84 Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, ISSN 1318-2269  Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 1, 84–102 (2006)
Janusz Iskra1* 
Milan Čoh2
A REVIEW OF BIOMECHANICAL 
STUDIES IN HURDLE RACES
PREGLED BIOMEHANSKIH 
RAZISKAV TEKA ČEZ OVIRE
Abstract
Hurdle runs belong to that group of track and field 
events in which superb performance is achieved by 
combining motor preparation with a champion’s 
hurdle technique. The technique of the hurdle run not 
only involves clearing ten hurdles but also running 
prior to the first hurdle and running between the other 
hurdles. The aim of this study is to introduce the range 
of hurdle biomechanical investigations. Kinematic 
analysis constitutes the broadest range of studies in the 
field of biomechanics. Kinematic studies are commonly 
ranked in the following three categories: continual 
studies, cross-section studies, and comparative studies. 
Most studies in the field of the kinematics of hurdling 
concern sprint events, especially men’s 110 m hurdles. 
The limited focus on 400 m hurdles can be attributed to 
the specificity of the event. Many biomechanical studies 
are composed of speedometric and accelerometric 
researches. Among biomechanical studies of hurdling an 
essential part is played by analysis that takes advantage 
of a dynamographic method. An electromiographic 
method is rarely used in the biomechanical studies of 
hurdlers. The future of biomechanical studies of hurdling 
is seen as moving in the direction of complex studies and 
comprehensive research programmes. These studies not 
only involve various methods of biomechanical analysis 
but information is also derived from other fields of 
sports and exercise such as physiology, the biochemistry 
of exercise or the theory of sports training.
Key words: hurdle runs, biomechanics, kinematics, 
dynamographics, accelerometrics.
1University School of Physical Education, University of 
Katowice, Poland
2Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
*Corresponding author:
University School of Physical Education
Ul. Mikolowska 72A, 40065 Katowice, Poland
Tel.: +4832 2075371
Fax: +4832 2075100
E-mail: j.iskra@awf.katowice.pl
Izvleček
Teki čez ovire spadajo v skupino atletskih disciplin, pri 
katerih odlična izvedba združuje motorično pripravo in 
vrhunsko tehniko teka čez ovire. Tehnika teka čez ovire 
ne obsega le premagovanja desetih ovir, temveč tudi tek 
pred prvo oviro in tek med ostalimi ovirami. Namen te 
raziskave je predstaviti zbirko biomehanskih raziskav 
teka čez ovire. Kinematične raziskave so običajno 
razvrščene v naslednje tri kategorije: kontinuitetne, 
medsekcijske in komparativne raziskave. Največje 
število raziskav s področja kinematike teka čez ovire 
obravnava sprinterske discipline, in sicer predvsem 
tek čez ovire na 110 metrov za moške. Zaradi svoje 
specifičnosti, je manjše pozornosti deležen tek čez 
ovire na 400 metrov. Veliko število biomehanskih študij 
sestavljajo študije preučevanja hitrosti in pospeškov. 
Bistvenega pomena pri biomehanskih študijah tekov čez 
ovire je analiza, ki temelji na dinamografski metodi. 
Elektromiografska metoda je v biomehanskih študijah 
tekov čez ovire redko uporabljena. V prihodnosti 
pričakujemo, da bodo biomehanske raziskave tekov 
čez ovire postale del kompleksnih študij in izčrpnih 
raziskovalnih programov. Te raziskave ne vključujejo le 
različnih metod biomehanske analize, temveč ponujajo 
tudi podatke, ki izhajajo iz drugih športnih in vadbenih 
področij kot so na primer fiziologija, biokemija vadbe ali 
teorija športnega treniranja.
Ključne besede: tek čez ovire, biomehanika, kinematika, 
dinamografija, merjenje pospeškov
Biomechanical studies in hurdle races 85Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 1, 84–102 (2006)
INTRODUCTION
Hurdle runs constitute a group of four track and field events divided into high hurdles i.e. 
100-m hurdling sprints (women) or 110-m hurdling sprints (men) and intermediate hurdles 
(400-m). The tradition of male hurdle runs dates back to the second half of the 19th century, 
whereas with women it dates back to the 1920s (Quercetani, 1990). In each stage of its develop-
ment the event was regarded as a set of closely connected motor skills and technical abilities. 
From among those studies dealing with the theory and practice of hurdling, it is difficult to 
sort out which factors play a decisive role in achieving success. In most studies it is pointed out 
that what matters is the complementary development of motor skills (speed, endurance and 
strength) and the technique of clearing ten hurdles (Doherty, 1953; Hoke, 1943; McFarlane, 
1988; Otrubiannikow & Razumowski, 1988; Webster, 1929).
