THE FRANZISCEAN LAND CADASTRE AS A KEY TO UNDERSTANDING THE 19th-CENTURY CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
IN SLOVENIA
FRANCISCEJSKI KATASTER KOT KLJUČ ZA RAZUMEVANJE KULTURNE POKRAJINE V SLOVENIJI
V 19. STOLETJU
Franci Petek Mimi Urbane
The majority of the cultural landscapes in Slovenia reflect former times attach to completely different economic and social conditions, which have mainly been outdated (photography Franci Petek).
Mnoge slovenske kulturne pokrajine so odsev preteklosti s popolnoma drugačnimi, danes v veliki meri preživetimi gospodarskimi in družbenimi razmerami (fotografija Franci Petek).
The Franziscean Land Cadastre as a Key to Understanding the 19th-century Cultural Landscape in Slovenia
UDC: 911.53:711.14(497.4)"18" 528.44(497.4)"18" COBISS: 1.01
ABSTRACT: The aim of the article is to present the use of the Franziscean Cadastre in studying past land use and reconstructing the rural cultural landscape of the 19th century. Special attention is devoted to presenting the content and accessibility of archival materials. By comparing maps from the Franziscean Cadastre with current land use, we successfully determined the changes, particularly in the rural cultural landscape. A general trend in Slovenia is the selective abandoning of farm land, which has had a great impact on the appearance of the landscape: cultivated fields become meadows, once cultivated areas on less favourable sites are overgrown by forest, and the same occurs with pastures. On the basis of case studies, we established the great usefulness and value of the Franziscean Cadastre, which still exists for almost the entire territory of today's Slovenia.
KEY WORDS: historical sources, Franziscean land cadastre, land use, land use changes, cultural landscapes, Slovenia.
The editorial ship received this paper for publishing in September 17, 2004.
Franciscejski kataster kot klju~ za razumevanje kulturne pokrajine v Sloveniji v 19. stoletju
UDK: 911.53:711.14(497.4)"18" 528.44(497.4)"18" COBISS: 1.01
IZVLEČEK: Cilj članka je prikazati uporabo franciscejskega katastra pri preučevanju pretekle rabe tal in s tem rekonstrukcijo kmetijske kulturne pokrajine 19. stoletja. Posebno pozornost smo namenili prikazu vsebin in dostopnosti arhivskih fondov. S primerjavo map omenjenega katastra z današnjo rabo tal smo uspešno ugotavljali spremembe, predvsem v kmetijski kulturni pokrajini. Splošen trend v Sloveniji je selektivno opuščanje kmetijskih zemljišč, kar ima velik vpliv na podobo pokrajine: njive se spreminjajo v travnike, trajni nasadi na manj ugodnih legah se zaraščajo v gozd, prav tako pašniki. Na osnovi primerov smo ugotovili veliko uporabnost in vrednost franciscejskega katastra, ki je ohranjen domala za celotno ozemlje današnje Slovenije.
KLJUČNE BESEDE: zgodovinski viri, franciscejski kataster, raba tal, spremembe rabe tal, kulturna pokrajina, Slovenija.
Prispevek je prišel v uredništvo 17. septembra 2004.
ADDRESS - NASLOV: Franci Petek , Ph.D.
Anton Melik Geographical Institute
Scientific Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy
of Sciences and Arts
Gosposka ulica 13
SI - 1000 Ljubljana
Slovenia
Phone- telefon: +386 (1) 470 63 51
Fax- faks: +386 (1) 425 77 93
E-mail - e. pošta: franci.petek@zrc-sazu.si
Mimi Urbane, M. Sc.
Anton Melik Geographical Institute
Scientific Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy
of Sciences and Arts
Gosposka ulica 13
SI - 1000 Ljubljana
Slovenia
Phone - telefon: +386(1) 470 63 54 Fax- faks: +386 (1) 425 77 93 E-mail - e. pošta: mimi@zrc-sazu.si
Contents
1	Land use as a significant element of the cultural landscape	92
2	Capitastrum - »list of taxed heads«	92
3	Archived cadastral materials	93
3.1	Written part of the Franziscean Cadastre	95
3.2	Cartographical part of the Franziscean Cadastre	95
4	Using the Franziscean Cadastre to identify changes in land use	96
5	Conclusion	105
6	References	105
Vsebina
1	Raba tal kot pomembna prvina kulturne pokrajine	107
2	Capitastrum - 'spisek obdavčenih glav'	107
3	Zemljiški kataster kot arhivsko gradivo	108
3.1	Pisni del franciscejskega katastra	108
3.2	Kartografski del franciscejskega katastra	109
4	Uporaba in razumevanje sprememb	109
5	Sklep	112
6	Literatura	112
1	Land use as a significant element of the cultural landscape
The landscape changes constantly because of the dynamic relationship between natural and social or cultural factors in the environment. This is an eternal process governed by the natural environment and human activity within it (Urbanc 2002, p. 24). Land use is certainly one of the most important elements of this process since it reflects the close relation between man and nature and at the same time has a strong and clearly expressed time dimension. It generally applies that different types of land use create different landscapes. For a better understanding of the current situation, knowledge of the past landscape is necessary since in great measure today's landscape reflects its historic appearance, which is particularly evident in land use. Studying land use is based on various sources: written, pictorial, statistical, photographic, satellite data, and cartographic. These sources differ according to their original purposes, reliability, and coverage, and therefore according to their quality and usefulness as well. Land cadastres comprise one of the fundamental documents for studying the countryside because they contain technical, economic, spatial, and statistical information and are therefore a useful source for studying the change in land use and the related processes. One advantage of their use is the uniform methodology used for gathering data applied since the creation of the »stable« Franziscean Cadastre. As a documentary and cartographical record, the Franziscean Cadastre is an irreplaceable and exceptionally valuable source of information, not only for studying land use but also for investigating other geographical topics in the 19th century, as demonstrated by articles from other Central European countries such as the Czech Republic (Bi~ik et al. 2001) and Austria (Krausmann 2001).
In this article we wish to present the use of the Franziscean Cadastre in studying past land use and reconstructing the agricultural cultural landscape of the 19th century. We place great emphasis on the description, accessibility, and content of archived cadastres. Archived material that refers to the territory of today's Slovenia is also kept outside the current national borders at the Carinthian Land Archive in Klagenfurt and the State Archive in Trieste. Similarities and differences between the cultural landscape of subsistence agriculture in the first half of the 19th century and today's cultural landscape that is the result of modern, market-oriented agriculture and the difficult to predict effects of globalization are shown through individual examples of land use.
2	Capitastrum - »list of taxed heads«
A land cadastre is an inventory of land taken by the state to establish the uniform tax assessment on land (Ribnikar 1982, p. 321) or the »official record of the actual situation of land« (Kladnik 1999, p. 73). The predecessors of land cadastres were medieval registers of landed property and records of taxes on farmsteads. The first inventory of land called a »cadastre« was the Theresian Cadastre from 1747, named after Empress Maria Theresa (Dem{ar 1995, p. 15). However, this was not a true cadastre since land was not measured and the size of parcels was only estimated according to the average amount of wheat sown, the yield of hay, or the amount of daily work in the forest. In spite of this rough estimation (Ribnikar 1982, p. 321), the cadastre served its basic purpose of counting the number of serfs on large seigniorial estates and organizing the husbandry on these estates. The term »cadastre« derives from the Late Greek word »katastichon« meaning »register, list« or from the Latin »capitastrum« meaning »list of taxed heads« (Roi} 1999, p. 2).
The survey of land known as the »Josephian Cadastre« ordered by Emperor Joseph II in 1785 reflected a fundamental shift in content and methodology but was not entirely completed. The first true cadastral survey of Slovene territory was made in 1800 during the French occupation for a few cadastral municipalities in the area of Gorizia (Dem{ar 1995, p. 15).
