tant than global economy or hi-tech complexes for creating identity. This is the way for creating a link between the power cult and culture, the next step of developing the European urban civilisation.
Asist. Vesna Petrešln, architect, Faculty of architecture, University in Ljubljana
e-mail: vesna.petresin@arh.uni-lj,si
Figures:
Figure 1: Batty, M., Longley, P.: Fractal metropolis. In: The Fractal City New Science = New Architecture, Architectural Design, Academy Editions, London 1997. Figure 2: Davidson, P., Bates, D., Kipnis, J.: Information structures and built forms. In: Future Generations University, Architecture Alter Geometry, Architectural Design, Academy Editions, London 1997.
For sources and literature turn to page 49
Maja SIMONETI
Children and adolescents in the physical space^
From a playground for children to a child friendly city or from measures to networks
1. Defining the problem^
Children playing is understood as a spatially defined function, which can be organised or designed according to standards, just as car parking for example. However today children are being left without playgrounds, most of the planned playing areas represent the dominant aesthetics of adults on the needs of children and on nature (Boching in dr. 1989) or, as ironically put by Moore, existing children's playgrounds are attempts by adults to control the behaviour of children (Moore 1989).
Children's playgrounds, the predecessors of contemporary ones, appeared in the industrial society. Under conditions of social differentiation and mass migration to cities, the home and family, formerly relatively successful providers of space for play and children, were affected. Streets, squares and other urban spaces became ever more cluttered with dangers. Such changes, especially with increased traffic density, brought about the formation of special spaces intended for children.
The right of children to play is a basic human right, also pointed out in the Convention of children's rights (UNICEF, UN, 1989). Without the right to vote or possibilities for decision making, children and adolescents are a dependent po-
pulation group, that cannot represent their Interests in decision making processes by themselves. Responsibilities for the living conditions of children and adolescents is completely in the domain of adults.
Children and adolescents are population groups with needs that correspond to spatial organisation and adaptations. Typically, from the viewpoint of the individual, these needs are transitory, while in conjunction with the needs of other population groups, they are the starting points of spatial arrangements. Today we are witness to discussions on new types of enforcement of these needs. The necessity for respecting these needs everywhere, not only in designated spaces, as was the case in the past. Generally spatial organisation that takes into consideration the needs of children and adolescents is friendly to other users as well.
Part of the population, during the transition to adulthood, even because of inadequate spatial design, transgresses into vandalism and other socially less acceptable types of behaviour. In this transition particular individuals are completely dependent on their parents while a larger part is capable of articulating their spatial design wishes and directly participating in spatial development. It seems that one of the main problems of growing up in urban environments is the programme void that emerges in the leisure time, beginning in the senior years of primary school and above all, on completion of primary education (Ule, Rener, 1998). Classical child's play becomes uninteresting, as do school courtyards and playgrounds. Dedicated concern by adults, monitoring a child's programme and socialisation, is usually given to smaller children, while with older children, concern narrows down to intervention when problems arise. New social roles during transition to adulthood have to be learned by children, and it is inadmissible to leave them alone during this time or to their piers.
In the field of public children's playgrounds there was notable deterioration of conditions in the early nineties. The circumstances were tightly connected to the housing privatisation, whose consequence was the still ongoing debate on functional spaces of privatised buildings. First the quantity of publicly maintained surfaces shrunk. Several years of poor maintenance, whatever the type of property, have been replaced by renewed public care, amongst other for children's playgrounds 3. The discussion on the meaning of maintenance will, in the final consequence, be redirected into design and functions of particular surfaces, whatever their ownership. Within its competence in spatial management the local authority will have to claim their stake, thus enforcing public interest against the private. At that point the definition of spatial needs of children and adolescents will be necessary. Thus this article presents the case of Ljubljana and the corresponding discussion.
In spatial planning of the recent past enforcement of spatial needs of children was done in by negotiated-normative planning. Although urban planning norms and standards were never formally adopted, they were used in practice on all levels of planning. The consequence of such an approach Is the fairly large quantity of public children's playgrounds in Slovenian towns, now however largely endangered, under pragmatic urban development conditions. Moreover, the analysis of conditions in Ljubljana shows, that the specific field is exceptionally disregarded, especially adolescents -older children. The lack of planning and statutory solutions
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to problems of spatial needs of children and adolescents has brought about conditions, whereby above standard residential conditions correspond only to the quality of interiors, while the quality of open spaces is measured by the quantity of parking spaces. The latter means, that the inhabitants are devoid of other possible uses or offer of open spaces. An interesting development has however started in the field of housing development where control mechanisms were set up, with the adopted Ordinance on minimal technical conditions in residential buildings and apartments Thus the first step in protecting the consumer was taken, but in the field of open spaces and functional spaces of residential buildings, a lot can still be achieved. The occurence is still a far cry from the case of Stockholm, were a law from 1972 decrees the necessity of providing children's playgrounds on pertaining properties where there are more than two family apartments (Children's playgrounds, 1973, pp. 21), a fact well known to owners of above standard flats.
