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Acrocephalus 33 (154/155): 159−166, 2012
A preliminary overview of raptor monitoring in Austria
Predhodni pregled monitoringa ptic roparic v Avstriji
Anita Gamauf
Museum of Natural History Vienna, Department of Vertebrate Zoology – Ornithology, Burgring 7, A−1010 Vienna, 
Austria, e−mail: anita.gamauf@nhm-wien.ac.at
Austria has a rich raptor fauna with 34 documented species, 18–20 of them 
belonging to the breeding avifauna. The main players in monitoring activities 
are NGOs, Environmental Agencies and private initiatives. Monitoring areas 
are patchily distributed all over the country, but concentrated in the eastern part 
of the country. Main purposes for raptor monitoring are conservation issues 
like Red Lists, faunistic and atlas projects as well as scientific projects connected 
with universities and museums. Although no national network for monitoring 
raptors exists, data exchange operates well. Monitoring efficiency varies among 
the raptor species dependent on their size, rarety and habitat preferences. The 
best and detailed population estimates are available of medium-sized to large 
raptor key species living in open habitats. Knowledge about small species and 
forest living taxa is more limited. The key issues addressed by these monitoring 
programmes are to census the populations in order to identify population 
development and potential threats of population decline. Gaps exist of 
common and widespread taxa, relationships between breeding and wintering 
populations, information on non-breeders and, in general, long-term studies 
to recognize population dynamics. Such gaps on the regional level are found 
mainly in the Alpine region, which is difficult to explore due to topographic 
reasons and the low numbers of active ornithologists. Highly desirable is a 
national conservation law, as governments of the nine separate Austrian states 
are currently responsible for such topics, which makes conservation and science 
work considerably complex.
Key words: raptor monitoring, diurnal raptors, owls, Austria
Ključne besede: monitoring ptic roparic, ujede, sove, Avstrija
1. Introduction
Birds of prey monitoring under different aspects is one 
of the fundamental concerns in raptor conservation, 
given that threats concerning either birds or their 
habitats can be identified only with long-term 
population monitoring (Witmer 2005, Andersen 
2007). In this way, adequate measures can be taken, 
which is one of the main reasons to embark on this 
kind of investigations.
Although Austria is a small country covering only 
83,855 km2, raptor monitoring is a more difficult task 
than expected. Specifically, as the country is largely 
mountainous (62%) due to its location in the Alps, 
some major gaps still exist. Only 32% of the country 
is situated below 500 m a.s.l. (Statistik Austria 
2011). Therefore, harsh climatic conditions with long 
and high snow cover in large parts of the country 
make fieldwork often difficult.
Due to its geographic position in Central Europe 
and the polymorphic landscape (44% forest), Austria 
harbours a rich raptor fauna with 34 recorded species, 
18–20 species among them as breeding species 
(Dvorak et al. 1993) (Table 1). As a result of short or 
long-term monitoring of several raptor species, more 
or less exact population numbers and development 
can be estimated. These figures are updated from time 
to time (Gamauf 1991, Mebs & Schmidt 2006).
The most common and widespread species are the 
Buzzard Buteo buteo, Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus 
and Kestrel Falco tinnunculus (Gamauf 1991), while 
seven species are usually represented by less than 
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A. Gamauf: A preliminary overview of raptor monitoring in Austria
20 pairs each: the Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus, 
Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus, Imperial Eagle Aquila 
heliaca, Montagu’s Harrier Circus pygargus, Red Kite 
Milvus milvus, White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla 
and the Red-footed Falcon F. vespertinus. Three 
species (Imperial Eagle, Saker Falcon F. cherrug and 
Red-footed Falcon) reach in eastern Austria their 
westernmost breeding limit. With a few exceptions, 
population development is positive or at least stable in 
most of the species.
2. Main players in monitoring for raptors
At the national level, the main players are NGOs 
(BirdLife Austria, WWF) and Environmental 
Agencies, which are often commissioned by the federal 
government and separate state governments. Private 
initiatives, however, are also accountable for short- 
or even long-term monitoring activities. In contrast, 
universities and museums are responsible for more 
complex and scientific issues, but raptor monitoring 
can always be included in such topics. Monitoring 
areas are patchily distributed all over the country, 
although concentrated mainly in its eastern half. 