The Franziscean Cadastre, commissioned by an imperial patent in 1817, is a uniform and stable cadastre. The cadastral survey for the majority of Slovene territory was finished by 1828, and for the Prekmurje region after 1856 in the framework of the survey for Hungary. The decision for the data to be charted was important. The protocol contained cadastral maps, indication sketches (copies of cadastral maps),
an index of land parcels, an index of building parcels, an alphabetical index of landowners, a final description of the borders of cadastral municipalities, an index of cultures, an index of unknown landholders, a calculation of surface areas, and written statements from the tax office on persons liable to tax. On the maps, the outlined parcels were distinguished by colour according to the culture (category of land use). Three groups of cadastral cultures were distinguished: simple, mixed, and changing (Mlakar 1990, p. 25). Because of the land-tax reform (1869), the Franziscean Cadastre was upgraded in the years following the emancipation of the serfs. The so-called »reambulated« cadastres appeared between 1869 and 1887 (Koro{ec 1978, p. 198), followed by another revision in 1896. From then on, it was meant to be maintained, meaning that every change in land use and ownership was to be recorded in it (Ko{ir, Breznik, and Maslo 1999, p. 14; Dem{ar 1995, p. 20). The social and political changes that followed naturally influenced the policies regarding the cadastre and consequently its maintenance.
3 Archived cadastral material
The material of the Franziscean Cadastre, which is well preserved for Slovene territory, is mainly kept in the Archives of the Republic of Slovenia; however, its condition varies for individual provinces: » The most material is preserved for the former Carniola, while for all the remaining former provinces, the material is substantially less complete and is also held outside the borders of Slovenia« (Dobernik 2002, p. 65). The material has been assembled and arranged according to districts or political-administrative and conscription circuits and according to the alphabetical order of the cadastral municipalities that were defined by a patent from 1784 (Koro{ec 1978, p. 174). Carniola encompassed three districts and around 860 cadastral municipalities (Ljubljana district, 390 c. m.; Novo mesto district, 300 c. m.; and Postojna district, 170 c. m.) whose material is almost entirely preserved. For Carinthia, material is preserved for fifty-eight cadastral municipalities in the Klagenfurt district (with the exception of Zgornje Jezersko, which is included in the material for Carniola), and for Styria, material is preserved for 560 cadastral municipalities in the Celje district and for 566 cadastral municipalities in the Maribor district. For the Gorizia district, material is preserved for 132 cadastral municipalities along with twenty-two maps from the French cadastre. For the Istria district, material exists for only eighteen cadastral municipalities, and the majority of the remaining material is held by the State Archive in Trieste. The material for Prekmurje covers 160 cadastral municipalities, with complete material for fifty-four cadastral municipalities.
Table 1: Index of archived material from the Franziscean Cadastre kept by the archives of the Republic of Slovenia in Ljubljana
Name of a record group	Period of origin		Extent of material in running meters
Franziscean Cadastre for Carinthia	1823-	-1869	5.8 running meters
Franziscean Cadastre for Carniola	1823-	-1869	238.1 r. m.
Franziscean Cadastre for Littoral	1811-	-1869	1.3 r. m.
Franziscean Cadastre for Styria	1823-	-1869	78.5 r.m.
Cadastre for Prekmurje	1858-	-1860	8.1 r.m.
Reambulated cadastre for Carinthia	1872-	-1879	4.0r.m.
Reambulated cadastre for Carniola	1867-	-1882	107.3 r. m.
Reambulated cadastre for Prekmurje	1909-	-1919	12.0 r. m.
Source: Guide to the Record Groups and Collections of the Archives of the RS, 1999.
Today, the graphical part of the land cadastre (maps) has been almost entirely converted into digital form, a process that began in the 1990's. These maps are available, at low resolutions, free of charge on the web pages of the Archives of the Republic of Slovenia (www.gov.si/ars/). The original individual sheets of the map, which measure 71.5 cm x 58 cm, are scanned at resolutions between 150 and 250 dpi and saved in jpg or tiff format (Dobernik 2002, p. 65). An important feature is that individual sheets can be successfully combined in a complete map of cadastral municipalities that with the help of the Geographical Information System can be matched with the national Gauss-Krüger coordination system currently in use. This allows us to directly compare land use in the 19th century with, for example, orthophotographic pictures (Kladnik et al. 2004, p. 126).
Figure 1: Survey map of existing materials from the Franciscan Cadastre showing the locations of archival record groups
and the official administrative divisions of the period. Slika 1: Pregledna karta obstoje~ega gradiva franciscejskega katastra po arhivih in tedanji upravni razdelitvi.
Gradivo, dostopno v arhivu: Material, accesible in the archive:
I I Ljubljana - mape in delovodniki/ maps and protocols
Ljubljana - samo mape ali samo delovodniki/ only maps or only protocols
Trst/Trieste Celovec/Klagenfurt
I_I Neznano/Not known
- Meje k. o./Borders of cadastral municipalities
Meje kresij/Borders of districts Današnja državna meja/Actual state border
0 10 20 30 40 50
Author: Franci Petek Vir/Source: Arhiv RS/Archives of the RS in Ljubljana, Carinthian Land Archive in Klagenfurt and the State Archive in Trieste
© Geografski inštitut AM ZRC SAZU
3.1	Written part of the Franziscean Cadastre
For studying the processes in the cultural landscape, the data on land use is important. We extracted the data from the protocol of the Franziscean Cadastre, the written part of the cadastre, and elaborated it for each cadastral municipality. The assessment protocol (Schätzungsoperat) has been preserved for the majority of cadastral municipalities in the territory of Slovenia and further completes the image of the landscape and the people. The cadastre distinguishes nine basic cadastral categories or cultures: cultivated fields, meadows, gardens, vineyards, pastures and alpine pastures, forests, lakes and marshes, taxable non-agricultural land such as quarries, gravel pits, clay pits, peat bogs, etc. (Parifikaten), and unproductive or barren land (Instruction zur... Grund - Ertrags - Schätzung 1830, par. 100-141; Anleitung zur Ausführung... 1870, par. 3). The culture was determined on the basis of the type of crop and the method of cultivation in the basic cadastral spatial unit, the parcel (Belehrung für die Steuer... 1826, par. 16). Along with the basic categories, building parcels were also identified with various building plots and paths included (Instruction zur... Landes Vermessung 1824, par. 274-281). The basic cadastral cultures were further divided into simple and composite, and the latter into to mixed and changing cultures (Instruction zur... Grund - Ertrags - Schätzung 1830, par. 142; Mischler, Ulbrich 1906, p. 590).
Land use can be read from the protocols on different spatial levels. As the basic spatial unit, each parcel has specified use, which we can find in the land plot records, and the area of the use according to the listed basic categories is also totaled at the level of the entire cadastral municipality. Data of this kind is very suitable for studies of land use and changes in land use at the regional and national level (Gabrovec and Kladnik 1997, p. 17).
3.2	Cartographical part of the Franziscean Cadastre
The maps that complement the written part do not illustrate the relief, and therefore the presentation of the formation of the surface is limited only to natural and cultural objects in the space: waters, roads and
paths, residential buildings and outbuildings, churches, chapels, and shrines, some permanent demarcation features (stone walls, trees, distinctive rock formations, and the like) as well as natural and other features especially characteristic of the presented space (Koro{ec 1978, p. 174). According to their original purpose, the most important topographical elements of these maps are the dividing lines between individual parcels and their consecutive (parcel) numbers. In the instructions, the term »parcel« is clearly defined as a specific unit of land larger than 25 square fathoms (ca. 90 m2) and bound to the ownership and the type of cadastral culture (Instruction zur Ausführung... Landes Vermessung 1824, par. 246,248).
