking spaces at tourist hotspot areas, the lack of a bicycle rental

Social impacts

system, and problems with implementing strategic documents (Stub-

+ openness, diversity of society, new cultural exchanges and

- more popular poses the risk of more genericity (less cultural

ičar and Marot, 2020).

broadening of the horizons of the local population (6 x)

diversity) (3 x)

+ more offer (gastronomy, additional tourist products, cultural - higher incidence of pickpocketing and organised crime (2 x) offer) and better quality of life (2 x)

- possible social conflicts

Positive impacts in Ljubljana include seasonally unlimited new jobs for

+ difference in contact with the destination between agency

- less housing for residents

residents, increased earning potential, the improved purchasing power

and individual guests (the latter more in contact with the

- more precarious work in the service sector

destination)

- reduction in the use of the Slovene language in the public

of residents, higher incomes, investment in infrastructure development,

+ Ljubljana is a preferred destination for safety reasons

space

renovation of residential buildings and improvements to the city cen-

+ immigration of young people to the city (creative industries)

- poor image of tourism workers in society

- emigration of the lower classes (increasing class differences)

tre, and green areas closed to traffic. Participants from Maribor add-

- negative attitudes of Ljubljana's residents towards tourism

ed to this list an increase in the number of accommodation providers

(poor promotion, media influence)

and cultural and sporting events, a more educated tourism workforce,

Territorial governance impacts

and the internationalisation of the local population, as well as improve-

+ information boards in English (to tourist attractions, LPP);

- poor public transport infrastructure (traffic regulated only in

ments to cultural and other services.

destination recognition and networking (2 x)**

the centre, other parts problematic) (2 x)

+ easier decision-making due to centralisation

- inadequate regulation of property rental, e.g. regulate short-

+ Increase in revenue for national and local budgets allows for

term rentals through taxes rather than limiting the right to

In the workshops, we found that defining and assessing impacts re-

increased investment

ownership, consents (2 x)

+ upgrading of strategic orientations in the field of tourism

- the question of the appropriateness of the approach to

quires knowledge of their nature. Impacts are interdependent, inter-

(MOL umbrella strategy + Ljubljana Tourism, a plan for

branding and marketing heritage, landscape and the image

twined, and can act as a cause or a consequence of other impacts. A

sustainable tourism)

of the city (2 x)

- lack of positive promotion of tourism as a sector

difficulty arose in categorising and evaluating impacts, as one impact

- offer limited to narrower parts of Ljubljana (mainly Centre,

Next page:

may occur within different thematic categories (rising property prices

Trnovo)

- development should take into account that Ljubljana is also a

Table 5.2

may be an economic or a spatial impact), and these differences in cat-

city for locals, not only for tourists (negative in the long term,

tourists do not come to see tourists)

Overview of the

egorisation are linked to the perspectives of the individual participants.

- management does not take enough account of the target

identified economic,

Management impacts were the most difficult to identify, as participants

groups of tourists, not enough alternative tourist offer

spatial-environmental,

tended to highlight problems and the changes needed in tourism op-

- inadequate regulation of movement around the city, problem

social and governance

for cyclists and pedestrians (tourists)

impacts of tourism

erations rather than the actual governance impact of tourism. In this re-

- absence of strategic spatial orientations for tourism in

in Ljubljana (Source:

spect, they stressed the variability of strategic documents and policies

spatial planning documents and of joint action and linkages

Stubičar and Marot,

between sectors

that dictate the development of tourism and, consequently, its impacts.

2019, pp. 3–6)

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tourism

Positive

Negative

5.3.2 Quantitative assessment

Economic impacts

The quantitative evaluation also assessed impacts in four thematic ar-

1 More detailed data

+ new employment for local people and young people (5 x)

- low added value

eas: society, economy, environment and space, and governance. Each for each indicator

+ increase in the amount of the tourist tax as an inflow to the

- higher prices for services (shops, etc.)

impact was described by an indicator, for which values were available is available in the budget of the Municipality of Maribor (4 x)

- the touristification of urban districts, especially the city centre

appendix entitled Table

+ increase in the number of accommodation providers (3 x)

- lower impact due to delayed information

for 2014 and 2019, as well as an index of change for 2019/20141. A of indicators.

+ cultural and sport events (as tourist offer) (2 x)

numerical rating was given on a scale of: 2 - very positive impact; 1

+ expansion of the tourist offer

+ promotion of consumption of local resources and products

- positive impact; 0 - both positive and negative impact; -1 negative

+ revitalisation of the town centre

impact; -2 very negative impact; 3 - no impact.

+ increase in revenue, economic effects of the European title

European Capital of Culture, Lent Festival

Environmental and spatial impacts

Overall, the impacts were rated positively. In Ljubljana (see Tables 5.4

+ urban regeneration, degraded areas and abandoned

- pressure from car traffic, especially in the city centre (4 x)

to 5.7), the scores were very positive (+2), very positive/positive (+1/+2)

buildings (6 x)

- increased need for parking spaces (2 x)

and positive (+1), and social impacts predominated. These were related

+ improvement and renovation of urban areas (4 x)

- inadequate development of infrastructure in certain areas of

+ redevelopment of event spaces by location

the city

to an increase in the number of foreign tourists, students and exchang-

+ better transport connections

- air pollution and increased noise pollution in the city

es, an increase in international influence and high levels of security, and

+ Protection of natural and cultural heritage

- abandoned city centre at weekends and holidays

a decrease in thefts. The economic impacts highlighted were the em-

Social impacts

ployability of the population and the increases in their income. For the

+ internationalisation of the local population (5 x)

- gentrification of the city centre and other areas (3 x)

+ improved living standards and conditions for residents; and - the impact of Airbnb on the character of neighbourhoods and environmental and spatial area, the predominant impacts were related

expansion of activities (3 x)

the social life of residents

to increasing accommodation capacity, reducing emissions, and in-

+ creation of new employment (2 x)

- the emergence of conflicts between residents and tourist

creasing the number of users of the bicycle rental system. With regards

+ increase in the recognition of the city (2 times)

offerings (parking, noise, opening hours)

+ marketing and promotion of small stories (2 x)

to issues of management, the increase in the tourist tax was seen as

+ increase the diversity of the offer (2 x)

an example of a more sustainable tourism policy. The strengthening

+ enhanced pride of the city's inhabitants

+ more activities promoting healthy lifestyles

of strategic planning and the increase in the number of festivals and

Territorial governance impacts

events, and the creation of more international rail transport links, also

+ new, educated tourism professionals (2 x)

- poor transport regulation at regional and city level (3 x)

contribute to more sustainable tourism. In Maribor (Tables 5.8 to 5.11),

+ the need to develop a tourism strategy as an umbrella,

- difficulties in implementing strategic documents (2 x)

positive social impacts included an increase in the number of educated

targeted document

- providing alternative accommodation options

+ regulation and coordination of public transport and tourism

- less efficient work of tourism and related organisations

staff in the tourism sector. In the economic and business fields, similar

needs

- directing the land use and investment for tourism purposes

effects were highlighted as in Ljubljana, while no positive effects were

+ closure of the city

+ integration of institutions and local population

mentioned in the environmental and spatial fields.

+ recognising Maribor and networking with other municipalities

+ introduction of the Maister mini-vehicle

+ link to the Smart city Maribor initiative

Ljubljana

Among the social impacts in Ljubljana (Table 5.4), a majority of re-

sponses were rated as very positive (+2) or positive (+1), while for some

Table 5.3

indicators no impact was found. The very positive impacts were mainly

Overview of the

related to an increase in the number of tourists or students, as shown

identified economic,

by the 2019/2014 index. An increase of just over 100% was recorded

spatial-environmental,

for the effect of an increase in the number of tourists from other con-

social and governance

impacts of tourism

tinents, while an increase of around 80% was recorded for the indica-

in Maribor (Source:

tors on the number of tourist arrivals and the number of foreign tour-

Stubičar and Marot,

ist arrivals. Among the positively rated impacts, the largest difference

2020, pp. 4−7)

(18%) was seen in the increase in foreign exchange students. The social

impacts, rated 3, did not show any significant variation. The positive

attitudes of the population towards tourism remained unchanged:

according to the data, the number of inhabitants in the city centre re-

mained unchanged (25,729 in 2014 and 25,861 in 2019), as did the

share of foreign tourists and tourists from other continents. However,

the proportion of residents who considered that tourism positively con-

tributed to their quality of life had changed or decreased (index 74), as

had the number of graduates from tourism education programmes,

which classifies these effects as negative.

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tourism

As with the social impacts, the economic impacts (Table 5.5) were dom-

on how the funds generated by the tax are spent and whether this spend-

inated by positive impacts, with the greater number of those rated at

ing is really targeted at tourism. The biggest change was in the share of

+1. Among the very positive impacts, was an increase in the number of

tourists travelling by public transport, which fell by just over 50%. Among

people employed in the tourism sector (30% growth), an increase in the

the negative effects, we found mainly mobility-related effects, with the big-

value of the sector (38% growth), and an almost 5-fold change in the

gest deviation being in the number of scheduled air destinations (summer

growth of purchases of city tourist cards (1,656 cards in 2014 and 8,494

and winter), which fell by 20% (19 destinations in 2014 and 16 destinations

cards in 2019). Among the positive impacts, the increase in tourist use

in 2019). The increase in the price of an hour of parking in the city centre

of the housing stock indicated the largest change (57% growth), fol-

showed a 10% to 20% increase in prices in parking garages and on streets.

lowed by increased visits to attractions (18%), and an increased share of

tourism employment (13% growth), while the remaining impacts, such

as the increase in managerial jobs and growth in tourism's share of

Positive impacts (+2/+1)

Negative impacts (-2/-1)

No impact

GDP, indicated a change of around 5%. No negative economic impacts

were detected, but there were impacts that were assessed as positive

+2 VERY POSITIVE IMPACT

-

Increasing the share of foreign

Increase in the number of tourists

tourists

or negative, as opposed to social impacts. Among these, were the rise

Increase in the number of tourists from other continents

Change of origin of foreign tourists

in museum ticket prices, a rise in prices (annual consumer price index),

Increase in the total number of all exchanges

Change in the structure of the

High level of security

countries of origin of students

and a fall in purchasing power due to unobservable changes.

Improvement of services in the city

Decrease in the population of the

city centre

Unchanged opinion of the residents

The environmental and spatial impacts (Table 5.6) show an almost

towards the contribution of tourism

equal number of negative and positive impacts. The average price per

to the development of the city

Increase in the international

m2 for apartments sold in the city showed a price increase of almost

recognition of the city (sister cities)

40% over the five-year period, and the average price per m

Increase in interest in working in

2 for rent-

tourism

ing bar space in the city also showed a price increase of almost 20%,

+1/+2

-

-

while the price per m2 for bars sold in the city had fallen by almost 30%.

Increase in the number of students' countries of origin

In the context of mobility, there was an increase in the proportion of

Decrease in theft

tourists travelling by private car (30%). These changes were assessed as

+1 POSITIVE IMPACT

–1 NEGATIVE IMPACT

-

Increase in the number of foreign tourists

Decrease in satisfaction with

negative impacts. Among the very positive effects, were an estimated

Change in the structure of types of tourists

quality of life in the city

an increase of almost 50% in the number of users of bicycle rental sys-

Increase in the number of foreign exchange students

Decrease in the number

Increase in the number of modern nomads

of graduates of tourism

tems (750,000 users in 2014 and 1,100,000 users in 2019), as well as

Decrease of intolerance in society

education

an increase in the number of purchase contracts concluded for apart-

Increase in the international influence of the city

of tourism programmes

Table 5.4

Increase in the international recognition of the city

ments in the city (1,522 in 2014 and 1,759 in 2019). The number of total

(Mercer)

Overall assessment

beds also recorded a 16% growth; in fact, over the five-year period this

of social impacts for

number increased by almost 2,000 beds, which is why the impact was

Ljubljana

assessed as positive.

The management impacts (Table 5.7) also show an almost equal distri-

bution of positive and negative impacts. The negative effects related to

Positive impacts

Positive and negative impacts No impact

the management of the economic aspects of tourism and the number of

+2 VERY POSITIVE IMPACT

The increase of museum ticket Same daily expenditure of foreign

tourists, while the positive effects were more directly related to the man-

Increase in the number of people employed in tourism

prices

tourists

Growth in added value of the sector

Increase of prices

agement of Ljubljana’s tourism sector. The biggest change was seen in the

Growth in purchases of tourist cards

Decline in purchasing power

increase in the amount collected through the tourist tax (EUR 861,395 in

+1/+2

-

-

2014 and EUR 5,150,854 in 2019); perceived as a very positive effect. This

Increase in income of city centre employees

category also includes increased expenditure on tourism promotion, an

+1 POSITIVE IMPACT

-

-

Increase in the number of people employed in tourism

increase in the number of employees, and an increase in the number of in-

during the main season

scriptions on UNESCO World Heritage Sites, which have seen an increase

Increase in the share of employees in tourism (of all

employees)

of up to 30%. There was also an increase in the number of certificates and

Increase in managerial positions in tourism

awards for sustainable tourism. However, the 2.5-fold increase in the level

Increase in the share of tourism (GHI sectors) in the

region's GDP

Table 5.5

of the tourist tax is classified as a very negative impact as it financially af-

Increased visits to main attractions

Overall estimates of

fected mainly tourists, while the share of the tourist tax spent on tourism

Increase in tourist use of real estate

economic impacts for

development has contrary to the collected sum instead decreased (30%

Ljubljana

drop). The tourist tax was also assessed negatively due to the lack of clarity

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tourism

Positive impacts

Negative impacts

Positive and negative impacts

of around 60%. A positive change was also seen with regard to reduc-

+2 VERY POSITIVE IMPACT

-

Increase in the share of

tions of thefts; a drop of just over 60%. Among the positively assessed

Increase in users of the bike rental system

tourists travelling by plane

Increase in housing sales

impacts, those related to the training of young people for the tourism

sector stood out. The number of graduates from tourism education

+1/+2

–1/–2

-

Increase in income of employees in the city

Average sale price per m2 for apartments in

programmes and the number of secondary school graduates in the

centre

city €/m2

tourism sector increased by just over 20%. Other positive impacts, with

Growth in the share of JPP in the "modal split"

(JPP use)

less visible changes, were the increase in the international connectivity

+1 POSITIVE IMPACT

–1 NEGATIVE IMPACT

-

of cities, and the improvement of safety in the city. At the same time, the

Reducing emissions

Increase in the amount of waste collected

number of modern nomads had increased; a trend that was evidenced

Increase in tourism capacity (all beds)

Increase in the average rental price per m2 for

Growth in house prices

premises in the city

on the basis of the number of "coworking" locations in the city (four

Increase in prices of pubs

Increase in sales of pubs

locations were detected in 2019). In contrast to Ljubljana, a decrease

Increase in tourism capacity (hotels and similar

Growth in the share of JPP in the "modal split"

beds)

(personal car)

in the number of inhabitants was detected among the negative effects.

Table 5.6

The economic impacts (Table 5.9) in Maribor were evaluated to be sim-

Overall estimates of

ilar to those noted in Ljubljana. Positive impacts dominated. Among

the environmental

these impacts, growth of the sector's gross value added, with a 30%

and spatial impacts for

increase, and the increase in the income of residents in the city centre,

Ljubljana

with an almost 20% increase (EUR 737 in 2014 and EUR 948 in 2019),

can be considered very positive. Positive effects were linked to employ-

ment and visits. The most notable of these were the increase in tourists’

Positive impacts

Negative impacts

No impact

use of the real estate (72% growth) and the increase in the number of

+2 VERY POSITIVE IMPACT

-2 VERY NEGATIVE IMPACT

Same number of new

Increase in the amount of revenue collected by Decrease in the share of the tourist tax spent additions to the cultural

people employed in tourism, where a 24% growth was observed (3,811

the tourist tax

on tourism development

heritage list

employees in 2014 and 4,727 employees in 2019). However, foreign

Increased expenditure on tourism promotion

Increase in tourist tax

Sustainable orientation of tourism

Proportion of tourists travelling by public

tourists’ daily consumption had decreased over the five-year period,

Increase in the number of employees at TICs

transport

leading to the impact being assessed as negative for the economy.

and LTOs

The number of employees in the high season and the growth in the

+1 POSITIVE IMPACT

–1 NEGATIVE IMPACT

-

Strengthening strategic planning (existing

Increase in the price of an hour of parking in

share of tourism as a percentage of GDP did not have specific impacts.

strategy)

the city, garage house

Opposite, the increase in museum admission prices and the annual

Increase in the number of multiple days of

Reduction in the number of scheduled flight

music/ cultural festivals

destinations (winter schedule)

consumer price index were assessed as positive or negative effects, as

Increase in the number of JPP products for

Increase in the price of an hour of parking in

there were no major changes that impacted either tourists or residents,

tourists

the centre (street)

Increase in the number of international rail

Proportion of tourists travelling by plane

or the impact could be opposite depending on the target population.

connections per day

In the case of museum admissions, the impact of the increase was pos-

New UNESCO inscriptions (applications)

itive for museums as they raised more money, but it could also be neg-

+1 POSITIVE IMPACT

–1 NEGATIVE IMPACT

-

ative if it discouraged potential visitors from coming.

Reducing emissions

Increase in the amount of waste collected

Increase in tourism capacity (all beds)

Increase in the average rental price per m2 for

Growth in house prices

premises in the city

The environmental and spatial (Table 5.10) impacts were perceived to

Increase in prices of pubs

Increase in sales of pubs

Increase in tourism capacity (hotels and

Growth in the share of JPP in the "modal split"

have had several negative or positive effects. Among the very positive

similar beds)

(personal car)

ones, were an increase in the use of space for tourism; there was an

increase of just over 70% in the total public space used for hospitality

Table 5.7

services, while the total number of beds increased from 4,083 in 2014

Overall estimates of

to 6,160 in 2019. With a growth of 5%, the impacts of increased income

impacts on territorial

Maribor

from renting out public areas was also included among the positive im-

governance for

The social impacts for Maribor (Table 5.8) were assessed to have a

pacts. The negative impacts were mainly related to mobility and the real

Ljubljana

similar magnitude as that recorded in Ljubljana, i.e. there were pre-

estate market. A very negative impact was the decline in the share of

dominantly positive scores. The increase in the number of foreign ex-

tourists travelling by public transport (a drop of just over 80%), a trend

change students from the EU stood out as very positive and recorded

that also runs contrary to efforts towards sustainable mobility; recently

the largest visible change of just over 100%. This was followed by the

strongly reinforced in society. On the negative side, there were rises

increase in the number of foreign tourists from other continents which

in the price per m2 for housing sold in the city, a rise in the price per

recorded an increase of almost 100%, and the increase in the number

m2 for business premises rented (20-30% increase), and an increase in

of tourists and the number of foreign tourists which recorded increases

waste collection per capita. Among the positive and negative impacts,

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tourism

we identified the impacts most closely linked to the property market,

Positive impacts

Negative impacts

Pos. and neg. impacts No impact

due to them having the least noticeable changes. Thus, average rental

+2 VERY POSITIVE IMPACT

-

Increase in museum

Increase in the number of

prices and the price per m2 for bars sold remained almost unchanged,

Increase in the number of foreign tourists

ticket prices

employees in tourism in the

Increase in the number of tourists from

Rise in consumer

main season

whilst there was a 10% increase in the number of purchase contracts

other continents

price index

Increase in the share of

concluded for dwellings, (which does not have a significant impact on

Increase in countries of origin of foreign

Increase in the

employees in tourism

exchange students

number of people

Growth in the share of tourism in

tourism), and a 5% decrease in the share of tourists travelling by private

Reduction in thefts

employed in

GDP (regions)

car.

Increase in the number of tourists

tourism during the

Increase in the share of foreign tourists

main season

from other continents

Increase in the share

In contrast to Ljubljana, the territorial governance impacts in Maribor

of employees in

tourism

(Table 5.11) were in more cases rated with a score 3; there was almost

+1/+2

-

-

-

no change in them over the five-year period. Among the impacts as-

Growth in gross value added of the

sessed in this manner were: the strengthening of strategic planning,

sector

Increase in income of residents in the

which, despite the tourism development strategy in place, had no spe-

city centre

cific impact on tourism; the unchanged prices for parking in carparks

+1 POSITIVE IMPACT

-1 NEGATIVE IMPACT

-

-

or on the street; the unchanged number of flight connection routes,

Increase in the number of people

Decrease in daily

employed in tourism

expenditure of foreign

and, accordingly, the unchanged number of flight passengers; and the

Increased visits to the main attractions

tourists

lack of applications and inscriptions on UNESCO lists. There were also

(Old Vine)

Table 5.9

Increase in employment in management

no differences between the positively and negatively rated impacts;

positions in tourism

Overall assessment of

including the number of international rail connections per day, and

Decrease in purchasing power

the economic impacts

the sustainability of tourism. The increase in the number of consents

Increase in tourist use of real estate

for Maribor

for events in public spaces (66% growth) was a very positive impact.

Among other positive impacts, the increase in the tourist tax from €1.01

in 2014 to €2.50 in 2019 stood out as it evidenced how more funds

Positive impacts

Negative impacts

Pos. and neg. impacts No impact

were collected for tourism, as well as the number of building permits

+2 VERY POSITIVE IMPACT

-2 VERY NEGATIVE

Share of tourists

No growth in sales of real estate

Increased use of space for tourism

IMPACT

travelling by plane

for business

for tourist facilities (13% growth). The impact of the number of new

Increase in tourism accommodation

Decrease in the share of Growth in house

building permits is positive as it is evidence of new investments in in-

capacities

tourists travelling by

prices

public transport

Increase in housing

frastructure.

sales

Increase in prices

of real estate for

Positive impacts

Negative impacts

Positive and negative impacts

business (sales)

Growth in the share of

+2 VERY POSITIVE IMPACT

-

Increasing the share of foreign

JPP in "modal split"

Increase in the number of foreign tourists

tourists

Increase in the number of tourists from other continents

Change in the structure of types

+1 POSITIVE IMPACT

-1 NEGATIVE IMPACT

-

-

Increase in countries of origin of foreign exchange students

of tourists

Increased income from the rental of

Growth in the amount

Decrease in thefts

public spaces

of collected waste

Table 5.10

Increase in the number of tourists

Average price of sold

Overall assessment

Increase in the share of foreign tourists from other

m2 for apartments in

continents

the city €/m2

of the environmental

Price growth of business

and spatial impacts for

+1 POSITIVE IMPACT

-1 NEGATIVE EFFECT

-

premises (rental)

Maribor

Increase in the number of foreign exchange students

Population decline in city centre

Change in the structure of countries from which students

are on exchange

Increase in the number of modern nomads

High level of safety

Positive impacts

Pos. and neg. impacts

No impact

Increase in interest in working in tourism

Increase in the share of tourism graduates

+2 VERY POSITIVE IMPACT

Increasing the number

Strengthening strategic planning

Increase in the number of secondary school graduates

More events in public spaces (more

of international rail

No new UNESCO listings

from tourism

consents)

connections per day

No new UNESCO applications

Increase in the international recognition of the city (more

Sustainable orientation Same price per parking hour in the city (street)

sister cities)

of tourism

Same price per parking hour in the city (garage)

Change in the origin of foreign tourists

Increase in the number of scheduled flight destinations

(flights, winter)

Increase in the number of air passengers

Table 5.8

+1 POSITIVE IMPACT

-

-

Overall assessment

Construction of new tourist facilities

Table 5.11

of social impacts for

Overall assessment

Maribor

of the territorial

governance impacts for

Maribor

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tourism

5.3.3 Evaluation of impacts

similar impacts, with a score of 2, indicating that the impact is to a lesser

The final step in the Territorial Impact Assessment was to evaluate the

extent a consequence of the growth in urban tourism. The score of 2 is

causes of the identified impacts. We were interested in the extent to

based on the fact that, although the Erasmus programme is education-

which individual impacts were caused by the growth of urban tourism.

al and not originally linked to tourism, more contracts for international

This was evaluated with four possible scores: 3 - largely due to the growth

exchanges have been signed and attract students for higher number of

of urban tourism; 2 - to a lesser extent due to the growth of urban tour-

origin countries. The most obvious differences were with regards to the

ism; 1 - not due to urban tourism; or 0 - cannot evaluate the impact. A

increase in the number of foreign exchange students via Erasmus pro-

score of three was given if an impact was mainly due to tourism develop-

gramme, with Ljubljana registering only a 13% growth, while Maribor a

ment alone and not the other factors. A rating of two was given if a single

little over 100%, and in the number of "coworking" spaces dedicated to

impact depended on several factors, and tourism development was only

modern nomads. Over the five-year period, the number of coworking

one of them. Tables 5.12-5.15 summarise the results of the evaluation of

spaces increased significantly in both cities, most notably in Ljubljana,

impacts in Ljubljana and Maribor according to four main categories of

where 9 coworking spaces were detected in 2019, while only 4 cowork-

impacts: social, economic, environmental-spatial and territorial govern-

ing spaces were detected in Maribor in the same year. Again, a score of

ance impacts.

2 – was given, as the new age nomads are also influenced by the labour

market and the labour regulation by their employee. For the impacts rat-

Urban tourism as acause

Ljubljana

Maribor

ed 1 - not due to the growth of urban tourism; the largest change not

3 - largely due to growth in

Increase in the number of tourists

Increase in the number of tourists

due to the growth of urban tourism were a decrease in the number of

urban tourism

Increase in the number of foreign tourists

Increase in the number of foreign tourists

Increase in the number of foreign tourists

Increase in the number of foreign tourists

thefts, with both cities experiencing a decrease of around 60%. However,

from other continents

from other continents

in terms of the increase in the number of Erasmus exchange students,

Increase in satisfaction with life in the city

Increase in the share of foreign tourists from

Improvement of services in the city

other continents

Ljubljana saw an 18% increase, while Maribor only saw a 4% increase. Table 5.13

Change in the structure of types of tourists

Among the effects that were largely due to the growth in city tourism Evaluation of the Increase in interest in working in tourism

growth in economic

(number of graduates in tourism

(rated 3), the increase in the number of foreign tourists from other con-

programmes)

tinents stood out, with both cities perceiving a change of between 80% impacts for Ljubljana and Maribor in relation

2 - to a lesser extent due

Increase in the share of foreign tourists

Increase in the share of foreign tourists

and 110%, while Ljubljana and Maribor perceived an increase of 80% to the growth of

to the growth of urban

(arrivals)

(arrivals)

and 60% respectively in the increase in the number of tourists and the urban tourism as a tourism

Increase in the share of foreign tourists from

Change in origin of foreign tourists

other continents

Increase in origin of exchange students

number of foreign tourists.

development objective

Increase in native exchange students

Change in the structure of countries of origin

Change in the structure of countries of origin

students

of students

Increase in the number of modern nomads

Urban tourism

Ljubljana

Maribor

Increase in the number of modern nomads

Decrease in the number of inhabitants in the

as a cause

Positive attitude of the population towards

city centre

3 - largely due

Increasing the number of people employed in

Increasing the number of people working in tourism

tourism

Increase in interest in working in tourism (share

to growth in

tourism

Increase in seasonal and precarious work in tourism

Decrease in the number of inhabitants in the

of of tourism graduates)

urban tourism Increase in the share of employees in tourism

Growth in gross value added of the activity

city centre

Increase in interest in working in tourism

Growth in gross value added of the activity

Increase in museum ticket prices

Increase in interest in working in tourism

(number of secondary school graduates who

Increased visits to the main attractions

Increase in tourist use of the real estate (number of

(share of graduates)

have completed secondary education)

Growth in purchases of city tourist cards

active advertisements)

Increase in the international recognition of the

Increase in tourist use of the real estate (number of

Increase in tourist use of real estate (% of apartments

city

advertisements)

advertised for more than three months)

1 - not a consequence of

Change of origin of foreign tourists

Increase in foreign exchange students

Increase in tourist use of the real estate (share of of

Increase in tourist use of real estate (% of real estate

urban tourism

Change in the structure of types of tourists

(Erasmus)

advertised apartments)

stock advertised rented out in total)

Increase in foreign exchange students

Increase in thefts

Increase in tourist use of real estate (share of

Increase in tourist use of the real estate (% of

(Erasmus)

High level of security compared to other

advertised real estate rented out in total)

apartments occupied for more than three months)

Increase in foreign exchange students (all)

destinations

2 - to a lesser

Increase in the number of people employed in

Increase in the number of people employed in

Increase in thefts

Increase in the international connectivity of

extent due to

tourism in main season

tourism in high season

High level of security compared to other

the city

the growth of Increase in tourism management positions

Increase in management positions in tourism

destinations

urban tourism Increase in the share of tourism in the GDP of the

Increase in the share of tourism in the GDP of the city

Increase in intolerance in society

city (region)

(region)

Increase in interest in working in tourism

Increase in tourism use of the real estate (share of

Growth in daily consumption

(number of graduates of tourism education

apartments advertised for more than three months)

Increased visits to major attractions

programmes)

Decline in purchasing power

Increase in the city's international connectivity

Increase in the international influence of the city

1 - not a

Increase in seasonal and precarious work in tourism

Increasing the share of employees in tourism

consequence Increase in income of city centre residents

Increase in seasonal and precarious work in tourism

Table 5.12

of urban

Growth in daily consumption

Increase in income of residents living in the city

Evaluation of social

The evaluation of social impacts as a result of the growth of urban tourism

tourism

Increase of museum ticket prices

centre

impacts for Ljubljana

(Table 5.12) showed that the growth had had the largest direct impact on

Increase of prices

and Maribor in relation

Decline in purchasing power

the absolute growth of tourist arrivals, the arrivals of foreign tourists, the

to the growth of

0 - impact

Increase of prices

urban tourism as a

number of foreign tourists from other continents, and in Maribor also

cannot be

development objective

on the increase in tourism jobs. Ljubljana and Maribor had the highest

assessed

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tourism

The economic impacts (Table 5.13) were most similar between the cities

for business in Maribor. In terms of the amount of waste collected per

in the score 3 category - the impact was largely driven by growth in urban

capita, Ljubljana and Maribor both recorded an increase of 9%, with no

tourism, with the highest changes being in the number of people em-

difference in absolute values. As the amount of waste collected was not

ployed in tourism, and the growth in the gross value added due to tour-

measured only for tourism, this impact could not be attributed a value

ism activity. The first impact in Ljubljana had a 30% growth rate, while in

of 3. A slightly higher variation over the five-year period was observed

Maribor it was 24%, and the index of the second impact differed more in

in the mobility category, where the share of tourists travelling by public

Ljubljana (40% growth) than in Maribor (29% growth). In the case of eco-

transport stood out. In Ljubljana, this share decreased by almost 60%,

nomic impacts, the highest correlation between the impacts and tourism

and in Maribor by 80%. A more significant change was also observed in

development, as most of the impacts are rated as 3, while the lowest

the share of tourists travelling by air. In the rating categories 3 and 1, we

correlation is in the indicators of purchasing power and price growth;

only detected one effect. The increase in the number of beds was mostly

for the latter there is no correlation at all. For some indicators, where at

due to the growth of urban tourism in Maribor, where the number of

first glance we would have assessed a direct link between growth and

beds increased to 6,160 in 2019 (4,038 beds were recorded in 2014). In

the indicator, we have not been able to do so due to the values of the

Ljubljana, we only recorded a 16% growth, which meant a total of 20,945

indicators, which have remained stable over the last five years despite

beds in 2019. However, the average price per m2 for establishments sold

the steep growth in tourism. Such indicators include, for example, the

in the city was an impact that was not due to the growth of urban tourism,

growth in museum ticket prices, as prices have remained the same. The

as the indices also show. Although one would expect the price of pubs to

same is true regarding seasonality of work, which is not reflected in offi-

rise as a result of tourism development, this was not the case in practice.

cial employment statistics. The situation is of course different for student

In Ljubljana, the price per m2 for pubs sold fell from EUR 1,930/m2 in

work, where the link between the growth of tourism and indicator is more

2014 to EUR 1,420/m2, and in Maribor from EUR 980/m2 to EUR 970/m2.

obvious. There was a more marked change in the growth of tourists use

of the real estate because of the development of tourism. In Ljubljana,

Urban tourism

Ljubljana

Maribor

the number of active advertisements increased by just over half (1,341

as a cause

advertisements in 2014 and 2,102 in 2019), and in Maribor by 70% (87

3 - largely due

Increase in tourist capacities (total number of beds)

Increased use of space for tourism

to growth in

Increase in tourism capacity (number of beds in

Increase in tourism capacity (number of beds)

advertisements in 2014 and 150 in 2019). The impacts, rated 2, related to

urban tourism

hotels and similar facilities)

tourism employment, the growth in tourism's share of GDP, tourists' daily

Increase in prices of pubs

consumption in terms of expenditure, and the increase in tourists using

2 - to a lesser

Increase in collected waste

Increase in collected waste

the two cities’ real estates. The changes were similar in the two cities.

extent due to

Increase in the prices of apartments

Increased income from the rental of public spaces

the growth of Increase in users of bike rental systems

Increase in tourist capacity (total number of beds)

Among them, the increase in the number of employees in managerial

urban tourism Growth in the share of JPP in the "modal split"

Growth in prices of apartments (average price per m2

positions stood out with a growth of around 5%. In Ljubljana, 748 people

(private car)

sold for €/m2 for apartments in the city)

Growth in the share of JPP in the "modal split"

Increase in apartment sales

were employed in managerial positions in 2014 and 788 in 2019, while in

(public transport)

Increase in prices of pubs

Maribor the figure was almost six times lower in both years (179 in 2014

Increase in the share of tourists travelling by plane

Increase in sales of pubs

Growth in the share of JPP in the "modal split"

and 185 in 2019). The impact, which was not due to the growth in urban

(private car)

tourism, was linked to the increase in the income of residents in the city

Growth in the share of JPP in the "modal split"

(public transport)

centre. This impact was accompanied by a growth of 18% in both cities,

Increase in the share of tourists travelling by plane

and was more dependent on the general labour market situation than

1 - not a

Increased emissions

Increasing apartment prices

on the growth of tourism activity in the two city centres. In Ljubljana, the

consequence Increase in housing sales

Growth in prices of real estate for business (average

of urban

Increase in sales of real estate for business

price per m2 sold for for pubs in the city)

average gross income per recipient in the city centre was EUR 16,362,

tourism

Increase in prices of pubs (average price per m2 sold

Increase in users of bicycle rental systems

while in Maribor it was EUR 12,795.

for for pubs in the city)

According to Table 5.14, the environmental and spatial impacts showed

The territorial governance impacts showed the most differences be-

Table 5.14

the lowest dependence on the growth of urban tourism, with only two

tween Ljubljana and Maribor, with Ljubljana identifying significantly more Evaluation of indicators in Maribor and three indicators in Ljubljana receiving a score

links between tourism development and impacts. In Maribor, however, the growth of

of 3. In Ljubljana, these were the increase in tourist capacity and the in-

the identified governance changes seem to have depended more on environmental and

spatial impacts for

crease in the price of real estate for business, while in Maribor they were

other factors than tourism or no major changes were observed. This was Ljubljana and Maribor the increase in the use of space for tourism and the increase in tourist

the case for the number of air passengers, the price per parking hour, in relation to the growth capacities. The last indicator concerned investment in new infrastructure,

UNESCO applications that were not submitted, and so on. The strength-

of urban tourism as a

development objective

which was directly linked to tourism development. Most of the same

ening of strategic planning was seen in both cities as having had impact

impacts between the cities were found in score category 2 and related

but was due to the growth in urban tourism to a lesser extent. Ljubljana

to the amount of waste collected, mobility (bicycle rental system, use of

and Maribor had tourism development strategies in place in both years,

public transport) and the increase in the price of housing and real estate

and in assessing the impact as a consequence of growth, discussions

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5 Territorial impact assessment as approach to evaluate impacts of urban

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Nina Stubičar

tourism

with various stakeholders led to the conclusion that implementation in

5.4 Conclusion

the tourism sector did not follow the strategies. The second comparable

impact, rated 1 - the impact was not due to the growth of urban tourism,

In this chapter on assessing the impacts of urban tourism, we provide

was the increase in the number of scheduled air destinations. The number

an example of the use of Territorial Impact Assessment as an integrated

of air destinations has not changed significantly in Ljubljana, despite the

method for assessing impacts. It is a robust assessment method that

airport, nor in Maribor, which is still without scheduled air connections de-

allows the evaluation of thematically diverse impacts (social, econom-

spite the existing airport. When the impacts in category 3 - the impact was

ic, spatial and territorial governance) and the use of different types of

largely due to the growth of urban tourism were compared, it was shown

methods - qualitative and quantitative, and mixed methods. An addi-

that in Ljubljana we have placed in this category mainly the impacts relat-

tional advantage of the method is the easy involvement of different

ed to the tourist tax, employment in the tourism sector, promotion and

stakeholders and the ability to collect their views on impacts. We did

sustainability of tourism, while in Maribor the impacts are more related to

not involve the residents in the assessment as they did not respond to

the planning of tourism infrastructure. The impacts rated as 2 in Ljubljana

our invitation through the local community.

were mainly focused on the development of potential tourism products

(UNESCO) and events, and public transport, while in Maribor the increase

The weaknesses of this approach lies in the lack of publicly available

in the tourist tax was considered to be to a lesser extent due to the growth

data that would have given a more rounded picture of tourism. Particu-

Table 5.15

in tourism, as the increase was not large. The new inscriptions on the cultur-

larly problematic is the environmental-spatial domain, for which there is

Evaluation of the

al heritage list in Ljubljana were identified as an effect that was not due to

a lack of publicly available data at a municipal level. Equally problemat-

growth of territorial

the growth of urban tourism, but probably stemmed from a desire to raise

ic is the governance domain, for which data needs to be “hand-collect-

governance impacts for

the profile of cultural heritage. In the category of management effects, the

ed” from municipalities or competent institutions, not all of which were

Ljubljana and Maribor

in relation to the growth

sustainable orientation of tourism was identified as an effect that could not

equally responsive. While the City Municipality of Maribor provided us

of urban tourism as a

be assessed and was linked to the number of certificates and awards that

with the requested data on public space management (rental prices,

development objective

had been received; Maribor has not received any.

fees) within two days, we had still not received (at the time of writing)

this data from the City Municipality of Ljubljana. Data on crime, acces-

Urban tourism as Ljubljana

Maribor

sibility and use of public transport was also lacking. The police do not

a cause

keep separate data for crimes committed against tourists; they only

3 - largely due to Increase in tourist tax

More events in public spaces

have data on the identities of perpetrators. We also did not get data

growth in urban Increase in the amount of tourist tax collected

Building new tourist facilities

tourism

Increase in the number of employees at the TIC and LTO

on international bus connections and passenger numbers. It was not

Increased expenditure on tourism promotion

provided to us by the service providers, nor is it publicly available.