The hurdling technique has usually been described as a way of clearing ten hurdles of 84 to 
107cm in height. Obviously, in the evaluation of a hurdle clearance technique one must indicate 
its particular phases such as: starting out of the blocks and coming to the first hurdle, running 
between the hurdles, and finishing or coming out of the last hurdle. Hurdling or, to express it 
more precisely, hurdle clearing is a kind of complex motion of a dynamic character presented 
in physics textbooks as a classic example of applying the laws of physics to sport (Czistiakow 
& Brejzer, 1971; Dyson, 1970; Ecker, 1971; Schwirtz, 1990).
Hurdle-clearance techniques
The first attempts at evaluating hurdle-clearance techniques involved an analysis of single 
pictures or a sequence of frames. This primary stage of kinematic analysis was combined with 
experts’ opinions. The very first analysis of hurdle clearance was conducted by Montaque 
Sherman. This outstanding sprinter, and later in his life an eminent lawyer and sports activist 
(Lovesey, 1980), carried out an estimation of the hurdling technique after the first match in the 
history of athletics (Sherman, 1888). In spite of his lack of research experience, he managed 
very pertinently to distinguish the style differences in the four competing hurdlers. Those 
initial analyses of hurdling were continued by Boyd Comstock (1924) and Frederick Webster 
(1929). The former would depict the technique of Alfred Copland – the best American hurdler 
of the 1890s, whereas the latter focused attention on the characteristic style of hurdle clearance 
displayed by the harbinger of English hurdling A.C.M. Croom from Oxford (Webster, 1929). 
Croom was the first hurdler to introduce the classical hurdle-clearance style: an extended lead 
leg (in the knee articulation) and a three-stride rhythm pattern.
Estimating the hurdling technique by means of single photographs has constituted the basis for 
the development of this event throughout history (Kolejwa, 1961; Koszewski, 1990; Quercetani, 
1990). Yet this simplest method of hurdling estimation has not been entirely dismissed. Over 
40 pages of the Italian periodical ‘Atleticastudi’ a detailed analysis of the hurdle technique 
in the 100-m and 110-m hurdles was presented with the aid of frames showing hurdlers at 
various competition levels (Bedini, 1988).
However, the analysis of hurdling techniques by means of single frames was merely an 
introduction to more precise and complex studies. They became feasible with the develop-
ment of a kinematographic method at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, which enabled 
kinograms to be worked out. According to a historical analysis by A. Cappozzo concerning 
86 Biomechanical studies in hurdle races Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 1, 84–102 (2006) 
the development of kinematography for the needs of physical culture, the most significant 
studies involving the investigating of gait and running were conducted by French national 
E. J. Da Marey and Californian E. Mugbridge (Cappozzo, 1985). Taking the comprehensive 
study by J. D. Wilkerson into account it might be concluded that the key player in developing 
the kinematographic (motion picture) method was Ruth Glassow (in the scope of P. E.) and 
Thomas Cureton (Wilkerson, 1997).
It was Cureton who, using the motion picture method, worked out the mechanics of many 
a sports discipline including track-and-field athletics (Cureton, 1939). However, the greatest 
impact as regards the use of kinematic analysis (in this case sprint running) was made by the 
American scientist Wallance Fenn. In 1929, his first article concerning biomechanics appeared 
in a scientific magazine (Fenn, 1929). In collaboration with the Eastman Kodak Company, 
Fenn used motion pictures to estimate velocity, kinematic energy and strength (Wilkerson, 
1997). It is difficult to say when the very first kinogram of hurdling was elaborated. In the 1950s 
and 1960s kinograms of hurdlers were rife in many a textbook on the theory of sport. In 1951 
the publishing company of the Chief Committee for Physical Culture introduced kinograms 
of the best Polish and Soviet hurdlers in several-page leaflets (Kolejwa, 1961). The estimation of 
the hurdle technique exclusively by means of kinograms was introduced by Tony and Elfriede 
Nett in 1968. 15 kinograms in the 110-m hurdles, 11 kinograms in the men’s 400-m hurdles 
and 8 in the women’s 80m hurdles were presented in a 62-page study (Nett & Nett, 1969). 
The significance of motion pictures in hurdle technique analysis is still being appreciated by 
many authors. In the 110-m hurdles particular attention should be paid to the kinograms of 
Olympic champions, World and European champions as well as world-record holders (Brejzer 
& Kajtmazowa, 1979; Buffault, 1979; Hommel, 1985, 1988; Hommel & Arnold, 1993). Motion 
pictures in the area of women’s 100m hurdles have been analysed by Hommel and Veron (1991), 
whereas in the scope of 400-m hurdling that has been done by Susanka (1993), Brejzer (1986), 
as well as Hommel and Schmidt (1990). Only in exceptional cases were superior performers not 
taken into consideration. Oberbeck (1972) and Artiuszenko and Bieglecow (1975) presented the 
kinograms of children performing hurdle runs. In the light of hurdle technique alterations it 
is crucial to investigate motion pictures regularly (periodically). Such a comparative analysis 
of the world-record holder C. Jackson, covering his competitive period from 1986 to 1994, 
was made by Hommel (1995). 