The land use is indicated by colour on the original maps, while the duplicates (indication sketches) are usually not coloured. The colour tones for individual cultures on the sheets that covered an entire cadastral municipality had to match. The colours for the same cadastral culture on maps for different cadastral municipalities can differ, for example, in the shade of the tone and the intensity of the colour). The instructions precisely define the colour shades for individual cultures (Instruction zur Ausführung... Landes Vermessung 1824, par. 466-475; Ribnikar 1982, p. 331).
The illustration of land use on the parcels is supplemented by simple topographical symbols. Among these symbols, most frequently used in Slovene regions are the symbols for pastures (the letter W = Weiden; small bushes drawn near the letter mean pastures with bushes, while trees denote pastures with trees), common or community pastures (the letters GW = Gemeinde Weiden), types of forests (for example, a small spruce and the letters MH denote a coniferous forest of medium age), types of meadows (drawn fruit trees denote meadows with fruit trees), and vineyards (a grapevine twining around a pole) (Ribnikar 1982, p. 331). We can therefore determine quite well the land use, which mostly due to the additional illustration of mixed cultures is very close to actual use of the period. However, very large parcels in the mountains showing uniform land use are problematic since they cover very diverse surfaces and possibly diverse land uses (for example, parcels marked as alpine pasture can also include mountain meadows, heath, rocky surfaces, and forest).
4 Using the Franziscean Cadastre to identify changes in land use
The study of previous land use helps us to comprehend and understand the economic and social situation in past time periods, the influence and extent of catastrophes (for example, the effects of phylloxera on vineyards), the traces of former landscapes, and the current situation. On the basis of comparative analysis, we can establish whether specific patterns or elements, which at first glance seem old, are the result of a recent development or of a long-term process (Tage Domaos 2003, p. 222).
In reading the Franziscean maps, recognizing the colours and symbols for individual categories of land use is the most important factor since this is the foundation for grasping the appearance of the landscape of the period. By comparing parts of the cadastral maps with photographs and aerial shots of the current situation, we can show the differences in the occurrence of individual elements of the cultural landscape between the first half of the 19th century and today.
The Franziscean Cadastre defined cultivated fields as all parcels that served for the production of fodder plants, root crops, and cereals whether in use or fallow. The simple category includes cultivated fields, hop plantations, rice fields, and the like. In the mixed category, cultivated fields are the leading culture and relative to area occupy the largest proportion of a parcel where the ancillary cultures can be fruit trees, grapevines, olive trees, mulberry trees, and so forth. In the changing category, cultivated fields alternate seasonally with meadows, pastures, and even forest in an established time sequence (Instruction zur... Katastral Vermessung 1865, par. 162; Anleitung zur Ausführung... 1870, par. 3).
In the 19th century, the extent of cultivated fields in Slovenia was incomparably greater than it is today (Gabrovec, Kladnik, Petek 2001, p. 49), although even in the flatlands the currently visible fragmented land structure also dominated at the time. In Gorenjska, the division into open fields (Gewannflur) is particularly interesting because individual cultivated fields were bordered by strips of grass (Ile{i~ 1950, p. 37),
Figure 3: This section from the map of the Franziscean Cadastre for the cadastral municipality of Doslovce, sheet L045A12, (Archives of the RS), shows Smokuc and the adjacent cultivated land. The dark green indicates vegetable gardens, the lighter green with tree symbols indicates meadows with fruit or other trees, the lighter green without tree symbols indicates meadows and grass borders, and the pale green indicates pastures. Cultivated fields are light brown.
Figure 4: Cultivated land between Smokuc and Rodine in 2004. The structure of cultivated fields with grass borders has to a large extent disappeared although it still survives in places, as can be seen from part of the area shown in Figure 3 (photography Franci Petek).
Figure 5: Section from the map of the Franziscean Cadastre for the cadastral municipality of Vižmarje, sheet L323A01, (Archives of the RS). The marked areas indicate meadows surrounded by boundaries that have survived completely unchanged to the present day.
Figure 6: Section from an aerial shot, orthophoto sheet E2422, (Surveying and Mapping Authority of the RS), showing the situation today and the remains of relict elements in the landscape. The marked areas match those marked in Figure 5.
that are clearly visible on the map of the Franziscean Cadastre (Figure 3). Narrow untilled strips between cultivated fields are rare in Slovenia; cultivated fields usually ran immediately alongside each other, which led to numerous boundary disputes since »... in plowing, the plow likes to stray onto the neighbour's soil« (Ilešič 1950, p. 37). The cultivated fields in the vicinity of Smokuč are coloured light brown with green frames indicating the strips of grass between them. This appearance is gone today, and this earlier method of land use has only rarely survived. The majority of the former cultivated fields are overgrown with grass (Figure 4), which is linked to the great prevalence of stock farming and the abandonment of polycultur-al farming and agriculture in general.
Meadows were defined as parcels that were regularly mowed and were only rarely grazed or left unmowed. The simple category includes dry and wet meadows, and in the mixed category the meadow was the leading culture in combination with fruit trees, forest, mulberry trees, olive trees, grapevines, and shrubs (Instruction zur... Katastral Vermessung 1865, par. 162; Anleitung zur Ausführung... 1870, par. 3).
On the map of the Franziscean Cadastre for the cadastral municipality of Vižmarje, sheet L323A01, (Archives of the RS), (Figure 5) meadows are illustrated with a dark green colour. The clearly visible boundaries formed by lines of trees between the meadows are marked by the topographical symbols for trees. It is interesting and simultaneously surprising that on the outskirts of Ljubljana, Slovenia's capital city, some meadows have survived in their original form together with their boundaries as green islands within the built-up urban landscape (Figure 6) that replaced the previous agricultural cultural landscape. In this case, the Franziscean maps clearly proved themselves as a resource for identifying minute elements in the landscape such as boundaries that can be considered relicts of the earlier agricultural cultural landscape.
Gardens were parcels, enclosed or not, that served for the production of fruit, vegetables, flowers, seeds, or even for education and recreation. They were divided into fruit, vegetable, olive, and decorative gardens (Instruction zur. Katastral Vermessung 1865, par. 162; Anleitung zur Ausführung. 1870, par. 3).
Figure 7: Section from the map of the Franziscean Cadastre for the cadastral municipality of Krkavce, sheets I82B01, I82B02, (State Archive in Trieste). In the past, the terraces on the northern slope of Krkavce were devoted to vegetable gardens.
Figure 9: Krkavce 2004, the majority of the terraces once devoted to gardens are today overgrown by shrubs (photography Mimi Urbanc).
Figure 10: Section from the map of the Franziscean Cadastre for the cadastral municipality of Sveti Peter (Raven), sheet I443B01, (State Archive in Trieste). The land use at Padna with vineyards on the northern side and olive groves on the southern side is characteristic of the region.
Figure 11: Section from an aerial shot, orthophoto, sheet B1905, (Surveying and Mapping Authority of the RS), showing the present situation. The vineyards on the northern slope of Padna were obviously destroyed long ago since the slopes are now overgrown with low forest. There are olive-groves on the terraced southern slope.
Figure 12: Padna 2004. We can only assume that the northern slope of Padna was entirely terraced in the past because the dry stone walls have survived only fragmentarily (photography Mimi Urbanc).
Figure 13: Sveti Peter 2004. On the southern slope below the settlement, the vineyards were interwoven with olive groves in the middle of the 19th century. Today, the latter strongly dominate the same slope, which the photograph shows clearly since they are still green in the late autumn (photography Mimi Urbanc).
