Arheološki vestnik 66, 2015, str. 23-45
23
Lonec z glajenim okrasom iz rimskodobnega vodnjaka v Dobovi
A pot with burnished decoration from a Roman period well near Dobova
Zvezdana MODRIJAN, Matjaž NOVŠAK
Izvleček
V rimskodobnem vodnjaku pri Dobovi so bili najdeni keramični lonec, železna žaga in železni obroči vedra. Članek se osredotoča predvsem na lonec z glajenim okrasom, za katerega primerjave kažejo na precej širok prostorski in časovni okvir in omogočajo datacijo v 5. st. Lonec je rezultat prevzemanja vplivov med rimskim prebivalstvom in novimi naseljenci, ki je za drugo polovico 4. in začetek 5. st. pogosto in dobro dokumentirano predvsem na območju donavskega limesa. Zaradi tega intenzivnega prehajanja je etnična opredelitev uporabnikov večine najdb vprašljiva, kar velja tudi za uporabnike obravnavanih najdb.
Ključne besede: Slovenija, Dobova, poznorimsko obdobje, keramika z glajenim okrasom, rimskodobni vodnjaki
Abstract
A ceramic pot, an iron saw, and iron hoops from a bucket were found in a Roman well near Dobova. The article primarily focuses on the pot with burnished decoration, whose analogies indicate a relatively wide spatial and chronological framework that enables it to be dated to the 5'h century. This pot resulted from the merging of influences between Roman inhabitants and new settlers, which is frequently and extensively documented for the end of the 4'h and the beginning of the 5'h centuries, especially in the area of the Danubian limes. Due to this intensive transition, the ethnic identification of the users of most of such objects remains questionable, which is also true for those who used the discussed finds.
Keywords: Slovenia, Dobova, Late Roman period, pottery with burnished decoration, Roman wells
UVOD
Jubilanta je raziskovalna vnema gnala na številne višinske postojanke od rodnega Kozjanskega do najbolj oddaljenih maloazijskih, pirenejskih ali severnoafriških zatočišč usihajočega rimskega imperija. Sklop predmetov, nedavno odkrit na južnem robu njemu ljubega Polis Norikon, v Dobovi, vsebuje med drugim lonec z glajenim ornamentom, ki ponovno odpira problem datacije
in povezave z etnično pripadnostjo uporabnikov tovrstnih predmetov. Prav Slavko Ciglenečki je prvi v Sloveniji to problematiko odprl ob analizi poznorimskega gradiva s Ptuja (Ciglenečki 1993). Kasneje se je s tovrstnim posodjem intenzivneje ukvarjal še pri objavi izkopavanj s Tinja nad Loko pri Žusmu (Ciglenečki 2000). Slavku želiva, da mu bo pričujoče gradivo v pomoč pri njegovih bodočih raziskavah poznorimskih migracijskih tokov.
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žarnogrobiščnodobni objekt / Urnfield period structure
rimskodobni objekt / Roman period structure Q vodnjak / well • kurišče, ognjišče / fireplace, hearth Q odpadna, shrambna jama / refuse pit, storage pit
x=551694,96
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Sl. 1: Dobova. Tloris raziskanega naselja z rekonstruiranimi objekti. Fig. 1: Dobova. Ground plan of the investigated settlement with the reconstructed structures.
Predmeti, ki jih predstavljava, so bili najdeni septembra 2014 na dnu rimskodobnega vodnjaka, odkritega med izkopavanji pred urejanjem športnih površin osnovne šole v Dobovi.
Šola je zgrajena ob vznožju savske terase. Igrišče se je urejalo južno od šole na parcelah št. 241/1, 241/4, 238/1, 237/5, 237/1, 234/1, 231, 230/1, 229/1,
229/4 k. o. Gabrje na površini 1,2 ha. Območje je zaradi številnih odkritij zavarovano kot Arheološko območje Dobova (EŠD 9804).1
1 Izkopavanja so potekala od julija do septembra 2014 pod vodstvom Petre Vojakovic, Arhej d.o.o.
OKOLIŠČINE ODKRITJA
Z izkopavanji pri osnovni šoli v Dobovi je bil raziskan dober hektar prazgodovinskega naselja z manjšimi lesenimi dvokapnimi stavbami. Ob njih so kurišča in shrambne jame, odpadne jame pa so nekoliko odmaknjene od bivalnih objektov (sl. 1). Glavnina naselja je datirana v žarnogrobiščni čas (Plestenjak et al. 2014, 57). Med prazgodovinskimi stavbami izstopa lesen objekt, katerega jame za kole (stojke) so imele - v nasprotju s stojkami ostalih stavb - kamnite zagozde. Stavbo (objekt D) lahko na osnovi linijskega zarisa stojk rekonstruiramo v kvadratni tloris (pribl. 14 x 14 m; sl. 1). Glede na obliko je možno, da gre za atrijsko stavbo. Tlak se ni ohranil, v notranjosti je ognjišče. V nekaj stojkah so bili najdeni ostanki rimskih tegul, v eni pa nekaj ožje nedoločljivih kosov amfor, kar vse omogoča datacijo stavbe v rimsko obdobje.
Približno 30 m severovzhodno od te stavbe je bil vkopan vodnjak. Obod je bil 4 m v globino grajen iz apnenčevih lomljencev. Dno je bilo prekrito z muljem, nato pa je bil vodnjak zasut z ruševino iz kamenja, iz katerega je bil grajen. Nad ruševino je ležalo več plasti sipkih polnil (sl. 2).
V mulju so se ohranili kosi lesenega okvirja, ki so bili podlaga kamnitega oboda. Radiokarbonska datacija enega od deformiranih kosov lesa okvirja
datira gradnjo vodnjaka v 3. ali 4. st. (sl. 3).2 Znotraj okvirja so bili najdeni trije predmeti, med katerimi izstopa skoraj v celoti ohranjen keramičen lonec, ki mu manjka le manjši del ustja, okrašen z gla-jenim ornamentom, z vrezi na trebuhu in na dnu posode (t. 1: 1; sl. 4-6). Lonec je ležal na železnem sprimku, ki se je po čiščenju in preparaciji izkazal za ostanek okovov vedra (t. 2: 2-9). Zraven je bila najdena železna žaga (t. 2: 1).3
LONEC Z GLAJENIM OKRASOM
Izvor in kronologija glajene keramike in keramike z glajenim okrasom
Pojav glajene keramike in keramike z glajenim okrasom v poznorimskem obdobju v panonskih provincah in njegova širitev po Evropi v času preseljevanja ljudstev je fenomen, ki je še vedno predmet diskusije (zadnji obsežen pregled pri Vagalinski 2002).
Čeprav je bila glajena keramika na prostoru rimske Panonije poznana že v latenskem in zgo-dnjerimskem obdobju, se danes večina avtorjev
2	Meritve je opravil Poznan Radiocarbon Laboratory: AD 171-194 (z 2,3-odstotno verjetnostjo); AD 211-383 (s 93,1-odstotno verjetnostjo).
3	Ker so železne najdbe prišle iz preparacije tik pred oddajo članka, jih tukaj opredeljujemo samo okvirno, članek pa se ukvarja predvsem s problematiko glajene keramike in keramike z glajenim okrasom.
Sl. 2: Dobova. Presek vodnjaka.
Fig. 2: Dobova. Cross section of the well.
(Foto / Photo: J. Skorupan)
Sl. 3: Dobova. Rezultati radiokarbonskega datiranja vzorca lesa iz vodnjaka.
Fig. 3: Dobova. Results of radiocarbon analysis of the wood sample from the well.
Sl. 4: Dobova. Lonec ob odkritju. Fig. 4: Dobova. Pot upon discovery. (Foto / Photo: J. Skorupan)
strinja, da dokazov za neposredno kontinuiteto v poznorimsko obdobje ni (Toth 2005, 378; Hor-vath 2011, 625; Harshegyi, Ottomanyi 2013, 500), razlikujejo pa se v hipotezah, kako je prišlo do ponovnega pojava te keramike, in pri njeni dataciji.
Kot kaže nekaj zgodnjih primerov glajene keramike, je bila ta v Panoniji sicer poznana že od sredine 3. st. (Toth 2005, 373), v večjem obsegu pa se je začela pojavljati v sredini 4. st. (Horvath 2011, 628; Ottomanyi 1989, 535; Harshegyi, Ottomanyi 2013, 501; Vagalinski 2002, 39; Bierbrauer 2011, 134). V poznem 4. in zgodnjem 5. st. je postala izjemno priljubljena v Panoniji in tudi v sosednjih provincah.