Usually, these areas are regionally restricted by habitat 
or political borders (Zuna-Kratky & Kürthy 1999, 
Sumasgutner & Thoby 2011). For investigating 
sparsely populated large species (Lammergeier, Golden 
Eagle) in vast areas, however, collaborations within 
Alpine regions (Frey 1992, Winding & Lindner 
2005) or between provinces are requisite.
Occasionally, collaboration within Austria among 
state governments, NGOs or individual researchers 
also takes place. Along the national border, especially 
with Slovakia (CORO-SKAT for Imperial and 
White-tailed Eagles and Saker Falcon; BirdLife 
Österreich 2013), collaboration at the international 
level is fulfilled. The aim of the project is to develop 
concepts which can be used for conservation measures 
in Natura 2000 areas and in the course of rural 
development. Monitoring of breeding populations 
of diurnal raptors, owls and storks form the base in 
both countries. The results will be integrated with 
data on habitat resources and habitat utilisation to 
Table 1: Breeding raptor species and estimated populations in Austria. Species involved in monitoring activities over the last 
years are indicated.
Tabela 1: Gnezde~e vrste ptic roparic in ocenjene velikosti populacij v Avstriji. Vrste, v zadnjih nekaj letih vklju~ene v 
monitoring, so ozna~ene s kljukico.
Species / Vrsta No. of pairs / Št. parov Monitoring activities/ Vključene v monitoring Source / Vir
Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus 1,500 1
Black Kite Milvus migrans 60–75 ü 1
Red Kite Milvus milvus 20 ü 1
White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla 14-17 ü 2
Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus 3–4 ü 3
Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus 1 1
Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus 400 1
Hen Harrier Circus cyaneus 1–5 ü 5
Montagu’s Harrier Circus pygargus 20–30 ü 4, 5
Goshawk Accipiter gentilis 2,300 ü 1
Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus 8,000 ü 1
Buzzard Buteo buteo 12,000 ü 1
Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca 11 ü 4
Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos 350 ü 1
Booted Eagle Aquila pennata 0–2 1
Kestrel Falco tinnunculus 7,000 ü 1
Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertinus 5–15 ü 6
Hobby Falco subbuteo 600–800 1
Saker Falcon Falco cherrug 25–30 ü 1, 4
Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus 220–325 ü 1
(1) A. Gamauf in Mebs & Schmidt (2006), (2) Probst (2012) / WWF Austria, (3) H. Frey & A. Schwarzenberger (pers. comm.), Bearded Vulture 
Introduction Project, (4) BirdLife Austria (unpubl.), (5) Sachslehner (2012 & pers. comm.), (6) H.-M. Berg (pers. comm.), NHM Vienna
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Acrocephalus 33 (154/155): 159−166, 2012
achieve concrete data on habitat needs of the species 
in question. In 2003–2005, in the course of the 
Interreg IIIA Project, the Golden Eagle population 
was recorded and monitored transnationally between 
Austria and Italy, embracing several important Natura 
2000 areas (www.aquilalp.net; Winding & Lindner 
2005). 
For the long-term Lammergeier reintroduction 
programme, collaboration with several other countries 
has been implemented as well. Since the first release 
in 1986 in Salzburg (Figure 1), this project has 
developed into one of the most significant raptor 
conservation projects in Europe, although the project 
suffered certain losses now and then (Figure 2). Until 
now, 170 captive bred vultures have been released, 
and since 1997 this vulture species has been breeding 
again in the Alps (http://www.wild.uzh.ch/bg/frame.
php?bi=0&bg=0&ya=0&la=e&th=proj&st=0&su=0; 
Izquierdo & Zink 2011).The journal Bartgeier-News 
reports regularly on the activities and project news. 
Main data users of the monitoring projects are 
separate state governments, NGOs and scientific 
institutions (universities, museums). Main purposes 
for raptor monitoring are conservation issues (Red 
Lists; Berg 1997, Dvorak et al. 2010), faunistic 
and atlas projects (Wichmann et al. 2009) as well as 
scientific projects (e.g. McGrady & Pennersdorfer 
2006, Sumasgutner et al. in print, submitted a & b).
Figure 1: Michael Knollseisen with a young Lammergeier 
Gypaetus barbatus before releasing as part of the 
reintroduction programme in the National Park Hohe Tauern 
(photo: National Park Hohe Tauern)
Slika 1: Michael Knollseisen z mladi~em brkatega sera 
Gypaetus barbatus pred njegovo izpustitvijo v okviru 
programa ponovne naselitve te vrste v Narodnem parku 
Visoke ture (foto: Narodni park Visoke ture)
Figure 2: Documented Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus losses in the Austrian Alps between 1996 and 2009. Crosses 
denote locations of lost individuals with exact or presumable years given, while dotted line delineates the boundary of 
National Park Hohe Tauern, where reintroduction programme has been carried out (by courtesy of M. Knollseisen).