Increase in the number of air passengers

Sustainable orientation of tourism

2 - to a lesser

Increase in dedicated spending of tourist tax

Increase in tourist tax

In terms of substance, at least in the case of Ljubljana and Maribor, the

extent due to

Strengthening strategic planning

Strengthening strategic planning

assessment debunked some of 'myths' about urban tourism impacts.

the growth of

Increase in the number of multiple days of music/

urban tourism

cultural festivals

These include the emptying of the city centre (the population num-

New UNESCO entries (number of UNESCO entries)

bers have not really changed) and increased crime (the data provided

New entries on UNESCO lists (number of

applications for UNESCO inscriptions)

by the police did not confirm this). At the same time we were able to

Increase in the number of JPP products for tourists

confirm positive social impacts in the direction of the globalisation of

Increase in the price of an hour of parking in the

centre (street)

Ljubljana, in terms of the origins of foreign tourists, Erasmus students,

Increase in the price of an hour of parking in the

applications for UNESCO recognition of cultural heritage, and others.

centre (parking house)

Increase in the number of international rail

In the economic field, the assessment was impoverished, as an accu-

connections per day

rate assessment of the economic effects would require modelling and

1 - not a

New entries on the cultural heritage list

New entries on UNESCO lists (number of entries on

calculation of the contribution of tourism to GDP at a municipality level;

consequence of Increase in the number of scheduled flight

UNESCO list)

these aspects are not calculated by the national statistical office. A sub-

urban tourism

destinations (flights, winter)

New entries on UNESCO lists (number of

applications for UNESCO list entries)

stantive comparison between Ljubljana and Maribor showed that there

Increase in the price of an hour of parking in the

are several strong negative impacts in Ljubljana, which were not de-

centre (street)

Increase in the price of an hour of parking in the

tected in Maribor. This concluded was evidence in both the qualitative

centre (parking garage)

assessment (smaller set of impacts) and the quantitative assessment.

Increase in the number of scheduled flight

destinations (summer, winter)

The growth of urban tourism appeared to be an obvious impact factor

Increase in the number of air passengers

in about one third of the identified impacts, while for the others there

Increase in the number of international rail

connections per day

is a need to investigate more broadly which factors had an impact. This

0 - impact cannot

Sustainable tourism

could be a starting point for further research. A more detailed assess-

be assessed

ment of the individual measures could also be carried out and linked

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Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Nina Stubičar

tourism

to indicators; such an approach would give us an even more detailed

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assessment of the cause-effect links that exist between tourism devel-

opment policies and the impacts of urban tourism.

Gossling, S. (2002). Global environmental consequences of tourism, Global

Environmental Change, 12, pp. 283–302.

The experience of the audit can be seen as positive, as it offered the

Haley, A. J., Snaith, T., and Miller, G. (2005). The social impacts of tourism: a case study of Bath, UK, Annals of Tourism Research, 32(3), pp. 647–668.

opportunity for a comprehensive impact assessment, a validation of ex-

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Acceptable Change (LAC) for Tourism Development in the Historic Centre of Porto

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(Portugal). In: Mediterranean Protected Areas in the Era of Overtourism, (pp. 193–218).

is useful for subsequent assessments and could be tested further in

Cham: Springer.

the case of tourism in natural areas or as an ex-ante assessment in the

Koens, K., Postma, A. and Papp, B. (2018). Is Overtourism Overused? Understanding the preparation of future tourism policies.

Impact of Tourism in a City Context. Sustainability, 10(12), pp. 4384−4399.

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Chapter 6


Spatial aspects of the development


and promotion of urban tourism

David Klepej, Nina Stubičar and Naja Marot

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Naja Marot

Spatial analyses of tourism in cities often follow the analysis of the

presence of tourist establishments and attractions, comparing them

with the services provided to local populations and their number over

6.1 Introduction

time. Using the historic centre of Venice as an example, Bertocchi and

Visentin (2019) added to this data a survey of local residents on their

According to the World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO, 2014; UNWTO

attitudes towards tourism and the reasons for their potential out-migra-

and Ipsos, 2019), urban tourism is one of the fastest growing types of

tion. Between 2008 and 2019, the number of tourist beds in the city in-

tourism and a common denominator for other types of tourism present

creased fivefold and the number of restaurants increased significantly,

in cities. As highlighted in Chapter 2 of this monograph, urban tourism

while the number of local inhabitants decreased by 13%. Inhabitants

is a multidimensional phenomenon within which human and spatial

also pointed to the growth of tourism as one of the reasons for their

factors intersect, manifesting themselves, inter alia, as tourism flows,

departure. Batista e Silva et al. (2018) calculated the density, seasonality,

services, or offerings in an area. The spatial dimension of urban tour-

and vulnerability of tourism for the whole of the European Union using

ism, which is the subject of this chapter, was described in the 1990s by

a combination of official statistics and data from online booking portals.

Burtenshaw (1991), who defined in more detail the functional areas in

Their analysis showed that European capitals are among the biggest

which visitors look for certain characteristics that make them visit a city

hotspots for European tourism, with the largest cities in particular not

and with which inhabitants also identify in their daily lives. He stressed

having a pronounced problem with the seasonality of tourist arrivals.

that a tourist city is a multifunctional area which includes different ele-

Further demonstrating the link between space and tourism, a study

ments in the outlined zones with which tourists identify themselves to

on the most important determinants of urban tourism attractiveness

a greater or lesser extent. Despite pioneers such as Ashworth (1989,

for tourists (Boivin and Tanguay, 2019), based on a survey of visitors to

2003, 2009), Ashworth and Page (2011) and Edwards et al. (2008), who

Quebec City and Bordeaux, gave the highest importance to elements

were the first to explore the spatial development and planning aspects

related to the urban environment and public space (architecture, urban

of urban tourism, this research field has only started to develop more

atmosphere, pedestrian areas, monuments, public spaces, and parks).

in recent years, as the effects of this activity on cities have become in-

creasingly visible. The fact that cities are increasingly becoming tourist

The question of how tourists behave at a destination and what influ-

destinations is also reflected in the Global Destination Index (Master-

ences this is becoming increasingly interesting. Kádár (2013) analysed

Card, 2019), which has recorded remarkable growth in international

the impact of morphological differences between Vienna and Prague

arrivals (76%) and tourism spending (91%) in the largest global city

on tourists' spatial behaviour by analysing geolocated photographs of

destinations between 2009 and 2018. Most research has focused on

tourists. The analysis showed that morphology and the ways in which

the largest city destinations such as London, Paris, Barcelona, Berlin and

tourist infrastructure is developed have a strong influence on this; de-

Prague (Colomb and Novy, 2016; Maitland and Newman, 2009; Shov-

spite the similar number of tourists in Prague, there is excessive crowd-

al, 2018); this prompted us to examine the spatial aspect of city tourism

ing - a key cause is the monofunctional use of the city centre – a scenar-

in smaller city destinations in Central Europe and Slovenia.

io that is not present in Vienna. The impact of morphology on tourism is

also discussed in more detail by Xie and Gu (2018) who, amongst other

The rapid development and associated increasing environmental and

things, point out that not only does morphology influences tourist be-

social impacts of urban tourism have recently brought the subject mat-

haviour, but that tourism also co-shapes the morphology of cities over

ter increasingly under the scrutiny of researchers. Among the identi-

time. Often, researchers use GPS trackers to help them analyse routes.

fied impacts, as described in more detail in Chapter 5, we can report

GIS analysis of data on the routes and movement speeds of tourists

changes in the provision of services, an increase in pedestrian flows in

visiting Tarragona, Catalonia, as a stopover during a cruise showed

the most touristic areas of cities, e.g. city centres, and the development

that, apart from the time limitations of visits, the visibility and presence

of tourism infrastructure that takes precedence over the development

of tourist attractions and the type of economic activities (presence of

of infrastructure that would otherwise be more beneficial to locals. All

commercial activities and restaurants) had the greatest influence on

of these effects have a spatial dimension in common and they also

them. The location of accommodation also has a strong influence on

materialise as physical elements of urban space (e.g. urban design,

tourists' behaviour (what they visit and at what time of day), as found

regulation of public space, traffic areas, use of buildings and facilities).

by Shoval, McKercher, Ng, and Birenboim (2011). They have tracked

In addition to the study of the spatial distribution of tourism and tour-

guests of four different hotels in Hong Kong and found out the tourists

ism infrastructure, researchers are increasingly studying the behaviour

tend to visit attractions in the vicinity of the hotel, and that accessibility

and spatial flows of tourists in cities and their motives and reasons for

strongly impacts the journeys they made.

visiting particular tourist attractions and urban areas (Božič et al., 2017;

Pulido-Fernández, Rodríguez-Díaz and Cárdenas-García, 2020; Caldei-

The literature review has shown that official statistics, data on tourist

ra and Kastenholz, 2020; Mahboob et al., 2021).

bookings through online portals, GPS trackers and various question-

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Section B

Nina Stubičar

Naja Marot

naires are often used in spatial analyses of tourism. It is clear that the

services, which were first displayed according to the category of offer

length of visits, the morphologies of cities, and the locations of accom-

(hotels, hostels, campsites, etc. for accommodations, and restaurants,

modation, attractions and (tourist) services have a strong influence on

cafés, etc. for services), and then according to the satisfaction or ratings

tourists' behaviour. Based on this, we decided to also use the example

of tourists (data acqured from the Trip Advisor web portal). As a basis

of Ljubljana and Maribor to examine the current spatial dimensions

for the spatial analysis, we used publicly available data (Open Street

of tourism in the two cities, i.e. where tourism infrastructure and offers

Map, 2021), which was then analysed in the QGis geoinformation envi-

in the cities exist and where they are being developed. Furthermore,

ronment. The second level was based on an analysis of the occurrence

we were interested in how the cities target tourists at the destination

of tourist attractions in promotional channels, which was made from an

through different promotional channels and how this is reflected in the

inventory and the sum of the occurrences in printed guidebooks and

actual patterns of behaviour and the journeys made by tourists within

online guides or blogs. We obtained and analysed 17 guidebooks in

the two destinations.

foreign languages (English, German and Italian). Of these, five focused

exclusively on Ljubljana, two on Maribor, and the rest covered both

tourist destinations. The blog analysis covered 41 blogs for Ljubljana

6.2 Methodology

and 19 for Maribor. We took into account the blogs on the first three

pages of Google search hits, and the Maribor Tourist Board provided

The research consisted of several methodological steps. In the first

us with six blogs with which they had directly collaborated. The blogs

part, a comparative spatial analysis of the occurance of urban tourism

were linguistically slightly more diverse; English was the predominant

in selected Central European cities was carried out in order to better

language, but there were also blogs in Italian, French and Polish.

understand the development of urban tourism in Slovenian cities. A

review of basic tourism and demographic statistics for ten selected cit-

The dataset was initially categorised into three basic groups according

ies (Bratislava, Graz, Leipzig, Ljubljana, Maribor, Padua, Poznan, Turin,

to the type of attraction: cultural institutions, open spaces, and religious

Zagreb and Zurich) was complemented by a cartographic analysis of

and historical sites. Cultural institutions included: galleries, museums

their morphology, as well as tourist attractions and tourism infrastruc-

and exhibition centres and venues. Open spaces included not only

ture in a narrower area of 2,000 × 1,600 metres of the old city centre. As

parks and squares but also streets, bridges and quays, while historic

the main attractions we identified the town hall, the castle, the theatre,

and ecclesiastical sites included not only architectural buildings but also

the opera, the galleries and museums (city museum, city gallery, and

monuments, statues and historical remains. The data was first present-

so on) and the city cathedral. In addition, we schematically presented

ed on overview maps so as to bring together all the sites regardless of

the city centre areas, the main green areas, the transport nodes (main

source. For these categories of attractions, we then separately mapped

bus station, railway station and airport), the road network and the river,

the frequency of mentioned occurrence for each attraction (a higher

which are common features of the morphology of most Central Euro-

number of mentions is represented by a darker shade) to identify more

pean cities. To this – and based on an assessment of the cartographic

and less promoted attractions. This analysis allowed us to compare the

data of accommodation on Booking.com and Trip Advisor and our

two promotional channels in question, to identify the representation of

own knowledge of the destination – we added an outline of the area of

the tourism offer, and to evaluate how it changes according to the types

the tourist-business district, where tourism is one of the key economic

of promotional channel used.

activities. We have also shown the spatial distribution of the main tourist

attractions and cultural quarters. This was done to determine the extent

The third level of insight into urban tourism in Ljubljana and Maribor

to which cities in Central Europe are similar in terms of their spatial in-

was based on a survey conducted in both cities in July and August

cidences of tourism and to also enable us to assess the extent to which

2021. 581 tourists with an average age of 33.7 years took part in the

this European context is transferred to Ljubljana and Maribor. We were

questionnaire in Ljubljana, and 63 in Maribor, where the average age

interested to see how many of the top ten tourist attractions promoted

was 34.5 years. In Ljubljana 59% of the sample were female tourists

on official tourism websites are concentrated in the city centre, what

and 41% were male toursits, while in Maribor the picture was reversed

the distance is from the town hall to them, and what type of attractions

(28 females and 35 males). The majority of tourists were from abroad

they are in relation to the physical spatial elements of the city they rep-

(531 out of 581 in Ljubljana), mostly from countries close to Slovenia

resent. We used the categories: buildings, public spaces, green areas,

(Germany, Italy, Austria and others). The questionnaire contained 26

and events.

questions. The first part of the questionnaire was used to identify the

profile of the urban tourists in general and on their current trips, the

The Central European context was built upon with a more detailed

second part was used to check their knowledge of the destination, and

spatial analysis of the distribution of tourist attractions and services in

third part was used to check their experiences at the destination. With-

Ljubljana and Maribor at several levels (Stubičar and Marot, 2022). The

in the spatial dimension of urban tourism, the subject of this chapter,

first level was based on an analysis of accommodation and catering

we focused mainly on the recognition and visitation of the selected

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6 Spatial aspects of the development and promotion of urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Nina Stubičar

Naja Marot

tourist attractions. We were also interested in the ways in which tourists

City

Population Overnight

Growth of Foreign

Tourist

Overnight Occupancy

Table 6.1

obtained information about the visited destination and its offers, and

(000)

stays (000)

ovn. stays overnight beds

stays (per

of tourist

2014-

stays (%)

(per 100

100 inh.)

beds (%)

Population and tourism

whether there was a link between the information obtained and their

2018 (%)

inh.)

indicators for selected

movement around the city. We supplemented this by asking tourists

cities in 2018 (ECM,

Bratislava

430

2,692

50

61

-

6.4

-

2019; Eurostat, 2021,

to map their movement at the destination, which we then analysed in

Statistics Poland, 2021;

QGis to create maps of tourists' movements in Ljubljana and Maribor.

Graz

289

1,129

10

55

2.8

4.2

41.2

Statistik Austria, 2021)

Leipzig

582

3,376

22

16

3.1

6.3

52.6

6.3 Tourism in the space of Central European cities

Ljubljana

290

2,180

113

95

2.2

7.7

51.6

6.3.1 Basic tourism statistics

To illustrate the Central European context, we compared Ljubljana and

Maribor

111

452

89

88

-

4.0

-

Maribor as tourist destinations with eight other Central European cit-

ies with similar spatial dimensions, populations of between 110 and

Padua

210

1,650

25

45

4.6

7.9

47.1

880 thousand inhabitants (Eurostat, 2021), and tourism volumes (up

to 5.1 million registered tourist nights per year (ECM, 2019)). Among

Poznan

536

1,484

26

26

1.7

2.7

42.9

the selected cities are three national capitals (Bratislava, Ljubljana and

Zagreb), four regional or provincial capitals (Graz, Poznan, Turin and

Turin

883

5,110

26

25

3.4

5.8

46.7

Zurich) and three cities without a major political role (Leipzig, Maribor

and Padua). All of them had experienced growth in tourist arrivals in the

years preceding the Covid-19 pandemic, as shown by the number of

Zagreb

804

2,522

62

84

3.2

3.2

27.3

registered overnight stays (see Table 6.1), but the rate of this growth var-

ied between the cities. This is clearly illustrated by the case of Graz and

Zürich

409

4,898

20

74

5.7

12.0

60.0

Ljubljana which recorded similar numbers of overnight stays in 2014. In

the period up to 2018, Graz recorded a 10% growth in overnight stays,

while in Ljubljana the number of tourist overnight stays more than dou-

6.3.2 Spatial analysis of tourism presence

bled; its status as a national capital city contributed to this.

The graphical analysis of the urban fabric of the selected cities (Figure

6.1) shows that the urban structures of all the cities are strongly influ-

By comparing the number of tourists overnight stays with the num-

enced by natural features. The first such spatial determinant are rivers,

ber of inhabitants, we estimated the volume and intensity of tourism

as most cities are located directly on the river, with the exception of

in cities. Zurich had the highest number of overnight stays per capita

Leipzig, Turin and Zagreb, which are located a short distance from their

(12.0), followed by Padua (7.9), Ljubljana (7.5), Bratislava (6.2), Leipzig

respective rivers. Bratislava, Maribor, Padua and Poznan are located on

and Turin (both 5.8). This index suggests that these cities are more sus-

the riverbank, while the river runs through the urban core of Graz, Lju-

ceptible to the phenomenon of overtourism. Graz (4.2), Maribor (4.1),

bljana and Zurich; all Alpine cities. Elevated (hilly) terrain was identified

Zagreb (3.2) and Poznan (2.7) had fewer than five overnight stays per

as the second determinant shaping cities. Bratislava, Graz, Ljubljana

inhabitant. Comparing the number of tourist beds per 100 inhabitants

and Zagreb have their city centres directly below the escarpment, while

is another indicator that can be used to show the extent and intensity

Maribor and Zurich are more distant from them. Leipzig, Padua, Poznan

of tourism in cities. Again, Zurich had the highest value (5.7), followed

and Turin are located in flatlands; enabling a more dispersed develop-

by Turin (3.4), Padua (3.2), Zagreb (3.2), Leipzig (3.1) and Graz (2.8).

ment of their urban fabric. Areas with higher slopes make up the bulk

The lowest values were found in Poznan and Ljubljana (1.7 and 2.2 re-

of the green areas in the cities; most noticeable in Bratislava, Graz, Lju-

spectively). Despite the growth in tourist arrivals, the occupancy rates

bljana, Maribor and Zagreb. Leipzig is the only city that has a larger flat

of tourist beds in the selected cities remained relatively low, with only

green area close to the city centre; the riverside forest. Padua, Poznan,

Zurich, Ljubljana and Leipzig exceeding 50%. For Bratislava and Mari-

Turin (all flatland cities) and Zurich are cities without major green areas.

bor this data was not available in the ECM Report. Although most of the

In terms of the spatial distribution of their main transport nodes, half of

indicators for the Slovenian cities are somewhere in the average of the

the cities have their main bus and train stations located close to their

other Central European cities considered, Ljubljana and Maribor stood

city centres (Leipzig, Ljubljana, Maribor, Turin and Zurich), while in the

out for their exceptionally high shares of foreign tourists, as well as high

other cities they are too far away to be accessible on foot. The airports

growth rates of tourist arrivals in the years preceding the Covid-19 pan-

of the selected cities are located up to about 20 kilometres from the

demic; both factors thus highlighted the need for closer monitoring of

respective city centres. The morphological and spatial characteristics of

the development and impact of tourism in these cities.

the urban structures are further reflected in the levels of concentration

of tourist offers in the selected cities; most evident in the cases of Brati-

slava, Graz, Ljubljana and Maribor.

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6 Spatial aspects of the development and promotion of urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Nina Stubičar

Naja Marot

6.3.3 Spatial analysis of the promotion of tourist attractions

Cities are increasingly active in developing and marketing their own

Figure 6.1

tourist destinations. Precisely planned promotion is one of the key

Analysis of the urban

reasons why urban tourism has experienced high levels of growth in

fabric and basic tourism

infrastructure in the

recent years. Cities are undertaking such promotion through a varie-

wider area of old towns

ty of tourism attractiveness factors and promotional tools. These may

of the selected cities

include, for example, the status of being a capital city of a country or

region, and titles awarded by UNESCO (inclusion in a network of cre-

ative cities or heritage sites) or by the EU (European Green or Cultural

Capitals). The various titles and awards are often seen as promotional

tools that can put a city on the global tourism map; e.g. Barcelona as

an Olympic city (Monclús, 2003; Hiller, 2006), Liverpool as a European

Capital of Culture (Garcia, Melville and Cox, 2010). However, beyond

their promotional potential, it is crucial that the award of such titles most

often also brings about changes in the (given city’s) urban environment.

Such changes are often closely linked to spatial planning. Among the

selected Central European cities, two cities have been awarded the title

of European Capital of Culture (Graz in 2003 and Maribor in 2012),

one city was awarded the title of European Green Capital (Ljubljana in

2016), and one hosted the Olymic Games (Turin in 2006).

As official promotion is also important for tourists' sightseeing deci-

sions, we analysed the top 10 attractions promoted by the selected

Central European cities on their official tourism websites. The results

of the analysis are presented in the form of a spider web (Figure 6.2).

We found that the majority of attractions are located in the (historic)

city centres or their immediate vicinities. Poznan is the only city that has

most of its top 10 attractions outside the city centre; though they are

still within the city limits. Turin and Zurich are the only cities that pro-

mote attractions in the wider surrounding of the city (ie outside the area

of urban settlement).

Top attractions within a 7,000 m radius

Top attractions within a 1,000 m radius

Figure 6.2

Spatial distribution of

the top 10 attractions

as listed on the

destination's official

tourism website and

categorised as facilities,

open spaces, events,

and green areas. All

attractions are shown

on the left (1,000 m

grid) and those within

1,000 m of the Town

Hall are shown on the

right (200 m grid).

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6 Spatial aspects of the development and promotion of urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Nina Stubičar

Naja Marot

Cities most often promote objects or buildings; among them the most

The tourist offers of both cities are predominantly concentrated in the

religious buildings (churches, cathedrals, etc.), castles, and town halls

(Figure 6.3). Some cities also promote a greater number of open spac-

two city centres (or the old towns) and near the main attractions and on

es (Bratislava, Graz, Ljubljana, Padua and Zagreb), while green areas

the riverbanks (Figure 6.4). In Ljubljana, accommodation is most con-

and events appear on the top attractions lists of a smaller number of

centrated in the area of Slovenska and Miklošičeva Streets, and services

cities.

are most concentrated on the banks of the Ljubljanica River and under

the Castle Hill, while in Maribor they can be found between the Castle

Figure 6.3

Square and the Freedom Square, in the area of the Slomškov Square

Spatial categories of

and the Main Square, and in Lent, on the banks of the Drava River.

top 10 attractions, as

listed on official urban

destination tourist

Figure 6.4

websites

Spatial distribution

of catering and

accommodation

establishments in

Ljubljana and Maribor

6.4 Spatial analysis of tourist infrastructure in Ljubljana

and Maribor

By comparing Ljubljana and Maribor with selected cities in Central Eu-

Catering

rope, we found that they largely follow European and global trends in

establishments in

terms of the development of urban tourism and its promotion, a facet

Ljubljana

further evidenced by an analysis of the official tourism websites of the

selected cities. As we wanted to answer the question of where tourism is

developing and occurring in cities, in the following steps we first looked

in more detail at the state and development of tourism infrastructure in

Ljubljana and Maribor. In addition to attractions and different types of

open spaces (more below), the overview of tourism offers also included

an overview and presentation of the spatial distribution of the catering

and accommodation infrastructure in Ljubljana and Maribor.

In mapping the data, we considered traditional accommodation cate-

gories (hotels, hostels, guesthouses or caravan parking) and catering

services, which include culinary festivals, restaurants, fast food establish-

ments, pubs, cafés and bars (see Figure 6.4). In Ljubljana, restaurants

and fast food establishments, pubs and cafés dominate, while pre-

vailing among accommodation facilities - which are fewer in number

than services - are hostels and guesthouses. In Maribor, hotels are the

most frequently used accommodation facilities, while restaurants, fast

food establishments and cafés are the most frequently used venues

amongst services.

Accommodation

establishments in

Ljubljana

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6 Spatial aspects of the development and promotion of urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Nina Stubičar

Naja Marot

The visibility and quality of individual ratings for catering establish-

Figure 6.4

ments is also reflected in ratings on the Trip Advisor website. The most

Spatial distribution

obvious difference between the two cities is in the range of ratings.

of catering and

In Ljubljana, the ratings range from 2.5 - average/poor to a maximum

accommodation

rating of 5, while in Maribor, in addition to these ratings, there is also

establishments in

Ljubljana and Maribor

a rating of 1.5 - terrible/poor and unrated (Figure 6.5). For accommo-

dation, the range of ratings is smaller, from a rating of 3 - average to a

maximum rating of 5 and unrated.

Figure 6.5

Trip Advisor ratings in

Ljubljana and Maribor

Catering

establishments in

Maribor

Catering

establishments in

Ljubljana

Accommodation

establishments in

Maribor

The obvious difference is reflected in the number of services and ac-

commodation providers, which is much lower in Maribor; another

indicator that Ljubljana is a more developed tourist destination and

spatially larger. At the same time, this difference can also be attributed

to the intensity of promotion and the fact that Ljubljana is the capital of

Accommodation

the country and a model example of a developed tourist destination.

establishments in

Ljubljana

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6 Spatial aspects of the development and promotion of urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Nina Stubičar

Naja Marot

The results of the analysis of traditional accommodation showed that these

Figure 6.5

are scattered around the old towns in both cities. AirDNA data shows that

Trip Advisor ratings in

in both cities the number of available renting on sharing economy plat-

Ljubljana and Maribor

forms is higher than those of traditional accommodation establishments

and that, despite their prevalence in the wider urban area, they are also

highly concentrated in the two city centres. In Ljubljana, private accom-

modation in other districts of the city can be found mainly along the main

traffic arteries, while in Maribor it is also found in the vicinity of the City Park

and the Piramida, and south of the River Drava in Tabor and in Nova vas

districts.

6.5 Spatial analysis of tourist attraction promotion in Lju-

bljana and Maribor

Via previous analysis we have shown that Ljubljana and Maribor are ac-

tive in the field of promotion and use similar contemporary marketing

Catering

tools to other European urban destinations for advertisitng their tourist

establishments in

offers . The fact that they are relatively successful in this respect is shown

Maribor

not only by the growth in tourist arrivals, but also by various awards.

Ljubljana is ranked among the most sustainable destinations, the best

culinary destinations, the best congress cities, and the best European

destinations (Visit Ljubljana, 2022a), while both cities have also been

certified as green and safe destinations (Visit Maribor, 2022). In addi-

tion to printed and online guides, which may or may not be part of

the official tourism promotion, there are various online platforms and

networks that tourists and visitors use to make decisions about visiting

destinations. As urban destinations are characterised by shorter lengths

of stay, tourists often use different lists of the most interesting attrac-

tions to visit at such destinations. Given this, and as already mentioned

in Section 6.3.2, cities create different lists, which are one of the key

tabs of official tourism websites, and include different buildings, open

spaces or events/experiences. In Ljubljana and Maribor, the main at-

tractions highlighted are those that are part of the two cities' identities

and histories. Ljubljana highlights Ljubljana Castle, the Dragon Bridge

and the Tromostovje, while Maribor emphasises the importance of the

wine-growing destination with the oldest vine in the world and the

Vinag winery under the city, as well as various museums and churches.

Accommodation

establishments in

6.5.1 Basic map of tourist attractions by type of offer

Maribor

In this subsection, we first provide a basic map based on the more de-

tailed types of tourism offers, such as: galleries and museums, cultural

In Maribor, most catering and accommodation services are unrated, as

institutions, exhibition centres, squares and parks, statues and remains,

they are under-visited and under-rated by platform users. In Ljubljana,

and religious and architectural buildings. The categories established

positive reviews dominate, while in Maribor, positive reviews are very

form the basis for the analysis of guidebooks and blogs. The graph-

similar, but fewer in number. Comparing these ratings with the catering

ical representation was narrowed down to the wider area of the city

and accommodation categories in Figure 6.4, it can be seen that it is

centres, as almost all of the perceived attractions are located here (Fig-

mainly pubs and cafés (Figures 6.4 and 6.5) and hotels (Figures 6.4 and

ure 6.6). In both cities, architectural buildings dominate in terms of the

6.5) that are rated positively.

number of appearances, while squares and parks dominate in terms

of surface area, with the majority of squares in Maribor being linked to

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6 Spatial aspects of the development and promotion of urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Nina Stubičar

Naja Marot

architectural buildings; such links were not detected in Ljubljana (Fig-

6.5.2 Presence of tourist attractions in printed and on-line guidebooks

ure 6.6). The other categories are represented in a smaller number of

Through our analysis of the printed guidebooks and online guides, we

the detected attractions, with the exception of Ljubljana, where there

identified three dominant categories of tourist attractions in addition to

are slightly more galleries, museums and cultural institutions, which are

the information about frequency of mention: attractions, open spaces,

more dispersed in the city centre than the architectural buildings that

and religious and historical buildings. These categories are comparable

are of interest to tourists.

to those of the analysis of online promotion (Section 6.3.2), as we have

used the category of open spaces (including green spaces) in both cas-

Figure 6.6

es, while facilities appear within the categories of attractions or religious

Tourist, cultural and

and historical sites. We have illustrated our findings on a cartographic

natural attractions in

basis, that clearly show the difference between the marketing of the

Ljubljana and Maribor

tourist offers in printed (Figure 6.7) and online (Figure 6.8) guides. In

Ljubljana, the tourism offers in the printed guidebooks are more detailed

and more widely presented, as the guidebooks include not only the key

attractions but also other potential points of interest. Interestingly, streets,

bridges and embankments do not only appear as tourist attractions, but

often also as landmarks on the way to other attractions. Blogs, on the

other hand, are more likely to highlight only key attractions, i.e. those that

are usually also featured on the official tourism website as part of the top

attractions list.

The analysis of printed guidebooks (Figure 6.7) in Ljubljana shows a sim-

ilar representation among all three categories, while the analysis of blogs

(Figure 6.8) shows a predominance of the category of historical and re-

ligious buildings. The offers noted in the printed guidebooks extend in

area from the Castle Hill to Tivoli Park, while the offers from blogs are

more concentrated along the banks of the Ljubljanica River and below

the Castle Hill. An analysis of the offers in Maribor in printed guidebooks

and blogs shows similar differences to those observed in Ljubljana. As

in Ljubljana, attractions and open spaces (streets, parks, embankments,

etc.) in the printed guidebooks (Figure 6.7) are spread out between the

riverbank and the city's largest park. In both cases, historical and religious

buildings predominate, while open spaces, i.e. parks and squares, stand

out in terms of surface area in both cities.

Figure 6.7

Cartographic analysis

of printed guidebooks

for Ljubljana and

Maribor by category

of attractions: cultural

institutions, open

spaces, historic and

religious buildings

Cultural institutions in

Ljubljana (left) and in

Maribor (right)

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6 Spatial aspects of the development and promotion of urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Nina Stubičar

Naja Marot

Figure 6.7

Cartographic analysis

of printed guidebooks

for Ljubljana and

Maribor by category

of attractions: cultural

institutions, open

spaces, historic and

religious buildings

Historical and religious

buildings in Ljubljana

(left) and in Maribor

Open spaces in

(right)

Ljubljana (left) and in

Maribor (right)

6.5.3 Comparison of the occurrence of tourist attractions in printed

guidebooks and online guides

Our analysis of destination promotion looks at different sources of in-

formation which address different types of tourists and visitors. Print-

ed guidebooks are more thorough in promoting the offers and often

present not only the key attractions but also the history of the area and

Historical and religious

those attractions that are, respectively, part of the official promotions

buildings in Ljubljana

run by Ljubljana Tourism and Maribor Tourist Board. Although online

(left) and in Maribor

guides take a similar approach, they are usually shorter in length and

(right)

less comprehensive. Due to the nature of this type of promotion, it is

desirable to provide information quickly and concisely. They are also

based on visitors' experiences, which has the effect of making the infor-

mation less factual and diverse, and instead more focused on personal

Figure 6.8

experiences.

Cartographic analysis

of online guides (blogs)

Furthermore, our analysis also showed differences in the spatial rep-

for Ljubljana and

resentation of the offers (Figure 6.9). The same or similar attractions are

Maribor by category

of attractions: cultural

described and promoted, but in the printed guidebooks they are not

institutions, open

only presented on a larger scale but also cover a wider area outside

spaces, historic and

the city centre. According to the results of the analysis, promotion in

religious buildings

Ljubljana and Maribor mainly focuses on the tourist offers concentrated

Cultural institutions in

in the city centres, which, together with the increase in the number of

Ljubljana (left) and in

visitors, contributes to the touristisation of the two city centres.

Maribor (right)

Our analysis of the guides confirmed that the city centres are indeed

touristised, i.e. that the tourist offers are most concentrated in the nar-

rower areas of Ljubljana's and Maribor's city centres, while this was not

the case in the other city districts. In Ljubljana, the following attractions

outside the city centre occasionally appear in printed guidebooks: Kino

Šiška, Žale Cemetery and the BTC shopping centre, while in Maribor it

is mainly sporting events in the Tabor and Radvanje districts (the latter

is located at the foot of Pohorje). It is clear that in both cities the pro-

motion of historical and religious buildings is predominant, and to a

Open spaces in

lesser extent galleries, museums and cultural institutions in the city cen-

Ljubljana (left) and in

tre area. The predominant attractions and facilities are the main tour-

Maribor (right)

ism products of both city destinations and the driving force of cultural

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6 Spatial aspects of the development and promotion of urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Nina Stubičar

Naja Marot

tourism, which is why tourists and visitors visit the city centre districts in

6.6 Analysis of the routes taken and visited tourist attrac-

greater numbers. At the same time, the squares and parks, which stand

tions in Ljubljana

out in terms of their surface area and which also link into other districts,

encourage the diversion of visitor flows away from the two centres. Mar-

Existing tourism infrastructure, offers, and marketing also influence the

ibor's various sporting events also direct them there.

movement of tourists to the two destinations. Therefore, in summer

2021, we conducted a survey among tourists in Ljubljana (n = 581),

Figure 6.9

asking them, among other things, about their recognition of, and visits

Overview maps of

to, main and alternative attractions, sources of information about their

the tourism offer in

visits, and to draw on a city map the routes they had taken so far during

Ljubljana and Maribor

their visits. The analysis of collected information provided us, on the

in printed and online

guides

one hand, with a tool for assessing the density of tourism and, on the

other hand, with a basis for designing measures for a more spatially

balanced development of tourism in the urban area in the future.