In present conditions basically representatives of the local authorities and planning professionals are in trouble, since they don't have at their disposal any mechanisms or formulated goals, that could be pursued thus providing proposals (solutions) friendly to children and adolescents. The characteristics of the population group, its importance as granted by society, new knowledge on needs for comprehensive management of circumstances, demands for direct participation of children and adults to meet the circumstances, the public character of these matters and above all, spatial needs under conditions of prevailing planning practice imply wider professional involvement.
Physical development in space that meets needs of children and adolescents is inherently a public investment or an investment in public property In this sense the problem in Slovenia is the undefined field of pubic property, the consequence being steady diminishment of spatial potentials for achieving pertaining programmes. To avoid negative consequences, we will have to gradually adopt an undeniable standpoint on public interest against private interest, whatever the nature of property, a standpoint that is also the subject of physical planning, as understood in the developed World.
2. The case of Ljubljana
A research on children's playgrounds has already been completed (Simoneti 1998). The research was based on a review of literature, as a wider comparative framework in assessing conditions of the discussed issue, co-operation with representatives of formal and informal parties active in the field of children's playgrounds and field analyses. Results of the research are multi-faceted: beginning with a uniform register of children's playgrounds in Ljubljana, followed by a discussion on the concept of the network of surfaces for children and adolescents in the city and questions on quality of playing surfaces, with a warning to the centra! government, that is, under present planning conditions, obliged to cater to the spatial needs of children and adolescents and ensure an adequate level of security and quality.
Today the city has at its disposal a substantial number of children's playgrounds 5. Their decay from the early 90s was followed by an organised action of renewal and maintenance. The warning about their dilapidation came from the munici-
pal Society of friends of the youth, whose members conducted a detailed research on their state and thus established conditions for the activities of the local authorities (MZPMS, 1996). Dangerous and dilapidated playground elements were removed, the rest were renewed. On particular sites new elements were introduced. The present circumstances show, that compared to trends in developed environments public playgrounds are conceptualised modestly, narrowed down to the viewpoint of playground elements, devoid of necessary support in greenery and other landscape design. Even certain new playgrounds don't provide adequate conditions for satisfying the needs of children, adolescents and their escorts. Places equipped with the newest elements don't provide shadowed or comfortable places for resting or supervising children at play, there are no public toilets and in certain aspects actually distance themselves from public use Above all the city lacks organised spaces for older children and adolescents. Here the most critical problem is the acceptance of this population in residential areas, where even playgrounds for small children disturb the residents, while the idea of having basketball courts or in-line skating polygons is practically impossible, because of expected noise and other complementary effects of adolescents socialising Older children and their activities are somehow unwanted in playgrounds for small children, because of possible disturbances and endangering the latter, but at the same time there is no provision of spaces for them.
Amongst other the research proved, that the existing playgrounds aren't sensibly categorised, leading to additional problems in spatial placements, as well as responsibilities in their maintenance and care. Not only did the number of categorised public children's playgrounds increase in the last few years, from the former meagre quantities, the problem is in the meaning of categorisation as such. As soon as it is tied to municipal management, it immediately becomes clear, that public playgrounds have to sensibly spatially distributed and that the number of such playgrounds is automatically tied to available resources. The only understandable fact is, that categorisation according to content or programme have to be tied to allocated responsibilities. The interest of the city is to provide an equal distribution of high quality playing surfaces. Of course another question arises, what happens to playgrounds not maintained by the city The present circumstances of uncontrollable changes to land use, a result of poor interest by »new« owners of functional areas and the lack of space in residential areas, is unacceptable. To establish a dialogue, clear expert guidelines supported by concordance from the local authority, have to be devised and enforcement of public interest made the mainstay of day-to-day spatial management.