Slika 2: Dokumentirane izgube brkatih serov Gypaetus barbatus v avstrijskih Alpah med letoma 1996 in 2009. Križci 
ozna~ujejo lokacije poginulih osebkov z navedenimi natan~nimi oziroma domnevnimi letnicami, ~rtkana ~rta pa ponazarja mejo 
Narodnega parka Visoke Ture, kjer poteka program ponovne naselitve (z dovoljenjem M. Knollseisna). 
DE
IT
CH
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A. Gamauf: A preliminary overview of raptor monitoring in Austria
3. National coverage
In Austria, neither national co-ordination nor official 
national network for raptor monitoring is available at 
the moment. Thus, there is no national network for 
monitoring for raptors. Nevertheless, until now four 
diurnal raptor and owl specific meetings have been 
organized, in which monitoring played a major part 
(proceedings were published in Egretta special issues 
1992 and 1999; Gamauf & Berger 1996, Gamauf 
& Berg 2006). Knowledge about raptor populations 
across the country is limited to the last few decades 
and raptor monitoring was and is distributed only 
patchily in Austria. Projects follow very different time 
periods and are very diversely distributed in various 
landscapes. So population estimations are of different 
quality. Most of these monitoring programmes are 
financed by contract work to compile Red Lists and 
to investigate raptor density in protected areas. Thus 
census duration is often limited to three years, and is 
rarely extended over longer periods.
4. Key species and key issues
Monitoring efficiency varies among raptor species 
dependent on their size, rarity and habitat preferences. 
In general, the best and detailed population estimations 
are available of medium-sized to large raptor species 
living in open habitats. About small species and 
forest living taxa, knowledge is more limited. The 
key species addressed by monitoring for raptors are 
the Lammergeier, Golden Eagle, White-tailed Eagle, 
Imperial Eagle, Montagu’s Harrier, Peregrine Falcon F. 
peregrinus, Saker Falcon and Red-footed Falcon.
The first monitoring project was focused on 
Lammergeier, starting in 1986 to reintroduce this 
species to the Alps and Austria, respectively (Frey & 
Walter 1989, Zink 2004). It is still in progress and 
has been expanded in the meanwhile to other Alpine 
countries. This project is supported by numerous 
national and international organisations, including 
WWF. The Golden Eagle is another comparatively 
well studied large species (Leditznig 1999, Steiner 
1999b, Winding & Lindner 2005, Leditznig & 
Leditznig 2006, McGrady & Pennerstorfer 
2006). WWF Austria initiated and funded a long-
term survey of wintering and breeding population 
of the White-tailed Eagle (www.wwf.at/seeadler; 
Probst 2002 & 2009), which still continues. After 
the natural resettlement of the Imperial Eagle in 
Austria in 1999 (Ranner 2006), its populations are 
monitored year-round. Additionally, other aspects 
like distribution, dispersal study by satellite telemetry 
and feeding ecology are included (Berg et al. 2008, 
CORO-SKAT; Schmidt 2013) (Figure 3). Currently, 
a three-year transnational monitoring programme 
focused on conservation management is carried out 
together with Slovakia (BirdLife Austria, CORO-
SKAT see above). Saker Falcon, Montagu’s Harrier, 
Black Kite Milvus migrans and Red Kite M. milvus 
are also included in the project. For Saker Falcon and 
Montagu’s Harrier, monitoring had started earlier 
(Berg 2000, Sachslehner 2004, 2006, 2011 & 2012, 
Sachslehner et al. in print). For the Peregrine Falcon, 
the country-wide monitoring data underline its wide 
distribution as well as its relative stable population size 
over a longer time period (Jiresch 1997, Leditznig 
& Leditznig 2006, Gamauf et al. 2009).