Printed guidebooks for

6.6.1 Recognition of tourist attractions

Ljubljana (left) and for

The results of the survey of tourists in Ljubljana on the recognition of

Maribor (right)

(Figure 6.10), and visits to (Figure 6.11) tourist attractions clearly show

which are the most recognised and visited attractions in the city. Lju-

bljana Castle, the Dragon Bridge and the Triple Bridge (Tromostovje)

were the most popular tourist attractions, with more than 90% of tour-

ists recognising them. This was followed by other open urban spaces

(Congress Square and Tivoli) and the Cathedral. At the other end of

the spectrum were individual museums and cultural institutions; sites

which are known by a very small proportion of visitors and visited by

even fewer (somewhere between 10 and 20%).

Online guides (blogs)

The recognition of alternative tourist attractions were also very low,

for Ljubljana (left) and

with most of them below 10%. Positive standouts were the AKC Me-

for Maribor (right)

telkova, Tivoli Castle, and Špica (Figure 6.12, Figure 6.13), which are

located outside the Old Town and spatially distant from each other.

AKC Metelkova is close to the main bus and train stations and there-

fore completely removed from the otherwise content-rich city centre,

but it is one of the more recognised and visited attractions precisely

because of its rich and varied content and appearance. A little further

away from the most visited part of the city centre are Špica, also known

to residents and local visitors as the Ljubljana Beach, and Tivoli Castle,

located in a slightly remote part of Tivoli Park, the largest green space,

which extends almost all the way to the city centre. These and the other

alternative attractions considered in the survey are not as well target-

ed and strongly promoted, and they are more distant in space both

from each other and from the old centre. Both factors have strong im-

pact on their visibility and the likelihood of tourists cvisitng them. This

is particularly evident in the case of the Barje Golf Club, the Tobačna

Cultural Centre, the Fužine Castle, the Kino Šiška and some of the other

least-recognised and least-visited attractions that are not located in the

Centre district.

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6 Spatial aspects of the development and promotion of urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Nina Stubičar

Naja Marot

Figure 6.10

Figure 6.12

Recognition of

Recognition of alternative

Ljubljana's main tourist

tourist attractions in

attractions (%)

Ljubljana (%)

Figure 6.13

Figure 6.11

Percentage of tourists

Percentage of tourists

who have visited,

who have visited,

plan to visit or have

plan to visit or have

no intention to visit

no intention to visit

Ljubljana's alernative

Ljubljana's main

attractions (%)

attractions (%)

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6 Spatial aspects of the development and promotion of urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Nina Stubičar

Naja Marot

6.6.2 Sources of information

6.6.3 Routes travelled

In examining the recognition of attractions and the decisions made by

The completed surveys of tourists in Ljubljana were mapped in the QGis

tourists to visit them, we were also interested in the information sources

environment, with all the routes plotted and graphically processed to

used by tourists to enquire about the destinations they visit. The re-

obtain a map of the density of completed routes. Similar to previous

sults of the survey we carried out in Ljubljana showed that tourists most

spatial and graphical analysis, this showed an increased concentra-

often find out more about the city through recommendations from

tion of tourism in city centre. In Ljubljana (Figure 6.15), tourists move

friends and from social media (especially blogs and tourist portals,

most along the Ljubljanica River, on the paths to the Ljubljana Castle,

and among which Trip Advisor stood out) (Figure 6.14). Interestingly,

and along the streets of the Old Town. Outside these areas, walking

the least used sources of information were travel agencies, various vid-

through Tivoli, to Metelkova and to Špica is also popular. Longer trips

eo content, tourist brochures and, more surprisingly, the official Visit

out of the city centre were made mainly because of their location of

Ljubljana website, which was used by only a third or respondents. It

accommodation, but some tourists also went to the Zoo, the Žale cem-

is important to note that the different sources of information do not

etery and the BTC shopping centre. The analysis suggests that tourists

affect the existing spatial distribution of the offers, but they do affect

are overwhelmingly confined to the city centre, and we assume that

its visitors' numbers and recognition. The review and comparison of

they are less successfully motivated by city tourism managers or stake-

the promotion of individual attractions in printed guidebooks and

holders to visit other districts of the city.

online guides in the second part of this chapter showed that printed

guidebooks contain more information, while the advantage of online

Figure 6.15

guides lies in the possibility of quickly updating the information and

Cartographic

thus changing the flow of promotion. Regardless of this, both sources

representation of the

of information like other promotional channels present similar tourist

routes taken by tourists

in Ljubljana

attractions. Recommendations from friends, blogs and Trip Advisor are

highly influenced by promotional channel of Ljubljana Tourism, which

determines the distribution of the offers in the area.

Figure 6.14

Sources of information

used by tourists,

the charts below

shows in more detail

which tourist portals,

social media and

recommendations were

used by tourists

The map of the routes taken is consistent with the results pertaining

to the recongition of, and visitis to, main and alternative attractions.

RECOMMEND-

ATIONS

Thus, the routes were made where the most recognised and visited

attractions were also located, e.g. the Tromostovje, Prešeren Square,

Friends

Ljubljana Castle and the Dragon Bridge. Open spaces such as Con-

Acquaintances

gress Square, Tivoli and the Cathedral were slightly less recognised and

visited, while individual museums and cultural institutions were among

Locals

the least recognised and visited, despite their classical roles as cultural

Accommodations

attractions in the city. The latter are part of the narrower city centre, but

not necessarily the Old Town, which is where a majority of the most

promoted attractions are located and where the tourist flow is concen-

trated.

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6 Spatial aspects of the development and promotion of urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Nina Stubičar

Naja Marot

6.6.4 Length of routes taken in an urban destination

cities, the most interesting tourist areas have the highest number of rat-

Although Ljubljana and Maribor are relatively small city destinations,

ings, and these are also the best rated; majority of providers have a very

which predominantly focus their promotional activities on the (two)

good or excellent rating.

inner cities, tourists obviously travel longer distances within the cities

which can be covered in about half an hour with basic knowledge of

Cities use different promotional channels to reach different types of

the destination. Tourists told us that in urban destinations, 10% of tour-

potential visitors when it comes to destination development. A com-

ists typically walk up to five kilometres in a day, and almost half of tour-

parative analysis of the official websites of the 10 cities shows that simi-

ists (46%) walk between five and ten kilometres, over 40% walk more

lar themes (history, architecture, etc.) are represented, and that they are

than ten kilometres during their visits (Figure 6.16). These tourists are

mainly related to cultural tourism. While green and open urban spaces

mainly those who are not only interested in visiting the city centres, but

have not traditionally been ranked among the key attractions of desti-

also wish to experience city life outside the city centre.

nations, the analysis of the top 10 attractions shows that they are being

promoted by an increasing number of cities, including Ljubljana and

Figure 6.16

Maribor. Events are the least prominent aspect in these lists, as they

Daily distance typically

are in principle only of interest to visitors who are in the destination

covered by a tourist

when they are held. The mapping of attractions according to their dis-

walking in an urban

tance from town halls shows a remarkable concentration of the most

destination

promoted tourist attractions in or around the (historic) city centre, with

the vast majority of them within two kilometres of the Town Halls. Some

cities, such as Bratislava, Zurich, Graz and Maribor, even have the ma-

6.7 Conclusion

jority of their attractions within a 600m radius of their Town Halls. In

such instances, tourists can hardly be expected to visit other parts of

There are different approaches to analysing the presence and devel-

the (given) city.

opment of tourism in urban areas. In this chapter, we have graphically

presented the distribution of tourism infrastructure and the frequency

A more detailed analysis of the promotion of Ljubljana and Maribor in

of promotion of individual tourist attractions, and based on a survey of

printed and online tourist guides shows that the cities promote similar

tourists, we have examined the recognition of, and visits to, individual

types of tourist attractions. The latter - regardless of the form of pro-

attractions in the destinations and mapped the tourist routes taken. The

motion - are often repeated and, as in the selected Central European

analysis showed that all the selected Central European cities have a

cities, are concentrated in city centres. Thus, the promotion itself tends

high concentration of tourist infrastructure, offers and attractions in or

to emphasise attractions that are centrally located and more easily ac-

close to the historic part of their respective city centres; a consequence

cessible to tourists. If more attractions outside city centres were added

also of their geomorphological features, urban design and historical

to the printed and online guides and promoted in an innovative way, a

development.

partial reorientation of tourist flows could be expected; a process that

would also influence the development of the tourist infrastructure and

The examples of Ljubljana and Maribor, where we looked in more detail

the urban fabric of the two cities.

at the spatial context of tourism in the two cities, once again confirmed

the thesis that urban tourism is (too) concentrated in old city centre ar-

The spatial distribution of infrastructure, services and tourism promo-

eas. The location of catering establishments coincides with the promo-

tion in cities is further reflected in tourist behaviour. This is confirmed

tion of tourism offers, and within these two cities they are , developed in

by the analysis of the recognition of, and visits to, attractions and the

the areas between the river banks and the major urban parks and green

analysis of tourist routes. Here, we have only shown these in more detail

spaces. Accommodation establishments (mostly hotels) are also found

with regard to Ljubljana. The tourist itineraries, as shown by the results

in and around this area. Private accommodations rented out on sharing

of the previous analysis, further confirm that tourists mostly or almost

economy platforms (e.g. Airbnb) are more numerous than traditional

exclusively stay and move around in the narrower area of Ljubljana's

accommodation; and, due to their nature - mostly individual units – spa-

city centre. It is also where the most promoted attractions, identified on

tially more dispersed over the wider urban areas. The concentration of

websites, and in printed and online guides are sited. These are also the

tourist flows is further supported by the evaluation of the offers publi-

same attrations that are most recognised and visited by tourists. Pro-

cised through different channels; as the best rated providers are most

motion is, therefore, one of the most powerful tools for informing and

often found in a smaller area of the two city centres. For example, we

guiding tourists. It is a tool for directing tourist flows and (unfortunately)

have seen from tourist satisfaction ratings (Trip Advisor) that Ljubljana,

also a factor for centralising tourist offers in the urban centres of select-

as a more developed and more visited destination, has a higher num-

ed cities, including Ljubljana and Maribor. Although both city centres

ber of feedbacks and also better service ratings than Maribor. In both

are already relatively touristised (Ljubljana more so than Maribor), their

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6 Spatial aspects of the development and promotion of urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Nina Stubičar

Naja Marot

existing urban structures restrict the outward expansion of tourist offers

Kádár, B. (2013). Differences in the spatial patterns of urban tourism in Vienna and

Prague. Urbani Izziv, 24(2), pp. 96–111.

and flows from the two city centres whilst also hindering, due to their,

spatial constraints, the development of new tourism infrastructure in

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of tourism, it is therefore essential to pay more attention to the spatial

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Mahboob, M. H., Ashfaq, M., Humayon, A. A. and Akhtar, K. S. (2021). Tourist’s

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Chapter 7


Limits of urban tourism


in Ljubljana: the views of

different social groups

Matjaž Uršič

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7 Limits of urban tourism in Ljubljana: the views of different social groups

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

processes of city 'impoverishment' ie. the homogenization of activities

in touristic areas. In extreme cases, such processes lead to processes

of urban “gentrification” (Smith, 1996; Hamnett, 1984; Downs, 1981),

7.1 Introduction

whereby larger population movements and city-building activities oc-

cur due to increases in living costs, rents, reductions in the functionality

City managers, the state, other national and local actors, and interest

of public services, and so on. In our analysis, we particularly focus on the

groups in Slovenia are often aware of the importance of tourism and

effects of tourism development from the perspective of various users of

the development potential it brings to urban areas. At the same time,

urban areas. In doing so, we limit ourselves to the 'quality' rather than

they often try to use the potential of tourism in ways that are predom-

the 'quantity' of the effects of tourism development and analyse how

inantly consistent with economic needs, while social components

tourism has changed the socio-cultural basis of urban activities in Lju-

are only briefly mentioned in plans. From this perspective, areas that

bljana and what this means for the long-term development of the city.

contain various forms of potentially exploitable 'tourism capital' (e.g.

physical cultural heritage, distinct natural features and so on) try to be

One of the key dilemmas of the city's tourist development relates to the

prepared and to develop as forms of a scientific-cultural curiosity that

issue of establishing appropriate relationships between the processes

will attract visitors, consumers, and investors. In accordance with the

of commodification, upgrading or development of services, and the

processes of identification of suitable tourism capital, cities not only

protection of historical heritage and the heterogeneous socio-cultur-

initiate processes of protection for specific locations with such poten-

al character of urban areas. In this context we discuss how to find the

tial, but also adapt and change them in ways that are congruent with

right balance between the interests of tourism developers and other

the standards that apply in global tourism. Urry (1995) states that by

heterogeneous actors, and involved stakeholders without reducing

resorting to the principle of consumption, cities often try to reinterpret

the long-term development capacity of urban areas. The current con-

local cultures in order to make them more attractive to global flows of

ditions of the postmodern, globalized environment in which cities are

people and capital. For example, many European cities boast historical

literally competing for resources, suitable labour and capital, make this

or cultural quarters, streets and areas with medieval, baroque, and art

task even more difficult. Nevertheless, this chapter tries to give some

nouveau architecture, which are legally protected as important parts of

starting points about possible approaches to tourism development in

their cultural heritage. During various phases of the protection of this

Slovenian cities , and in doing so, integrates economic, social and cul-

architecture and historical urban design, new processes appear that

tural aspects in order to find guidelines for an optimal solution.

try to modify their original use and the aesthetic-symbolic character-

istics of these spaces. Often, they are replaced by more socially sterile

7.2 Developing tourism on the basis of material or imma-

environments that exclude locally specific social practices, rituals, and

terial cultural assets?

events which possess strong symbolic importance for residents. The

way in which the process of tourism development within cities is carried

Tourism can be described as a form of individual necessity, a strong de-

out can have a significant impact on the organization and functioning

sire to be physically present in a certain place that helps the individual to

of local spaces. On the one hand, city districts, historic buildings, and

gain experiences that are radically different from their everyday routine.

streets might be able to retain parts of their original “material” value in

Seen from this perspective, tourism is based on the certain ‘exception-

the form of ambient, aesthetic, and architectural features. On the other

ality’ of spaces; this makes the selected spaces a rare commodity. Being

hand, during the process of adaptation to tourist use such places can

“there” is the key motto of tourist agencies, and they base for visiting a

lose part of their “intangible” or immaterial value; that which is repre-

certain tourist destination precisely on “compulsion to be close” (Urry,

sented by the local population, various segments of spatial users, their

2001, p. 4), i.e. they highlight the importance of a direct, immediate

social networks, informal events, habits, knowledge and other spatial

experience. A tourist should therefore actually visit the location if he

practices (Thornton, 1997; Uršič and Imai, 2020).

wants to gain an authentic experience that will move him, at least for a

short time, to a different reality from that which he inhabits as part of the

This chapter discusses the process by which urban areas undergo tour-

everyday life of his home environment. Exceptional spaces that tear us

istic transformation, and the role that touristically important areas play

out of routinized everyday life are usually geographically and ontolog-

in the further development of cities, regions, and the country. More

ically distant from our work and living spaces. These unique “spaces of

specifically, this chapter analyses the impact of urban tourism devel-

enjoyment and experience” (Urry, 2001, p. 4) are economically impor-

opment from the perspective of Ljubljana’s residents and visitors. Lju-

tant locations and attract a large number of visitors. Local communities

bljana has in the last period transitioned to an area heavily burdened

in different parts of the world are becoming more and more aware of

by tourists (data show a large increase in tourist overnight stays - from

the need to possess some form of spatial exceptionality and are, as a

841,220 in 2010 to 2,227,669 in 2019 (SURS, 2022)). It should be noted

result, trying to raise their level of tourist offers by emphasizing their

that urban transformation based on tourism can also indicate harmful

uniqueness, and authenticity in confront to other places.

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Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

In tourism, the exceptionality of a place is often associated with authen-

Figures 7.1 and 7.2

ticity, or the authenticity of the experience ie. something that cannot

Renovation display of

be experienced elsewhere due to the offerings specific socio-cultural,

the city centre in Skopje

historical and physical structure. It should be emphasized here that au-

(Author: Jörn Harfst)

thenticity is not a static category, but a dynamic concept that is formed

over and over again. Many places compete with each other in offering

cultural specialties and attractions, and in doing so, they often empha-

size historically completely insignificant local characteristics or even

re-design, or re-make historical artefacts and events to attract visitors. A

good example of such a re-creation of authenticity are the many reno-

vations and reconstructions of city centres that have occurred through

the use of neoclassical architectural elements, (see Figures 7.1 and 7.2,

which represent the renovation of the city centre of Skopje (De Launey,

2014)). In many cases, it is a literal “reconstruction of ethnicity” or

“staged authenticity” (MacCannell, 1999, p. 91). The growing number

of such artificial and planned spatial organizations which are focused

on spectator (tourist) gaze is becoming an important economic factor

that directs the development of many cities and even countries. The

spectacle has become part of the tourist industry and is an important

element when trying to recreate appealing ambient designs that are

intended to attract as many people as possible.

The spatial organization of perception is complemented by the con-

cept of “urban scenery” (Hočevar, 2000, p. 24). Viewed ideally, “scen-

eries at the level of the system and in the context of the localization

of network flows have different representational functions with a pre-

dominantly (transnational) economic background. Therefore, their dis-

tinctness (difference) in comparison with the sceneries of other cities is

decisive" (Hočevar, 2000, p. 24). In other words, cities are increasingly

looking for their unique distinguishing characteristics and seek, by em-

phasizing their sceneries and the spatial organization of perception,

to show their comparative advantage in relation to other cities. At the

same time, cities are aware that new technologies accelerate the pro-

cesses of time-space densification, whereby information is accessible

to everyone. Consequently they try to build their offers on uniqueness;

a concept that should capture or attract as many people as possible, at

least for a short time. Locations in the city centre of Ljubljana and some

The need to produce exceptional spaces has encouraged many cities

other Slovenian cities that have elements of cultural heritage are typical

to create special tourist environments and to transform existing urban

examples that have exceptional potential to increase the attractiveness

areas so as to emphasize their touristic value. This has, at the same time,

of the city and to bring to it new visitors and capital. Through so doing,

influenced the organization of services and the daily life of various user

the development of tourism is further promoted (see Figures 7.3 and

groups within such areas. From this point of view, the renovation of

7.4). At the same time, it should be emphasized that the construction

Ljubljana’s city centre has combined new urban, architectural, function-

of a successful spatial organization of perception is a risky business, as

al and content elements with different results. The dimension of the

it often has the opposite effect to that which is desired. The production

protected 'material' value or physical cultural heritage is relatively well

of spaces intended to attract as many people as possible often requires

represented in the existing city centre renewal plan. On the other hand,

major interventions in urban centres or the wider area of a city. With

the role of 'intangible' values present in the area is rather vague and

interventions in space, the formation of new social relations simulta-

undefined. Indeed, Bourdieu (1986) thinks that “cultural capital” can be

neously occurs; this can have either positive or negative effects on the

found in various forms and can also be manifested through intangible

development of a city.

values. According to Bourdieu, cultural capital exists in an “objectified”

as well as “embodied and institutionalized state” (1986, pp. 248–250).

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Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Objectified cultural capital is represented by material things, i.e. arte-

Do the evaluation tools tied to the evaluation of intangible values, pro-

facts, works of art or, in the case of a city centre, specific historical fea-

duce data that is relevant to assessing the short-term and long-term

tures of the urban-architectural heritage of the area. Cultural heritage,

effects of implemented changes to Ljubljana’s urban environment. .

represented in physical form, can be translated into economic capital

Evaluation tools that predominantly try to assess the capacity of mul-

and today represents an established form of tourism and the cultural

tiplication of economic surpluses on tourism locations, seem to have

offer of cities. The other two dimensions of cultural capital are much

the greatest weight at the moment. It is possible that, in the context of

more closely related to the notion of intangible value. Cultural capital

Ljubljana and other Slovenian cities, too much weight has been put on

in its embodied form is represented by an individual with his/her per-

the rapid development of tourist activities, economic flow, instrumen-

sonality characteristics and way of thinking. These originate from a cer-

talization of spaces, and the general commodification of the tourist

tain environment and are formed through processes of socialization.

offer. Due to these assumptions, we will examine different views and

Embodied cultural capital is related to institutionalized cultural capi-

value orientations regarding the tourist offers of the city centre and try

tal, and is represented by an individual's knowledge and educational

to present some overlooked socio-cultural highlights of the city. The

qualifications, i.e. stocks of knowledge, qualifications, experience, and

purpose is to show whether there is a need for the development of

information accumulated in the process of education, and operates in

different tourist offers, and to see whether development is possible

specific environments and institutions.

through the use of different evaluation tools that are able to more ap-

propriately evaluate the importance of local contents for the quality of

The concept of cultural capital raises questions about the possibility

life in the mentioned areas.

of the existence of special, more complex forms of intangible cultural

values in certain areas of the city. Until recently these have been primar-

ily understood as locations with distinct physical, visual, ambient and

7.3 Analysing perception of urban tourism in Slovenia

architectural cultural values. Taking into consideration the concept of

multidimensional intangible cultural capital one must ask whether in

The data included in the analysis of how various groups perceive the

the area of the city centre of Ljubljana these forms of capital have been

development of urban tourism in Slovenia originated from three sur-

sufficiently preserved or protected. The preservation of new, perhaps

veys and are partially linked to the fifth chapter of this book, which deals

still unrecognized local knowledge, creative potential and cultural and

with how to "measure the effects of urban tourism" (see Marot and

artistic content could be of exceptional importance in the process of

Stubičar, 2022). In the first SPOT survey (Social and innovative platform

further transformation of the area. This opens a question whether cur-

for cultural tourism and its potential for strengthening Europeanization,

Figures 7.3 and 7.4

rent tourist transformation of central city areas applied the right criteria,

Horizon 2020), the field sample included both 100 tourists in the city

Display of typical urban

tools for identifying, measuring, and assessing the adequacy of intangi-

centre of Ljubljana (N = 100; 85 foreign/15 domestic tourists) as well

sceneries in Ljubljana

ble values, contents, and functional characteristics of locations?

as 300 inhabitants of Ljubljana outside the city centre (N = 300; around

(Author: Matjaž Uršič)

80% of them live within a radius of up to 4 km from the city centre)

and additionally 40 employees in companies engaged in tourism (see

Klepej et al., 2021 etc.). A series of semi-structured interviews with a

specially prepared questionnaire was conducted with each of the men-

tioned groups. In the second research, which was carried out as part of

the MESTUR project in 2021 (Analysis and management of the spatial

and social effects of urban tourism in the case of Ljubljana, Graz and

Maribor, 2019–2022, ARRS), 600 tourists answered a semi-structured

questionnaire (N = 600; of which approximately 85% are foreign tour-

ists) (see Marot et al., 2021). The third longitudinal research Spatial and

Environmental Values 2004-2018 survey (Hočevar et al., 2018) comple-

mented the first two surveys. The data in the research from 2018 was ex-

tensive and included 2,000 Slovenian residents (N = 2,000; the sample

was weighted and stratified by 12 regions and 6 settlement size types

(these include urban, suburban and rural areas).

The analysis of the data from the three surveys enabled insights to be

gained into how different groups of users see urban tourist services

and facilities. The analysis focused especially on the city centre of Lju-

bljana, which represented the key (micro) unit of study from which in-

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Section B

dividual broader (macro) trends were extrapolated with regard to the

Figure 7.5

development of urban tourism in Slovenia. To a lesser extent, we will

Key motives for a

occasionally rely on data that covers broader samples of the popula-

tourist visit to Ljubljana

tion in Slovenia and will supplement the micro location data. It is the

(Source: Klepej et al.,

2021, p. 28)

possibility of combining and supplementing data from various sources

that enables additional dimensions to be added to analysis of urban

tourism. Although we cannot talk about the complete consistency of

the data due to the different data collection processes (in terms of time

periods, different groups of interviewers, and slightly different field

boundaries etc.) it still makes sense to compare the data to increase

the interpretation capabilities of analysis.

7.3.1 Tourists' opinions of the urban tourism offers in Ljubljana

In the research Klepej et al. (2021) presented several sets of data regard-

ing how tourists perceive the tourist offer in the city centre of Ljubljana.

Different data is used to identify how they perceive the heterogeneity of

Figure 7.6

s offer in Ljubljana. From the presented data it is possible to extrapolate

Reasons for a tourist

the motives and reasons off tourists for visiting Ljubljana (see Figures

visit to Ljubljana

7.5 and 7.6) and their interest in and satisfaction with, various aspects of

(Source: Klepej et al.,

2021, p. 36)

its cultural tourism offers in Ljubljana (see Figures 7.7 and 7.8).

While motives focus on the aspect of attractiveness and the internal

motivations of the individual, reasons are related to the practical imple-

mentation of tourist trips and are also connected with so-called exter-

nal stimuli or carry-out factors. The data show that the key motives for a

tourist visiting Ljubljana are features related to specific material cultural

and historical heritage of the city centre. For example, the 'the beauti-

ful city centre with its corresponding architecture and compact streets'.

Other features complement these primary motives and represent im-

portant secondary aspects that upgrade the tourist offer of the city cen-

tre. Among reasons for visiting, it is important to highlight the aspects

of personal interests and the price and the location of Ljubljana, which

The data reveals certain gaps in Ljubljana’s tourism offer. Despite gen-

all significantly contribute to the choice of Ljubljana as a tourist desti-

eral satisfaction with visiting Ljubljana, tourists also detect elements of

nation. The location significantly complements the data in Figure 7.6,

mediocrity with regards to Ljubljana's cultural offers (approximately

as well as the data which shows that a significant proportion of tourists

one fifth of the interviewees were in this category (Klepej et al., 2021).

(according to research by Klepej et al., 2021, approximately one third)

In Figure 7.8, among the individual dimensions of cultural tourism that

combine their visits to Ljubljana with a visit to other foreign destinations

are rated somewhat worse, the most prominent are "the diversity of

in the vicinity (for example locations in Italy, Croatia, Austria and Hunga-

cultural offers" and "the (small) volume of cultural offers" of Ljubljana.

ry). In this context, for approximately a third of the tourists questioned,

In order to determine the scope and importance of the slightly lower

Ljubljana is just one stop on a longer tourist route. This partially reduces

evaluation of the cultural diversity offers of Ljubljana, this data must be

the importance of Ljubljana as a primary tourist destination. In the con-

supplemented with the data from Figure 7.7, which shows the most

text of the analysis of heterogeneity of tourist offers, special attention

interesting cultural offers according to individual aspects of the city’s

should be paid to tourists’ (dis)satisfaction with aspects of the cultural

cultural tourism. A review of the data shows that the most interesting as-

tourism offers available in Ljubljana (see Figures 7.7 and 7.8).

pects of this are related to material (static or in situ) characteristics, and

mainly include built cultural heritage, with other aspects of the cultural

diversity offer being less attractive to tourists. The combination of data

from Figures 7.7 and 7.8 allows us to interpret tourists' expectations

regarding Ljubljana’s tourist offers and to contrast these expectations

with what they ‘actually got’ when they visited. A majority of tourists in

Ljubljana were satisfied with the tourist offers, as they mostly expected

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Section B

a well-preserved/renovated city centre with an appropriately designed

Figure 7.8

architectural heritage - and that is what they get. However, higher ex-

Satisfaction with

pectations with regards to the greater heterogeneity of the cultural

aspects of cultural

offers (especially in terms of intangible heritage and culture) are, from

tourism offer in

Ljubljana in relation

the view of foreign tourist, not realized and are characterized as "aver-

to other influencing

age at best" by one fifth of tourists. It follows that Ljubljana's tourism

factors (Source: Klepej

cultural offers in the current context are relatively limited and do not

et al., 2021, p. 34)

show development potential with regard to planning more complex

tourism strategies that would enable upgraded services or new forms

of sustainable tourism. Current tourism in Ljubljana is mainly based on

the exploitation of current potentials which originates from the city's

material cultural and historical heritage which has been accumulated

over hundreds of years.

Figure 7.7

Tourists' interest in

specific aspects of

cultural tourism in

Ljubljana by individual

category (Source: Klepej

et al., 2021, p. 35)

7.3.2 Analysis of the differential advantages of Ljubljana's urban

tourism compared to other cities - overlooked aspects of Ljubljana's

urban tourism offers

Analysis of the differential advantages of Ljubljana’s urban tourism

compared to other cities provides similar findings as other data (see

Klepej et al., 2021). They point to the relatively limited offer of urban

tourism in Ljubljana. In the framework of existent research (ie Marot et

al. 2021), the key dimensions of urban tourism were first analysed via a

sample of 600 tourists. In doing so, they were first asked if they could

describe the key features of Ljubljana in a few words. Thereafter, they

were asked to briefly describe why they chose Ljubljana as the main

destination of the trip. Subsequent to this, respondents were asked to

describe what made Ljubljana different to other cities.

Enabling the respondents to freely formulate answers, this type of data

collection resulted in an extensive set of descriptions of different di-

mensions of urban tourism, which had to be filtered via subsequent

analysis into individual categories according to individual phrases and

word structure. To analyse the mentioned data, we used “pragmatic

text analysis” (Verschueren, 1995), whereby we explained the analysed

dimensions of urban tourism by individual categories on the basis of

semiotic connections in sentences. For these purposes, we used Text-

STAT 2.9c software tool for text analysis (FUB, 2021) and, based on the

frequency of individual words and phrases, came to form individual cat-

egories of answers that were important for our analysis. In doing so, we

focused in particular on differences between the individual dimensions

of the tourism characteristics of Ljubljana in relation to the questions

posed. The data showed the following relationships between individu-

al categories of answers according to the questions asked.

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Section B

Table 7.1

No. Name of category Descriptors (keywords in a category)

No. of

of the city centre, which should include a wider range of tourist offers.

citations

Distribution of the

With regard to Ljubljana, the presence of key attractive factors such

descriptive categories

Beautiful + friendly + cozy + charming + lovely

as charm and cuteness is often taken for granted. They represent very

of Ljubljana by

1

CHARM

+ atmosphere + cute + pretty + pleasant +

413

individual descriptors

pictoresque)

complex factors that connect a multitude of different characteristics

(Source: Marot et al.,

which co-create the conditions for the aforementioned descriptions

2021)

2

SMALLNESS

Small + little + compact + concentrated)

126

of the city. This sensible and also vulnerable structure is crucial for es-

tablishing the foundations of cuteness and charm in the city. This was

3

GREEN SYSTEM

(NATURE)

Green + nature + water + greener)

118

also reflected in the answers to the second question, where we asked

4

CALMNESS

Quiet + peaceful + relaxed + calm + serenity)

112

tourists: "Why did you choose Ljubljana as a travel destination?" (see

Table 7.2).

MATERIAL

Architecture + historical + old + buildings

5

(CULTURA-

HISTORICAL)

+ historic + history + Castle + Medieval +

99

monuments)

Figure 7.9

HERITAGE

Romantic Ljubljana – the

6

CLEANLINESS

Clean

84

charm of Ljubljana as an

attractive factor in tourism

7

GASTRONOMY

Food + bars + restaurants

44

(Author: Mankica Kranjec,

photo library Ljubljana

Tourism, 2022)

For the first open question: "How would you describe Ljubljana in a few

words?" a set of most common descriptive categories were identified

after the text analysis. Table 7.1 lists the categories that were identified.

It should be noted that a significantly larger number of categories were

identified in the analysis, but due to their low frequency they were not

included in more detailed analysis. In the more detailed analysis, we

only included the seven most frequently mentioned categories.

In tourists' descriptions of Ljubljana, the categories “charm” and “cute-

ness” with regard to the city centre stood out extremely strongly. This de-

scription also as an important register in a number of other answers that

Figure 7.10

referred to the peculiarities and advantages of Ljubljana. The outstanding

A walk through Old

charm and cuteness of Ljubljana can be justified by the specific structure

Ljubljana - the charm

of the city centre and its associated material cultural heritage. The ambi-

of Ljubljana as an

attractive factor in

ental effect of material cultural heritage further relates to other important

tourism (Author: Dunja

categories of descriptions and include the city's small size, green system,

Wedam, photo library

cleanliness and, in the final, third stage of mentions, also other accompa-

Ljubljana Tourism,

2022)

nying service offerings such as gastronomy. The combination of charm

associated with a specific, relatively green system, which allows for nice,

calm walks with the occasional use of accompanying catering services,

seems to most tourists to be a key part of the description of Ljubljana

(see Figures 7.9 and 7.10). Charm and cuteness as key descriptors of Lju-

bljana is not surprising, as many authors state that cuteness is "a strong

affective register, the social proliferation of which has been on the rise

since the turn of the millennium" (Dale et al., 2017). The culture of cute-

ness is also often associated with the so-called 'kawaii culture' (Harris,

The answers show that Ljubljana is interesting for tourists especially as

2001; Carpi et al., 2012; Ohkura, 2019)and the aesthetics of mannerism,

a novelty, a new form of touristic unexplored location that needs to be

excessive affection for things, people, food, clothes and also spaces that

seen. In this case, a visit to Ljubljana is connected in particular to the

evoke empathy, and emotional stimuli in individuals. Until recently, the

strongly observed charm and particular geo-location that allows the vis-

culture of cuteness, which is extremely important for the operation of the

itor to combine their visit to Ljubljana with other locations, places, cities

tourism sector, was too often perceived as a trivial, superficial category

or countries in the vicinity. The remaining descriptors had a relative-

for the study of tourism offers. Even in the context of Ljubljana, the cul-

ly low frequency of mention and there are large differences between

ture of cuteness was perceived as a secondary, self-evident component

them in Table 7.2. Nevertheless, we included them in the list because

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Section B

they connect or complement and explain the higher positioned three

The dominance of the charm category in tourist perceptions of the city

key descriptors in the question. Charm or cuteness as a key dimen-

centre shows the specificity of the structure of urban tourism in Ljublja-

sion appeared again in the third question, in which tourists were asked:

na, and could be speculatively linked to the entire tourism offer of Slo-

"What do you think makes Ljubljana different compared to other cit-

venia. This structure is based on the characteristics of beautiful nature,

ies?" (see Table 7.3).

greenery, safety, peace and cleanliness within the framework of the

small and extremely dispersed settlement system of Slovenia. Along

Table 7.2

with the advantages of charm as a primary pull factor, it is also neces-

No. Name of category Descriptors (keywords in a category)

No. of

Reasons and motives

citations

sary to mention the limitations of this type of 'kawaii tourism'. Such a

for choosing Ljubljana

dominant mono-functional type of tourism is tied to very fragile, sensi-

as a travel destination

1

NOVELTY, NEW

DESTINATION

Slovenia + new + capital city + interesting + EU

158

(Source: Marot et al.,

tive relationships and can quickly lose its attractiveness due to excessive

2021)

tourism, or its overloading with similar homogeneous offers of service

2

CHARM

Nice + good + heard + beautiful + small

86

and activities. Ironically, it is precisely the crowds of tourists that are

TRANSIT

steadily but gradually undermining this romantic "tourist view" (Urry,

3

POSSIBILITIES

Croatia + Austria + Zagreb + Budapest +

DUE TO

Germany + Italy + Trieste + Vienna

71

2001) of a calm, clean, charming, cute city centre (see Figure 7.11). If

LOCATION

these categories represent the key surplus of the city's tourist offer and

STARTING POINT

other categories like gastronomy, galleries, museums, collections and

4

FOR THE REST

Bled + near + Triglav + park + hiking

46

other cultural offers are to a lesser extent noticed just as supportive

OF SLOVENIA

quality forms of offer, then it is difficult to speak of a branched, het-

VISITING

erogeneous, unique, outstanding, long-term sustainable and resilient

5

FRIENDS AND

Friends + visiting

43

FAMILY

tourist offer in Ljubljana.