One of the research goals was to establish the ties between individuals and institutions, active in the specific field. Because co-operation in working with children and above all for children is in certain places a traditional activity (National playground federation of England - NPFE, established in 1926, International playground association - IPA, 1961), it was made clear, that this aspect should also be attended to. Even in Slovenia ties between formal and informal activity has a long tradition and was crucial in the early 90s. However, connections between amateurism and responsible bodies are becoming inadequate under circumstances when the city is discussing networks of design and organisation for meeting spatial needs of children and adolescents. Translation of research findings into urban design

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guidelines for long-term planning demands more political support and resources, than the presently involved parties can muster. Employees of the local authority and representatives of non-governmental organisations are incapable of affecting changes in urban planning practice, although they are systematically influencing the raise in level of quality of playgrounds and providing conditions for life for children and adolescents In the city.
Circumstances in the specified field compared to past endeavour and foreign practice are however unsatisfactory Declarative inclination towards the specified population group doesn't provide conditions for building new playgrounds nor any change or renewal in content of existing ones. Moreover, under the given circumstances, not even statutory protection of existing playgrounds was adopted or adequate supply of these programmes throughout the city provided, the same applies to considerations on safety of playground elements or environments or even safety in the city as such. On one hand we have the open issue of public children's playgrounds, corresponding to the issue of functional surfaces and indirectly available resources for establishing a public stock of playground surfaces in the city. On the other hand, the topic has been completely removed from professional interest in the last ten years. This means, that the needs of children and adolescents haven't been systematically integrated in new plans and reconstructions, as well as renewal. In view of urban planning standards and norms events evade the formerly established practice, the worst problems being the new distribution of power, priority of interests. The consciousness of planners is under to much strain from investors to make it an efficient transmitter of such spatial interests. These conditions of social identification of spatial interests or issues make the absence of the municipal planning authorities interest understandable, but not acceptable. The provision of sites for public playgrounds and other conditions for enforcing spatial needs of children and adolescents in the city is the first condition needed to systematically organise programmes of renewal, maintenance and new development. It has to become part of the long-term spatial development strategy, that will pave the path of the local authority in the desired direction of comprehensive solutions.
3. New children's playgrounds
Comparison of domestic circumstances with foreign cases shows certain essential differences in dealing with the needs of children and adolescents. They are evident in physical design and especially in connecting individuals concerning with the children's benefit. Differences in quality and quantity of activity involving representatives of various interests, professions and positions are surprisingly vast and pose very serious questions for future practice in Slovenia, what can we achieve without such a mix of participants and when can we expect such intense co-operation, based on unpayed work and donations. The offer of playground elements, especially comprehensive designs of playing surfaces, reach up to unimaginable limits. On one hand this is conditioned by the fact, that children are an important market niche, richly provided for in the developed World On the other hand the reason can be found even in the identification of problems and responses to them or the possibilities for responsiveness in particular environments. The levels of dealing with the problem have been lowered from general care for living conditions of
children, to detailed aspects of safety, specific development needs, development of playground equipment, animation in play, co-operating with children in design and maintenance, dividing and uniting children at play, up to problems, such as vandalism or girls in the specific age group of transition to puberty, when they almost completely remove themselves from active playing in open spaces.
Public children's playgrounds are and will remain important spatial arrangements for children. Both the spatial and programme aspect are important, meaning the distribution of playing surfaces in the city and meeting the needs of different age groups. Especially important is the public nature of these surfaces, meaning unhindered access for all users, not excluding closing them at night or controlled use, but prohibiting commercialisation of these surfaces or segregation for specific user groups. Simultaneously the contemporary prevailing planning practice enforces the needs of children as a measure for designing all urban spaces (Stadt fur Kinder, 1992; Grosse-Bachle, 1993). Programme projects, such as »city to children«, are mastering developed urban environments and are based on two mutual findings: children live everywhere and, design that is friendly to children, is also friendly to other population groups.
New methods of dealing with the issue follows the recognition, that children spend much more time in other open spaces, rather than playgrounds, that their day-to-day rhythm is very much intertwined with other urban life and that while growing up their independence increases, quite the opposite of their need for contacts with adults.
