K KR M UREDNIKI / EDIT W ON K DE K V ARST V R KR ASOSL AR ARST OL A O TIN KNEZ, ME VEL ASOSL OGY AND DE OV TER DA AZVOJNIH IZZIVIH NA KR JE ARST I V R OP OL AZVOJNIH IZZIVIH NA KR 38 i VEL s h Zalo ORS: s ttp://zalo n e MENT CHALLENGES OGY AND OV 1854-2964 TK žba ZR OP MENT CHALLENGES ON K A PE zba.zr C / ZR JE TRIČ, c C P -sazu ublishing .si T ASU I ADE J SL ARST I ABE ASU I 00 OBA OVITKA final.indd 1 1.12.11 18:16 VJE O OJNIH IZZIVIH ZV ASU I ASOSL A DAO UREDNIKI / EDIT M WKR ON K V R DENA KR K V AR ARST TIN KNEZ, ME ATER VEL ARST I OP OL ORS: TK MENT OGY AND A PE TRIČ, TADE CHALLENGES J SL ABE Carsologica 13 Urednik zbirke Series editor: Franci Gabrovšek CIP - Kataložni zapis o publikaciji Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Ljubljana Uredniki Editors: 911.2(082) Martin Knez, Metka Petrič, Tadej Slabe KRASOSLOVJE v razvojnih izzivih na krasu. 1, Voda = Karstology KRASOSLOVJE V RAZVOJNIH IZZIVIH NA KRASU I – VODA and development challenges on karst. 1, Water / uredniki, editors KARSTOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGES Martin Knez, Metka Petrič, Tadej Slabe ; [risane predloge Tamara Korošec]. - Ljubljana : Založba ZRC = ZRC Publishing, 2011. - ON KARST I – WATER (Carsologica ; 13) Recenzenta ISBN 978-961-254-334-1 Reviewed by: 1. Knez, Martin, 1964- Andrej Kranjc, Rajko Pavlovec 258948608 Jezikovni pregled Language review: © 2011, Založba ZRC, ZRC SAZU. Alenka Možina All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, Oblikovanje in prelom mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission Design and typesetting: of the publisher. Barbara Hiti Oblikovanje risanih predlog Drawing: Tamara Korošec Izdajatelj Issued by: Inštitut za raziskovanje krasa ZRC SAZU Karst Research Institute ZRC SAZU, Postojna Zanj Represented by: Tadej Slabe Založnik Published by: Založba ZRC ZRC Publishing, Ljubljana Za založnika For the publisher: Oto Luthar Glavni urednik Editor-in-chief: Aleš Pogačnik Tisk Printed by: Collegium graphicum d.o.o., Ljubljana Naklada Printrun: 600 Izdajo knjige je podprla Subsidized by: Javna agencija za knjigo RS Slovenian Book Agency Postojna-Ljubljana, 2011 1. ZNAČILNOSTI KRAŠKIH VODONOSNIKOV, NJIHOVA RANLJIVOST IN OGROŽENOST 1. CHARACTERISTICS OF KARST AQUIFERS, THEIR VULNERABILITY AND ENDANGERMENT 7 metka petrič, nataša ravbar, janja kogovšek 2. VLOGA VADOZNE CONE V PRENOSU ONESNAŽENJA S POVRŠJA SKOZI KRAŠKE VODONOSNIKE DO KRAŠKIH IZVIROV 2. THE ROLE OF THE VADOSE ZONE IN THE TRANSFER OF POLLUTION THROUGH KARST AQUIFERS TO KARST SPRINGS 20 janja kogovšek 3. TEMPERATURA VODE KOT NARAVNO SLEDILO ZA UGOTAVLJANJE PRETAKANJA PODZEMNIH VODA: PRIMER PODZEMNE PIVKE IN UNICE 3. WATER TEMPERATURE AS A NATURAL TRACER OF GROUNDWATER IN KARST: THE CASE OF THE PIVKA AND UNICA RIVERS 38 franci gabrovšek, janez turk 4. OGROŽENOST KRAŠKIH VODNIH VIROV ZARADI PROMETA V REDNIH RAZMERAH 4. THREATS TO THE KARST WATER SOURCES FROM TRAFFIC IN NORMAL CONDITIONS 47 SEBINAC janja kogovšek VONTENT 5. IZLITJA NEVARNIH SNOVI OGROŽAJO KRAŠKE VODE 5. SPILLAGES OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES ENDANGER KARST WATERS 65 janja kogovšek, metka petrič 6. NAČRTOVANJE MONITORINGA PODZEMNE VODE V VPLIVNEM OBMOČJU S ODLAGALIŠČ ODPADKOV NA KRASU NA PODLAGI REZULTATOV SLEDILNIH POSKUSOV 6. PLANNING OF GROUNDWATER MONITORING IN THE IMPACT AREAS OF LANDFILLS IN KARST BASED ON THE RESULTS OF TRACER TESTS 83 metka petrič, janja kogovšek 7. OCENA VPLIVA VOJAŠKEGA VADIŠČA POČEK NA KRAŠKE VODE 7. ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT OF THE POČEK MILITARY TRAINING AREA ON KARST WATERS 101 mojca bole, samar al sayegh-petkovšek, polonca druks gajšek, janja kogovšek, metka petrič, boštjan pokorny 8. PRILAGAJANJE SLOVENSKE ZAKONODAJE POSEBNIM ZNAČILNOSTIM KRAŠKIH VODONOSNIKOV 8. ADJUSTMENT OF THE SLOVENE LEGISLATION TO THE SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF KARST AQUIFERS 124 metka petrič, janja kogovšek, nataša ravbar 9. ALTERNATIVNA METODA ZA ZAŠČITO KRAŠKIH VODNIH VIROV 9. AN ALTERNATIVE METHOD FOR THE PROTECTION OF KARST WATER SOURCES 137 nataša ravbar 10. PRILAGODITVE POPLAVAM NA KRASU 10. ADAPTING TO FLOODING ON KARST 148 gregor kovačič, nataša ravbar Vsebina / Contents Dobro poznavanje naravne in kulturne dedi- ščine krasa je pogoj za smiselno načrtovanje A good knowledge of the natural and cultural heritage of karst is a precondition for the življenja na njem. Kras pa je moč spoznati rational planning of life on it. The karst can in razumeti predvsem s celostnim proučevanjem nje- be known and understood primarily through the govega površja, jam in voda ter ekoloških značilnosti. comprehensive study of its surface, caves, waters, and Pri poglabljanju temeljnega znanja na Inštitutu za ecological characteristics. raziskovanje krasa Znanstvenoraziskovalnega centra The Karst Research Institute of the Scientific Re- Slovenske akademije znanosti in umetnosti že več kot search Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences šest desetletij razvijamo in interdisciplinarno povezu- and Arts has been involved in developing this basic jemo najbolj pomembna področja krasoslovja in jih knowledge, establishing interdisciplinary connections nadgrajujemo v celostno krasoslovje. Znanje skušamo among the most important fields of karstology, and urediti, da je kar čimbolj uporabno tudi načrtoval- consolidating them into an integral science of karstol- OR cem življenja na krasu. V večje, neposredno uporabne ogy for more than six decades. We try to organize the V projekte smo vključeni. In izbrani, sveži izsledki so knowledge to make it as useful as possible for plan-in bodo predstavljeni v knjižni zbirki Krasoslovje v ning life in karst regions and are directly involved in razvojnih izzivih na krasu. larger major projects. Book collection Karstology and Načrtovanje brez dobrega poznavanja okolja in development chal enges on karst will present a selection tudi posledično vizije njegovega razvoja, pa čeprav of completed and new projects. P PREDGO znotraj zakonskih naravovarstvenih omejitev, pač ni Planning without a thorough understanding of REF dovolj. Z dobrimi krasoslovnimi izsledki, tako na the environment and consequently a vision of its posameznih področjih krasoslovja kot v interdisci- development—even though within the boundaries A plinarni celoti, želimo pripraviti temelj za smiselno of environmental protection legislation—is certainly CE načrtovanje življenja na krasu. Za načrtovanje, ki bo not sufficient. We wish to build a foundation for the upoštevalo naravne in kulturne značilnosti in ranlji- rational planning of activities on karst based on good vost kraških pokrajin, načrtovanje, ki bo presegalo vsa- karstological research, as much in individual fields of kokratne želje po dobičku, načrtovanje okolja pravih karstology as in interdisciplinary studies. Such plan- družbenoekonomskih razmer, v dobro prebivalcem ning must take the natural and cultural characteristics krasa in njegovega kratko- ter dolgoročnega razvo- and the vulnerability of karst landscapes into consid- ja. Čeprav je naše poslanstvo predvsem poglabljanje eration and overcome the inevitable pursuit of profit. temeljnega znanja o krasu, kraških pojavih in vodah, Environmental planning must realistically consider pa se zavedamo potrebe po stalnem in učinkovitem the socioeconomic conditions for the benefit of lo- približevanju krasoslovnih dognanj širši družbeni cal karst populations and the short- and long-term skupnosti, tudi skozi sodelovanje pri pomembnejših development of karst regions. While the mission of neposredno uporabnih projektih. the Karst Research Institute is primarily to expand Pred desetimi leti smo ustanovili podiplomski the basic knowledge of karst, karst phenomena, and študij krasoslovja in s krasoslovnimi predmeti so- karst waters, we are also aware of the need for the con- delujemo pri geografskih študijih. Ustanovili smo tinuous and effective communication of karstological tudi Krasoslovno akademijo – mednarodno združenje knowledge to the wider social community, including krasoslovcev, znotraj katere bomo še bolj učinkovito through our participation in the more important and mednarodno povezovali znanje in izkušnje ter poiskali directly useful projects. najboljše podlage za smiselno načrtovanje življenja v Ten years ago, the Karst Research Institute estab- raznovrstnih kraških pokrajinah. lished a postgraduate karstology program and in- Vključeni smo v posamezne projekte razvoja in corporated karstology courses in the undergraduate varovanja naravne in kulturne dediščine krasa, regio- geography curriculum. The International Academy of nalnega načrtovanja, oskrbe z vodo, gradnje prome- Karst Sciences, an international association of karstolo- 4 Predgovor tnic, zapiranja odlagališč na krasu, zbiranja podatkov o gists, was established to link international knowledge kraških jamah in njihovega varovanja, kraške ekologije and experience more effectively and to find the best in ugotavljanja naših vplivov na kraško podzemlje ter foundations for the rational planning of life in various načrtovanja in uporabe kraških pojavov v turistične karst regions around the world. namene. The Karst Research Institute is involved in indi- V prvi knjigi združujemo izbrane neposredno vidual projects related to the development and pro- uporabne študije o kraških vodah, v drugi pa izsledke tection of the natural and cultural heritage of karst našega sodelovanja pri načrtovanju in gradnji avto- areas, regional planning, water supply systems, the cest na krasu, urejanju jam za turistične namene ter construction of transportation infrastructure, the clo- ekologiji in zaščiti podzemlja. Zavedamo se, da to še sure of dump sites in karst areas, the col ection of data niso zaključene enote o posameznih delih oziroma on karst caves and their protection, karst ecology and celoti krasoslovnega načrtovanja življenja na krasu, determining the extent of human influence on the so pa, upamo, pomemben korak v to smer in izziv za karst underground, and planning and monitoring the prihodnost. exploitation of karst phenomena for tourism. The first book in the series will contain selected di- Uredniki rectly applicable research studies on karst waters, and the second will present the results of our participation in the planning and construction of expressways on karst, the management of caves for tourist purposes, and the ecology and protection of the underground. We recognize that this does not include certain indi- vidual topics or the total contribution of karstology to planning life on karst, but we hope they are a step in the right direction and a challenge for the future. The Editors Preface 5 6 AŠKIH OST V, O JIV ANL VA R OŽENOST ČILNOSTI KR 1 ODONOSNIK m AND eZNA THEIR VOF K NJIHOCHAR IN OGR tka petrič END ARST A , n A a VULNER ta C ša TERISTICS r AN avbar QUIFERS, , GERMENT janja ABILIT kogovšek Y Čeprav pokrivajo kraške kamnine le 7–12 % zemeljskega površja, se s pitno vodo iz kra- Although karst rocks cover only 7–12 % of land surface, drinking water from karst aquifers ških vodonosnikov oskrbuje skoraj četrtina supply almost a quarter of world population svetovnega prebivalstva ( Ford in Williams 2007). V ( Ford and Williams 2007). In Slovenia this share is Sloveniji je ta delež še večji, saj obsegajo karbonatne even larger, as carbonate rocks cover approximately 43 kamnine približno 43 odstotkov njenega ozemlja. % of its territory. These rocks mostly prevail in western Prevladujejo predvsem v zahodnem in južnem delu and southern part of the country, where they build vast države, kjer gradijo obsežne kraške in razpoklinske karst and fissured aquifers. They ensure drinking water vodonosnike. Ti zagotavljajo pitno vodo za več kot to more than half of Slovene population. polovico prebivalcev Slovenije. Due to special characteristics karst aquifers are ex- Zaradi posebnih značilnosti so kraški vodonosniki tremely vulnerable to consequences of different sources izjemno ranljivi za posledice različnih virov onesna- of pol ution. High permeability of carbonate rocks ena- ževanja. Dobra prepustnost kraških kamnin omogoča bles quick infiltration of water into underground, and hitro infiltracijo vode v podzemlje, znotraj tega pa zelo very fast flow over large distances in the underground, hitro pretakanje na velikih razdaljah in po navadno usual y through unknown flow paths. With the water neznanih poteh. Z vodo se naglo širi tudi onesnaže- flow also contamination is rapidly spread that endan- nje, ki ogroža vodne vire. Zaradi heterogene zgradbe gers water sources. The regime of groundwater flow and kraških vodonosnikov je zelo težko predvideti režim contaminant transport is very hard to predict due to het- pretakanja podzemne vode in prenosa škodljivih sno- erogeneous structure of karst aquifers. Great variability of vi, dodatno težavo pa predstavlja velika spremenljivost transport characteristics in different hydrologic circum- njihovih značilnosti v različnih hidroloških razmerah. stances represents an additional problem. Response to Odziv na razne negativne dejavnike je zato specifičen various negative factors is therefore very specific and dif- in se bistveno razlikuje od drugih okolij. Pri oceni fers from other environments. These peculiarities need to vpliva človekovih dejavnosti na kraške vode je treba be taken into consideration when estimating influences te posebnosti upoštevati. Dobro poznavanje značil- of human activities on karst waters. Good knowledge of nosti kraških vodonosnikov je predpogoj za njihovo karst aquifers characteristics is a prerequisite for their ustrezno varovanje. proper protection. 1.1 Značilnosti kraških 1.1 Characteristics vodonosnikov of karst aquifers Kraški vodonosniki so območja karbonatnih ka- Karst aquifers are areas of carbonate rocks (mainly mnin (predvsem apnenca in dolomita), ki so bila izpo- limestone and dolomite) that have been exposed to stavljena zakrasevanju. V njih kraški kanali in razpoke karstification. They are significant for underground različnih velikosti hranijo razmeroma velike količine karst channels and fissures of different sizes that hold podzemne vode. Od drugih tipov vodonosnikov se relatively big quantities of underground water. They razlikujejo zlasti po visoki stopnji topnosti kamnin, differ from the other types of aquifers concerning kar povzroča značilno oblikovanost površja in podze- mainly high degree of rocks solubility that induce mne pojave ter vpliva na posebnosti pretakanja voda v characteristic relief forms and underground phenom- podzemlju ( Gams 2004; Ford in Williams 2007). ena, and influences special water flow in the under- Kraški vodonosniki so navadno več deset do več ground ( Gams 2004; Ford and Williams 2007). sto km2 obsežna območja, ki jih pogosto prepredajo Karst aquifers are usually several ten to several močno zakraseli razpoklinski in prelomni predeli. hundred of km2 vast areas, that are often criss-crossed Zaradi razpokanosti in pretrtosti kamnin deževnica with highly karstified fissured and fault zones. Due 8 1. Značilnosti kraških vodonosnikov, njihova ranljivost in ogroženost hitro pronica skozi golo površje ali skromni prsteni to fissuring and crushing of the rock, precipitation pokrov v podzemlje. Na stiku s krasom poniknejo tudi water infiltrates through the bare surface or thin soil. površinski vodotoki z nekraškega obrobja. Consolidated streams that gather water on non-karst V podzemlju se infiltrirana voda s površja pretaka surfaces also sink into the karst subsurface. večinoma v navpični smeri proti gladini podzemne In the underground the infiltrated water from the vode. Na svoji poti s kemičnim delovanjem razpoke surface flows mainly vertical y towards the groundwa- korozijsko širi in veča. Tako ustvarja sistem različ- ter. On its way it chemically widens and enlarges the no velikih in med seboj povezanih podzemnih poti. cracks. In this manner it creates a system of differently Zato se struktura in delovanje kraških vodonosnikov big and interconnected underground paths. Therefore močno razlikujeta od nekraških (npr. medzrnskih), the structure and functioning of karst aquifers strongly saj ju določajo predvsem izjemno visoka prepustnost differs from the non-karst (e.g. porous) ones. They are in velike hitrosti pretakanja voda v podzemlju, razno- determined above all by exceptional permeability, and vrstnost načina pretakanja in običajno neznane smeri high groundwater flow velocities, variety of flow man- odtekanja vode, ki segajo tudi do več deset kilometrov ner and usually unknown flow pathways that reach oddaljenih predelov. V krasu se pogosto meša voda z even several tens of kilometres distant areas. In karst različnih območij napajanja ( Gunn 1981, 1983; White there are frequent connections and intersections of 1988; Worthington 2009). water paths from different recharge areas ( Gunn 1981, Glede na značilnosti pretakanja in procese uskla- 1983; White 1988; Worthington 2009). diščenja vode v podzemlju ločimo več delov vodono- According to characteristics of water flow and pro- snika (1). Zgornji del vodonosnega sistema, v katerem cesses of water storage in the underground, several se prepletata hitro vertikalno pretakanje po primarnih parts of the aquifer can be differentiated (1). The upper drenažnih poteh in počasno precejanje skozi slabše part of the aquifer system, with combined fast vertical razpokano osnovo, sestavlja nezasičeno ali vadozno flow through the primary drainage pathways and slow cono. To je suhi del vodonosnika in je lahko debel seepage through the weakly cracked matrix, composes tudi do več sto metrov. V spodnjem delu vodonosnika the unsaturated or vadose zone. This is a dry part of the pa je zasičena ali freatična cona, ki je ves čas zalita z aquifer and can be up to several hundred metres thick. vodo. Pretakanje v tej coni poteka po kanalih, razpo- In the lower part of the aquifer there is the saturated kah in porozni osnovi. Tok je pogosto turbulenten or phreatic zone that is permanently fil ed with water. in navadno poteka sub-horizontalno v smeri proti Water flow in this zone is through the channels, cracks izvirom, skozi katere se podzemne vode spet vračajo and through the porous matrix. The flow is often tur- na površje (2). bulent and in a sub-horizontal manner towards the Prehodno območje med nezasičeno in zasičeno springs through which the groundwater comes back cono imenujemo poplavna ali epifreatična cona, do- to the surface (2). loča pa jo gladina podzemne vode. Ta je mnogokrat Transitional area between unsaturated and satu- nezvezna in njeno višino je zelo težko določiti, ker se rated zones is the flooding or epiphreatic zone de- nenehno spreminja in je močno odvisna od trenutnih termined by the groundwater surface. This is often hidroloških stanj. Človeku je dostopna le v posame- interrupted and its height is very hard to determine, znih, redkih vodnih jamah ali vrtinah, zato nam je as it constantly changes and is highly dependent on višina kraške podzemne vode pogosto neznana ( White temporary hydrologic conditions. It is reachable by 1988; Ford in Williams 2007). human only in individual and scarce water caves or Pomembno vlogo pri pretakanju in uskladiščenju boreholes, therefore the groundwater surface in karst infiltrirane vode ima epikraška cona ( Mangin 1975; often remains unknown ( White 1988; Ford and Wil- Király idr . 1995; Petrič 2002; Trček 2003) v zgornjem liams 2007). delu nezasičene cone. Lahko je različno debela (do Important role in groundwater flow and storage of 1. Characteristics of karst aquifers, their vulnerability and endangerment 9 1 Konceptualni model kraškega vodonosnika ( Ravbar 2007). Conceptual model of karst aquifer ( Ravbar 2007). PLITVI KRAS vrtača škrapljišče SHALLOW KARST AREA doline karrenfield PLITVI KRAS vrtača škrapljišče SHALLOW KARST AREA doline karrenfield EPIKRAS jama ponor ponikalnica EPIKARST cave swallow hole sinking stream EPIKRAS jama ponor ponikalnica EPIKARST cave swallow hole sinking stream občasni kraški izvir intermittent karst spring občasni kraški izvir intermittent karst spring stalni kraški izvir presihajoče jezero permanent karst spring intermittent lake stalni kraški izvir presihajoče jezero permanent karst spring intermittent lake SLABO PREPUSTNE PLASTI EPIFREATIČNA CONA NEZASIČENA CONA freatični kanal ZASIČENA CONA LOW PERMEABLE LAYERS EPIPHREATIC ZONE UNSATURATED ZONE phreatic conduit SATURATED ZONE SLABO PREPUSTNE PLASTI EPIFREATIČNA CONA NEZASIČENA CONA freatični kanal ZASIČENA CONA LOW PERMEABLE LAYERS EPIPHREATIC ZONE UNSATURATED ZONE phreatic conduit SATURATED ZONE počasni tok / slow flow hitri tok / fast flow počasni tok / slow flow hitri tok / fast flow več deset metrov) in različno zakrasela. Razpokanost infiltrated water is played by an epikarst zone ( Man- in zakraselost epikraške cone, ki se z globino manjšata, gin 1975; Király et al. 1995; Petrič 2002; Trček 2003) pogojujeta hitrost vertikalnega pronicanja vode. Po raz- in the upper part of the unsaturated zone. It can be širjenih glavnih prevodnikih se infiltrirana voda pretaka differently thick (up to several tens metres) and dif- zelo hitro, pronicanje po stranskih, slabše prepustnih ferently karstified. The fissuring and karstification razpokah pa je precej ovirano. Voda se tudi z lateralnim of the epikarst zone that lower with depth condition pretakanjem steka proti primarnim drenažnim conam the velocity of vertical seepage of water. Through the vertikalnega prenikanja. widened main conduits the infiltrated water flows very 10 1. Značilnosti kraških vodonosnikov, njihova ranljivost in ogroženost 2 Kraški izviri, skozi katere iztekajo podzemne vode na površje, so izjemno pomemben vir za oskrbo s pitno vodo. Karst springs through which underground waters flow onto surface are exceptionally impor- tant for drinking water supply. Skladiščenje vode in koncentracija toka sta odvisna fast, whereas the flow through lateral and less perme- od velikosti, odprtosti in povezanosti razpok, por in able cracks is mainly hindered. In this way water also kanalov v epikraški coni, pa tudi od stopnje prejšnje flows laterally towards the primary draining zones of zapolnjenosti sistema z vodo ( Klimchouk 2000). Ob vertical seepage. padavinah se del infiltrirane vode hitro prenese v ver- Storage of water and concentration of the flow are tikalno mrežo kanalov glavnih prevodnikov, presežek dependent on size, openness and connectivity of fis- pa se uskladišči in se po stranskih prevodnih kana- sures, pores and channels in the epikarst zone, as well lih počasi preceja v spodnjo nezasičeno cono. Dotok as on the degree of previous saturation of the system vode ohranja stalnost kraških izvirov v dolgih sušnih with water ( Klimchouk 2000). With precipitation part obdobjih ( Kogovšek 2010). of the infiltrated water is quickly transported in the vertical net of channels of the main conduits, while 1.2 Ranljivost kraških the surplus of the water is stored and is transported vodonosnikov via lateral channels slowly towards the lower lying unsaturated zone. Such inflow preserves permanent Ranljivost kraških vodonosnikov opisuje verjetnost water in karst springs even in long lasting dry periods njihovega onesnaženja in jo uporabljamo za oceno ( Kogovšek 2010). občutljivosti za posledice morebitnih človekovih vpli- vov. Je naravna lastnost sistemov podzemne vode in je odvisna od geoloških, hidrogeoloških, hidroloških, klimatskih in vegetacijskih značilnosti, neodvisna pa 1. Characteristics of karst aquifers, their vulnerability and endangerment 11 od lastnosti onesnaževal ( Vrba in Zaporozec 1994). 