6

GREEN SYSTEM

(NATURE)

Nature + green

35

Figure 7.11

MATERIAL

Charm as a

(CULTURAL-

combination of green

7

HISTORICAL)

Architecture + city center

10

system, small size and

HERITAGE

material historical

heritage (Author:

Andrej Tarfila, photo

Table 7.3

library Ljubljana

No. Name of category Descriptors (keywords in a category)

No. of

Tourism, 2022)

Categories of

citations

perceptions of

Ljubljana as a

1

CHARM

Nice + river + vibe + interesting, lively + places

+ comfortable + charming + polite + pretty

178

comparative travel

destination (Source:

Marot et al., 2021)

2

GREEN SYSTEM

(NATURE)

Green + nature + greener + water

160

3

PEDESTRIAN

Walkable + pedestrian + walk + walking + no

FRIENDLY

cars + no traffic

152

4

SMALLNESS

Small + smaller + little + size + tiny

142

MATERIAL

5

(CULTURAL-

Architecture + historical + old + compact +

Apart from rare exceptions (e.g. visiting friends and family), most de-

HISTORICAL)

streets

118

scriptors of the tourist offers in Ljubljana were repeated again and

HERITAGE

again. Based on all the descriptors from Tables 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3, the

6

CALMNESS

Quiet + calm + relaxed + peaceful + safe

118

following phrase could be compiled that illustrates Ljubljana key tourist

7

CLEANLINESS

Clean + cleaner

86

characteristics: "Charming, cute, small, green, calm and clean Eastern

European capital with a beautiful city centre and quick access to other

nearby destinations." The phrase well captures the perceived key ad-

vantages as well as the current limited tourist potential of Ljubljana.

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Section B

Figure 7.12

al. (2018), in which longitudinal data between 2004 and 2018 showed

Connecting key

an increase in the importance of cultural events for local residents in

descriptors of urban

relation to tourists. In response to the question: "Are cultural events

tourism in Ljubljana

(Author: Matjaž Uršič)

mainly important for tourists, but not so much for the local popula-

tion?", approximately 50% of residents expressed disagreement, and

approximately 30% strongly disagreed in 2018. In 2004, both men-

tioned categories were approximately 4% higher. Similar conclusions

can be reached when reviewing the added values of cultural tourism

in Table 7.4, which were covered in the research by Klepej et al. (2021).

This table is complemented by the data from Figure 7.14, in which the

frequency of attendance at cultural events by the inhabitants of Ljublja-

na is displayed on the basis of the size and thickness of the words.

Figure 7.13

Importance of cultural

attractions/locations/

events for the cultural

offer of Ljubljana

(Source: Klepej et al.,

7.3.3 Residents' views on the tourist offer and development of Ljubljana

2021, p. 52)

Data from the survey (Klepej et al., 2021) show that the city's residents

have a relatively favourable view of the impact of tourism and tourist

offers in Ljubljana. Approximately 42% of respondents in the survey

were satisfied with the number of tourists in Ljubljana, and 17% were

very satisfied. About 10% were dissatisfied with the number of tourists,

and 3% were very dissatisfied. Despite this relatively positive attitude,

it should be noted that in the context of Slovenia, - and before the

outbreak of the covid-19 pandemic that significantly reduced the num-

ber of tourists - a trend of decreasing residents' satisfaction with the

development of urban tourism was observed. For example, in the re-

search of Hočevar et al. (2018; N = 1,000), about 42% (home town) and

45% (Slovenia) of the respondents answered yes when they were asked

whether more space should be allocated for tourism in your place or in

Slovenia, but a longitudinal comparison between the years 2004 and

2018 showed that support e decreased by 4% and 7%, respectively,

during the said period.

Despite the gradual decline of support towards the development

of tourism, existent research (Klepej et al., 2021; Marot et al., 2021;

Hočevar et al., 2018) shows that residents still see the benefits of tour-

ism. This can be seen from the data (Klepej et al. (2021)) which shows

that services related to the development of tourism significantly com-

plement other characteristics related to the quality of life in urban areas.

In the research by Klepej et al. (2021), residents state that the services

and features of Ljubljana's cultural and tourist offer are important or

very important to them (see Figure 7.13).

Particularly important are live cultural events (concerts, festivals), which

are noticeably more important to residents than to tourists. A similar im-

portance of eventfulness is also observed in the research of Hočevar et

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Section B

Table 7.4

Most frequent answers

Least frequent answers

Despite these positive aspects of urban tourism, residents also noticed

Added value of the

General

Better promotion and

Building renovations (1)

a number of negative impacts of tourism. Residents noticed the great

cultural tourism for the

development

recognisability of the city (16)

Safer town (2)

influence of cultural tourism on the city centre, with 83.2% of respond-

city and its inhabitants

Enriched gastronomy (12)

ents believing that cultural tourism has in some way influenced the

(Klepej et al., 2021, p.

Renovation projects and more

58)

respect for the local tradition

functioning of the city. Also, a large proportion of them (about 80%)

and history (9)

believed that urban tourism changed local traditions. Despite the rel-

Economic

Employment opportunities (17)

Higher prices of properties (1)

atively positive acceptance of the effects of tourism, it is not surprising

development

Richer local offer of services (9)

Higher value of collected taxes (3)

that inhabitants notice the inconveniences that appear as a side effect

Tourism

Various cultural events (29)

Increase in visitor numbers (1)

of tourism activities (see Figure 7.15).

development

Increase in cultural offer (25)

Promotion of local food (2)

Social life

Higher quality of life (11)

Increased Europeanisation (1)

Figure 7.15

Openness and friendliness of

Broadening horizon (4)

Inconveniences that

local inhabitants (10)

occur as a side effect

Spatial

Accessibility of the city

Decreased quality of landscape (1)

of tourist activities

development

(information, areas) (27)

Closeness of the natural areas (2)

(Source: Klepej et al.,

Diverse city (16)

2021, p. 54)

Walkable city (16)

Figure 7.14

Frequency of attended

cultural events by

residents of Ljubljana

(Source: Klepej et al.,

2021, p. 50)

The data shows that approximately half of the population notices a num-

ber of inconveniences associated with the development of cultural tour-

ism. In doing so, they most often pointed out issues relating to noise, street

parties, disrespect for rules, inappropriate handling of waste, and the like.

Combining the beneficial and harmful effects of urban tourism creates a

complex situation in the context of Slovenian cities. Research data shows

that residents oscillate between supportive and critical opinions on urban

tourism in Ljubljana. This suggests that, in the context of Slovenian tourism,

we have not yet developed suitable tools for preparing long-term tourism

strategies and even less for evaluating, studying and filtering the various

The inhabitants use the aforementioned offers in different ways to

effects of the development of urban tourism. In consequence, the lack

groups of tourists. As such, it is not surprising that the inhabitants of

of concurrent adequate tools may bring certain advantages but may also

Ljubljana value the cultural events in Ljubljana significantly higher than

lower the quality of life of certain groups of inhabitants within Slovenian

groups of tourists do. In the case of Ljubljana, tourism events, i.e. events

cities.

related to tourist services represent the base of the artificially re-created

“urban scenery” (Hočevar, 2000). Ljubljana, due to its proverbial small



size, cannot produce urban scenery in the same manner as large cities

with millions of inhabitants. Due to this lack of urban volume the typical

urban scenery, where events spontaneously occur in a more dynamic,

sustainable and unplanned form, cannot be permanently produced

(see e.g. Evans, 2001; Zukin, 2011; Urry, 1995). From this point of view,

occasional artificial urban scenery, which is promoted by state and city

authorities through the planning of events and activities in the city, rep-

resents a certain quality of cultural offer for inhabitants; as observed in

the research data.

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Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

7.4 Discussion - the complex balance between long-term

port, upgrade of elements related to the development of the creative

and short-term effects when developing urban tourism

and cultural programs in cities. The high degree of heterogeneity, vari-

ety of venue bases, socio-cultural diversity is an important aspect of ur-

If we take Ljubljana as a typical example of the development of urban

ban scenery that affects the development of local production, creative

tourism in Slovenia, we can say that the collected data (Klepej et al.,

industries, consumption and also the future development of tourism.

2021; Marot et al. 2021 and Hočevar et al., 2018), show a very complex

picture of Slovenian urban tourism. After the period of political-eco-

During the process of renewal of central urban areas, more complex

nomic transition and the identification of interesting locations for the

definitions of the city's content offer, heterogeneity and cultural capi-

development of urban tourism, it seems that Slovenian cities have

tal were often ignored for various reasons. It is true that the processes

not been able to establish appropriate conditions that would indicate

of globalization and, in particular, the increasing competitiveness be-

the upgrading of existing guidelines in urban tourism. More complex

tween cities, along with the demands for effective economic regener-

forms of urban tourism, which would build on a tourist offer that goes

ation, require rapid renovation, supported by short-term and clearly

beyond the existing material features, based on either cultural-historical

visible effects in space. Nevertheless, at the same time, it should be

heritage or greenery (natural features), do not appear as an important

noted that there are situations in which interest groups and investors

player in the urban tourism offer for now. To illustrate this complexity

are often not aware of the long-term consequences of a short-term and

of the situation, we can also use the presentation of the effects of the

predominantly economically-oriented renovation strategy, which takes

transformation of city centres by Dupagne and Dumont (2006), who,

too little account of the various social aspects of renovation. During the

based on the analysis of a large number of historical heritage renova-

renovation process, the protection and safeguarding focuses mainly

tion projects in cities, present a complex combination of positive and

on the characteristics of the historical heritage and consequently only

negative effects of the renovation of individual urban areas. Ljubljana is

on the physical protection of the objectified cultural capital, leaving

going through a similar transformation, and it is possible to find many

out the elements of the non-materialized cultural capital. As a conse-

parallels between the effects they mention and the effects we are see-

quence, there may occur a reduction in the functional, social, service,

ing and will potentially see in the future. Characteristics highlighted by

content, cultural heterogeneity that has accumulated over a certain

Dupagne and Dumont (2006) were supplemented by the individual

period of time, and the loss of potentials that already exist in the area.

sets of characteristics that originate from the effects of physical reno-

A lot of such examples have been evidenced in locations where the

vation of Ljubljana for the needs of urban tourism and were identified

processes of "spectalization" (Debord, 1999) or "disneyfication" (Zukin, in the research of Klepej et al. (2021) and Marot et al. (2021). The pre-1991) occur and the emphasis is on aesthetic and physical ambient

sented table 7.5 is therefore adapted on the basis of multidimensional

qualities, while broader social connections and placement in the local

data from various researches, which focus on the effects of the transfor-

context are lacking. Ljubljana is of course not an exception in this con-

mation of urban areas, and shows the possibilities and directions of the

text and particularly worrisome are the experiences from several world

potential development of urban tourism.

cities (see e.g. Jacobs 1994; Zukin 1991, 1995; Featherstone, 1991) that

show that the attempts to subsequently re-establish social and cultural

Table 7.5 clearly shows the range of possible spatial effects based on

heterogeneity in the area where the complete radical physical transfor-

development of urban tourism with all the advantages and disadvan-

mation or renovation already took place, are not completely successful.

tages that this brings. The goal of any long-term oriented development

When attempts are made to reintegrate an appropriate mix of different

is to optimize the relationship between the harmful and beneficial ef-

socio-cultural elements into the renovated areas, the new urban struc-

fects of urban tourism. In the Ljubljana context, individual beneficial

ture usually does not support immediate close coexistence or mixing of

and also harmful effects are mirrored, whereby it is difficult to notice

different social groups like for example luxurious and cheap shopping

systematic shifts in terms of faster optimization of relationships in favor

areas, shops or interweaving high-profit (corporate) and non-profit so-

of beneficial effects. In the post-independence period and especially in

cio-cultural activities. The collateral damage of such renovation projects

the pre-pandemic period, some centres of Slovenian cities experienced

can be manifested in spatial separation (segregation), adapted forms

pronounced processes of 'touristification' in the sense of excessive

of zoning, gentrification processes, a general reduction of socio-cultur-

emphasis on mass tourism, homogenization of functions and services

al heterogeneity and in diminished long-term development potentials

for the needs of tourism development. In doing so, many temporary

or “creative capacities” (Lazzaretti, 2012, p. 2).

users and contents, programs, activities and services, which offered a

range of cultural, artistic and social contents and perhaps represent an

important element of the intangible cultural capital in the city, were ne-

glected, turned away, marked as less important or even excluded from

the tourist areas. Such types of intangible cultural capital can serve the

needs of long-term revitalization of the city and especially help in sup-

218

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Matjaž Uršič

7 Limits of urban tourism in Ljubljana: the views of different social groups

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Table 7.5

Influences on the

Impacts on urban cultural Impacts on urban

7.5 Conclusion - transition from short-term to sustainable

diversity of urban spaces

practices and spatial use

economies

Possible effects of

tourism strategies?

tourism transformation

BENEFICIAL aspects

of urban areas

(Sources: Dupagne and

Urban regeneration

Diversification, exchange

Jobs, financial resources

Analysed data from researches by Klepej et al. (2021), Marot et al.

Dumont, 2006; Klepej

of influences, identity

(2021) and Hočevar et al. (2018) point to the extraordinary importance

et al., 2021; Marot et al.,

Greater concern for urban Preservation of local values Creation of new jobs

of material cultural heritage for the development of urban tourism in

2021)

spaces

and traditions

(additional employment)

Ljubljana and Slovenia. On the other hand, foreign tourists in contrast

High valuation of cultural

Diversification, expansion

New economic activities

to domestic tourists significantly less favourably evaluate intangible

heritage

and improvement of

(diversification of tourist

values and cultural offer that appears in urban areas. In particular, the

cultural offers

services)

observations of tourists stand out that indicate a homogeneous struc-

Requalification,

Development and

New sources of income

ture of the urban tourism offer, which is based on the exploitation of

revitalization of neglected promotion of short-term

(tourism)

spaces – re-arrangement

events - increasing the

the ambient, aesthetic and spatio-physical potential of the city centre

of public spaces

"eventfulness" of space

without added, surplus values in terms of touristic diversification of ser-

Production of new

Greater opportunities for

Attracting new companies

vices and contents. Data analysis shows that charm or cuteness in rela-

infrastructures

cultural exchanges and

based on (soft) influence or

tion to the material characteristics of the space (i.e. heritage protected

(information boards,

complementing cultural

location effect

as monuments, low heterogeneity of spaces, low population density,

mobility schemes)

practices (openness to the

EU, global)

green system, nature) in this context stands out as an extremely strongly

key feature of the urban tourism offer. The analysis of poorly developed

HARMFUL aspects

differential advantages of urban tourism in Ljubljana compared to oth-

Degradation of space,

Standardization (content), Mono-sectoral economy,

er cities actually points to the blind spot of Slovenian urban tourism,

standardization (physical), loss of spatial authenticity, higher expenditures,

destruction of spatial

alienation in space

gentrification

which is unwilling or unable to identify the limited reach of current

identity

tourism development strategies. The data show that the current mech-

anisms of tourism development focus mainly on the preservation of

Degradation of cultural

Conflicts between the

The risk of the emergence

heritage

local population and

of mono-sectoral economy

material values, i.e. what we see in front of us, while we are significantly

visitors

- dependence on tourism

worse at assessing immaterial, more complex forms of value that bring

The impact of mass

Loss of sense of local

Exponential rise in real

potential added surplus value to tourism.

tourism on the

community

estate prices (gentrification

environment

processes)

In doing so, one must ask whether Ljubljana and Slovenia as tourist des-

Touristification – creation

Changing the purpose of

General increase in prices

tinations can in any way surpass the category of cuteness and charm. A

of mono-functional

public urban spaces

due to tourism

spaces

bit more provocative and in other words - can Slovenia and Ljubljana as

tourist destinations go further than just cuteness and charm? Although

Crowding, problem of

Constructing Alternative

Rising rent costs lead to

parking spaces, limited

Histories (Urry, 1999)

content impoverishment

the majority of tourists in Ljubljana are satisfied with the tourist offer, this

mobility

satisfaction must be placed in the context of the expectations of tour-

"Conservation" of urban

"Theatricalisation” of local

ists, who to the greatest extent expect a well-preserved/renovated city

spaces - reducing the

values, rituals, customs

centre with an appropriately designed architectural heritage, and that is

importance of public

what they get. The excess of this offer in terms of greater heterogeneity

spaces

of the offer (especially intangible heritage and culture) is not noticed or

it is characterized as average at best by one fifth of tourists. The tourism

offer of Ljubljana is therefore relatively limited in the current context

and does not show development potential for planning long-term

tourism strategies, but mainly relies on the spontaneous exploitation of

current potentials originating from the material cultural-historical herit-

age that has accumulated in past periods. Tourists notice the vagueness

and lack in development of more complex, intangible values of urban

tourism and express this also through the use of a specific vocabulary

that focuses on very specific (homogeneous) characteristics and val-

ues of urban tourism in Ljubljana and Slovenia. The analysis of tourists'

descriptions of Ljubljana based on text analysis shows that, apart from

'beautiful city centre' and 'greenery', there are no noticeable surpluses

in Ljubljana's urban tourism offer. In this light, it is particularly sympto-

220

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Matjaž Uršič

7 Limits of urban tourism in Ljubljana: the views of different social groups

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

matic that certain segments of tourists (e.g. selected groups of tourists

attention to methods that try to measure the "material and immaterial"

from Austria, Germany, Italy) have been very dissatisfied with the offer

cultural values of areas that are under the pressure of touristification

of nightlife for several years in a row. These groups of tourists in general

(Olsson, 1999; Bianchini, Parkinsson, 1993). The most attractive, inter-

assessed entertainment possibilities in Ljubljana as very poor (SURS,

esting scenes and services in the city are usually found in the premises

2020).

or in places with the highest contrast between seemingly incompati-

ble ingredients that create differential advantages or unique elements

Furthermore, the more complex development of urban tourist destina-

that are more difficult to notice in other places. Such a concentration

tions in Slovenia is questionable in terms of content production, as no

of extremes and diversities is undoubtedly very complex and poten-

mechanisms have been developed to assess the impacts of short-term

tially limiting from the point of rapid extraction of economic benefits

and mainly economically oriented urban tourism development guide-

(monetarization), but may in the long run bring more resilient and more

lines. It is not clear how the offer of services is supposed to serve tour-

sustainable forms of urban tourism.

ists, residents of Ljubljana, residents of the city centre or other users of

the city on the long-term scale. The spontaneous, inertial development

The data from the analysis clearly show that if Ljubljana and Slovenia

of urban tourism in Ljubljana and Slovenia was reflected in individual

want to take a step forward in the development of urban tourism, they

beneficial and also harmful effects, which were well described by Du-

urgently need to integrate additional forms of intangible cultural cap-

pagne and Dumont (2006) and supplemented by data from research

ital into tourism development strategies. In the context of global and

by Klepej et al. (2021), Marot et al. (2021) and Hočevar et al. (2018). The

European urban tourism, Slovenia is currently developing and market-

problem of this complex picture of the development of urban tour-

ing generic tourist offers that are based on material cultural values (in

ism in Slovenia, in which different influences mix, is the current inabil-

the form of a classic offer of the ambient, physical heritage and nature),

ity of civil society, politics, economy to form consistent criteria, tools,

while those spaces that offer different, deviating, perhaps less commer-

evaluation mechanisms, through which it would be possible to judge

cial content are increasingly being degraded i.e. pushed out of tour-

between elements that are redundant or necessary for the future devel-

ism planning strategies. This in the long run reduces the resilience of

opment of tourism.

Slovenian urban tourism. One must be aware that Slovenian tourism

has gone through a period of transition, during which various short-

The wide range of possible socio-spatial effects of urban tourism cited

term development strategies and orientations, which were necessary

by researches (Dupagne and Dumont, 2006; Klepej et al., 2021; Marot

for the consolidation of this sector, were tested. Maybe now is the time

et al., 2021; Hočevar et al., 2018) point out that before processes, dur-

for a new wave of revitalization of different forms of non-material so-

ing processes and after the processes of urban tourism development,

cio-cultural offer in Slovenian urban tourism, which is not only based on

it is of utmost importance to thoroughly analyse not only the physi-

processes of economization (commodification), but also on the devel-

cal changes in the space, but also the social context with all the social

opment of content for all users of the city and especially - in relation to

functions, services, networks that are present in the area and indirectly

foreign tourists - relatively neglected city dwellers who, in light of the

affect the functioning of the city. Examples of the instrumentalization of

covid-19 pandemic, represent key supporting elements on which the

material cultural values for the needs of urban tourism can be found in

future tourist offer should be built.

many cities, in which competitive (global) urban policies try to create

otherwise economically successful and aesthetically attractive spaces,

but which are culturally sanitized and cleaned of all potentially interest-

7.6

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Chapter 8


Territorial governance


of urban tourism

David Klepej, Irena Ograjenšek,



Manca Krošelj and Naja Marot

227

David Klepej



8 Territorial governance of urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Naja Marot

Manca Krošelj

Irena Ograjenšek

One of the key motivators for cities to foster tourism development is in-

creased financial inflows. Tourist spending is defined as both the origin

and framework of those tourism functions which we label ‘economic’.

8.1 Introduction

Not just the multiplicative effect of every Euro that tourists spend in a

location either directly on accommodation and subsistence, but also

People have been travelling ever since prehistoric times. While the rea-

in support industries (such as transportation, retail, communication)

sons and motives for travelling may differ, most of them are rational:

should be mentioned in this context, as well as the accelerative, ex-

either they reflect a specific need (related to health, education, cultural

change, developmental, balancing, employment, and other functions

or spiritual enlightening, and similar), or they may be economically rel-

of tourism. All of them either directly or indirectly influence the income

evant (promotion, sale or acquisition of specific products and/or servic-

of individuals, (tourist) companies, cities, communities, regions and

es; promotion of an event, and similar). In both cases, such travelling

countries.

represents a means to an end. While it may include some elements of

tourism, it lacks the irrationality reflected in the fact that travelling is not

Table 8.1

just a means to an end, but per se the goal; that money spent on trav-

Advantages

Disadvantages

Advantages and

elling may qualify as a ‘sunk cost’ (Čomić, 1990). This irrationality is also

Economy

Income generation (possibly

Price increase and inflation

disadvantages of

also income increase) for local

Less opportunities for local and

strongly related to hedonic travel motives, putting pleasure first and

tourism development

businesses and population

traditional jobs

per thematic areas

completely disregarding environmental and other bad consequences

Jobs creation (in general and

Local population cannot live in

(Source: Kunasekaran

of ‘globetrotting for pleasure’. In this regard, people seem to forget

specifically in tourism)

tourist areas

and Kumar, 2021)

Increase in standard of living for Higher local population taxation

they are supposed to act as homo oeconomicus far too quickly.

local population

to cover investments in new

Improved infrastructure at the

infrastructure

Urban tourism has been under constant and persistent observation

destination

Most of generated income from

and specifically with regard to its damaging effects on local environ-

the local area is transferred to

large tourism companies

ments and local populations (see also Table 8.1). These negative effects

Environment

Building renovation

Destruction of natural resources

include but are not limited to: increased pollution and use of scarce

Space restoration

and landscapes

resources (Gössling, 2002; Russo et al, 2020; Rutty, Hall et al, 2015);

A larger number of better spatial Increased pollution

increased mobility (Albalate & Bel, 2010); touristification as a change in

projects

Traffic jams

service offerings (Freytag and Bauder, 2018; Nofre et al, 2018); chang-

Improved local landscape

Increased waste

Increased awareness of necessity

es in physical urban environments and their characteristics along with

to protect environment

gentrification in the form of changed land use (Amore, 2019; Frenzel,

Environmental education

2019; Gössling, 2002; Kelly, 2008; Larsen, 2019; Maitland and New-

Waste management

man, 2008; Spirou, 2011); as well as reduced housing availability and

Society and

Better quality of life

Increased infrastructure taxation

culture

Increased pride of local

Increased crime rates

increased housing prices (Garza and Ovale, 2019).

population

Youth emigration from traditional

Increased equality of different

local communities

The effects of urban tourism on local environments and population

population groups (according

Trivialisation of local customs

cans, without doubt, also be positive. However, especially with un-

to gender, age … )

and religion

A larger number of better public Increased conflicts among

controlled growth, they can also result in overtourism; a direct conse-

services

tourists and local population

quence of which is a reduction in the quality of life of local citizens.

Development of communal

This, in turn, can increase negative sentiments towards tourism in the

buildings

Development of local

local community (Colomb and Novy, 2016; Füller and Michel, 2014;

population’s language, cultural,

Mihalič, 2020; Milano, 2017; Novy, 2018; Smith et al., 2018; Stors et

communication, and societal

al., 2019). Both spatial and urban landscape dimension are common

skills

Increased respect towards other

underlying threads of these effects. Consequently, they should not only

cultures

be systematically addressed in the framework of tourism planning, but

Political life

Increased cooperation among

also in the framework of spatial planning. Strategic spatial plans should

local population

address tourism development (Ashworth and Page, 2011; Rahmafitria

Increased power of the local

et al., 2020) and territorial governance should concern itself with meas-

community

Assurance of rights in (natural)

ures that seek to reduce negative tourism effects.

resources management

228

229

David Klepej



8 Territorial governance of urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Naja Marot

Manca Krošelj

Irena Ograjenšek

Several illustrative examples of less-than-optimally managed relation-

balanced regional development and local population’s quality of life.

ship between tourism growth and spatial planning are given by Ogra-

While there are already several measures in place for natural spaces

jenšek (1994):

and habitats, cities lag behind. The national tourism development strat-

— increased cost of infrastructure (re)construction along with the pro-

egy does not even mention urban tourism; it is ‘hidden’ under the label

vision of public services (a tourist destination needs more police-

of cultural tourism via reference to attractions such as cultural heritage

men, firemen, medical doctors, etc. in order to cater for both visitors

and festivals. Compared to this ‘old’ approach, the newer Strategy for

and local population);

sustainable tourism growth (2017-2021) emphasizes Ljubljana and its

— decreased economic benefits of the destination, should the tour-

surroundings as one of the major Slovenian destinations and recom-

ist infrastructure be foreign-owned and every Euro earned flows

mends better utilization of cultural heritage for tourism purposes.

abroad;



— increased budget spending to help tourism workers survive outside

In a very similar way, cities and their development are only given a

the tourist season;

passing node in the strategic documents of the tourism sector. Tour-

— increased cost of upkeep for cultural and historic monuments; mu-

ism itself is very poorly represented in the spatial planning documents.

seums, galleries, libraries, etc.;

Neither municipal spatial plans nor the national level strategy (Strategy

— increased budget spending for education, health insurance, hous-

of Slovenian Spatial Development, MOP, 2004) cover tourism as an

ing subsidies and other needs of local population growing to ac-

individual sector of the economy. They also do not provide any relat-

commodate destination’s tourism development needs;

ed goals and/or guidelines apart from the indirect ones which aim to

— changed land use to accommodate additional tourism-related in-

protect cultural heritage and historical city centres. Tourism was only a

frastructural needs (starting with additional accommodation).

minor issue in the drafting of the new strategy of spatial development

(from December 2018). This is the reason we need a new approach to

Tourism studies in the decades that immediately followed WWII were

territorial governance – and is an approach that is in line with Boivin and

mostly focused on documenting the positive developmental effects of

Tamguay (2019) who claim that cities should include tourism in their

tourism. Thereafter, and towards the end of the 20th century, Kasper and

spatial planning deliberations. How they could do so is described in

Kasper (1986) started emphasizing the cost of tourism development.

this chapter.

Before the Covid-19 pandemic, citizens in tourism hubs while appre-

ciating rich cultural offerings, the development of critical infrastructure,

To this end, we first provide the theoretical foundations of territorial

jobs creation, and GDP growth, also became painfully aware of higher

governance. This is followed by a presentation of territorial governance

housing prices, overcrowded city centres, pollution, and other nega-

principles in Central European cities with an emphasis on the govern-

tive effects (Andriotis and Vaughan, 2013; Novy and Colomb, 2016).

ance framework in Ljubljana. Discussion of our integral urban tourism

This prompted decision-makers to try and plan further tourism devel-

governance model also includes the model’s application to the cases

opment in line with the wishes and needs of local populations in an

of Ljubljana and Maribor, along with selected good practice examples

integral instead of a partial manner. Their goal was to prevent potential

in support of its practical implementation.

conflicts between tourist and local populations, and between those in

charge of spatial planning and those in charge of tourism development

at the urban destination (Philips and Roberts, 2013; Walia, 2021).

8.2 Theory of tourism governance and spatial planning

This chapter addresses the territorial governance challenges that arise

8.2.1 The spatial governance of tourism in cities

from urban tourism with an especial emphasis on the model of integral

Given its complex interactions with society, economy, space and the

urban tourism governance and its use in the quality assessment of ur-

environment, tourism demands broader development guidelines and

ban tourism governance in practice. We developed this model within

a systematic approach. Any one-sided efforts (for example a focus on

the framework of the MESTUR project.

only on growth) could end in the creation of catastrophic negative side

effects. Urban governance and development are, per definition, closely

The absence of territorial governance solutions from tourism and

intertwined with spatial planning which either determines or reflects

spatial planning strategies both abroad and in Slovenia is visible at all

the relationships that exist betwixt and between activities and the rules

decision-making levels. The Slovenian tourism development strategy

that govern their implementation within cities. Tourism governance, on

for the period 2012-2016 does mention sustainability. Its primary fo-

the other hand, is very results-focused, and seeks to activate all relevant

cus, however, is on the growth paradigm with its main goal being the

spatial and other resources to facilitate growth. It is imperative that it

strengthening the tourism sector: income from accommodation and

should concurrently take into account the broader (including negative)

other services, increased numbers of tourists, and an increased num-

effects that such unchallenged growth might cause.

ber of overnight stays. Tourism is supposed to have a positive effect on

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8 Territorial governance of urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Naja Marot

Manca Krošelj

Irena Ograjenšek

The classic planning approach is based on key development docu-

The influence of various stakeholder groups differ within the different

ments. Decision-makers at the destination prepare them every few

steps of the planning process. Such interactions may also be affected

years with the help of relevant stakeholder groups. Middle-range plan-

by the type of investment involved (public, private, or public-private

ning is focused on planning periods from 5 to 10 years; and long-range

partnership).

planning on planning periods of more than 10 years. The key starting

point of every plan is an analysis of the current state of affairs in tourism

Planning and governance are also dependent on those guidelines that

(both in terms of supply and demand) and its broader (economic, po-

are provided at any specific time in the process along with (global and

litical, social, etc.) environment. In the subsequent process, discussions

local) trends. At the moment, the key concepts are those of global, resil-

of the vision, developmental concept and strategy help to specify key

ient, creative and smart cities (see Table 8.2) and the related processes

development goals along with possible ways and means to facilitate

of revitalisation, gentrification, active and sustainable mobility, green

their achievement. Each goal is then tied to relevant measures and

technologies, climate change, sharing economy, digitalisation, and so

deadlines; these, together with the identification of process owners are

on. All of them can be applied to both tourism and cities.

the basis of development programme which explain in detail how a

development policy could and should be implemented. Monitoring is

One of the classic top-down planning approaches in tourism follows

based on an ex ante definition of key indicators for each goal. In paral-

from spatial planning and urbanism. Here, different governance levels

lel, promotion of the goals to and within relevant stakeholder groups

interact (local, regional, nationwide or state, international). By default,

can take place, along with the design of the (given) tourism product.

cities and states have a specific spatial planning cohabitation which is

reflected in both integrative environmental planning and policy anal-

The planning process can be integral and take into account common

ysis (Weingarten, 2010; Fischer et al., 2013), whereas spatial planning

goals as well as the direct and indirect effects of different activities. If

emphasises the necessity of communicative (Innes and Booher, 2004),

partial, it is deemed irrational because it deals separately with elements

participative (Healey, 2006) and co-evolutionary (Boelens and de Roo,

of tourism offering and infrastructure such as accommodation, cater-

2016; Mees et al., 2016) planning approaches. All emphasize the ne-

ing, transport, retails, tourist attractions, safety, education, and so on.

cessity to connect stakeholders so as to enable constant stakeholder

Such separate treatment greatly reduces the legitimacy of the strategy

dialogue – in our case a dialogue among stakeholders from tourism

as a whole.

and spatial planning sectors.

Another key difference in possible approaches to policy formation and

The ESPON COMPASS project report (ESPON, 2018) indicates that

implementation is stakeholder inclusion. If a top-down approach is

tourism sector currently has a neutral effect on spatial planning. At the

used, goals are formed at the national level or within institutions. They

same time, most EU member states claim that, at the local level, tourism

are then communicated to stakeholders who have no real means of

and spatial planning already go hand in hand. For both Austria and

modifying them. If the bottom-up approach is used, the opinions, wish-

Slovenia the level of integration is low, with the spatial component in

es and needs of the local population are used as a starting point for any

tourism almost completely non-existent. Yet some authors (Stanley,

policy deliberations.

2014; Stead and Meijers, 2009; Waterhout, 2012) deem integration im-

portant; from their deliberations, Marot and Kolarič (2019) formed the

Table 8.2

Concept

Definition

Spatial measures

following three meanings of integral spatial planning:

Examples of (spatial)

Global city

City as metropolis

Integrated large city center, banking,

development concepts

with global economic shopping, entertainment, international

1) the integration and use of different approaches such as strategic

in cities (Source: Hatuka

influence

airport or harbour, integrated railway

spatial planning, stakeholder participation, co-creation, evaluation;

et al., 2018)

system, traffic jams

2) the combination of topics such as sustainability, resilience, climate

Sustainable city City as ecosystem of

Dense and heterogeneous use of space,

change, renewable energy resources, landscape;

society, economy and space greening, passive solar energy

environment

3) the vertical (among governance levels) and horizontal (among dif-

Resilient city

City resilient to

Physical elements (roads, buildings,

ferent sectors, e.g. tourism, spatial planning, environment protec-

dangers and threats

infrastructure) resilient to dangers and

tion, retailing) collaboration of stakeholders in ‘grey areas’ which

changes

significantly exceeds the current collaborative scope.

Creative city

City as hub of

Development in city centres,

innovation and growth postindustrial areas, networks of

8.2.2 Disturbances in urban tourism planning and governance pro-

specialized companies, aesthetic urban

development

cesses

Smart city

City as a complex

Efficient infrastructure, IT services, wireless

Tourism in general, and urban tourism in particular, are critically de-

network of

and other advanced technologies

pendent on weather, as well as political, security, economic, and health

information flows

conditions, and often irrational inexplicable factors (such as the possi-

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8 Territorial governance of urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Naja Marot

Manca Krošelj

Irena Ograjenšek

bility of any destination becoming ‘fashionable’ for a specific period of

Figure 8.2

time) as well as administrative limitations (for example very strict cus-

Residents’ views on

toms formalities, currency exchange regulations, etc.). This makes tour-

tourism development

ism planning and governance more of a challenge (Ograjenšek, 1994).

in the cities of

Amsterdam, Barcelona,

Berlin, Köbenhavn,

The most frequent disturbances to urban tourism planning and gov-

München, Salzburg in

ernance processes are:

Tallin (Adapted after

UNWTO, 2018)

— The duality that exists in markets for most tourism activities: for ex-

ample, both local residents and tourists use hotels (for business and

leisure meetings, banquets, shopping, visits to hair stylists, and so

on.

— A misunderstanding pertaining to the tourism product, which orig-

inates in suppliers’ perceptions. For instance, suppliers believe they

are selling accommodation. Yet their ability to sell accommodation

also depends on nearby attraction(s), promotion and accessibility of

both the attraction(s) and the accommodation.

— Legal limitations imposed on tourism development by public insti-

tutions from other sectors (given the power of those institutions at

local, regional and national levels these can be quite significant, and

often contradictory).

— The non-existent cooperation of micro and small tourism compa-

nies at the destination.

— Ideological “wars” among ‘modernizers’ and ‘traditionalists’ at the

destination.

8.2.3 Sustainable planning and governance of urban tourism as

The study carried out in Barcelona between 2013 and 2015 shows how

post-pandemic challenge

quickly local residents’ sentiment towards tourism can change (Figure

The definition of sustainable tourism is a major challenge. UNWTO

8.1). Within three years, the share of those who believed that tourism

(2014) states that it is tourism “that takes full account of its current and

had reached the carrying capacity increased from 27 % to 49 % and

future economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the

became larger than the share of further tourism growth supporters (Al-

needs of visitors, the industry, the environment and host communities”.

varez-Sousa, 2018). Ada Colau, who was elected Mayor of Barcelona

in 2015, made this one of the critical campaign issues. Similar results

When defining sustainable tourism, we can also provide a list of what

for other cities (for example Amsterdam and Lisabon) are shown in the

such tourism should not be – the exact opposite of so-called overtour-

UNWTO (2018) study (Figure 8.2). In Ljubljana, Ninamedia (2019) re-

ism. However, understanding of overtourism is also related to under-

ported similar negative sentiments amongst the residents of Ljubljana

standing its subjective, local, and contextual nature (Koens, Postma and

for the last pre-pandemic year.