Ker je bilo okraševanje posod z glajenjem od latenskega obdobja nepretrgano v uporabi pri barbarskih skupinah vzhodno in jugovzhodno od Donave, kjer rimski vpliv ni prekinil tradicije (Vagalinski 1997, 38-40; Toth 2005, 377-378; Horvath 2011, 626; Harshegyi, Ottomanyi 2013, 500), večina avtorjev pojav tega okrasa v rimski Panoniji in njegovo širjenje povezuje s prihodom novega prebivalstva z vzhoda (Grünewald 1979, 78-79; Tejral 1985, 122-140; Toth 2005, 378; Rodriguez 1997, 154; Sedlmayer 2002, 314; Soproni 1978, 206; id. 1985, 27-52; Vagalinski 2002, 83-84), pod njihovim vplivom pa naj bi tehniko prevzele in tovrstno posodje izdelovale rimske lončarske delavnice (Friesinger, Kerchler 1981, 202-265). Za območje Moravske Tejral domneva, da so tako
imenovano federatsko keramiko (predvsem eno-ročajni vrči z glajenim ornamentom) okrog leta 400 pa do sredine 5. st. izdelovali lokalni lončarji za germanske naseljence, drugo (tako imenovano keramiko tipa Murga) pa barbarske delavnice okrog sredine 5. st. (Tejral 1985, 122-140, sl. 13-18; id. 1988, 244).
Nasprotno tezi o prihodu tehnike glajenja v Panonijo z barbari je K. Ottomanyi v svojih zgodnjih delih zastopala mnenje, da je bila razširjena med rimsko populacijo v Panoniji, od katere so jo prevzeli barbari v soseščini (Ottomanyi 1982, 110). V novejšem obdobju pa meni, da je bil razvoj med poznorimsko populacijo sicer spodbujen s prihodom nekaterih novih etničnih skupin, nov ornament pa so potem izdelovali v provincialno-rimskih delavnicah na posodah tradicionalnih rimskih oblik (Ottomanyi 1989, 535; Harshegyi, Ottomanyi 2013, 501). Šele v drugi fazi razvoja (zadnja četrtina 4., zač. 5. st.) naj bi se starim oblikam posodja pridružile nekatere nove, ki so imele vzore na vzhodu. Med te spadajo bikonične sklede in lonci tako imenovanega tipa Murga, med motivi pa pojav valovnice in cikcaka v pasovih, med seboj ločenih z rebri ali kanelurami (Harshegyi, Ottomanyi 2013, 503).
Zaradi velike priljubljenosti keramike z glaje-nim okrasom konec 4. st. so njen pojav pogosto povezovali s tako imenovano trietnično hunsko--gotsko-alansko skupino pod vodstvom Alatheusa
Sl. 5: Dobova. Lonec z glajenim okrasom. Ni v merilu. Fig. 5: Dobova. Pott with burnished decoration. Not in scale. (Foto / Photo: M. Lukic)
in Safraxa (Grünewald 1979, 78-79; Soproni 1978, 206; id. 1985, 27-52), ki je po bitki pri Adrianoplu leta 378 najprej nekaj časa plenila po provincah srednjega Podonavja vse do vznožja Julijskih Alp (Bratož 2014, 312), leta 398 pa so z Rimljani sklenili pogodbo, po kateri so dobili prostor za naselitev na ozemlju cesarstva. O natančnejši lokaciji njihove naselitve viri ne poročajo, zato jih različni avtorji postavljajo v južno Panonijo (Savija,
Druga Panonija: Wolfram 1990, 139) ali v Valerijo in Prvo Panonijo (Bratož 2014, 313; Bierbrauer 2011, 116-117; Lotter, Bratož, Castritius 2005, 73). Pomembno vlogo so imeli v obeh Teodozijevih vojnah, posebno pa v prvi proti Magnu Maksimu (Bratož 2014, 312-314).
Ottomanyjeva zanika povezavo glajene keramike s trietnično skupino, saj se ta tehnika v Panoniji pojavi že precej pred letom 380, hkrati pa naj bi
Sl. 6: Dobova. Lonec: detajli vratu, trebuha in dna. Fig. 6: Dobova. Details of the pott: neck, lower body and base. (Foto / Photo M. Lukic)
bila preveč razširjena, da bi jo lahko povezovali le z eno federatsko skupino (Ottomanyi 1982; ead. 1989, 531-536). Podobno menijo tudi Heinrich-Tamaska in Prohaszka (2008, 149), Horvath (2011, 628-630) in Bierbrauer, zadnji sploh problematizira možnost arheološkega dokazovanja prisotnosti trietnične skupine (Bierbrauer 2011, 136-137). Vsekakor pa sta v času po naselitvi te skupine v Panoniji opa-
zna povečanje priljubljenosti tovrstne keramike in uvedba nekaterih novih oblik (Vagalinski 1997, 44; Sedlmayer 2002, 314; Horvath 2011, 627).
Iz Panonije se je okras širil tudi v druge province. V Norik naj bi ga prinesli naseljenci iz Panonije po reorganizaciji v valentinijanskem obdobju. V kastelu Mautern se keramika z glajenim orna-mentom pojavi že ob koncu periode 5 (sredina 4. st.), prevladuje pa v periodi 6 (370/380-500) (Sedlmayer 2002, 313-315).
V	sredini 5. st. so glajenje, spodbujeni z vplivi z vzhoda, prevzeli tudi v južni Nemčiji (Gross 1992, 314-316; Bemmann 2008, 174), in sicer na oblikah rimske terre nigre, ki je bila zaradi prečiščene fakture in redukcijskega žganja zelo primerna za tak okras (Gross 1992, 314-315). Poleg tega so z vzhoda sprejeli tudi nekatere oblike, ki jih klasična terra nigra ne pozna (npr. vrče tipa Murga, Gross 1992, sl. 3). Splošen razvoj glajenih posod v južni Nemčiji v 5. st. kaže tako močne vzhodne impulze, da dopušča tudi naseljence z vzhoda. Posode z glajenim ornamentom se v Nemčiji ne obdržijo čez leto 500, ko jih pod frankovskim vplivom zamenjajo tiste z žigosanim okrasom (Gross 1992, 319).
V	prvi polovici 6. st. glajen okras po prehodu čez Donavo prevzamejo Langobardi in ga razvijajo na lastnih keramičnih oblikah (Bona, Horvath 2008, 195; Friesinger, Kerchler 1981, 261-263, sl. 34-44). V tem obdobju se keramika z glajenim okrasom pojavlja tako na posodah, izdelanih na hitrem vretenu, kot na prostoročno izdelanih posodah, pogosta je tako v naselbinah kot grobovih (Tejral 2005, 157-160; Bona, Horvath 2008, 195). Od oblik ostanejo v uporabi bikonične forme, ki se jim pridružijo hruškasti vrči in vrči z izlivom, glajenju pa se pridruži žigosan okras (Tejral 2005, 157; Bona, Horvath 2008, 195; Bocsi 2011, sl. 15). Tako keramiko tako rekoč nespremenjeno Langobardi obdržijo tudi po selitvi v Italijo (Vitali 1999; de Marchi 2007, 285-286; Bona, Horvath 2008, 195-196).
Glajena keramika in keramika z glajenim okrasom v Sloveniji
(sl. 7)
Glajena keramika in keramika z glajenim okrasom se na ozemlju današnje Slovenije povezuje v glavnem s prisotnostjo Langobardov (Knific 1994, 219; Sagadin 2008, 97), vendar pa sta že S. Ciglenečki (1993, 509) in T. Knific (1994, 219) opozorila, da so nekatere najdbe starejše in jih
Sl. 7: Karta razprostranjenosti najdišč z glajeno keramiko in keramiko z glajenim okrasom v Sloveniji. Fig. 7: Distribution map of burnished pottery and pottery with burnished decoration in Slovenija.
ne moremo povezovati s prihodom Langobardov. Gre za vrč z grobišča v Drnovem (Knific 1994, sl. 16, 17), dva vrča z grobišča na Zgornjem Bregu na Ptuju (Curk 1966, sl. 2: 11; 3: 3; Ciglenečki 1993, 509), vrč z Rifnika (Knific 1994, sl. 3: 5; Knific, Tomanič Jevremov 1996, sl. 8) in skledo z Ajdovskega gradca nad Vranjem (Knific 1994, sl. 3: 1). Temu lahko dodamo nekatere vrče iz Kranja (Sagadin 2008, t. 1: 11; 2: 6,7; 17: 3; 24: 5; 46: 5,6), dva vrča z Ančnikovega gradišča nad Jurišno vasjo (Strmčnik Gulič, Ciglenečki 2003, sl. 25; t. 6: 1,2)4 in dva vrča iz Kosovelov v Vipavski dolini (Knific, Žbona Trkman 2011, sl. 7: 1,2; 8).