1.2 Vulnerability of karst Osnovna procesa, ki vplivata na ranljivost, sta napa- aquifers janje z infiltracijo padavin ali površinskih tokov skozi nezasičeno cono ter tok in transport snovi v zasičeni Vulnerability of karst aquifers is defined by the prob- coni vodonosnika. Prvega določajo predvsem efek- ability of their contamination. It is used to assess the tivna infiltracija padavin s površja v kamninski sis- sensibility of the aquifer systems to the consequences tem, stopnja razvitosti epikraške cone pri razpršenem of eventual human influences. It is a natural character- napajanju ter položaj in značilnosti ponorov, skozi istic of the groundwater systems and is dependent on katere se v podzemlje koncentrirano stekajo povr- geological, hydrogeological, hydrological, climatic and šinske vode in na ta način neposredno vnašajo tudi vegetational circumstances and independent from the onesnaženje. Značilnosti pretežno horizontalnega nature of the contaminants ( Vrba and Zaporozec 1994). toka vode in transporta snovi v zasičeni coni pa so Two principal processes that influence the vulnerability are the recharge with the infiltration of the precipitation or surface waters through the unsaturated zone, and the flow and transport of substances through the saturated zone of the aquifer. The diffuse infiltration of water is determined by the effective infiltration from the surface into the rock system and by the degree of the epikarst zone development. The concentrated infiltration is determined by the location and characteristics of the swal ow holes through which underground is directly connected with the surface and in this way any contami- nation rapidly enters the aquifer. The characteristics of the predominant horizontal flow in the saturated zone are determined by the distinction between the karsti- fied, fissured and porous aquifers with different degrees of porosity and permeability ( Zwahlen 2004). For protection of karst aquifers thin soil cover overlying carbonate rocks represents an unfavourable characteristic (3). In many places this cover is entirely removed. The effect of filtration and retardation of nox- ious matter in the upper layer is therefore negligible. The lower lying bedrock is usually very crushed and infiltration is possible practical y everywhere. Due to the very well developed net of karst fissures and voids the velocity of the groundwater flow in the unsaturated zone is relatively high. However, it is sig- nificantly influenced by the intensity and distribution of the precipitation. Many studies have shown that in- tensive and abundant rain may flow through the well permeable conduits of the 150 m thick ceiling in even 3 Infiltracija padavin je zaradi majhne debeline prsti in zakraselosti kraškega površja zelo hitra. six hours, while through the most permeable ones that Infiltration of precipitation is due to thin cover of soil and high resemble shafts it may flow even quicker. Beside the karstification of the surface very rapid. well permeable voids there is a net of less permeable cracks that much slower conduct smaller quantities 12 1. Značilnosti kraških vodonosnikov, njihova ranljivost in ogroženost opredeljene predvsem na osnovi ločevanja kamnin of water. In case of contamination the pol ution is ac- na kraške, razpoklinske in medzrnske vodonosnike cumulated and retarded there and reaches the springs z različnimi stopnjami poroznosti in prepustnosti with a delay. Therefore the velocities of the water flow ( Zwahlen 2004). and soluable matter from the surface to the water Pri zaščiti kraških vodonosnikov predstavlja neu- courses in karst may range from 25 m/h to less than 1 godno lastnost majhna debelina preperinskega pokro- cm/h ( Kogovšek 2010). After the contamination on the va, ki prekriva karbonatne kamnine (3). Na številnih karst surface very different velocities of noxious mat- mestih je ta pokrov celo povsem odstranjen. Učinek ter transport deeper into the subsurface to the under- filtracije in zadrževanja škodljivih snovi v vrhnji plasti ground water resources can therefore be expected. Once je zato majhen. Poleg tega je osnovna kamnina pod contaminants reach consolidated water courses, they preperinsko plastjo večinoma zelo razpokana in infil- rapidly flow towards the karst springs. tracija je možna praktično povsod. Different hydrological conditions importantly in- Zaradi razvite mreže kraških razpok in kanalov je fluence the way and travel time of water, as well as the hitrost pretakanja podzemne vode v nezasičeni coni possibilities of contaminant dilution and storage in the relativno velika. Pomemben vpliv nanjo imata tudi underground. In case of the point outflow on the karst izdatnost in razporeditev padavin. Raziskave so po- surface (e.g. in case of accidents) in low-water condi- kazale, da intenzivne in izdatne padavine preidejo 150 tions the liquid rapidly penetrates the well permeable m debele apnence po bolj prepustnih prevodnikih že conduits, while it is temporarily stored in the less per- v šestih urah, po tistih najbolj prepustnih, ki so že meable matrix of the unsaturated zone. Further trans- začetki brezen, pa še znatno hitreje. Bolj prepustne port depends on the subsequent precipitation intensity. razpoke spremlja mreža slabo prepustnih razpok, ki In case of diffuse and less intensive pollution in low- bistveno počasneje prevajajo manjše količine vode, water conditions the contaminant may be stored even kar pa v primeru onesnaženja pomeni akumulacijo in for several months ( Kogovšek 1995a). In such cases the velike zakasnitve dotoka onesnaževal do izvira. Tako je contamination is not detected immediately. Therefore hitrost pretakanja vode in v vodi topnih snovi s površja we can incorrectly deduce that the contamination did do sklenjenih vodnih tokov globlje v kras od 25 m/h not affect the spring. When the unsaturated zone is wel do manj kot 1 cm/h ( Kogovšek 2010). Po onesnaženju saturated with water, due to the previous precipitation, na kraškem površju lahko torej pričakujemo zelo raz- the differences of travel time between the well perme- lične hitrosti prenosa škodljivih snovi globlje v kras do able and less permeable conduits are much smaller sklenjenih vodnih tokov, s temi pa običajno zelo hitro ( Kogovšek 2000; Gabrovšek et al. 2010). proti kraškim izvirom. Due to the described characteristics the vulner- Različne hidrološke razmere pomembno vplivajo ability of karst aquifers is very high. Rapid infiltration, na smeri in potovalni čas vode ter na možnost razred- small filtration, very high velocities of water flow in the čevanja in uskladiščenja onesnaževal v podzemlju. Ob underground and quick transport of contamination far točkovnih izlitjih na kraškem površju (npr. ob raznih away from the recharge point with it, are the reasons of nesrečah) izlite tekočine v sušnih razmerah zelo hitro the usually less efficient processes of self-purification prodirajo po razpoložljivih dobro prepustnih prevo- in karst. dnikih, v slabo prepustnem delu nezasičene cone pa se začasno uskladiščijo. Nadaljnji prenos je odvisen 1.3 Endangerment od padavin, ki sledijo. Ob razpršenem in manj inten- of karst water zivnem vnosu snovi prihaja v sušnih razmerah le do uskladiščenja, tudi za več mesecev ( Kogovšek 1995a). The most frequent sources of contamination are V takih primerih ne zaznamo onesnaženja takoj, zato urban settlements, industry, agriculture and traf- lahko ob nepoznavanju razmer zmotno sklepamo, da fic. We differ diffuse contamination of karst, as is 1. Characteristics of karst aquifers, their vulnerability and endangerment 13 onesnaženja sploh ni bilo. Kadar je nezasičena cona the contamination from the agriculture due to the zaradi predhodnih padavin dobro namočena z vodo, manuring and usage of fertilizers, line contamina- so razlike v hitrostih pretakanja po dobro prepustnih tion (e.g. transport routes) and point contamination in slabo prepustnih prevodnikih veliko manjše ( Kogo- ( De Ketelaere et al . 2004). The latter are mainly out- všek 2000; Gabrovšek idr. 2010). flows from sewage network and outflows of dangerous Zaradi vseh opisanih značilnosti je ranljivost kra- substances in case of accidents when larger quanti- ških vodonosnikov zelo velika. Hitra infiltracija, manj- ties of dangerous or noxious substances may leak into ša filtracija, visoke hitrosti pretakanja voda v podze- karst. In the settlements there are usually problem- mlju in s tem hiter prenos onesnaženja daleč stran od atic unregulated sewage systems and illegal garbage točke vnosa so razlogi, da so procesi samoočiščevanja dumps, from which precipitation wash away dangerous v krasu običajno manj učinkoviti. substances. They are transported in a liquid manner, and therefore their mobility is very high. In waste wa- 1.3 Ogroženost kraške vode ters the concentration of harmful substances is often very high, too. There are organic matter, phosphates, Najpogostejši viri onesnaženja so mestna naselja, ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, metals, detergents, bacteria industrija, kmetijstvo in promet. Ločimo razpršeno and viruses that are very threatful for karst springs due onesnaževanje krasa, kot je onesnaževanje s kmetijskih to limited possibilities of filtration, adsorption and bio- površin zaradi gnojenja in uporabe zaščitnih snovi, degradation within the karst aquifer. Solving this prob- linijsko (npr. prometnice) in točkovno onesnaže- lem is primarily linked to building of sewage systems or vanje ( De Ketelaere idr. 2004). Slednje so predvsem renovation of the old ones and their connection to the izpusti mestne kanalizacije in razlitja nevarnih snovi waste water treatment plants. Settlements usual y draw ob različnih nesrečah, ko lahko v kras stečejo večje off waste water that are of communal and industrial količine nevarnih ali celo strupenih snovi. V naseljih origin and are usual y not yet cleaned in the biological so največkrat problem neurejena kanalizacija in ne- waste water treatment plants with the industrial wa- ustrezna odlagališča odpadkov, iz katerih padavine ter pretreatment. In places they only have mechanical spirajo tudi nevarne snovi. Prenašajo se v tekoči fazi, level of treatment, but in many cases the uncleansed zato je njihova mobilnost zelo velika. V odpadnih vo- waste water flows into karst rivers or directly into karst dah je koncentracija škodljivih snovi pogosto visoka. ( Kogovšek et al. 2008). Med njimi so organske snovi, fosfati, amoniak, nitrati, In cases when waste water flows into sinking rivers nitriti, kovine, detergenti, bakterije in virusi, ki zaradi (4), there is usual y a positive effect of dilution at high- neučinkovitosti filtracije, adsorpcije ali biodegradacije water conditions and a certain degree of self-purifica- v krasu pomenijo zelo veliko nevarnost za vodne vire. tion at the surface flow across the karst poljes. However, Reševanje tega problema je v prvi vrsti povezano z contamination of sinking rivers is usual y very high. In gradnjo novih ali z izboljšanjem že zgrajenih kanali- Slovene karst sinking rivers sink several times and reap- zacijskih sistemov in njihovo povezavo z ustreznimi pear in springs on the lower-lying karst poljes. Karst čistilnimi napravami. Naselja v kanalizacijo odvajajo poljes are densely populated and contribute with ad- odpadne vode, ki so pogosto komunalno-industrijske ditional inflows of waste waters. The conditions become in se večinoma še ne čistijo v bioloških čistilnih napra- critical often in summer and autumn times, as well as vah s predčiščenjem industrijskih voda. Ponekod ima- in early spring, when level of water is the lowest and jo le mehansko stopnjo čiščenja, v številnih primerih when the dilution effect is minimal or even absent. If pa neočiščena odpadna voda odteka v kraške vodotoke in such circumstances higher quantities of waste waters ali pa kar neposredno v kras ( Kogovšek idr. 2008). are released or the environment is pol uted with dan- V primerih, ko se odpadne vode stekajo v kra- gerous matter due to the accidents, the consequences ške ponikalnice (4), je predvsem ob višjem vodostaju may be catastrophic (dying of living beings in waters ugodna okoliščina razredčitev in ob površinskem or contamination of captured drinking water supplies, 14 1. Značilnosti kraških vodonosnikov, njihova ranljivost in ogroženost pretakanju po kraških poljih tudi določena stopnja na- if the accident happens in their catchment). ravnega samoočiščevanja. Obremenjenost ponikalnic Settlements are also sources of bigger quanti- pa je običajno velika. Na slovenskem krasu te pogosto ties of waste material that is being collected in waste večkrat poniknejo in se nato pojavijo v izviru na nižje disposal dumps. Their influence to karst waters is in ležečem kraškem polju. Kraška polja so gosteje pose- more detail described in the chapter »Planning of the ljena, zato se vanje stekajo dodatni dotoki odpadnih groundwater monitoring in the impact areas of land- voda in dodatno onesnaženje. Razmere postanejo kri- fil s in karst based on the results of tracer tests« of this tične običajno poleti in jeseni, a tudi zgodaj spomladi, book. Additional danger is represented by the illegal ob najnižjih vodostajih, ko je razredčevalni učinek waste disposal. 4 Iztok iz čistilne naprave v občasni površinski vodotok, ki na stiku s krasom ponika v podzemlje. Outflow from the waste water treatment plant into the periodical surface stream that in contact with karst sinks underground. minimalen ali celo izostane. Če so v takih razmerah In settled areas the industrial activity is often izpuščene večje količine odplak ali pa je okolje one- very intensive, too. As for the type of industry it usu- snaženo z nevarnimi snovmi ob različnih nesrečah, so ally produces very specific contamination, mainly lahko posledice katastrofalne (pomor življenja v vodo- by the unsuitably treated industrial waste waters or toku ali onesnaženje zajetih vodnih virov, če se nesreča unsuitable storage of dangerous substances. Usually zgodi v njihovem zaledju). industries contaminate air and the contaminants are Naselja so tudi vir večjih količin odpadkov, ki jih later rinsed with precipitation and threaten karst wa- zbiramo na komunalnih odlagališčih. Njihov vpliv na ters. Also in this case suitable treatment plants that kraške vode je bolj podrobno predstavljen v poglavju reduce the possibilities of negative impacts have an »Načrtovanje monitoringa podzemne vode v vplivnem important role beside usual safety measures. Beside območju odlagališč odpadkov na krasu na podlagi rezul- constant emissions accidents with spillage of harmful tatov sledilnih poskusov« v tej knjigi. Še dodatno nevar- substances are also very dangerous. Therefore it is very nost pomenijo divja odlagališča odpadkov. important to implement severe measures for accidents Na naseljenih območjih je običajno zelo obsežna prevention. However, if the accidents happen, quick tudi industrijska dejavnost, ki glede na vrsto povzro- action is needed—to inform the competent services ča specifično onesnaževanje, predvsem z neustrezno and undertake immediate and professional measures. 1. Characteristics of karst aquifers, their vulnerability and endangerment 15 obdelanimi industrijskimi odplakami ali neprimernim Due to dense transport routes that criss-cross karst skladiščenjem nevarnih snovi; zelo pogosto pa je tudi areas and their high traffic burdening, karst waters are onesnaževanje zraka, ki nato z infiltracijo padavin prav frequently contaminated with organic matter, hydro- tako ogroža kraške vode. Tudi v tem primeru imajo carbons, oils and heavy metals that are rinsed from the poleg splošnih varnostnih ukrepov pomembno vlogo roads by precipitation. Possible negative impacts are ustrezne čistilne naprave, ki zmanjšujejo možnost ne- in detail presented in the chapter »Threats to the karst gativnih vplivov. Poleg stalne emisije so zelo nevarne water sources from traffic in normal conditions« of še nesreče z enkratnim izpustom škodljivih snovi. Za- this book. Additional danger is the spillage of danger- radi tega je zelo pomembno izvajanje strogih ukrepov ous substances in case of accidents, when transported, za preprečitev teh nesreč, če pa se nesreča že zgodi, je decanted in repositories or due to leakage in oil res- nujna hitra akcija – tako informiranje ustreznih služb ervoirs. Cases of such accidents are presented in the kot takojšnje in strokovno premišljeno ukrepanje. chapter »Spillages of hazardous substances endanger Zaradi goste prepredenosti krasa s prometnicami karst waters« of this book. in njihove velike prometne obremenjenosti so kraške In Slovene karst extensive and traditional farming vode pogosto onesnažene z organskimi snovmi, oglji- prevails, therefore the contamination is less possi- kovodiki, olji in težkimi kovinami, ki jih padavine ble. Nevertheless, protection of waters requests us- spirajo s cest. Podrobneje o možnih negativnih vplivih age restriction and proper handling with dangerous govori poglavje pričujoče knjige z naslovom »Ogro- substances that are used in agriculture. Farms should ženost kraških vodnih virov zaradi prometa v rednih have well-regulated stables and dungheaps. Manuring razmerah«. Dodatno nevarnost pomeni izlitje nevar- with natural or artificial fertilizers need to be adjusted nih snovi ob nesrečah, tako ob prevažanju po cestah, to the natural self-purification capabilities of the en- pretakanju v skladiščih ali zaradi puščanja naftnih vironment. When manuring, suitable quantities need rezervoarjev. Primeri tovrstnih nesreč so obravnava- to be used and in convenient time (i.e. not before or ni v poglavju »Izlitja nevarnih snovi ogrožajo kraške during the rain, not on frozen areas or areas covered vode« v tej knjigi. with snow). Similar measures need to be taken when Na slovenskem krasu prevladujejo ekstenzivne in fertilizing. Incorrect usage of difficultly decompositive tradicionalne oblike kmetovanja, zato je nevarnost pesticides has caused several contaminations of karst onesnaževanja nekoliko manjša. Kljub temu pa varstvo springs already. Special care need to be taken when voda zahteva omejitve uporabe in pravilno ravnanje storing dangerous substances. s škodljivimi snovmi, ki jih uporabljajo v kmetijstvu. Consequences of incorrect usage of artificial Kmetije bi morale imeti primerno urejene objekte za fertilizers mean diffuse contamination. Usually it rejo živine in gnojišča. Gnojenje z naravnimi in ume- causes higher concentrations of nitrates and other tnimi gnojili je treba prilagoditi naravnim samopreči- chemical matters in water. The most dangerous are ščevalnim zmožnostim okolja, to je uporabljati ustrezne substances that are toxic even in small concentrations količine in izbrati primeren čas gnojenja (ne tik pred (e.g. cancerogenous, mutagenic substances) and that deževnim vremenom ali med njim, ne na zamrznjena only slowly degrade in the environment. This usually ali zasnežena tla ipd.). Podobne omejitve veljajo tudi za means more durable contamination and accumulation uporabljanje škropiv. Nepravilna raba težko razgradlji- of contaminants. vih pesticidov je povzročila že več onesnaženj kraških Karst waters are very vulnerable to contamina- vodnih virov. Posebno pozornost je treba posvetiti tudi tion with microorganisms (bacteria, viruses) as the ustreznemu skladiščenju nevarnih snovi. fast inflow from the point of release to the spring Posledica neustrezne uporabe umetnih gnojil in does not assure their die off. Therefore many karst zaščitnih sredstev je razpršen vnos onesnaževalcev. springs are bacteriologically contaminated and the Navadno se zaradi tega zveča vsebnost nitratov in water is without proper pre-treatment not drinkable. drugih kemičnih snovi v vodi. Najbolj nevarne so The most frequent treatment is chlorination. If the 16 1. Značilnosti kraških vodonosnikov, njihova ranljivost in ogroženost tiste snovi, ki že v majhnih koncentracijah delujejo water contains organic matter (mineral oils, gas oil, škodljivo (npr. karcenogene, mutagene snovi) in se etc.), chlorination can be dangerous for health due v okolju le počasi razgrajujejo, kar pomeni trajnejše to the formation of chlorinated hydrocarbons that onesnaženje in akumuliranje. are cancerogenous. Therefore more appropriate are Kraške vode so zelo ranljive za posledice onesnaže- other ways of water treatment, e.g. UV-disinfection or vanja z mikroorganizmi (bakterijami, virusi), saj hiter filtration with membrane filters. These procedures are, tok od točke izvora do izvirov ne zagotavlja njihovega however, more expensive and therefore unfortunately odmrtja. Zato je bakteriološko oporečna večina kra- less frequently used. ških izvirov, ki brez ustrezne razkužitve niso primerni za pitje. Vodo se še vedno najpogosteje razkužuje s 1.4 Significance of kloriranjem. Če so v njej organske snovi (mineralna preliminary researches olja, plinsko olje itd.), je to lahko nevarno za zdravje, in karst saj nastanejo klorirani ogljikovodiki, ki so karcenoge- ni. Primernejši so drugi načini dezinfekcije, npr. UV- Good knowledge of karst aquifer characteristics is -dezinfekcija in filtracija z membranskimi filtri, ki pa a prerequisite for their proper management ( Ravbar sta dražja postopka in zato žal tudi manj uporabljana. and Kovačič 2006). We can successfully predict where and how fast contamination will spread from the karst 1.4 Pomen predhodnih surface into the subsurface and in which springs the raziskav krasa contamination may be expected only if we sufficiently good know the characteristics of the bedrock and Dobro poznavanje značilnosti kraških vodono- hydrogeological settings in the selected area. There- snikov je predpogoj za njihovo ustrezno varovanje fore suitable research is needed. It has been proved ( Ravbar in Kovačič 2006). Kam in kako hitro se one- in case of accidents in industry or traffic that only in snaženje s kraškega površja širi v kraški notranjosti in areas where previous comprehensive hydrogeologi- v katerih izvirih ga lahko pričakujemo, lahko uspešno cal research has been done, we can deduce on which napovemo le, če zadosti dobro poznamo značilno- springs and when contamination turns up. In addi- sti kamninske zgradbe in hidrogeološke razmere na tion constant parallel monitoring of water quality has obravnavanem območju. Za to so potrebne ustrezne been possible. When harmful substances have been raziskave. Ob nesrečah v industriji ali prometu se je detected, the water sources have been timely expelled pokazalo, da smo le na območjih, kjer so že bile opra- from the drinking water supply system. vljene predhodne celostne hidrogeološke raziskave, For prompt and proper action it is therefore im- lahko sklepali, na katerih izvirih in kdaj naj bi se one- portant to predict, on the already existing research, snaženje pojavilo. Zaradi tega je bilo možno stalno directions and characteristics of the groundwater flow vzporedno spremljanje kakovosti vode in ob zaznavi in the selected location. Numerous hydrogeological re- škodljivih snovi je bil izvir pravočasno izključen iz searches have been done in the past that have provided sistema vodooskrbe. us with necessary information for certain areas. Tracer Za hitro in ustrezno ukrepanje je torej pomembno, tests with natural or artificial tracers have proved to da lahko na osnovi že obstoječih predhodnih raziskav be very suitable for karst water research. When trac- za izbrano lokacijo predvidimo smeri in značilnosti ing with natural tracers, continuous monitoring of podzemnega pretakanja vode. V preteklosti so bile selected natural parameters in karst waters (e.g. tem- opravljene številne hidrogeološke raziskave, ki so dale perature, electrical conductivity, Ca and Mg ions, etc.) potrebne podatke za določena območja. Kot zelo pri- is conducted. With the comparison of the collected merne za raziskovanje kraških voda so se pokazale data we can deduce on the karst aquifer characteristics metode sledenja z naravnimi in umetnimi sledili. Pri ( Kogovšek and Habič 1981; Kogovšek 2001a; Kogovšek sledenju z naravnimi sledili v daljšem obdobju po- and Petrič 2010b). When tracing with artificial tracers, 1. Characteristics of karst aquifers, their vulnerability and endangerment 17 glavne / main pred 1975 / before 1975 stranske / secondary državna meja / state border nezanesljive / uncertain kraško območje / karst area 5 Podzemne vodne zveze na kraških območjih v Sloveniji, ki so bile ugotovljene s sledilnimi poskusi v obdobju 1907–2010 ( Petrič 2009). Groundwater flow connections in karst areas in Slovenia that have been proved by tracer tests in the period 1907–2010 ( Petrič 2009). 18 1. Značilnosti kraških vodonosnikov, njihova ranljivost in ogroženost drobno spremljamo spreminjanje različnih naravnih e.g. fluorescent tracers or salts, we inject into the aqui- parametrov kraških voda (npr. temperaturo, električno fer system substances that are harmless for nature and prevodnost, Ca in Mg ione ipd.) in s primerjavo zbra- then observe their appearance at the various points nih podatkov sklepamo o značilnostih kraških vodo- within the system—in the water caves, boreholes and nosnikov ( Kogovšek in Habič 1981; Kogovšek 2001a; at the springs ( Benischke et al. 2007; Kogovšek and Kogovšek in Petrič 2010b). Pri sledenju z umetnimi Petrič 2004, 2010a). sledili, npr. fluorescentnimi sledili ali solmi, pa oko- However, the research results are frequently doc- lju neškodljive snovi injiciramo v vodonosni sistem umented in internal reports or diffusely published in potem z opazovanjem na različnih točkah znotraj in professional publications. Only with their collec- tega sistema – v vodnih jamah, vrtinah ali na izvirih – tion and arrangement into the information database spremljamo njihovo pretakanje ( Benischke idr. 2007; ( Petrič 2009) that will be simply applicable and eas- Kogovšek in Petrič 2004, 2010a). ily accessible we will be able to more efficiently use Žal so izsledki opravljenih raziskav vse preveč- them for practical planning of encroachments in krat predstavljeni le v internih poročilih ali razpršeno karst and for preparation of measures for karst waters objavljeni v strokovnih publikacijah. Šele z njihovim protection (5). zbiranjem in ureditvijo v informacijsko bazo podatkov Numerous are karst areas that lack hydrogeologi- ( Petrič 2009), ki bo enostavno uporabna in lahko do- cal data and where preliminary studies have not yet stopna, jih bomo lahko bolj učinkovito uporabili pri been done. Frequently the accidents and consequent praktičnem načrtovanju posegov na krasu in pripravi contamination of springs launch first detail studies of ukrepov za varovanje kraških voda (5). springs and their catchments. However, such a delay Številna pa so kraška območja, za katera tovrstni strongly reduces the efficiency of water protection, podatki s predhodnimi raziskavami še niso bili prido- prevention and the consequences compensation. bljeni. Pogosto šele nesreče in posledično onesnaženje Therefore it is necessary to prepare and implement izvira sprožijo prve podrobnejše raziskave njegovega a plan of hydrogeological research that will system- zaledja, taka zamuda pa močno zmanjša uspešnost atically include the less investigated areas and enable varovanja ter preprečevanja onesnaženja in odpra- acquisition of data to complement and improve data- vljanja njegovih posledic. Zato je treba pripraviti in base on directions and characteristics of groundwater izvajati načrt hidrogeoloških raziskav, ki bo sistema- flow, as well as on quantities and qualities of water in tično vključeval še neraziskana območja in omogočal Slovene karst. pridobivanje podatkov za dopolnitev in izboljšavo baze podatkov o smereh in značilnostih podzemnega pretakanja, pa tudi o količinah in kakovosti vode na območju slovenskega krasa. 