A typical example of settlements with clearly drawn gardens on the Franziscean maps is the acropolis settlements in Slovene Istria where there were gardens on the first terraces immediately beside the houses. In Figure 7, the gardens are hatched with dark green. Barely a trace of the terraces remains (Figure 9), let alone any trace of the gardens other than a very few (Figure 8) that have survived to the present.
Vineyards were parcels devoted to winegrowing. They could be without ancillary cultures or in combination with fruit trees, mulberry trees, or olive trees (Instruction zur... Katastral Vermessung 1865, par. 162; Anleitung zur Ausführung... 1870, par. 3). A typical example is found at Padna in Slovene Istria where vineyards occupied the northern slopes and alternated with olive groves (Figure 10) on the southern and western slopes. Today, there is no trace of the vineyards on the northern slopes as they were probably not replanted after the catastrophic plague of phylloxera at the end of the 19th century. On the western side, the winegrowing terraces are still well preserved but are becoming overgrown, while the southern slopes are entirely devoted to mostly young olive groves (Figures 11 and 12). This process is characteristic for the greater part of Slovene Istria and is linked to the growth of olive oil production in the last decade (Figure 13).
Parcels with grass grazed by cattle were defined as pastures. These also included all the land whose crop was used as litter. Alpine pasture areas and grassland in the mountains devoted to seasonal grazing or alpine dairy farming were defined separately. The cadastral maps showed pastures without ancillary land uses including common pastures and boundaries. In the mixed category, pastures were combined with fruit trees, mulberry trees, olive trees, forest trees, and shrubs (Instruction zur... Katastral Vermessung 1865, par. 162; Anleitung zur Ausführung... 1870, par. 3).
Because of the system of grazing cattle, pastures comprised a very extensive land category in the first half of the 19th century. They appeared in large unbroken areas less suitable for meadows and cultivated fields (Petek 2002, p. 67). The example of extensive pastures on the karst plain near Prešnica is clearly visible in Figure 14. Within the unbroken grazing land are patches of cultivated fields surrounded by grassy strips
Figure 14: Section from the map of the Franziscean Cadastre for the cadastral municipality of Prešnica, sheets I53B01, I53B02, I53B04, I53B05, (State Archive in Trieste). The dominant light green colour represents the pastures in 1819; individual cultivated fields appear only in dolines surrounded by dry stone walls.
Figure 15: Prešnica 2004, the view over the karst plain from the slope east of the settlement. The once extensive pastures can only be perceived in patches surrounded by young forest and shrubs (photography Mimi Urbanc).
Figure 16: Prešnica 2004. Abandoned pastures were first overgrown by shrubs and then by forest (photography Mimi Urbanc)
and dry stone walls. These cultivated fields are now gone, in most cases transformed into meadows. In some cases, the meadows are no longer mowed and the dry stone walls are collapsing. In general, the process of overgrowing has been strongly present in western Slovenia in recent decades. The landscape shown in Figure 15 barely reminds us of the former pastures above Prešnica.
Land defined as forest was devoted to producing wood, regardless of whether it was grazed periodically or regularly. It was divided into »high« forest (economically harvestable), which included coniferous, deciduous, and mixed forests and »low« forest composed of young forest trees and shrubs.
Lakes and marshes included land that was periodically (e. g., Cerknica Lake) or permanently covered by water and was economically exploitable. This category included moors, lakes, and marshes with reed beds.
Taxable non-agricultural land (Parifikaten) was land not used for farming such as sand and gravel pits, clay pits, quarries, peat bogs, private canals, private paths, land along railway lines, water catchment areas, and the like.
Unproductive or barren land was land that could not be economically exploited such as bare rock surfaces, rivers and streams, lakes, scree, and heath. This category also covered land free of taxes including state-owned railways, roads, paths, cemeteries, churches, and so forth (Instruction zur. Katastral Vermessung 1865, par. 162; Anleitung zur Ausführung... 1870, par. 3).
5	Conclusion
We have demonstrated the usefulness of the Franziscean Cadastre in studying past land use as an important element of the agricultural cultural landscape through several examples. Its maps, which provide precise spatial dimensions, are especially valuable. Naturally, this very useful and valuable resource can also be problematic due to certain deficiencies such as the incomplete archival stock for some cadastral municipalities, the difficulty of distinguishing between the shades of colour used for the same categories on different maps, and the difficulty of transferring geographical data from the cadastral maps to the Geographical Information System, which requires a very capable software program. In spite of these problems, the Franziscean Cadastre is again acquiring great scientific value after several decades with the growing appreciation of the value of individual remnants of the past cultural landscape. In spite of numerous and profound changes in the last two centuries, today's cultural landscape still reflects features that developed long ago. Even in the cities, traces of the past cultural landscape are still clearly visible in many places. The landscape represents a never-ending process, a continuum of forms and functions in which some change and adapt to new demands, others disappear and are replaced by new ones, and some remain unchanged. The Franziscean Cadastre greatly helps us in identifying and following the development of these elements, functions, and processes.
6	References
Anleitung zur Ausführung... 1870: Anleitung zur Ausführung der mit dem Gesetze vom 24. Mai 1869 über die Regelung der Grundsteuer angeordneten Vermessungsarbeiten, Wien/Dunaj. Archives of the Republic of Slovenia, record group AS 1102. Bičlk, I., Jeleček, L., Štpanek, V. 2001: Land-use changes and their social driving forces in Czechia in the
19th and 20th centuries. Land Use Policy 18/1. New York. Britovšek, M. 1964: Razkroj fevdalne agrarne strukture na Kranjskem. Ljubljana. Demšar, B. 1995: Geodetske evidence v Sloveniji - zemljiški kataster. Zgodovina slovenske geodezije in geofizike. Ljubljana.
Dobernik, M. 2002: Reproduciranje franciscejskega katastra. Arhivi 25/2. Ljubljana. Gabrovec, M., Kladnik D. 1997: Some new aspects of land use in Slovenia. Geografski zbornik 37. Ljubljana. Gabrovec, M., Kladnik D., Petek, F. 2001: Land use changes in the 20th century in Slovenia. Land use/cover changes in selected regions in the world, volume 1. Asahikawa.
Ile{i~, S. 1950: La physionomie parcellaire des champs en Slovenie. Ljubljana.
Instruction zur... Grund - Etrags - Schätzung 1830: Instruction zur Ausführung der zum Behufe des allgemeinen Katasters mit Allerhöchsten Patente vom 23. December 1817 angeordneten, Grund-ErtragsSchätzung, Ljubljana. Archives of the Republic of Slovenia, record group 1102.
Instruction zur... Katastral Vermessung 1865: Instruction zur Ausführung der in Folge des Allerhöchsten Patentes vom 23. December 1817 und vom 20. October 1849 angeordneten Katastral-Vermessung, Wien/Dunaj. Archives of the Republic of Slovenia, record group 1102.
Instruction zur Ausführung... Landes Vermessung 1824: Instruction zur Ausführung der zum Behufte des allgemeinen Katasters in Folge des 8ten und 9ten Paragraphes des Allerhöchsten Patentes vom 23. December 1817 angeordneten Landes-Vermessung, Wien/Dunaj. Archives of the Republic of Slovenia, record group 1102.
Kladnik, D. 1999: Leksikon geografije podeželja. Ljubljana.
Kladnik, D. et al 2004: Raba tal. Podtalnica Ljubljanskega polja. Geografija Slovenije 10. Ljubljana.
Koro{ec, B. 1978: Na{ prostor v ~asu in projekciji. Ljubljana.