Enoročajni vrči hruškaste oblike z glajenim or-namentom, večinoma v obliki poševnih črt, včasih pa tudi v obliki mreže (npr. vrč iz Kosovelov; sl. 8), so pogosta oblika med poznorimskim gradivom v Panoniji in sosednjih provincah (Ottomanyi 1982, t. VII, tip 7-8; Friesinger, Kerchler 1981, sl. 57, oblika 2-3; Harshegyi, Ottomanyi 2013, 502). Okras
4 Nekaj odlomkov (vsaj dva vrča) keramike z glajenim okrasom je bilo najdenih tudi pri letošnjih (2015) izkopavanjih na Ančnikovem gradišču.
v obliki glajenih črt oziroma trakov pokriva velik del posode brez omejitve s horizontalnimi rebri ali kanelurami. Taki vrči so bili v Panoniji večinoma najdeni v kontekstih poznorimskih grobišč in utrdb, datirani pa so od sredine do konca 4. st. (Harshe-gyi, Ottomanyi 2013, 502). V Sloveniji sodijo v to skupino vrči z grobišč v Neviodunu, na Zgornjem Bregu v Ptuju in v Kosovelih v Vipavski dolini. Okvirna datacija v 4. st. velja tudi za slovenske primere. Poznorimsko grobišče na Zgornjem Bregu je datirano v pozno 4. in zgodnje 5. st (Ciglenečki 1993, 507-509), v Kosovelih pa v drugo polovico
4.	st. (Knific, Žbona Trkman 2011, 44). Skleda z Ajdovskega gradca nad Vranjem (Knific 1994, t. 3: 1) je v čas konca 4. in začetka 5. st. postavljena na podlagi stratigrafske situacije, saj je bila najdena v odpadni jami pod poznoantično hišo, skupaj z gradivom konca 4. in začetka 5. st. (Knific 1994, 215, 219). Najdbe z Ančnikovega gradišča glede na datacijo naselbine prav tako sodijo v 4. in začetek
5.	st. (Strmčnik Gulič, Ciglenečki 2003, 31). Tudi za nekatere najdbe s Tinja nad Loko pri
Žusmu je Ciglenečki opozoril, da so lahko starejše od 6. st. in torej ne sodijo v skupino langobardske
Sl. 8: Vrča z glajenim okrasom iz Kosovelov v Vipavski dolini. Ni v merilu. Fig. 8: Jugs with burnished decoration from Kosoveli in the Vipava valley. Not in scale. (Po / After: Knific, Žbona Trkman 2011, sl. / Fig. 7: 1,2)
keramike kot ostale posode z glajenim okrasom s tega najdišča (Ciglenečki 2000, 58, t. 9: 7; 12: 5,8). Primer (Ciglenečki 2000, t. 12: 8) bi lahko sodil v prej omenjeno skupino vrčev, vendar je za bolj zanesljivo opredelitev preslabo ohranjen. Skleda (Ciglenečki 2000, t. 9: 7) pa ima analogije predvsem med gradivom vojaških taborov ob Donavi. Podobne se pojavljajo v kastelu Mautern v zadnji tretjini 4. in v 5. st. (Sedlmayer 2002, t. 32: 538; 34: 605; 40: 728), najdene so bile tudi v Karnuntu (Grünewald 1979, t. 73: 1-3; 74: 9).
Ostali primeri keramike z glajenim okrasom iz Slovenije so v glavnem pripisani Langobardom in postavljeni v njihovo panonsko fazo (Knific 1994, 219; Ciglenečki 2000, 58; Sagadin 2008, 96-97). Do sedaj so poznani s poznoantičnih višinskih naselbin Ajdovski gradec nad Vranjem (Knific 1994, t. sl. 2: 1), Rifnik (Knific 1994, sl. 3: 5-8; sl. 4: 1), Tinje nad Loko pri Žusmu (Ciglenečki 2000, t. 12: 4-6) in Puštal nad Trnjem (Ciglenečki 2005, sl. 2: 7) ter iz Kranja (Mestna hiša [Knific 1994, t. 4: 2; id. 2001, 78, kat. št. 252]; grad Kieselstein [Knific 1994, t. 4: 3; Sagadin 2008, t. 12: 10]; Glavni trg 2 [Sagadin 2008, t. 24: 14-16: t. 43: 8]; Prešernova 12 [Sagadin 2008, t. 46: 5,6]).
Lonec iz Dobove (t. 1: 1; sl. 5,6)
Lonec s premerom ustja 11 cm in višino 22,5 cm je izdelan iz sivo žgane gline. Barva v notranjosti je svetlosiva, na površini pa črna, kar kaže na keramiko, žgano pri nizki temperaturi in že med žganjem izpostavljeno močni redukcijski atmosferi (dimu). Glini so primešani posamezni večji koščki oranžne barve, vidni tudi na površini posode. Površina je relativno groba.
Lonec ima poševno izvihano ustje, usločen vrat, kroglast trup in zelo rahlo usločeno dno. Izdelan je bil na hitrem vretenu. Na spodnjem delu posode je površina rahlo vbočena - verjetno gre za poškodbo, ki je nastala ob dvigovanju lonca z lončarskega kolesa. Na ramah, delno tudi na ustju in trebuhu, je površina glajena. Po žganju je bil v glajeno površino vdrgnjen (verjetno s kovinskim orodjem) mrežast okras, ki je omejen z dvema vodoravnima kanelurama.5
Na največjem obodu ima lonec vrezan znak, ki ga ne moremo zanesljivo prepoznati niti kot
5 Zahvaljujem se g. Igorju Bahorju iz Topolšice za nasvete v zvezi z izdelavo in okrasom posode.
figuro niti kot črko, vendar pa vseeno menimo, da ne gre za naključno nastalo sled.
Na dnu posode so opazni sledovi v obliki nepravilnega šrafiranega kroga, v središču tega je še en krog, ki verjetno predstavlja odtis osi lončarskega kolesa. Ob robu dna so vidne precej globoke krožne sledi (črte), ki so tipične sledi kamenčkov - verjetno pustila v glini ali nečistoč velike granulacije. Vidne so tudi na spodnjem delu ostenja posode. Take sledi nastanejo pri glajenju površine z ostrim ravnim orodjem, verjetno lončarskim nožem. Ali gre pri šrafiranem krogu za naključno nastalo sled ob obdelovanju površine dna ali za namerno izdelan okras,6 prav tako ni popolnoma jasno, vsekakor pa so znaki na dnu posod v poznorimskem obdobju pogosti.
Posoda v bližini nima dobrih paralel. Iz Slovenije taka oblika v kombinaciji z glajenim in vrezanim okrasom do sedaj ni bila poznana.
Lonci so pogosta najdba med poznorimsko gla-jeno keramiko v Panoniji v drugi polovici 4. in v začetku 5. st. Ottomanyijeva lonce s horizontalno izvihanim ustjem navaja kot enega vodilnih tipov med gradivom vojaških taborov ob donavskem kolenu, medtem ko naj bi bili bolj redki v civilnih naselbinah (Ottomanyi 2009, 171). Veliko jih je je bilo najdenih na najdišču Pilismarot-Malompatak (Ottomanyi 1996, sl. 11-15). Njihova oblika se razlikuje od oblike dobovskega lonca, saj so zastopani v glavnem lonci s kratkim izvihanim ustjem, ki brez vratu prehaja v strme rame (Ottomanyi 1996, sl. 11-12), ter oblike z odebeljenim ustjem (Ottomanyi 1996, sl. 13-15) (sl. 9: 1,2). Vsi lonci so bogato okrašeni z različnimi glajenimi motivi v več pasovih (mreža, valovnica, motiv smrekove vejice, cikcak). Podobne oblike in okras imajo lonci iz bližnje naselbine Budaörs (Ottomanyi 2009, sl. 6: 1-3). Obe najdišči sta datirani v zadnjo tretjino 4. in začetek 5. st., to je v čas druge faze panonske glajene keramike, ko se tipičnim rimskim oblikam pridružijo nove oblike in okras (Ottomanyi 2009, 159-160; Harshegyi, Ottomanyi 2013, 503).