1. Characteristics of karst aquifers, their vulnerability and endangerment 19 AŠKE CONE V ŽENJA V OZI KR O ADOZNE VRŠJA SK 2 OGA V ODONOSNIKE DO AŠKIH IZVIR ja T VLTHR PRENOSU ONESNATR S POV VTHE R KR nj O K ADOSE Z a k ANSFER OF POLL ogov ARST SPRINGS OUGH K še OLE OF k ONE IN ARST A THE THE QUIFERS UTION Na kraškem površju padavine razpršeno vstopajo skozi vegetacijski pokrov in prst On the karst surface precipitation disperses through the vegetation cover and soil and ter se najprej pretakajo skozi vadozno cono continues to percolate through the unsatu- do kraške zalite oz. freatične cone in nato naprej do rated vadose zone, which can be some tens to hundreds kraških izvirov. Vadozna cona je debela nekaj deset of metres thick, to the phreatic zone. The upper part of do nekaj sto metrov in v njenem zgornjem delu se pa- the vadose zone can retain water for a long period of davine in kontaminanti lahko zadržijo tudi daljši čas. time. Because further flow in the phreatic zone along Ker pa je nadaljnje pretakanje po sklenjenih kanalih connected channels is considerably faster, various v zaliti coni vse do kraških izvirov znatno hitrejše, important processes occur in the upper vadose zone. prav v vadozni coni potekajo pomembni fizikalni in Past research indicated that precipitation rapidly kemijski procesi. infiltrates the upper vadose zone and can be retained Pretekle raziskave vadozne cone so nakazovale, da in the vadose zone for a long period of time ( Mangin se padavine, ki se sorazmerno hitro infiltrirajo v vado- 1973; Bakalowicz et al . 1974; Kogovšek and Habič 1981; zno cono, v tem delu vodonosnika zadržujejo različno Williams 1983; Kogovšek 1982, 1983, 1984, 1990, 1994a, dolgo ( Mangin 1973; Bakalowicz idr. 1974; Kogovšek in 1994b, 2000; Pezdič et al. 1984; Smart and Friedrich Habič 1981; Williams 1983; Kogovšek 1982, 1983, 1984, 1986; Klimchouk 1995; Stichler et al. 1997; Jeannin and 1990, 1994a, 1994b, 2000; Pezdič idr. 1984; Smart in Fri- Grasso 1995; Maloszewski et al. 2002; Perrin et al. 2003; edrich 1986; Klimchouk 1995; Stichler idr. 1997; Jeannin Trček 2003, etc.). This knowledge was acquired largely in Grasso 1995; Maloszewski idr. 2002; Perrin idr. 2003; by monitoring and measuring springs, or through Trček 2003 itd). To znanje je bilo pridobljeno z opazo- observations in the vadose zone that lasted for only vanjem izvirov in z opazovanji v vadozni coni le krajši short periods and had a small number of measured čas ali pa dolgotrajnejše raziskave niso zajele sočasnega parameters, or through studies that did not include opazovanja curkov z bistveno različno prepustnostjo za- simultaneous monitoring at a number of trickles that ledja, ki bi bili reprezentativni za celotno vadozno cono. differ significantly relative to the permeability of their Meritve padavin na površju in multiparametrske catchment areas, and therefore the results acquired are zvezne meritve pretakanja in prenosa v vodi topnih not representative for the entire vadose zone. kontaminantov skozi več reprezentativnih curkov v The present multiparameter study, based on 100 m debeli vadozni coni Postojnske jame (1), ki so measurements of precipitation on the surface and of potekale sklenjeno več zaporednih let ( Kogovšek 2010), percolation and transfer of water-soluble contami- so razkrile, da je prenos kontaminantov neposredno nants through several representative trickles in the povezan z dinamiko pretakanja vode in da gre pri tem 100 m thick vadose zone in the Postojna cave/Pos- za procese shranjevanja in spiranja. tojnska jama (1) over consecutive hydrological years Poudarek je bil na prenosu kontaminantov v vo- ( Kogovšek 2010) demonstrates that the transfer of dnih valovih po padavinah v obdobju celega hidro- contaminants is directly connected to the dynamics loškega leta in na sočasni uporabi številnih različnih of water percolation and that processes of accumulat- metod, ne le sledenj z naravnimi sledili ter meritev fi- ing and rinsing are going on there. zikalnih in kemijskih parametrov, marveč tudi sledenj The emphasis of this study was on the transfer of z umetnimi sledili in različnim načinom injiciranja, contaminants in water pulses after precipitation over saj vsakokratne razmere, niti na površju niti v vadozni the period of an entire hydrological year and on simul- coni ali celotnem vodonosniku, niso ponovljive. taneous use of a number of different methods, not only Voda lahko po bolj prepustnih razpokah prena- using natural tracers, measuring physical and chemical ša tudi trdne delce ( Kogovšek 1982), delce organske- parameters but also tests with artificial tracers and ga onesnaženja ( Kogovšek in Habič 1981) in koloide different methods of injection, since conditions on ( Shevenel in McCarthy 2002), še posebej ob hitrem the surface as wel as in the vadose zone and the entire naraščanju pretoka, ko je transportna moč vode najve- aquifer are unrepeatable at any given time. 2. The role of the vadose zone in the transfer of pol ution through karst aquifers to karst springs 21 čja. Vodne poti s kraškega površja v podzemlje ubirajo The transport of solid particles ( Kogovšek 1982), tudi izlite netopne tekočine, kot so naftni derivati in organic pollution ( Kogovšek and Habič 1981) and col- podobne snovi ( Kogovšek 1995b). Značilnosti njiho- loids ( Shevenel and McCarthy 2002) also occurs dur- vega prenosa v krasu smo v zadnjih desetletjih lahko ing water pulses at increased discharges along more spremljali le ob nesrečah, ko je prišlo do razlitij na highly permeable fissures. Spilled insoluble liquids kraškem površju ( Kogovšek 1995b, 1996a; Kogovšek in like oils and oil derivatives on the karst surface use Petrič 2002a, 2002b, 2004). the same fissures and conduits as does precipitation ( Kogovšek 1995b). In recent decades we have on several 2.1 Dolgotrajne occasions monitored the consequences of traffic acci- raziskave prenosa dent spillages, most frequently of petroleum products kontaminantov (1988–2009) ( Kogovšek 1995b, 1996a; Kogovšek and Petrič 2002a, 2002b, 2004). Vidno onesnaženje na stalaktitih v Postojnski jami, na katero so opozorili jamarji na začetku 80. let prej- 2.1 Long-term observation šnjega stoletja, je bilo vzrok za podrobnejše raziskave. of contaminant Vir onesnaženja je bila odpadna voda iz manjše voja- transport (1988–2009) šnice jugoslovanske vojske na površju nad tem delom jame, kjer je bilo nastanjenih okrog 20 vojakov. Po In the early 1980s, speleologists drew our attention sedimentaciji odpadne vode v sedimentacijskem baze- to the pollution visible on stalactites in the Postojna nu je voda odtekala v 4 m globoko izkopano greznico cave. The source of pollution was a small military fa- in od tam prenikala skozi 100 m debele apnence do cility on the surface above this part of the cave where rovov Postojnske jame (1). Spomladi 1991 je vojska about 20 soldiers were stationed. After sedimentation to območje zapustila, tako da ni bilo več nadaljnje- in the sedimentation pool waste water drained into a ga onesnaževanja. V naslednjih letih vse do danes so cesspool about 4 m deep and then percolated through padavine spirale zaostalo onesnaženje iz greznice in 100 m thick limestone in the direction of the cave jamskega stropa. Prve občasne analize prenikle vode passages (1). Fresh pollution stopped in the spring of (curkov in kapljanj) na širšem območju v Postojnski 1991, when the military facility was closed. Precipita- jami od leta 1988 naprej so podale njeno sestavo v raz- tion continued to wash the remaining pol ution from ličnih hidroloških razmerah ( Kogovšek 1997). the cesspool and from the cave’s roof. Beginning in Do pomladi 1991 se je aktivno onesnaževanje na 1988, periodic analyses of several trickles with vary- površju pokazalo v povečanih koncentracijah nitratov ing discharges in the wider area in the cave provided (do 180 mg NO -/l), kloridov (do 60 mg Cl-/l), sulfatov data on the composition of the water under different 3 (do 50 mg SO 2-/l) in o-fosfatov (do 2,8 mg PO 3-/l) v hydrological conditions ( Kogovšek 1997). 4 4 opazovanih curkih I, J in L v jami. Za primerjavo smo Until the spring of 1991 high nitrate (up to 180 mg vzorčili tudi referenčni curek A izven območja onesna- NO -/l), chloride (up to 60 mg Cl-/l), sulfate (up to 50 3 ženja. Večje koncentracije kontaminantov so se odrazi- mg SO 2-/l) and orthophosphate (up to 2.8 mg PO 3-/l) 4 4 le tudi v višji specifični električni prevodnosti (EC) in values were discovered in the selected observed trick- večjih celokupnih trdotah vode. V sledečih treh letih, les I, J and L in the cave. For comparative measure- ko je vojska zapustila območje in ni bilo več svežega ments unpol uted trickle A outside the immediate area onesnaževanja, so koncentracije vseh kontaminantov v was observed. Higher concentrations of contaminants opazovanih curkih zaradi spiranja s padavinami hitro were reflected in greater specific electric conductivity upadale (2). V tem obdobju je padlo prek 4700 mm (EC) and greater total water hardness. After the mili- padavin. Bolj prepustne razpoke so se dobro sprale, tary barracks was closed and active pollution ceased medtem ko se je del kontaminantov še vedno zadržal in 1991, the fol owing three years saw a rapid decline in v slabše prepustnem delu 100 m debele vadozne cone. the concentration of all contaminants in the observed 22 2. Vloga vadozne cone v prenosu onesnaženja s površja skozi kraške vodonosnike do kraških izvirov B POSTOJNSKA JAMA / CAVE 90 / 90 10 90 / 90 90 / 90 80 / 90 290 / 70 9 7 5 4 8 280 / 50 6 3 80 / 90 L 1 A 70 / 90 I 300 / 30 J 320 / 30 80 / 90 2 G 80 / 90 - 90 80 / 90 območje raziskav research area 0 25 m 0 500 m A točka injiciranja / injection point vir onesnaženja / source of pollution + 625 m legenda / legend 310 / 20 85 / 70 - 1 1 - 2 A B G - 3 - 4 - 5 80 / 90 90 / 90 80 / 80-90 80 / 90 80 / 90 90 / 90 B A - 6 - 7 280 / 50 320 / 30 300 / 30 280 / 50 - 8 I70 / 90 290 / 70 + 529,5 m G 90 / 90 - 9 1 J L 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 - 10 - 11 0 10 20 m 1 Raziskovalni poligon v Postojnski jami, 100 m pod površjem (1. tloris oz. naris, 2. geodetska točka v jami, 3. opazovani curki, 4. vir onesnaženja, 5. smeri pretakanja skozi vadozno cono, 6. prečni prerez, 7. zgornje-kredni apnenec z ostanki rudistov, 8. smer in upad plasti, 9. smer in upad preloma, 10. razpoklinska cona, 11. porušena cona) (po Kogovšek in Šebela 2004). Research polygon in Postojna Cave 100 m below surface (1. Ground plan or cross section of cave passage, 2. Geodetic point in the cave, 3. Observed trickle, 4. Source of pollution, 5. Direction of percolation water, 6. Cross section, 7. Upper Cretaceous limestone with remains of rudists, 8. Strike and dip of bedding planes, 9. Strike and dip of fault, 10. Fissured zone, 11. Broken zone) (after Kogovšek and Šebela 2004). 2. The role of the vadose zone in the transfer of pol ution through karst aquifers to karst springs 23 2 Prenos kloridov, nitratov, sulfatov in o-fosfatov v obdobju 1987–2005 skozi curke I, J, L in G ter skozi referenčni, nekon- 1200 taminirani curek A. The transfer of chlorides, nitrates, sulfates and orthophos- phates in the period 1987–2005 through the trickles I, J, L and EC (µS/cm) 900 G and through the uncontaminated trickle A. 600 300 200 (mg/l) 150 ates nitr 100 ti / ra 50 nit 0 60 (mg/l) 40 ides chlor 20 idi / klor 0 60 (mg/l) tes 40 sulfa ti / 20 sulfa 0 3 (mg/l) tes 2 1 o - phospha ti / osfa 0 11. 08. 1987 10. 08. 1989 10. 08. 1991 09. 08. 1993 09. 08. 1995 08. 08. 1997 08. 08. 1999 07. 08. 2001 07. 08. 2003 06. 08. 2005 o - f datum / date A G I J L 24 2. Vloga vadozne cone v prenosu onesnaženja s površja skozi kraške vodonosnike do kraških izvirov Nadaljevanje raziskav je pokazalo počasnejše upa- trickles (I, J, and L) due to natural leaching by precipi- danje koncentracij kontaminantov. Najhitreje so se tation (2). Over 4700 mm of precipitation fell during spirali kloridi, saj so v desetih letih po prenehanju this period. Intense transfer of contaminants occurred aktivnega onesnaževanja že dosegli izhodno stanje when the more permeable fissures were flushed out, oz. stanje čistega referenčnega curka A (povprečna while a portion of the contaminants was still re- letna količina padavin v tem obdobju je bila 1557 mm). tained in the less permeable part of the 100 m thick Počasneje poteka spiranje nitratov, ki so bili leta 2009 vadose zone. še nekoliko povečani. Spiranje sulfatov in o-fosfatov In the following years, a slower decline in con- se po skoraj dvajsetih letih še nadaljuje, kar kaže na taminant concentration was observed. Ten years of razlike v spiranju posameznih kontaminantov. leaching by precipitation after the active pollution Najpočasneje se spirajo o-fosfati. Po osemnajstih on the surface had stopped resulted in the values for letih spiranja s padavinami so koncentracije v curku chlorides in all the contaminated trickles matching I dosegale vrednosti okoli 0,2 mg PO 3-/l, v curku J s those of the uncontaminated reference trickle A (the 4 slabše prepustnim zaledjem pa le nekoliko pod 1,0 average annual precipitation in this period was 1557 mg PO 3-/l. To pomeni, da se fosfati predvsem v slabo mm). The leaching of nitrates was similar but occurred 4 prepustnem delu vadozne cone krasa zadržujejo opa- more slowly and still showed slightly raised values in zno dlje kot nitrati in kloridi in da je njihov prenos 2009. The leaching of sulfates and ortophosphates is počasnejši. Omenjeno spoznanje narekuje nadaljnje slower, and after almost twenty years the process is stil raziskave in previdnost pri različnih vnosih fosfatnih continuing, showing the differences in the leaching of snovi v kraško okolje. Prvi korak je bil narejen, ko so individual contaminants. fosfatne spojine izločili iz pralnih sredstev. The transfer of orthophosphates is the slowest pro- Po spiranju prepustnejših razpok se je po osem- cess. After eighteen years of leaching by precipitation, najstih letih, ko ni bilo več novega onesnaževanja, del trickles I and J still exhibit increased orthophosphates: kontaminantov zadrževal le še v slabo in najslabše around 0.2 mg PO 3-/l in trickle I and just below 1.0 mg 4 prepustnem delu vadozne cone, kar je skladno z ugo- PO 3-/l in trickle J. This means that phosphates are held 4 tovitvami polnjenja in praznjenja različno prepustnih in the less permeable part of the vadose zone signifi- delov vadozne cone ( Kogovšek 2010). Dolgotrajno cantly longer than nitrates or chlorides. This situation spremljanje prenosa tega onesnaženja je pokazalo, calls for further research and caution regarding the da se tudi manjše onesnaženje s površja spira več kot use of various phosphate substances in the karst en- dvajset let do vzpostavitve izhodnega stanja. Meritve vironment. An initial step was taken when phosphate prenikanja odpadne komunalne vode iz umivalnic in compounds were eliminated from laundry detergents. sanitarij turističnega kampa skozi 40 m debelo va- After eighteen years more permeable fissures have dozno cono Pivke jame pa so potrdile, da prihaja v been largely flushed out, while a fraction of the con- njej lahko do učinkovitih oksidacijskih, samočistilnih taminants have been retained in the less permeable procesov ( Kogovšek 1987). part of the vadose zone, in accordance with established hydrodynamics of the vadose zone ( Kogovšek 2010). 2.2 Podrobno spremljanje Our long-term monitoring of the transfer of pollu- prenosa kontaminantov tion confirmed that washing of even minor pollution v hidrološkem letu from the surface takes more than twenty years before the original conditions are restored. Measurements of Pogostejše vzorčenje prenikle vode v jami je ob trickling waste water from washrooms and lavatories naraščanju pretoka po padavinah marca 1992 poka- in the tourist camp through the 40 m thick vadose zalo, da prihaja v vodnih valovih po vsakokratnih do- zone in the Pivka cave/Pivka jama confirmed that ef- volj intenzivnih padavinskih dogodkih do največjega fective oxidation, self-purification processes can also prenosa kontaminantov (kloridov, nitratov, sulfatov take place ( Kogovšek 1987). 2. The role of the vadose zone in the transfer of pol ution through karst aquifers to karst springs 25 in fosfatov). Zato je kasneje potekalo podrobno vzor- 2.2 Detailed measurement čenje izbranih curkov skozi celo hidrološko leto, od of contaminant transfer septembra 2003 do septembra 2004, s poudarkom na during a hydrological year dogajanju v vodnih valovih po vsakokratnih padavi- nah. Na površju so sočasno potekale meritve padavin, Frequent sampling of the March 1992 water pulse v Postojnski jami pa zvezne meritve pretoka, tempera- after a precipitation event showed that the largest ture, specifične električne prevodnosti (EC) curkov in transfer of contaminants (chlorides, nitrates, sulfates koncentracije fluorescentnega sledila v okviru sledenja, and phosphates) occurs in the water pulses follow- z injiciranjem na površju junija 2002 ( Kogovšek 2010). ing each relatively intense precipitation event. In the Pretok večjega nestalnega curka I hitro reagira na period from September 2003 to September 2004 the padavine (pretok mu niha do 4 l/min), ob izostanku transfer of contaminants was therefore monitored padavin pa pogosto presuši, v poletnem sušnem ob- in detail, with special emphasis on the water pulses. dobju tudi za 6 mesecev. Po padavinskem dogodku During this period detailed simultaneous measure- izteka v vodnem valu najprej shranjena voda iz slabše ments were made of precipitation on the surface and in the Postojna cave of discharge, temperature, spe- cific electric conductivity (EC) of the trickles and concentration of the tracer in the cave after injection on the surface in June 2002 ( Kogovšek 2010). The trickle I reacts rapidly to sufficiently abundant precipitation (maximum discharge 4 l/min) but in the absence of rain it dries up quickly, in summer dry periods for up to 6 months. After a precipitation event, trickle I quickly drains the water stored in its catch- ment area. In the initial part of the water pulse this water is mixed with freshly infiltrated precipitation from the more permeable and already cleaned fissures, resulting in a dilution effect. The less abundant, permanent trickle J (3) with maximum discharges up to 130 ml/min, whose annual outflow is more than 20 times lower than that of trickle I, exhibits a strong damping of infiltrated precipitation. Simultaneous measurements of discharge and con- centration of contaminants at the trickle I indicated that the contaminant concentrations were correlated with oscillations in the trickle’s discharge. It is clear that an increasing discharge in water pulses results in a decrease in the concentration of al contaminants, most distinctly of nitrates (4), but there are nonetheless some differences in the transfer of different contaminants ( Kogovšek 2010). The annual pattern at trickle I did not exhibit the decreasing trend of contaminants established with 3 Fizikalne meritve in avtomatski zajem vzorcev stalnega curka J v Postojnski jami. trickle J. However, the concentration of nitrates, which Physical measurements and automatic sampling of the permanent oscillated between 2 and 11 mg NO -/l in the fall of 3 trickle J in the Postojna cave. 2003, reached values below 2 mg NO -/l in 2009. Dur- 3 26 2. Vloga vadozne cone v prenosu onesnaženja s površja skozi kraške vodonosnike do kraških izvirov prepustnega dela zaledja, ki se ji pridruži dotok po ing the hydrological year 2003/04, sulfates oscillated bolj prepustnih in spranih razpokah, kar se odraža v between 7 and 20 mg SO 2-/l. Concentrations below 7 4 razredčevalnem učinku. Pomemben del vode priteka mg SO 2-/l were measured in 2009. The values for ni- 4 torej v ta curek po dobro prepustnih razpokah in ga trates and sulfates are after eighteen years close to those dopolnjuje slabše prepustni del. of the unpolluted reference trickle A. In the 2003/04 Manjši, stalen curek J (3) z maksimalnim preto- hydrological year, the concentration of ortophosphates kom 130 ml/min, skozi katerega izteče 20-krat manjša oscil ated between 0.05 and 0.28 mg PO 3-/l; the lowest 4 letna količina vode kot skozi curek I, izkazuje močno values were recorded during the maximum discharges dušenje infiltriranih padavin. at the peaks of larger water pulses. Periodic analyses Sočasne meritve pretoka in kontaminantov večjega before 2009 do not show any substantial decrease in curka I so pokazale odvisnost koncentracije kontami- the concentration of phosphates. nantov od nihanja pretoka curka. Razvidno je upada- Parallel monitoring of the smaller permanent nje koncentracije vseh kontaminantov ob naraščanju trickle J showed a substantially different transfer of pretoka v vodnih valovih, najizraziteje nitratov (4). contaminants than that through trickle I. Following Med posameznimi kontaminanti so opazne razlike v a long summer drought, the first water pulse began njihovem prenosu ( Kogovšek 2010). to form after abundant rainfall at the end of October 4 Nihanje koncentracij kloridov, nitra- tov, o-fosfatov in sulfatov v vodnem valu izdatnejšega, nestalnega curka I. 20 0,3 Oscillation of concentrations of chlo- (mg/l) rides, nitrates, orthophosphates and (mg/l) sulfates in the water pulse at the more ti tes 16 abundant, periodical trickle I. ti, sulfa , sulfa 0,2 ra tesra 12 o - phosphates idi, nit , nit klor ides 8 o - fosfati / chlor 0,1 4 0 0 5000 (ml/min) 4000 ge 3000 dischar 2000 ok / 1000 etpr 0 24. 10. 2003 03. 11. 2003 13. 11. 2003 23. 11. 2003 03. 12. 2003 datum / date kloridi / chlorides sulfati / sulfates nitrati / nitrates o - fosfati / o - phosphates 2. The role of the vadose zone in the transfer of pol ution through karst aquifers to karst springs 27 V celoletnem poteku curka I ni bilo opazno iz- 2003. Simultaneously the concentration of nitrates and razitejše upadanje koncentracije kontaminantov, ki ortophosphates started to increase and there transfer je bilo ugotovljeno pri curku J. Vendar pa je kon- was very similar (5). High concentrations of nitrates centracija nitratov, ki je jeseni 2003 nihala med 2 and ortophosphates continued for almost a month in 11 mg NO -/l, leta 2009 dosegala vrednosti pod 2 ( Kogovšek 2010) until the next and largest water pulse 3 mg NO -/l. Sulfati, ki so v hidrološkem letu 2003/04 in the 2003/04 hydrological year, when concentrations 3 nihali v intervalu 7–20 mg SO 2-/l, so leta 2009 nihali of nitrates and ortophosphates decreased. 4 pod vrednostjo 7 mg SO 2-/l. Vsebnosti nitratov in Under the given conditions, the infiltrated pre- 4 sulfatov v curku I so se po osemnajstih letih dokaj cipitation caused the stored water with a high concen- približale vrednostim čistega referenčnega curka A. tration of contaminants to discharge first, while the Koncentracija o-fosfatov, ki je v hidrološkem letu very intense and abundant precipitation that followed 2003/04 nihala v intervalu od 0,05 do 0,28 mg PO 3- resulted in their dilution. Later, the nitrates appeared 4 -/l, v okviru občasnih analiz do leta 2009 izkazuje le somewhat more intensely after each increased dis- minimalen upad koncentracije (pod 0,2 mg PO 3-/l). charge that followed precipitation events, but in lower 4 Hkratno opazovanje manjšega stalnega curka J concentrations than at the beginning of the hydrologi- je pokazalo na bistveno drugačen prenos kontami- cal year. Throughout the spring of 2004, the concentra- nantov od njihovega prenosa skozi curek I. Po dolgi tion of nitrates steadily and gradually dropped until it poletni suši sta v prvem vodnem valu, konec oktobra reached its initial value in trickle J from October 2003. 2003 po izdatnem dežju, sočasno s pretokom nara- Similarly, ortophosphates were leached at an in- ščali tudi koncentraciji nitratov in o-fosfatov. Njun tense rate at the beginning of the hydrological year, prenos je bil zelo podoben (5) in visoki koncentraciji but in the spring of 2004 a slightly increasing trend sta vztrajali skoraj ves mesec ( Kogovšek 2010), čeprav and higher values were again recorded during water je pretok medtem upadel. Šele v naslednjem, najve- pulses. At the same time, sulfates also reached their 5 Nihanje koncentracij kloridov, nitratov, o-fosfatov in sulfatov v vodnem valu manjšega, stalnega curka J. ) 14 120 nim Oscillation of concentrations of chlorides, /l (mg/l) nitrates, orthophosphates and sulfates in 12 m( ti tes 100 e the water pulse at the smaller, permanent gr trickle J. osfa a 10 hcs 80 i d ti, o - f / , o - phospha k 8 ot tes e 60 r ti, sulfa p ra 6 , sulfa ates 40 idi, nit 4 klor , nitr ides 20 2 chlor 0 0 16. 10. 2003 26. 10. 2003 05. 11. 2003 15. 11. 2003 25. 11. 2003 05. 12. 2003 15. 12. 2003 25. 12. 2003 datum / date kloridi / chlorides sulfati / sulfates nitrati / nitrates o - fosfati / o - phosphates (x10) pretok / discharge 28 2. Vloga vadozne cone v prenosu onesnaženja s površja skozi kraške vodonosnike do kraških izvirov čjem vodnem valu v hidrološkem letu 2003/04 je highest values. From November 2003 to the spring prišlo do upadanja koncentracij obojih, tako nitratov of 2004 their concentration slightly increased with kot o-fosfatov. large oscillations. V danih razmerah so očitno dokaj izdatne infiltri- The nitrates and ortophosphates again experienced rane padavine po dolgem sušnem poletnem obdobju more intense leaching during the water pulse in Oc- povzročile najprej iztekanje shranjene vode z visoki- tober 2004 after the summer dry period, though it mi koncentracijami kontaminantov. Šele nadaljnje was less intense than in the fall of 2003. The nitrates zelo intenzivne in izdatne padavine so povzročile remained below 6 mg NO -/l, and orthophosphates 3 razredčevanje. Nitrati so se kasneje ob vsakem po- below 1.05 mg PO 3-/l. In the second half of March 4 večanju pretoka po padavinah nekoliko intenzivneje 2005, after a long dry period, water pulses formed spirali, vendar v opazno nižjih koncentracijah kakor that were less abundant than those in the fall of 2003, na začetku hidrološkega leta po sušnem obdobju. and a weaker leaching of contaminants was recorded Do pomladi 2004 je koncentracija nitratov nenehno at trickle J. postopno upadala do vrednosti, ki jo je curek J do- segal oktobra 2003. 