Papp, 2018). Nevertheless, as indicated in Figure 8.3, some agreement

on its key aspects does exist.

Figure 8.1

Attitudes of Barcelona

From a spatial distribution perspective, overtourism appears, in gen-

residents towards

eral, at selected urban hotspots. In other words: its effects on a city are

development of urban

selective (Pearce, 2001; Koens, Postma and Papp, 2018). The interpre-

tourism (Adapted after

Alvarez-Sousa, 2018)

tation of what is ‘too large a number of tourists’ is by default subjec-

tive (both of managers and residents) which is why Koens, Postma and

Papp (2018) indicate how difficult it is to operationalize the concept of

overtourism and develop a general set of indicators for it.

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Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

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Manca Krošelj

Irena Ograjenšek

Issue

Type of impact

Spatial distribution

and/or sports (Maribor, Padua and Poznan), and two as key to interna-

Overcrowding in city’s Overcrowding on streets

Tourist hotspots and newly

tionalization (Graz and Leipzig).

Table 8.3

public spaces

and pavements, as well

developing tourist areas

as public transport, heavy

Effects of overtourism

traffic, loss of local identity

The key goals for tourism development are quicker development and

and their spatial

better recognisability of the destination (Leipzig, Ljubljana, Zagreb and

distribution (Source:

Pervasiveness of

Noise, disturbance, loss of

Tourist hotspots and newly

visitor impact due

local identity

developing tourist areas

Zurich), better use and valorization of tourism and cultural potentials

Koens, Postma and

to inappropriate

(Bratislava and Turin) as well as multiplicative effects (tourism as an in-

Papp, 2018, p. 5)

behaviour

tegrative force in urban development processes) (Maribor and Padua,

Physical touristification Loss of amenities for

Tourist hotspots and city

see Figure 8.3).

of city centres and

residents due to mono-

centres

other often-visited

culture of tourist shops and

areas

facilities

Figure 8.3

Residents pushed out

Less availability of housing,

Throughout the city, mainly

Analysis of tourism

of residential areas

loss of sense of community

near tourist hotspots

presence in urban

due to AirBnB and

and security

space and spatial

similar platforms

strategic documents

of selected Central

Pressure on local

Increased waste, water use,

Throughout the city, near

European cities:

environment

air pollution

specific sites (harbour, road

presentation of results

junctions)

8.3 (Territorial) governance of tourism in selected Cen-

tral European cities

Before the Covid-19 pandemic, Central European cities experienced

growth in urban tourism. Consequently, we decided to analyse their

The different developmental directions of the analysed cities are also

approaches to spatial/territorial planning with regards to urban tourism

reflected in the different measures they have implemented to improve

governance. We analysed one strategic spatial planning document for

tourism infrastructure and attractions – and in general make the cities

each selected city (City of Zagreb, 2018; Degani et al., 2011; Heinig et

more attractive to tourists. Interestingly, new accommodation is only

al., 2018; Inninger et al., 2013; Kilian et al., 2010; Kochalski et al., 2013;

planned in Bratislava (focused on areas with excellent public transpor-

Kos et al., 2015; Mangili, 2015; MOL, 2018; Zurich City Council Office

tation and in the immediate vicinity of tourist attractions) and partly in

for Urban Development, 2016). We retrieved these documents from

Graz (although Graz does emphasize the need to create both one tour-

official city websites. Some of them were available in English (for Leip-

ism destination out of a broader region and the necessity of tourism

zig, Poznan, Turin, Zagreb and Zurich), others in Italian (Padua), Ger-

valorisation for existing cultural, recreational and other tourism offer-

man (Graz), Slovak (Bratislava) and Slovenian (Ljubljana and Maribor). If

ings in the area). Four cities are planning development and valorization

available, we analyzed the strategic spatial plan, if not, we analyzed the

of natural resources: thermal water (Padua), river (Ljubljana and Mari-

strategy of urban development (which were usually less comprehensive

bor), forest (Ljubljana and Zagreb), and farming (Padua and Zagreb).

and had a lower level of spatial detail, e.g. zoning). Given that there are

Sports infrastructure in Ljubljana, Maribor, and Poznan is recognized as

no European guidelines for spatial planning exist, the approaches used

an important factor of tourism development – these cities plan either

by cities differ not just among countries but also within them as shown

reconstruction, upgrades, or the development of new sports facilities

by our ‘pairwise’ comparison of two Italian cites (Padua and Turin) and

for visitors and residents. Poznan is also planning to develop new attrac-

two Slovenian cities (Ljubljana and Maribor).

tions (University park of Earth history and a military museum). Bratislava,

Poznan, and Turin are planning to develop or improve existing servic-



es, events, and promotional activities. Graz, Padua, and Turin want to

All of the analyzed cities include tourism in their strategic documents,

better utilize their urban characteristics (architecture, culture, diversity,

yet the level of inclusion differed enormously. Four out of the ten ana-

gastronomy and other city centre offerings) while at the same time em-

lyzed cities mentioned tourism development as one of their strategic

phasizing local spatial characteristics and endowments. Maribor would

priorities, three partially dealt with it, three barely mentioned it. None

like to develop its airport, while Bratislava aims to better integrate its

of the documents dedicated an individual chapter to tourism. Only

airport into the existing public transportation network. The Leipzig and

three cities (Bratislava, Maribor and Poznan) dedicated an individu-

Zurich documents are the only ones that do not specify any particular

al subchapter. Most of them viewed tourism as part of the strategic

tourism infrastructure or attraction that needs development.

direction of other sectors: five saw it as part of the economic sector

(Bratislava, Ljubljana, Turin, Zagreb and Zurich), three as part of culture

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8 Territorial governance of urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Naja Marot

Manca Krošelj

Irena Ograjenšek

Our findings confirm our working hypothesis that strategic spatial plan-

bljana Tourism, 2006);

ning does not appear sufficiently equipped to formulate measures tar-

geted at tourism growth and its effects on urban spaces. However, this

— Strategija za razvoj turistične destinacije Ljubljana 2014–2020 (eng.

confirmation is only based on the preliminary analysis of (limited) writ-

Strategic Development Tourist Destination Ljubljana 2014–2020;

ten resources, without field research. Further research challenges also

Ljubljana Tourism, 2014);

included determining stakeholder inclusion in the strategic documen-

— Strategija razvoja turistične destinacije Ljubljana in ljubljanske regi-

tation preparation process, and how strategic guidelines are actually

je 2021–2027 (eng. Strategic Development of the Tourist Destina-

practically implemented in given urban situations.

tion Ljubljana and Ljubljana Region 2021–2027; Ljubljana Tourism,

2021).

8.4 Starting points for development of integral urban

It is noteworthy that the foundations for the project of urban tourism

governance have already been established in the second strategic doc-

tourism governance: case of Ljubljana

ument (“Tourist Destination Ljubljana” for the period 2005-2008). The

organisational structure of the public institution reflects this fact, along

There are many different types of stakeholders participating in tourism

with the network of 27 stakeholders (key pillars of tourism supply in

sectors. They can be divided into private and public organisations as

Ljubljana – representatives of hotels, gastronomy, cultural institutions,

well as individuals. From the viewpoint of the roles they play, we dif-

etc.) established in line with the strategic guidelines. With the formal

ferentiate between suppliers, promotors, and managers/operators/

confirmation of the “Strategic Development and Marketing Plan of the

governors.

Tourist Destination Ljubljana” for the period 2007-2013, the long-term

vision and development perspectives have been articulated, which

In Ljubljana, the core public organisations dealing with tourism gov-

were also adopted by subsequent documents emphasizing principles

ernance are Ljubljana Tourism (sector promotion and tourism product

of inclusive governance.

development), and the City Municipality of Ljubljana (Bureau of devel-

opment projects and investments, Department of culture, Department

Strategic developmental policy measures for the period 2014-2020 ad-

of spatial planning). Key suppliers are cultural-tourism institutions with

dressed five areas: stakeholder partnership, competitiveness, intensive

their programmes (for example Museum and Galleries of the City of

promotion, innovation, as well as quality, knowledge and sustainable

Ljubljana, Festival Ljubljana, Kino Šiška Centre for Urban Culture, Na-

development (Ljubljana Tourism, 2014). Personified identities with the

tional Gallery, Museum of Modern Art, etc.) as well as the accommo-

goal of Ljubljana’s international diversification from similar destinations

dation and gastronomy sectors (Tourism and Hospitality Chamber

were developed to foster marketing and promotion. Basically, the strat-

of Slovenia). Further participating in tourism governance in Ljubljana

egy adopted identity promotion and tourism offerings development

are 17 local communities of the City Municipality of Ljubljana, which

in two key tourism segments: congress and leisure. The first one was

collaborate with non-profit organisations in a range of areas including

defined as key one already in 2011 (in the policy document Congress

of sports, culture and social services when it comes to the design and

Ljubljana 2020). The latter one uses the concept of ‘active romance’ to

upkeep of urban public spaces.

address cultural-tourism values of Ljubljana such as experiencing the

atmosphere, space, gastronomy, music, etc., as defined and described

Formally, urban tourism governance in Ljubljana started in 2001, when

in more detail in Strateške smernice kulturnega turizma v Ljubljani za

Ljubljana Tourism was established to develop and promote the tour-

obdobje 2017–2020 (eng. Strategic Guidelines for Cultural Tourism de-

ism offerings of not just for the city of Ljubljana but also the broader

velopment in Ljubljana for period 2017–2020; Ljubljana Tourism, 2016).

(Central Slovenian) region. Since its establishment, Ljubljana Tourism

has prepared five strategic documents on tourism development for the

These strategic guidelines (Ljubljana Tourism, 2016) are the first in line

City Municipality of Ljubljana:

of more inclusive tourism development documents, as they represent

— Strateške usmeritve razvoja turizma v Ljubljani in akcijski načrt na-

a joint inter-sectoral effort of Ljubljana Tourism and City Municipality of

log za obdobje 2001–2004 (eng. Strategic Guidelines for the De-

Ljubljana’s Department of Culture. They prepared the document called

velopment of tourism in Ljubljana and action plan for the period

Strategija razvoja kulture v MOL 2016–2019 (eng. Strategic Develop-

2001–2004; Ljubljana Tourism, 2019);

ment of culture in the City Municipality Ljubljana 2016–2019) and fore-

— Strategija Zavoda za turizem Ljubljana za obdobje 2005–2008 (eng.

saw a formal development programme to include cultural institutions

Tourist Destination Ljubljana for the period 2005–2008; Ljubljana

of the city into the urban tourist offerings. While this is a good starting

Tourism, 2019);

point, practical implementation as well as pandemic-generated crisis

— Strateški razvojni in marketinški načrt turistične destinacije Ljubljana

in the tourism sector disclosed several downsides and imperfections

za obdobje 2007–2013 (eng. Strategic Development and Marketing

(Figure 8.4).

Plan of the Tourist Destination Ljubljana for period 2007–2013; Lju-

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8 Territorial governance of urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Naja Marot

Manca Krošelj

Irena Ograjenšek

Ljubljana is very active when it comes to its presentation and brand

development. Yet it leaves little space for the local cultural scene to

grow and prosper in alignment with this tourist image. This results in

Figure 8.4

both lack of audience and non-institutional production spaces. This

Selected interview

became very evident during the pandemic.

excerpts on the topic

(Local tourist guide)

of urban tourism

governance (Source:

Everything is centralized at the local level – City Municipality of

Krošelj et al., 2021)

Ljubljana and Ljubljana Tourism are financed by the same institution,

which leads to a very singular image of identity and capitalist idea of

tourism as a profit-generating machine. In a long term, this cannot be

sustainable for the local population.

(Local tourist guide)

Strategic approach to cultural tourism governance and development

of a more sustainable tourism is well managed. Both Slovenian

Tourist Board and Ljubljana Tourism are very good at it. They are

successfully connecting numerous tourist suppliers and companies.

However, they could increase their efforts to support local initiatives

of cultural and creative industries.

(Representative of the Centre for Creativity)

Following on from the SPOT project research (Krošelj et al., 2021), and

8.5 Integral model of urban tourism’s territorial governance Figure 8.5

based on interviews with cultural tourism stakeholders in Ljubljana on

According to

the topic of cultural tourism governance, interviewees seem to believe

8.5.1 Initial explanations

interviewees,

the road towards higher-quality inter-sectoral collaboration is still rather

When developing the integral model of urban tourism’s territorial gov-

stakeholders in

the public sector

long and difficult (Figure 8.5).

ernance we built on two pillars: stakeholders and policies. Policies were collaborate more divided into tourism, spatial, and other (targeting economy, sustainable successfully while Several critical findings of this research need to be specifically empha-development, culture, etc.). Stakeholders were divided into individuals, stakeholders from the private sector are very

sized:

civil society (networks), the public sector, and the private sector. Stake-

often not included in

– Policies which are more directly supported by local communities are

holders from the private sector were further divided into those that are larger projects and are more successful. This is especially the case in the growing sector

active in the area of tourism and others. Stakeholder from the public thus neglected (Source: of micro and small companies as well as local cultural and creative

sector were further divided into those that are active in the area of tour-

Krošelj et al., 2021)

industries which are often interdisciplinary.

ism, those that are active in the area of spatial planning, and others. The

– More investment opportunities are needed for inter-sector collabo-

model aimed to assess the strength of ties among and between the

ration. There seems to be a certain lack of communication between

policy areas and thereby identify those segments, which need to be

sectors, as well as growing scepticism, and lack of readiness to col-

better integrated.

laborate – and yet, especially in the digital age, collaboration is es-

sential.

Policies and stakeholders in the model are dealt with at the governance

– Too much focus is given to the promotion of exclusive boutique

level at which they actually have impact: local, regional, national, and

tourism which indirectly excludes all other tourism segments and

international. The model also aims to assess the quality of stakeholder

the local community, and only focuses on the promotion of tourism

activities as well as the strength of their inclusion into tourism govern-

offer that is solely available in the city centre.

ance.

– Better inclusion and expansion of existing partner networks in the

area of cultural tourism offer in Ljubljana is needed as the private

In order to facilitate the easier use of model, its key components are

sector is often completely neglected (especially in the framework of

presented step-wise in Figure 8.6

larger projects).

– Ljubljana needs policies which will better activate, empower, and

promote the development of cultural tourism offer.

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8 Territorial governance of urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Naja Marot

Manca Krošelj

Irena Ograjenšek

Our theoretical model was practically verified for the Slovenian cities

of Ljubljana and Maribor at two workshops (on 8 November 2021 in

Figure 8.6

Maribor; and 26 November 2021 in Ljubljana). Our deliberations were

Integral model of

based on our knowledge and practical experience of tourism govern-

urban tourism’s

ance in both destinations.

territorial governance:

development in four

steps: identification

8.5.3 Case of Ljubljana

of policies and

As the capital city of Slovenia, Ljubljana is a key urban destination and

stakeholders (upper

plays an important role in development of Slovenian tourism (Figure

left-hand corner) and

division into areas of

8.7). Stakeholders and policies at local and national level are represent-

activity (upper right-

ed in all model areas (segments). The regional (which is currently not

hand corner); areas

established in Slovenia) and international levels (as tourism does not

of activity specified

have a supranational governance level like other European sectors)

in more detail (lower

left-hand corner) and

are neglected. The best working relationships among model areas

governance levels

and tourism were found to be at the local level. Tourism governance is

(lower right-hand

good, spatial governance is poor and should be improved. Civil soci-

corner)

ety’s inclusion could also be better (in the area of tourism it is currently

non-existent). The same goes for the inclusion of local residents.

8.5.4 The Case of Maribor

Maribor is the second largest city in Slovenia, but it is not among key

tourist destinations in the country. This is reflected in our identification

of a lower share of identified relationships (Figure 8.8). The only func-

tioning level is the local one. Civil society and non-tourism private sec-

8.5.2 Integral model of urban tourism’s territorial governance: practi-

tor have no relationship with tourism. Consequently, all model areas

cal application

(segments) need improvement, while civil society needs to be estab-

Our integral model of urban tourism’s territorial governance can be

lished and activated.

applied either in the process of self-evaluation or in the formal external

evaluation of governance quality.

8.5.5 Comparison of Ljubljana and Maribor

As shown in Figure 8.9, the only similarity between Ljubljana and Mar-

In the first step, all policies and stakeholders at the destination should

ibor is at the local level – in Ljubljana the local public sector in tourism

be identified and placed into the relevant model segment.

functions best; in Maribor the local spatial planning.

Assessment of individual segments is next, followed by assessment of

Maribor has significantly less presence at the international level and its

the quality of inter-segment collaborations in the processes of urban

civil society and non-tourism private sector have no relationship with

tourism’s territorial governance within the (given ) destination. Both

tourism. Both cities display a lot of potential for improvement in all are-

secondary resources (policy documents, written reports, clippings, etc.)

as, with Maribor also having a lot of catching-up to do if it is to reach a

and primary data (from interviews with stakeholders etc.) are instrumen-

level that is comparable to that which Ljubljana already enjoys.

tal in all steps.

Finally, with integral models for Ljubljana and Maribor developed and

The key model output is the identification of areas (model segments)

some additional verifications carried out for smaller Slovenian cities (we

which need improvement either in terms of policy formulation or stake-

chose Celje, Velenje and Žalec and addressed their tourism and spatial

holder collaboration – or both. The model also supports numerical

planning challenges in a workshop carried out on May 13th, 2022) we

evaluation of the relationship that exists between any chosen segment

can conclude that the model can be used for any urban destination

and tourism (1 – working relationship; 2 – room for improvement; 3 –

regardless of their individual current tourism development level.

defunct relationship; and 4 – non-existent relationship).

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8 Territorial governance of urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Naja Marot

Manca Krošelj

PUBLIC SECTOR—TOURISM

Irena Ograjenšek

Ljubljana is an important European destination, also included in ECM.

As the nation’s capital, Ljubljana is recognized as one of the key destinations in the country. Despite that fact, Figure 8.7

the Slovenian Tourism Board is not a strong partner in development and marketing activities.

Integral model of urban

Local tourism organization is leading the regional promotional activities. However, the tourism offerings tourism’s territorial

could be more decentralized.

governance: practical

Local tourism organization is very successfully leading the destination marketing activities, with continuous application in the case

development of new products which are internationally recognized and awarded as innovative.

of Ljubljana

PUBLIC SECTOR—OTHER

City does not have a department or office dedicated to acquisition of European and other international funding.

Tourism is poorly represented, which is specifically demonstrated in the area of education.

The regional level in Slovenia is non-existent. This deficit is, to a certain extent, addressed by the regional development agency, which is leading tourism-related activities at the regional level.

Tourism is relatively well represented in the framework of the City Municipality of Ljubljana, yet not well addressed in the framework of municipal development policies.

PRIVATE SECTOR—TOURISM

Interest of international companies to invest in the destination is slowly increasing; primarily among hotel chains and providers of transport services.

Larger Slovenian tourism companies (hoteliers) are poorly represented in the city. Providers of transport services are present but could do better in improving Ljubljana’s connectivity nationwise.

At the regional level, there are no tourism companies.

Local (service) businesses are proactive and co-creative both in tourism development and governance.

The number of short-term tourist leases providers is increasing, but they are too poorly connected and barely participate in destination development.

PRIVATE SECTOR—OTHER

In the international setting, the fact that Ljubljana is not an internationally important/influential city has to be recognized. Consequently, relatively few international corporations decided to open smaller representations here and those do not influence urban development in any important way.

INDIVIDUALS

Numerous Slovenian companies operating nationwide which are not active in the areas of tourism deve-Local tourism organisations and suppliers address foreign tourists with custom-tailored offerings, lopment and governance have their headquarters in Ljubljana.

new products and marketing. Their numbers for the time-being do not have a negative impact on Numerous small and medium-sized companies operating at the regional level have their headquarters in urban quality of life.

Ljubljana but are not active in the areas of tourism development and governance.

Low level of domestic tourists’ interest in destination; they are not specifically strongly targeted A large number of innovative micro companies in the city positively influence the number of business tourists. How-anyway.

ever, these companies are poorly connected and not active in the areas of tourism development and governance.

Daily visitors primarily come to participate in activities, which are not part of tourism. This causes and aggravates the problem of non-sustainable mobility.

DEVELOPMENT POLICIES

Local inhabitants, especially those living in the city centre, already experience dissatisfaction with Participation in international tenders and projects could be more frequent.

overtourism, but not yet to such extent that they would want to actively participate in tourism gov-National development strategy does not emphasize urban tourism.

ernance.

At the regional level, development strategies covering urban tourism do exist and aim at expanding the CIVIL SOCIETY

tourism offerings from the city of Ljubljana to Ljubljana urban region as a whole.

Ljubljana does not participate in development and activities of international, national and region-Sustainable urban development strategy at the local level does not deal with the challenges of tourism al non-profit organizations as well as civil and cultural communities in the broader sense. Some development in an adequate manner.

individual initiatives do exist, but they are not necessarily related to tourism. Increased interest of non-profit organizations in housing policy as well as AirBnB challenge has been noted.

TOURISM POLICIES

Ljubljana is a hub for numerous national non-profit organisations, but none of them deals with At the international level, no tourism policies mention tourism in Slovenia or Ljubljana.

issues related to urban tourism and its development.

National tourism strategy does not deal with the challenges of urban tourism development in an adequate manner. Despite its apparent ‘sustainable’ focus it primarily aims to generate tourism growth.

Local non-profit organisations along with civil and cultural communities to a certain extent do try to raise attention for effects of overtourism, but do not act in a proactive manner in the tourist There is no tourism strategy at the regional level.

destination development activities (only minor tourism offerings are created with the participation of cultural processes and urban quarters’ societies).

While the local strategy mentions measures to deal with tourism challenges, its narrow qualitative goals include increase in number of tourists and daily visitors as well as increased demand for tourist services.

PUBLIC SECTOR—SPACE

SPATIAL PLANNING

At the international level of spatial planning Ljubljana figures as a (primarily highway and railway) traffic hub; tourism is not represented.

In the international spatial plans Ljubljana only figures as (highway and railway) hub. Tourism is not mentioned.

Urban tourism is poorly represented at the national level of spatial planning.

Presently valid national spatial development strategy (a new one is being prepared as we write) only sparsely addresses urban tourism; the same goes for other related planning documents.

Spatial planning at the regional level is non-existent.

There is no spatial planning at the regional level.

Tourism is represented in local spatial plans but not in an integral manner; negative effects of tourism are particularly poorly reflected.

While the local spatial plans mention tourism, the approach is far from integral and negative effects of tourism remain almost entirely unacknowledged.

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Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Naja Marot

Manca Krošelj

Irena Ograjenšek

PUBLIC SECTOR—OTHER

No specific initiatives at the international level.

Figure 8.8

Tourism is poorly represented; specifically demonstrated in the area of education.

Integral model of urban

The regional level in Slovenia is non-existent. This deficit is, to a certain extent, addressed by the tourism’s territorial

regional development agency, but it fails to lead more prominent integral tourism-related activities governance: practical

at the regional level.

application in the case

Digitalisation activities are starting to gain in importance; there is room for improvement.

of Maribor

PRIVATE SECTOR—TOURISM

Private ownership and management have a negative effect on collaborative efforts in the area of tourism; interests of international and national companies to invest in the destination is non-existent.

At the regional level, there are no tourism companies.

Private sector functions in a partial manner; consequently, any synergetic effects are non-existent.

PRIVATE SECTOR—OTHER

There are no large and influential private companies co-creating (tourism) urban development.

Local micro companies are not collaborative and they participate poorly in destination development efforts.

DEVELOPMENT POLICIES

Participation in international tenders and projects could be more frequent.

National development strategy does not emphasize urban tourism.

At the regional level, (draft) regional development programme for Podravje recognizes the issue of poor collaboration among municipalities and destinations; mentions no relevant development measures.

Sustainable urban development strategy at the local level does exist and deals with the challenges of tourism development in an integrative manner.

INDIVIDUALS

TOURISM POLICIES

Internationally, destination is poorly known. Foreign tourists come predominantly for daily visits At the international level, no tourism policies mention tourism in Slovenia or Maribor.

and shorter stays.

National tourism strategy does not deal with the challenges of urban tourism development in an ade-Low level of domestic tourists’ interest in destination unless related to exceptional (sports or local quate manner. Despite its apparent ‘sustainable’ focus it primarily seeks to generate tourism growth.

customs) events.

Daily visitors primarily come to participate in activities, which are not part of tourism. This causes Tourism strategy at the regional and local level is older but still relevant for some aspects of spa-and aggravates the problem of non-sustainable mobility.

tial development related to urban tourism (sports infrastructure, hotel accommodation capacities).

Local inhabitants have no sentiments towards, and do not participate in governance of, urban tourism.

SPATIAL PLANNING

Maribor does not figure in any international spatial plans.

CIVIL SOCIETY

Presently valid national spatial development strategy (a new one is being prepared as we write) only Civil society is sparsely active (and even then only at the local level), and does not participate in sparsely addresses urban tourism; the same goes for other related planning documents.

tourism development activities.

There is no spatial planning at the regional level.

Spatial planning at the local level needs newer strategies and policies; the existing ones do not PUBLIC SECTOR—SPACE

deal with tourism in an adequate manner.

Maribor does not participate in spatial planning at the international level.

National economic stakeholders are poorly engaged in dealing with the spatial effects of urban tourism.

Figure 8.9

Spatial planning at the regional level is non-existent.

Integral model of

Tourism is addressed in local spatial plans.

urban tourism’s

territorial governance:

PUBLIC SECTOR—TOURISM

comparison of

Ljubljana and Maribor

Although a poorly known small tourism destination, Maribor is included in the ECM.

Slovenian Tourism Board does not pay special attention to Maribor.

At the regional level, the focus is on the development of micro-destinations instead of increasing collaborative efforts.

Destination marketing activities are successful; there is still room for improvement.

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Naja Marot

Manca Krošelj

Irena Ograjenšek

8.6 Selected examples of good practices

V

Enhance visitors’

27 Identify and target visitor segments with lower impact according to the specific city How should stakeholders approach dealing with the weak points de-segmentation

context and objectives

28 Target repeat-visitors

fined in our integral model of urban tourism’s territorial governance?

29 Discourage visitation of the city of certain visitors segments

One sensible way forward would be for them to adopt and implement

VI

Ensure local

30 Increase the level of employment in tourism and strive to create decent jobs

governance strategies and measures for the sustainable development

communities

31 Promote the positive impacts of tourism, create awareness and knowledge of the

of their locality. Table 8.4 summarizes WTO’s (2018) measures to deal

benefit from

sector amongst local communities

with both overtourism (a hot pre-pandemic topic), and improving the

tourism

32 Engage local communities in the development of new tourism products

33 Conduct an analysis of supply-demand potential of the local communities and

quality of life of residents via targeted infrastructural improvements.

promote their integration in the tourism value chain

Table 8.4

A lot of emphasis is given to the dispersal of visitors within cities and

34 Improve quality of infrastructure and services considering residents and visitors

Selection of

beyond their borders as many European historic city centres are over-

35 Stimulate development of impoverished/less developed/neglected

governance strategies

neighbourhoods through tourism

crowded and have, as a result, become very uncomfortable living

and measures targeted

spaces for their local residents. Other measures promote a time-based

VII

Create city

36 Develop the city to fit with residents’ needs and desires, and consider tourists as at unwanted growth

experiences that

temporary residents

of urban tourism

dispersal of visitors, the development of new tourist itineraries, and the

benefit both

37 Develop tourism experiences and products that promote the engagement of

(Adapted after

adaptation of regulations. It is also important to promote measures that

residents and

residents and visitors

UNWTO, 2018)

will facilitate the peaceful co-existence of tourists and residents.

visitors

38 Integrate visitor facilities within local festivities and activities

39 Create and promote local city ambassadors

40 Promote art and culture initiatives such as street art to provide fresh perspectives Strategy

Measures

on the city and expand visitation to new areas

41 Extend opening times of visitor attractions

I

Promote the

01 Host more events in less visited parts of the city and its surroundings

dispersal of visitors 02 Improve capacity of and time spent at attractions

VIII Improve city

42 Create a city-wide plan for a well-balanced, sustainable traffic management

within the city and

03 Create joint identity of city and its surroundings

infrastructure and

43 Ensure that major routes are suitable for extensive tourism activity and that

beyond

04 Implement travel card for unlimited local trave

facilities

secondary routes are available at peak times

05 Mark entire city as inner-city to stimulate visitation of less visited parts

44 Improve urban cultural infrastructure

45 Improve directional signage, interpretation materials and notices

II

Promote time-

06 Promote experiences during off- peak months

46 Make public transport better suited for visitors

based dispersal of

07 Promote dynamic pricing

47 Set up specific transport facilities for visitors during peak periods

visitors

08 Set timeslots for popular attractions and/or events aided by real-time monitoring

48 Provide adequate public facilities (for example public toilettes, Wi-Fi)

09 Use new technologies (apps and others) to stimulate dynamic time-based dispersal

49 Set up specific safe and attractive walking routes, create safe cycling routes and (real time display of waiting lines for attractions, average duration of visit for any spe-stimulate bicycle rentals

cific attraction, suggestions for visits of alternative attractions)

50 Ensure that routes are suitable for the physically impaired or elderly visitors in line III Stimulate new

10 Promote new itineraries at the city entry points and through the visitor’s journey, with accessible tourism principles

visitor itineraries

including at tourist information centres and along the usual visitor paths

51 Safeguard quality of cultural heritage and attractions

and attractions

11 Offer combined discounts for new itineraries and attractions

52 Ensure cleaning regimes fit with tourism facilities and with peak times

12 Produce city guides and books highlighting hidden treasures

13 Create dynamic experiences and routes for niche visitors

IX

Communicate with 53 Ensure that a tourism management group (including all stakeholders) is set up 14 Stimulate development of guided tours through less-visited parts of the city

and engage local

and is regularly convened

15 Develop virtual reality applications to famous sites and attractions to complement stakeholders

54 Organize professional development programmes for partners (for example taxi

onsite visits

drivers, hotel employees, etc.)

55 Organize local discussion platforms for residents

IV Review and adapt

16 Review opening times of visitor attractions

56 Conduct regular research among residents and other local stakeholders

regulation

17 Review regulations on access for large groups to popular attractions

57 Encourage locals to share interesting content about their city on social media

18 Review regulations on traffic in busy parts of the city

58 Communicate with residents about their own behaviour

19 Ensure visitors use parking facilities at the edge of the city (promote visitors’ use of 59 Unite disjointed communities (for example with creation of inter-quarter

park-and-ride facilities)

communities)

20 Create specific drop-off zones for coaches in suitable places

21 Create pedestrian-only zones

X

Communicate with 60 Create awareness of tourism impact amongst visitors

22 Review regulation and taxation on new platform tourism services (sharing economy,

and engage visitors 61 Educate visitors as to local values, traditions, and regulations apps)

62 Provide adequate information about traffic restrictions, parking facilities, fees, 23 Review regulation and taxation on hotels and other accommodation

shuttle bus services, specific characteristics of public transportation, etc.

24 Define the carrying capacity of the city and of critical areas and attractions etc. (num-XI

Set monitoring and 63 Monitor key indicators such as seasonal fluctuations in demand, arrivals and ber of tourist beds, visitors, pre-defined zones and attractions, number of companies response measures

expenditures, patterns of visitation to attractions, visitor segments, etc.

from different categories, etc.)

64 Advance the use of big data and new technologies to monitor and evaluate

25 Consider an operator’s licence system to monitor all operators (agencies, travel or-tourism performance and impact

ganizers, tourist guides, etc.)

65 Create contingency plans for peak periods and emergency situations (for example

26 Review regulations on access to certain areas of the city for tourist related-activities to deal with enormous numbers of visitors)

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Naja Marot

Manca Krošelj

Irena Ograjenšek

Further good practices which decision-makers could embrace include

– city helpers of Helsinki (youngsters speaking over 14 languages

those from the European cities which competed for the title Europe-

available to tourists for questions in tourist hotspots);

an Smart Tourism Capital in 2019 and 2020 (European Commission,

– as well as a dynamic and collaborative platform for impaired per-

2022). Innovative measures were divided into four categories: acces-

sons, developed in collaboration between Vodafone and PREDIF

sibility, sustainability, digitalisation, and cultural heritage and creativity.

for the city of Valencia.

Good practice examples in sustainable development include:

Also important is the management of tourist flows. Good practice ex-

– The city of Breda (the Netherlands) which was the first European

amples include:

city to use smart city lights to create the wanted (event-related) at-

– the city map of Turin (which not only includes the distances between

mosphere, minimize light pollution, and save energy.

key tourist attractions, hotels, and other tourist facilities, but also cal-

– The city of Karlsruhe (Germany) is famous for its 64.4 % green sur-

ories burnt walking between them – see Commune di Torino, 2021);

faces and its Energy Hill with solar cells. It plans to expand into wind

– the targeted limitation of number of visitors allowed on a (given)

energy, and to create a visitor pavilion with great vistas of the city

premise at a specific time (already implemented in Paris for the Lou-

and its surrounding areas.

vre and in Rome for the Vatican before the pandemic);

– The city of Gothenburg (Sweden) uses rain as a means of cultural

– virtual accessibility of tourist attractions (not just museums and

and artistic expression and also seeks to create public spaces (play-

churches but also theatre and other performances – streamed life

fields and public pools).

or per demand, for example from Burgtheater and Staatsoper in

– The city of Lyon (France) managed to successfully transform itself

Vienna);

from a congress destination into a cultural, sports, and leisure desti-

– active campaigns for respectful cohabitation of tourists and resi-

nation within only a decade.

dents (for example #EnjoyRespectVenezia);

– The city of Poznan (Poland) successfully battles seasonality with its

– the targeted redirection of tourist flows (e.g. from the city centre of

tourism initiatives “Poznan 50 % off” and “Summer at the Fair Com-

Bruxelles to all of the city’s 19 districts via the MIXITY Walks initia-

pound” with free workshops for children that seek to boost their

tive);

creativity.

– tourist flow management in Amsterdam with adjustments of open-

– The city of Tallin (Estonia) successfully battles seasonality in a joint

ing hours for key tourist attractions in order to avoid disruption of

effort with Lonely Planet, and launched the campaign “Winter Tallin”

commuter flows to and from work (Figure 8.10).

in 2017.

– The city of Turin (Italy) prepared special guidelines for different

categories of tourism suppliers (hotel, gastronomy, tourist guides,

etc.) with some obligatory measures (such as serving tap water) and

some additional non-obligatory ones (such as free bike parking).

Figure 8.10

Number of people

Another series of good practices stem from cities which earned the title

present in selected

Green Capital of Europe (European Commission, 2022a). Stockholm

(museum) area of

interest to tourists

was the first in 2010, followed by Hamburg, Vitoria – Gasteiz, Nantes,

– focus of analysis

Köbenhavn, Bristol, and – in 2016 – Ljubljana. The latter being awarded

is facilitation of

the title both for its Vision Ljubljana 2025 which targeted local residents’

an even flow of

people throughout

increased environmental awareness, and for greening the city (limiting

the day (Adapted

traffic in certain areas, actively searching for green alternatives – meas-

after Municipality of

ures which have also been critically discussed, see e.g. Poljak Istenič in

Amsterdam, 2019)

2016 and Maior in 2019).