Kinematic structure of hurdling
Analyses of the kinematic structure of hurdling constitute the largest group of biomechanical 
studies in this event. When starting a vast programme of biomechanical studies of hurdlers, 
Grimshow et al. (Grimshow, Marar, Salo, Logden, & Vernon, 1994) divided kinematic analysis 
into three categories: cross sectional, longitudinal and comparative. 
Comparative studies deal with selected groups of hurdlers – the higher the level of hurdling 
performance, the smaller the number of subjects. In this group of biomechanical analysis, 
investigation sessions take place only at one time and the possibilities of fully exploiting them 
are limited. Obviously, long-term (longitudinal) studies that cover a few research sessions are 
more useful. 
The small number of this kind of analysis stems from arrangement difficulties. Gathering 
a group of hurdlers for a few consecutive sessions (sometimes on a yearly basis) creates the 
Biomechanical studies in hurdle races 87Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 1, 84–102 (2006)
chief obstacle that is in principle impossible to overcome. Such an enterprise failed even in the 
widely-conducted studies of Mann (1985) and Grimshaw, Marar, Salo, Logden, and Vernon 
(1994). However, thanks to the possibility of co-operating with the Polish National Team of 
hurdlers Iskra managed to investigate several years of alterations of the kinematic parameters 
of the hurdle stride in the best 110-m hurdlers (Iskra & Bacik, 1997) and 400-m hurdlers (Iskra, 
2001; Iskra & Bacik, 1999). 
A considerable amount of kinematic studies consists of comparative analyses. In that group 
of studies, hurdlers of different sports levels are mainly investigated (Iliew & Dimitrow, 1978; 
Kampmiller, Slamka, & Vanderka, 1999; Marar & Grimshaw, 1994; Shi, 1998). One frequently 
encounters analyses of kinematic parameters comparing female hurdlers with their male 
counterparts (McDonald & Dapena, 1991a, 1991b; Mero & Luhtanen, 1986; Salo & Grim-
shaw, 1998; Salo, Grimshaw, & Marar, 1997; Salo, Grimshaw, & Viitasalo,1997). However, the 
abovementioned way of analysis is often disputable mainly due to the differences in hurdle 
competition rules between men and women (for instance, a 23cm difference in the height 
of the hurdle). Studies comparing hurdling with sprinting have two aims. First, they allow 
finding out to what extent hurdling can be regarded as sprint running. Second, they give 
practical advice on what the hurdler’s run should look like so that their velocity can become 
comparable to the sprinter’s velocity (Godik, Szalmanow, & Poltarapawlow, 1993; Ito, 1997; 
McDonald, 2002; McLean, 1994).
From among the four hurdle events, greatest interest in those studies involving biomechanics 
has been paid to 110-m hurdles (Godik, Szalmanow, & Poltarapawlow, 1993; Iliew & Dimitrow, 
1978; Iliew & Primakow, 1978a, 1978b; Iskra, Bacik, & Krol, 1998; LaFortune, 1987; Miskos, 
1988; Peltola, 1996; Ren, Niug, & Yang 1998; Salo, Peltola, & Viitasalo 1993; Schlüter, 1981; 
Steben, 1985; Tsarouchas, Papadopoulos, Kalamaras, & Giavroglu 1993; Ward & India, 1982; 
Wilimczik, 1972). This is most likely connected with a certain convenience of a technical 
nature because the event is run along a straight line (which makes filming easier). In fact, 
the same observation might be made as regards women’s 100-m hurdles. The main authors 
investigating this area have been: McInnis (1982), Kollath (1983), Li (1990a), Rash, Garrett, 
& Voisin (1990), Čoh & Dolenec (1996), Salo & Grimshaw (1996), Čoh, Kastelic, & Pintarič 
(1998), and others.
As far as the kinematic structure of motion is concerned the 400m hurdles event is much less 
frequently investigated. The inconvenience of carrying out investigations mostly results from 
the special character of the event. In contrast to the 100 and 110m hurdles, 400-m hurdles 
is also performed around curves making filming particularly demanding. Moreover, what 
from the organisational point of view constitutes a decisive factor; incrementing fatigue in 
the second part of the distance makes the precise pre-determination of the lead leg dubious 
(Iskra, 2001). Thus, the kinematic parameters of male hurdlers over the whole distance are 
rarely assessed (Kaufmann, 1976; Röll, 1976); simulated fragments are much more frequently 
used (Iskra & Bacik, 1999; Iskra, Bacik, & Krol, 1998; Schwirtz, 1990). Further, in that respect 
women’s 400-m hurdles is completely devoid of investigation.