2.3 Contaminant transfer Podobno so se na začetku hidrološkega leta inten- in water pulses after zivneje spirali tudi o-fosfati, vendar pa so bile spo- precipitation events mladi 2004 v vodnih valovih spet zabeležene večje vrednosti ob rahlem trendu naraščanja. Tudi sulfati Monitoring of contaminants in trickles over a peri- so tedaj dosegali največje vrednosti v hidrološkem od of more than a hydrological year showed that their letu, njihova koncentracija je od novembra 2003 do transfer through the vadose zone is directly linked to pomladi 2004 ob večjih nihanjih celo nekoliko na- the manner of infiltration of precipitation. The most raščala. intense transfer occurred in the first water pulse after Nitrati in o-fosfati so se ponovno intenzivneje long dry periods. In addition to precipitation, previous spirali v vodnem valu oktobra 2004 po poletnem soil and vadose zone saturation played an important sušnem obdobju, vendar ne tako izrazito kot oktobra role in the infiltration of precipitation and the transfer 2003, nitrati v koncentracijah le do 6 mg NO -/l in of contaminants stored in the less permeable part of 3 o-fosfati do 1,05 mg PO 3-/l. V drugi polovici marca the vadose zone. 4 2005, po daljšem sušnem obdobju, so se po pada- The smallest transfer of contaminants occurred vinah oblikovali manjši vodni valovi kakor jeseni during the periods of minimal discharge through trick- 2003 in izmerili smo manjši prenos kontaminantov les when infiltrated precipitation largely recharged the skozi curek J. catchment areas of trickles and when only a limited transfer of contaminants occurred, mainly within the 2.3 Prenos kontaminantov epikarst or upper vadose zone. In arid summer and also v vodnih valovih po in winter periods when earth is dried and catchment padavinskih dogodkih area of trickles pretty emptied storing of precipitation and accumulation of contaminants prevail in the va- Več kot eno hidrološko leto dolgo zvezno spre- dose zone. To push the stored water with contaminants mljanje kontaminantov v curkih je pokazalo, da je through the vadose zone, especially through its less njihov prenos skozi vadozno cono neposredno po- permeable part, requires enough abundant precipita- vezan z načinom infiltracije padavin. Do povečanega tion along with good saturation of the soil and of the prenosa prihaja v vodnih valovih po dovolj izdatnih vadose zone. padavinah, do najbolj intenzivnega pa v prvih velikih vodnih valovih po daljših sušnih obdobjih. Za infil- tracijo padavin in prenos kontaminantov, še posebno 2. The role of the vadose zone in the transfer of pol ution through karst aquifers to karst springs 29 tistih, ki so bili shranjeni v slabo prepustnem delu 2.3.1 Water pulse through zaledij curkov, sta poleg izdatnosti in intenzivnosti trickle I in October 2003 padavin pomembni tudi predhodna namočenost prsti in zapolnjenost njihovega zaledja oz. vadozne An intense transfer of nitrates and ortophosphates cone z vodo. through trickle I was recorded in the first water pulse Najmanjši prenos kontaminantov poteka v času after the summer at the end of October 2003 (4). With minimalnih pretokov curkov, ko se infiltrirane pada- the rapidly increasing discharge, the characteristic vine pretežno le shranjujejo v vadozni coni in zapol- decrease of nitrates and phosphates was recorded as njujejo zaledje curkov. Tedaj prihaja le do omejenega a consequence of dilution with the inflow of fresh prenosa kontaminantov predvsem znotraj epikraške water along the more permeable and previously oz. zgornjega dela vadozne cone. V sušnih poletnih, pa emptied fissures. tudi v zimskih obdobjih, ko je prst osušena in zaledje However, the concentration of nitrates in the water curkov dokaj izpraznjeno, prevladujeta v vadozni pulse was quickly restored from an initial value of 7.5 coni shranjevanje padavin in akumuliranje kontami- mg NO -/l to a slightly higher value (around 9 mg/l), as 3 nantov. Za potiskanje shranjene vode s kontaminanti soon as the discharge began to decrease. Water with a in njihov prenos skozi vadozno cono v smeri kraških high content of nitrates and phosphates appeared from izvirov so potrebne dovolj izdatne in intenzivne pa- the least permeable part of the catchment area when davine, kar je ob dobri namočenosti prsti in ustrezni the soil was well saturated with water. zapolnjenosti vadozne cone z vodo pogoj za zvezen Compared to the nitrates, which returned to their prenos kontaminantov. initial value when the discharge in the water pulse started to decrease, the phosphates either lagged be- 2.3.1 Vodni val curka I hind a whole day or increased simultaneously with oktobra 2003 the decreasing discharge. The response of the phos- phates is similar in both trickles (I and J) and is char- V prvem vodnem valu po poletju, konec okto- acteristic for this contaminant. In consecutive water bra 2003, je prišlo do intenzivnega prenosa nitratov pulses through trickle I, the content of nitrates and in o-fosfatov skozi curek I (4). Hitremu naraščanju phosphates at the peak of the water pulses gradually pretoka curka I je sledilo njihovo značilno upadanje decreased. kot posledica razredčevanja z dotokom nove vode po The transfer of nitrates and phosphates in water prepustnejših in že spranih razpokah. pulses through trickle I quite clearly coincides with Vendar pa se je koncentracija nitratov v vodnem the pattern of EC and with the concentration of tracer valu z izhodne vrednosti 7,5 mg NO -/l hitro vrnila injected on the surface in June 2002. These results were 3 celo na nekoliko višjo vrednost (okrog 9 mg/l), ko je supported by isotopic analyses of oxygen that showed pretok šele začel upadati. Ob dobri namočenosti prsti that the average retention time of water is around 2.5 je prišlo do infiltracije padavin in sočasnega izteka- months in the more permeable parts of the vadose nja vode tudi iz najslabše prepustnega dela zaledja z zone (trickle I) and more than a year in the less perme- visoko vsebnostjo kontaminantov. able parts (trickle J) ( Kogovšek 2010). V primerjavi z nitrati, ki so se vrnili na izhodno All the parameters confirm the finding that an vrednost, ko je pretok v vodnem valu šele začel upa- initial outflow of stored water from the less per- dati, je koncentracija o-fosfatov zaostajala za ves dan meable part of the catchment area of the trickle is oz. je naraščala sočasno z upadanjem pretoka. To joined by an inflow of new water from the more obnašanje o-fosfatov je podobno pri obeh curkih (I permeable and previously emptied conduits, and in J) in je značilno za ta kontaminant. V zaporednih this is reflected in the dilution effect. This intense vodnih valovih, ki so sledili, je koncentracija nitra- flow of water activates a further inflow from the tov in o-fosfatov ob maksimalnih pretokih dosegala less permeable part of the catchment area that nor- 30 2. Vloga vadozne cone v prenosu onesnaženja s površja skozi kraške vodonosnike do kraških izvirov postopno vedno manjše vrednosti, kar kaže na vse mally supplies the trickle when the flow along the večji del nove vode v primerjavi s shranjeno vodo. most permeable conduits stops. This is reflected by Prenos nitratov in o-fosfatov skozi curek I v vo- the increase of EC, the concentrations of nitrates, dnih valovih dokaj dobro sovpada s potekom EC and concentrations of the tracer, injected in June in v veliki meri tudi s spiranjem fluorescentnega 2002 as soon as the discharge started to decrease. sledila, ki je bilo junija 2002 injicirano na površju, Sulfates also exhibit a decrease in concentration ter z rezultati izotopskih analiz, ki so pokazale, da je during water pulses but less distinctly and with povprečni zadrževalni čas vode približno 2,5 meseca greater oscillations. v bolj prepustnih delih vadozne cone (curek I) in znatno daljši, leto in več, v njenem slabo prepustnem 2.3.2 Water pulse through delu (curek J) ( Kogovšek 2010). trickle J in October 2003 Vsi merjeni parametri potrjujejo ugotovitev, da se začetnemu iztekanju shranjene vode iz slabo With the increasing discharge at trickle J at the end prepustnega dela zaledja curka pridruži dotok nove of October 2003, the concentrations of nitrates and or- vode po prepustnejših razpokah, kar se odraža v tophosphates increased (5), and the high concentrations razredčevalnem učinku. Intenzivno iztekanje vode persisted for almost a month. During this period the po prepustnejših razpokah aktivira nadaljnje iz- first water pulse subsided and the discharge remained at tekanje iz slabo prepustnega dela zaledja, ki daje values just above 20 ml/min for more than two weeks. vodo curku, ko izostane dotok po najprepustnejših The concentration of nitrates began to decrease only razpokah. To se je odrazilo v naraščanju EC ter v when the next water pulse, the largest in the hydro- naraščanju koncentracije nitratov in fluorescen- logical year 2003/04, reached its maximum discharge of tnega sledila, injiciranega junija 2002, ko je pretok over 110 ml/min. Phosphates were leached in a similar šele začel upadati. Tudi sulfati nakazujejo upadanje way, but their concentration began to decrease four koncentracije v vodnih valovih, vendar manj izra- days after the nitrates. The nitrates display almost the zito in ob večjih nihanjih. same pattern as EC and as the concentration of the tracer injected in June 2002 ( Kogovšek 2010). 2.3.2 Vodni val curka J This logical y means that with the infiltration of the oktobra 2003 October precipitation fol owing a 6-month dry period when the trickle displayed minimal discharge, the water Ob prvem naraščanju pretoka manjšega curka J stored in the vadose zone was the first to discharge konec oktobra 2003 sta izrazito naraščali tudi kon- through trickle J. During this dry period 210 mm of centraciji nitratov in o-fosfatov (5). Visoke koncen- rain infiltrated. The more intense precipitation satu- tracije obojih so vztrajale skoraj ves mesec. Medtem rated the soil well and enabled the recharging also of je pretok v prvem vodnem valu upadel, nato pa vztra- the least permeable part of the catchment area and its jal kar dva tedna na vrednostih nekoliko nad 20 ml/ simultaneous discharging. These conditions led to the min. Šele ko je naslednji veliki vodni val, ki je bil pushing of water along the entire hierarchy of fissures, največji v hidrološkem letu 2003/04, dosegel maksi- even the least permeable ones that are only activated in malni pretok nad 110 ml/min, je začela koncentracija extreme conditions such as those that occurred in the nitratov upadati. Podobno so se spirali tudi o-fosfati, fall of 2003. Similar conditions did recur in the spring le da je njihova koncentracija začela upadati štiri dni of 2006. kasneje. Tudi pri tem curku je potek nitratov skoraj The characteristic washing of nitrates through enak poteku EC in zelo podoben poteku spiranja sle- trickle J in the first water pulse after a long dry period dila, ki je bilo injicirano junija 2002 ( Kogovšek 2010). differs from the pattern in subsequent water pulses that Iz tega sledi, da so izdatne oktobrske padavine, fol ow continuously at shorter intervals, which show a ki so sledile 6-mesečnemu sušnemu obdobju z mi- noticeably more modest transfer of contaminants (5). It 2. The role of the vadose zone in the transfer of pol ution through karst aquifers to karst springs 31 nimalnimi pretoki, ko se je infiltriralo in shranilo v is obvious that the wider catchment area of the trickle vadozni coni kar 210 mm padavin, potisnile skozi has largely been drained during the period of the first curek J najprej to shranjeno vodo. Padavine so najprej water pulses. This indicates the important influence of dobro omočile prst ter s tem omogočile zapolnjevanje the infiltration manner of precipitation on the transfer tudi najslabše prepustnega dela zaledja in sočasno of soluble contaminants concerning their distribution iztekanje tam shranjene vode in kontaminantov. V and quantity. takih razmerah prihaja do iztekanja vode po celo- tni hierarhiji različno prepustnih razpok, tudi skozi 2.4 Transfer of najslabše prepustne, ki se aktivirajo le ob izjemnih contaminants from landfills razmerah, kakršne so bile jeseni 2003. Pozneje so se take razmere ponovile šele spomladi 2006. Landfills are a serious threat to karst waters due to Značilno spiranje nitratov skozi curek J v prvih the washing out of waste substances by precipitation. vodnih valovih po daljšem sušnem obdobju odstopa Due to various contents of waste, the leachates from od vzorca dogajanja v naslednjih valovih, ki si sledi- landfills are complex liquids with a high content of jo zvezno v krajših časovnih intervalih in ko prihaja salts, metals and organic compounds ( Hötzl 1999). do opazno skromnejšega prenosa kontaminantov (5). On the Slovene karst landfills have been working Očitno se je širše zaledje curka v času prvih velikih for more than 30 years and are nowadays in the closing vodnih valov dokaj dobro spralo. To kaže na pomem- phase. Chemical analysis of the ‘fresh’ leachate from ben vpliv načina infiltracije padavin na prenos topnih Sežana landfill ( Kogovšek 1996b) accumulated on the kontaminantov, tako kar zadeva njihovo razporeditev surface after a rain event, showed relatively low val- kakor tudi količino. ues of nitrates (3.6 mg/l), orthophosphates (3.8 mg/l) and chlorides (445 mg/l), but high values of chemical 2.4 prenos kontaminantov oxygen demand (COD = 2000 mg O /l), biochemical 2 z odlagališč odpadkov oxygen demand (BOD = 700 mg O /l) and EC (6 mS/ 5 2 cm). In ‘old’ leachates higher values of chlorides (up Odlagališča odpadkov na krasu pomenijo grožnjo to 800 mg/l), orthophosphates (up to 5 mg/l), nitrates za kraške vode. Padavine spirajo iz odlagališč topne (up to 19 mg/l) and EC (up to 9000 µS/cm) were meas- komponente in jih odnašajo skozi vadozno cono v ured. These high values are the result of degradation smeri kraških izvirov. Izcedne vode iz odlagališč so and oxidation of organic pol ution. Therefore the COD odvisne od sestave odpadkov in so običajno zelo kom- (up to 900 mg O /l) and the BOD (up to 80 mg O /l) 2 5 2 pleksne raztopine z visoko vsebnostjo soli, kovin in were lower. Similar values are reported for landfills in organskih snovi ( Hötzl 1999). Spain ( Vadillo et al . 1999). Along more highly perme- Na slovenskem kraškem svetu obratujejo odlagališča able fissures solid particles can also be transported odpadkov že več kot 30 let in so v zapiranju. Analiza at increased discharge ( Kogovšek 1982) and organic izcednih voda na sežanskem odlagališču odpadkov pollution, heavy metals and microorganisms can be ( Kogovšek 1996b) je pokazala v sveži izcedni vodi, ki connected to them. se je zbrala ob odlagališču po padavinskem dogodku, Several tracer tests have been performed recently sorazmerno nizke vrednosti nitratov (3,6 mg/l), o-fosfa- (from 2005 onwards) at landfill sites on the Slovene tov (3,8 mg/l) in kloridov (445 mg/l), a visoke vrednosti karst with the aim to prepare an efficient plan for the organskega onesnaženja (kemijska potreba po kisiku monitoring of groundwater in the area of influence of oz. KPK je dosegala 2000 mg O /l, biokemijska potreba the landfills ( Kogovšek and Petrič 2006, 2007, 2010a). 2 po kisiku oz. BPK pa 700 mg O /l) in visoke vrednosti With the injection of tracers on the karst surface (6), 5 2 EC (6 mS/cm). V 'stari' izcedni vodi so bile zabeležene the determining factor for their appearance in karst večje koncentracije kloridov (do 800 mg/l), o-fosfatov springs is primarily their transfer through the vadose (do 5 mg/l) in nitratov (do 19 mg/l) in večja EC (9000 zone, since further flow along the larger karst channels 32 2. Vloga vadozne cone v prenosu onesnaženja s površja skozi kraške vodonosnike do kraških izvirov µS/cm). Te višje vrednosti so bile rezultat razgradnje in is considerably faster. In all the tests the tracer was oksidacije organskega onesnaženja, saj sta bili izmerjeni flushed with a large amount of water (5 m3) to prevent vrednosti za KPK (do 900 mg O /l), in BPK (do 80 mg greater adsorption on the soil and sediment layers, 2 5 O /l) nižji kot v sveži izcedni vodi. O podobnih vredno- somewhat accelerating the percolation through the 2 stih poročajo tudi iz Španije ( Vadillo idr. 1999). V kolikor vadose zone. However, the tracer test at the Poček mil- je prepustnost razpok pod odlagališči dovolj velika, voda itary training ground in the Javorniki area ( Kogovšek lahko odnaša s površja tudi drobne delce netopnega one- 1999) indicated that intense flushing of tracer using 11 snaženja ( Kogovšek 1982). Na te delce pa so lahko vezani m3 of water did not have a substantial influence on the organsko onesnaženje, kovine in mikroorganizmi. appearance of the tracer in the springs, and precipita- Od leta 2005 naprej je bilo za izdelavo načrta mo- tion was still the decisive element for its appearance. nitoringa vpliva odlagališč na vode izvedenih več sle- Transfer of the tracer in all tests from landfills was denj s fluorescentnimi sledili na odlagališčih odpadkov fast, specially through the Bilpa spring (7, 8) in the s slovenskega krasa ( Kogovšek in Petrič 2006, 2007, case of injection on the Kočevje landfill. This case is 2010a), ko smo injicirali sledilo na površju (6). Za nje- described in the chapter »Planning of groundwater gov pojav v kraških izvirih je bil odločilen predvsem monitoring in the impact areas of landfills in karst prenos skozi vadozno cono, saj je nadaljnje pretakanje based on the results of tracer tests« in this book. po sklenjenih kraških kanalih znatno hitrejše. V vseh In relatively low and dropping water levels primerih sledenj je bilo sledilo sprano z veliko koli- (Kočevje and Sežana tests), the dominant velocity of čino vode (5 m3), da bi preprečili večjo adsorpcijo na the flow towards springs was between 39 and 48 m/h, prst in sedimente, kar je verjetno nekoliko pospešilo and in high water conditions (Ribnica test) up to 144 6 Fluorescentno sledilo smo ob kočevskem odlagališču odpadkov injicirali na površju, tako da je moralo najprej preiti vadozno cono. The fluorescent tracer was injected on the surface at the Kočevje landfill so that it had to pass through the vadose zone at first. 2. The role of the vadose zone in the transfer of pol ution through karst aquifers to karst springs 33 7 Skozi izvir Bilpe je ob sorazmerno nizkem pretoku izteklo kar 77 % injiciranega sledila v dveh tednih od prvega pojava. Within two weeks after the first appearance, at a relatively low discharge, 77 % of the tracer flowed through the Bilpa spring. 34 2. Vloga vadozne cone v prenosu onesnaženja s površja skozi kraške vodonosnike do kraških izvirov 8 Pretok, koncentracija sledila in njegova )3 20 100 ) /s) povrnjena količina v izviru Bilpe. 3 %( y Discharge, concentration of the tracer (m rev and its recovery in the Bilpa spring. . (mg/m ge o 16 80 ce onc r / dischar nina anine c ok / r 12 60 u Ur et in pr ejnrv anina / o 8 40 p . ur konc 4 20 0 0 08. 04. 2006 13. 04. 2006 18. 04. 2006 23. 04. 2006 28. 04. 2006 03. 05. 2006 08. 05. 2006 13. 05. 2006 datum / date koncentracija uranina / Uranine conc. pretok / discharge povrnjeni uranin / recovery pretakanje skozi vadozno cono. Vendar pa je sledenje m/h ( Kogovšek and Petrič 2006, 2007, 2010a). Based z vojaškega poligona Poček na območju Javornikov on multiparameter studies of the vadose zone, local- ( Kogovšek 1999) pokazalo, da intenzivno spiranje sle- ized sources of pollution with higher concentration dila s kar 11 m3 vode ni bistveno vplivalo na njegovo of nitrates, chlorides, phosphates and sulfates such as pojavljanje v opazovanih izvirih. Za njegov prenos so leachate waters from landfills, foster intense dissolu- bile odločilne padavine. tion of limestone ( Kogovšek 2011). This leads to the Prenos sledila z omenjenih odlagališč do kraških gradual formation of increasingly permeable fissures, izvirov je bil hiter, še posebno skozi izvir Bilpe (7, 8) and water with contaminants can then penetrate faster v primeru injiciranja na kočevskem odlagališču, kar through the vadose zone. This explains the relatively je podrobno predstavljeno v poglavju »Načrtovanje rapid percolation and appearance of the bulk of injected monitoringa podzemne vode v vplivnem območju tracer from the landfil s in the first wave of tracer in the odlagališč odpadkov na krasu na podlagi rezultatov springs (40–80 %). In contrast, the tracer test from the sledilnih poskusov« v tej knjigi. military training area Poček, where pol ution (mainly V sorazmerno nizkih vodostajih so bile domi- heavy metals) is dispersed more widely, showed that nantne hitrosti pretakanja (kočevsko in sežansko only 4 % of the injected tracer flowed through the odlagališče) med 39 in 48 m/h, ob visokem vodostaju Malenščica spring in the first wave of tracer. (ribniško odlagališče) pa kar 144 m/h ( Kogovšek in The long-term monitoring of pollution transfer Petrič 2006, 2007, 2010a). Multiparametrske raziska- through the 100 m thick vadose zone confirmed that ve vadozne cone so pokazale, da viri onesnaženja s the washing of even minor pol ution from the surface povečanimi vsebnostmi nitratov, kloridov, fosfatov in takes more than twenty years before the original condi- sulfatov, kot so tudi izcedne vode iz odlagališč, povzro- tions are restored ( Kogovšek 2010). Therefore we assume čajo povečano raztapljanje apnenca ( Kogovšek 2011), that the washing of contaminants from landfil sites wil kar vodi v postopno večanje prepustnosti razpok pod be much longer, which means long-term influence on takšnimi viri in vse hitrejši prenos kontaminantov spring quality in impacted areas. skozi vadozno cono. To razloži sorazmerno hitro pre- 2. The role of the vadose zone in the transfer of pol ution through karst aquifers to karst springs 35 takanje skozi vadozno cono pod odlagališči in velik Conclusion delež injiciranega sledila, ki je izteklo skozi izvire v prvem sledilnem valu v času enega meseca (40–80 %). Multiparameter research on the vadose zone over V sledenju z vojaškega poligona Poček, kjer prevladuje consecutive hydrological years showed the dynamics razpršeno onesnaževanje predvsem s kovinami in ki je of the percolation and retention of infiltrated precipi- bilo izvedeno v primerljivih razmerah, je skozi opazo- tation depending on conditions on the surface and in vani izvir Malenščica v prvem sledilnem valu izteklo the vadose zone, and the dynamics of the transfer of le 4 % injiciranega sledila. contaminants (chlorides, nitrates, phosphates and sul- Dolgotrajno spremljanje prenosa onesnaženja skozi fates) and their impact on the dissolution of carbonate 100 m debelo vadozno cono je pokazalo, da bo tudi rock, and has contributed to understanding the role of spiranje manjšega onesnaženja trajalo več kot dvajset the vadose zone in the transfer of pollution through let ( Kogovšek 2010). Zato pričakujemo, da bo spiranje karst aquifers. kontaminantov iz obsežnih odlagališč odpadkov še The transfer of soluble contaminants is directly znatno daljše, kar pomeni tudi dolgotrajnejši vpliv na related to the percolation of water and the processes kakovost izvirov v vplivnem območju. of water storage in the vadose zone. We have estab- lished the significant role of previously stored water Sklep on an annual or multi-year scale. During the sum- mer dry periods that last from 2.5 to 6 months, a large Številne raziskave vadozne cone, predvsem pa več- amount of less intense precipitation (up to 470 mm of letne, zvezne in sočasne raziskave infiltracije padavin, precipitation or up to 210 mm of effective infiltrated so podale dinamiko pretakanja padavin, ki je odvisna precipitation) is stored in the vadose zone, and the tako od razmer na površju kot v vadozni coni, in dina- discharge from it is minimal. In these periods when miko prenosa topnih kontaminantov (kloridov, nitratov, neither the most nor the least permeable fissures in the fosfatov, sulfatov) ter njihov vpliv na raztapljanje karbo- vadose zone are active, the transfer of contaminants is natnih kamnin. Tako so prispevale k razumevanju vlo- the smallest. At this time the discharges of the sink- ge vadozne cone pri prenosu onesnaženja skozi kraški ing streams that usually carry pollutants are minimal, vodonosnik. or the streams may even be dry. The quality of karst Prenos topnih kontaminantov skozi vadozno cono springs is therefore relatively good in such periods. je neposredno povezan s hidrodinamiko. Ugotovljena je On the other hand, the abundant precipitation that bila pomembna vloga predhodno shranjene vode v le- fol ows longer dry periods flushes accumulated pol u- tnem in večletnem merilu. V poletnih sušnih obdobjih, tion through the aquifers, leading to the most intense ki so trajala od 2,5 do 6 mesecev, se je velika količina transfer of contaminants. In these conditions continu- manj intenzivnih padavin (do 470 mm padavin oz. do ous percolation occurs along the entire hierarchy of 210 mm infiltriranih padavin) pretežno le shranjevala variously permeable fissures in the vadose zone. This is v vadozni coni, saj je bil iztok iz nje minimalen. V teh reflected in higher concentrations of contaminants in obdobjih, ko niso aktivne niti najbolj niti najmanj pre- the initial water pulses at springs, and quality worsens, pustne razpoke, je prenos kontaminantov skozi vadozno particularly if there is no major dilution effect. cono najmanjši. Tedaj imajo tudi reke ponikalnice, ki Sources of pollution on the karst surface influ- lahko prenašajo večje onesnaženje, minimalne pretoke ence incresed dissolving of limestone with higher ali pa so suhe. Zato je kakovost kraških izvirov v ta- contents of nitrates, chlorides, phosphates and sul- kšnih razmerah sorazmerno dobra. Vendar pa izdatne fates ( Kogovšek 2011) which means gradual spreading padavine, ki sledijo, sperejo akumulirano onesnaženje of cracks and fissures in the vadose zone and faster in prihaja do njegovega najbolj intenzivnega prenosa transfer of contaminants. Long-term monitoring of skozi vodonosnik. Takrat gre za zvezno pretakanje skozi the rinsing of minor pollution on the surface has con- vadozno cono po celotni hierarhiji različno prepustnih firmed that it takes more than twenty years before 36 2. Vloga vadozne cone v prenosu onesnaženja s površja skozi kraške vodonosnike do kraških izvirov razpok. To se odrazi v večjih koncentracijah konta- the original conditions are restored. Therefore we can minantov v prvih vodnih valovih izvirov po sušnih expect, in case of landfills, even longer rinsing and obdobjih, še zlasti, če ni prevelikih učinkov razredčenja. their long-term impact on quality of springs in the Viri onesnaženja na kraškem površju z višjimi catchment area. vsebnostmi nitratov, kloridov, fosfatov in sulfatov On the basis of observations of accidents involving vplivajo na povečano raztapljanje apnenca ( Kogovšek spillage of petroleum products in the karst, we know 2011), kar pomeni postopno širjenje razpok v vadozni that petroleum drains along the routes that rainfall coni in vse hitrejši prenos kontaminantov. Dolgoročno follows from the surface through the aquifer. Their spremljanje spiranja manjšega onesnaženja na površ- first appearance at springs is influenced by conditions ju do vzpostavitve izhodnega stanja je pokazalo, da in the soil and the vadose zone and by the rainfall that bo celo to trajalo več kot dvajset let. Zato v primeru follows. Comparisons of the transfer of petroleum odlagališč odpadkov lahko pričakujemo še daljše spi- products versus soluble tracers indicate that the sub- ranje oz. njihov dolgotrajni vpliv na kakovost izvirov sequent mode of transfer of these substances through v vplivnem območju. karst aquifers differs significantly because of their Spremljanje posledic ob nesrečah z izlitji naftnih physical properties. Above all it involves longer reten- derivatov na krasu je pokazalo, da ti ubirajo vodne tion and accumulation of petroleum products fol owed poti skozi vadozno cono in da njihov prenos do kra- by gradual washing away. Along more highly perme- ških izvirov pogojujejo padavine, ki sledijo. Zaradi able fissures the transport of solid particles can also njihovih fizikalnih lastnosti je prenos naftnih derivatov occur ( Kogovšek 1982) and organic pollution, heavy drugačen kakor prenos topnih snovi. V vodonosniku metals and microorganisms can be connected to them. se zadržijo dlje časa, se akumulirajo in le postopno spirajo. Po prepustnejših razpokah v vadozni coni se Acknowledgement prenašajo tudi majhni trdni delci ( Kogovšek 1982), na katere je lahko vezano organsko onesnaženje, pa tudi Long-term research was supported by the Slove- kovine in mikroorganizmi. nian Research Agency (ARRS)—research program »Raziskovanje krasa« and the Slovenian National Zahvala Commission for UNESCO—»International Hydro- logical Program« (IHP). Raziskave so potekale v okviru programa Agencije za raziskovanje Republike Slovenije (ARRS) »Razi- skovanje krasa« in s sofinanciranjem Slovenske naci- onalne komisije za UNESCO v okviru Mednarodnega hidrološkega programa IHP (International Hydrolo- gical Program). 