Ko{ir, J., Breznik B., Maslo, G. 1999: Vrednotenje kmetijskih in gozdnih zemlji{~: priro~nik za vrednotenje, ocenjevanje in katastrsko klasifikacijo zemlji{~. Ljubljana.
Krausmann, F. 2001: Land use and industrial modernization: an empirical analysis of human influence on the functioning of ecosystems in Austria 1830-1995. Land Use Policy 18/1. New York.
Maps of the Franziscean cadastre (scale 1: 2.880), sheets L045A12, L323A01. Archives of the Republic of Slovenia.
Maps of the Franziscean cadastre (scale 1:2.880), sheets I82B1, I82B2, I443B1, I53B01, I53B02, I53B04, I53B05. State Archive in Trieste.
Internet: http://www.gov.si/ars/ (23.11.2004).
Mischler, E., Ulbrich, J. 1906: Österreichisches Staatswörterbuch, 2. knjiga. Dunaj.
Mlakar, G. 1990: Kataster 1 - Zemlji{ki kataster in zemlji{ka knjiga. Ljubljana.
Natek, K. 1992: Franciscejski kataster in geografski informacijski sistem. Traditiones 21. Ljubljana.
Orthophoto maps (scale 1: 5.000), sheets E2422, B1905. Surveying and Mapping Authority of the Republic of Slovenia.
Petek, F. 2004: Spremembe rabe tal v 19. in 20. stoletju v slovenskem alpskem svetu: doktorsko delo. Ljubljana.
Petek, F. 2002: Methodology of evaluation of changes in land use in Slovenia between 1896 and 1999. Geografski vestnik 42. Ljubljana.
Ribnikar, P. 1982: Zemlji{ki kataster kot vir za zgodovino. Zgodovinski ~asopis 36/4. Ljubljana.
Roi}, M., Fanton, I., Medi}, V. 1999: Katastar zemlji{ta in zemlji{na knjiga. Zagreb.
Tage Domaas, S. et al 2003: Historical cadastral maps as a tool for valuation of today's landscape elements. Landscape interfaces. Dordrecht.
Urbanc, M. 2002: Kulturne pokrajine v Sloveniji. Ljubljana.
Vodnik po fondih in zbirkah Arhiva Republike Slovenije 1999 (Guide to the Record Groups and Collections of the Archives of the Republic of Slovenia 1999). Ljubljana.
1	Raba tal kot pomembna prvina kulturne pokrajine
Pokrajina se neprestano spreminja, in sicer zaradi dinamične povezave med naravnimi in družbenimi oziroma kulturnimi dejavniki v okolju. Je večen proces, ki ga usmerja naravno okolje in vodijo človekove aktivnosti v njem (Urbanc 2002, 24). Raba tal je zagotovo ena pomembnejših prvin tega procesa, saj odraža tesno povezanost narave in človeka, obenem pa ima močno in jasno izraženo časovno dimenzijo. Na splošno velja, da različne rabe tal ustvarjajo različne pokrajine. Za samo razumevanje je potrebno tudi poznavanje pokrajine v preteklosti, saj sedanja pokrajina v veliki meri odseva zgodovinsko podobo, ki se še posebej kaže v rabi tal. Preučevanje le-te sloni na različnih virih: pisnih, slikovnih, statističnih, fotografskih, satelitskih ali kartografskih. Ti viri se med seboj razlikujejo po prvotnem namenu, zanesljivosti in obsegu in zato tudi kakovosti ter uporabnosti. Zemljiški kataster je eden temeljnih dokumentov pri raziskavah podeželja, saj vsebuje tehnične, gospodarske, prostorske in statistične informacije in je zato uporaben vir za preučevanje sprememb rabe tal, torej procesov. Prednost njegove uporabe je enotna metodologija zajemanja podatkov že vse od vzpostavitve »stabilnega«, franciscejskega zemljiškega katastra. Prav franciscejski kataster je s svojim pisnim in kartografskim delom nenadomestljiv in zato izjemen in dragocen vir podatkov, ne samo za preučevanja rabe tal, ampak tudi za druge geografske teme v 19. stoletju, kar dokazujejo prispevki iz drugih srednjeevropskih dežel kot na primer za Češko (Bičik et al 2001) in Avstrijo (Krausmann 2001).
V članku želimo prikazati uporabo franciscejskega katastra pri preučevanju pretekle rabe tal in s tem pri rekonstrukciji kmetijske kulturne pokrajine 19. stoletja. Avtorja sva veliko težo namenila opisu, dostopnosti in vsebini arhivskih fondov katastra. Fondi, ki se nanašajo na ozemlje današnje Slovenije, so shranjeni tudi zunaj današnjih državnih meja; in sicer v Deželnem arhivu Koroške v Celovcu in Državnem arhivu v Trstu. Na posameznih primerih pokažemo prek rabe tal podobnosti in razlike med kulturno pokrajino samooskrbnega kmetijstva iz prve polovice 19. stoletja in sedanjo kulturno pokrajino, ki je rezultat sodobnega tržno usmerjenega kmetijstva in težko predvidljivih učinkov globalizacije.
2	Capitastrum - 'spisek obdavčenih glav'
Zemljiški kataster je popis zemljišč, ki ga izvede država zaradi določitve enotne davčne odmere na zemljo (Ribnikar 1982, 321) oziroma »uradna evidenca o dejanskem stanju zemljišč« (Kladnik 1999, 73).
Predhodniki zemljiškega katastra so bili srednjeveški urbarji, popisi dajatev po kmetijah. Prvi popis zemljišč z imenom kataster pa je terezijanski kataster iz leta 1747, imenovan po Mariji Tereziji (Demšar 1995,15). Vendar to ni bil pravi kataster, saj zemljišča niso bila izmerjena, temveč je bila njihova velikost ocenjena po povprečni količini posejanega žita, po donosu sena in otave ali po količini dnevnega dela v gozdu. Kljub pavšalni oceni (Ribnikar 1982, 321), pa je služil svojemu osnovnemu namenu, to je štetju podložnikov na gosposkih veleposestvih in organizaciji gospodarjenja na njihovih posestvih. Izraz »kataster« izvira iz grške besede katastichon, ki pomeni 'spisek, seznam' ali pozno latinske besede capitastrum, to je 'spisek obdavčenih glav' (Roic 1999, 2).
Izmera zemljišč, znana pod imenom jožefinski kataster, ki jo je leta 1785 odredil cesar Jožef II, odraža bistven premik, vendar ni bila izvedena v celoti. Prva prava zemljiško katastrska izmera v naših krajih je bila izvedena leta 1800 med francosko okupacijo, in sicer za nekaj katastrskih občin (v nadaljevanju k. o.) v okolici Gorice (Demšar 1995, 15).
Franciscejski kataster je na podlagi patenta iz leta 1817 predstavljal poenoten in stabilen kataster. Zem-ljiškokatastrska izmera je bila za večino slovenskega ozemlja izdelana do leta 1828, za Prekmurje pa po letu 1856 vokviru izmere Ogrske. Pomembna je bila odločitev, da se podatki kartirajo. Operat je vseboval katastrske načrte, indikacijske skice (kopije katastrskih načrtov), seznam zemljiških parcel, seznam stavbnih parcel, abecedni seznam posestnikov, končni opis meje katastrske občine, seznam kultur, seznam nepoznanih posestnikov, izračun površin in pismene navedbe davkarije o davčnih zavezancih. V njih so bile vrisane parcele z barvami ločene glede na kulturo (kategorijo rabe). Ločil je tri skupine katastr-
skih kultur, in sicer enostavne, mešane in spreminjajoče se (Mlakar 1990, 25). Zaradi zemljiško-davčne reforme (1869) je bil franciscejski kataster v letih po zemljiški odvezi posodobljen. Tako imenovani reambulančni kataster je nastal med letoma 1869 in 1887 (Korošec 1978, 198), temu je sledila še revizija leta 1896. Od takrat naprej naj bi bil vzdrževan, kar pomeni, da naj bi se vpisovala vsaka sprememba v rabi in lastništvu (Košir, Breznik in Maslo 1999, 14; Demšar 1995, 20). Seveda pa so družbene in politične spremembe, ki so sledile, vplivale tudi na odnos do katastra in s tem posledično na njegovo vzdrževanje.