Lonci z glajenim okrasom so pogosti tudi med naselbinsko in grobno keramiko iz Mauterna (Sedlmayer 2002, t. 38: 694; 41: 759; 45: 871; 46: 903; Pollak 1993, t. 46: 3/1, 48: 7/3). Najdeni so bili tudi v Karnuntu (Grünewald 1979, t. 79-82), kjer je z enim primerom zastopana tudi oblika, zelo sorodna loncu iz Dobove (Grünewald 1979, t. 79: 1), vendar je lonec iz Karnunta okrašen z glajenimi pasovi in ne z mrežastim okrasom (sl. 10).
Sl. 9: Izbor loncev iz najdišča Pilismarot-Malompatak (Madžarska). M. = 1:3.
Fig. 9: Selection of pots from Pilismarot-Malompatak (Hungary). Scale = 1:3.
(Po / After: Ottomany 1996, sl. / Figs. 11: 3 [1]; 15: 22 [2])
Tako meni npr. I. Bahor.
Sl. 10: Lonec iz Karnunta (Avstrija). M. = 1:3. Fig. 10: Pot from Carnuntum (Austria). Scale = 1:3. (Po / After: Grünewald 1979, t. / Pl. 79: 1)
6
Sl. 11: Lonec iz Zoide (Bolgarija). M. = 1:3. Fig. 11: Pot from Zoida (Bulgaria). Scale = 1:3. (Po / After: Vagalinski 2002, G 288)
Sl. 12: Lonec iz najdišča Pilismarot-Malompatak (Madžarska). M. 1:4. (Po / After: Ottomanyi 1996, sl. / Fig. 13: 18) Fig. 12: Pot from Pilismarot-Malompatak (Hungary). Scale = 1:3.
Dobovskemu še najbližji po obliki in glajenem okrasu je lonec iz poznoantične utrdbe Zoida v Bolgariji (Vagalinski 2002, 131, G 288) (sl. 11). Poleg tega lonca je bilo na najdišču najdenih še nekaj podobnih (Vagalinski 2002, G 287, G 289-291). Oblika naj bi bila tuja lokalni rimski proizvodnji, avtor jo povezuje z barbarskimi (vzhodnogerman-skimi) skupinami, vzore pa naj bi imeli v gradivu černjahovske skupine od druge polovice 4. st. dalje (Vagalinski 2002, 131). Avtor pojav tega ornamenta povezuje z germansko skupino, stacionirano v utrdbi verjetno v 6. st. (morda gepidski begunci; Vagalinski 2002, 73), čeprav so analogije za podobne lonce na Balkanu poznane že od začetka 5. st.
Poleg glajenega okrasa ima posoda iz Dobove še vrezan znak na trebuhu in na dnu. V Sloveniji je kombinacija glajenja z vrezanim znakom do sedaj poznana samo iz Drnovega, kjer je na vrčku z glajenimi prameni še vrezan trikotnik (Knific, Žbona Trkman 2011, sl. 9: 4). Kombinacija glaje-nega okrasa z znaki (glajenimi ali vrezanimi) pa je pogosta v Panoniji.
Na najdišču Pilismarot-Malompatak je bil najden lonec, na katerem so glajene črke ABCD v pasu skupaj z glajenim mrežastim okrasom (sl. 12). Avtorica črke predstavlja kot dokaz rimskega provincialnega značaja najdišča v sredini 5. st. (Ottomanyi 1996, 111, sl. 13: 18).
Na bikonični skledi iz naselbine Zamardi ob Blatnem jezeru je z glajenim mrežastim okrasom okrašen vrat posode, nad njim pa je na zunanjem robu ustja pas geometričnih figur, med sabo ločenih z navpičnimi glajenimi črtami (sl. 13; Bocsi 2011, t. 1: 1). Velika naselbina, od katere je bilo izkopanih 28 zemljank in precej drugih naselbinskih ostankov, je živela že v poznorimskem času (konec 4., prva polovica 5. st.), njen največji razcvet pa sodi v čas od druge polovice 5. do sredine 6. st. (Bocsi 2008,
415, 428, sl. 14). Naselbina naj bi predstavljala model procesa akulturacije med poznorimskim in germanskim prebivalstvom, saj je rimsko prebivalstvo nadaljevalo življenje na lokaciji tudi po prihodu Langobardov (Bocsi 2008, 428).
Vrezani znaki (ne v kombinaciji z glajenjem) na ostenju so poznani tudi v germanskem okolju 5. stoletja, npr. na prostoročno izdelani skledi iz groba na najdišču Jirice na Češkem, kjer je vrat sklede okrašen s pasom geometrijskih motivov (kvadrati, polkrogi, krogi, smrekove vejice ipd.) (sl. 14: 1), ter na loncu iz vasi Libotenice (Bocsi 2008, 113, t. 1: 6,7).
Pojavljajo se tudi na prostoročno izdelani skledi, najdeni v Langobardom pripisanem grobu pri vasi Dör na Madžarskem (Bona 1956, 194, t. 62: 3; Bocsi 2011, t. 1: 4,5), pri kateri je trebuh posode okrašen z dvema vrstama figuralnih in geometrijskih motivov (sl. 14: 2). Gre sicer za prostoročno izdelano skledo, kakršne svojo tradicijo vlečejo še iz Polabja. Ker so Langobardi kmalu po prihodu začeli svojo keramiko izdelovati v še delujočih rimskih delavnicah na hitrem vretenu (Bona, Horvath 2009, 194-195), gre verjetno za čas kmalu po začetku 6. st. Obe skledi se po svoji prostoročni izdelavi in precej nepravilnem okrasu precej razlikujeta od prej obravnavanih primerov.
Znaki na dnu so pogosti na poznorimskih in zgodnjesrednjeveških posodah. V poznorimskem obdobju so najbolj pogosti in raznoliki na območju severnega donavskega limesa, kjer se pojavljajo tako v naselbinskih plasteh kot v grobovih (Lusuardi Siena, Negri 2007, 186-187, t. 1; t. 3-5). Prevladujejo reliefno izvedeni (plastični) znaki, pojavljajo pa se tudi vrezani. Vrezani znaki naj bi se na območju Germanije pojavljali od starejšega cesarstva dalje (Pollak 1993, 64-65; Lusuardi Siena, Negri 2007, 187) pa vse do konca 6. st. (Lusuardi Siena, Negri
Sl. 13: Skleda iz najdišča Zamardi (Madžarska). M. = 1:3. (Po: Bocsi 2011, t. 1: 1) Fig. 13: Bowl from Zamardi (Hungary). Scale = 1:3. (After: Bocsi 2011, Pl. 1: 1)
Sl. 14: Skledi z najdišč Jirice (Češka) in Dör (Madžarska). Brez merila. (Po: Bocsi 2011, t. 1: 4-7) Fig. 14: Bowls from Jirice (Czech) and Dör (Hungary). Not in scale. (After: Bocsi 2011, Pl. 1: 4-7)
2007, 187). Večina primerov z območja severnega donavskega limesa je datirana v čas konca 4. in v 5. st. (zbrano pri Lusuardi Siena, Negri 2007, tab. 2). Med vrezanimi znaki prevladuje svastika, pojavljajo pa se tudi vrezani krogi, križi (samostojni ali v krogu) in črkovni (monogramatski) znaki (o. c., 187, op. 31-33; Pollak 1993, 64-65, op. 238-239). Vrezani znaki naj bi predstavljali ornament, tuj rimskemu okusu (Lusuardi Siena, Negri 2007, 187), ki so ga pod vplivom germanskih priseljencev začeli uporabljati tudi na provincialnorimskih oblikah posodja.
Drugo območje, kjer so pogosti znaki na dnu posod, je jugovzhodnoalpski in severnojadranski prostor, kjer so v glavnem poznani iz naselbin. Pojavljati se začnejo v 5. st, pogostejši pa so v
plasteh 6. st. (Rodriguez 1997, t. 3: 29; 10: 96,98; Lusuardi Siena, Negri 2007, 185; Ladstätter 2000, 157; Modrijan 2011, 203-204). Na tem območju prevladuje okras s plastičnimi rebri.