2. The role of the vadose zone in the transfer of pol ution through karst aquifers to karst springs 37 O ODE A: A V OD JANJE ATUR AVNO SLEDIL TAVL ANJA 3 T NAR TAK fr TEMPER AND UNIC KO THE C ZA UGO I a N PREOF GR PODZEMNIH VAS A NA PRIMER PODZEMNE W PIVKE IN UNICE nc A i K g TER TEMPER ab ARST rov ASE OF š OUND ek, j TUR an : ez A RIVERS turk W AL THE PIVK ATER TR ATURE ACER A Ugotavljanje vodnih zvez in dinamike pre- takanja podzemnih voda je ena pomemb- One of the main goals of karst hydrology is to define the directions of groundwater flow nejših nalog kraške hidrologije, na kateri in karst aquifers, so that protective meas- temelji tudi varovanje kraških vodnih virov. Povezave ures of karst groundwater resources can be efficient. med dotoki in izviri največkrat ugotavljamo z uporabo To this extent the use of various artificial tracers has različnih umetnih sledil. Sledilni poskusi dajo zanesljiv been widespread. Dye tracing tests give reliable and kvantitativni rezultat, ki pa je največkrat vezan le na also quantitative results, however these are valid for the trenutni vodostaj ob času izvajanja poskusa. Danes hydrological situations at the time of the test. It has been vemo, da so v krasu smeri vodnih tokov ob različnih demonstrated numerous times (e.g. Kogovšek et al. 1999) vodostajih lahko precej različne (npr. Kogovšek idr. that direction of groundwater flow at a site depends on 1999). Tudi zato številne raziskave potekajo v smeri the particular hydrological conditions. Therefore, karst uporabe naravnih sledil, torej fizikalnih in kemičnih hydrologists are making efforts to use natural tracers, parametrov, ki posredno kažejo na vodne povezave. i.e. physical and chemical parameters of groundwater, Nekatere od teh parametrov lahko merimo zvezno, s which indirectly indicate directions of the flow. Some posebej v ta namen izdelanimi napravami, ki jih name- of these parameters can be continuously monitored by stimo v vodni tok (t. i. data loggerji). Meritve potekajo fixing the instruments with internal memory into the avtomatsko. Takšne merilne naprave lahko namestimo active flow (so cal ed data loggers). If these are robust, tudi v kraške jame, ki nudijo edini dostop do aktivnih autonomous and have independent (if possible internal) vodnih poti v krasu. Zaradi težke dostopnosti jame power source, they can be readily used in caves. Caves le redko uporabimo za mesta vzorčenja pri klasičnih provide unique access to the active groundwater flow sledilnih poskusih. Kljub temu pa bi prav podatki iz between the inputs and springs. Although data from jam omogočali precej boljši vpogled v prostorsko po- caves would improve our knowledge on the direction razdelitev podzemnih vodnih tokov. and dynamic behaviour of the flow, the caves are rarely Naravno sledilo je lahko tudi temperatura vode used for sampling points in classical tracer tests because ( Saar 2011). Razvoj razmeroma cenovno ugodnih av- of their inaccessibility. tomatskih merilnikov nam omogoča zajem dolgoča- Water temperature can also be considered as a natu- sovnih temperaturnih nizov tudi v najtežje dostopnih ral tracer ( Saar 2011). Recent development of robust jamah. V Sloveniji zadnjih pet let zvezno spremljamo and reliable instrument enabled col ection of long-term temperaturo v več kraških sistemih, v tem prispevku temperature records also in most remote points of caves pa prikazujeva nekatere rezultate v ponikalnicah Piv- with active flow. During last five years continuous moni- ki in Unici. V prvem primeru smo merili v sistemu toring of groundwater levels and temperatures (and Postojnskih jam, v drugem primeru pa v štirih jamah in some cases also electrical conductivities) has been med Planinskim poljem in Logatcem. established in several karst systems in Slovenia. This Tok ponikalnic skozi kraške jamske splete je zani- chapter shows some results and interpretation of tem- miv z več vidikov. Ponikalnice predstavljajo koncen- perature and stage monitoring in two sinking streams triran dotok v kraški vodonosnik; z njimi se odvija in Slovene classical karst: Pivka in the Postojna cave hiter transport snovi (tudi onesnaževal) globoko v system and Unica in four caves between Planinsko polje kraški masiv. Onesnažena ponikalnica zato pomeni and Logatec. grožnjo za celoten vodonosnik. Kraške ponikalnice Sinking rivers are the main tributaries of many im- odlikuje tudi velika spremenljivost fizikalnih in ke- portant karst systems. They present concentrated re- mičnih lastnosti, kot so pretok, temperatura, kalnost charge to the aquifer and carry fast material (including in koncentracija v njih raztopljenih snovi. potential contaminants) transport deep into the system. Za ponorom se režim vodnega toka temeljito Sinking rivers show high temporal variation of physical spremeni. Voda teče skozi bolj ali manj zvezen sis- and chemical parameters such as discharge, temperature, tem jamskih rovov različnih dimenzij, ki jih lahko turbidity and concentration of dissolved substances. 3. Water temperature as a natural tracer of groundwater in karst: the case of the Pivka and Unica rivers 39 prekinjajo podori. Ponekod ima odprto gladino, At the ponor, the flow regime can change abruptly. ponekod so rovi lahko povsem zaliti. Ob poplavnih In the developed karst systems, the water flows along dogodkih lahko nek rov iz odprtega kanala postane a system of channels of different dimensions, often tlačni rov (popolnoma zalit z vodo). Zožitve rovov obstructed by the breakdowns. Open surface or pres- povzročajo zastajanje vode in dviganje vodnih nivojev, surized flow conditions are both possible, with fre- kar je še zlasti izrazito ob prehodu velikih poplavnih quent transition from one to the other. Flow restric- valov skozi jamo. V več slovenskih jamah beležimo tions cause water ponding and high fluctuations of the dvige tudi prek 100 m, nivoji pa ob poplavnem do- groundwater level. In several Slovene caves, the stage godku naraščajo tudi s hitrostjo več kot 10 m na uro. variations can reach 100 m or more. At flood events, Ob prehodu v podzemlje se spremenijo tudi tempe- the rate of water rise can exceed 10 m/h. raturne značilnosti ponikalnic. Podzemlje je toplotno The temperature of any river is controlled by the stabilno okolje. Na površju temperaturo rek določa heat exchange between the water and the environment. izmenjava toplote med vodo in strugo ter okoliško at- At the surface, the most important heat source is a mosfero. Glavni vir toplote je kratkovalovno sončno short-wave solar radiation, which is completely absent sevanje, toplotne izgube pa potekajo predvsem ponoči. underground. The temperature of surface rivers show Temperature površinskih voda zato nihajo tako skozi typical diurnal oscil ations with abrupt changes caused vse leto kakor tudi v enem dnevu. Na temperaturo moč- by rain events and snow melting. no vplivajo še padavinski dogodki in taljenje snega, ki There is no solar shortwave radiation in caves. The močno popačijo periodičnost temperaturne krivulje. temperature of underground flow is governed mainly V podzemlju sončnega sevanja ni, tudi dolgova- by the convective heat exchange with cave walls and lovna sevalna izmenjava toplote je v večini primerov sediments. The heat flux from water to rock or vice majhna. Temperatura vode se vzdolž toka spreminja versa is proportional to the difference between the predvsem zaradi izmenjave toplote med vodo in jam- temperature of water and rock and the flow regime. skimi stenami oziroma sedimentom v strugi. V osnovi However, the wall temperature also depends on the se temperatura vode spreminja zaradi konvekcijskega conductive heat transport within the rock massive. By prenosa toplote med vodo in steno rova in/ali sedi- coupling the convective heat transfer between the wa- mentom v strugi. Gostota konvekcijskega toplotnega ter and the cave walls to the conduction in rock, most toka je odvisna zlasti od razlike temperatur med vodo of the temperature behaviour of the underground flow in steno ter od režima vodnega toka. Prenos toplote can be discussed. A good fit between modelling and med steno in okoliškim masivom se vrši predvsem field results have been demonstrated by Covington et s prevajanjem. S sklenitvijo konvekcijskega prenosa al. (2011) who also give a theoretical background on toplote na meji med vodo in steno ter s prevajanjem v different heat exchange processes in the underground kamnini lahko pojasnimo večino temperaturne dina- rivers, among others in the Postojna cave system. mike podzemnih vodotokov. Covington in sodelavci The heat exchange between water and rock dimin- ( Covington idr. 2011) so z analitičnim in numeričnim ishes the amplitude of diurnal temperature variations modelom pojasnili relativni pomen posameznih along the flow path. The characteristic length scale, a prispevkov k toplotni bilanci vode v podzemlju in z measure for the rate of amplitude decrease along the modelom tudi uspešno razložili nekatere rezultate flow, depends on the discharge, hydraulic diameter, terenskih meritev v Postojnskem jamskem sistemu. convection coefficients and thermal conductivity of Zaradi izmenjave toplote s kamnino se amplituda rock. Diurnal temperature variations in some sinking dnevnih temperaturnih sprememb vzdolž vodnega rivers can reach several kilometres deep. However, the toka približno eksponentno zmanjšuje. Značilna dol- length scale for diffused flow is much shorter, usually žina, ki opisuje, kako hitro se to dogaja, je odvisna in the order of few metres. Therefore, if diurnal tem- predvsem od pretoka, hidravličnega obsega (tj. od perature oscillations are recorded in cave waters, this površine stika med vodo in kamnino), koeficienta clearly indicates the recharge from the concentrated 40 3. Temperatura vode kot naravno sledilo za ugotavljanje pretakanja podzemnih voda: primer podzemne Pivke in Unice konvekcijskega prenosa toplote, ki je odvisen tudi od source, most probably a sinking river. If we assume značilnosti toka, in toplotne prevodnosti kamnine. the advective ‘transport’ of temperature signal, the Dnevna temperaturna nihanja lahko v ponikalnicah time lag of between temperature curves at two points sežejo tudi več kilometrov v masiv. Torej nam dnevno at different location along the same flow, represents nihanje temperature v jamskih tokovih dokazuje, da the travel time of the flow between the points. So the voda nekje koncentrirano doteka v kras. Sklepamo temperature is beeing used as natural tracer. In this lahko celo na potovalni čas in hitrost vodnega toka chapter we present the measurements of the Pivka and med dvema točkama (lokacijama). Ob predpostavki, Unica underground water flow and some results con- da temperaturni signal vzdolž vodne poti potuje pred- cerning the nature of both flows based on the analysis vsem advekcijsko (torej skupaj z vodnim tokom), lah- of the temperature temporal lines. ko iz časovne razlike med dnevnim vrhom ali dnom The temperatures of groundwater was recorded temperaturne krivulje na dveh različnih točkah vzdolž with instruments which hold enough memory for toka sklepamo o času potovanja vode med tema dvema several years of autonomy if measurements are taken točkama. Torej nam temperatura služi kot naravno every 30 minutes. The instruments are programmed sledilo. V tem poglavju so prikazane meritve na pod- by PC or a pocket computer through the interface via zemnem toku rek Pivke in Unice in nekateri izsledki optical bridge. Accuracy of measurements is 0.1 °C. o naravi obeh tokov na podlagi analize temperaturnih časovnih vrst. 3.1 The case of the Fizikalne lastnosti voda, tako tudi temperaturo, Pivka river in the je možno v današnjem času razmeroma preprosto Postojna cave system spremljati, saj imamo na voljo naprave, ki nam v re- dnih časovnih presledkih merijo in beležijo želene The river Pivka is the main recharge to the parametre. Merilno napravo lahko povežemo z raču- Postojna cave system. Between the ponor at the nalnikom, s katerim nastavimo merilne parametre, kot Postojnska jama and the terminal siphon lake in the so časovni presledek med dvema meritvama, začetek Pivka jama there is about 3.5 km long underground in konec meritev, lokacijsko specifične spremenljivke flow (1). Only about few hundred metres of flow oc- itd. Natančnost zabeleženih meritev je 0,1 °C. curs along pressurized conduits at low to medium dis- charge and more than half in high floods. Even though 3.1 Primer reke Pivke v most of the underground flow of the Pivka river is wel sistemu postojnskih jam explored and known, the flood dynamics has been poorly understood until recently. The second part of Reka Pivka je glavni dotok v Postojnski jamski sis- the flow is obstructed by numerous breakdowns with tem. Med ponorom v Postojnski jami in odtočnim si- upstream lakes of slow water. A major flow restriction fonom v Pivki jami teče večino 3,5 km dolge vodne poti which causes the flooding of the entire active level up s prosto gladino (1). Ob nizkem in srednjem vodostaju to the entrance is the Martel’s breakdown ( Turk 2010a). je le nekaj sto metrov toka po popolno zalitih rovih. Ob Here we discuss only temperature records at the izjemno visokih vodostajih pa tok v večjem delu posta- two extreme points, in Veliki dom just behind the ne tlačni. Čeprav je pot podzemne Pivke dobro znana in ponor and at the terminal lake in the Pivka jama (1, red dostopna, pa je o njeni poplavni dinamiki manj znane- circles). The altitude difference between both points ga. Drugi del poti ovirajo podori, za katerimi so jezera is about 35 m. The yearly temperature variations of s počasnim tokom. Glavno oviro ob visokih vodostajih the river Pivka is about 15–20 °C. In winter the tem- predstavlja Martelov podor ( Turk 2010a). perature is only few degrees centigrade, in summer it Tu obravnavamo zgolj meritve na skrajnih me- reaches almost 20 °C. The amplitude of daily variations rilnih mestih, tik za ponorom (Veliki dom) in v ranges between few tenths of a degree and 1 °C. A part odtočnem sifonu v Pivki jami (1, rdeči krogi). of the record also shows daily maxima in the early 3. Water temperature as a natural tracer of groundwater in karst: the case of the Pivka and Unica rivers 41 1 Levo: Digitalni model reliefa z delom Postojnske kotline, Javornikov, morning hours, which cannot be related to any known Hrušice in Planinskega polja s tlorisi Postojnskega jamskega sistema in natural processes. Planinske jame. Desno: Tloris Postojnskega jamskega sistema z vrisanim tokom Pivke (modro) in merilnima točkama (rdeči piki). Modra puščica Figure 2 shows discharge and temperature of the nakazuje generalno smer toka. river at the two locations in the second half of June Left: Digital elevation model, including parts of Postojna basin, Javorniki, Hrušica and Planinsko polje with ground-plans of the Postojna cave 2008 when the discharge decreases following a rain system and the cave Planinska jama. Right: Ground-plan of the Postojna event. Both stations show clear diurnal variations. cave system with underground course of the Pivka river (in blue) and monitoring sites (marked by red circles). The blue arrow indicates the However, when the discharge drops below 1 m3/s, the general flow direction. temperature in the Pivka cave loses its diurnal character. A simple observation of corresponding daily maxima and minima leads us to several other conclusions: time Višinska razlika med postajama je 35 m. Na letnem lags between corresponding peaks and valleys show nivoju temperatura Pivke pri ponoru niha med 15 increase with decreasing discharge. The temperature in 20 °C. Pozimi je le nekaj stopinj nad ničlo, poleti drop along the flow increases with increasing input navadno preseže 15 °C in se približa celo 20 °C. Zna- temperature (e.g. peaks show higher difference than čilna temperaturna nihanja se pojavljajo tudi skozi val eys), which is to be expected for the summer period ves dan. Amplituda dnevnih nihanj znaša od nekaj when the temperature of the cave wal s is regularly be- desetink do okrog stopinje Celzija in je predvsem po- low the temperature of the water. sledica dnevno-nočnega ritma sončnega obsevanja in The time lag analysis on a long-term record shows a z njim povezanih zunanjih temperatur. Kot zanimivost clear relation between the travel time and discharge. Figure povejmo, da smo v nekaterih obdobjih tik za ponorom 3 shows the function of flow velocity on the discharge as 42 3. Temperatura vode kot naravno sledilo za ugotavljanje pretakanja podzemnih voda: primer podzemne Pivke in Unice ) 20 20 /s)3 e (°C (m atur ge 18 15 temper dischar a / ok / et atur pr 16 t = 13h 10 temper t = 8h 40 min 14 t = 14h 5 12 0 18. 06. 2008 20. 06. 2008 22. 06. 2008 24. 06. 2008 26. 06. 2008 28. 06. 2008 30.06. 2008 datum / date Postojnska jama / cave Pivka jama / cave pretok / discharge 2 Potek pretoka in temperature Pivke na obeh merilnih točkah v drugi polovici junija 2008. Označeni so časovni zamiki med izbranimi ustreznimi dnevnimi ekstremi obeh merilnih točk. Discharge and temperature records of the Pivka river at the both stations in the second half of June 2008. The time lags between selected corresponding temperature maxima and minima are shown. 1000 y (m/h) velocit 750 ost / hitr 500 v = AQB A = 218 B = 0,478 250 0 5 10 15 20 25 pretok / discharge (m3/s) 3 Odvisnost hitrosti toka od pretoka, kot jo dobimo iz analize časovnih zamikov dnevnih temperaturnih ekstremov. Dependence of the flow velocity on the discharge as obtained by the analysis of time lags between daily maxima and minima at the stations. 3. Water temperature as a natural tracer of groundwater in karst: the case of the Pivka and Unica rivers 43 Pivke zaznali temperaturne vrhove sredi noči, kar je calculated from the time lags of 200 clear minima and precej nenavadno in kaže na verjeten človekov vpliv. maxima. The best fit curve is also shown. The velocity Slika 2 prikazuje temperaturo in pretok Pivke na shows approximately a square root dependence on the obeh merilnih mestih v drugi polovici junija 2008, ob discharge. stalnem upadanju pretoka v padavinskem dogodku. Temperaturni signal na obeh mestih kaže značilen 3.2 The case of the Unica dnevni ritem. Ko pretok pade pod 1 m3/s, dnevne river between Planinsko oscilacije v Pivki jami izginejo. Že preprosta analiza polje and Logatec ustreznih temperaturnih vrhov in dolin nam pokaže nekatere značilnosti pretakanja in prenosa toplote The Unica river represents an overflow in Planin- skozi jamski sistem. Časovni zamik med ustreznimi sko polje. Its springs are located at the southern rim vrhovi se veča s padanjem pretoka, temperaturna raz- of the polje. Along its flow, the river sinks at several lika na obeh točkah pa narašča z naraščanjem vhodne ponors at the eastern and northern rim (4). The sur- temperature (npr. razlika med vrhovi je večja kot razli- face flow of river Unica gains typical temperature ka med dolinami). Slednje je posledica dejstva, da so v record with diurnal amplitude of up to 2 °C. Its under- tem letnem času jamske stene praviloma hladnejše od vode in čim večja je razlika med temperaturo vode in stene, tem več toplote preide iz vode v okolico. Analiza časovnih zamikov med dnevnimi vrhovi in dolinami nam da podatke o hitrosti potovanja tempe- raturnega signala. Slika 3 prikazuje hitrost v odvisnosti od pretoka, izračunano na osnovi 200 izbranih jasnih vrhov in dolin. Prikazana je tudi potenčna krivulja, ki se točkam najbolje prilega. Izkaže se, da ima hitrost približno korensko odvisnost od pretoka. 3.2 Primer Unice med Planinskim poljem in Logatcem Reka Unica izvira na južnem obrobju Planinske- ga polja, glavni ponori pa so vzdolž njenega toka na vzhodnem in severnem robu polja (4). Ker Unica na Planinskem polju preteče precejšnjo razdaljo, pridobi temperaturni signal, ki je značilen za površinske reke, z dnevno amplitudo do 2 °C. Podzemno Unico med Planinskim poljem in Vrhniko lahko sledimo še v še- stih jamah, v štirih izmed njih smo v letih 2006–2008 merili temperature in vodostaje. Poleg tega smo merili tudi temperaturo in pretok (na osnovi zveznih meritev vodostajev) Unice pod mostom pri Starem gradu. Mi- nimalni pretok na merilnem mestu je nekaj sto litrov 4 Območje med Planinskim poljem in Logatcem. Označeni tok Unice in na sekundo, povprečni 25 m3/s in maksimalni preko ponorna območja na Planinskem polju ter jame, v katerih smo spremljali 100 m3/s. Unica začne poplavljati polje, ko je preseže- temperature in nivoje. The area between Planinsko polje and Logatec with surface flow of the na kapaciteta ponorov, približno pri pretoku 60 m3/s Unica river, ponor areas and the locations of measurements stations. 44 3. Temperatura vode kot naravno sledilo za ugotavljanje pretakanja podzemnih voda: primer podzemne Pivke in Unice ( Gabrovšek in Turk 2010, Turk 2010a, b). ground flow between Planinsko polje and the springs Čeprav vse jame kažejo hiter odziv nivojev tudi na of Ljubljanica can be encountered in six caves, in four manjše padavinske dogodke, dnevnih temperaturnih of them the temperature and stage were recorded in nihanj pri pretokih, manjših od 20 m3/s, ne zaznamo v 2006–2008. Additional y, discharge and temperature of nobeni od jam. Ko Unica doseže pretoke med 20 in 25 the surface flow in Planinsko polje were also recorded. m3/s, se pojavi jasna korelacija med temperaturo Unice Minimal discharge of the Unica river is few hundred in temperaturo vode v Vetrovni jami, ki se napaja skozi l/s, mean discharge is about 25 m3/s, and maximal ponore ob vzhodnem robu polja. Pri pretokih 25–30 above 100 m3/s. Planinsko polje becomes flooded when m3/s se dnevne temperaturne spremembe pojavijo v the capacity of ponors is exceeded at about 60 m3/s Najdeni jami in Gradišnici (5). Temperatura v obeh ja- ( Gabrovšek and Turk 2010; Turk 2010a, b). mah se približa temperaturi Unice. Zamik signala med The water level in all caves shows quick response eno in drugo jamo je približno 9 ur. Nivoji v Gašpi- even to small precipitation events. However, when the novi jami, ki je od vseh najbolj oddaljena od ponorov, discharge of the river Unica is below 20 m3/s, diurnal so skoraj identični tistim v Gradišnici, kar govori o temperature oscillations are not seen in any of the dobri hidravlični povezanosti obeh jam. Tempera- caves. At discharge between 20 and 25 m3/s, there is 5 Potek temperature in pretoka Unice ter temperature in nivojev v jamah ob t = 9h t = 9h ) padavinskem dogodku septembra 2007. Označen je časovni zamik temperaturnega . (°C 11 signala med Najdeno jamo in Gradišnico. temp Temperature and discharge hydrograph of a / 10 the Unica river and temperature and stage hydrograph of groundwater at four moni- atur tored caves in the recession period after 9 a rain event in September 2007. The lag temper between temperature signals in the caves 8 Najdena jama and Gradišnica is marked. 