3 Zemljiški kataster kot arhivsko gradivo
Gradivo franciscejskega katastra, ki je za slovensko ozemlje dobro ohranjeno, se hrani v Arhivu RS, vendar je stanje po posameznih deželah različno. »... Največ gradiva je ohranjenega za nekdanjo Kranjsko, za vse preostale nekdanje pokrajine pa je gradivo bistveno bolj nepopolno in se hrani tudi zunaj slovenskih meja...« (Dobernik 2002, 65). Gradivo je zbrano in urejeno po kresijah oziroma političnoupravnih in nabornih okrožjih ter po abecednem zaporedju k. o., ki so bile določene s patentom iz leta 1784 (Korošec 1978, 174). Kranjska je obsegala tri kresije in okrog 860 k. o. (ljubljanska: 390 k. o., novomeška: 300 k. o. in postojnska: 170 k. o.), katerih gradivo je skoraj v celoti ohranjeno. Za Koroško je ohranjeno gradivo za 58 katastrskih občin v celovški kresiji (ne upoštevaje Zgornje Jezersko, ki je v gradivu Kranjske), za Štajersko je gradivo za 560 k. o. v celjski kresiji in za 566 v mariborski. Za goriško kresijo je ohranjeno gradivo za 132 k. o., poleg tega pa še 22 map francoskega katastra. Za kresijo Istra obstaja gradivo za le 18 k. o, večino ostalega gradiva pa je shranjenega v Državnem arhivu v Trstu. Gradivo za Prekmurje obsega gradivo za 160 k. o., od tega je popolno gradivo za 54 k. o.
Preglednica 1: Seznam arhivskega gradiva franciscejskega katastra, ki ga hrani Arhiv RS v Ljubljani
ime fonda	obdobje nastanka	obsega gradiva v tekočih metrih
franciscejski kataster za Koroško	1823-1869	5,8t.m.
franciscejski kataster za Kranjsko	1823-1869	238,1 t.m.
franciscejski kataster za Primorsko	1811-1869	1,3t.m.
franciscejski kataster za Štajersko	1823-1869	78,5t.m.
kataster za Prekmurje	1858-1860	8,1 t.m.
reambulančni kataster za Koroško	1872-1879	4,0 t.m.
reambulančni kataster za Kranjsko	1867-1882	107,3 t.m.
reambulančni kataster za Prekmurje	1909-1919	12,0 t.m.
Vir: Vodnik po fondih in zbirkah Arhiva RS 1999.
Slika 1: Pregledna karta obstoječega gradiva franciscejskega katastra po arhivih in tedanji upravni razdelitvi (Vir: Arhiv RS, Deželni arhiv Koroške v Celovcu in Državni arhiv v Trstu). Glej angleški del prispevka.
Danes je grafični del zemljiškega katastra (mape) skoraj v celoti informatiziran, pretvorjen v digitalno obliko. Začetki tega procesa so bili v zadnjem desetletju minulega stoletja. Te mape so v slabši ločljivosti brezplačno dostopne na spletnih straneh Arhiva RS (www.gov.si/ars/). V originalu pa so posamezni listi mape, ki merijo 71,5 x 58 cm, skenirani vločljivosti od 150 do 250 dpi in shranjeni v jpg ali tiff obliki (Dobernik 2002, 65). Pomembno je, da posamezne liste lahko uspešno združimo v celotno mapo k. o. in jih s pomočjo geografskih informacijskih sistemov razpačimo v današnji državni gauss-krügerjev koordinatni sistem. To nam omogoča neposredno primerjavo rabe tale v 19. stoletju z, na primer, ortofoto posnetki (Kladnik et al 2004, 126).
3.1 Pisni del franciscejskega katastra
Za študije procesov v kulturni pokrajini so pomembni podatki o rabi tal. Te smo zajemali iz delovodni-kov franciscejskega katastra in elaboratov za vsako k. o. posebej, kar predstavlja pisni del katastra. Za večino k. o. na ozemlju Slovenije je ohranjen tudi tako imenovani cenilni operat, ki še dopolnjuje sliko o podo-
bi pokrajine in ljudi. V katastru je opredeljenih devet osnovnih katastrskih kategorij ali kultur: njive, travniki, vrtovi, vinogradi, pašniki in planine, gozd, jezera in močvirja, parifikati ter neproduktivna zemljišča (Instruction zur... Grund- Ertrags- Schätzung 1830, par. 100-141; Anleitung zur Ausführung... 1870, par. 3). Kultura se je določevala na osnovi vrste pridelka in načina obdelovanja osnovne katastrske prostorske enote, torej parcele (Belehrung für die Steuer... 1826, par. 16). Poleg osnovnih kategorij so bile opredeljene še gradbene parcele, kamor so spadala razna stavbna zemljišča in poti (Instruction zur... Landes Vermessung 1824, par. 274-281). Osnovne katastrske kulture so se delile še na enostavne in sestavljene, slednje na mešane in spreminjajoče se (Instruction zur... Grund - Ertrags - Schätzung 1830, par. 142; Mischler, Ulbrich 1906, 590).
Rabo tal lahko iz delovodnikov preberemo na različnih prostorskih ravneh. Kot osnovna prostorska enota ima vsaka parcela določeno rabo, ki jo lahko preberemo v parcelnikih, po naštetih osnovnih kategorijah je površina rabe sešteta tudi na ravni celotne k. o. Tovrstni podatki so še posebej primerni za študije rabe in sprememb rabe tal na regionalni ali državni ravni (Gabrovec in Kladnik 1997, 17).
Slika 2: Obrazec franciscejskega katastra za vpisovanje površin zemljiških kategorij rabe tal po katastrskih ob~inah (vir: Arhiv RS). Glej angleški del prispevka.
3.2 Kartografski del franciscejskega katastra
Zemljiške mape, ki so dopolnilo pisnega dela, ne prikazujejo reliefa, zato je prikaz izoblikovanosti površja omejen le na naravne in kulturne objekte v prostoru: vodotoke (vode), ceste in poti, stanovanjska in gospodarska poslopja, cerkve, kapele in znamenja, nekatera trajna razmejitvena obeležja (kamniti zidovi, drevesa, skale osamelci in podobno) ter naravne in druge posebnosti, posebej značilne za prikazani prostor (Korošec 1978, 174). Po prvotnem namenu je najpomembnejši topografski element teh kart mejna črta posamezne parcele in njena protokolarna zaporedna (parcelna) številka. V navodilih je pojem parcela jasno opredeljen: to je posebna zemljiška enota, ki je večja od 25 kvadratnih sežnjev (cca 90 m2) in vezana na lastništvo in na vrsto katastrske kulture (Instruction zur Ausführung... Landes Vermessung 1824, par. 246, 248).
Na originalnih mapah je raba prikazana z barvo, dvojniki (indikacijske skice) pa največkrat niso obarvani. Barvni toni posameznih kultur so se morali na listih, ki so sestavljali celotno katastrsko občino, ujemati. Barve za isto katastrsko kulturo na mapah različnih katastrskih občin pa med seboj lahko razlikujejo (na primer v tonu in intenzivnosti barve). Navodila točno določajo barvne odtenke za posamezne kulture (Instruction zur Ausfürung... Landes Vermessung 1824, par. 466-475; Ribnikar 1982, 331).