In classifying kinematic studies of hurdle events one must clearly take the range of movement 
into account. It usually includes the hurdle step or hurdle clearance i.e. the phase of movement 
from the take-off prior to the hurdle to the touch-down after the hurdle. Performing this 
4-m section of the event is frequently associated with the hurdling technique, which seems 
88 Biomechanical studies in hurdle races Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 1, 84–102 (2006) 
to be a highly erroneous view. The benefit of such a narrowed analysis is its simplicity and 
considerable accuracy. Yet a more serious challenge is confronted by those studies involving 
the so-called rhythmic unit. It is comprised of the hurdle stride and three strides between the 
hurdles. The most frequently conducted analysis concerns 100m and 110m hurdles with three 
strides between the hurdles (landing, recovery and preparation). This type of study has been 
carried out by Iliew and Primakow (1978a, 1978b), Iliew and Dimitrow (1978), McDonald and 
Dapena (1991a, 1991b), McDonald (2002) and many others. 
There is a scarcity of papers concerning the kinematic structure of the first part of hurdling, 
namely the strides prior to the first hurdle (McInnis, 1982; Rash, Garrett and Voisin, 1990). 
There is also a lack of studies focusing on the start out of the blocks. To date this area of 
kinematic studies has been limited to sprint runs. Successful complex studies (going into the 
first hurdle, hurdle clearance and hurdle strides) have been conducted in Ljubljana (Čoh & 
Dolenec, 1996; Čoh, Kastelic, & Pintarič, 1998). However, they only involved a single case of 
an Olympic vice-champion in the women’s 100-m hurdles. 
The significance of the results of kinematic structure analysis results from a judicial selection 
of subject hurdlers. In that respect, one must take into consideration both the number of 
subjects and their levels of performance. Arranging a sizeable group of elite hurdlers is usually 
impossible. It is the consequence of the special character of their training involving frequent 
sports camps and the individualisation of elite hurdlers’ preparations (Iskra, 2001). Bearing 
this in mind, an analysis of individual cases is often undertaken with reference to superb hurdle 
performers (Čoh & Dolenec, 1996; Iskra & Bacik, 1999; Iskra, Bacik, & Krol, 2000; Li, 1990a, 
1990b; Ren, Niug, & Yang, 1998; Tsarouchas, Papadopoulos, Kalamaras, & Giavroglu, 1993). 
Such analysis might prove to be very significant in practice on the condition that it is repeated 
regularly. Taking into account the number of subjects from 2 to 6, sport biomechanists restrict 
themselves to presenting individual marks (two subjects – LaFortune (1987), Rash, Garrett, 
and Voisin (1990), Marar and Grimshaw (1994), Kampmiller, Slamka, and Vanderka (1999), 
four subjects – Salo and Grimshaw (1998), Čoh and Kampmiller (2001), or nine subjects – Salo 
and Grimshaw (1996). A greater number of subjects allows the averaging of the results: Iliew 
and Primakow (1978a, 1978b) – 38 male hurdlers, Iwkin, Jegorow, and Žukow (1987) – 23 male 
hurdlers and 9 female ones, Godik, Szalmanow, and Poltorapawlow (1993) – 10 male hurdlers, 
Iskra (2001) – 15 male hurdlers. The information concerning the numbers of subject hurdlers 
in selected studies is presented in Table 1.
The drawing of final conclusions is dictated by the performance level of the subject hurdlers. 
The best hurdlers in Europe and the world were investigated by Iliew and Dimitrow (1978); 
Iliew and Primakow (1978a, 1978b) as well as Mero and Luthanen (1984, 1986).
Most sport biomechanists analyse the technique of home runners, frequently those of out-
standing performance. McDonald and Dapena succeeded in working out a kinematical model 
of hurdling on the basis of participants at the 1988 American Olympic trials (McDonald, 2002; 
McDonald & Dapena, 1991a, 1991b). British hurdlers were examined extensively by a team 
consisting of staff members like, among others, Paul Grimshaw and Leith Marar (Grimshaw, 
1997; Marar & Grimshaw, 1994; Salo, 1999; Salo & Grimshaw, 1996, 1998; Salo, Grimshaw, & 
Marar, 1997; Salo, Grimshaw, & Viitasalo 1997). These authors took advantage of Aki Solo’s 
experiences with Finnish hurdlers (Salo, Peltola, & Viitasalo, 1993). A comprehensive analysis 
of Australian hurdlers was conducted between 1992 and 1994 by McLean (1994).
Biomechanical studies in hurdle races 89Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 1, 84–102 (2006)
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90 Biomechanical studies in hurdle races Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 1, 84–102 (2006) 
In the 1994-2000 period, an estimation of the technique of Polish hurdlers specialising in 
110m hurdlers and 400m hurdles was made by Janusz Iskra, Bogdan Bacik and Henryk Król 
(Bacik, Krol, & Iskra, 1995; Iskra, 1994, 2001; Iskra and Bacik, 1997, 1999; Iskra, Bacik, & 
Krol,1998, 2000; Krol & Bacik, 1997). Apart from hurdle-specialists, kinematic studies have 
also embraced hurdle-decathlon specialists (Godik, Szalmanow, & Poltorapawlow, 1993; 
LaFortune, 1987; Schlüter, 1981) as well as academic-level hurdlers (untrained amateurs). In 
particular, experimental research can be counted in this group (Chow, 1998; Salo, 1996).