40 ) 60 s/ 70 3 (m) 55 m 35 ( e 60 50 g (mm/d) stage ra 30 45 h o / c tion si 50 40 d 25 / 35 k 40 ecipita ot pr vodni niv 20 30 erp 25 - 30 15 a vine / c 20 in 10 U 20 pada 15 10 10 5 5 0 0 0 26. 09. 2007 27. 09. 2007 28. 09. 2007 29. 09. 2007 30. 09. 2007 01. 10. 2007 02. 10. 2007 03. 10. 2007 datum / date Unica Gašpinova jama / cave Najdena jama / cave Vetrovna jama / cave jama / cave Gradišnica padavine / precipitation 3. Water temperature as a natural tracer of groundwater in karst: the case of the Pivka and Unica rivers 45 turni hidrogram iz Gašpinove jame pa je povsem a clear correlation between temperature of Unica and drugačen od tistega v Gradišnici. Dnevnega nihanja the temperature in the cave Vetrovna jama which is ni. Ob dogodku, prikazanem na sliki 5, temperatura fed through the set of eastern ponors. When the dis- najprej naraste za pol stopinje, potem pa skokovito charge reaches 25–30 m3/s, diurnal variations are also upade skoraj za celo stopinjo. Zgolj sklepamo lahko, recorded in the caves Najdena jama and Gradišnica da so med obema jamama dotoki. Dnevno nihanje (5). The temperature in both caves is close to the temperature v Gašpinovi jami se pokaže le ob izredno temperature of the Unica river. Time lag between visokih vodostajih, ko pretok Unice preseže 55 m3/s temperature records in Najdena jama and Gradišnica ( Turk in Gabrovšek 2009, Gabrovšek in Turk 2010, is about 9 hours. The dynamics of water level in the Turk 2010a, b). cave Gašpinova jama, which is most distinct from the Temperaturni signal Unice na sliki 5 je malce zava- ponor areas, is almost identical to that in Gradišnica, jajoč, saj je dolžina toka od izvirov do mesta merjenja indicating a clear hydraulic connection between the prekratka, da bi se pri tako velikem pretoku oblikoval two caves. The temperature record in Gašpinova jama dnevni temperaturni cikel. is however much different. At the event presented on the figure 5 no diurnal temperature variations are Sklep visible. The temperature first rises for half a degree and then abruptly drops and slowly returns back to Temperature podzemnih voda so lahko pomem- the pre-event value. Such behaviour indicates other ben kazalec navzočnosti povezav in hitrosti podze- tributaries of unknown origin. Diurnal temperature mnih tokov. Avtomatske merilnike, ki so bili razviti variations in Gašpinova jama were observed only dur- v zadnjem desetletju, je možno namestiti v večini ing extreme events, when the discharge of the Unica jamskih sistemov z aktivnim vodnim tokom. Nove is above 55 m3/s ( Turk and Gabrovšek 2009, Gabrovšek teoretične raziskave omogočajo vse boljše vrednotenje and Turk 2010, Turk 2010a, b). in interpretacijo dobljenih podatkov. Dolgočasovne The temperature signal of the Unica river on the analize podatkov o temperaturi, specifični električni figure 5 is a little deceptive because the flow length prevodnosti in vodostajih bi nam vsekakor omogo- between the springs and the measurement point is čale vpogled v dinamiko podzemnih vodnih tokov na too short that a daily temperature cycle could form at celotnem območju pretokov. so large discharge. Conclusion Temperature of groundwater can be an important indicator of the flow directions and dynamics. By use of robust autonomous instruments, we could establish long-term temperature records in most of the cave systems with active groundwater flow. These could, together with the recent theoretical research which provides new means to analyse these data, enable new insights into the nature of groundwater flow in karst at all hydrological regimes. 46 3. Temperatura vode kot naravno sledilo za ugotavljanje pretakanja podzemnih voda: primer podzemne Pivke in Unice ADI AŠKIH ZAR AH V O ZMER VIR A TA V OŽENOST KR 4 ODNIH OME JANJA NORM TROGR W V THREAPR REDNIH R A AFFIC K TER SOUR OGO V AL C ŠEK TS T IN ONDITIONS O THE CES FR KARST OM 47 Zaradi prepustnosti razpokanih in topnih kar- bonatnih kamnin na kraškem svetu, predvsem Owing to the permeability of fissured and solu- ble carbonate rocks in karst areas, above al apnenca in dolomita, je ranljivost kraškega limestone and dolomite, the vulnerability okolja velika in vsakršno onesnaževanje na njegovem of the karst environment is considerable, and every površju pomeni tudi onesnaženje kraških podzemnih form of pollution on its surface also means pollution voda. V celo vrsto onesnaževalcev na kraškem površju, of karst groundwater. Traffic is among the polluters ki ogrožajo kakovost kraške vode, spada tudi promet, on the karst surface that threatens the quality of karst ne le v primeru nesreč, ko pride do razlitja velikih ko- water, not only in the case of road accidents involving ličin nevarnih in škodljivih snovi, ki lahko kontami- the spil age of large quantities of hazardous and harmful nirajo pitno vodo, temveč tudi zaradi onesnaževanja, substances, but also because of the pol ution caused by do katerega prihaja ob rednem odvijanju prometa po regular traffic flows. cestah in železnicah. Researchers in Maribor established years ago that V Mariboru so pred časom ugotavljali, da je pomem- heavy traffic was a significant cause of air pollution ben vzrok onesnaženosti zraka tudi gost promet ( Špes ( Špes 1993). Later, pollution of the soil and vegetation 1993). Pozneje so v neposredni bližini avtocest sledili one- with heavy metals, notably lead, zinc and nickel, was snaženju tal in vegetacije s težkimi kovinami, zlasti s svin- identified in the direct vicinity of motorways ( Rotar cem, cinkom in nikljem ( Rotar 1994). Večina onesnaženja 1994). The majority of pollution due to traffic in nor- zaradi prometa v rednih razmerah ostaja na cestišču. mal conditions remains on the roadway. It is washed Padavine ga spirajo in z lokalnih cest odteka razpršeno away by rainfall and drains from local roads as diffuse vzdolž njihovega poteka, z avtocest pa se voda zbira v runoff along their length, while water from motorways obcestnih kanalih in odteka bolj ali manj točkovno. collects in roadside channels and drains more or less Kakšen je vpliv določenega onesnaženja s površja as point source runoff. na kraške izvire, nam pokažejo le ustrezne raziskave. The impact of a specific type of surface pollution V primerih onesnaževanja kraškega površja s snovmi, on karst springs can only be shown by corresponding topnimi v vodi, ali takrat, ko onesnaženje odteče v research. In cases of pollution by water-soluble sub- reke ponikalnice, lahko samo na osnovi raziskav v stances on the karst surface or when pollution runs preteklosti, predvsem na podlagi sledilnih poskusov in off into sinking streams, it is only on the basis of past raziskav prenosa teh kontaminantov skozi karbonatne research, in particular tracer tests and research into kamnine ( Kogovšek 2010), sklepamo, kateri izviri bodo the transfer of these contaminants through carbon- onesnaženi in kakšne hitrosti prenosa lahko pričaku- ate rock ( Kogovšek 2010), that we can conclude what jemo. V vadozni coni se namreč kontaminanti lahko springs wil be pol uted and what speed of transfer we shranjujejo tudi za daljša obdobja. Poznavanje vrste can expect. Contaminants can, in fact, be stored in the onesnaženja in njegovih razgradnih produktov nam vadose zone for considerable periods. Knowing the pove, kaj in katere parametre moramo spremljati v type of pollution and its degradation products tells us izvirih na vplivnem območju. what parameters we have to monitor in springs inside V primeru izlitij nevarnih snovi v železniških in the area of influence. cestnih nesrečah, pa tudi kanaliziranih odtokov z In the case of spillages of hazardous substances avtocest gre za velika točkovna onesnaženja. Čeprav in railway and road accidents, and also channelled razpolagamo z določenim znanjem o vrsti in količini drainage from motorways, pollution is point source onesnaženja, ki odteka z avtocest v rednih razmerah, pollution. Although we have some knowledge of run- še ne vemo, kakšno onesnaženje se spira z območja off pollution from motorways in normal conditions, železniških prog. we still do not possess information about the nature Kako se onesnaženje širi s površja skozi kraški of runoff pollution from railway lines. vodonosnik do kraških izvirov, je odvisno od ranlji- How pollution spreads from the surface through vosti vodonosnika, ki je podrobno opisana v poglavju the karst aquifer to karst springs depends on its 48 4. Ogroženost kraških vodnih virov zaradi prometa v rednih razmerah »Značilnosti kraških vodonosnikov, njihova ranljivost vulnerability, which is described in detail in the chap- in ogroženost« v tej knjigi. Raziskave pretakanja pa- ter »Characteristics of karst aquifers, their vulner- davin skozi kraški vodonosnik so pokazale v sušnih ability and endangerment«. Research into the flow obdobjih sorazmerno počasno pretakanje, saj se pa- of precipitation through the karst aquifer revealed a davine v vadozni coni lahko le shranjujejo ( Kogovšek relatively slow flow during longer dry periods, particu- 2010). V deževnih obdobjih, po izdatnejših padavi- larly through the vadose zone, which at such times can nah, pa prihaja do hitrega pretakanja skozi celoten simply store precipitation ( Kogovšek 2010). In rainy pe- vodonosnik. S pretakanjem vode pa je povezan tudi riods, following abundant rainfall, rapid flow through prenos snovi. the whole of the aquifer occurs. And to the flow of V primeru onesnaženja na določenem kraškem water the transport of pollution is tied, too. površju torej lahko pričakujemo zelo različno hitrost In the case of pol ution on a specific karst surface, prenosa onesnaženja globlje v kras. Pri tem imajo we can therefore expect the speed of transport of pol u- pomembno vlogo vsakokratne razmere: predhodna tion deeper into the karst to vary considerably. An im- namočenost prsti, stopnja zapolnjenosti vadozne cone portant role is played here by the conditions at the time: z vodo ter intenzivnost in izdatnost padavin ( Kogovšek the wetness of the soil, the water level in the vadose 2010). Pri počasnejšem pretakanju skozi vadozno cono zone, and the intensity and volume of rainfall ( Kogovšek lahko prihaja tudi do določene stopnje razgradnje bi- 2010). In the case of slower flow through the vadose ološko razgradljivih organskih snovi ( Kogovšek 1987). zone, a certain amount of degradation of biodegradable V preteklosti smo se vse premalo zavedali, da so organic substances also occurs ( Kogovšek 1987). tudi vode, ki odtekajo s cest, lahko dokaj onesnažene In the past there was too little awareness that runoff in da pri tem ne gre samo za odtok padavinske vode. from roads can be quite significantly pol uted. Oil col- Le ob gradnji avtoceste Ljubljana–Razdrto, dokončane lectors were only built in the catchment area of karst leta 1972, so na odseku pri Postojni, ki poteka v zaledju springs after construction of the Ljubljana–Razdrto zajetega kraškega izvira Malenščica, zgradili lovilnike motorway in 1972, in the section near Postojna, which olj (1). Ti naj bi onemogočili neposreden odtok razli- runs through the catchment area of the Malenščica tih naftnih derivatov in olj, če bi prišlo do nesreče. In karst spring (1). These are designed to prevent the di- šele ob gradnji novejših cest v Sloveniji so na kraškem rect drainage of spilt petroleum derivatives and oils in svetu zgradili zadrževalne in čistilne objekte, z name- the case of accidents. It was not until the construction nom preprečiti odtok prve, najbolj onesnažene vode s of newer roads in Slovenia that retention structures cestišča po padavinah v kras. were also constructed for the purpose of preventing the direct discharge into the karst of the first (most 4.1 Ugotavljanje sestave polluted) runoff from roadways. vode, ki odteka s cestišča 4.1 Identifying Na Inštitutu za raziskovanje krasa ZRC SAZU so the composition of v okviru raziskav vplivov onesnaženja na prenikajočo roadway runoff vodo potekale tudi raziskave vode, ki odteka z avtocest. Zajem vzorcev je potekal v lovilniku olj A pri Postojni In order to identify the composition of motorway (1), kamor se steka padavinska voda z nekako 2200 runoff, research was carried out by the Karst Research m dolgega odseka avtoceste Razdrto–Ljubljana (2, Institute at the Scientific Research Centre of the Slove- 3). Cesta se tu vzpenja, kar verjetno vpliva na višjo nian Academy of Sciences and Arts. Current samples porabo goriva in večjo obrabo vozil ter posredno tudi were taken in the oil col ector A near Postojna (1), into na močnejše onesnaževanje. which rainwater flows from an approximately 2200 m Vsakokratna sestava vode, ki odteka s cestišča, je long section of the Razdrto–Ljubljana motorway (2, 3). odvisna tudi od količine padavin, ki spirajo površino The road climbs at this point, which probably results in 4. Threats to the karst water sources from traffic in normal conditions 49 1 Opazovani odsek avtoceste pri Postojni, kjer smo vzorčili vodo s cestišča. Observed section of the motorway near Postojna where water was sampled. lovilnk olj oil collector opazovani odsek observed section 0 2 km 2 Avtocesta na odseku pri Postojni poteka po kraškem svetu. 3 Lovilnik olj A pri Postojni, kjer se cesta vzpenja. The motorway near Postojna crosses the karst area. Oil collector A near Postojna where the road climbs. 50 4. Ogroženost kraških vodnih virov zaradi prometa v rednih razmerah ceste, kar pomeni manjše ali večje razredčevanje na increased fuel consumption and greater vehicle wear, cestišču akumuliranega onesnaženja. Zajetim vzorcem and indirectly, more pollution. vode na dotoku v lovilnik (4) in na odtoku iz lovilnika The composition of runoff from the roadway also neposredno v kras smo določali specifično električno depends on the quantity of rainwater washing the sur- prevodnost (EC), kalnost, kemijsko (KPK – dikroma- face of the roadway, which means greater or lesser dilu- tna metoda) in biokemijsko (BPK ) potrebo po kisiku tion of pol ution accumulated on the roadway. For sam- 5 ter vsebnosti olj in kloridov, kasneje pa tudi kadmija ples of water taken at the oil col ector inflow (4) and at in svinca ter sulfatov, nitratov in o-fosfatov (6). the direct outflow into the karst, we determined specific electrical conductivity (EC), turbidity, chemical oxygen 4.1.1 Občasne meritve in analize demand (COD – dichromate method) and biochemical sestave vode, ki odteka s cestišča oxygen demand (BOD ), oils and chlorides content and, 5 later, cadmium and lead content and sulfates, nitrates Prve občasne analize in meritve leta 1992 ( Kogovšek and orthophosphates (o-phosphates) content (6). 1993) so pokazale na vrsto in velikost onesnaženja v odtekajoči vodi z avtoceste v najrazličnejših razmerah: 4.1.1 Periodic measurements ob prvem dežju po dolgotrajni suši, v času soljenja and analyses of the composition cest, med intenzivnimi nalivi in po njih. of roadway runoff Vzorec dotoka v lovilnik olj A (4), ki je bil zajet The first periodic analyses and measurements in 1992 ( Kogovšek 1993) showed the type and scale of pol- lution in motorway runoff in a variety of conditions: first rain fol owing a lengthy drought, during salting of the roads, during and after heavy precipitation events. lovilnk olj oil collector A sample of inflow into the oil col ector A (4) taken opazovani odsek on 17 March 1992, when salt was being applied to the observed section 0 2 km 4 Dotočni jašek lovilnika olj A, kjer smo vzorčili dotočno vodo. 5 Lovilnik olj B, kjer poteka avtocesta po ravnem terenu. Inflow shaft of the oil collector A where the samples were taken. Oil collector B where the road runs over level terrain. 4. Threats to the karst water sources from traffic in normal conditions 51 6 Merjeni parametri dotoka marca 1993 v odvisnosti od količine padavin. 4000 500 /l) 2 Measured parameters of the inflow in March 1993 depending on the (mg/l) (mg/l) quantity of precipitation. (mgO tes ides 400 5 3000 BOD sulfa chlor / 5 ti / 300 idi / , BPK lor 2000 COD 200 y (FTU), sulfa KPK / 1000 bidit EC (µS/cm), k 100 tur 0 0 kalnost / 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 P (mm) EC BPK / BOD 5 5 KPK / COD kalnost / turbidity kloridi / chlorides sulfati / sulfates 17. marca 1992 v času soljenja cestišča, je pokazal roadway, indicated a high EC (3850 µS/cm), a high visoko EC (3850 µS/cm), visoko vsebnost kloridov (110 chloride content (110 mg Cl-/l), the presence of oils mg Cl-/l), prisotnost olj (9 mg/l) in povišano KPK. (9 mg/l) and increased COD. A sample taken simul- Vzporedno zajet vzorec na lovilniku olj B v bližini taneously at the oil collector B near the branch of the odcepa regionalne ceste Postojna–Planina za Unec regional road Postojna–Planina to Unec (5) where the (5), kjer cesta poteka po ravnem terenu, je pokazal road runs over level terrain showed lower values. nižje vrednosti. The next sample at the oil collector A, 24 March Naslednji vzorec v lovilniku olj A, 24. marca 1992, 1992, was not taken during initial runoff from the road- ni bil zajet ob začetnem spiranju cestišča, ko je voda way, when the water is most polluted. Nevertheless, najbolj onesnažena. Kljub temu je imel povišano the sample showed increased turbidity and high COD kalnost ter visoki KPK in BPK , ob nižjih vsebnostih and BOD , with a lower chloride (34 mg Cl-/l) and 5 5 kloridov (34 mg Cl-/l) in sulfatov, kar se je odrazilo sulfate content, which was reflected in a relatively low v sorazmerno nizki EC. Nizka vsebnost kloridov in EC. The low chloride content and low EC indicate that nizka EC govorita za to, da so predhodne padavine previous rainfall had already thoroughly washed the že dobro sprale cestišče po soljenju v zimski sezoni. roadway following salting during the winter season. Izračunano razmerje KPK/BPK je bilo 17, kar kaže The calculated COD/BOD ratio was 17, which indi- 5 5 na velik delež težko razgradljivega onesnaženja v cates a high proportion of non-degradable pol ution in primerjavi z biološko razgradljivim onesnaženjem. comparison with biodegradable pollution. The water 52 4. Ogroženost kraških vodnih virov zaradi prometa v rednih razmerah Voda, ki je tedaj odtekala iz odtočnega jaška lovilnika that then discharged from the oil col ector directly into 4000 500 /l) 2 olj neposredno v kraško okolje, je imela znatno višjo the karst environment had a significantly higher EC and (mg/l) EC in višjo koncentracijo kloridov, kar je posledica a higher concentration of chlorides and lower turbid- (mg/l) (mgO tes 5 koncentriranja topnih komponent zaradi izhlapeva- ity and COD. This indicates a concentrating of soluble ides 400 3000 nja, ter manjšo kalnost in KPK zaradi usedanja trdnih components as a result of evaporation and the effective BOD sulfa chlor / delcev v lovilniku. sedimentation of solid particles in the oil col ector. 5 ti / Vzorec skromnega dotoka v času rosenja 1. junija A sample of modest inflow during drizzle on 1 300 idi / , BPK 1992 je bil zajet po 20 dneh suhega vremena. Analize June 1992 was taken following 20 days of dry weather. lor 2000 so pokazale sorazmerno majhno onesnaženost vode, Analyses showed relatively low water pollution, while COD razmerje KPK/BPK pa je bilo le 6,4, kar kaže na manj- the COD/BOD ratio was just 6.4, which indicates a 5 5 200 y (FTU), sulfa ši delež težje razgradljivega onesnaženja v primerjavi smaller proportion of non-degradable pollution in KPK / z vzorcem s konca marca. Odtočna voda iz lovilnika comparison to the sample from the end of March. 1000 bidit EC (µS/cm), k se ni bistveno razlikovala od sestave dotoka. Ob skro- Outflow water from the oil col ector did not differ sig- 100 tur mnem in neintenzivnem dežju očitno ne prihaja do nificantly from the composition of the inflow. Clearly, učinkovitega spiranja cestišča, tako da onesnaženje small quantities of light rain do not lead to effective ostaja tam. washing of the roadway, with the result that the major- 0 0 kalnost / 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Naslednji vzorec je bil zajet 12. junija 1992, potem ity of the pollution remains on the roadway. ko je deževalo že več dni in je bil dotok v lovilnik v The next sample was taken on 12 June 1992 after it P (mm) okviru vseh vzorčenj največji. Zato smo dobili najnižje had been raining for several days and inflow into the vrednosti parametrov v času vseh meritev. Izjemi sta oil collector was the highest of all the samplings. As bila KPK, ki je dosegla 28 mg O /l, in razmerje KPK/ expected, we recorded the lowest values of the param- EC BPK / BOD 2 5 5 BPK z vrednostjo 12. Ob velikem dotoku in odtoku eters in any of the measurements. The two exceptions 5 KPK / COD kalnost / turbidity vode iz lovilnika se sestava odtoka skoraj ni razlikovala were COD, which reached a value of 28 mg O /l, and 2 od sestave dotoka, kar pomeni, da ni prihajalo do use- the COD/BOD ratio with a value of 12. With high 5 kloridi / chlorides sulfati / sulfates danja trdnih delcev, verjetno pa je bil pred vzorčenjem inflow and outflow of water into and out of the oil že spran v lovilniku akumuliran sediment. collector, the composition of the outflow was practi- Vzorec, zajet 28. septembra 1992, ponovno po dolgi cally identical to the composition of the inflow, which poletni suši z malo občasnih padavin, je dosegal večje means that sedimentation of solid particles had not vrednosti vseh parametrov v primerjavi z junijskim taken place, while the sediment accumulated in the vzorcem. Določili smo povišane nitrate (10 mg NO oil collector had probably already been flushed away 3- -/l) in sulfate (18 mg SO 2-/l) ter zvišano vsebnost before the sampling process began. 4 svinca (0,22 mg/l) in kadmija (0,34 mg/l). V tem času A repeat sample taken following a long dry period je bil poleg osvinčenega v rabi tudi že neosvinčen with a small amount of occasional rainfall (28 Sep- bencin. Ob vzorčenju dotoka ni bilo odtoka vode iz tember 1992) showed higher values for all parameters lovilnika, kar si razlagamo z upadom gladine pod than the June sample. We identified increased nitrates rob odtočnega jaška zaradi intenzivnega izhlapevanja v (10 mg NO -/l) and sulfates (18 mg SO 2-/l), increased 3 4 obdobju pred dežjem. lead (0.22 mg/l) and cadmium content (0.34 mg/l). In Naslednji vzorec 20. oktobra 1992 je bil zajet po this period unleaded petrol was already being used izdatnih padavinah (170 mm), ko je bilo cestišče do- alongside leaded petrol. At the time of the sampling of bro sprano. Zato so vsi merjeni parametri dosegali the inflow, there was no outflow of water from the oil nizke vrednosti, z izjemo nekoliko povišane vsebnosti col ector, which can be explained by the fall in the wa- kloridov in EC. Vsebnost svinca je bila le 0,062 mg/l ter level below the edge of the drainage ditch as a result in kadmija 0,02 mg/l. Odtočna voda se je prelivala of intensive evaporation in the period before the rain. minimalno in je imela v primerjavi z dotokom po- The next sample (20 October 1992) was taken fol- večano vsebnost kloridov in svinca ter zvišano EC. lowing abundant rainfall (170 mm), when the roadway 4. Threats to the karst water sources from traffic in normal conditions 53 Dne 10. decembra 1992 je bilo suho vreme, vendar was thoroughly washed. As a result, all the measured se je v lovilnik stekal staljen sneg. Po pričakovanju je parameters showed lower values, with the exception imel vzorec visoko EC (12,7 mS/cm) in visoko vsebnost of a slightly increased chloride content and EC. Lead kloridov (4,2 g/l), kar je bila posledica soljenja cestišča. content was just 0.062 mg/l while cadmium content Podobno kot dotok je bil tudi odtok minimalen in se was 0.02 mg/l. Overflow of outflow water was mini- po sestavi skoraj ni razlikoval od dotoka. mal and in comparison to inflow the water had an Po enomesečnem sušnem obdobju je bil ponovno increased chloride and lead content and increased EC. zajet vzorec na začetku skromnega dežja (12. januar On 10 December 1992 the weather was dry but 1993). Pri vseh parametrih so bile zabeležene največje snowmelt was flowing into the oil col ector. As expect- vrednosti v okviru meritev. Kalnost je bila kar 290 ed, the sample had a high EC (12.7 mS/cm) and a high FTU, EC 33 mS/cm in vsebnost kloridov 13,9 g/l ob chloride content (4.2 g/l), which was the consequence visoki vsebnosti kalcija, kar verjetno odraža uporabo of salting the roadway. Like the inflow, the outflow was CaCl za odmrzovanje cestišča. KPK je dosegla kar minimal, and its composition hardly differed from that 2 2500 in BPK 84 mg O /l. Razmerje KPK/BPK je bilo of the inflow. 5 2 5 30, najvišje v okviru vseh meritev, kar pomeni velik Following a one-month dry period, another sam- del težko razgradljivega organskega onesnaženja v ple was taken at the start of a period of slight rain (12 primerjavi z biološko razgradljivim onesnaženjem. January 1993). The highest values at any point during Vzorec je vseboval tudi 16 mg NO -/l, 440 mg SO 2-/l, the measurements were recorded for all parameters. 