Prikaz rabe na parceli dopolnjujejo še preprosti topografski znaki. Med temi znaki so v naših deželah najpogostejši znaki za označevanje pašnikov (črka W = Weiden, če so zraven narisani tudi grmički, gre za pašnik z grmovjem, drevje pomeni pašnik z drevjem), skupnih (srenjskih) pašnikov (črki GW = Gemeinde Weiden), vrst gozda (na primer smrečica in črki MH označujeta iglasti gozd srednje starosti), vrst travnikov (narisano sadno drevo za travnik s sadnim drevjem), vinogradov (ob kolu navita vinska trta) (Ribnikar 1982, 331). Tako lahko dokaj dobro določimo rabo, ki je, predvsem zaradi prikaza tudi mešanih kultur, zelo blizu dejanski takratni rabi. V tem smislu so v gorovju problematične zelo velike parcele, ki imajo enotno rabo, čeprav gredo preko zelo različnega površja (na primer alpski/gorski pašniki: ena parcela lahko obsega planinske trate, ruševje, skalovje, gozd).
4 Uporaba in razumevanje sprememb
Razumevanje nekdanje rabe tal nam pomaga razumeti tudi gospodarsko in družbeno podobo tedanjega časa, vpliv in razsežnost katastrof (bolezni vinske trte na primer), sledi nekdanje pokrajine in današnje stanje. Na osnovi tovrstne analize lahko ugotovimo, ali so določene strukture, ki se na prvi pogled zdijo stare, rezultat nedavnega razvoja ali dolgotrajnega procesa (Tage Domaas 2003, 222).
Ob branju franciscejskih map je najpomembnej{e poznavanje barv in znakov za posamezne kategorije rabe tal, saj je to osnova za razumevanje izgleda takratne pokrajine. S primerjavo izsekov iz katastrskih map na eni strani ter fotografij in letalskih posnetkov dana{njega stanja na drugi strani smo prikazali razlike v izgledu posameznih prvin kmetijske kulturne pokrajine v prvi polovici 19. stoletja in danes.
Kot njive so bile opredeljene tiste parcele, ki so ne glede na trenutno rabo služile za pridelavo krmnih rastlin, okopavin in žita. Med enostavnimi kategorijami so njive, hmelji{~a, riževa polja in podobno. Pri me{anih kategorijah so njive vodilna kultura, ki povr{insko zavzema večji delež parcele, stranske kulture so lahko sadno drevje, vinske trte, oljke, murve in podobno. Pri menjajočih se kategorijah so se njive sezonsko menjale s travniki, pa{niki in tudi z gozdom v ustaljenem časovnem redu (Instruction zur... Katastral Vermessung 1865, par. 162; Anleitung zur Ausführung... 1870, par. 3)
V 19. stoletju je bil obseg njiv v Sloveniji neprimerno večji kot danes (Gabrovec, Kladnik, Petek 2001, 49), vendar je tudi v uravnanih pokrajinah prevladovala drobna zemlji{ka struktura. Na Gorenjskem je bila {e posebej zanimiva razdelitev na delce, kjer so bile posamezne njive obdane z mejami (Ile{ič 1950, 37), kar je lepo vidno na mapi franciscejskega katastra (slika 3). Ozke neobdelane proge med njivami so sicer v Sloveniji redke, običajno so njive prehajale ena v drugo, kar je vodilo v {tevilne mejne spore, saj »... pri oranju kaj rad zaide plug na sosedova tla...« (Ile{ič 1950, 37). Njive v okolici Smokuča so obarvane svetlo rjavo, zeleni okvirji pa prikazujejo meje med njimi. Ta podoba se je danes izgubila; nekdanji način rabe je ohranjen le izjemoma. Večina njiv je zatravljenih (slika 4), kar je povezano z močno prevlado živinoreje, opu{čanjem polikulturnega kmetovanja ter kmetovanja nasploh.
Slika 3: Izsek mape franciscejskega katastra za k.o. Doslov~e, list L045A12, (Arhiv RS), prikazuje Smoku~ s poljem. Temno zelena barva prikazuje zelenjavne vrtove, svetlej{a zelena z znaki dreves travnike s sadnim ali drugim drevjem, svetlej{a zelena brez znakov dreves travnike in tudi travne meje, bledo zelena pa pa{nike. Njive so svetlo rjave (fotografija Mimi Urbanc). Glej angle{ki del prispevka.
Slika 4: Polje med Smoku~em in Rodinami leta 2004 (fotografija Franci Petek). Struktura njiv z mejami je v veliki meri izginila. Mestoma je {e vedno ohranjena, kar lahko razberemo iz prikazanega dela polja, ki je na sliki 3 ozna~en. Glej angle{ki del prispevka.
Kot travnik je bila opredeljena tista parcela, ki se je redno kosila in se je samo izjemoma popasla ali ne pokosila. V enostavni kategoriji so bili suhi ali mokri travniki, v me{anih kategorijah je bil travnik kot vodilna kultura v kombinaciji s sadnim drevjem, gozdnim drevjem, murvami, oljkami, vinsko trto in grmovjem (Instruction zur... Katastral Vermessung 1865, par. 162; Anleitung zur Ausführung... 1870, par. 3).
Na mapi franciscejskega katastra za k. o. Vižmarje, list L323A01, (Arhiv RS), (slika 5) so travniki prikazani s temnej{o zeleno barvo. Lepo vidni omejki med njimi so označenimi s topografskim znakom za drevo. Zanimivo in obenem presenetljivo je, da so se na robu Ljubljane, slovenskega glavnega mesta, nekateri travniki ohranili v svoji prvotni podobi skupaj z omejki, in sicer kot zeleni otoki znotraj pozidane mestne pokrajine (slika 6), ki je izpodrinila nekdanjo kmetijsko kulturno pokrajino. V tem primeru so se franciscejske mape izkazale tudi kot vir za ugotavljanje drobnih prvin v pokrajini, kot so omejki, ki jih lahko označimo za reliktne ostanke nekdanje kmetijske kulturne pokrajine.
Slika 5: Izsek mape franciscejskega katastra za k.o. Vižmarje, list L323A01 (Arhiv RS). Ozna~eno mesto kaže na travnike, obdane z omejkom, ki so se popolnoma nespremenjeni ohranili do danes. Glej angle{ki del prispevka.
Slika 6: Izsek letalskega posnetka, ortofoto list E2422 (GURS), ki kaže dana{nje stanje in ostanke reliktnih prvin v pokrajini. Ozna~ene parcele so iste kot na sliki 5. Glej angle{ki del prispevka.
Vrtovi so bile parcele, ne glede na to, ali so bile ograjene, ki so služile za pridelovanje sadja, zelenjave, rož, semen ali pa so služile za izobraževanje in razvedrilo. Delili so jih na sadne, zelenjavne, olivne in okrasne vrtove (Instruction zur... Katastral Vermessung 1865, par. 162; Anleitung zur Ausführung... 1870, par. 3).
Tipičen primer naselij z jasno vrisanimi vrtovi na franciscejskih mapah so akropolis naselja v slovenski Istri, kjer so bili vrtovi na prvih terasah tik ob hišah. Na sliki 7 so vrtovi šrafirani s temno zeleno barvo. Danes so se ohranili le v redkih primerih (slika 8), največkrat pa so celo sledi teras skoraj popolnoma zabrisane (slika 9), kaj šele samih vrtov.
Slika 7: Izsek mape franciscejskega katastra za k.o. Krkavce, lista I82B01, I82B02 (Državni arhiv v Trstu). V preteklosti so bile terase na severnem pobočju Krkavč namenjene zelenjavnim vrtovom. Glej angleški del prispevka.