Further to the previously mentioned categories, others such as accessi-

bility, local residents inclusion (at least information-wise), and manage-

ment of tourism flows have to be mentioned. Some good practices in

the area of accessibility include:

– the city cards of Köbenhaven (access to public transportation net-

work and over 80 tourist attractions) and Lyon (all museums, all main

tourist attraction, public transportation including access to the airport,

guided tours in four languages and a series of further discounts);

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Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

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Naja Marot

Manca Krošelj

Irena Ograjenšek

8.7 Conclusion

8.8 References

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Chapter 9


Towards new urban tourism


Naja Marot, Uroš Horvat, David Klepej,

Manca Krošelj, Irena Ograjenšek,

Nina Stubičar and Matjaž Uršič

259

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9 Towards new urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Uroš Horvat

David Klepej



Manca Krošelj

9.2 Urban tourism presents a well distinguished and rapidly

Irena Ograjenšek

changing type of tourism

Nina Stubičar

Matjaž Uršič





9.1 Introduction

The second chapter of this monograph confirms the hypothesis that in

the 21st century, urban tourism has established itself as one of the most

Since the first project application on the topic of urban tourism in 2016,

important types of tourism. With its clearly defined characteristics, tour-

research on urban tourism has made significant progress, both at Eu-

ist profiles, stakeholders, multiple impacts, and rapid growth - abruptly

ropean and global scales. This is evident from the vast list of topics and

interrupted in the record year of 2019 - it presents a relevant segment

innovative approaches that have been used to tackle research ques-

of travel at global, European, and Slovenian levels. In a way, urban tour-

tions in the field. In particular, new forms of digitalised tourist offers

ism is a superset of the types of tourism that derive from the destination

and promotion via social media have facilitated new sources of data

itself - cities; within it, we define a number of sub-segments including:

(Ahas et al., 2008; Bander, 2015; Van der Zee et al., 2020; Vu et al.,

cultural, congress, culinary, festival, dark, and other types of tourism.

2020). The research idea that Slovenian urban tourism also requires in-

depth research, especially concerning Ljubljana as a major destination,

While the pattern of short, weekend trips to cities as one of the main

was confirmed as an appropriate one. This has also been illustrated in

forms of travel for this type of tourism has been maintained, the mo-

the increase in the number of articles on urban tourism in Ljubljana

tives and demands of urban tourists have changed in last 10 years. We

published over the last five years (Božič et al., 2017; Grah et al., 2020;

are no longer talking about classical cultural tourists who visit cities to

Kerbler and Obrč, 2021). The launch of the MESTUR project in 2019

see cultural sights and heritage, but about urban tourists who want to

and the SPOT project in 2020 provided good starting points for ob-

‘become residents’ and enjoy an authentic experience in the (given)

serving and monitoring the situation of urban tourism during the pan-

city. Most often, this experience is connected with authenticity, experi-

demic. Both projects financially supported surveys of visitors in 2020

ence, and place-based tourism. Nientid (2020) has named this type of

and 2021, residents in 2020, and surveys and interviews with tourism

tourism “new urban tourism” which was also among the main focus of

service providers in 2020 (Klepej et al., 2021). These surveys provided

the SPOT project. Although, in theory, authors are not yet sure whether

the first and therefore very important snapshot of the situation in urban

this is indeed a new type of urban tourism or just a different naming

tourism before the changes (in the record year of 2019) and after the

for local offers and tourists’ motives, this departure from previous travel

changes that arose as a consequence to the pandemic. A time plan

patterns can be confirmed by existing surveys. In these surveys, tourists

of project activities in both cases provides insight into the dynamics

mentioned their interest in seeing architecture, enjoying quality open

of the pandemic's impacts and also helped in the identification of the

spaces, experiencing the city, and exploring the “non-touristy” parts of

weak(ened) links in the development of urban tourism, as well as the

cities. In a way, such experiences have also been further facilitated by

possibilities that existed with regard to the promotion and upgrading

the sharing economy, whereby the tourist enters the 'local's apartment'

of activities which were identified as valuable and important.

and thus increases the authenticity of their experience. Changes in ur-

ban tourism have also been brought about by the pandemic; it has led,

Furthermore, the MESTUR and SPOT projects were examples of good

in particular, to a shift from group to individual travel, as well as to a rise

practice in interdisciplinary approaches to surveying urban tourism, and

of new tours that offer outdoor experiences. It can be concluded that

brought together researchers from various fields, both during method-

urban tourism is subject to constant changes that arise from various,

ology selections and the creation of conclusions. Projects have relied on

not necessarily just tourism factors, but in particular the very charac-

knowledge from various fields including the economy, sociology, land-

teristics of the destination itself and its urban development as well as

scape architecture, geography, as well as wide ranging data resources

related global trends.

(tourists, residents, local communities and other users of space), and a

plethora of methodological approaches (a mixture of quantitative and

qualitative methods, with a multitude of different locations and spaces

9.3 Urban tourism has established itself as an important

of inquiry). The projects were able to create multilevel and multi-struc-

type of tourism in Slovenia

tured answers to questions about individual research topics. These

answers were derived from various scientific approaches, and offered

Both cities’ profiles and the comparison of Ljubljana and Maribor with

comprehensive/holistic settings for building on existing policy docu-

other Central European destinations have revealed that urban tour-

ments; including their objectives and guidelines. To best summarise

ism is statistically competitive with other types of tourism, such as spa,

the outcomes of both projects, we used six theses and subchapters in

mountain, and seaside tourism. According to the national statistical

accordance with the topics addressed by the two projects.

office (SURS), tourist municipalities are categorised into six categories:

Ljubljana, health (spa) resorts, mountain resorts, seaside resorts, urban

municipalities and other municipalities. This can be seen in Figure 9.1,

260

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9 Towards new urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Uroš Horvat

David Klepej



Manca Krošelj

where Ljubljana’s share of tourist arrivals is 18.1%, or 1.1 million in ab-

a winner as well with regards to the number of tourist arrivals in the pe-

Irena Ograjenšek

solute numbers. This share is even higher than the one for health (spa)

Nina Stubičar

riod 2010 to 2019 (see Figure 9.3), with the capital city again standing

Matjaž Uršič



resorts, which traditionally had one of the highest shares. Slovenia as a

out. The index of arrivals to Ljubljana reached a value of 262, while oth-



whole recorded 6,229,573 tourist arrivals in 2019. If we add together

er urban municipalities reached a score of 193. At a Slovenian level, the

the numbers who visited Ljubljana and other urban municipalities, we

index score was 189. If the growth of tourism in urban municipalities

obtain a share of 26.5% which is almost equal to that of the mountain

in the ten-year period before the pandemic was record-breaking, then

resorts which are in the first place with 30.1% share. The statistics per-

the index calculated for the period 2019-2021 showed a correspond-

taining to overnight stays show a different picture; urban municipalities

ing decline. The index of arrivals for the period 2019-2021 is devastat-

lag behind health resorts and accounting for only 20.7% of all overnight

ing. As shown in Figure 9.3, the index for Ljubljana was 37, and for other

stays, of which Ljubljana generated 14.1% and other urban municipali-

urban municipalities it was 48. The latter had a higher index because

ties 6.6% (SURS, 2022; Figure 9.2). In total, there were 15,775,331 over-

they were less dependent on foreign tourists than the capital city.

night stays in Slovenia in 2019.

Figure 9.3

Index of arrivals

Figure 9.1

according to the type

of destinations in the

Share of Ljubljana

period 2010 to 2019

and other urban

(SURS, 2022)

municipalities in tourist

arrivals in 2019 (SURS,

2022)

Figure 9.4

Mountain resorts

Health (spa) resorts

Ljubljana

Index of arrivals

Seaside resorts

Other municipalities

City municipalities

according to the type

of destinations during

the pandemic, 2019–

2021 (SURS, 2022)

Figure 9.2

Share of Ljubljana and

other city municipalities

in overnight statistics in

2019 (SURS, 2022)

Another distinctive feature of urban tourism in Slovenia is that it is dom-

inated by foreign tourists, while domestic visitors most likely come to

cities for day trips. Foreign tourists in 2019 accounted for 91% of all tour-

ists and 92% of all overnight stays, with both numbers being well above

Mountain resorts

Health (spa) resorts

Ljubljana

both the national average (75% arrivals, 72% overnight stays) and shares

Seaside resorts

Other municipalities

City municipalities

in other categories of tourist municipalities. Shares were even higher in

the City Municipality of Ljubljana, where foreigners represented 94.8%

A look at the statistics for individual municipalities also shows that the

of tourists and 95.6% of overnight stays. This proved to be a particu-

City Municipality of Ljubljana was in first place in terms of tourist ar-

lar weakness later on during the pandemic. In the light of the statistical

rivals and overnights stays. In 2019, the City Municipality of Ljubljana

analysis, it can be concluded that, before the pandemic, urban munici-

accounted for 7.6% of all bed capacity in Slovenia, 8.3% of all tourists’

palities experienced rapid growth in tourism and through so doing es-

arrivals, and 6.6% of all overnight stays (SURS, 2022). Urban tourism is

tablished themselves as important Slovenian tourism destinations.

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David Klepej



Manca Krošelj

9.4 Urban destinations are developing at different rates,

tria. According to Butler’s life cycle of destinations, Ljubljana and Maribor

Irena Ograjenšek

regardless of their size

Nina Stubičar

are certainly in two different phases of development (Butler, 2006), which

Matjaž Uršič



is also reflected in the different spatial extent of the cities’ touristification.



The activities from both projects enabled us to gain insights into the de-

While Ljubljana can be identified as a mature destination which, in 2019,

velopment of different urban destinations in Slovenia as well as in Cen-

almost reached the tipping point into overtourism (see Chapter 3 for

tral Europe and the rest of Europe. We found that these destinations are

more detail), Maribor can be identified as a developing city destination

at very different stages of development in terms of the number of arrivals

(see, for further, Chapter 4). For Ljubljana, this phase can be confirmed

that they receive, the structure of tourists, their tourist offers, the planning

by the 2019 survey, and the general discussion (also in the media) about

of tourist development, and the scale of the impacts of tourism activity.

the measures needed to address the overtourism issue. In addition, pub-

We could distinguish between destinations that primarily target domes-

lic opinion about the contribution of urban tourism to the quality of life

tic tourists, e.g. Torino and Nitra, and those where a majority of tourists

in Ljubljana was not necessarily only positive from 2019 onwards. In con-

are foreign (e.g. Ljubljana and Barcelona). Furthermore, there is also a

trast, the tourist offer in Maribor is still being developed and attempts are

difference in tourist offers – some cities are still promoting their cultural

being made to adapt the city to the demands and needs of the tourism

attractions and heritage, while others have successfully refocused their

market.

approach to emphasise the urban atmosphere and the lifestyle which a

tourist should encounter in the most authentic way.

9.5 Urban tourism causes impacts on the society, econ-

In a European context, Ljubljana and Maribor belong to the category

omy, environment and spatial planning, and (territorial)

of medium-sized cities; this does not limit them with regard to their de-

governance

velopment of tourist offers. The offers available in both cities cover the

main tourist attractions related to the culture and the history of the two

Impact assessment, performed based on Territorial Impact Assessment

cities, while at the same time developing other types of urban tourism.

(see Chapter 5), addressed four thematic fields; namely, society, econ-

Congress and business tourism are two such types that both cities are

omy, environment and spatial planning, and governance. First, a qual-

seeking to build on, however, capacities presently limit their further de-

itative analysis was carried out through brainstorming, which was then

velopment. Despite existing hotel and other capacities for larger events

supported by indicators and numeric assessment. While the qualitative

existing, even new accommodation developments do not offer compet-

assessment provided a wide list of potential impacts, the numeric as-

itiveness with larger urban destinations. The same can be said of culinary

sessment confirmed or denied the presumptions. The most positive

tourism, for which intensive promotional activities (events, other activi-

impacts were detected in the fields of society and economy, and the

ties) have been carried out, however, global recognition in the form of

most negative ones in the fields of environment and spatial planning.

Michelin stars has only latterly been forthcoming.

Since urban tourism interferes with the complex urban system, it has the

most multiplicative impacts of all types of tourism on the economy; both

The size of individual cities has not been recognised as limiting the quali-

positively and negatively.

ty of tourist offers available. Data analysis shows that listed protected her-

itage, the small heterogeneity of spaces, population density, and green

Among the negative impacts, the high prices of rental or purchasing real

systems (natural features) create an effect of exceptional attractivity (very

estate have been the most problematic from the point of view of resi-

often described as charming or ‘cute’) for different groups of tourists. In

dents. In particular, the intensive development of the shared economy

this context, tangible cultural heritage (in terms of architecture, urban-

and the possibility of renting apartments on AirBnB contributed to this

ism, urban equipment) stands out as a key feature of urban tourism offer.

problem, and at the same time limited rental options for residents. With

regard to environmental problems, emissions from car traffic are most

The MESTUR project analysis revealed that foreign tourists in particular

alarming since residents and tourists still use cars as their main means

perceive non-material cultural offers as a less attractive element of Slove-

of transport to/within Ljubljana. The underdeveloped public transport

nian cities. For example, foreign tourists are significantly less favourable

system outside of the city’s core areas also contributes to this and further

towards the offer of events which definitely increase the quality of life in

discourages tourists from using it.

the city for local residents. They also observe the urban tourism offer as

extremely homogeneous. As a result, exploitation of the ambiental, aes-

Impacts were assessed not only for the period before pandemic, but

thetic and physical potentials of the city (centre) should be emphasised

also during it. Previously identified impacts were re-evaluated in the light

to a greater extent in promotional material.

of the pandemic. It was found that during and immediately after the pan-

demic, the reduction of tourism activity improved the negative impacts

In both projects we investigated Ljubljana in detail, in the MESTUR pro-

in the arena of environment and spatial planning. However, the positive

ject was also deeply investigated as was, to a lesser extent, Graz in Aus-

economic and social impacts of tourism were reduced.

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Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

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David Klepej



Manca Krošelj

9.6 Cultural tourism is significant to the local community

Most frequent answers

Least frequent answers

Irena Ograjenšek

Table 9.1

Nina Stubičar

General

Better promotion and

Building renovations (1)

Added value of the

Matjaž Uršič



In the SPOT project we looked in more detail as to the extent to which

development

recognisability of the city (16)

Safer town (2)

cultural tourism for the

Enriched gastronomy (12)

city and its inhabitants



inhabitants of Ljubljana are connected to cultural tourism, to what extent

Renovation projects and more

(Klepej et al., 2021, p.

they benefit from the tourist offers, and what is its added value to their life

respect for the local tradition

58)

quality. We discovered that the local community has an extremely positive

and history (9)

attitude to cultural tourism since all who participated in the survey were

Economic

Employment opportunities (17)

Higher prices of properties (1)

positive in this regard in their responses. The knowledge of local inhabit-

development

Richer local offer of services (9)

Higher value of collected taxes (3)

ants is mostly limit to classical cultural offers, museum, galleries and events;

Tourism

Various cultural events (29)

Increase in visitor numbers (1)

architecture and open spaces were not mentioned much. According to

development

Increase in cultural offer (25)

Promotion of local food (2)

their opinions, cultural tourism contributes to a livelier city atmosphere and

Social life

Higher quality of life (11)

Increased Europeanisation (1)

increases the possibilities for work as well as the variety of cultural offers

Openness and friendliness of

Broadening horizon (4)

local inhabitants (10)

available. 22% of participants in the survey claimed that the contribution of

Spatial

Accessibility of the city

Decreased quality of landscape (1)

cultural tourism to the city was very big; in addition, 56% were of opinion

development

(information, areas) (27)

Closeness of the natural areas (2)

that the impact is big. Only 2% of inhabitants marked the impact as being

Diverse city (16)

negative. As very beneficial to their quality of life they have claimed also

Walkable city (16)

spontaneous exchange between the inhabitants and tourists in connec-

tion to the cultural exchange between the local and global. Locals em-

phasised that they are willing to help tourists who are stopped on streets

9.7 Urban destinations are not prepared and resilient for

with regard to providing some advice and/or directions. Until now, this was

crisis events like pandemics

only undertaken frequently by one quarter of participants in the survey,

and very frequently, by one tenth of them. Only 12.8% were not content

As we have learnt in the last two years, urban tourism represents one

with the fact that tourists are part of the city’s life (Klepej et al., 2021).

of the types of tourism that, in short- to middle-term period, is most

exposed to crisis events. The Covid-19 pandemic has left the largest

As a downside to the cultural offers, they reported that cultural offer sup-

impact on the group of city municipalities in Slovenia, since visitor num-

pliers do not offer any special discounts for the local community; 59% of

bers decreased most in this category (Marot et al., 2021). Between the

participants have not received any discount to visit a cultural institution or

years 2019 and 2021 the number of tourists visiting urban municipali-

event. In this way, inhabitants do not really benefit from the spatial accessi-

ties decreased by 59.7%, and the number of overnight stays by 55.6%;

bility of the cultural offers. Local inhabitants are only eligible for the same

largest decrease among all types of tourist municipality. An even larger

type of discount as tourists if they fall under one of the general categories

decrease occurred in the City Municipality of Ljubljana, where the num-

such as: students, pensioners, school groups, functionally disabled and un-

ber of tourists decreased by 63.2%, and the number of overnight stays

employed, and not because of their domesticity. This did however change

by 61.1%. Because of this decline Ljubljana lost its ‘first place’ position

during the pandemic, when the cultural institutions discovered they only

among municipalities for both of the indicators.

had the locals left as potential visitors. As a result, in the summer of 2020,

they established a package ticket with which the locals were able to visit

Before the pandemic, urban tourism development was not so much

11 museums for the price of 8EUR (an individual ticket) or for the price of

focused on sustainable tourism, instead constant growth of the sector

16EUR (family ticket).

was in focus. During the pandemic it became evident that most busi-

ness models of urban tourism (and especially congress and event tour-

As Table 9.1 shows, the relationship between cultural tourism and inhab-

ism in this context) are unsustainable and non-resilient. Such models

itants can be evaluated as positive. The relationship is symbiotic since not

are, in the long term (especially in the Slovenian context which does not

only inhabitants enjoy cultural offers, but also communicate and promote

benefit from frequent flight connections to the rest of the world), almost

it in a peer-to-peer manner to the tourists. Concerning the price offers for

destined to fail. In addition, measures of economic policy connected to

inhabitants, some improvements are still possible, especially concerning

the objective of increasing demand for tourist products and services

night life and festivals. Even closer to inhabitants is the current project fo-

were recognised as unsustainable for urban destinations. Furthermore,

cused on the Ljubljana’s cultural quarters which is seeking to decentralise

analysis of existing strategies has shown that cities do not, with the ex-

cultural offers into those neighbourhoods which surround the city centre,

ception of issues pertaining to terrorist attaches, have strategies which

including Šiška, Bežigrad and Metelkova. These quarters would also form

enable them to adapt to sudden changes. During the pandemic, the

a hub for artists, and inhabitants, as well as domestic and foreign tourists.

tourism sector lost educated staff, individuals with competences, and

suppliers of the special tourist products and services. As the interviews

with suppliers revealed, the crisis brought positive solutions, among

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9 Towards new urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Uroš Horvat

David Klepej



Manca Krošelj

which the renovation of hotel accommodation and infrastructure, the

Analysis of the spatial characteristics of the urban tourism was performed

Irena Ograjenšek

digitalisation of cultural offers, and consideration of the future develop-

Nina Stubičar

using various approaches. For both cities we analysed the spatial distribu-

Matjaž Uršič



ment of tourism and tourist infrastructure may be emphasised.

tion of tourism promotion (printed guidebooks, blogs) and via a workshop



we evaluated the touristification of the individual quarters of Ljubljana and

Maribor. It was revealed that tourist offers are densest in the two city cores;

also the most touristified parts of the two cities. Analysis of the spatial paths

revealed tourists who visit solely the city centre and the tourist who, besides

the centre, visit also other parts of the city. Overflows of tourist activities

into the neighbourhoods outside the two city centres only happens to a

limited extent in both Ljubljana and Maribor with the latter also exhibiting

greater unused potential.

Tourism development is also measured via the dynamics of constructing

new infrastructure. According to the overview of projects in the field of

infrastructure both cities are especially active in the development of new

capacities. New accommodation capacities are mostly in the category of

hotels and similar units which provide not only beds but also venues for

larger events or tourist services such as souvenir shops. One of the issues

related to the integration of tourism and spatial planning is urban renova-

tion efforts where debate mostly revolves around ‘what the target is’: are

these projects aimed at raising the quality of life of local inhabitants or are

they planned to beautify the city primarily for tourists.

Figure 9.5

Ljubljana before

Our policy analysis has shown that tourism is included into spatial plans

the state closure,

9.8 In cities, tourism activities are highly spatially concen-

development documents to only a limited extent; predominantly as ob-

in between and

trated due to a gap in comprehensive territorial governance

jectives of other sectors (culture, the economy). Additionally, we identified

afterwards (above)

and Maribor before

objectives of other cities according to what scale of tourist infrastructure

the state closure,

Primary analysis done before start of the project has shown that spatial as-

they plan, what growth of tourism they aspire to, and what role they be-

in between and

pects of tourism have, until now, only been investigated in a limited man-

lieve that tourism should play in their urban development. Development

afterwards (below

(Author: David Klepej)

ner. While individual studies, dedicated to the analysis of site visits with

policies do not stress enough that on one side tourism needs space for its

different methods (surveys, social data analysis) are pretty common, stud-

development, while on the other, urban space, as the surveys have shown,

ies connecting spatial planning and tourism are rare. Among such studies

at the same time represent one of the key tourist attractions of the city.

one should mention Rahmoun, Zhao and Hassan (2019) who elaborated

regional and integrative approaches to plan seaside tourist paths, and Hatt

To conclude, inhabitants should be more actively integrated into spatial

(2022) who addressed the gap of integrating tourism into spatial planning

and tourism development. Further on, the added value of tourism for the

in France. Furthermore, Uğur (2016) claimed that the main challenge of

quality of life of inhabitants should be more emphasised, both, in the poli-

the integrative approach is to discover why there is a gap between tour-

cy making and implementation of the tourism-related projects.

ism development and urban planning practice. This topic has also been

addressed by de Noronha Vaz and others (2011), López Sánchez, Linares

Gómez del Pulgar and Tejedor Cabrera (2021) and Tsilimigkas, Gourgiotis

9.9 Concluding thoughts

and Derdemezi (2022).

The MESTUR and SPOT projects started at just the right time during

Due to this gap one of the main objectives of the MESTUR project was

the record tourist year of 2019. After that a sectoral crisis arrived in 2020

to analyse the spatial dimension of urban tourism and its territorial gov-

which brought challenges for both the research and management of

ernance. By applying the concept of territorial governance we wanted to

urban tourism. Both aspects, the growth and decline, we have ad-

address the question of the extent to which the two sectors co-operate

dressed in the two projects, however, the research plans have needed

with each other and how well they consider each other in planning and

to be adapted due to the situation in a way that still allowed fulfilling

implementing development policies.

the primarily objectives of the project. In MESTUR, the main idea was

to investigate and learn about the spatial dimensions of urban tourism

by using statistics, descriptive and spatial analysis; whereas in SPOT we

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9 Towards new urban tourism

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

Section B

Uroš Horvat

David Klepej



Manca Krošelj

revealed the new realities of cultural tourism which could not really be

9.10 References

Irena Ograjenšek

seen before the projects started.

Nina Stubičar

Ahas, R., Aasa, A., Roose, A., Mark, Ü. and Silm, S. (2008). Evaluating passive mobile Matjaž Uršič



positioning data for tourism surveys: An Estonian case study. Tourism Management, Most of our conclusions are introduced in this book intended for re-29(3), pp. 469−486.

searchers, students, employees in tourism, policy makers and others,

Bauder, M. (2015). Using GPS supported speed analysis to determine spatial visitor

anyhow involved with urban tourism. The character of the book strong-

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ly reflects the multidisciplinary and multidimensionality nature of the

Božič, S., Kennell, J., Vujičić, M. D. and Jovanovič, T. (2017). Urban tourist motivations: tourist sector. In the performed analysis we have aspired to analyse the

why visit Ljubljana?. International Journal of Tourism Cities. 3(4), pp. 382−398.

potential impacts of the development of overtourism in the city and

Butler, R. (Ed.). (2006). The tourism area life cycle (Vol. 1). Clevedon: Channel view what this means for urban development. In the field of territorial gov-publications.

ernance we have tried to disclose connections between the propor-

Grah, B., Dimovski, V. and Peterlin, J. (2020). Managing sustainable urban tourism

tionally non-connected stakeholders, services, institutional actors and

development: The case of Ljubljana. Sustainability, 12(3), 792.

other mechanisms and integration methods (focus groups, workshops,

De Noronha Vaz, E., Nainggolan, D., Nijkamp, P. and Painho, M. (2011). Crossroads

interviews, visual analysis of the movement, cognitive maps) to prepare

of tourism: A complex spatial systems analysis of tourism and urban sprawl in the

the governance model that would help to boost the role of actors in

Algarve. International Journal of Sustainable Development, 14(3-4), pp. 225−241.

the direction of integrative and resilient operation of tourism sector. As

Hatt, É. (2020). Tourism planning in French coastal territories. From state development stakeholders’ analysis has shown, not only should the roles of some of

schemes to territorial coherence schemes. Geographie Economie Societe, 22(1), pp.

81−104.

the stakeholders be strengthened, but also the vertical co-operation

between them. Integrative planning and better territorial governance

Klepej, D., Krošelj, M., Stubičar, N. and Marot, N. (2021). The city municipality of Ljubljana, Slovenia, year 2020: Deliverable 1.4a: case Study report: SPOT (860744) can result in more effective and sustainable solutions for the cities.

– Social and innovative platform on cultural tourism and its potential towards

Europeanisation. Ljubljana: University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty.

Whilst a range of research questions have been answered in this work,

Kerbler, B. and Obrč, P. (2021). The impact of Airbnb on long-term rental housing: the the research has also raised new ones. One of these questions is rele-case of Ljubljana. Critical Housing Analysis, 8(1), pp. 150−158.

vant for the development of urban tourism in other urban destinations

López Sánchez, M., Linares Gómez del Pulgar, M. and Tejedor Cabrera, A. (2021).

such as Kranj, Celje and Koper. Field observations and analysis of web

Perspectives on proximity tourism planning in peri-urban areas. European Planning pages demonstrate that these cities are renewing their tourist offers

Studies, pp. 1-18.

and promotion to address the needs of the so-called urban tourist who

Marot, N., Klepej, D., Ograjenšek, I., Stubičar, N., Krošelj, M. and Horvat, U. (2021). Izzivi is aiming for experience of authentic urban life. One of the co-authors

mestnega turizma v času pandemije na primeru Mestne občine Ljubljana. Urbani

izziv. Posebna izdaja, 2021, 13, pp. 41−52.

of this publications has suggested that there is a need for detailed anal-

ysis of the attraction factors of urban tourism for foreign tourists as this

Nientied, P. (2020). Rotterdam and the question of new urban tourism. International Journal of Tourism Cities, 7(2), pp. 344−360.

would help to identify weaknesses within the homogene tourist-cultural

offers presently advanced by Ljubljana and, potentially, other Slovenian

Rahmoun, T., Zhao, W. and Hassan, M. (2019). Restructuring Integrated Spatial Tourism Planning in the Syrian Coastal Region: Tourism for Peace. In: Stankov, U., Boemi, S.-N., towns. In addition, several new research questions arose as a conse-Attia, S., Kostopoulu, S. and Mohareb, N. (Eds.), Cultural Sustainable Tourism, (pp.

quence of the pandemic including, for example, what is the impact

219−231). Cham: Springer.

of urban tourism on virus spread, what are the characteristics of urban

SURS (2022). Accommodation establishments capacity, tourist arrivals and overnight tourist in times of crisis, and what are the characteristics of successful

stays by types of tourist municipalities, Slovenia, annually. Available at: https://pxweb.

crisis management in urban tourism. Furthermore, good practices of

stat.si/SiStatData/pxweb/sl/Data/-/2164521S.px (April 2022) tourism management should be listed and exchanged, new business

Tsilimigkas, G., Gourgiotis, A. and Derdemezi, E. T. (2022). Spatial planning

models of (urban) tourism should be described, so should be the digi-

incompetence to discourage urban sprawl on Greek Islands. Evidence from Paros,

Greece. Journal of Coastal Conservation, 26(2), pp. 1−16.

talisation process of urban tourism, sped up because of the pandemic,

and how this will impact cultural, congress and fair tourism in the future.

Uğur, L. (2017). Mind the gap: Reconceptualising inclusive development in support of

integrated urban planning and tourism development. In: Belini, N., and Pasquinelli, C.

All these questions were identified and could serve as fertile ground for

(eds.), Tourism in the City, pp. 51−66. Cham: Springer.

future research endeavours.

Van der Zee, E., Bertocchi, D. and Vanneste, D. (2020). Distribution of tourists within urban heritage destinations: A hot spot/cold spot analysis of TripAdvisor data as

support for destination management. Current Issues in Tourism, 23(2), pp. 175−196.

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relationship in urban hotspots. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 29(4), pp. 595−615.

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10 Summaries of the chapters

Summaries of the chapters

Both projects were affected by the Covid-19 pandemic which, in addition to influencing of lives, also significantly damaged the tourism sector. This new reality was inspected in both projects. In MESTUR, we conducted interviews with tourism suppliers in May 2020, while in SPOT we inserted questions about the covid tourism experience of tourists, inhabitants, and suppliers. The results of the covid-related research have been integrated 1 Introduction

Urban tourism has been one among the fastest growing types of tourism in the 21st cen-into individual chapters; there is no separate chapter within the monograph on urban

Naja Marot

tury. However, tourists are no longer only interested in cultural tourism, they also like to tourism and Covid-19.

Matjaž Uršič

undertake authentic urban tourism experiences. As a result, they have oriented them-

selves from primary destinations in Europe such as Paris, London, Vienna and so on, to All in all, the editorial gives an introduction to both projects on which the monograph is second level cities such as Ljubljana and Maribor. Prior to the pandemic, these two cities, based on, depicts the content of individual chapters, and describes the methodological encountered one of the highest and fastest growths of arrivals and bednights within cen-background of the research on which the book is based.

tral Europe. Whilst cities have worked heavily on their self-promotion through titles such as the Green Capital of Europe, they have not considered tourism development comprehensively. As a result, the rapid development which they have experienced has not only resulted in a higher number of tourist arrivals, but also had a wide range of impacts that affected local society, economy, environment and territorial governance.

The origins of urban tourism date back to when tourism started. Then, for example, pe-2 Urban tourism

ople travelled to Babylon or other urban centres to admire cultural achievements, pre-in the 21st century

The impacts of urban tourism and the new realities of the cities have intrigued resear-sented both in built objects and non-materialised culture (theatre, and so on). In the Naja Marot

chers and has led them to refocus their research on the cities as well on urban touri-middle ages, urban tourism was not so common, however, the 19th century witnessed a

Nina Stubičar

sm. As several of them have argued, urban tourism research requires multidisciplinary tourism rebirth with world exhibitions, the development of transport networks and, later approaches and can address several different issues including, but not limited to: the the production of the automobile. Immediately after the Second World War, coastal and spatial occurrences of urban tourism, cultural tourism in cities, tourism and inhabitants, mountain tourism rose in popularity; at the same time, cultural tourism attracted visitors and renovation projects and their influence on cities. Some of these topics can be best to cities. At the end of the 20th century, the outlines of contemporary urban tourism were addressed by experts from the spatial planning field or other territory-related fields. In set: business and congress tourism gained importance as did the attraction of cities for 2019 we receive a grant from the Slovenian Research Agency for a three-year project

a wider population and longer stays instead of just one day visits. The further rapid de-entitled ‘Analysis of territorial and social impacts on the urban tourism and its territorial velopment of travel at the beginning of the 21st century including low-cost airlines has governance: the cases of Ljubljana, Graz, and Maribor’. Although the primary project idea changed the way we travel and have enabled shorter stay vacations as well as shared eco-was to compare the Slovenian situation with the nearby Austrian city of Graz, the Austrian nomy solutions for accommodation and transportation. The digitalisation of the tourism research agency did not support the project. As a result, the research was continued but sector has also contributed to the accelerated development of urban tourism. Today, this focused solely on the case studies of Ljubljana and Maribor.

type of tourism increases at a rate of between 5 and 10 % per annum; top world urban

destinations such as London welcomed around 20 million visitors in the period immedi-

The Slovenian research project, presented in this monograph, consists of four work pac-ately before the pandemic.

kages. The first was dedicated to statistical analysis and describing the characteristics of urban tourism in selected cities. In this research, we looked at and analysed the wider In Slovenia, development of urban tourism mostly started in the 1960s and 1970s. Ci-situation (statistics, tourism offer, type of visitors) in Ljubljana, Maribor, and an additio-ties became attractive because of new functionalist buildings which were constructed

nal eight Central European cities. The later analysis is presented in the report, while the for service purposes, and there was also notable investment in tourism infrastructure.

results of the in-depth case study analysis of the situation in Ljubljana and Maribor are Among the activities that tourists pursued in the cities were cultural tourism, based on presented in the separate ‘city profiles’. The first work package also included a survey with cultural heritage and museum, and business. A strong emphasis on cultural heritage was tourists in which basic information about the tourists, their interest and knowledge about still evident at the beginning of the 21st century when Slovenian cities promoted their tourist offers and walked routes in both cities was gathered.

museums, galleries, folk culture related events. Not much later, Ljubljana established its major office for tourism promotion and management; since then, this office has put the The second work package was dedicated to the spatial analysis of the urban tourism phe-city on the global map of tourist destinations. Where the city once lagged behind its ne-nomenon. First, we mapped the tourist offers of both cities, second, a detailed analysis ighbours like Graz, it has now overtaken them in terms of the quantity of visitors who visit was undertaken with regard to the occurrences of tourist attractions in printed guidebo-and it terms of the variety of tourist offerings that it provides. Due to the pandemic and oks and on-line blogs. In addition, the routes tourist undertake in the city were mapped.

the high concentration of tourism activities in the city centre, the city now also promotes This information was also gathered by the survey that was, mentioned as part of WP1.

attractions as well-outside the city, and focuses more on providing authentic experiences The third work package was dedicated to the territorial governance of tourism. Here we for tourists. By authentic, we have in mind tours that cannot be experience in other cities, were mostly interested in how tourism and spatial planning interact, more precisely, to and that are not available for large numbers. In this way urban tourism has tried shift what extent the tourism is integrated and managed via the spatial planning strategic do-more towards “new urban tourism” in which tourists are motivated to consume the city in cuments and plans and vice versa. This research was done, again, in the context of ten se-a manner akin to its inhabitants.

lected cities. On the basis of the results of all three work packages, a sustainable tourism governance model was prepared as part of WP4. The model is represented in a general

Knowing this, it is not difficult to define the type of tourism one finds in the city. While the form, and applied to Ljubljana and Maribor as well as to some other Slovenian towns.

term urban tourism is used as an umbrella term for all tourism in the city, other types of tourism should be listed, such as cultural, shopping, culinary, and sports tourism; to name In addition to representing the results of the MESTUR project, the book also focuses on but a few. All of these types of tourism depend on the offers available in the city and its cultural tourism and its impacts on the cities. Cultural tourism was closely inspected in attractions. Lately, additional new types of tourism such as dark, medical, art and others the project SPOT – the Social and innovative Platform On cultural Tourism and its po-have been developed and recognised. It follows, that we can define different types of tential towards deepening Europeanisation was financed via the h2020 programme.

urban destinations, among which there also exists cities that were built solely for touri-The project started in January 2020 and will continue until the end of December 2022.

stic purposes; such as Las Vegas. As important attractors in the city, one also needs to The project contributed results of three surveys which were undertaken in the summer

mention cultural quarters where cultural offerings are commonly intensified, and which of 2020. One survey targeted cultural tourists and their experiences in Ljubljana; the offer tourists a comprehensive cultural experience. The cultural experience of tourists second, inhabitants of Ljubljana; and the third survey questioned tourism suppliers and may interfere with the cultural experience of local residents as they are using the same focused on their role in cultural tourism as well as the struggles they had faced during space and engaged in similar activities. Among all types of tourism, urban tourism is the the Covid-19 pandemic. The research also focused on governance and policy; an overlay most interlinked with the local population and services provision for two reasons. First, it with the MESTUR project - both projects fed into each other’s results.

is difficult to differentiate between the users of urban public spaces and other services.

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Second, due to a lot of daily visitors who come to the city, e.g. daily commuters, daily The surplus of tourist overnight stays in the 1980s was linked to the increase in the capaci-business or tourist visitors, it is impossible to approximate the right amount of services ty of hotels and similar establishments, and during the downfall of the former Yugoslavia needed on the level of the city since the daily visitors are not counted in any statistics nor and the war in the Western Balkans, we can talk about the tourism crisis that impacted are they registered as inhabitants.

this part of the Europe.