The kinematic analysis of hurdling is diversified by various research organisation methods. 
One of its elements is to select part of the distance to be filmed. In correspondence with the 
curve of speed the hurdles set in the middle (fastest) part of the distance are usually analysed. 
A variant of analysing the third hurdle in the 100m and 110m hurdles was applied in studies by 
Schlüter (1981), Mero and Luhtanen (1986), Miskos (1988), LaFortune (1987), Salo, Grimshaw, 
and Viitasalo (1997), Marar and Grimshaw, (1994), Salo and Grimshaw (1996, 1998) and 
others.
In the studies by McDonald and Dapena (1991a, 1991b), Čoh and Dolenec (1996) as well as 
Iskra et al. (Iskra, 2001; Iskra, & Bacik, 1997; Iskra, Bacik, & Krol, 1998) the fourth hurdle was 
filmed. The next step in extending the research distance of hurdling was linked with analysing 
the hurdling technique in line with accumulated fatigue of an anaerobic character. This kind 
of research was conducted by Iliew and Primakow (1978b), Mann and Herman (1985), Iwkin, 
Jegorow, and Žukow. (1987) as well as Otrubiannikow and Razumowski (1988). In the last study 
mentioned, each of the subsequent hurdles was analysed; thus enabling the capturing of the 
alterations of kinematic parameters with growing fatigue. ‘The technique of growing fatigue’ 
in hurdling was analysed by Röll (1976) and Schwirtz (1990). The results of these studies may 
prove to be of great significance when conducting the instruction process. 
Data analysis consists of working out diverse numbers of parameters. In most studies these 
parameters are divided into spacious ones (mainly of length and height), time ones and time-
spacious ones (Iliew & Primakow, 1978a, 1978b; McLean, 1994; Otrubiannikow & Razumowski, 
1988; Röll, 1976). The number of investigated parameters is not a clue as to the value of a study. 
In a study investigating the reliability of kinematic measurements, Chow (1998) included 
only the length of strides (prior to, over and post the hurdle) and their horizontal velocities. 
A considerably small number of parameters (up to 15) were taken into account in studies by 
Iwkin, Jegorow, and Žukow (1987), Miskos (1988), Rash, Garrett, and Voisin (1990), Godik, 
Szalmanow, and Poltorapawlow (1993), Marar and Grimshaw (1994) as well as Iskra and 
Bacik (1999). In contrast to the above reports, tens or hundreds of parameters have been put 
under investigation. For instance, Iliew and Primakow (1978a) included 67 parameters in their 
study, Tsarouchas et al. (Tsarouchas, Papadopoulos, Kalamaras, & Giavroglu, 1993) looked at 
77, whereas Wilimczik (1972) in a monograph about hurdling took over 120 parameters into 
consideration.
The purposefulness of using a certain group of kinematic parameters should be decided upon 
according to their relevance (in relation to the estimation of sports mastership) and reliability 
of measurement. The issue of the variability of kinematic parameters of the hurdle stride 
was examined by Salo (1996), Salo, Grimshaw, and Viitasalo (1997) and Salo and Grimshaw 
(1998). These authors found that intra-personal variability coefficients (in reference to the same 
hurdler repeating the run several times) yielded 200%. Such high values question some of the 
Biomechanical studies in hurdle races 91Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 1, 84–102 (2006)
parameters used in hurdle-technique analysis. These doubts were confirmed by the results of 
a statistical analysis of selected parameters of the hurdle stride conducted in a group of Polish 
hurdlers competing in the 110-m hurdles and 400-m hurdles (Iskra, 2001). In the first case 
of fifteen 110-m hurdlers, variability coefficients yielded from 4.92% (the height of the whole 
body centre of gravity at touchdown) to 58.43% (the distance of the WBCG to the hurdle upon 
hurdle clearance). In an individual case of a 400-m hurdler (the 1998 European Champion) 
the differences were even greater over a four-year period. 
The quality of research is largely determined by the measurement equipment. The kinds and 
numbers of cameras in use are presented in Table 1. Their frequency rates have varied from 
25 Hz (Čoh & Dolenec, 1996; Čoh, Kastelic, & Pintarič, 1998), 50 Hz (Iskra & Bacik, 1999; 
Salo & Grimshaw, 1996, 1998) to 100 Hz and even 200 Hz (Iwkin, Jegorow, & Žukow, 1987; 
La Fortune, 1980; Mero & Luhtanen, 1986; Schlüter, 1981).