On the level of harmonising spatial development of cities and especially the distribution of public programmes, it is therefore necessary to provide conditions for the enforcement of spatial needs of children and adolescents, be it in special places such as playgrounds or in various proposals for designing public open spaces from the viewpoint of the specific population, as well as connections to other population groups and their spatial interests. The former method that drove the Slovenian practice, when virtual presentations of needed surfaces and narrowed down solutions to specific needs or adapted cases, such as children's playgrounds, playgrounds in schools or kindergartens, has been made obsolete. If the former initiatives for spatial planning stressing the necessity of environments to be adapted to the needs of children went unheard, today we have to take a step forward: »In the urban design of open residential environments, our goal has to be, that the open space must be adequately designed even for children« (children's playgrounds, 1973, pp.15). This appeal from the 70s is in complete harmony with contemporary findings. In the last ten years very few new playgrounds were built in Slovenia, but the circumstances are ripe to recognise the fact, that the bare provision of children's playgrounds cannot provide the wanted quality of the living environment for one of the special population groups.
in solving problems of spatial needs of children special attention has to be given to children on the verge of adulthood, i.e. between the age of ten and sixteen. The needs of adolescents with their characteristics differ from basic needs, that can be provided within the circle of a classical playground. They have no sympathy for regimented spaces provided for the play of small children. Their needs are ruled by the unexpected, places that cannot be totally surveilled by adults, where they can test their capabilities and sociali-

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se with their piers. They are children that are completing their compulsory education, meaning a serious turning point in their lives, since it is a stop in systematic social care for the child's development or living conditions. Therefore it is not unusual that so much effort is given to organising conditions for their needs in developed environments. After all, this is also the population group that is most often involved in the destruction of playground equipment and park furniture and also suffers the consequences of the programme void leading from exclusion from social systems. Experience shows that small children are socially acceptable, their needaare generally recognised, while older children, because of the noisiness and dynamics of their play, are excluded from residential areas, they are blamed for perpetrating damage to property and a much lower level of their social acceptance can be recognised.
Examples of involving older children in the design of playing surfaces and conducting games, together with special arrangements for their needs, prove to be the obviously best way of solving the problem. The experienced warn, that in the design of street furniture in open spaces, resilience to destruction has to be incorporated, thus even playground elements have to be adapted to the weight and strength of adult users (Phillips, 1995; Stadtgartenamt Wien, 1997). So called »vandal proof« equipment is the only good solution for designing open spaces, it diminishes the costs of maintenance and above all by diminishing problems in finding the culprits for damaged equipment also prevents ideas about removing these pieces, before their destroyed remains would visually spoil a place. The mentioned relation to vandalism enables the search for solutions for the active children's population and is a responsive adaptation to different needs.
Within the search for different and domestically unknown ideals, we have to mention at least two more important contents, that should gain in emphasis or care when facilitating the spatial needs of children and adolescents. In reality the first is care for children with special needs ""i, that remain within the framework of spatial needs or children's needs. Since the 70s there has been a worldwide quest for adapting open spaces for users with special needs. After all, gardens designed or adapted for the use of the blind or with poor sight, have been known from the times between the two wars, while environments adapted for the functionally disabled are a day-to-day affair of their families. Denying the needs of small groups of people is therefore a stance, highly unacceptable for a developed society Moreover, examples show that adaptations to spaces for the use of different users enrich open spaces and increase their attraction, thus creating a bridge for co-existence of various population groups. The second somewhat special user group, as established by European researchers are young girls around the age of ten, that largely stop actively using open playing surfaces (Mädchengerechte Spielplätze, 1995). The reasons for such behaviour can-be found in their development, increased concern of their parents for their safety and above all inadequate design of these spaces for their emerging or different needs (Kinder sind Mädchen und Jungen, 1996). The issue is diminished need for dynamics and increased need for socialising, quiet games and observing others. For these uses in open spaces the quality of seating surfaces and hygiene of open spaces should be increased and quiet places with tables provided. All of these features again imply the growth of quality of open spaces and increased attraction even for other users.
Another important topic, driving the efforts for actions in providing children friendly environments is security. Security is seen as safe playground equipment, maintained environment, non-poisonous plants growing next to playgrounds, conscientious drivers and dog owners and lastly diverse measures. Whatever the reason for particular accidents while playing, one can establish, that the best protective measure diminishing the number of accidents in playgrounds, is the presence of adults and children taking care of their own safety and the safety of others. How do fences, playground wardens, locking up at night, night lighting and standards for building and assembling playground equipment promote security in practice? Simply as important complementary actions for diminishing danger, but never as a 100 % guarantee for security relieving one of worry.