ŽELEZNA ŽAGA
Poleg lončka je v vodnjaku ležal list železne žage (t. 2: 1). Njena ohranjena dolžina je 27 cm, širina pa 5,8 cm. Skrajna konca nista ohranjena, vendar lahko glede na širino lista sklepamo, da gre za žago, ki je bila z zakovicami vpeta v okvir, (zbrano pri Božič 2005, 311-313, sl. 211). Te žage imajo širino lista med 4,8 in 5,9 cm, dolge pa so
do 70 cm (Božič 2005, 313), medtem ko so ločne ožje, široke okrog 3 cm in dolge do 50 cm (Ha-nemann 2014, 363).
Železne žage so pogosta najdba na rimskih najdiščih že od trajanskega obdobja dalje, posebej pogoste pa so v času med koncem 4. in drugo polovico 5. st. (Božič 2005, 311-313, s tam navedenimi primerjavami), kamor spadata na primer najdbi iz depoja v kastelu Osterburken (Henning 1985, 590) in prvega depoja z Gore nad Polhovim Gradcem (Božič 2005, 356).
VEDRO
V vodnjaku so bili najdeni tudi ostanki železnih trakov (t. 2: 2-9), ki predstavljajo obroče lesenega vedra. Verjetno gre za ostanke dveh obročev in glede na njihov nagib domnevamo, da je bilo vedro rahlo stožčaste oblike.
ZAKLJUČEK
Najdba odpira več vprašanj. Prvo je datacija lonca oziroma trenutka, ko je ta prišel v vodnjak, potem se pojavlja vprašanje izvora lonca, pa vprašanje, ali je v vodnjak padel po naključju ali pa je bil tja namerno odložen. Nejasen je tudi odnos med loncem in žago - ali sta prišla v vodnjak sočasno ali med njima ni povezave? Prav tako je vprašljiv odnos med rimskodobno leseno stavbo v bližini in vodnjakom, saj ni jasno, ali sta v uporabi sočasno ali je stavba starejša od vodnjaka.
Analogije za lonec kažejo na precej širok prostorski in časovni okvir. Glede na tehniko izvedbe mrežastega okrasa verjetno ni starejši od konca 4. oziroma začetka 5. st., saj je mreža že omejena s horizontalnimi kanelurami, kar je značilnost druge faze panonske glajene keramike, datirane do sredine 5. st. V čas konca 4. in začetka 5. st. je datirana tudi večina vrezanih znakov na dnu, poznanih s področja severnega donavskega limesa.
Znaki na ostenju posode se prav tako pojavljajo že v prvi polovici 5. st., predvsem na madžarskih
najdiščih. Večinoma so izvedeni z glajenjem, motivi in liki pa so precej pravilni (cikcak, smrekova vejica, trikotniki ^). Vrezani znaki na ostenju posode so na prostoru severno od Donave poznani v 5. st., na Madžarskem pa je posoda iz vasi Dör pripisana Langobardom.
Navedene primerjave, pa tudi datacija žage, omogočajo datacijo lonca v 5. st. Verjetnejša se zdi sicer datacija do sredine 5. st.
Drugo vprašanje je vprašanje izvora lonca. Prav keramika z glajenim ornamentom je v preteklosti večkrat služila za opredeljevanje etnične pripadnosti njenih uporabnikov - kot dokaz njihove "barbar-skosti" ali "rimskosti". Danes vse bolj kaže, da je impulz za ta okras prišel od barbarskih skupin, je pa potem izjemno hitro postal popularen tudi med provincialnorimskim prebivalstvom. Ravno obravnavani lonec kaže značilnosti obeh skupin. Oblika je sicer poznana že iz rimskega obdobja, prav tako je rimska izdelava na hitrem vretenu, okras pa kaže elemente, ki nimajo korenin v rimski tradiciji. Če sprejmemo tezo, da so glajen okras hitro sprejeli tudi staroselski prebivalci rimske Panonije, pa vrezi na ostenju in na dnu posode kažejo bolj na germanski prostor. Lonec je očitno posledica prevzemanja vplivov med rimskim prebivalstvom in novimi naseljenci, ki je pogosto in dobro dokumentirano predvsem na območju donavskega limesa. Zaradi tega intenzivnega prehajanja je etnična opredelitev uporabnikov večine najdb vprašljiva, kar velja tudi za obravnavani lonec.
Okoliščine najdbe kažejo, da je lonec prišel v rimski vodnjak v času, ko je bila v njem še voda. Vodnjak se je začel podirati šele potem, ko je ka-što in predmete v njej prekrila plast mulja, torej verjetno v času življenja rimskodobne stavbe ali kmalu po njeni opustitvi. To se je verjetno zgodilo v prvi polovici 5. st., saj je bila večina rimskih podeželskih naselbin na slovenskem ozemlju do sredine 5. st. že opuščenih (Ciglenečki 2000, 291, s tam citirano literaturo), posebej to velja za izjemno izpostavljeno območje brežiških vrat. Lonec je torej lahko pripadal še zadnjim prebivalcem bližnje stavbe ali pa že prišlekom z vzhoda.
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A pot with burnished decoration from a Roman period well near Dobova
Translation
INTRODUCTION
Research zeal drove our celebrant to numerous hilltop strongholds, from his native Kozjansko to the furthest refuges of the declining Roman Empire in Asia Minor, the Pyrenees, and North Africa. The collection of objects recently discovered in Dobova on the southern border of his beloved Polls Norikon includes a pot with burnished decoration, which again raises the problem of the dating and the connection with the ethnic identity of the users of such objects. Slavko Ciglenečki was the first to address this issue in Slovenia by analysing Late Roman material from Ptuj (Ciglenečki 1993). Later he again intensively dealt with this type of pottery when publishing results from the excavations at Tinje above Loka pri Žusmu (Ciglenečki 2000). We hope that the material presented here will aid Slavko in his further research into Late Roman migrations.
The objects presented here were discovered in September 2014 at the bottom of a Roman period well, found during the excavations preceding the construction of sports facilities for the primary school in Dobova.
The school in Dobova is built at the foot of the Sava River terrace. The playground is located south of the school, on plots nos.: 241/1, 241/4, 238/1, 237/5, 237/1, 234/1, 231, 230/1, 229/1, and 229/4 of the cadastral district Gabrje, with a surface area of 1.2 ha. The entire area is protected as the Archaeological Area of Dobova (Arheološko območje Dobova, EŠD 9804) due to numerous discoveries in its vicinity.
CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE DISCOVERY
The excavations around the primary school in Dobova1 investigated over one hectare of the prehistoric settlement with small wooden gable-roofed houses. Fireplaces and storage pits were
located alongside them, while waste pits were somewhat distant from the living quarters (Fig. 1). The majority of the settlement dates to the period of the Urnfield Culture (Plestenjak et al. 2014, 57). A wooden house stands out among the prehistoric buildings, for its postholes - unlike the postholes of other buildings - had stone wedges. The building (structure D) can be reconstructed into a square plan based on the lines of the postholes (approximately 14 x 14 m; Fig. 1). Considering the shape, it is possible that this was an atrium building. The floor was not preserved, but there was a fireplace inside. Remains of Roman tegulae were found inside several postholes, and one contained several pieces of amphorae that cannot be precisely identified. All of these enable the building to be dated to the Roman period.
Approximately 30 m northeast of this building a well was dug. It was 4 m deep and made of broken limestone. The bottom was covered with silt, while later the well filled up with rubble consisting of the stones from which it was initially built. Several layers of loose fills were deposited over the rubble (Fig. 2).
The silt preserved pieces of the wooden frame that formed the foundation of the stone rim. Radiocarbon dating of one of the deformed pieces of the wood frame dates the construction of the well to the 3rd or 4th centuries (Fig. 3).2 Three objects were found within this frame, among which an almost completely preserved pot is especially interesting (it is missing only a small part of the rim), which is decorated with burnished decoration and incisions on the body and the base of the vessel (Pl. 1: 1; Figs. 4-6). The pot was found lying on an iron clump that after cleaning and restoration proved to be the remains of bucket hoops (Pl. 2: 2-9). An iron saw was found next to them (Pl. 2: 1).3
1 The excavations were carried out between July and September 2014 under the supervision of Petra Vojakovic, Arhej d.o.o.