The more common species like Buzzard, Honey 
Buzzard Pernis apivorus, Sparrowhawk, Goshawk 
Accipiter gentilis and Kestrel are taken into 
consideration less frequently (Gamauf & Herb 1993, 
Zuna Kratky & Kürthy 1999, Steiner & Deschka 
2006, Sumasgutner & Thoby 2011) and mostly 
for short-term periods only. Long-term surveys are 
available from a few areas only, like in Upper Austria 
(Steiner 1999a, Steiner & Deschka 2006) and 
Lower Austria (C. Friedl pers. comm.). Monitoring 
of common urban Kestrels in the city of Vienna was 
started in 2009 and still continues (Sumasgutner et 
al. in print) (Figure 4). All these examples concern the 
bird’s breeding population. 
Monitoring of wintering populations, on the other 
hand, has been carried out to a similar extent (Gamauf 
1987, Samwald & Samwald 1993, Sackl & Samwald 
1994, Bieringer & Laber 1999, Mülner 2000, 
Figure 3: One of the Imperial Eagles Aquila heliaca satellite-
tagged in Lower Austria in the course of the trans-border 
CORO-SKAT Project (photo: R. Katzinger)
Slika 3: Eden izmed kraljevih orlov Aquila heliaca, 
opremljenih z napravo za satelitsko spremljanje, v Spodnji 
Avstriji med potekom ~ezmejnega projekta CORO-SKAT (foto: 
R. Katzinger)
163
Laber & Zuna-Kratky 2005, Brader & Weissmair 
2006, Dvorak & Wendelin 2008). Much work, 
however, remains to be done in the Alpine regions of 
the country, especially in western Austria.
Austria is a country with no distinctively 
pronounced migration routes. Migration is not 
funnelled in places where large raptor numbers 
could migrate (such as straits, promontories or some 
other sites in the Western Alps). Therefore, census of 
raptor migrants played only a minor role in the past. 
However, rather recently, monitoring of migrating 
diurnal raptors carried out at some more or less 
exposed points with prominent raptor emergence 
revealed good numbers of crossing migrants in parts of 
Carinthia (Laber 2006, Sachslehner 2006, Schmid 
& Probst 2006; Carinthian Migration Camp 2007–
2011: www.birdlife.at/kaernten/raptorcamp/2010/
index.html). Quite unknown remains the situation in 
other Austrian Alpine regions, where raptor migation 
is in fact known, but no systematic counts have been 
organised until now, like at Pfänder, Vorarlberg, Inn 
valley, Tyrol and northern edge of the Alps (Karner 
& Ranner in Sackl & Zechner 1995). The satellite-
tagged raptors of different species have let us know 
that they do not cross here. Instead, they demonstrate 
broad-front migration.
The key issues addressed by these monitoring 
programmes are to census the populations in order 
to identify population development and potential 
threats of population decline. In Austria, especially in 
game-hunting areas and habitats densely populated 
by humans in the eastern part of the country, illegal 
persecution is a regionally serious problem. Not 
only common raptors like the Buzzards are killed 
by shooting, trapping and poisoning, but also rare 
species like eagles and large falcons. In Lower Austria, 
it is even legal to kill a certain number of Buzzards 
and Goshawks each year. Besides the nonsensical 
killing of raptors for sports and “control” reasons, the 
numbers killed cannot be controlled. The bill that 
allows killing of large numbers of these two species 
is endangering other raptor species as well, as shown 
by many examples in the meanwhile (Gamauf 2009). 
Additionally, the loss of fallow land and other open 
semi-natural habitats and changing land-use practices 
have brought species like harriers and Red-footed 
Falcon in serious troubles (Berg & Dvorak 2010, 
Sachslehner 2011). 
International networking is beneficial particularly 
for those raptor species, which occur in eastern Austria 
along the border with the Czech Republic, Slovakia 
and Hungary (White-tailed Eagle, Imperial Eagle, 
Saker Falcon), as these countries are strongholds of 
these species and a main source for natural resettlement 
and population recruitment. The same is the case with 
the Lammergeier and Golden Eagle, which share their 
isolated occurrence in the Alps with other countries 
(Germany, Switzerland, Italy, France). 
5. Strengths and weaknesses
The main strength of monitoring for raptors in Austria 
is the good data set of population development in 
rare species. But weaknesses, on the other hand, 
predominate. In comparison to some other countries 
(e.g. Germany, Mammen & Stubbe 2009; Finland, 
Saurola 2008), Austria has only a small number of 
amateur ornithologists involved in raptor monitoring. 