Of all types of tourism, urban tourism has been most impacted by the Covid-19 crisis. The The new millennium and the establishment of the umbrella tourist organization Javni

negative impacts were particularly felt by those cities which rely on foreign visitors and zavod Turizem Ljubljana, were key factors in the restart of tourism in the city; this further overnight stays, among which is Ljubljana; 95 % of overnight stays recorded within the upgraded existing tourist infrastructure and established Ljubljana as a transit and bu-city are made by foreign tourists. In general, the drop in the number of tourist arrivals to siness destination. Ljubljana has became a notable ‘city break’ destination, suitable for European countries was between 70 to 80 % for the year 2020, while in 2021 the number short city breaks or as a stop on a wider European trip; its tourist offerings attract different was lower and more tourism activities occurred. The surveys and interviews that we car-types of visitors regardless of the time of the year. In the study Segmentation – Identifica-ried out showed that tourism suppliers were not prepared at all for the crisis. Suppliers tion of target Groups in Slovenian Tourism (2016), the Slovenian Tourist Board identified also did not want to predict what would happen during the crisis or how long it would four types of tourists who visit Ljubljana: for the experience of cultural attractions; local last. In the survey, which was carried out later in 2020, they explained about the measures life; culture; and gastronomy. According to SURS’s research, tourists’s impressions of the that they had undertaken and how difficult it was for them to overcome the losses to their destination are better than expected, and in addition to developed cultural, business, incomes. The government did offer some support; however, in the first year it completely and gastronomy tourism, they are also attracted to the city’s nature, the friendliness of ignored the struggles of the cultural sector – including cultural tourism.

local residents, and the feeling of personal safety that they experience whilst in the city.

It is important to emphasize that for the development and existence of tourism in the All in all, the chapter gives an overview on urban tourism as one of the more relevant tocity, the satisfaction of all those affected by tourism is relevant. Residents, who are part urism types of the 21st century. It describes its characteristics, types of tourists, and urban of the city through their activities, mostly recognize the positive effects of tourism; most destinations, and sheds light on the experiences of cities during the Covid-19 pandemic evident in various work opportunities. On the one hand, the developed seasonality of to-period.

urism offers temporary work to the students, whilst on the other, the ever-present services used by residents and tourists, and the development of cultural tourism, enable new job opportunities. The increase in the number of employees, which is most evident in culinary services and other tourism fields such as tourism providers, sightseeing, museums and galleries and the creative sector, has stemmed from the increased number of tourists and 3 Urban destination

Urban tourism is one of the most important development impulses of modern cities.

visitors who come to the city.

Along with other things it affects residents and interferes with urban space. The modern Ljubljana

phenomenon of visiting cities, which is generally defined as a multidimensional phe-

Nina Stubičar

The overall conclusion is that urban tourism is a layered phenomenon of various fields nomenon that attracts different types of visitors to tourist destinations, has become the and contents and that it has helped to establish Ljubljana as a recognized tourist destina-subject of detailed research only in recent decades. Research upon urban tourism was

tion. Regardless of its size, the city can compete with other more renowned destinations initially focused on world renowned tourist destinations, but in recent years other non-in terms of contents, preservation of identity, and overall ability to adapt to new trends. Its

-metropole cities have gained importance; we attribute this to changed perceptions of rich set of history, architecture and cultural heritage attracts tourists, develops new tourist holidaying and different ways of traveling. Among these types of cities is Ljubljana, the products, and mostly e meets the economic needs of residents whilst posing new chal-capital of Slovenia, which has also become more recognised because of the European

lenges for the formulation of strategies focused upon the expansion and management

and other titles that is has held (such as Green Capital of Europe), and a pro-active touri-of tourism. Many changes and upgrades are also strongly visible at the physical level of sm campaign which has targeted visitors from new markets such as Asia. The city, small in space. The development of tourism and city infrastructure is striving to be sustainable area and population, but not in its content has, like other cities succumbed to the growing and green. A comprehensive view of Ljubljana as a city destination not only offers an development of technology and digitalisation; enabling the development of many other

insight into tourism, but also provides an overview of otherwise strongly intertwined eco-human-dictated activities in the city. Awareness that urban tourism is a phenomenon of nomic, social. and spatial fields, and through so doing recognizes both the potentials several dimensions has opened questions about history and the development of urban

and the problems related to the development of urban tourism in Ljubljana.

tourism in Ljubljana and its impact on residents and tourists. In the chapter, we present a comprehensive view of Ljubljana as an urban destination, and explore the causes, impacts, and connections with other fields that have been affected by the phenomenon of urban tourism. Findings on why and how Ljubljana has developed in the field of tourism are supported by a review of statistical data, types of visitors, and other aspects of urban With around 97,000 inhabitants, Maribor is the economic, cultural, and educational cen-4 Urban destination

tourism. By including the results of different research, we also present in more detail the tre of north eastern Slovenia and the second largest city in the country. In the city and Maribor

impact of tourism on the residents in terms of employment.

its surroundings we can find varied and well-developed sports and recreational offers.

Uroš Horvat

However, according to the typology of tourist visits, tourist, it is primarily an urban tourism To understand how Ljubljana became an increasingly visited destination, it is necessary destination. After the Second World War, the city experienced intensive economic and

to understand its context. Ljubljana, one of the medium-sized cities in Central Europe in spatial development, followed by intensive tourism development. The peak of tourist

terms of tourism and spatial dimension, has developed under the influence of common

visits was recorded in the late 1970s and 1980s (around 235,000 overnight stays per

European history which has left its mark on urbanism and the cultural sphere. Imprints annum). In this period Maribor was regularly included in the list of the top ten tourist of antiquity and the middle ages are reflected in the narrow streets, while Baroque, Re-destinations in Slovenia with the highest number of overnight stays.

naissance and Art Nouveau influences are reflected in the city’s strong and recognizable architecture. The strong preservation of cultural heritage and awareness of its value The war in the other republics of former Yugoslavia, and the collapse of large industrial has earned many medium-sized European destinations UNESCO titles. In the last year,

companies in Maribor, led to a sharp decline in tourist visits in the 1990s (to around Ljubljana has successfully included the works of Jože Plečnik on the UNESCO World

40,000 overnight stays in 1995). With the accession of Slovenia to the European Union Heritage List, and prior to that, Ljubljana won the title of Green Capital of Europe. Those in year 2004, the re-establishment of transit flows to South-Eastern Europe, the restruc-titles are one of the many reasons that Ljubljana has become a recognizable tourist de-turing of the economy, and the expansion and greater diversity of tourist infrastructure, stination. In Slovenia, Ljubljana has built its recognition on its locational, economical, and tourism in the new millennium has once again become an important economic sector in

administratively central location from which both residents and tourists can access other the city. The period between 2010 and 2019 represents the period of fastest growth in cultural and natural tourist attractions in Slovenia and neighbouring countries. According tourist visits; they peaked in 2018 with around 466,000 overnight stays, whilst in 2019 the-to SURS’s statistical data, the continuous development of the destination is reflected by re were around 218,000 tourist overnight stays. These figures once more placed Maribor the upgrading of the city’s tourist infrastructure as well as the growing number of tourists.

again in the list of Slovenia’s most important tourist destinations.

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providers, as well as goal-oriented capacity expansion, Maribor could develop into one The data shows that a tourist visit to Maribor lags far behind a visit to nearby major cities.

of the most important event and congress destinations in Slovenia. Unfortunately, the In the triangle between Ljubljana, Zagreb and Graz, it is the smallest urban destination, situation related to the Covid-19 pandemic has severely weakened the financial situation both in terms of population and number of overnight stays. Both capitals recorded seve-of tourism development leaders (especially the leading company) and has further contriral times more overnight stays in 2019; Zagreb 5.8 times more, Ljubljana 4.9 times more, buted to the closure of some accommodation facilities.

and Graz only 2.6 times more. However, if we convert the absolute data into relative

measurements, we find that, according to some indicators, Maribor does not lag behind When designing further tourism development and strategies, it is necessary to take into these cities. For example, intensity of tourist visits, which is expressed by the ratio betwe-account the positive attitude of the people of Maribor who are in favour of tourism de-en the number of overnight stays and inhabitants in a tourist place. When this measure is velopment and believe that it has a positive impact on local identity, culture and herita-calculated for 2019, Ljubljana stands out with 7.7 overnight stays per inhabitant, while the ge, and nature protection and conservation. The expert workshop on strategic tourism

values in Graz and Maribor are similar (4.3 and 4.0), and in Zagreb the figure is only 1.8.

management and spatial planning, conducted within this project, showed that spatial

planning supports or follows the development of tourism, while also providing appropri-The average length tourist stays are also similar. In 2019 and 2021, Maribor had the lon-ate measures with regard to issues of spatial restriction and/or the monitoring of tourism.

gest length stays (2.1 overnight stays per tourist in 2019 and 2.4 in 2021), while the values in the other cities were between 1.8 and 2.2 days. Maribor also does not lag behind with In the end, we conclude that the tourist potential and capacities of Maribor and its surro-regards to its percentage of overnight stays by foreign tourists. In 2019 recorded figures undings have not yet been sufficiently exploited either in terms of tourist flow or tourist for Zagreb, Maribor and Ljubljana ranged between 83-96 as a percentage of the total

offerings. The results of the survey confirmed that the majority interest of tourists is to number of overnight stays while Graz stood out with the lowest percentage share (52%).

see the main tourist attractions and locations in the city centre along with the single area Compared to Ljubljana, Maribor has a significantly smaller gravitational area from which outside of the city at the foot of Pohorje Mountain. Interest in alternative tourist locati-tourists visit. The city is more appealing to tourists from Central and Eastern European ons was very low. In the future, it would be necessary to improve the management and

countries, such as Germany, Croatia, Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania and planning of accommodation capacities, and to also ensure that they are better used in-Ukraine; their overnight stays in Maribor are, in percentage terms, at least twice as high cluding during the off-season period. Given Maribor's comprehensive offers, this should as those recorded in Ljubljana. The number of tourists from non-European countries in not be a major problem but rather, a challenge for the future.

Maribor is also much lower, since 2019 tourist numbers from such countries have only

recovered by about 9% whereas the corresponding figure for Ljubljana is in the region of 25%. The Covid-19 pandemic has had a strong impact on tourist visits and numbers

to Maribor. In 2020, the city was visited by only one third of the number of visitors who visited in 2019. The recorded numbers for 2020 were, therefore, at a level lower than As various items of research report, the latest pre-pandemic increase of urban tourism 5 Territorial impact

those recorded in 1970.

resulted in multiple impacts in the fields of economy, society, environment and territory, assessment as

and governance. Before this latest development, researchers had already been curious

The basic tourist potential of Maribor is represented by the city centre with its historical as to how to best measure the impacts of tourism and how to address them before they

approach to

and cultural heritage, cultural offers, numerous festivals and sports events, and the Drava caused more significant damage. The methods used to measure the impacts can be

evaluate impacts

River. The city has a favourable transport location with good motorway connections with roughly divided into three groups: qualitative approaches, quantitative approaches, and of urban tourism

neighbouring countries, and at the same time its transit location at the crossroads of two mixed methods. The first group of assessment approaches mostly rely on participative

Naja Marot

important European corridors has allowed the development of transit tourism. Aggrava-

investigation techniques such as interviews and focus groups, while the second group

Nina Stubičar

ting factors are the relatively poor international railway connections that the city enjoys uses numeric data – indicators that are available to measure tourism and related chara-and the lack of scheduled airlines to domestic airport; these factors mean that the city’s cteristics. The quantitative methods then take the data and process it via modelling, mul-great potential for connectivity is not fully tapped.

ti-variate statistics and so on, in order to calculate the best approximations of the impacts.

In the mixed methods approach quantitative data and the opinion of participants in the Maribor has a relatively rich historical and cultural heritage. Unfortunately, this is not rea-assessment was relied upon Participants can include anybody; from experts to the gene-lised in terms of international tourist potential. However, it is worth highlighting the area ral population; a broad mix being especially important if a comprehensive assessment is of Lent with the oldest vine in the world, should become one of the most important

sought. The overview of existing approaches to the assessment of urban tourism impacts elements of the city’s tourist promotion and part of the recognizable identity of the city.

has revealed that all three group of assessments are equally used and that, lately, GIS

A further important aspect of tourist potential in the city is its internationally renowned data has become an important input for assessment.

cultural institutions and events, including mass cultural events. From such events, cultural and event tourism could be further developed. From this point of view, the fact that Mari-In Chapter 5 of the monograph we present out attempts at applying the Territorial Impact bor was named the European Capital of Culture in 2012 is extremely important.

Assessment approach to the field of urban tourism. The Territorial Impact Assessment

method is a method that was introduced by the European Union at the beginning of

For sport and recreational tourism the leading position in the country is held by the Pothe 21st century as an assessment approach that would support the regulation and policy horje Mountain area which boasts the country’s largest ski area. This is sited upon the making of the European Commission to become more territorially sensitive and aware. It city’s outskirts. The city has a modern football stadium and other sports facilities which was first introduced in the European Spatial Development Perspectives in 1999, and then host many internationally renowned sporting events; cumulatively, these contribute si-later methodologically developed by ESPON (the European Spatial Planning Observa-

gnificantly to international recognition of the city. The city also has a spring of thermal tory Network). Nowadays, the approach is regularly used by the Commission and occa-water, but its use for recreational and medical purposes is very limited. In the future, there sionally by member states; depending on their individual regulatory cultures. Although is a need to intensify this offer and, through so doing, develop modern spa tourism. It will initial attempts were focused on quantitative assessments, today, qualitative approaches also be necessary to better regulate the area along the Drava River and intensify its use are more favoured by policy makers and researchers alike.

for recreational purposes. Last but not least, the surroundings of Maribor are known for their excellent wine-growing locations and top-quality wines, wine cellars and associated The approach used in our case relied on a participatory approach, and started with a

offerings are, therefore, a further important element of the city’s tourist offerings It follows, workshop in which we brainstormed about the potential impacts of urban tourism

that an attractive and integrated tourist gastronomic and oenological offer, adapted to growth. Ahead of both workshops, one organised in Ljubljana and one in Maribor, we

modern trends in culinary demand, should be developed in the future.

prepared logical chains of tourism and planning strategies to represent the policy framework supporting tourism growth in both cities. At the workshops participants from

With regards to tourism infrastructure, the city has modern and diverse accommodation tourism, planning, and research listed various impacts. These were grouped into four

facilities that offer good conditions for business tourism and the hosting of both meetin-categories: society, economy, environment and spatial planning, and (territorial) govergs and congresses. With targeted marketing and the specialization of individual tourism nance. While the economic impacts were considered to be the most direct and obvious

276

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10 Summaries of the chapters

ones, the first step of the assessment also revealed a wider list of social and spatial im-sm in these cities is developing. Furthermore, we were interested in how the promotion pacts, of which, especially for Ljubljana, participants were more critical. In the field of of the destination through different channels (printed guidebooks, blogs, official tourism spatial development, tourism has mostly caused negative impacts including, for instance, websites and so on) directs tourists around the city and how this then reflects in their congestion, the use of public space for tourism purposes, and increased pollution. In the actual patterns of behaviour and the paths that the tourists take in the destination.

governance category there was a lot of discussion about tourist taxes, how they are spent, and existing and necessary strategies.

To depict characteristics of spatial dimension of urban tourism more in general, we started with comparative spatial analysis of urban tourism in selected Central European ci-On the basis of the qualitative assessment of the impacts we then prepared a numeric

ties. The overview of basic tourist and demographic statistics for ten selected cities was assessment. Provided that data was available, indicators were assigned to the listed im-upgraded with a cartographic analysis of their morphology and a location depiction of pacts. Altogether, we gathered data for 78 indicators in the field of economy, society, tourist infrastructure in the historic city centres. Through so doing we attempted to assess environment and spatial planning, and governance. The indicators enabled us to calcu-the delimitation of the tourist business district in each of the cities, i.e. the part of the city late the trends and changes in the value of overnight stays, arrivals etc., for the period where tourism is one of the key economic activities. In this way, we determined the extent 2019/2014 for which we then, specifically, assessed impacts using a 5-score scale: -2

to which cities in Central Europe are similar with regard to their spatial aspects of tourism, very negative impact to +2 very positive impact. This assessment was first done individu-and we then further assessed the extent to which this European context is transferable ally, the impact for which we were disagreeing about the scores, a group discussion was (and has been transferred) to Ljubljana and Maribor. In order to analyse the behaviour of organised to level the contradictory scores out. Besides the numeric assessment of the tourists in the destination, we also analysed the type and spatial characteristics of the top impacts, participating experts also needed to decide if the individual impact was caused 10 attractions advertised by cities via their official tourist portals.

mostly by urban tourism or whether some other factors were also influential. This was the last phase of the assessment; the evaluation.

We upgraded the Central European context with a more detailed spatial analysis of to-

urism in Ljubljana and Maribor in two phases. The first phase was based on an analysis The results of the assessment showed that we need to look at urban tourism compre-of occurrences of tourist attractions in promotional channels; this was undertaken from a hensively. While we can depict, with regards to the economic sector, mostly positive

set of descriptive data and the total occurrences of identified tourist attractions in printed impacts, in the sectors pertaining to society, environment and spatial planning this was and online guides. The data set was initially categorized according to types of attractions not necessarily the case. Moreover, in the social sphere, it was noted that whilst partici-into three basic groups; cultural institutions, open spaces, and historical buildings. We pants put emphasis on e globalisation, internationalisation, and the increased quality then mapped the three categories of sites separately and determined the level of oc-and greater vibrancy of life in Ljubljana, they also complained about the loss of Slovene currence of individual sites within each cartographic display. Based on this analysis, we language in, amongst others, gastronomy sector. The assessment also addressed some

gained insights into the spatial dimension of tourist offers in Ljubljana and Maribor and of the “myths” of urban tourism, namely, that is causes more crime and demographic

found out how cities market and develop their offer. At the same time, we were able to changes in city centres, e.g. people moving out. We were not able to confirm either of compare the promotional channels used and determine the representations of the offers these presumptions because the data supported contrary conclusions. To conclude, we

or attractions in the promotions as well as the impact of one or other type of promotion.

report that the exercise of performing a Territorial Impact Assessment was useful and The second level of insight into urban tourism in Ljubljana and Maribor was based on a contributed to the garnering of a broader picture of the impacts of urban tourism. In survey conducted in both cities in July and August 2021. The survey questionnaire was the event that such an exercise was performed again in the future, some improvements

intended to determine the number of visitors as well as recognizability of key and alter-should be considered with regard to the provision of, and access to, the data necessary native tourist attractions promoted by Ljubljana Tourism and Maribor Tourism on their to carry out such assessments.

websites. Altogether, around 600 tourists participated in the survey. One of the questions was dedicated to identifying the routes which tourists take within the destination.

The completed routes, which the tourists drew in the survey, were digitized and further processed using GIS. Through mapping routes, we tried to find out how tourists move

around the city and to establish whether we could detect and identify the most visited 6 Spatial aspects of

Urban tourism has been amongst the fastest growing types of tourism in recent times;

points in the city. In the survey, we were also interested in how tourists obtain information thus, it is shaping cities more and more intensively. It represents a multidimensional the development

about the visited destination and its offerings, and how this information affects either the phenomenon within which human, economic, and spatial factors intertwine. These

and promotion of

visibility of the sites or the routes which they take around the city.

characteristics and a plethora of impacts lately caused by urban tourism have attracted urban tourism

researchers from within several fields, including planning, to put urban tourism on their David Klepej

Altogether, we conclude that both the promotional materials and the tourists contribute research agenda. Among recorded impacts, one can report an increase in house prices, a Nina Stubičar

to the centralization of the tourist offerings, as well as activities and tourist flow. In both change in the provision of services in the most touristified areas, e.g. urban centres which Naja Marot

cities, most of tourist offerings are in the city centres; this is also where tourists “are sent”

have, for instance, experienced increasing flows of pedestrians within their core areas as by the promotional channels. In order to change this pattern, the cities need to provide well as traffic jams, and the development of tourist infrastructure which takes precedence alternative tourist products or better promote existent tourist offers or, as is the case of over development that would otherwise be more for local residents. What these influen-Maribor, work on the tourist potentials of the city’s surroundings.

ces have in common, is that they have an important spatial dimension and materialize as a physical element in urban space. Researchers are increasingly addressing not only the development and impacts of urban tourism, but also the behaviour of tourists in cities.

Among issues addressed have been motives and reasoning for their decisions to visit a given destination, what points of interest they visit, and how/where they move around City managers, the state, and other national as well as local actors and interest groups are 7 Limits of urban

within the given destination.

often aware of the importance of tourism and the development potential that it repre-

tourism in

sents in Slovenian urban areas. The same actors often try to transform these potentials in Spatial analyses of urban tourism are often based on the analysis of the presence of tou-ways that are in line with economic needs, while disregarding wider social needs. In this Ljubljana: the

rism infrastructure (accommodation, services etc.) and attractions; enabling comparison regard, they seek to valorise and transform areas containing various forms of 'tourism ca-views of different

with services for local populations. Spatial analyses use official statistics, data about tourist pital' (e.g. physical and cultural heritage, distinct natural features) into a form of scientific social groups

reservations via web portals, GPS trackers, geolocated photos or social media posts, and and cultural curiosity that is intended to attract visitors, consumers, and investors. When Matjaž Uršič

various questionnaire surveys. Results of previous studies show that the behaviour of to-initiating the processes of valorisation of relevant tourist capital, cities not only start to urists is strongly influenced by the length of their visits, the morphology of the city, and protect the locations with such goods, but also try to adapt and change them in ways

the location of accommodation, selected by tourists, as well as attractions and (tourist) congruent with the standards applicable in global tourism. For example, many European services. Based on this, we decided to check the current spatial dimension of the urban cities boast historical or cultural quarters, streets, and areas of medieval, Baroque, and tourism infrastructure and offers in Ljubljana and Maribor, and see where and how touri-Art Nouveau architecture which are legally protected as important parts of their cultu-278

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Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

10 Summaries of the chapters

ral heritage. Yet, during the process of protection of historical architecture, urban form, One of the key reasons for cities to provide incentives for tourism development are incre-8 Territorial

and design, the original use and aesthetic-symbolic characteristics of these spaces are, ased financial inflows. However, the fact that tourism does not only have positive impacts governance of

on occasions, replaced by more socially sterile environments that exclude unforeseen, also has to be acknowledged. Numerous studies have focused on the negative consequ-urban tourism

locally specific social practices, rituals, and events. The way in which the process of to-ences of tourism development which can be seen in economic, societal, environmental,

David Klepej



urism development of cities is carried out can thus significantly affect the organization and public spaces: from the increased costs of building and maintaining infrastructure Irena Ograjenšek

and functioning of local spaces. While urban neighbourhoods, historic buildings, and

as well as public services (a tourist destination has to employ more policemen, firemen, Manca Krošelj

streets retain part of their original "material" value with respect to their ambient, aesthetic, medical professionals, and other such persons, than a non-tourist destination); decrea-Naja Marot



and architectural features, they may also lose part of their “intangible (intangible)” value; sed economic benefits at the destination level (in cases where the tourist infrastructure that which is represented by the strong symbolic-identity that they possess for, amongst belongs to foreign investors and the money made in the destination flows out it instead others, local populations, daily users, and their social networks.

of being reinvested in situ); increased public expenditure to help tourist workers survive out of season; increased costs associated with the upkeep of cultural and historic The chapter deals with the processes of tourist transformation of urban areas and the role monuments, museums, galleries, libraries, and so on; increased public expenditure for that tourism should play in the further development of cities, regions, and the country.

education, medical cases, housing and similar for the local population which tends to More precisely, we analyse the impact of the development of tourism activities from the grow alongside with tourist growth in the (given) destination; and changed use of land perspective of tourist visitors and the inhabitants of the city of Ljubljana. It should be due to the expansion of accommodation and hospitality facilities.

noted that the processes of changing urban areas for and due to tourist activities also indicates, in certain cases, negative processes of 'impoverishment' and a form of touri-All of these negative consequences (separately and cumulatively) are tangible proof of sm-based homogenization of activities in specific areas. In extreme cases, such proces-a problematic relationship between tourism management and spatial planning. And yet

ses lead to urban “gentrification” processes (Smith, 1996; Hamnett, 1984; Downs, 1981), it is precisely because of them that tourism management and spatial planning should

where major population movements and city-building activities occur due to increased

work hand in hand, especially during time periods of either growth or crisis (such as living costs, rents, reduced public service functions and so on. In our analysis, we focused that witnessed during the Covid-19 pandemic). Unfortunately, our analysis of the spatial in particular on the detailed definition of impacts caused by tourism development as

planning documentation of selected Central European cities shows that only 3 out of 10

seen from the point of view of different users of urban areas. We preferred to limit oursel-cities actually include tourism development and its (positive and negative) consequences ves to the 'quality' of the effects of tourism development rather than 'quantity' and chose in their strategic deliberations; and only 4 briefly mention tourism as one of possible therefore to analyse how tourism has changed the socio-cultural basis of urban activities future developmental path.

and what this means for the long-term development of the city of Ljubljana.

The lack of comprehensive integral managerial solutions is also evident in tourism strate-One of the key dilemmas of urban tourist development is related to establishing approp-gies both abroad and in Slovenia; at all decision-making levels.

riate relationships between the processes of commodification, the development of services, the protection of historical heritage, and the preservation of the heterogeneous soYes, the Slovenian tourism development strategy for the period 2012-2016 does mention cio-cultural orientation of urban areas. Accordingly, the text discusses how it is necessary sustainability, yet at the same time it negates its own comments because it primarily focu-to reconcile the interests of different groups in such way that the city, local community, ses on the growth paradigm with the main goal being to further increase the share of the cultural-artistic creative groups and other production in the city can develop and co-exist tourism sector in GDP: income from accommodation and related services, the number

in a more sustainable form of. The current situation of a postmodern globalized envi-

of tourists, the number of nights spent in Slovenian destinations and so on. According ronment in which cities are literally competing for resources, adequate labour force and to this strategy, tourism should contribute to the three main goals of sustainable deve-capital makes this task even more difficult.

lopment and at the same time also positively influence regional development (which, in turn, should be better balanced) as well as the quality of life of the local population. It is The findings from our analysis of the researched data shows that material cultural herita-not clear, however, how these goals are supposed to be achieved. Whilst there are nume-ge is of exceptional importance for urban tourism in Ljubljana. It also shows that tourists rous measures defined for natural habitats in which tourism has to be sustainable, these are much less sympathetic to intangible values that are also part of urban areas. In this measures do not exist for cities. The national tourism strategy does not even identify city context, intangible values are those form of events that significantly enrich the quality of tourism as important; city tourism is, in effect, hidden under the label of cultural tourism life of residents, but do not enter the discourse of urban tourism as important actors in which envelops tourist attractions such as cultural heritage and festivals.

tourism development. It is important to mention that tourists particularly indicated the existence of an extremely homogeneous structure of urban tourism offers in Ljublja-In comparison, the newer Slovenian tourism development strategy for the period 2017-

na and suggested that this is based on the exploitation of the ambient, aesthetic, and 2021 (labelled 'Strategy for the Sustainable Tourism Growth of Slovenian tourism for

physical potentials of the city centre without noticeable surplus value in terms of tourism 2017−2021') emphasises Ljubljana and its surroundings as one of the Slovenia’s major

diversification of services and tourism content. Analysis of the data shows that Ljubljana’s tourism destinations and suggests better and more efficient utilization of cultural herita-

“cuteness”, “charm” or “loveliness” in relation to the material characteristics of space (i.e.

ge for tourism purposes.

monuments, protected heritage, low heterogeneity of spaces, low population density,

green system (nature, and so on) stands out as a key feature of the city’s urban tourism.

And spatial planning? Both at municipal and national level the only items which indirectly Our analysis of the poorly developed differential advantages that Ljubljana's urban tou-pertain to tourism in relevant strategic documents are guidelines for cultural heritage and rism possesses in relation to other cities further points to a ‘blind spot’ within Slovenian historic city cores' preservation. Even the key document – ‘Spatial Development Strategy urban tourism which either refuses or is unable to identify the limited reach of current of the Republic of Slovenia’ from 2004 – does not include any more. The same also goes tourism development strategies. The data show that the current mechanisms of tourism

for the draft of the new spatial development strategy which was available in the winter development focus mainly on preserving material values, i.e. what we see in front of us, 2022.

In this text, we tried to build on the observed shortcomings of the development of urban tourism and give some starting points on possible approaches to the further tourism de-Having established that tourism development strategies tend not to include cities and velopment of cities in Slovenia. The intent was to integrate economic, social, and cultural spatial planning documents tend not to include tourism, there is only one logical conclu-aspects so as to find guidelines for an optimal solution, which would also provide incen-sion for us to make: a new approach to urban spatial planning and development is badly tives for improving the quality of life of the population in the city and the wider region.

needed. A solution which could bridge the gap between tourism and spatial planning

is integrative spatial planning. Our idea seems to be more than confirmed by numero-

us (more or less spurious bottom-up rather than top-down) examples of good practice

which force us to explore the avenue of knowledge and experience exchange. Several

of these examples of good practice are presented in the framework of our chapter and

provide a solid base for sustainable tourism management, including the management of

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10 Summaries of the chapters

spatial flows of tourists when they are at a destination. They represent the basis for deve-developing tourist infrastructure can cause clashes between public needs for infrastruc-lopment of our integrative tourism management model which enables decision-makers

ture, and solely tourism focused infrastructure such as hotels. The pandemic has shown in cities to access current levels of stakeholder activation across different relevant mana-that the impacts can be also mitigated; some of them disappeared whilst others were

gement segments and formulate measures for the further activation of stakeholders and/

tackled simply by tourism activity disappearing from the area.

or segments which seem dormant.

Fifth, cultural tourism is an important element of city life. It is not only important because The proposed integrative tourism management model could be used to assess the

of benefits that it can bring to locals and tourists, but also because of cultural exchange quality of urban tourism management in both self-evaluation and external evaluation

which happens on many levels. One such example are tourist visits from different conti-contexts. We foresee three steps:

nents which allow for cultural exchange between locals and tourists, another one would

— Identification of all relevant stakeholders and policies at any chosen destination and be the arrivals of performer to the city. Residents have also mentioned economic benefits placing them into a relevant segment within the model.

and a strong will for interaction with tourists. Although, in the case of Ljubljana, cultural

— An assessment of how the stakeholders and policies within any given segment functi-offer was not so accessible to the locals (no discounts were offered to them), this has on separately.

change with the pandemics.

— An assessment of how stakeholders and policies within any given segment interact

when managing tourism at the destination level.

Sixth, and as has already been argued multiple times in the monograph, cities were not prepared to face the pandemic. Their strategies did not include, with the exception of Key in all three of the steps is just good-quality secondary data and information resources terrorist attacks, measures for managing unforeseen crises, and the central state has also (policy documents, reports, etc.) but also a good working knowledge of the destination not provided much help in this regard. After focusing on medical aspects of the crisis, (e.g. personal experiences, qualitative data from in-depth interviews, and so on).

the state provided the so-called vouchers which were first specifically focused on the providers of accommodation. Only in 2021 were these also allowed to be used for cultural Our model provides stakeholders with a framework to develop policy goals using a clear offerings as well. Apart from that, the state offered financial support for employment in methodology which can measure any relevant category. It shows that tourism planning

the sector, but measure was also subject to some restrictions and did not, therefore, be-only makes sense in the framework of the spatial planning (and vice versa). Only this nefit everybody in the sector equally. Although the crisis has offered a good opportunity systemic interdisciplinary approach can deliver sustainable tourism results at all relevant to integrate such measurements in new strategies, little change has been noted to date.

levels, and guarantee a high quality of life for local populations.

Seventh, with regard to urban tourism we mostly talk about spatial concentration. Most of the infrastructure, as well as the attractions and their promotion are focused on very small parts of cities. This channels and densifies where tourists stay and move around in the cities, and also results in the heavy touristification of certain urban parts. This phenomenon has progressed to an alarming phase in some of the cities, and has forced them to 9 Towards new

The last chapter of the book is dedicated to a reflection upon the content of monograph address such issues by changing their planning and tourism management strategies and

urban tourism

and conclusions. It is structured in seven subchapters according to the main topics and approaches. Chapter 8 offers different options by which such work can be furthered, and Naja Marot

statements. The first such statement is that urban tourism is undisputedly a special and also describes a model for a more sustainable and integrated management of tourism

Uroš Horvat

rapidly changing type of tourism. This has been proven by the facts presented in several which takes into account both tourism and spatial planning aspects.

David Klepej

chapters, but mostly by the rapid growth that has occurred within both major and secon-Manca Krošelj



dary urban destinations in Europe. In addition to that, the motives of tourists, as well as To conclude, the monograph, has, for the first time in Slovenia, addressed the research Irena Ograjenšek

the style and type of travel to the cities is constantly changing. This all needs to be taken topic of urban tourism, and as such represents an important source for students, resear-Nina Stubičar



into account when promoting and managing urban destinations.

chers, professionals, and policymakers as well. It provides basic information about urban Matjaž Uršič

tourism as one type of tourism, and focuses not only on two major Slovene destinations Second, urban tourism has established itself as a significant type of tourism. Both the but also the spatial, social and governance aspects of tourism management. Therefore, growth of arrivals and overnight stays has been rapid, as has been the percentage Ljublja-the monograph also serves as important reflection of the situation in Slovenia, and calls na and urban destinations hold among the other tourist destinations. In 2019, Ljubljana for better integration between the sectors of tourism and spatial planning.

accounted for 18% of tourist arrivals, with all urban municipalities combined accounting for 27%. This percentage almost equals the number of mountain municipalities which

have so far held the first position in regards to the arrivals. Regarding overnight stays, the percentage is lower and accounts for only 21% of all overnight stays registered in Slovenia. In addition, and compared to some other Central European destinations, in Slovenia, foreign tourists predominantly account for overnight stays. This is due to the fact that the country is too small for Slovenians to travel specifically to the cities for an overnight stay, instead they go for a day visit.

The third fact that we would like to share is that urban destinations develop at different speeds and they do so in a manner that is not related to their size (of population or area).

Mostly, the development is a result of their promotion efforts and campaigns, including social media trends and travel books. Furthermore, the cities can be divided into cities which attract mostly domestic tourists, and those which attract solely foreign tourists. The later strategy has, during the period of the pandemic, not been so successful and, as a result, the nature of their promotions an campaigns have been adopted; this has resulted in bringing the cities, their tourists, and their local populations closer together.

Fourth, the impacts of urban tourism are multifaceted. They extend to fields including: the economy, the environment and territory, and management. While the most obvious

impacts are in the field of economy, one needs to also take into account society and

territory. Social impacts include globalisation, internationalisation, and improvements of urban life livelihoods. However, there are also negative impacts such as house prices, conflicts between tourists and the locals and so on. For spatial planning, planning and 282

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Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

11 Glossary

Glossary

Adventure tourism

A form of tourism in natural areas that involves an element of risk, a higher

Green tourism

A type of tourism that promotes and supports sustainable ways of trave-



level of physical exertion and the need for specialised skills (GDRC, 2020).

ling with respect to the protection of space and the environment (Authors’



own definition).

Backpacker

A global social phenomenon with significant economic impacts, an inte-

tourism

gral part of contemporary mass tourism (Gams, 2016).

Mass tourism

Traditional, large-scale tourism commonly used but loosely referring to

popular forms of leisure tourism that became established in Southern Eu-

Business tourism

A type of tourism that includes business events and business meetings

rope, the Caribbean and North America in the 1960s and 1970s (GDRC,

organised by the client for its employees or business partners; this can in-

2020).

clude symposiums, congresses, trade fairs, cultural and artistic events, and



so on (Mikolič et al., 2021).

Motivation/motifs

A need, a state of being that directs an individual to take a particular action



of tourists/visitors to bring him satisfaction (Authors’ own definition).

City branding

The overall image of the city. The perception of a city influences its attra-



ctiveness to tourists, foreign investors, and potential students amongst

Overtourism

Overtourism is the impact of tourism on a destination or parts of a de-



others (Herget, Petrù and Abrhám, 2015).

stination. Such tourism has an excessively negative impact on residents'

perceptions of the quality of life and/or the quality of the visitor experience

City tourism,

A type of tourism activity which takes place in urban spaces with its inhe-

(Koens, Postma and Papp, 2018).

urban tourism

rent attributes charactererized by non-agricultural based economy such as



administration, manufacturing, trade and services and and by being nodal

Revitalisation

Urban revitalisation: revitalising, transforming economically and socially

points of transport. Urban destinations offer a wide and heterogeneous

deprived urban areas into attractive urban districts by improving the con-

range of cultural, architectural, technological, social and natural experien-

ditions for carrying out and intr



oducing new activities, the social structure,



ces and products for leisure and business (UNWTO, 2020).



and modernising the city environment (Urban terminology glossary, 2020).