2	The dating was carried out by the Poznan Radiocarbon Laboratory: AD 171-194 (with 2.3 per cent probability); AD 211-383 AD (with 93.1 per cent probability).
3	As the iron finds were returned from the conservation just before this article was submitted, they are only approximately classified here, as the article deals primarily with the issues of burnished pottery and pottery with burnished decoration.
THE POT WITH BURNISHED DECORATION
The origin and chronology of burnished pottery and pottery with burnished decoration
The occurrence of burnished pottery and pottery with burnished decoration in the Late Roman period in the Pannonian provinces and its spread across Europe in the Migration period represents a phenomenon that is still the subject of discussion today (the last comprehensive overview in Vagalinski 2002).
Even though burnished pottery was known as early as in the La Tene and Early Roman periods in the territory of Roman Pannonia, the majority of authors today agree that there is no evidence for a direct continuity into the Late Roman period (Toth 2005, 378; Horvath 2011, 625; Harshegyi, Ottomanyi 2014, 500), yet these authors do vary in hypotheses as to how this pottery reoccurred and in terms of its dating.
As shown by a few early examples of burnished pottery, this type of pottery was known in Pannonia from the middle of the 3rd century onwards (Toth 2005, 373), but started to appear more frequently in the middle of the 4th century (Horvath 2011, 628; Ottomanyi 1989, 535; Harshegyi, Ottomanyi 2013, 501; Vagalinski 2002, 39; Bierbrauer 2011, 134). In the late 4th and early 5th centuries it became extremely popular in Pannonia and the neighbouring provinces.
Since decorating vessels by burnishing was continuously used from the La Tene period onwards by barbarian groups east and southeast of the Danube, where Roman influence failed to disrupt the tradition (Vagalinski 1997, 38-40; Toth 2005, 377-378; Horvath 2011, 626; Harshegyi, Ottomanyi 2013, 500), most of the authors connect the occurrence of this decoration in Roman Pannonia and its expansion with the arrival of new inhabitants from the east (Grünewald 1979, 78-79; Tejral 1985, 122-140; Toth 2005, 378; Rodriguez 1997, 154; Sedlmayer 2002, 314; Soproni 1978, 206; id 1985, 27-52; Vagalinski 2002, 83-84; ), while under their influence, this technique was supposedly taken over and such vessels were then produced by Roman pottery workshops (Friesinger, Kerchler 1981, 202-265). For the area of Moravia, Tejral presumed that the so-called 'foederati ware' (primarily one-handled jugs with burnished decoration) was manufactured from around AD 400 until the middle of the 5th century by local potters for Germanic settlers, while another type (the so-called pottery of the
Murga type) was made by barbarian workshops around the middle of the 5th century (Tejral 1985, 122-140, Figs. 13-18; id. 1988, 244).
In contrast to the thesis about the arrival of the burnishing technique in Pannonia along with the barbarians, K. Ottomanyi in her early works believed that this technique was widespread among the Roman population in Pannonia and that the neighbouring barbarians took it over from them later (Ottomanyi 1982, 110). More recently, she has stated that the development among the Late Roman population was indeed stimulated by the arrival of certain new ethnic groups, while the new decoration was then made in provincial Roman workshops on vessels of traditional Roman forms (Ottomanyi 1989, 535; Harshegyi, Ottomanyi 2013, 501). Only during the second development phase (last quarter of the 4th and beginning of the 5th centuries) were old vessel forms supposedly joined by a few new ones, for which models can be found in the east. Among these are biconical bowls and pots of the so-called Murga type, while motifs include wavy lines and zigzags in bands separated by ribs or grooves (Harshegyi, Ottomanyi 2013, 503).
Since pottery with burnished decoration was very popular at the end of the 4th century, its appearance was frequently connected to the so-called three-ethnic Hunnish-Gothic-Alanic group led by Alatheus and Saphrax (Grünewald 1979, 78-79; Soprony 1978, 206; id. 1985, 27-52), who after the Battle of Adrianople in AD 378 first raided the provinces of the central Danubian region up to the foothills of the Julian Alps (Bratož 2014, 312). In AD 398, they signed a treaty with the Romans and were awarded territory for settlement within the Empire. No source discusses the precise location of their settlement, thus different authors place them either in southern Pannonia (Savia, Pannonia Secunda: Wolfram 1990, 139) or in Valeria and Pannonia Prima (Bratož 2014, 313; Bierbrauer 2011, 116-117; Lotter, Bratož, Castritius 2005, 73). They played an important role in both wars of Theodosius, especially in the first one against Magnus Maximus (Bratož 2014, 312-314).
Ottomanyi denies a connection between burnished pottery and the three-ethnic group because this technique occurs in Pannonia considerably prior to AD 380, while at the same time it would be too widespread to be connected to only one foederati group (Ottomanyi 1982; ead. 1989, 531-536). Similar opinions are also held by Heinrich-Tamaska, Prohaszka (2008, 149), Horvath (2011, 628-630), and Bierbrauer. The latter discusses the problem
of archaeologically proving the presence of the three-ethnic group (Bierbrauer 2011, 136-137). In any case, after the settlement of this group in Pannonia an increase in popularity of this type of pottery and the introduction of some new forms can be noticed (Vagalinski 1997, 44; Sedlmayer 2002, 314; Horvath 2011, 627).
This decoration spread from Pannonia to other provinces. It was supposedly brought to Noricum by settlers from Pannonia after the reorganization in the Valentinian period. Pottery with burnished decoration appeared at the Mautern fortress at the end of period 5 (the middle of the 4th century), and it prevailed in period 6 (370/380-500) (Sedlmayer 2002, 313-315).
In the middle of the 5th century, burnishing was also adopted in southern Germany, inspired by influences from the east (Gross 1992, 314-316; Bemmann 2008, 174) especially on the forms of Roman terra nigra, which due to the refined fabric and reduced firing was very appropriate for such a decoration (Gross 1992, 314-315). Some forms from the east were also adopted that are unknown to the classical terra nigra (e. g. jugs of the Murga type, Gross 1992, Fig. 3). The general development of burnished vessels in southern Germany in the 5th century indicates such strong eastern impulses that even settlers from the east represent a possibility. Vessels with burnished decoration do not persist in Germany beyond the year 500, when under Frankish influence they are replaced by vessels with stamped decoration (Gross 1992, 319).
In the first half of the 6th century, burnished decoration is adopted by the Lombards after their crossing of the Danube; they develop it further on their own vessel forms (Bona, Horvath 2008, 195; Friesinger, Kerchler 1981, 261-263, Figs. 34-44). In this period pottery with burnished decoration appears both on vessels made on the fast potter's wheel and on hand-made vessels, and is frequent both in settlements as well as in graves (Tejral 2005, 157-160; Bona, Horvath 2008, 195). Biconical forms remain in use and are joined by pear-shaped jugs and jugs with a spout, while burnishing is joined by stamped decoration (Tejral 2005, 157; Bona, Horvath 2008, 195; Bocsi 2011, Fig. 15).
The Lombards retained this pottery practically unchanged even after their migration to Italy (Vitali 1999; de Marchi 2007, 285-286; Bona, Horvath 2009, 195-196).
Burnished pottery and pottery with burnished decoration in Slovenia
(Fig. 7)
Burnished pottery and pottery with burnished decoration on the territory of present-day Slovenia are mostly connected to the presence of the Lombards (Knific 1994, 219; Sagadin 2008, 97). Nevertheless, S. Ciglenečki (1993, 509) and T. Knific (1994, 219) pointed out that some of the finds are earlier and cannot be linked to the arrival of the Lombards. These include a jug from the cemetery in Drnovo (Knific 1994, Figs. 16, 17), two jugs from the cemetery at Zgornji Breg in Ptuj (Curk 1966, Figs. 2: 11, 3: 3; Ciglenečki
1993,	509), a jug from Rifnik (Knific 1994, Fig. 3: 5; Knific, Tomanič Jevremov 1996, Fig. 8), and a bowl from Ajdovski gradec above Vranje (Knific
1994,	Fig. 3: 1). Several jugs from Kranj can be added to these (Sagadin 2008, Pls. 1: 11; 2: 6,7; 17: 3; 24: 5; 46: 5,6), along with two jugs from Ančnikovo Gradišče above Jurišna vas (Strmčnik Gulič, Ciglenečki 2003, Fig. 25, Pl. 6: 1,2)4, and two jugs from Kosoveli in the Vipavska dolina (Knific, Žbona Trkman 2011, Figs. 7: 1,2; 8).