Measurement errors can be attributed to the kinds of equipment used, the ways of filming 
and data reduction. Salo and Grimshaw (1998), when carrying out an eight-fold digitisation 
of the same run, found out that variability coefficients of 28 parameters yielded from 0.3% to 
93.1% (in men) and from 0.1% to 151.2% (in women). These analyses indicated that a relatively 
small degree of variability (which implies only small measurement errors) involved spacious 
parameters. In a study by Tomica (1999), digitisation errors occurring as a result of the work 
of two independent people were investigated. Having analysed only angular parameters, the 
author showed that the average absolute error (measured in all recorded moments) yielded 
4.14º for the lower limbs and 7.18º for the upper extremities. The estimation of measurement 
errors occurring during the filming of hurdle runs was made by Chow (1998). Using pictures 
delivered by three cameras, Chow calculated measurement errors concerning five hurdles that 
were filmed (from the sixth to the tenth hurdles). For the length of the hurdle strides (prior to, 
over, and post the hurdle) the error was 0.07m, while it was 0.15m/s for analogical horizontal 
velocities. According to the author, such errors are fully acceptable in biomechanical hurdling 
studies. 
As regards measurement errors it is worth noting the different modes of statistical analysis used 
in biomechanical investigations of hurdling. From among the result presentation methods, 
there are analyses of individual cases (Čoh & Dolenec, 1996; Čoh, Kastelic, & Pintarič, 1998; 
Iskra, 2001; Iskra, Bacik, & Krol, 2000; Li, 1990a; Mero & Luhtanen, 1984, 1986), averaged data 
(Godik, Szalmanow, & Poltorapawlow, 1993; Iwkin, Jegorow, & Žukow, 1987; McDonald & Da-
pena, 1991a, 1991b; Schlüter, 1981) as well as various types of comparable analyses (mentioned 
earlier). Correlation analysis is mainly used for estimating the pertinence of chosen kinematic 
parameters with reference to hurdlers’ performance (Iskra, 2001; Marar & Grimshaw, 1994; 
Otrubiannikow & Razumowski, 1988). Searching for mutual relationships among kinematic 
parameters as well as the need to find those which are the most significant committed Iliew 
and Primakow (1978a) to apply factor analysis. Conducted on a representative group of 38 elite 
European hurdlers, the analysis enabled them to sort out five factors characterising the 110m 
hurdle technique: running velocity; hurdle clearance efficiency; in-between hurdles running; 
somatic composition; and pre-hurdle clearance hurdle preparation. The high load of common 
variability of the first factor (35.7%) indicated that hurdling is some sort of sprint running. 
Yet this is only one of the many conclusions of biomechanical investigations of hurdlers. After 
24 years of thorough and precise kinematic studies of hurdling, McDonald entitled his report 
‘Hurdling is not sprinting’ (McDonald, 2002).
92 Biomechanical studies in hurdle races Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 1, 84–102 (2006) 
Experimental research
A separate group of kinematic studies is represented by experimental research involving condi-
tions of ‘technical training’, in other words, various runs with the use of hurdles. Investigating 
81 students of the Physical Culture Institute in Gangzhou (China), Fang (1989) tried to find 
basic differences in running technique in runs involving three different distances between 
the hurdles.
Hurdling as an ‘experimental model of complex and cyclical motor abilities’ was examined 
by Hay and Schoebel (1990). The investigators compared time and spacious parameters of 
standard hurdle runs with a run that had shortened distances between the hurdles, a run over 
horizontal signs supplanting hurdles, as well as with a hurdle imitation run without any bar-
riers. Krol and Bacik (1997) and Bacik, Krol, and Iskra (1995) were interested in alterations of 
kinematic parameters in runs involving different heights (91-100-107-cm) of hurdles. An even 
closer approach to the specific character of hurdling practice was achieved by Grimshaw (1997). 
He estimated the differences between the motion structure of special exercises characteristic 
of hurdling (special drills performed from one side of hurdles for the lead and for the trail leg) 
and the competition event. In conclusion, Grimshaw questioned the indiscriminate application 
of hurdle drills pre-supposed to have a special character. In this group of literature one may 
find also studies which investigate the relationships between the alterations of kinematic 
parameters and somatic composition or training modules (Iskra, Bacik & Krol, 2000; Ren, 
Niug & Yang, 1998; Salo, 1999).
An important aspect of biomechanical studies of hurdling is constituted by analyses of the 
influence of sports training on alterations of the hurdle technique. These multi-direction 
analyses are particularly important in light of using their results in the process of training 
instruction. This specific feedback seems to be the most useful aim of biomechanical studies 
of hurdling. Problems connected with this issue were handled by Papadopoulos (1990) and 
Iskra, Bacik and Krol (2000).