Cultural quarter

A district within a city primarily defined by culture (customs, beliefs, art, life-

Tourism

A physical location where a tourist spends at least one night. It includes the

styles and the organisation of social groups) and artistic activities such as:

destination

tourist products and attractions available to the tourist taking into accou-



film, literature, music and art (Oxford English Dictionary, 2020).

nt the return trip within one day. The area has physical and administrative





boundaries, defined management and marketing strategy (destination

Cultural tourism

Travelling to experience and learn about cultures or aspects of cultures

branding) (Authors’ own definition).



(Bujdoso et al., 2015).



Tourism

A set of activities in which individuals engage on their own personal terms,

Day visitor

A visitor arriving to the destination and departing from it on the same day,

experience such as pleasant and memorable places, allowing each tourist to build his regardless of the motivation for his/her trip (GDRC, 2020).



or her own travel experiences so that they satisfy a wide range of personal





needs, varying from pleasure to a search for meaning (IGI Global, 2020).

Dark tourism

A type of tourism which involves visiting the sites/destinations/places of

various types of disasters and tragedies (Authors’ own definition).

Tourism

Roads, railways, harbours, airports, water, electricity and other energy and



infrastructure

utility services that serve not only the local population but also the tourism

Ecotourism

A type of tourism based on the concept of limited (not mass) travel to

sector (adequate accommodation, restaurants, and passenger terminals)

natural, sensitive, authentic, remote, and protected areas. This tourism re-

(GDRC, 2020).

sponsibly protects nature and promotes the well-being of the local popu-

lation and in this way fosters respect for different cultures and human rights

Tourism supply

The tourism supply of a destination is formed by natural and cultural herita-

(Mikolič et al., 2021).

ge as well as the touristic infrastructure of a destination (IGI Global, 2020).



Gentrification

A process of moving of middle- and upper-class residents to redeveloped

Tourist area/

A settlement area with a developed primary and secondary tourist offer. The

areas, usually in or near urban centres, and out-migration of the socially

tourist region

two interact geographically and economically and form homogeneous units



deprived population due to the rising costs of living (Urban terminology

(Mikolič et al., 2019).



glossary, 2020).

284

285

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

11 Glossary

Tourist attraction

Tourist attractions are defined as destinations for visitors that are accessible at

Visiting friends

A type of tourism that involves visiting relatives and friends, or having them



a specific time. Visitors include local residents, daily visitors on excursions, and

and relatives

provide accommodation for the visitor, while the visitors uses the trip for



people travelling for business or leisure. Formal definitions exclude shops,

other purposes (Marot et al., 2020).



sports stadiums, theatres, and cinemas, although tourists may consider and



use the excluded services as tourist attractions (GDRC, 2020).



References

Tourist business

An area of the city mainly dedicated to the business tourism sector (Oxford

district

English Dictionary, 2020).

Bujdosó, Z., Dávid, L., Tőzsér, A., Kovács, G., Major - Kathi, V., Uakhitova, G., Katona, P.

and Vasvári, M. (2015). Basis of Heritagization and Cultural Tourism Development.

Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 188, pp. 307–315.

Tourist

A business model for the organisation of alternative forms of tourism, focu-

Gams, M. (2016). Analiza razvoja nahrbtnikarskega turizma v Estoniji, Latviji in Litvi cooperatives

sing on the provision of accommodation and business networking (SOS,

(eng. An analysis of the development of backpacker tourism in Estonia, Latvia and

2017).

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Global Development Research Center (GDRC) (2020). Daily visitor, Tourist infrastructure, Tourist demand

The number of people who travel or wish to travel and use facilities and

Tourist facility, Tourist product, Tourist flow, Adventure tourism, Tourist attraction, Mass tourism. Available at: https://www.gdrc.org/uem/eco-tour/st-about.html (February services in a location unrelated to their work and residence (Matthieson

2020).

and Wall, 1982); the relationship between an individual's motivation and

Herget, J., Petrů, Z. and Abrhám, J. (2015). City branding and its economic impacts on their ability to travel (Authors’ own definition).

tourism. Economics and Sociology, 8(1), pp. 119–126.



International Publisher of Information Science and Technology Research (IGI Global)

Tourist destination Management of all elements that contribute to the functioning of a desti-

(2019). Tourist experience, Tourism supply. Available at: https://www.igi-global.com/

dictionary/augmented-reality-for-smart-tourism-in-religious-heritage-itineraries/55467

management

nation, including the management of attractions and amenities, accessibi-

(February 2020).



lity, marketing, and price setting (Authors’ own definition).

Koens, K., Postoma, A. and Papp, B. (2018). Is Overtourism Overused? Understanding

the Impact of Tourism in a City Context. Sustainability, 10, 4384.

Tourist facility

A building created for tourism needs and purposes (GDRC, 2020).

Marot, N., Klepej, D., Stubičar, N., Ograjenšek, I., Horvat, U. and Uršič, M. (2020).

Analiza in upravljanje prostorskih in družbenih učinkov mestnega turizma na primeru Ljubljane, Maribora in Gradca (eng. Analysis of territorial and social impacts of Tourist flow

Movement of tourists first from home areas to destinations, and then wit-

the urban tourism and its territorial governance: the cases of Ljubljana, Graz and

hin a destination (GDRC, 2020).

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Mikolič, V., Smotlak, M., Šumenjak, K., Volk, J., Kompara, M., Rodela, M. and

Tourist product

Different things for different tourism sectors. For hotels it is 'guest night',

Vivič, J. (2019). Turistično območje, poslovni turizem, ekoturizem (eng. Tourist area, business tourism, ecotourism) . Available at: https://www.termania.



for airports it is 'airline seats' and passenger miles, for museums, galleries,

net/?searchIn=Linked&ld=78 (February 2020).

archaeological sites and so on, the product is measured by the number of

Oxford dictionary (2020). Cultural quarter, tourist business district. Available at: https://

visitors. For a tourist, the product is the whole experience resulting from

www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/ (February 2020).

a purchase from a tourist facility, from the moment they leave home until

Regionalna destinacijska organizacija (RDO) (2012). Znanstveno-

they return (GDRC, 2020).

raziskovalno središče Bistra Ptuj (eng. Scientific research centre Bistra Ptuj).

Available at: http://www.lex-localis.info/files/6b8dfb12-d8f2-4d4e-bcba-

dd99464ff239/634992078324999479_10.%20t%C5%BA.%20%20RDO-kolegij%20

Tourist/visitor/

A person travelling for leisure, relaxation, business or other purpose, but

gradivo.pdf (February 2020).

temporary

not for paid employment (the tourist does not receive payment or a reward

Skupnost občin Slovenije (2016). Turistične kooperative in sodobni poslovni modeli resident

for his or her travel). The person stays for at least one night (not more than

v turizmu (eng. Tourist cooperatives and modern business models in tourism).

365 consecutive nights) in an establishment or other accommodation in a

Available at: https://skupnostobcin.si/novica/turisticne-kooperative-in-sodobni-

poslovni-modeli-v-turizmu/ (February 2020).

place outside his or her usual environment (Statistical Office of the Repu-

Statistični urad Republika Slovenija (SURS) (2019). Methodological explanation –

blic of Slovenia, 2019).

arrivals and overnight stays of tourists. Available at: https://www.stat.si/StatWeb/File/



DocSysFile/7779 (February 2019).

Touristification

The impact of tourism on the environment, socio-cultural changes in a gi-

Urbanistični terminološki slovar (2020). Mestno središče, mestna revitalizacija,



ven place, and changes in the habits and customs of local people (Zgrin-

gentrifikacija (eng. Urban centre, revitalisation, gentrification) . Available at: https://isjfr.

zrc-sazu.si/sl/terminologisce/slovarji/urbanisticni#v (February 2020).

skić, 2019).

World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) (2020). Urban tourism. Available at: https://www.



unwto.org/urban-tourism (February 2020).

Urban centre

Densely built-up central and usually oldest part of a city with a high con-

Zgrinskić, R. (2019). Turistifikacija Ljubljane ter vpliv turizma in razvoja politik na vsakdanje centration of administrative, commercial, retail and tertiary activities (Urban

življenje v Ljubljani (eng. Touristification of Ljubljana and the impact of tourism and terminology glossary, 2020).

development policies on Ljubljana's daily life) . Magistrsko delo. Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, Filozofska fakulteta.

286

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Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

12 Table of indicators

Table of indicators

IMPACT GROUP

Ljubljana

Maribor

Source

SOCIAL IMPACTS

IMPACT DESCRIPTION

INDICATOR SUGGESTION

2014

2019

2019/2014

2014

2019

2019/2014

DIVERSITY OF SOCIETY Increase in the number of tourists

Number of tourists (arrivals)

621,994

1,127,904

181

132,942

217,817

164 SURS SI-STAT, statistical data

Increase in the number of foreign tourists

Number of foreign tourists (arrivals)

587,653

1,068,887

182

113,266

188,754

167 SURS SI-STAT, survey

Increase in the share of foreign tourists

Share of foreign tourists (arrivals)

94.5%

94.8%

100

85.2%

86.7%

102 SURS SI-STAT, survey

Increase in the number of foreign tourists

Number of foreign tourists from other

140,721

291,059

207

8,829

17,025

193 SURS SI-STAT, statistical data

from other continents

continents (arrivals)

Increase in the share of foreign tourists

Share of foreign tourists from other

25.0%

25.8%

103

7.3%

7.8%

107 SURS SI-STAT, statistical data

continents (arrivals)

Change in the origin of foreign tourists

Top 6 countries of tourist arrivals (share of

Italy (11,5), Germany

Italy (10,9), Germany

No

Germany (11,9),

Germany (11,5),

No SURS SI-STAT, survey

arrivals) (yes = number of countries whose

(7,5), USA (5,0), GB

(8,6), USA (5,4), VB

Austria (8,6), Italy

Poland (8,2),

ranking has changed is at least 2)

(4,7), France (4,3),

(4,9), Austria (4,1),

(8,3), Poland (7,2),

Austria (7,1), Italy

Austria (4,2)

France (4,0)

Croatia (5,3),

(5,4), Croatia (5,3),

Serbia (4,1)

Serbia (4,1)

STRUCTURE OF

Change in the structure of tourist types

Share of group tourists by organisation of the

25%

20%

82

9%

20%

213 SURS SI-STAT, survey

TOURISTS

trip (trips organised by an agency or other

organiser)

OPENNESS, CULTURAL Increase in foreign exchange students

Number of Erasmus students per year

1,228

1,445

118

432

451

104 Cmepius, on demand

EXCHANGE

Increase in foreign exchange students

Total number of all exchanges

1,613

2,158

134

-

-

- Cmepius, on demand

Increase in native exchange students

Number of countries of origin of students on

31

35

113

14

29

207 Cmepius, on demand

exchange

Change in the structure of countries of

First five countries of origin of students

Spain, Czech

Spain, Germany,

Yes

Spain, Czech

Spain, Germany,

Yes Cmepius, on demand

origin of students

(change at least two countries from the list)

Republic, Germany,

Czech Republic,

Republic, Poland,

Czech Republic,

Poland, Turkey

France, Portugal

Turkey, Portugal

France, Portugal

CREATIVE INDUSTRIES

Increasing the number of modern/digital

Number of coworking spaces (number of

1

9

900

1

4

400 Nekotracija, online media

nomads

foreigners living and working in the city)

SAFETY

An increase in theft

Number of thefts

42,292

25,038

59

11,360

7,086

62 Slovenian Police, on demand

High level of safety compared to other

Improvement of Slovenia's ranking in the

14th place

8th place

Yes

14th place

8th Place

Yes Global Peace Index

destinations

Global Peace Index indicator

TOLERANCE

Increase in intolerance in society

Total number of incidents of disturbing the

826

627

76

Slovenian Police, on demand

public peace (June, July, August, December)

-

-

-

Increase in intolerance in society

Total number of incidents of disturbing the

603

506

84

Slovenian Police, on demand

public peace in public areas (June, July,

-

-

-

August, December)

SATISFACTION

Increase in satisfaction with life in the city

Share of residents who consider that tourism

66%

49%

74

-

-

- Ljubljana Tourism, survey

contributes positively to the quality of life

Improvement of services in the city

Share of residents who think that tourism

43%

72%

167

Ljubljana Tourism, survey

improves the level of services (shopping,

-

-

-

restaurants, entertainment) in the city

OPENNESS

Positive attitudes of the residents towards

Share of residents who think that tourism

91%

90%

99

-

-

- Ljubljana Tourism, survey

tourism

contributes to the development of the city

GENTRIFICATION

Decrease in the number of residents in the Number of residents in the city centre

25,729

25,861

101

8,063

8,402

104.2 SURS SI-STAT, statistical data

city centre

288

289

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

12 Table of indicators

IMPACT GROUP

Ljubljana

Maribor

Source

SOCIAL IMPACTS

IMPACT DESCRIPTION

INDICATOR SUGGESTION

2014

2019

2019/2014

2014

2019

2019/2014

EDUCATION

Increase in interest in working in tourism

Number of graduates of tourism education

48

34

71

26

32

123 SURS SI-STAT, on demand

programmes by municipality of residence

Share of tourism graduates in the total

1.8%

2.2%

124

5.9%

6.6%

111 SURS SI-STAT, on demand

number of graduates by municipality of

residence

Number of secondary school graduates by

16

33

206

34

41

121 SURS SI-STAT, on demand

municipality of residence

RECOGNITION AND

Increase in the city's international

Number of sister towns

19

19

100

12

14

116,67 Wikipedia Ljubljana, Maribor

INFLUENCE

connectivity

Increase in the city's international influence Improvement in GaWCRN ranking

Gama +

Gama

Yes

-

-

- Globalization and World Cities

(only for LJ)

(GaWC)

Increase in the city's international visibility

Improvement in Mercer ranking

76th place

74th place

Yes

-

-

- Mercer, Quality of living city

ranking

ECONOMIC IMPACTS

IMPACT DESCRIPTION

INDICATOR SUGGESTION

2014

2019

2019/2014

2014

2019

2019/2014

JOBS

Increase in number of people working in

Number of people employed in tourism

12,007

15,631

130

3,811

4,727

124 SURS SI-STAT, on demand

tourism

(by year)

Increase in number of people employed in Ratio of number of employees

1.02

1,01

134

1.02

1.02

42 SURS SI-STAT, on demand

tourism during the peak season

(August vs. January)

Increase in share of employees in tourism

Share of total employment

5.9%

6.7%

113

6.9%

6.7%

97 SURS SI-STAT, on demand

Increase in seasonal and precarious work

Number of advertisements for student jobs in

-

2,333

-

-

2,044

- SURS SI-STAT, on demand

in tourism

tourism and catering

Increase in seasonal and precarious work

Price per student hour for tourism work

-

6,1

-

-

5,8

- SURS SI-STAT, on demand

in tourism

(net pay per hour)

Increase in jobs in managerial positions in

Number of employees in managerial

748

788

105

179

185

103 SURS SI-STAT, on demand

tourism

positions

GDP

Growth in share of tourism in the GDP of

Share of tourism in gross value added by

21.3

22.2

104

17.3

17.7

102 SURS SI-STAT, on demand

the city (region)

industry, basic prices, region (GHI activity -

trade, gastronomy and transport)

Growth in gross value added of activities

Gross value added for the activity GHI - trade,

2,545

3,502

138

737

948

129 SURS SI-STAT, on demand

gastronomy and transport, million EUR

Increase in income of people living in the

Average gross income per recipient in the

16,362,00

19,321,00

118

12,795,00

15,065,00

118 SURS SI-STAT, on demand

city centre

city centre

Growth in daily consumption

Average daily consumption of foreign tourists

149,57

150

100

105

103

98 SURS SI-STAT, survey

(high season)

TOURIST OFFER

Increase in visits of the main attractions

Annual number of visitors to the most visited

1,129,049

1,336,190

118

52,310

56,488

108 Annual report Ljubljana Castle,

attractions (Ljubljana Castle/Old Vine)

Maribor Tourism Organisation

Increase in prices of museum ticket

Price of a one-day ordinary ticket to the City

6

6

100

3

5

100 Museum and Galleries of

Museum (EUR)

Ljubljana

Growth in purchases of city tourist cards

Number of tourist cards sold

1,656

8,494

513

-

-

- Annual report Ljubljana Tourism

Organisation

PRICES

Increase of prices

Annual consumer price index (for SI)

100.2

101.6

101

100.2

101.6

101 SURS SI-STAT, statistical data

Decrease in purchasing power

Local purchasing power (personal inflation)

83

89

107

83

89

107 SURS SI-STAT, statistical data

TOURIST RENTAL OF

Increase in tourist use of housing stock

Number of active advertisements (last quarter

1,341

2,102

157

87

150

172 AirDNA

APARTMENTS

of the year, i.e. Q4)

Increase in tourist use of housing stock

Share of dwellings advertised for more than

-

75

-

-

70

- AirDNA

3 months

Increase in tourist use of housing stock

Share of properties being fully let

-

79

-

-

77

- AirDNA

Increase in tourist use of housing stock

Share of dwellings occupied for more than

-

54

-

-

41

- AirDNA

3 months

290

291

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

12 Table of indicators

IMPACT GROUP

Ljubljana

Maribor

Source

ENVIRONMENTAL -

TERRITORIAL IMPACTS

IMPACT DESCRIPTION

INDICATOR SUGGESTION

2014

2019

2019/2014

2014

2019

2019/2014

WASTE

Growth in collected waste

Total waste collected per capita

350

382

109

321

351

109 SURS STAGE

POLLUTION

Increase in noise

Noise level

-

-

-

-

-

- Slovenian Environment Agency

Increase in emissions

Number of days per year with exceeded

55

51

93

-

-

- Slovenian Environment Agency

values of the PM10 emission limit

LAND USE

Increase in land use for tourism

Total area for gastronomy in public areas (m2)

-

-

-

3,327

5,758

173 City Municipality of Maribor

Increase in income from the rental of

Revenue of the municipality from the letting

-

-

-

413,000

432,920

105 City Municipality of Maribor

public spaces

of public areas (EUR)

Increase in tourism capacity

Number of total beds

18,089

20,945

116

4,083

6,160

151 SURS SI-STAT, statistical data

Number of beds in hotels and similar

5,555

6,197

112

2,192

-

- SURS SI-STAT, statistical data

establishments

REAL ESTATE MARKET

Rising house prices

Average rental price per m2 for flats in the city

6,3

6,5

103

4,3

€4,4

102 Surveying and Mapping

(41 to 70 m2 flats)

Authority of the RS

Average price per m2 sold for dwellings in the

2,040

2,800

137

1.050

1.340

128 Surveying and Mapping

city €/m2

Authority of the RS

Increase in housing sales

Number of purchase contracts concluded for

1,522

1,759

116

788

868

110 Surveying and Mapping

apartments in the city

Authority of the RS

Increase in prices of pubs

Average rental price per m2 for premises in

12,8

15

117

8,2

9,8

120 Surveying and Mapping

the city

Authority of the RS

Average price per m2 sold for premises in

1,930

1,420

74

980

970

99 Surveying and Mapping

the city

Authority of the RS

Increase in sales of pubs

Number of purchase contracts concluded for

81

78

96

34

36

106 Surveying and Mapping

premises in the city

Authority of the RS

MOBILITY

Increase in users of bicycle rental systems

Number of users of bicycle rental systems

750,000

1,100,000

147

-

-

- Uporabna stran, spletni medij

Growth in the share of public passenger

Share of tourists travelling by private car

33

43

130

62

59

95 SURS SI-STAT, statistical data

transportation in the modal split

(2015, 2019)

Share of tourists travelling by public transport

7.7

4.47

58

12.41

2

16 SURS SI-STAT, statistical data

Increase in the share of tourists travelling

Share of tourists travelling by plane

57.6

47

82

19.01

32

168 SURS SI-STAT, statistical data

by plane

GOVERNANCE

IMPACTS

IMPACT DESCRIPTION

INDICATOR SUGGESTION

2014

2019

2019/2014

2014

2019

2019/2014

TAX

Increase in tourist tax

The amount of the tourist tax

1.27

3.13

247.4

1.01

2.5

248 Ljubljana Tourism

Increase in earmarked spending of the

Share of the tourist tax collected to be used

84.4

25.75

30.5

-

-

31 Ljubljana Tourism

tourist tax

for tourism development

Increase in the amount of tourist tax

Total funds collected

861,395

5,150,854

598

-

-

598 Ljubljana Tourism

collected

TOURIST

Increase in the number of staff at the

Number of employees at tourism information

30

36

121.2

-

-

121 Ljubljana Tourism

ORGANISATION

tourist information centres and Ljubljana

centres and Ljubljana Tourism

Tourism

Strengthening strategic planning

Current tourism development strategy

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes Ljubljana Tourism,

Maribor Tourism

Increased expenditure on tourism

Ljubljana Tourism's annual promotion budget

953,623

1,278,208

134

-

-

- Ljubljana Tourism

promotion

TOURIST PRODUCTS

Increase in the number of multi-day music/ Number of multi-day music/cultural festivals 58

66

113,8

-

-

- Culture.si, online media

cultural festivals

292

293

Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

12 Table of indicators

IMPACT GROUP

Ljubljana

Maribor

Source

GOVERNANCE

IMPACTS

IMPACT DESCRIPTION

INDICATOR SUGGESTION

2014

2019

2019/2014

2014

2019

2019/2014

HERITAGE

New entries on the cultural heritage list

Number of new entries on the cultural

0

0

0

-

-

- Ministry of Culture RS

PROTECTION

heritage list

New entries on UNESCO lists

Number of entries on UNESCO lists

1

1

100

0

0

0 UNESCO World Heritage

New entries on UNESCO lists

Number of applications for UNESCO entry

0

1

Yes

0

0

0 UNESCO World Heritage

list

PUBLIC SPACE

More events in public spaces

Number of consents for events in public

-

-

-

29

48

166 City Municipality of Maribor

spaces

INFRASTRUCTURE

Construction of new tourist facilities

Number of building permits for tourist

-

-

-

8

9

113 City Municipality of Maribor

facilities

MOBILITY AND

Increase in the number of public

Number of public transportation products

3

4

133,3

-

-

- Public Company Ljubljana

ACCESSIBILITY

transportation products for tourists

for tourists

Parking and Markets (JP LPT)

Increase in the price of an hour of parking

Price per parking hour in the city centre, street

0,7

0,8

114,3

0,8

0,8

100 Uporabna stran, online media

in the city centre

Increase in the price of an hour of parking

Price per parking hour in the city centre,

1,2

1,5

125

1

1

100 Uporabna stran, online media

in the city centre

garage

Increase in the number of scheduled flight Number of regular destinations (winter

19

16

84,2

0

0

0 Uporabna stran, online media

destinations (summer, winter)

timetable)

Increase in the number of passengers

Number of passengers traveling by plane

1,338,619

1,727,136

129

0

0

0 EX_YU Aviation News, online

traveling by plane

media

Increase in the number of international rail Number of international rail connections per 13

15

115,4

6

6

100 Annual report Slovenian Railways

connections per day

day

CERTIFICATES

Sustainable orientation of tourism

Number of certificates, awards for sustainable

1

3

300

0

0

100 City Municipality of Ljubljana,

tourism

Maribor Tourism Organisation

294

295





Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

13 About the authors

About the authors

Uroš Horvat, PhD in Geography, is an Assistant Professor at the Faculty

Manca Krošelj studied Landscape Architecture at the Biotechnical Fac-

of Arts, University of Maribor. His main areas of expertise are popula-

ulty, University of Ljubljana, where she obtained her Master's degree in

tion geography and tourism geography. His main research interests are

Landscape Architecture in 2017 and was awarded the Faculty's Prešer-

the development and demographic characteristics of the population in

en Prize for her Master's thesis. She gained work experience abroad,

Slovenia, especially in Maribor, and in demographically deprived areas

in Berlin, where she worked in a landscape architecture office, and in

in north-eastern Slovenia. Another area of interest is the study of the

Slovenia, at the Department of Landscape Architecture at the Biotech-

characteristics of tourism development and tourist arrivals to Slovenia,

nical Faculty, where she has been working as a researcher since 2018.

particularly in cities and especially health resorts. His research work has

At the department, she has been involved in projects such as trAILs

been published in numerous scientific journals and other publications,

– Transformation of Alpine Industrial Landscapes (ERDF, 2018–2021),

among which two independent scientific monographs stand out: The

SPOT – Innovative Social Platform for Cultural Tourism and its Potential

Population of Maribor - Development and Characteristics of the Pop-

to Enhance Europeanisation (H2020, 2020–2022) and TIA-SI – Develop-

ulation (University of Maribor, 2020) and Development and Effects of

ment and proposal for implementation of the instrument to support the

Tourism in Rogaška Slatina (Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy

harmonisation of the sectoral and other development policies with the

of Sciences and Arts, 2000). He is a lecturer at the Department of Ge-

Spatial Development Strategy of Slovenia (Slovenian Research Agency,

ography of the Faculty of Arts, University of Maribor, where, in addition

2021–2023). Her research covers topics such as the transformation of

to the above-mentioned topic areas, he also covers the field of regional

degraded urban areas, policy analysis, spatial governance, and the ter-

geography of America. He has been a guest lecturer at the geogra-

ritorial impact assessment of policies and cultural tourism. She is also

phy departments of several European universities, in Prague, Krakow,

active in the field of illustration and graphic design, and has exhibited

Frankfurt, Olomouc, Pecs, and Istanbul. He is a member of the editorial

her work at home and abroad. She contributed to the monograph in

boards of two scientific journals and is an active member of the Associ-

Chapter Eight, Nine and as designer and illustrator of the monograph.

ation of Slovenian Geographers. In the monograph he contributed to

Chapters Four and Nine.

Naja Marot obtained her PhD in 2010 at the Faculty of Civil Engineering

and Geodesy, University of Ljubljana, on the topic of Regulatory Impact

David Klepej is a Junior Researcher at the Department of Landscape

Assessment. Assessment was performed on Slovenian spatial planning

Architecture, Biotecnical Faculty, and a PhD student in the field of social

legislation. Her research topics include spatial planning, regional devel-

sciences and humanities - the Environmental and Spatial Studies at the

opment, policy analysis, Territorial Impact Assessment, post-industrial

Faculty of Social Sciences, both members of University of Ljubljana. His

areas and cross-sectoral research between spatial planning and oth-

dissertation focuses on the responsiveness of spatial planning to the

er sectors. Recently, her research has focused on urban and cultural

growth of urban tourism. Previously, he obtained a Bachelor's Degree

tourism. Since 2015, she has been teaching Tourism and Recreation

in Geodesy and a Master's Degree in Spatial Planning at the Faculty of

and Regional Planning at the Department of Landscape Architecture,

Civil Engineering and Geodesy, University of Ljubljana, and is complet-

Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana. She has been involved in

ing a Master's Degree in Sustainable Development Management at

numerous national and international projects funded by the INTER-

the Faculty of Management, University of Primorska. At the Department

REG programme, such as: Alpine Space, Central Europe, and other

of Landscape Architecture, he is currently carrying out research work on

programmes, such as: ESPON, COST and Horizon 2020 programmes.

the Horizon 2020 SPOT project – Innovative Social Platform for Cultural

She has been a visiting researcher at the University of Michigan in the

Tourism and its Potential for Enhancing Europeanisation and the Slove-

USA, the German Federal Institute for Research on Building, Urban and

nian Research agency’s MESTUR project – Analysis and Management

Spatial Development, the Leibnitz Institute of Ecological Urban and Re-

of the Spatial and Social Impacts of Urban Tourism on the Case of Lju-

gional Development in Dresden, the University of Seville, the HafenCity

bljana and Maribor. He has experience in the private and public sector

University Hamburg – HCU and, most recently, the Politecnico di Torino

in Slovenia and abroad, where he has been a visiting researcher at the

in Italy. She edited the monograph and contributed to the introductory

University of Graz, the University of Vienna, the German Institute for Ur-

and concluding chapters as well as Chapters Two, Five, Eight and Nine.

ban Planning and the Icelandic Planning Agency, and has held a train-

eeship at the European Commission. His work focuses on sustainable

development, planning, social and regional policy, mobility and tour-

ism. He contributed to Chapters Seven and Nine of the monograph.

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Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

13 About the authors

Irena Ograjenšek is a Professor of statistics at the School of Economics

Matjaž Uršič is an Associate Professor and Research Fellow in sociology

and Business, University of Ljubljana, and since 2014 has been a visiting

at the University of Ljubljana. His primary research interests are the pro-

professor at the Wirtschaftsuniversität Vienna (WU Wien). She studied

cesses of socio-cultural transformation of cities and contemporary ur-

upon the PhD programmes of the University of St. Gallen, Switzerland,

ban phenomena in the context of globalisation processes. His current

and Emory University, USA. Her research focuses on the challenges of

research focuses on comparative studies of spatial and environmental

measuring employee and customer satisfaction and service quality at

changes in the introduction of new technologies in European and East

an individual organisational level. At the industry/economy-wide or re-

Asian cities. In particular, it focuses on a multi-faceted analysis of social

gional/state levels, her main research focus in recent years has been

and physical-spatial phenomena of urban development through the

on competitiveness, economic growth, urban revitalisation, labour mar-

study of interactions, and influences between different stakeholders,

kets, and local community development, applying qualitative and sur-

users and services involved for an adequate quality of life in cities. He

vey research methodologies in her analysis. She is the author or co-au-

is involved in a number of national and international research and de-

thor of numerous articles published in scientific journals at home and

velopment projects dealing with the revitalisation and changing roles

abroad. She was President of the European Network for Business and

of urban centres, such as: H2020, Smart Urban Futures, ERA NET EU

Industrial Statistics (ENBIS) from 2009 to 2011 and continues to partic-

- JPI Urban Europe, NRF Joint Research Programme South Korea – EU,

ipate as a member of its Council, having been appointed an Honorary

ERDF - Central Europe, European Regional Development Fund (ERDF

Member in 2020. She was Vice-President of the International Associa-

- MED), MSCA-RISE etc. He lectures at the Faculty of Social Sciences,

tion for Statistical Education (IASE) from 2009 to 2013. She was elected

Faculty of Architecture, Biotechnical Faculty and Faculty of Civil Engi-

Council Member of the International Society for Business and Industrial

neering and Geodesy at the University of Ljubljana. He has worked as

Statistics (ISBIS) at the World Statistical Congress held in Hong Kong in

a researcher and lecturer at a number of East Asian universities, such

August 2013, and became Vice-President of the ISBIS (with a focus on

as: Tokyo Metropolitan University, University of Seoul, Soongsil Univer-

scientific research) at the World Statistical Congress held in Marrakech

sity, Kwangwoon University, and Kyungpook National University, and is

in July 2017. During the 2015-2019 term of office, she also served as an

a member of a number of editorial boards of international scientific

elected member of the Council of the International Statistical Institute

journals. He is active as an author of publications in the field of urban

(ISI), the oldest and most respected international association of statis-

sociology. A selection of recent books include: Creativity in Tokyo - Re-

ticians. Since then, she has again intensified her focus on the challeng-

vitalising a Mature City (Palgrave Macmillan, Springer 2020), The role of es of statistical education and the synergistic effects of qualitative and

traditional marketplaces in the post-industrial city - A comparative anal-

quantitative research methods. Her conceptual and research contribu-

ysis of influences of urban renewal in Korea and Europe (Trinity College

tions on these topics have been discussed in eminent scientific journals

Dublin, Trauben Turin, 2013), Anti-urbanism as a way of life (Faculty of

such as the Harvard Data Science Review, the International Statistical

Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana, 2007), Creative urban regen-

Review, the American Anthropologist and the American Statistician.

eration (Institute for spatial policies - IPoP, 2012), and Urban spaces of

She contributed to Chapter Eight and Nine of the monograph.

consumption (Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana, 2003).

He contributed to the introduction and Chapter Nine, wrote Chapter

Nina Stubičar as a student participated in the Student Innovative

Seven, and helped to edit the book.

Project for Social Benefit programme, called V-Kultur – Evaluation of

the Cultural Tourism Offer in Ljubljana (2016–2020). Later, she continued

to pursue her research interest in the project MESTUR – Analysis and

Management of the Spatial and Social Impacts of Urban Tourism in the

Case of Ljubljana, Graz and Maribor (financed by Slovenian Research

Agency, 2019–2022). In 2021, she joined the Department of Landscape

Architecture as a researcher, where she is involved in the project SPOT

– Social and Innovative Platform on Cultural Tourism and its Potential To-

wards Deepening Europeanisation (H2020, 2020–2022). Her research

work includes collecting and analysing statistical data and visual and

graphic design. In her masters thesis she studies urbanism and alter-

native art in the autonomous space of Metelkova in Ljubljana. She con-

tributed to the monograph as a designer and as an author to Chapters

Two, Three, Five, Six and Nine.

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Urban Tourism in Slovenia: Characteristics and Governance

14 About the projects

About the projects

Project group

MESTUR: Analysis and Management of the Spatial and Social Im-

SPOT: Social and Innovative Platform on Cultural Tourism and its Project group

Naja Marot

pacts of Urban Tourism in the Case of Ljubljana, Graz and Maribor

Potential Towards Deepening Europeanisation

Naja Marot

David Klepej

Manca Krošelj

Nina Stubičar

Cities and urban areas are an important tourist attraction and the num-

David Klepej

Matjaž Uršič

The forms of (cultural) tourism and the characteristics of tourist desti-

Nina Stubičar

Uroš Horvat

ber of visitors to cities has been steadily increasing in recent years. The

nations are evolving. Tourists are no longer just passive observers of

Irena Ograjenšek

steady growth in the number of urban visitors contributes to the eco-

tourist attractions, but tend to actively experience the culture of a des-

Lejla Perviz

nomic well-being of cities, but also generates a number of spatial, so-

tination. Modern tourism trends bring new opportunities for the eco-



Partners

cial, environmental and economic impacts. Although urban tourism as

nomic development of less developed rural areas, while at the same Partners from the 14 EU

Partners

a topic of research has become well established over the last decade,

time posing challenges for the preservation of local cultural values and countries and Israel Biotechnical Faculty (UL),

cities have only recently started to develop measures to adapt to and

identity. The main objective of the project was to explore new ways of

Faculty of Economics

mitigate the impacts of tourism; the absence of management solutions

understanding cultural tourism, such as authentic and media tourism, Datum trajanja

(UL), Faculty of Social

is clearly evident in tourism and spatial strategies at all levels of govern-

Sciences (UL), Faculty of

and to use this as a basis for promoting the development of less de-

January 2020 –

Arts (UM)

ance. The spatial dimension of urban tourism is thus the main theme of

veloped areas. Based on modern digital technologies, and statistical December 2022

the project, which we have addressed through two research questions:

and spatial data, the project developed an innovative tool to identify

Duration

1) what are the spatial and social impacts of urban tourism in cities; 2)

the potential of different types of cultural tourism and address the im-

Value

July 2019 – June 2022

what solutions do spatial planning and territorial governance offer to

portance of tourism as a development opportunity and development 3,000,000 EUR

mitigate these impacts. The answers to the two research questions were

challenge for local stakeholders. We have described in detail the state-

Value

sought through a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods

of-the-art of cultural tourism in 15 selected case study areas and also Programme

150,000 EUR

(analysis of tourism statistics in the cities, survey with tourists, workshops

addressed the challenges posed by the pandemic for cultural tourism. Horizon 2020

with representatives of public institutions and the profession, and car-

We took a closer look at the stakeholders in the field of cultural tourism,

Programme

tographic analysis). The research was carried out in the area of the City

their roles, and their good practices in product development and/or Role

Basic project, financed

Municipality of Ljubljana and the Municipality of Maribor; the work was

marketing of cultural offers.

Biotecnical Faculty (UL)

by the Slovenian

organised in four work packages. The key outcome of the project is a

as project partner

Research Agency, ARRS

model for sustainable urban tourism governance and planning.

More at: http://www.spotprojecth2020.eu/

Role

More at: https://www.bf.uni-lj.si/sl/raziskave/raziskovalni-projekti/56/

Biotechnical Faculty (UL)

analiza-in-upravljanje-prostorskih-in-druzbenih-ucinkov-mestnega-tu-

as lead partner

rizma-na-primeru-ljubljane,-gradca-in-maribora

300

301