Pear-shaped one-handled jugs with burnished decoration, mostly in the form of diagonal lines, and sometimes also lattice-shaped (e.g. the jug from Kosoveli; Fig. 8), are a frequent form among the Late Roman material in Pannonia and the neighbouring provinces (Ottomanyi 1982, VII, 7-8; Friesinger, Kerchler 1981, Fig. 57, form 2-3; Harshegyi, Ottomanyi 2013, 502). Decoration in the form of burnished lines or bands covers the majority of the vessel without being bordered by horizontal ribs or grooves. In Pannonia, such jugs were mostly found in the contexts of Late Roman cemeteries and forts and are dated from the middle to the end of the 4th century (Harshegyi, Ottomanyi 2013, 502). In Slovenia, this group includes jugs from cemeteries in Neviodunum, Zgornji Breg in Ptuj, and Kosoveli. Their approximate dating to the 4th century also applies to the Slovenian examples. The Late Roman cemetery at Zgornji Breg is dated to the late 4th and early 5th centuries (Ciglenečki 1993, 507-509), while the cemetery at Kosoveli is dated to the second half of the 4th century (Knific, Žbona Trkman 2011, 44).
4 Some fragments (at least two jugs) of the pottery with burnished decoration were also found during the excavations at Ančnikovo gradišče in 2015 (unpublished).
The bowl from Ajdovski gradec above Vranje (Knific 1994, Pl. 3: 1) was dated to the end of the 4th and the beginning of the 5th century on the basis of the stratigraphic situation, since it was found in a waste pit beneath a Late Roman house together with material from the end of the 4th and beginning of the 5th centuries (Knific 1994, 215, 219). The finds from Ančnikovo gradišče can also be classified - considering the dating of the settlement - to the 4th or the beginning of the 5th centuries (Strmčnik Gulič, Ciglenečki 2003, 31).
S. Ciglenečki pointed out that certain finds from Tinje above Loka pri Žusmu (Ciglenečki 2000, Pl. 9: 7; 12: 5,8) could be earlier than the 6th century, and thus would not belong to the group of Lombard pottery, as do the majority of other vessels with burnished decoration from this site (Ciglenečki 2000, 58, t. 9: 7; 12: 5,8). The example (Ciglenečki 2000, Pl. 12: 8) could belong to the above-mentioned group of jugs, but it is too poorly preserved for a more reliable definition. The bowl (Ciglenečki 2000, Pl. 9: 7) has analogies primarily among the material from military camps along the Danube. Similar bowls appear at the fort of Mautern in the last third of the 4th and in the 5th centuries (Sedlmayer 2002, Pl. 32: 538; 34: 605; 40: 728), and they were also found at Carnuntum (Grünewald 1979, Pl. 73: 1-3; 74: 9).
Other examples of pottery with burnished decoration from Slovenia are mostly attributed to the Lombards and dated to their Pannonian phase (Knific 1994, 219; Ciglenečki 2000, 58; Sa-gadin 2008, 96-97). So far they are known form the Late Antiquity hilltop settlements of Ajdovski gradec above Vranje (Knific 1994, Fig. 2: 1), Rifnik (Knific 1994, Figs. 3: 5-8; 4: 1), Tinje above Loka pri Žusmu (Ciglenečki 2000, Pl. 12: 4-6), Puštal above Trnje (Ciglenečki 2005, Fig. 2: 7), and from Kranj (Mestna hiša: Knific 1994, Pl. 4: 2; - id. 2001, 78, cat. no. 252; Kieselstein Castle: Knific 1994, Pl. 4: 3; - Sagadin 2008, Pl. 12: 10; Glavni trg 2: Sagadin 2008, Pl. 24: 14-16; Pl. 43: 8; Prešernova 12: id. Pl. 46: 5,6).
The pot from Dobova
(Pl. 1: 1; Figs. 5,6)
The pot (rim diameter 11 cm, height 22.5 cm) is made of grey fired clay. The colour in its interior is light grey, while the surface is black, which indicates pottery fired at low temperatures and exposed to a strong reduction atmosphere (smoke).
Isolated large pieces of orange colour that are also visible on the vessel surface were mixed into the clay. The surface is relatively coarse.
The pot has a slanting everted rim, curved neck, globular body, and very slightly curved base. It was made on a fast potter's wheel. The surface is slightly concave in the lower part of the vessel -this was probably a deformation made when lifting the pot from the potter's wheel.
The surface of the shoulders, rim and body is burnished. After firing, a lattice decoration was polished (most likely with metal tool) into the burnished surface, which is bordered by two horizontal grooves.5
There is also an incision on the largest circumference that cannot be recognised either as a figure or a letter, but this is still not considered a random mark.
Marks are visible also on the vessel base in the form of an irregular hatched circle, with another circle in the centre representing the impression of the axis of the potter's wheel. Fairly deep circular lines are visible along the edge of the base, which are typical traces of small pebbles - probably left as a tempering agent in the clay or large granulation impurities. These can also be noticed in the bottom part of the vessel's wall. Such traces are made when the surface is burnished with a sharp straight tool, probably a potter's knife. It is not clear if the hatched circle was created accidentally when forming the surface of the base,6 or if it represents a deliberate decoration, but marks on the base of vessels in the Late Roman period were common.
There are no good parallels for this vessel in the vicinity. Until now such a form in combination with the burnished and incised decoration has been unknown in Slovenia.
Generally, pots are a frequent find among the Late Roman burnished pottery in Pannonia in the second half of the 4th and in the beginning of the 5th centuries. Ottomanyi cites pots with horizontally everted rims as one of the leading types among the material from military camps along the Danube bend, while they are supposedly much more rare at civilian settlements (Ottomanyi 2009, 171). Many were found at the site of Pilismarot-Malompatak (Ottomanyi 1996, Figs. 11-15). Their shape differs from the shape
5	Sincere thanks are due to Igor Bahor from Topolšica for his suggestions regarding the manufacturing of the vessel and the decoration.
6	This is the opinion of the potter Igor Bahor.
of the Dobova pot, as they are mostly pots with a short everted rim that descends directly, without a neck, into a steep shoulder (Ottomanyi 1996, Figs. 11-12), as well as forms with a thickened rim (Ottomanyi 1996, Figs. 13-15) (Fig. 9: 1,2). All the pots are richly decorated with various burnished motifs in several bands (lattice, wavy line, spruce branch, zigzag). Pots from the nearby settlement of Budaörs (Ottomanyi 2009, Fig. 6: 1-3) have similar shapes and decoration. Both sites are dated to the last third of the 4th and the beginning of the 5th centuries, thus in the period of the second phase of Pannonian burnished pottery, when typical Roman forms were joined by new forms and decoration (Ottomanyi 2009, 159-160; Harshegyi, Ottomany 2013, 503).
Pots with burnished decoration are also frequent among the settlement and funerary pottery at Mautern (Sedlmayer 2002, Pls. 38: 694; 41: 759; 45: 871; 46: 903; - Pollak 1993, Pls. 46: 3/1; 48: 7/3). They were also found at Carnuntum (Grünewald 1979, Pls. 79-82), where one example had a form very similar to the pot from Dobova (Grünewald 1979, Pl. 79: 1), even though the pot from Car-nuntum is decorated by burnished bands and not with lattice decoration (Fig. 10).
The closest in form and burnished decoration to the pot from Dobova is a pot from the Late Roman fort of Zoida in Bulgaria (Vagalinski 2002, 131, G 288) (Fig. 11). Several other pots of a similar kind were also found at the site (Vagalinski 2002, G 287, G 289-291). The form would be foreign to the local Roman manufacturing and the author links it to Barbarian (Eastern Germanic) groups, while its models can be sought in the material of the Chernyakhov Culture from the second half of the 4th century onwards (Vagalinski 2002, 131). The author connects the appearance of this decoration with the Germanic group stationed in the fort, probably in the 6th century (possibly refugee Gepids; Vagalinski 2002, 73), although analogies for similar pots in the Balkans are known as early as from the beginning of the 5th century.
In addition to burnished decoration, the pot from Dobova also has an incised mark on the body and on the base. A combination of burnishing with incised marks is in Slovenia known only from Drnovo, where a triangle is incised on a jug decorated with vertical burnished bands (Knific, Žbona Trkman 2011, Fig. 9: 4).
On the other hand, the combination of burnished decoration and marks (burnished or incised) is frequent in Pannonia.