What should one pay attention to when designing playgrounds? The guiding idea should be, that children remember scary mysterious, sensitive, special places and events. Children must have the time and possibility to play. Adults have to help children, take part in their play. Where is the great opportunity for children's playgrounds, promoted loudly by experts and wanted by children? Together with adults, children create playing processes even when participating in the building of a playground. These are rare events of »pleasant« interaction between children and adults also giving children a feeling of usefulness. The basic principle should be, that playgrounds should offer various possibilities for children with different capabilities and desires, including the physically or mentally handicapped. New playgrounds are visually less attractive and less designed, but demand much more effort from all involved, to get them started and alive. The idea is to provide children with a playing, living space, under the sky. It has been established, that in playgrounds in nature, children of different sex, age or social background mix easily, they are more relaxed and inventive, achieving »difference« is easier as is adapting activities to their capabilities, thus they are in control of the situation and feel good. Games between children of different ages and role playing are important. Children do things that they desire, they behave as they usually shouldn't, since they are well aware that certain things in life are prohibited. Children need equal beings, even animals and elementary material: water, dirt, soil, trees, forests. But above all they need the attention of adults, not necessarily their parents. During play, building and designing a playground, interesting ties can be achieved. Children can get attached to a gardener, warden, game animator, mothers that come to playgrounds with prams and can tell fascinating stories, whatever they choose. Even without all these things, children will survive, but we shouldn't be surprised, if they never learn certain social lectures, spatial identification and initiative (Gulič, 1989).
4. The concept of a child friendly environment network
The proposal for solving existing conditions in Ljubljana and also within the country is based on findings from literature, foreign examples and comparisons with the present spatial circumstances. The proposal is based on the idea of organising a children friendly environments network, operating as an organisational and spatial network connecting two important factors: human and spatial potentials. The network is built from connections of different levels of activity whose
construction can begin immediately, wliatever the actual legal constraints, and gradually developed in desired directions or places. The method of building the network is close to the nature of the problem itself and to the method recognised as active in more developed environments. It allows activity within the framework of providing public interest, that is not clearly defined in legal documents or laws on planning and design, while certain segments are simultaneously dealt with in system solutions of organised education, health care and social security. In short, we can establish that wherever the life and welfare of children and adolescents are concerned, there are numerous and different formally defined activities, that are also correspondingly vary in distribution of the share of the population group reached. The goal of the network would be to ensure, that as many contents as possible would reach all children and adolescents in Slovenia and their spatial needs. Thus harmonising the field of providing public playgrounds and spatial facilities for children and adolescents should be transferred to the national level, the network of public schools and kindergartens connected into a network catering to the spatial needs of children and adolescents, the connections to the Slovenian Society of friends of the youth strengthened, and as many adults as possible from different environments involved, also teachers and tutors, who could actively participate with children in the maintenance and design of playgrounds.
At first the responsibilities of the government for statutory solutions for the spatial needs of children have to be stressed. Only the central government can, through the planning imperative, delegate responsibilities to governing bodies and establish a control system for securing the provision of this public spatial activity. Statutory solutions for meeting the spatial needs of children and adolescents ensure the specific spatial use achieved in open public spaces. The question, whether solutions are achieved by norms and urban design standards or compulsory suggestions needs more discussion, although globally normative planning of playgrounds is being replaced by responsive planning, meeting needs and interests. Nevertheless, the government is not relieved from the responsibility of providing conditions for planning new playgrounds, in the existing urban tissue as in new development. In this context, the question of safety of surfaces, design and above all playground equipment, has to be solved as well. The government has to ensure conditions for the import of equipment, production of domestic equipment, meeting the highest possible standards of safety.
Within these conditions, a spatial and organisation network can gradually evolve, based on wide recognizability of problems and raised level of consciousness of responsible adults. Such a campaign should probably be run by the government. Concerning safety and »belonging«, a lot can be achieved by an informed public, treating children and adolescents as their own. This position demands responsible actions by adults reaching into the very sensitive areas of intervening in another person, it is not easy, but in a civilised environment it is the only possible one. Care for other people begins, when we help an unknown child from a swing, continues with a warning to another, not to throw papers on the ground and help an elderly person cross the street.
The mentioned umbrella condition will simplify actions in particular environments and above all ensure even distribution of spatial use, also preventing the common practice of neglecting the spatial needs of children and adolescents. In
particular environments, depending on the inherited organisation structure, different results can be expected.