3 4 0,016 mg/l kadmija in 1,1 mg /l svinca. Turbidity was 290 FTU, EC 33 mS/cm and chloride Iz navedenih meritev v danih razmerah vzorčenja content 13.9 g/l with a high calcium content, which je bilo ugotovljeno, da visoka EC dotoka z avtoceste probably reflects the use of CaCl to deice the road- 2 sovpada predvsem z visoko koncentracijo kloridov way. COD reached 2500 and BOD 84 mg O /l. The 5 2 zaradi soljenja cestišča pozimi, ki se začne lahko že COD/BOD ratio was 30, the highest in any of the 5 oktobra in traja do aprila. Kalnost dotoka je večja po measurements, which means a large component of low daljših sušnih obdobjih, ko pride do spiranja trdnih degradable organic pollution in comparison to biode- delcev, ki so se nabrali na cestišču. Večja kalnost so- gradable pollution. The sample also contained 16 mg vpada z višjo KPK in BPK , kar kaže na to, da so izvor of NO -/l, 440 mg of SO 2-/l, 0.016 mg/l of cadmium 5 3 4 tega onesnaženja trdni delci na cestišču. Vrednosti and 1.1 mg /l of lead. KPK in BPK so pogosto presegale vrednosti, določene It was established from the above measurements 5 za izpuste iz čistilnih naprav v vodotoke (KPK = 160 in the given conditions that a high EC of inflow from mg O /l in BPK = 30 mg O /l), kjer pa prihaja še do the motorway coincides above al with a high concen- 2 5 2 razredčevanja. tration of chlorides as a result of salting the roadway Sestava vode, ki priteka s cestišča, se glede na pada- during the winter. The turbidity of the inflow is greater vinske razmere zelo spreminja. Intenzivnost padavin following long dry periods, when solid particles that pomembno vpliva na spiranje, pa tudi na razredče- have accumulated on the roadway during the dry pe- vanje spranih kontaminantov, kar se odraža v njihovi riod are washed off. Greater turbidity coincides with a različni koncentraciji. Najvišje vrednosti kontaminan- higher COD and BOD , which indicates that the origin 5 tov so bile izmerjene po daljših sušnih obdobjih ob za- of this pollution are solid particles on the roadway. četnem spiranju cestišča z ne prevelikimi padavinami. COD and BOD values often exceeded the limit values 5 determined for emission from waste water treatment plants into streams (COD = 160 mg O /l and BOD = 2 5 30 mg O /l) where also dilution takes place. 2 The composition of the water that runs off the roadway changes greatly depending on rainfall con- ditions. The intensity of rainfall has a significant 54 4. Ogroženost kraških vodnih virov zaradi prometa v rednih razmerah 4.1.2 Sestava dotoka in influence on the washing process, but also on the di- odtoka iz lovilnika olj v lution of washed contaminants, which is reflected in padavinskih dogodkih a varying concentration of contaminants. The high- est values of contaminants were measured following Kako se spreminja sestava dotoka v odvisnosti od longer dry periods during the initial washing of the količine padavin oz. kolikšne padavine so potrebne, da roadway with moderate rainfall. se s cestišča spere večji del onesnaženja, je pokazalo zapo- redno vzorčenje dotoka v lovilnik olj A ob naraščajočem 4.1.2 Composition of inflow ali upadajočem dotoku vode s cestišča, ki je bil posledica and outflow to/from the oil enkratnih, različno izdatnih in intenzivnih padavin. So- collector during rainfall events časno spremljanje odtoka iz lovilnika olj pa je pokazalo, kakšna voda vsakokrat odteka neposredno v kras. Changes in the composition of the inflow depend- Za to spremljanje je bilo potrebno pogosto vzor- ing on the quantity of rainfall, in other words how čenje dotoka in odtoka v lovilnik, ki je potekalo ročno much rainfall is necessary for the bulk of the pol ution ( Kogovšek 1995c). Količina dotoka je podana opisno, to be washed from the roadway, were shown by the saj tedaj nismo imeli možnosti meritev pretoka. Vse consecutive sampling of inflow into the oil collector analize in meritve so potekale z enakimi metodami A, as the result of one-off rainfall events of different kakor ob prvih opazovanjih v letih 1992 in 1993 ter na quantities and intensities. Simultaneous monitoring istem odseku avtoceste pri Postojni v lovilniku olj A of outflow from the oil collector showed what kind of pri Stari vasi. Meritve temperature in specifične elek- water drains directly into the karst on each occasion. trične prevodnosti (EC) so bile opravljene s kondukto- This monitoring required frequent sampling of metrom LF 91 firme WTW, meritve kalnosti, vsebnosti the oil collector inflow and outflow, which was done svinca in kadmija s terenskim DR/2000 spektrofoto- manually ( Kogovšek 1995c). The quantity of the inflow metrom firme Hach (metode št. 750, 280 in 60), KPK was given descriptively, because at that time we did not in BPK ter vsebnost kloridov, nitratov in sulfatov pa have the possibility of measuring the discharge. Al the 5 po standardnih metodah ( Standard Methods …, 1992). analyses and measurements took place using the same V tabelah 1 in 2 so podane značilne vrednosti posame- methods as during the first observations in 1992 and znih parametrov dotoka v lovilnik olj A (18 vzorcev). 1993 and on the same section of the motorway near Analize teh voda v letih 1993 in 1994 so pokazale Postojna, in the oil collector A near Stara vas. Meas- ( Kogovšek 1993, 1995c) v zimskem obdobju znatno višje urements of temperature and electrical conductivity vsebnosti kloridov, kar se je odrazilo v EC, ter višje (EC) were carried out using a WTW LF 91 conductiv- vrednosti kalnosti in KPK (tabela 1) v primerjavi z me- ity meter. Turbidity and lead and cadmium content ritvami v poletnem času (tabela 2), ko so bile opazno were measured using a Hach DR/2000 field spectro- višje vrednosti svinca in kadmija, saj je bil tedaj v rabi photometer (methods No 750, 280 and 60). COD and še osvinčen bencin. BOD and chloride, nitrate and sulfate content were 5 measured using standard methods ( Standard Methods 4.1.2.1 Vodni val 24. marca 1993 …, 1992). Tables 1 and 2 show the typical values of individual parameters of inflow into the oil collector Po treh sorazmerno sušnih mesecih je začelo 24. A (18 samples). marca 1993 ob 7.00 deževati, dež pa je čez dan po- Analyses of runoff from the motorway in 1993 and nehal in prešel v pršenje. Prvi vzorec je bil zajet ob 1994 have shown ( Kogovšek 1993, 1995c) that in winter 7.15, ko je padlo okrog 1 mm dežja. Izmerili smo zelo (table 1) this has a perceptibly higher concentration visoko kalnost (464 FTU), visoko KPK (340 mg O /l) of chlorides, which is reflected at the same time in 2 in nižjo BPK , kar vse kaže na spiranje akumuliranega EC and increased turbidity and COD compared to 5 onesnaženja na cestišču v daljšem obdobju (7). Visoka the summer (table 2), when we identified above all 4. Threats to the karst water sources from traffic in normal conditions 55 Parameter T EC Kalnost KPK BPK Cl- SO 2- Pb Cd NO - 5 4 3 DOTOK / INFLOW ODTOK / OUTFLOW Parameter Turbidity COD BOD 500 25000 500 25000 5 /l) /l) 2 2 (mg/l) (mg/l) (mgO ides (mgO 400 Enota / Unit ºC μS/cm FTU mg O /l mg/l µg/l mg/l 20000 EC (µS/cm) ides 400 20000 EC (µS/cm) 2 COD COD chlor chlor idi / idi / 300 15000 300 15000 Maks. vrednost klor klor (FTU), KPK / (FTU), KPK / Max. value 9.2 7810 780 480 45 1980 158 1790 76 19 y y bidit 200 10000 bidit 200 10000 tur tur Min. vrednost Min. value 4.6 173 57 33 5 30 3 180 11 3 100 5000 100 5000 kalnost / kalnost / Povpr. vrednost 0 0 0 0 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 Average value 6.7 1920 285 150 17 520 47 680 50 8 čas / time (h) čas / time (h) kalnost / turbidity KPK / COD EC kloridi / chlorides Tabela 1 Rezultati meritev dotoka v zimskem obdobju (T – temperatura, EC – specifična električna prevodnost, KPK – kemijska potreba po kisiku, BPK – biokemijska potreba po kisiku, Cl- – kloridi, SO 2- – sulfati, Pb – svinec, Cd – kadmij, NO - – nitrati). 5 4 3 Table 1 Results of measurements of inflow in the winter period (T – temperature, EC – electrical conductivity, COD – chemical oxygen demand, BOD – biochemical oxygen demand, Cl- – chlorides, SO 2- – sulfates, Pb – lead, Cd – cadmium and NO - – nitrates). 5 4 3 Parameter T EC Kalnost KPK BPK Cl- SO 2- Pb Cd NO - Parameter 5 4 3 Turbidity COD BOD5 Enota / Unit ºC μS/cm FTU mg O /l mg/l µg/l mg/l 2 Maks. vrednost Max. value 11.7 216 93 274 70 35 39 11100 250 10 Min. vrednost Min. value 18.6 50 23 19 4 7 11 2280 65 2 Povpr. vrednost Average value 15.9 126 50 113 21 18 23 3750 167 5 Tabela 2 Rezultati meritev dotoka v poletnem obdobju (T – temperatura, EC – specifična električna prevodnost, KPK – kemijska potreba po kisiku, BPK – biokemijska potreba po kisiku, Cl- – kloridi, SO 2- – sulfati, Pb – svinec, Cd – kadmij, NO - – nitrati). 5 4 3 Table 2 Results of measurements of inflow in the summer period (T – temperature, EC – electrical conductivity, COD – chemical oxygen demand, BOD – biochemical oxygen demand, Cl- – chlorides, SO 2- – sulfates, Pb – lead, Cd – cadmium 5 4 and NO - – nitrates). 3 56 4. Ogroženost kraških vodnih virov zaradi prometa v rednih razmerah DOTOK / INFLOW ODTOK / OUTFLOW 500 25000 500 25000 /l) /l) 2 2 (mg/l) (mg/l) (mgO ides (mgO 400 20000 EC (µS/cm) ides 400 20000 EC (µS/cm) COD COD chlor chlor idi / idi / 300 15000 300 15000 klor klor (FTU), KPK / (FTU), KPK / y y bidit 200 10000 bidit 200 10000 tur tur 100 5000 100 5000 kalnost / kalnost / 0 0 0 0 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 čas / time (h) čas / time (h) kalnost / turbidity KPK / COD EC kloridi / chlorides 7 Sestava dotoka in odtoka iz lovilnika olj v vodnem valu 24. marca 1993. Composition of inflow to and outflow from the oil collector following a precipitation event on 24 March 1993. vrednost EC (3500 μS/cm) je bila posledica predvsem increased lead and cadmium content (leaded petrol visoke vsebnosti kloridov (1200 mg/l) zaradi predho- was still in use at that time). dnega soljenja ceste, pa tudi višje vsebnosti sulfatov (108 mg/l). Sorazmerno visoka je bila tudi vsebnost 4.1.2.1 Water pulse of 24 March 1993 svinca. Drugi vzorec, ki je bil zajet, ko je padlo 10 mm dežja, je izkazoval še vedno dokaj onesnaženo vodo z Following three relatively dry months, it began visoko kalnostjo, EC in vsebnostjo kloridov ter povi- to rain at 7.00 a.m. on 24 March 1993, although over šano KPK. Vendar pa so po nadaljnjem 1 mm padavin the course of the day the rain slackened and became (tretji vzorec) vsi parametri izraziteje upadli. Pretok drizzle. The first sample was taken at 7.15 a.m., when dotoka je ob zaporednem vzorčenju nekoliko upadal. around 1 mm of rain had fallen. We measured ex- Po sorazmerno dobrem spiranju cestišča s 13,5 mm tremely high turbidity (464 FTU), high COD (340 dežja je pritekala v lovilnik (četrti vzorec) še nekoliko mg O2/l) and lower BOD5, all of which indicates the manj onesnažena voda s kalnostjo 57 FTU, vrednostjo washing-off of pollution that had accumulated on the KPK 44 mg O /l in vsebnostjo svinca 460 μg/l. Klori- roadway over a longer period (7). The high EC value 2 dov je bilo še 115 mg/l, EC pa je bila 470 mS/cm. (3500 μS/cm) was above all the consequence of a high chloride content (1200 mg/l) as a result of earlier salt- 4.1.2.2 Vodna valova ing of the roadway, and also of a higher sulfate content junija in julija 1993 (108 mg/l). Lead content was also relatively high. The second sample, taken after 10 mm of rain had fallen, Aprila in maja 1993 je padlo le 97 mm dežja. Dne showed lower values, although the turbidity, chlorides 3. junija je deževalo in je skupno padlo dobrih 30 mm and EC values were still quite high and COD had in- dežja, najintenzivneje na začetku, 15 mm. Prvo vzor- creased. After a further 1 mm of rain had fallen (third čenje ob 8.30, ob največjem dotoku vode v lovilnik, sample), however, all the parameters fell more signifi- 4. Threats to the karst water sources from traffic in normal conditions 57 je pokazalo sorazmerno nizki vrednosti EC in klori- cantly. Following the relatively thorough washing of dov, ker je bila sol s cestišča po zimskem soljenju že the roadway with 13.5 mm of rain, slightly less pol uted sprana. Vendar pa smo izmerili visoko BPK5 (70 mg water flowed into the oil collector (fourth sample), O2/l), sorazmerno visoko KPK (220 mg O2/l) ter visoki with a turbidity of 57 FTU, COD of 44 mg O2/l and a vsebnosti svinca in kadmija. Pri naslednjem vzorčenju, lead content of 460 μg/l. The chlorides value was still ob manjšem dotoku vode, so bile vrednosti vseh mer- 115 mg/l and EC was 470 μS/cm. jenih parametrov manjše, z izjemo svinca. Na podlagi izmerjenih vrednosti in količine padavin, ki so padle 4.1.2.2 Water pulses in na opazovani odsek ceste med prvim intenzivnim June and July 1993 dežjem (15 mm), ter ob oceni evaporacije na nekako 30 % smo ocenili, da je priteklo v lovilnik blizu 250 m3 In April and May 1993 rainfall was just 97 mm. vode. Ta je sprala s cestišča več kot pol kg svinca in It rained on 3 June (a total of 30 mm of rain over the 10-krat manj kadmija. Organsko onesnaženje je bilo course of the day), most intensively at the beginning, enako 35 kg O2 (KPK), biološko razgradljiv del (BPK5) when 15 mm fell. The first samples, taken at 8.30 a.m. pa 14 kg O2. To je le ocena odteklega onesnaženja, saj when the inflow of water to the oil collector was high- bi za popolnejši izračun potrebovali bolj podrobna est, showed relatively low EC and chlorides values opazovanja, še zlasti pa meritve pretoka. Izbrani val je because the salt had already been washed from the bil v poletnem času, ko smo na splošno beležili manjše roadway following the winter salting. We did, how- onesnaženje kakor pozimi. ever, measure a high BOD5 (70 mg O2/l), relatively high V drugi in tretji dekadi junija je padlo še 115 mm COD (220 mg O2/l), and a higher lead and cadmium dežja. Dne 6. julija je pol ure močno, nato pa zmerneje content. With the next sampling, when the inflow deževalo. Skupno je padlo 37 mm padavin. Ob prvem of water was smaller, the values of all the measured vzorčenju je bil dotok vode v lovilnik približno enak parameters were lower, with the exception of lead. kakor na začetku junijskega vodnega vala, vrednosti On the basis of the measured values and quantities of merjenih parametrov pa so bile le nekoliko višje. Iz- precipitation that fell on the observed section of the jema je bil svinec, kjer je bila zabeležena maksimalna road at the time of the first heavy rainfall (15 mm), and vrednost (tabela 2) v okviru vseh dotedanjih meritev with an estimate of evaporation (30 %), we estimated (11,1 mg/l). Pri drugem vzorčenju, ob močno pove- that approximately 250 m3 of water had flowed into čanem dotoku, smo pri vseh parametrih zabeležili the oil collector. This washed over half a kg of lead znižanje na polovične vrednosti, vsebnosti svinca pa from the roadway and a 10 times smaller quantity of na petino. Ob tretjem zajemu je bil dotok že tolikšen, cadmium. Organic pollution was equivalent to 35 kg da je zaradi omejenega odtoka iz lovilnika prišlo do O (COD), and the biodegradable portion (BOD ) to 2 5 zastajanja oz. naraščanja nivoja vode v njem. Ta val je 14 kg O . This is only an estimate of runoff pollution, 2 pokazal, kako močan je lahko dotok vode s cestišča ob since for a more complete calculation we would need intenzivnem dežju. Intenzivnost in izdatnost padavin- more detailed observations and, above all, measure- skih dogodkov na nekem območju narekujeta velikost ments of the flow. The selected pulse took place during zadrževalnih objektov oz. dolžino cestnega odseka, s the summer, when in general we recorded less pollu- katerega priteka meteorna voda v lovilnik. tion than in the winter. In the second and third 10-day periods in June a 4.1.2.3 Vodni val 29. septembra 1993 further 115 mm of rain fell. On 6 July it rained heavily for half an hour and then more moderately. A total Septembra 1993 je padlo kar 330 mm dežja, od tega of 37 mm of rain fell. At the first sampling, the inflow 47 mm dva dni pred opazovanim valom. Cestišče je bilo of water into the oil collector was roughly the same dobro sprano in pričakovali smo, da bo z njega pritekala as at the beginning of the June water pulse, while the v lovilnik dokaj čista voda. Vendar pa je EC dosegala 158 values of the measured parameters were only slightly 58 4. Ogroženost kraških vodnih virov zaradi prometa v rednih razmerah μS/cm, kalnost 64 FTU, sulfati 24 mg/l, KPK 44 mg O /l higher. The exception was lead, where the highest val- 2 in BPK 7,3 mg O /l. Po dveh urah in pol je bil pretok ue (table 2) in any of the measurements was recorded 5 2 kar nekajkrat večji, vrednosti merjenih parametrov pa (11.1 mg/l). In the second sampling, with a significant do trikrat nižje. Ta vodni val je ponovno pokazal, da increase in flow, we recorded values that were half as kljub poprejšnjemu daljšemu in dobremu spiranju s high as in the first sampling for all parameters, with cestišča ne odteka čista meteorna voda in da je določeno the exception of lead, where the value was a fifth of onesnaženje posledica stalnega prometa. the starting value. At the time of the third sampling, the inflow was already so high that, as a result of the 4.1.3 Sestava vode, ki iz limited outflow from the oil collector, stagnation or lovilnika olj odteka v kras an increase in the water level in the oil collector was taking place. This pulse showed how powerful the in- Vzporedno opazovanje sestave dotoka in odtoka flow of water from the roadway can be when rainfall iz lovilnika neposredno v kras je v razmerah umirje- is heavy. The intensity and volume of rainfall events in nega manjšega dotoka in s tem povezanega učinkovi- a given area dictate the size of the retention ponds or tega usedanja trdnih nečistoč v lovilniku pokazalo na the length of the road section from which precipitation boljšo kakovost odtoka (meritve KPK) v primerjavi flows into the collector. z dotokom. Medtem pa so se topne komponente v lovilniku zaradi izhlapevanja močno koncentrirale, 4.1.2.3 Water pulse of predvsem kloridi v zimskem obdobju. Tako je imel 29 September 1993 odtok iz lovilnika olj neposredno v kraško okolje v primerjavi s sestavo dotoka do 7-krat povečane vre- September 1993 saw rainfall of 330 mm, of which dnosti EC in vsebnosti kloridov ter do 2-krat povečane 47 mm fell two days before the observed pulse. The koncentracije sulfatov. roadway was thoroughly washed and we anticipated a Vendar pa se je v lovilniku usedlo onesnaženje relatively clean inflow of water into the collector. In- že med prvim večjim intenzivnim nalivom ob veli- stead, EC reached 158 μS/cm, turbidity 64 FTU, sulfate kem dotoku vode dobro premešalo in kot suspenzija content 24 mg/l, COD 44 mg O /l and BOD 7.3 mg 2 5 odteklo v kras. Tedaj so bile v odtoku v primerjavi z O /l. After two and a half hours the inflow was several 2 dotokom povečane vrednosti skoraj vseh parametrov, times greater, and the values of the measured param- predvsem pa kalnost, KPK, vsebnosti kloridov, sulfatov eters were up to three times lower. This water pulse in svinca. Tako se je zgodilo po dežju 24. marca 1993, once again showed that despite earlier extended and kar je razvidno iz slike 7. Vsi parametri so dosegali thorough washing, roadway runoff is not clean, and višje vrednosti na odtoku iz lovilnika olj v primerjavi that a certain amount of pollution is the consequence z dotokom, le ob prvem vzorčenju sta bili kalnost in of constant traffic. KPK višji na dotoku, ker še ni prišlo do premešanja usedline v lovilniku in njenega odtoka. 4.1.3. Composition of Lovilnik olj je imel torej tudi vlogo usedalnika, kjer water draining from the oil so se ob nizkih dotokih usedali trdni delci, za katere collector into the karst smo ugotovili, da so nosilci organskega onesnaženja in kovin. Odstranjevanje sedimenta pred večjimi de- The parallel observation of the composition of in- ževnimi dogodki prepreči njegov odtok v kras, kar je flow and outflow from the oil col ector directly into the še zlasti pomembno v zaledju zajetih kraških izvirov. karst revealed, in conditions of lower inflow and the related efficient sedimentation of solid particles in the oil col ector, a better quality of outflow (COD measure- ments) in comparison to inflow. Meanwhile soluble components, particularly chlorides in the winter pe- 4. Threats to the karst water sources from traffic in normal conditions 59 4.2 Učinkovitost čistilnih riod, are highly concentrated as a result of evaporation. in zadrževalnih objektov ob Outflow from the oil collector directly into the karst novozgrajenih avtocestah environment thus had EC and chloride content values that were up to seven times higher than inflow, and up Na podlagi v letih 1997 in 1998 opravljenih meritev to two times higher concentrations of sulfates. dotoka v usedalnik na odseku avtoceste Čebulovica– At the first major downpour, however, with a high Sežana pri divaškem pokopališču je bilo potrjeno, da inflow of water, the pollution that had settled in the intenzivnost in količina padavin vplivata na koncen- oil collector was thoroughly mixed up and discharged tracije kontaminantov v vodi ( Pintar idr. 1998). Kot into the karst as a suspension. At that point the values najpomembnejši so se ponovno pokazali svinec, celo- of almost all the parameters, in particular turbidity, kupni organski ogljik (TOC) in suspendirane snovi, na COD, chlorides, sulfates and lead, were higher in the katere je vezana večina kovin. Vendar pa so izmerjene outflow than in the inflow. This occurred following vrednosti le občasno presegale tedaj veljavno dovolje- rainfall on 24 March 1993, as can be seen from figure no mejo (MDK) za odvajanje odpadnih voda iz virov 7. Only in the first sampling turbidity and COD were onesnaženja po Uredbi o emisiji snovi pri odvajanju lower, since at that time the mixing and outflow of the odpadnih vod iz virov onesnaženja ( UrES, 1996). sediment in the oil collector had not yet taken place. Kasneje so potekale pogoste meritve (na 20 mi- The oil collector also played the role of a sedimen- nut) sestave dotoka in odtoka na istem usedalniku v tation tank, where at times of low inflow there was deževnem dogodku 4. in 5. oktobra 2001 ( Kompare idr. sedimentation of solid particles which we identified 2002). Ugotovljeno je bilo, da niti dotok niti odtok z as carriers of organic pollution and metals. Removal objekta nista presegala mejnih dovoljenih koncentracij of sediment before major rainfall events prevents its (MDK). Vendar pa za učinkovito zaščito okolja ne za- discharge into the karst, which is particularly impor- došča le normativ MDK, ampak je pomembna količina tant in the catchment area of karst springs used to snovi, ki odteka v kras. V kraški vadozni coni lahko supply water. prihaja do daljšega zadrževanja vode in z njo kontami- nantov ( Kogovšek 2010), kar pa pomeni akumulacijo 4.2 Efficiency of retention in le občasno spiranje (po dovolj izdatnih padavinah) structures along newly naprej skozi kraške vodonosnike do kraških izvirov. constructed motorways 4.3 Ugotavljanje It was established, on the basis of measurements ogroženosti zajetega of inflow into the retention pond on the Čebulovica– kraškega vira Sežana motorway section taken in 1997 and 1998, that the intensity and quantity of rainfall affect concentra- V primerih, kot je zajeti izvir Malenščice, pri ka- tions of contaminants in water ( Pintar et al. 1998). terem avtocesta poteka le dobra 2 km stran v njego- Once again the most important pollutants proved to vem zaledju, je treba podrobneje preučiti, kam odteka be lead, total organic carbon (TOC) and suspended onesnažena voda z avtoceste. Da bi ugotovili vodne substances to which the majority of metals are bound. povezave, smo izvedli sledilni poskus, ko smo v od- However, the measured values only occasionally ex- tok lovilnika olj B (8) injicirali fluorescentno sledilo ceeded the maximum al owable concentration (MAC) ( Gabrovšek idr. 2010). Po desetih dneh brez dežja values valid at that time for the discharge of waste smo ga najprej zasledili v Unici (slika 2 v poglavju 5). water from sources of pol ution ( Decree on the emision Ob povečanju pretokov po intenzivnem in izdatnem of substances and heat in the discharge of waste water dežju je prišlo do izrazitejšega pojava sledila v izviru from pollution sources – UrES, 1996). Unice (9) in čez dva dni tudi v izviru Malenščice (10). Later, frequent measurements were taken (every Podrobneje je to sledenje predstavljeno v poglavju 20 minutes) of the composition of inflow and outflow 60 4. Ogroženost kraških vodnih virov zaradi prometa v rednih razmerah 8 Injiciranje fluorescentnega sledila v odtočni jašek lovilnika olj B. Injecting fluorescent tracer into the outflow shaft of the oil collector B. 9 Sledilni poskus z injiciranjem v lovilnik olj B je pokazal povezavo s kraškim izvirom Unice. Tracer test using injection into the oil collector B proved connection with the Unica karst spring. 4. Threats to the karst water sources from traffic in normal conditions 61 »Izlitja nevarnih snovi ogrožajo kraške vode« v tej in the same retention pond during the rainfall event knjigi. Ocenjujemo, da odteka voda z avtoceste pred- of 4 and 5 October 2001 ( Kompare et al . 2002). It was vsem v Unico, a z določenim časovnim zamikom in established that neither inflow to the retention pond nor manj izrazito tudi v Malenščico. outflow from it exceeded MAC values. MAC norms are Kovine, ki smo jih določali v odtoku s cestišča not, however, sufficient for the effective protection of the avtoceste, so navzoče tudi v sedimentu izvira, ven- environment. It is the quantity of substances draining dar pa je možen vnos teh kovin tudi iz drugih virov into the karst that is important. Water, and with it con- onesnaževanja. V Uredbi o emisiji snovi pri odvajanju taminants, can be retained for a long time in the karst padavinske vode z javnih cest ( UrES, 2005a) je na- vadose zone ( Kogovšek 2010), which means accumula- vedeno, da je treba z javnih cest, ki prečkajo kraške tion and only occasional onward flushing (following vodonosnike in na katerih je povprečje vozil večje sufficiently abundant rainfall) through karst aquifers od 6000 na dan, zajeti padavinske odpadne vode v to karst springs. zadrževalniku ločeno od zalednih voda. V primeru, ko cesta prečka vodovarstveno območje, je treba za- 4.3 Identifying threats gotoviti zajetje in čiščenje, če tako določa predpis s po- to a water source In cases such as the spring of the Malenščica, where the motorway runs through its immediate catchment area, just over 2 km from the spring, it is necessary to study in detail where polluted water from the mo- torway drains to. In order to establish hydrological connections, we carried out a tracer test, injecting fluorescent tracer into the outflow of the oil col ector B (8) ( Gabrovšek et al . 