At the site Pilismarot-Malompatak, a pot was found where the burnished letters ABCD appear in a band together with burnished lattice decoration (Fig. 12). The author cites the letters as a proof of the provincial Roman character of the site in the middle of the 5th century (Ottomanyi 1996, 111, Fig. 13: 18).
The neck of the biconical bowl from the settlement of Zamardi on Lake Balaton is decorated with a burnished lattice decoration, while above it on the outer rim is a band of geometrical figures separated by vertical burnished lines (Bocsi 2011, Pl. 1: 1) (Fig. 13). The large settlement, where 28 pit-dwellings and a significant amount of other settlement remains were excavated, already existed in the Late Roman period (end of the 4th and first half of the 5th centuries), while it reached the greatest prosperity during the time from the second half of the 5th to the middle of the 6th centuries (Bocsi 2008, 415, 428, Fig. 14). The settlement would represent a model for the process of acculturization between the Late Roman and Germanic inhabitants, since Romans continued to live at this site even after the arrival of the Lombards (Bocsi 2008, 428).
Incised marks (not in combination with burnishing) on the walls are also known in the Germanic environment of the 5th century, e.g. on a handmade bowl from a grave at the site of Jirice in the Czech Republic, where the neck of the bowl is decorated with a band of geometrical motifs (squares, semicircles, circles, herringbones, etc.) (Fig. 14: 1), and on a pot from the village of Libotenice (Bocsi 2008, 113, Pl. 1: 6-7).
Incised marks also appear on the handmade bowl found in a grave attributed to the Lombards near the village of Dör in Hungary (Bona 1956, 194, Pl. 62: 3; Bocsi 2011, Pl. 1: 4,5), where the body of the vessel was decorated with two types of figural and geometrical motifs (Fig. 14: 2), The decoration was made on the handmade bowl, the kind that draws its tradition from the Laba region. As the Lombards soon after their arrival started to produce their pottery on the quick wheel in the still active Roman workshops (Bona, Horvath 2009, 194-195), this was probably the period soon after the beginning of the 6th century.
Bowls from the sites of Jirice, Libotenice, and Dör differ significantly from the previously discussed examples in terms of the handmade manufacture and fairly irregular decoration.
Marks on the base are frequent on Late Roman and Early Medieval vessels. In the Late Roman
period, they are most frequent and diverse in the area of the northern Danubian limes, where they appear in settlement layers as well as at burials (Lusuardi Siena, Negri 2007, 186-187, Pls. 1; 3-5). Relief marks predominate, but incised ones also appear. Incised marks appeared in Germania from the Early Empire onwards (Pollak 1993, 64-65; Lusuardi Siena, Negri 2007, 187), continuing until the end of the 6th century (Lusuardi Siena, Negri 2007, 187). The majority of examples from the territory of the northern Danubian limes belong to the period from the end of the 4th and the 5th centuries (collected in Lusuardi Siena, Negri 2007, Pl. 2). The swastika prevails among the incised marks, while incised circles, crosses (individual or in a circle), and letter symbols (monograms) also appear (o.c. 187, n. 31-33; Pollak 1993, 64-65, n. 238-239). Incised marks would supposedly represent an ornament foreign to Roman taste (Lusuardi Siena, Negri 2007, 187), which began to be used under the influence of Germanic immigrants on provincial Roman vessel forms as well.
The other area where marks on vessel bases are frequent is the region of the southeastern Alps and the northern Adriatic, where they are mostly known from settlements. They started to appear in the 5th century and are more frequent in 6th century layers (Rodriguez 1997, Pls. 3: 29; 10: 96,98; Lusuardi Siena, Negri 2007, 185; Ladstätter 2000, 157; Modrijan 2011, 203-204). Ribbed decoration is prevalent in this area.
IRON SAW
In addition to the small pot, the blade of an iron saw was also found in the well (Pl. 2: 1). Its preserved length is 27 cm and its width is 5.8 cm. Neither of its ends is preserved; nevertheless, according to its blade width it can be assumed that the saw was fastened to its frame by rivets (Božič 2005, 311-313, Fig. 211). These saws have a blade width between 4.8 and 5.9 cm and their length is up to 70 cm (o.c., 313), while the bow saws are narrower - with a width of about 3 cm and a length of up to 50 cm (Hanemann 2014, 363).
Iron saws are frequent finds at Roman sites from the Trajanic period onwards and are especially frequent in the period between the end of the 4th and the second half of the 5th centuries (Božič 2005, 311-313, with analogies listed there), to wich e.g. finds from the hoard from the fortress in Osterburken (Henning 1985, 590) and the first
hoard from Gora above Polhov Gradec also belong (Božič 2005, 356).
BUCKET
Three iron bands were also found in the well (Pl. 2: 2-9) that represent the hoops of a wooden bucket. These are probably remains of two hoops and considering their angle, we can presume that the bucket was slightly conical.
CONCLUSION
This find raises several questions. The first concerns the dating of the pot, or when it entered the well. Then there is the question of the pot's origin, and the question of whether it accidentally fell into the well or was deposited there intentionally. The relation between the pot and the saw is also unclear - did they enter the well at the same time or did no connection exist between the two? Furthermore, the relation between the Roman period wooden building and the well is also questionable - it is not clear whether the building and the well were in use at the same time or if the building was already abandoned.
Analogies for the pot indicate a fairly wide spatial and temporal frame. Considering the technique of the lattice decoration, the pot probably cannot be older than the end of the 4th or the beginning of the 5th centuries, since the lattice decoration is already delimited by horizontal grooves, which is characteristic for the second phase of Pannonian burnished pottery, dated to the middle of the 5th century. The majority of incised marks on the base known from the area of the northern Danubian limes are also dated from the end of the 4th and the beginning of the 5th centuries.
Marks on the walls of vessels also appear in the first half of the 5th century, especially at Hungarian sites. Most marks were made by burnishing, while the motifs and shapes are fairly regular (zigzag, spruce branch, triangles, etc.). Incised marks on vessel walls in the area north of the Danube are known from the 5th century, while in Hungary the vessel from the village of Dör is attributed to the Lombards.
The above comparisons and the dating of the saw enable us to date the pot to the 5th century AD. A date to the middle of the 5th century seems more probable.
The second question regards the pot's origin. It was specifically pottery with burnished decoration that often in the past served to define the ethnic identity of its users - as proof of their 'barbarian' or 'Roman' identity . Today it is becoming increasingly clear that the impulse for this decoration came from barbaric groups, but later it very quickly also became popular among provincial Roman inhabitants. The discussed pot shows characteristics of both groups. While the form was already known in the Roman period and production using the fast wheel is also a Roman characteristic, the decoration reveals elements that do not have roots in the Roman tradition. If we accept the thesis that the burnished decoration was quickly adopted by the autochthonous population of Roman Pan-nonia, the incised marks on the wall and base of the vessel point more to Germanic territory. The pot is obviously the result of mingling influences among Roman inhabitants and new settlers, which is frequently and extensively documented, especially in the area of the Danubian limes. Due to this intensive transition, the ethnic definition of those who used the majority of objects is questionable and this also holds true for the discussed pot.
The circumstances of the find indicate that the pot entered the Roman period well during the period when there was still water in it. The well began to fall apart only after the objects in it were covered by a layer of silt, hence most likely during
the time when the building from Roman period was inhabited or immediately after its abandonment. This probably happened sometime in the first half of the 5th century because most of the Roman rural settlements in Slovenia were abandoned by the middle of the 5th century (Ciglenečki 2000, 291, and the works cited there), which is especially true for the extremely exposed area of Brežiška vrata ('the Brežice Gate'). Therefore, the pot could either belong to the last inhabitants of the nearby building or to newcomers from the east.
Translation: Maja Sužnik
Zvezdana Modrijan
Znanstvenoraziskovalni center SAZU
Inštitut za arheologijo
Novi trg 2
SI-1000 Ljubljana
zvezdana.modrijan@zrc-sazu.si
Matjaž Novšak Arhej d. o. o. Drožanjska cesta 23 8290 Sevnica arhejdoo@siol.net
T. 1: Dobova. Keramika. M. = 1:2. Pl. 1: Dobova. Pottery. Scale = 1:2.
T. 2: Dobova. 1-9 železo; 3 železo in les. M. = 1:3. Pl. 2: Dobova. 1-9 iron; 3 iron and wood. Scale. = 1:3.