Speedometric and accelerometric research
A separate and large group of biomechanical studies of hurdling is composed of speedometric 
and accelerometric research. By means of sets of photocells or, more frequently, film analysis, 
the time and velocity of particular parts of a run are determined. The considerable convenience 
of such research lies in the fact that each hurdle run can be split into the same nine fragments: 
the run between the hurdles + hurdle clearance. These specific ‘rhythmical units’ divide the 
whole distance into sections of 8.50 m (women’s 100-m hurdles), 9.14 m (men’s 110-m hurdles) 
or 35 m (both 400-m hurdles). At the outset, attempts at evaluating velocity alterations were 
occasionally conducted in correspondence with the best hurdle performances (Sadowski, 
1967). The very first and wide time analysis of hurdling (men’s 400m hurdles) was carried 
out during the Olympic Games in Mexico in 1968 (Canova, 1979; Hemery & Housden, 1969). 
Such studies have been conducted during most important track and field fixtures ever since. 
The details of the time structure of hurdling are presented in Table 2. 
Apart from the results of elite hurdlers, many investigators analysed this problem in hurdlers 
of different performance levels (Bankin, 1995; Letzelter, 1980; Matousek & Sedlacek, 1987). 
Time analyses of hurdling enabled the creation of so-called touchdown charts or split times 
Biomechanical studies in hurdle races 93Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 1, 84–102 (2006)
in connection with performance levels. Such charts were worked out by McFarlane (1978), 
Righi (1986), Railsback (1990) and others. The next stage of the time analysis of hurdling 
was the creation of a computer programme enabling an athlete to run according to split 
times (showing the effort distribution over the whole distance). The differences occurring in 
relation to ‘model split times’ were analysed in studies by Susanka (1989), Barac (1992) and 
Papadopoulos (1995). Their studies proved significant in practice because they allowed the 
assessment of shortcomings in hurdlers’ technical and motor preparations. Balchaniczew 
(1987) considered the time difference between the first and second part of the 110m hurdles 
as an indicator of a hurdler’s special endurance. It was proved in an analysis by Iskra (1994) 
that in the men’s and women’s 400m hurdles a decisive factor contributing to the final mark 
lay in velocity losses identified between the sixth and ninth hurdles. 
Dynamographic and electromiographic methods
Studies of the kinematic structure of hurdling and accelometric analyses do not provide the 
whole range of information required. An essential input for estimating the technique and 
economy of movement in this event is delivered by studies of dynamic parts of hurdle runs by 
means of a dynamographic method. Ultra-sensitive tensometric platforms constitute a helpful 
means in measuring ground force reactions (horizontal and vertical) as well as in recording 
Table 2: Accelerometric studies of hurdle races
Year Competition References Hurdles run
1968 Olympic Games(Mexico) Hemery & Houston (1969) 400 m men
1972 Olympic Games(Munich) Letzelter (1977)
110 m men,
100 m women
1976 Olympic Games(Montreal) Canova (1979) 400 m men
1986 European Championship(Stuttgart) Moravec & Susanka (1986)
All 
4 runs
1986 World Junior Championship(Athens) Miskos & Susanka (1986)
All 
4 runs
1987 World Championship(Roma) Susanka et al. (1988)
All 
4 runs
1988 Olympic Games(Seoul) Susanka (1990)
All 
4 runs
1990 European Championship(Spolito) Stepanek & Susanka (1990)
All 
4 runs
1996 Olympic Games(Atlanta)
Moriorka (1997)
Yasui (1997)
400 m men
400 m women
1997 World Championship(Athens)
Müller & Hommel (1997)
Dai (2000)
110 m men
100 m women
2000 Olympic Games(Sydney) Ditoilo (2001) 400 m men
94 Biomechanical studies in hurdle races Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 1, 84–102 (2006) 
time and velocity parameters concerning two characteristic phases of hurdle clearance: takeoff 
and touchdown. The dynamic parameters of the hurdle stride were presented by McLean 
(McLean, 1994). In a study involving seven Australian male hurdlers as subjects, the author 
showed that highly performing hurdlers are characterised by a shorter time of ground contact 
(mainly at touchdown) and a lower value of maximal horizontal force at takeoff. Having 
investigated a 43-person group of male hurdlers of different performance levels, Czeczkowski 
(1994) concluded that superior performance is determined by a shorter time of front resistance 
i.e. smaller force decreasing one’s horizontal velocity. Changes in ground force reactions during 
takeoff and touchdown are also presented in the many-aspect studies of Röll (1976) and Kollath 
(1985). An estimation of the influence of fatigue on the alterations of dynamic parameters 
of a hurdle stride in men’s 400-m hurdles was made by Schwirtz (1990). In this study it was 
found that upon ground contact after the hurdle the peak vertical force yielded about 6000 
N. This indicates that the strength of one’s endurance character bears a vast significance for 
hurdling. Dworak, Iskra, Kaczkowski, and Maczynski (1998), when carrying out an analysis of 
the dynamics of takeoff and touchdown in 110m hurdles, presented differences in parameters 
in correspondence to hurdle runs of various hurdle heights. Another type of analysis in that 
area of investigation was undertaken by Čoh, Kastelic and Pintarič (1998). Using a modified 
type of starting blocks with built-in small tensometric platforms, the authors obtained the 
values of several kinematic parameters in combination with plots revealing the alterations 
of horizontal forces of both legs. However, studies dealing with the dynamic structure of 
hurdling only constitute a tiny fragment of biomechanical analysis. This is chiefly caused by 
the difficulty of using special apparatuses directly on the track. 