Recruitment of new volunteers is therefore needed. It 
is also necessary to raise interest in raptors in university 
students. Furthermore, certain gaps exist in other 
fields as well. Regarding raptor species, we often miss 
data on common and widespread taxa, relationships 
between breeding and wintering populations, 
information on non-breeders and, in general, long-
term studies to recognize population dynamics. Gaps 
at the regional level are found mainly in the Alpine 
region, which is difficult to explore due to topographic 
reasons and the low numbers of active ornithologists. 
Threats coming from electrocution, wind farms and 
Acrocephalus 33 (154/155): 159−166, 2012
Figure 4: PhD student Petra Sumasgutner during fieldwork 
on her Kestrel Falco tinnunculus-project in the city of Vienna. 
Here she is taking morphometric measurements and 
comparing the colour of the soft body parts (cere, eye-ring, 
feet) with a standardised colour chart (photo: A. Gamauf).
Slika 4: Doktorska {tudentka Petra Sumasgutner med 
terenskim delom v okviru projekta preu~evanja postovke 
Falco tinnunculus na Dunaju. Petra tu opravlja morfometri~ne 
meritve in primerja barve mehkih telesnih delov ptice 
(vo{~enice, o~esnega obro~a, nog) s standardizirano barvno 
karto (foto: A. Gamauf).
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A. Gamauf: A preliminary overview of raptor monitoring in Austria
persecution (illegal and legal) need to be thoroughly 
assessed at the national level as well.
6. Priorities and capacity-building
Priorities to strengthen monitoring for raptors in 
Austria are manifold. It would be desirable to motivate 
people to conduct raptor monitoring also outside the 
key areas, in mountainous regions as well as outside 
the breeding ranges and during the winter season. 
Furthermore, it would be important to accomplish 
a base to estimate realistic population sizes and 
to monitor long-term population developments. 
Additionally, more science-related topics should 
be investigated (e.g. feeding ecology, habitat use, 
migration, population genetics). Desirable, but 
difficult to achieve at the moment, is Austria’s needs 
for uniform national conservation and hunting laws. 
Currently, nine state governments are responsible for 
these fields. As a federal republic, Austria is divided 
into nine states, which have some legislative authority 
distinct from the federal government, including nature 
conservation and hunting issues. These circumstances 
often impede conservation efforts and scientific work 
as well.
7. Povzetek
Avstrija se lahko pohvali z bogato favno ptic roparic 
34 dokumentiranih vrst, med katerimi jih 18–20 
tod tudi gnezdi. Glavni protagonisti pri dejavnostih, 
ki zadevajo monitoring ptic roparic, so nevladne 
organizacije, agencije za okolje in zasebni pobudniki. 
Območja monitoringa so razkropljena po vsej 
državi, vendar so skoncentrirana v vzhodnem delu 
Avstrije. Glavni namen monitoringa ptic roparic so 
naravovarstvena vprašanja, kot na primer Rdeči seznam 
vrst, favnistični projekti in atlasi ter tudi znanstveni 
projekti, povezani z univerzami in muzeji. Čeprav 
država nima nacionalnega omrežja za monitoring ptic 
roparic, pa dobro poteka izmenjava podatkov o teh 
pticah. Učinkovitost monitoringa se razlikuje glede 
na velikost in redkost vrst in njihovo izbiro habitata. 
Naboljše in najpodrobnejše populacijske ocene so 
na voljo o ključnih srednje velikih in velikih pticah 
roparicah, živečih v odprtih habitatih. Znanje o 
majhnih vrstah in vrstah, ki živijo v gozdovih, pa je 
bolj omejeno. Poglavitni cilj programov monitoringa 
so popisati populacije ptic roparic z namenom, da se 
ugotovijo trendi in dejavniki ogrožanja, ki utegnejo 
povzročiti upad populacij. Vrzeli obstajajo glede 
pogostih in splošno razširjenih taksonov, odnosov med 
gnezdečimi in prezimujočimi populacijami, informacij 
o negnezdilcih in, na splošno, glede dolgoročnih študij 
za ugotavljanje populacijske dinamike. Takšne vrzeli 
na regionalni ravni je najti predvsem v alpski regiji, ki 
jo je težko raziskovati zaradi topografskih vzrokov in 
majhnega števila aktivnih ornitologov. Zelo zaželen je 
nacionalni naravovarstveni zakon, saj so za te zadeve 
trenutno odgovorne le deželne vlade, kar zelo otežuje 
dejavnosti, povezane z naravovarstvom in znanstvenim 
delom.
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Arrived / Prispelo: 27. 3. 2013
Accepted / Sprejeto: 1. 7. 2013