Slika 8: Krkavče 2004: redki ohranjeni zelenjavni vrtovi na terasah (fotografija Mimi Urbanc). Glej angleški del prispevka.
Slika 9: Krkavče 2004: večino teras, nekdaj namenjenih vrtovom, danes prerašča grmovje (fotografija Mimi Urbanc). Glej angleški del prispevka.
Vinogradi so bile parcele, namenjene vinogradništvu. Lahko so bile brez stranskih kultur, lahko pa v kombinaciji s sadnim drevjem, murvami ali oljkami (Instruction zur... Katastral Vermessung 1865, par. 162; Anleitung zur Ausführung... 1870, par. 3). Značilen je primer Padne v slovenski Istri, kjer so bili na severnih pobočjih vinogradi, na južnih in zahodnih pa so se vinogradi prepletali z oljčnimi nasadi (slika 10). O vinogradih na severni strani danes ni več sledu, verjetno jih po uničujočem pohodu filoksere konec 19. stoletja niso več obnovili. Na zahodni strani so vinogradniške terase še dobro ohranjene, vendar se zaraščajo, južna pobočja pa so v celoti namenjena večinoma mladim oljčnim nasadom (sliki 11 in 12). Ta proces je značilen za velik del slovenske Istre in povezan z razmahom oljkarstva v zadnjem desetletju (slika 13).
Slika 10: Izsek mape franciscejskega katastra za k.o. Sveti Peter (Raven), list I443B01 (Državni arhiv v Trstu). Za Padno je bila značilna raba tal z vinogradi na severni in oljčnimi nasadi na južni strani. Glej angleški del prispevka.
Slika 11: Izsek letalskega posnetka, ortofoto list B190561B (GURS), ki kaže današnje stanje. Na severnem pobočju Padne so vinogradi že zdavnaj propadli, saj pobočja prerašča nizek gozd. Na terasiranem južnem pobočju so oljčni nasadi. Glej angleški del prispevka.
Slika 12: Padna 2004: nekoč v celoti terasirano severno pobočje Padne lahko samo še slutimo, saj so suhi zidovi ohranjeni samo fragmentarno (fotografija Mimi Urbanc). Glej angleški del prispevka.
Slika 13: Sveti Peter 2004: na južnem pobočju pod naseljem so se v sredini 19. stoletja vinogradi prepletali z oljčnimi nasadi. Danes na istem pobočju močno prevladujejo slednji, kar je na fotografiji lepo vidno, saj so v pozni jeseni še vedno zeleni (fotografija Mimi Urbanc). Glej angleški del prispevka.
Za pa{nike so bile opredeljene parcele s travo, ki jo je popasla živina. Sem so spadale tudi vse tiste površine, katerih pridelek je namenjen nastili. Posebej so bile opredeljene tudi planine, travnata zemljišča v gorovjih, namenjena sezonski planinski paši ali alpskemu kmetijstvu. Ločili so pašnike brez stranske rabe, sem so spadali tudi skupni pašniki (gmajne) in omejniki. Pri mešanih kategorijah so bili pašniki v kombinaciji s sadnim drevjem, murvami, oljkami, gozdnim drevjem, grmovjem (Instruction zur... Katastral Vermessung 1865, par. 162; Anleitung zur Ausführung... 1870, par. 3).
Zaradi sistema pašne govedoreje so bili v prvi polovici 19. stoletja pašniki še močno razširjena zemljiška kategorija. Pojavljali so se v velikih sklenjenih površinah na za travnike in njive manj primernem površju (Petek 2002, 67). Primer obsežnih pašnikov na kraškem ravniku pri Prešnici jasno kaže slika 14. Znotraj sklenjenih pašnih površin so zaplate njiv, obdane s travnim pasom in suhim zidom. Teh njiv ni več, večinoma so spremenjene v travnike, v posameznih primerih pa tudi travnikov ne kosijo več, suhi zidovi propadajo. Na splošno je v zadnjih desetletjih v zahodni Sloveniji proces zaraščanja močno prisoten. Pokrajina na sliki 15 le še spominja na nekdanje pašnike nad Prešnico.
Slika 14: Izsek mape franciscejskega katastra za k. o. Prešnica, listi I53B01, I53B02, I53B04, I53B05 (Državni arhiv v Trstu). Prevladujoča svetlo zelena barva predstavlja pašnike leta 1819, posamezne njive so le v vrtačah, obdanih s suhim zidom. Glej angleški del prispevka.
Slika 15: Prešnica 2004: pogled s pobočja vzhodno od naselja na kraški ravnik. Nekdanje obsežne pašnike se le še sluti v zaplatah med mladim gozdom in grmičevjem (fotografija Mimi Urbanc). Glej angleški del prispevka.
Slika 16: Prešnica 2004: opuščene pašnike začne najprej preraščati grmovno in nato gozdno rastje (fotografija Mimi Urbanc). Glej angleški del prispevka.
Kot gozd so bila opredeljena zemljišča, namenjena rasti gozdnega drevja, ne glede na to, ali so jih občasno ali redno pasli. Delili so ga na visoki gozd (gospodarski) (Britovšek 1964, str. 107), in sicer iglasti, listnati in mešani, in na nizki gozd. Slednji je obsegal mlado gozdno drevje in grmičevje.
Za jezera in močvirja so bila opredeljena tista zemljišča, ki so bila občasno ali stalno pokrita z vodo in so bila gospodarsko rabljena. V tej kategoriji so bili bajerji, jezera, močvirja in barja s trstičjem.
Parifikati so bila zemljišča, ki niso bila namenjena kmetijski rabi, na primer peskokopi in gramoznice, glinokopi, kamnolomi, šotišča, zasebni jarki, zasebne poti, zemljišča vzdolž železniških prog, vodna zajetja in podobno.
Davka prosta zemljišča so bile državne železnice, ceste in poti, pokopališča, cerkve in podobno. Sem so spadala tudi neproduktivna zemlji{ca, ki se jih ne more gospodarsko izkoriščati, na primer gola skalovja, reke in potoki, jezera, prodišča, ruševje (Instruction zur... Katastral Vermessung 1865, par. 162; Anleitung zur Ausführung... 1870, par. 3).
5	Sklep
Na več primerih smo pokazali uporabnost franciscejskega katastra za preučevanje pretekle rabe tal kot pomembnega elementa kmetijske kulturne pokrajine. Posebno vrednost pa imajo mape, ki dajejo točno prostorsko dimenzijo. Sicer zelo uporaben in dragocen vir je lahko tudi problematičen zaradi nekaterih pomanjkljivosti, kot so nepopoln arhivski fond za posamezno k. o., težavno razločevanje barvnih odtenkov istih kategorij na različnih mapah, težavno georeferenciranje, za katerega je potrebna zelo zmogljiva programska oprema. Kljub temu ob vse večjem zavedanju vrednosti posameznih ostalin pretekle kulturne pokrajine po nekaj desetletjih ponovno dobiva veliko znanstveno vrednost. Današnja kulturna pokrajina kljub številnim in globokim spremembam v zadnjih dveh stoletjih še vedno odseva poteze, ki so se izoblikovale v preteklosti. Celo v mestih so sledi še marsikje jasno vidne. Pokrajina je nikoli končan proces, je kontinuum oblik in funkcij, izmed katerih se nekatere spremenijo in prilagodijo novim zahtevam, nekatere izginejo in na njihovo mesto stopijo nove, druge pa ostanejo nespremenjene. S pomočjo franciscejskega katastra se te prvine, funkcije in procesi prepoznajo.
6	Literatura
Glej angleški del prispevka.