Based on the research work in Ljubljana will take place in a number of steps. The first is the creation of a uniform register of public children's playgrounds, following two goals: to present spatial coverage with public children's playgrounds and in conjunction, to define issues of maintenance and design. The brunt of the problem is hidden in the relationship between property rights and public functions. Ideals show, that property and land use don't necessarily coincide, because regulating land use is a public matter in the domain of the community and not the individual, owner. In Slovenian planning practice, the latter as been forgotten, while local authorities and professionals aren't trying very hard to overturn such understanding. However, the activity of providing pubiic children's playgrounds is one of the pubic matters, that the municipality should be obliged to attend to, even on privately owned property, thus ensuring even distribution of specific offer. Changes in land use are the subject of local government decisions and not land owners.
In the second phase an analysis of the urban condition is anticipated. Based on statistical data and coverage with playing surfaces, as well as recognised, identified needs, provide the background for a concept of the spatial network. The concept should include semi-public surfaces adjacent to schools and'kindergartens, possible generators of quality and professional guidance. The main goal however is to ensure even distribution throughout the city with designs of different quality. The text following the spatial concept of the system of public surfaces for children and adolescents, describes the concept and presents possible ways of enforcing spatial regimes set out in the municipal spatial plan for catering to spatial needs of children and adolescents. The purpose of the concept is to enforce a kind of system, that has a spatial and a programme part, including spatial and formal frameworks for consistent ensuring of needs being met for specific population groups in the city, in ideal conditions the text would include methods of financing, tax benefits, responsibilities of owners, individuals and managers of residential buildings and stimulation measures. It would provide the rights and obligations of the municipality, investors and users of city space.
Of course we suggested to the local authority the organisation of a working group for children's playgrounds, where municipal employees and interested citizens could meet and co-ordinate activities. Such a working group already exists in Ljubljana so it will not be difficult to widen the circle of interested individuals, according to professional inclination or beliefs. The first who should join are the presently completely absent urban designers. The issue of legitimisation of the problem of children's playgrounds and general conditions for the welfare of children and adolescents in the city has already been addressed by the working group. The creation of a register of playgrounds, a working tool for their maintenance and design, including responsible bodies of the local authority and owners, with a data base for planning, renewal and redesign, is an ongoing project.
By paying respect to certain general principles of activity and in connection with other domestic and foreign environments in Slovenia and Ljubljana, we could in a very short time, achieve visible and above all useful results. The necessary condition and development trend are inter-connected
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levels: particular professional agencies, the interested public, playgrounds tied into a network of playing surfaces, connecting institutional playgrounds (schoolyards and kindergartens) into the network, tying programmes for children into other recreational and leisure activities for the inhabitants, all of which are qualitative and quantitative supplements of the network.
Maja Simoneti, f^.Sc., landscape architect. Ljubljanski urbanistični zavod d.d,
Notes
^ The expressions children and adolescents used in the text emphasise the fact that the subject is the whole dependent, growing-up population. Research has shown that the needs of older children {approx. between ten and sixteen) are often completely and unjustifiably neglected.
2	The article is the result of research and informal endeavours (Simoneti, 1999; Šuklje, Simoneti, Vahtar, 1998) in enforcement of the needs of children and adolescents in Slovenian space and society.
3	In Ljubljana for example the number of public children's playgrounds managed by the Municipal department of pre-school education is annually increasing.
Henceforth even non-owners will be able to build. Križnik, B., Delo 24. 5. 2000.
In the list, collected from various registers for the research project, 200 sites were selected.
® Such an example is the steam engine train in the Tivoli playground. The acceptability of a programme, that demands
payment is questionable in a public playground, because it leads to unnecessary differentiation between children; since it happens in such a high quality and rich place, makes it even worse.
The article Questionable playgrounds (Delo, May 2000) informed us about the first examples of issued decrees by national planning inspectors, for the remova! of particular elements of playgrounds standing in front of residential buildings in Ljubljana.
The research showed that the field is losing in presence, not only in the execution sense of planning and design proper, but also in research. Expert attention is regulated by events in development practice.
The network of civil initiative of non-government organisations in the developed World is growing in density and is obviously the only method of connecting this public interest with activity in practice. Problem oriented, narrowed down organisations are appearing, that are connected on municipal, national and international levels.
Last, but not least is the fact, that in many countries various consumer protection organisations have, within the framework of their activities, dealt with different aspects of improving conditions in children's playgrounds or play
When using the phrase »special needs« I explicitly expressed, that they are the needs, that are a part of general needs and shouldn't imply the exclusion of parts of the population. The main intention of dealing with these needs is to emphasise their necessary inclusion in everyday needs of everyday life.
For literature and sources turn to page 60
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