Another method of hurdle technique estimation lies in taking advantage of force moments. 
While searching for selection criteria in the men’s 400m hurdles, Erdman (1976) took into 
consideration moments of resistance forces and moments of inertia of the lower and upper 
extremities. His analysis revealed that the greatest relationship with the hurdle performance 
was the moment of the resistance force of a shank in relation to the axis of a knee joint (r = 
0.822). Tiupa et al. (Tiupa, Michajlow, Jakunin, Aleszinski & Kajmin, 1978) analysed a group 
of twelve 110-m hurdlers in respect of the alterations of force momentums in their angle, knee 
and hip joints during hurdling. Force moments in the lower extremity joints of female and 
male hurdlers were also taken into account by Fujii, Miyashita, and Ae (1997). On the basis of 
the obtained results the authors concluded that in the preparatory phase hurdling resembled 
typical sprinting, whereas upon takeoff this analogy could not be derived.
An electromiographic method (EMG) is rarely used in biomechanical studies of hurdling. EMG 
changes in selected muscle groups during runs of different velocities were demonstrated by Sal-
czenko (1974). The inner structure of hurdling was reproduced by Mero and Peltola (1989).
Future of biomechanical studies of hurdling
The future of biomechanical studies of hurdling is expected to belong to complex studies and 
comprehensive research programmes linking not only various methods of biomechanical 
analysis (kinemtics, dynamography, accelometry, EMG, and others) but also interdisciplinary 
studies (for instance, those connected with physiological aspects of exercise, somatic composi-
tion, type of training loads etc.). A large programme of biomechanical studies in hurdling 
was proposed by Mann (1985). This was made possible through a grant from the US Olympic 
Biomechanical studies in hurdle races 95Kinesiologia Slovenica, 12, 1, 84–102 (2006)
Foundation, which was dispensed via the Athletics Congress of the USA. In an effort to gain 
more knowledge in the area of hurdling and help elite women and men hurdlers in the United 
States their technique was analysed. The analyses were mainly conducted in a fully equipped 
lab in the Olympic Training Centre in Colorado Springs. Although in this investigation a 
kinematographic method was mainly used, in the discussion part of the report there are many 
references to training.
A huge grant concerning the biomechanics of hurdling has been used by the British since 1992. 
Under the leadership of Paul N. Grimshaw, in collaboration with Aki Salo, British investigators 
carried out a series of research chiefly with respect to the kinematics of hurdle clearance. In 
spite of the fact that this well-prepared project  (Grimshaw, Marar, Salo, Logden, & Vernon, 
1994) has never been fully completed, it has enriched our knowledge of hurdling by unveiling 
the results in many publications (Grimshaw, 1997; Marar & Grimshaw, 1994; Salo & Grimshaw, 
1996, 1998; Salo, Grimshaw, & Marar, 1997, Salo, Grimshaw, & Viitasalo, 1997).
Awarding Australia with organising the Olympic Games in 2000 was the main reason behind 
the many sports research programmes in this country. The Australian Institute of Sport and 
the Department of Biomechanics in particular piloted investigations of Australian male 
hurdlers in Canberra. The programme covered kinematic and dynamographic investigations 
(McLean, 1994).
Other motivations behind undertaking complex studies are seen in the case of Čoh and 
colleagues. Taking advantage of the sports success of Slovenia’s best female hurdler (the 1992 
Olympic silver medallist) they conducted a vast biomechanical study of an individual case 
(Čoh & Dolenec, 1996; Čoh, Kastelic, & Pintarič, 1998). The investigation took place in a 
laboratory of the Department of Biomechanics at Ljubljana University and covered kinematic 
and dynamic parameters, accelometry as well as elements of sports practice. 
In the context of Wilkerson’s study (Wilkerson, 1997), the investigation of Čoh et al. represents 
the future of biomechanical research in sport. One might find in it individual characteristics, a 
holistic approach as well as a search for intra-disciplinary bridges. The abovementioned author 
points out that the biomechanics of sport follow the route from analyses of average values, 
through optimal parameters, to finding what is normal. Coaches’ expectations concerning 
biomechanical studies were articulated by Terauds (1986). Investigations involving a group 
of competitors must be only a foundation for individual analyses. Single analyses ought to 
be only an introduction to continual biomechanical control. In addition, the most important 
observation – biomechanical studies in hurdling must have a complex character i.e. they 
should not be exclusively restricted to methods of biomechanical analysis. One ought to take 
into account elements such as somatic parameters, motor skills, co-ordination levels or kinds 
of applied training.
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