2010). After ten days without rain, the first traces of tracer appeared in the Unica river (figure 2 in chapter 5). With the increase in rates of flow following heavy and abundant rainfall, there was a clearer appearance of tracer in the spring of the river Unica (9) and, two days later, in the spring of the river Malenščica (10). This tracer test is presented in more detail in the chapter from this book entitled »Spil ages of hazardous substances endanger karst waters«. We estimate that water drains from the motorway into the Unica river and, with a certain delay and less distinctly, into the Malenščica river. The metals which we identified in motorway runoff are also present in the sediment of the spring, although it is possible that these metals come from other sources of pollution. The Decree on the emission of substances in rainwater runoff from public roads ( UrES, 2005a) states that rainwater runoff from public roads that cross karst aquifers and have an average daily traffic of 10 Sledilni poskus v lovilniku olj B je pokazal tudi povezavo s kraškim more than 6000 vehicles per day must be collected in izvirom Malenščicice, zajetim za vodooskrbo. a retention structure separately from catchment area The tracer test from the oil collector B proved also connection with the waters. In the case of the road crossing a water protec- Malenščica karst spring captured for the water supply. 62 4. Ogroženost kraških vodnih virov zaradi prometa v rednih razmerah dročja urejanja voda, ki ureja vodovarstveni režim za tion area, capture and treatment must be ensured if so to območje. Posredno odvajanje v podzemne vode naj provided by the waters regulation governing the water bi potekalo skozi vsaj meter debelo plast sedimentov. protection regime for this area. In the case of indirect Ker pa so razmere na kraškem svetu zelo heterogene discharge into groundwater, this should take place in predpisi precej ohlapni, je njihova učinkovitost zato through a layer of sediments at least one metre thick. vprašljiva. Conditions in the karst area are extremely heterogene- ous and the regulations extremely lax, and therefore Sklep their effectiveness is questionable. Iz naštetih podrobnejših raziskav meteorne vode, Conclusion ki odteka z avtocestnega odseka Ljubljana–Razdrto pri Postojni, izhaja, da ima ta v zimskem obdobju opazno It follows from the above detailed research into povišane koncentracije kloridov in sulfatov, kar se rainwater runoff from the Ljubljana–Razdrto motor- vzporedno odraža tudi v EC ter povišani kalnosti in way section near Postojna that runoff has noticeably KPK, v primerjavi s poletnim časom, ko smo ugota- higher concentrations of chlorides and sulfates in vljali predvsem povišani vsebnosti svinca in kadmija. winter, something that is reflected at the same time in Ob zadostni količini padavin v posameznem nalivu EC and increased turbidity and COD in comparison se cestišče postopno spira, kar se kaže v vse boljši ka- to the summer, when above all increased lead and kovosti zaporednih vzorcev. To pomeni, da največja cadmium content was identified. With a sufficient količina onesnaženja odteka ob začetnem spiranju quantity of precipitation in a single precipitation (okrog 10 mm padavin), pri čemer je pomembna tudi event, the roadway is gradually washed. This is re- intenzivnost padavin. Vendar pa vrednosti parame- flected in the increasing quality of successive sam- trov tudi po močnem spiranju cestišča po izdatnih ples. This means that the largest quantity of pollution in intenzivnih padavinah ne padejo pod neko dolo- runs off during the initial washing (around 10 mm of čeno mejo, česar tudi ni moč pričakovati, saj stalni rainfall), where the intensity of rainfall is also signifi- promet pomeni nenehno onesnaževanje. Na podlagi cant. However, even after a thorough washing of the izmerjenih koncentracij kontaminantov in ocenjene roadway following abundant and heavy rainfall, the količine vode so nekateri kontaminanti presegali te- values of the parameters do not fall below a certain daj določene mejne vrednosti. Tudi po novi uredbi o level. This is not to be expected, given that constant emisiji snovi pri odvajanju padavinske vode z javnih traffic means continuous pollution. On the basis of cest ( UrES, 2005a) bi kadmij kot zelo nevarna snov the measured concentrations of contaminants and občasno presegal mejno vrednost, svinec pa ni več se- the estimated quantities of water, some contaminants stavni del uredbe, saj je zdaj v rabi neosvinčen bencin. exceeded the maximum allowable concentration de- Odtok iz lovilnika neposredno v kras je bil ob majhnih fined in the above mentioned Decree from 1996. Even dotokih v lovilnik običajno boljše kakovosti kakor under the new Decree on the emission of substances dotok, ob velikih dotokih pa znatno slabše kakovosti, in rainwater runoff from public roads ( UrES, 2005a), saj se je spirala tudi v lovilniku akumulirana usedlina, cadmium, as a highly dangerous substance, would na katero so vezane večina organskega onesnaženja in occasionally exceed the limit value, while lead is no kovine. To pa narekuje predvsem redno vzdrževanje longer a constituent part of the Decree, because un- tovrstnih objektov. leaded petrol is now used. Outflow from the oil col- Prve analize meteornih voda z avtoceste Ljublja- lector directly into the karst was occasionally—when na–Razdrto in poznejše sistematične meritve v času inflow into the oil collector was low—of better quality padavinskih dogodkov (Kogovšek 1993, 1995c) so po- than inflow, while when inflows were high it was of kazale, da je voda s cestišča občasno zelo onesnažena. considerably worse quality, because the sediment To spoznanje je vplivalo na postavitev zadrževalnikov accumulated in the collector, to which the majority 4. Threats to the karst water sources from traffic in normal conditions 63 in čistilnih objektov ob nadaljnji gradnji avtocest v of organic pollution and metals are bound, is also Sloveniji. Sistematične analize so bile narejene tudi na washed out. For this reason, such collectors need to novih objektih (Pintar idr. 1998; Kompare i dr. 2002). be maintained regularly. Iz vseh opravljenih meritev je razvidno, da je obreme- It is evident from the first analyses of rainfall run- njenost posameznih odsekov avtocest lahko različna off from the Ljubljana–Razdrto motorway ( Kogovšek (število in vrsta vozil, vožnja po klancu navzgor oz. 1993, 1995c) and later analyses at treatment ponds navzdol) ter da pravo sliko lahko podajo samo pogo- along newly constructed motorways in Slovenia ( Pin- ste in sistematične meritve na različno obremenjenih tar et al . 1998; Kompare et al . 2002) that the loading odsekih. of individual motorway sections (number and type Glede na današnje poznavanje pretakanja in pre- of vehicles, upwards or downwards gradient) can nosa kontaminantov skozi kraško vadozno cono ( Ko- vary, and that only frequent and systematic measure- govšek 2010), ki se v njej lahko akumulirajo tudi za ments on sections with varying loading can give a daljši čas, njihove koncentracije niso zadostno merilo true picture. onesnaženja, ki s cestišča avtocest odteka v okolje. Na In view of today’s knowledge of the flow and trans- kraškem svetu bi bilo treba upoštevati tudi količino port of contaminants through the vadose zone of the vnosa posameznih kontaminantov v določenem ča- karst ( Kogovšek 2010), where they can accumulate for sovnem obdobju, še posebej, če so odtoki takih voda longer periods, concentrations of contaminants are v neposrednem zaledju zajetih kraških izvirov za pitno not a sufficient criterion for the pol ution that runs off vodo, kot na primer izvira Malenščice. motorways into the environment. In the karst region it Vsa omenjena spoznanja narekujejo, da se za iz- would also be necessary to take into account the quan- puste voda z avtocest, ki potekajo v zaledju zajetih tity of individual contaminants in a specific period, kraških izvirov, s fluorescentnimi sledili ugotovi njihov particularly if outflows of such waters are in the direct dejanski vpliv na izvire. V kolikor se vodna povezava catchment area of karst springs that are used to supply potrdi in ugotovijo velike hitrosti pretakanja, je treba drinking water, as is the case of the Malenščica spring. urediti učinkovito čiščenje teh voda pred izpustom v All the above findings dictate that for runoff from kraško okolje. Vendar pa bi bilo v primerih točkovnih motorways in the catchment areas of karst springs, izpustov onesnaženih voda z avtocest neposredno v the actual impact on springs should be ascertained kras smiselno predpisati sprejemljive mejne dopustne via tracing. If a hydrological connection is confirmed vrednosti glede na značilnosti območja (kam in kako and high rates of flow are ascertained, the effective te vode odtekajo), saj sta tako kontrola in ukrepanje treatment of these waters before discharge into the lažje izvedljiva. Osnova mora biti poznavanje značil- karst environment needs to be organized. It would be a nosti pretakanja in prenosa posameznih kontaminan- good idea to prescribe acceptable limit values with re- tov skozi vadozno cono in naprej skozi vodonosnik do gard to the characteristics of the area, since this would kraških izvirov, ki pa ga je treba nenehno dopolnjevati make it easier to carry out checks and take action. The z novimi spoznanji. basis has to be a knowledge of the characteristics of flow and the transport of contaminants through the aquifer to karst springs, which needs to be constantly supplemented by new findings with regard to both flow characteristics and the transport of individual contaminants. 64 4. Ogroženost kraških vodnih virov zaradi prometa v rednih razmerah VI JO ODE A JA OŽ 5 VARNIH SNO AŠKE V JANJA K KIZLIT ENDNE HAOGR SPILLKR ARST W Z OGO ANGER ARDOUS SUBST A VŠEK GES , ME ATERSTK OF A PE TRIČ ANCES Na kraškem svetu se zaradi velike prepu- stnosti in topnosti karbonatnih kamnin Any kind of pollution on karst surface has an effect on groundwater quality due to high vsakršno onesnaževanje na površju odra- permeability and solubility of carbonate zi v kakovosti kraških podzemnih voda. Med celo rock. Traffic, oil reservoirs, industry and other ac- vrsto onesnaževalcev so promet, skladišča naftnih tivities are some of the pollution sources which can derivatov, industrija in druge dejavnosti, kjer lahko result in accidents involving the spillage of hazardous pride do nesreč ter do razlitja nevarnih in škodljivih and harmful substances. In recent decades we have snovi. V zadnjih desetletjih smo večkrat spremljali on several occasions monitored the consequences of posledice prometnih nesreč, najpogosteje je šlo za traffic accident spil ages, most frequently of petroleum razlitja naftnih derivatov ( Kogovšek 1996a; Kogovšek products ( Kogovšek 1996a; Kogovšek and Petrič 2002a). in Petrič 2002a). V nekaterih primerih so bila vzrok Accidents in petroleum products storages have like- za onesnaženje kraških voda tudi iztekanja iz skladišč wise been the cause of pollution of karst waters. naftnih derivatov. In cases of these accidents we are particularly in- Ob tovrstnih nesrečah nas še zlasti zanima, ali terested in whether springs that are used for drinking bodo onesnaženi viri, ki so zajeti za oskrbo prebi- water supply are going to be polluted. It is only on the valstva s pitno vodo. Za to oceno je potrebno dobro basis of past research of the directions and character- predhodno poznavanje smeri in značilnosti podze- istics of groundwater flow from this area that we can mnega pretakanja vode z obravnavanega območja. make this assessment. Spremljanje razmer po izlitju in analize posledic Analyses of accidents involving spillages and so pripomogli k postopno vse boljšemu razumevanju monitoring of the consequences have contributed to pretakanja v vodi netopnih snovi. Sledilni poskusi s a gradually improving understanding of the flow of tako nevarnimi snovmi niso ekološko sprejemljivi, do substances insoluble in water, since tracer tests us- zdaj pa tudi še ni bila opravljena načrtna primerjalna ing such hazardous substances are not environmen- raziskava pretakanja v vodi topne in v vodi netopne tally acceptable. No comparison study of the flow of snovi. Razlike v načinu pretakanja bi lahko ugotovili substances soluble and insoluble in water has been z izvedbo sledilnega poskusa s topnim sledilom ne- carried out recently. By means of the proposed tracer posredno ob nesreči z izlitjem naftnih derivatov, kar test using soluble tracer directly after an accident in- bi pomembno prispevalo k boljšemu razumevanju volving the spillage of petroleum products, we could širjenja naftnih derivatov in drugih tekočin, ki se z establish differences in the mode of the flow which vodo ne mešajo, skozi kraške vodonosnike. would represent a significant contribution to the better understanding of the spread of petroleum products 5.1 Nesreče v zaledju through karst aquifers. zajetega izvira Malenščica 5.1 Accidents in the Izvir Malenščica je zajet za vodooskrbo območja catchment area of the Postojne in Pivke. V njegovem zaledju se je pred več Malenščica water source kot 40 leti v vrtačo na Ravbarkomandi pri Postojni (1) prevrnila cisterna s 25.000 litri jedilnega olja. Po The Malenščica karst spring is used for the wa- nekaj urah je bila na dnu vrtače le velika lisa rume- ter supply of the municipalities of Postojna and nega snega. Ugotovljena je bila 8 m debela plast z Pivka. Over 40 years ago a tanker carrying 25,000 oljem prepojene ilovice ( Habič 1988). Ta in podobne litres of table oil overturned into a sinkhole at nesreče so že tedaj pokazale, da razlite tekočine, tudi Ravbarkomanda near Postojna (1). After several če niso topne v vodi, odtečejo s kraškega površja hi- hours only a large spot of yellow snow remained tro, še preden je možna učinkovita intervencija. at its bottom. The thickness of the soil soaked Maja 1984 je prišlo do večjega primanjkljaja nafte with oil was 8 m ( Habič 1988). This and similar 66 5. Izlitja nevarnih snovi ogrožajo kraške vode P l a n i n s k o p o l j e Malenščica Unica P l a n i n s k a j a m a H 1 S širšega območja Postojne podzemne A R a k o v š k vode odtekajo proti izvirom na o c j a n P o s t o j n s k a j a m aPlaninskem polju. Rak Ravbarkomanda The groundwater flow fr Kotliči om the Postojna ar Petrol P ea is directed towards the springs at l a SLO n i n Planinsko polje. POSTOJNA Cerkniščica s k o CRO p o Pivka Strž e l n j I e Kremenca 0 5 km točka iniciranja injection point Malenščica točka izlitja Unica leakage point izvir spring jama cave P l a n i n s k a j a m a površinski tok R a k o v š k o c j surface stream P o s t o j n s k a j a m a a n Ravbarkomanda podzemna vodna zveza R Kotliči ak groundwater connection kraški vodonosnik Petrol karst aquifer POSTOJNA Cerkniščica medzrnski vodonosnik Pivka porous aquifer Stržen zelo slabo prepustne kamnine Kremenca very low permeable rocks razpoklinski vodonosnik 0 5 km fissured aquifer točka iniciranja / injection point v Petrtočk olo a izlitja / vem s leak kla age poin dišču pr t i Postojni (1). Domnevno accidents showed that spil ed liquids, even though they izvir / spring je odtekla v kraško podzemlje. Zaradi že znane vo- are not soluble in water, run quickly off the surface površinski tok / surface stream dne povezave bližnjega požiralnika pod Kremenco z before an efficient intervention is possible. jama / cave izviroma Unice in Malenščice na Planinskem polju In May 1984 a major oil leak occurred at Petrol’s podzemna vodna zveza / groundwater connection ( Gam k s r ašk 1 i v 96 odonosnik / 5) je bil ver k j arst aquif eten poj er av nafte v obeh izvirih. depot near Postojna (1), and it was assumed that the Ob medzr činski š nsk ta i vodonosnik / b za civilno por zaš ous aquif čito je er organiziral daljše oil had drained into the karst underground. Previ- zelo slabo prepustne kamnine / very low permeable rocks opazovanje teh voda. Na veliko srečo se nafta ni poja- ously proved groundwater connection between the razpoklinski vodonosnik / fissured aquifer vila na opazovanih točkah, kar je sprožilo domnevo, Kremenca cave and the Unica and Malenščica springs da ni odtekla v kras. Tedaj je bilo to eno prvih resnih at Planinsko polje ( Gams 1965) indicated the great opozoril, kakšno grožnjo lahko pomenijo skladišča likelihood of pol ution of the two springs. A long-term naftnih derivatov na kraškem svetu. observation of the springs was organized by the local V neposrednem zaledju Malenščice potekajo av- Civil protection unit. Fortunately, the oil did not ap- tocesta, železnica in lokalne ceste. Prometne nesreče pear at the observation points and it was assumed that z izlitji nevarnih snovi bi zelo verjetno ogrozile ka- it did not leak into the ground at all. This was one of kovost izvira. Novembra 2008 smo izvedli sledenje, the first serious warnings of the potential threat rep- ko smo na Ravbarkomandi v lovilnik olj ob avtocesti, resented by storage facilities for petroleum products 3 km od izvira Malenščice (1), injicirali fluorescen- in karst areas. tno sledilo. Želeli smo ugotoviti, kateri izviri in kako The immediate vicinity of the Malenščica spring hitro bi bili ogroženi v primeru nesreče z izlitjem includes a motorway, a railway and a number of local 5. Spil ages of hazardous substances endanger karst waters 67 nevarne snovi ( Gabrovšek idr. 2010). Pretok izvirov roads. Traffic accidents involving spil ages of hazardous Malenščice (7 m3/s) in Unice (9 m3/s), kjer je bil substances would very probably threaten the quality of najverjetnejši pojav sledila, je takrat upadal. Manjše the spring. In November 2008 we carried out a tracer padavine, ki so sledile šele teden dni po injiciranju test with the injection of fluorescent tracer into the oil in nekoliko povečale pretoke, so povzročile zvezno collector by the motorway at Ravbarkomanda, 3 km naraščanje koncentracije sledila v Unici (2). Zelo away from the Malenščica spring (1). The idea was to as- izdaten in intenziven dež čez nadaljnjih 5 dni pa je sess what springs and when they would be endangered močno povečal pretoke in povzročil poplave. Hitre- in a case of accident involving the spil age of harmful mu naraščanju pretoka Unice je z 12-urnim zamikom substances ( Gabrovšek et al. 2010). The discharge of the sledilo tudi naraščanje koncentracije sledila. Sočasno Malenščica (7 m3/s) and Unica springs (9 m3/s), where z Unico se je povečeval pretok Malenščice, vendar pa the appearance of the tracer would be the most prob- je koncentracija sledila v Malenščici naraščala z dvo- able, were in recession. Less intensive precipitation one dnevnim zamikom za pretokom. Iz tega sklepamo, week after the injection resulted in a slight increase of da bi v primeru nesreče z razlitjem nevarne snovi the discharges and a slow, continuous increase of the na Ravbarkomandi to najprej in izraziteje zaznali v Uranine concentrations in the Unica spring (2). After Unici, v primeru padavin ob naraščanju pretokov že additional 5 days, very intensive rain resulted in floods. približno v 12 urah, s časovnim zamikom približno The Unica spring reacted rapidly with higher discharg- dveh dni pa tudi v Malenščici. es, and after 12 hours the tracer concentrations started )3 0,7 70 /s)3 (m (mg/m 0,6 60 ge injiciranje / injection ation tr dischar en 0,5 50 ok / onc et 0,4 40 pr anine cUr 0,3 30 anina / 0,2 20 acija urtren 0,1 10 konc 0,0 0 17. 11. 2008 21. 11. 2008 25. 11. 2008 29. 11. 2008 3. 12. 2008 7. 12. 2008 datum / date Unica - konc. uranina / Uranine conc. Malenščica - konc. uranina / Uranine conc. Unica - pretok / discharge Malenščica - pretok / discharge 2 Sledenje z injiciranjem v lovilniku olj na Ravbarkomandi je pokazalo, da onesnažene vode z avtoceste ogrožajo kakovost kraških izvirov Unice in Malenščice. V primeru razlitja v prometni nesreči bi onesnaženje najprej zaznali v Unici, s približno dvodnevnim zamikom pa tudi v Malenščici. The tracer test in the oil collector near Ravbarkomanda confirmed that the quality of the Unica and Malenščica karst springs is threatened by polluted water from the motorway. In a case of an accident involving spillage the contaminants would be observed first in the Unica spring and then, after a delay of approximately two days, also in the Malenščica spring. 68 5. Izlitja nevarnih snovi ogrožajo kraške vode 5.2 Razlitje plinskega olja v to increase quickly. At the same time the increase of skladišču naftnih derivatov discharge of the Malenščica spring was observed, while je ogrozilo kakovost the concentration of tracer there increased after a delay zajetega izvira Globočec of two days. From this we can conclude that in the case of pol ution at Ravbarkomanda, this would be observed Iztekanje iz skladišča naftnih derivatov pri Ortne- first and most markedly in the Unica spring (follow- ku (3) je pokazalo na potencialno nevarnost tovrstnih ing the precipitation events and increase of discharge objektov za kraško vodo. Oktobra 1998 je pri prečrpa- already in 12 hours) and then, after a delay of approxi- vanju plinskega olja v tamkajšnjem skladišču prišlo do mately two days, in the Malenščica spring. napake in neznana količina olja je odtekla po odtočnih drenažah v potok Tržiščico ( Genorio 1999). Skladišče leži 5.2 A spillage of gas na nekraškem svetu, vendar pa Tržiščica po približno 4 oil in the petrochemical km površinskega toka na stiku z apnencem ponika v kras depot endangered the (4). Na podlagi starejših sledenj so sklepali, da bo one- Globočec spring snaženje prizadelo izvire na Dobrepolju in v dolini Krke. Pod vodstvom upravljavca je potekalo spremljanje A leakage from the petrochemical depot near Ort- pojava plinskega olja v zajetem izviru Globočec (3, 5). nek (3) indicated a potential threat of such storage Monitoring s fluorescenčnim spektrofotometrom Shi- facilities to karst waters. In October 1998, during the madzu RF 1501 v prvem tednu po nesreči je pokazal, pumping of gas oil in the depot, an unknown quantity da Globočec tedaj še ni bil onesnažen. To so potrdile of oil passed through the drainage system into the tudi vzporedne kromatografske analize mineralnih olj Tržiščica stream ( Genorio 1999). The depot is located v laboratoriju ( Genorio 1999). in non-karst area, but after 4 km of surface flow the Prvič so v Globočcu določili pojav plinskega olja v Tržiščica stream sinks underground at the contact koncentraciji 0,013 mg/l dobrih 8 dni po nesreči in pri- with the limestone (4). Based on the results of previ- bližno tri dni po močnejšem dežju. Na osnovi teh po- ous tracer tests the possible pollution of the springs datkov bi bila izračunana navidezna hitrost pretakanja in Dobrepolje and in the Krka valley was expected. 108 m/h. Vendar pa je že čez 8 ur koncentracija padla Close monitoring of the presence of gas oil was pod 0,005 mg/l (najvišja dopustna meja za pitno vodo organized in the Globočec spring, which is used for je 0,01 mg/l). Redno 5-krat dnevno jemanje vzorcev je the water supply (3, 5). In the first week of monitoring nato potekalo še teden dni. Z analizami niso zaznali with a fluorescent spectrophotometer Shimadzu RF plinskega olja, ampak le njegove derivate in značilen 1501 no pollution was detected. This was additionally vonj, v naslednjih dneh pa tudi tega ne. confirmed by a parallel chromatographic analysis of Po izdatnih padavinah tri tedne po nesreči so zara- mineral oils in the laboratory (Genorio 1999). di iztiskanja plinskega olja po infiltraciji novih padavin The gas oil was first detected 8 days after the ac- dva dni ugotavljali omenjeni vonj. Vendar s poznejšimi cident and three days after an intensive precipita- analizami do konca novembra nista bila ugotovljena tion event in concentration 0.013 mg/l. This would niti navzočnost plinskega olja in derivatov niti vonj. give the apparent flow velocity of 108 m/h. However, Decembra 1998 pa vse do marca 1999 so bile padavine already after 8 hours the concentration decreased sorazmerno skromne in večinoma v obliki snega. below 0.005 mg/l (the highest allowed value for Spomladi 15. aprila 1999 so na izviru namestili av- drinking water is 0.01 mg/l). In the following week, tomatski merilnik ogljikovodikov, ki je zvezno beležil the water samples were regularly taken 5 times per koncentracijo plinskega olja. Po močnih padavinah v day. The gas oil was not detected, while the presence zaledju Tržiščice 21. maja 1999 so 5 ur beležili preko- of its derivatives and a distinctive odour was noticed račitev dovoljene vsebnosti plinskega olja v vodi (več only in the first days. kot 0,01 mg/l). Kasneje povečanj niso več zasledili. Ob 5. Spil ages of hazardous substances endanger karst waters 69 R a d e n s H k o A p o l j e Šica Krška jama (Mala Račna) SLO Poltarica CRO I Krka Globočec S Podpeška jama U H A D o b K r e R Žlajpahov izvir ŽUŽEMBERK p o A l j e J I N A Šica Kompoljska jama Javornikov izvir Tominčev studenec Ortnek Trž Debeljakov izvir iščica Tentera 0 5 km RIBNICA točka iniciranja / injection point površinski tok / surface stream točka izlitja / leakage point kraški vodonosnik / karst aquifer izvir / spring medzrnski vodonosnik / porous aquifer glavna zveza / main connection zelo slabo prepustne kamnine / very low permeable rocks stranska zveza / secondary connection razpoklinski vodonosnik / fissured aquifer rocks ostala sledenja / other tracer tests 3 S sledilnimi poskusi ugotovljene smeri podzemnega raztekanja iz ponora Tržiščice. Directions of groundwater flow of the Tržiščica sinking stream proved by tracer tests. našem obisku ponora Tržiščice konec avgusta 1999, Three weeks after the accident, a distinctive eno leto po nesreči, je bil še vedno prisoten močan odour has been noticed for two days as a result of vonj po plinskem olju, ki se je absorbiralo na sediment infiltration following intensive precipitation events, ob robu struge. Spremljanje navzočnosti plinskega which pushed previously stored gas oil through olja in vonja v Globočcu je pokazalo, da je bil prenos the system. Then until the end of November the postopen daljše obdobje in da je voda neuporabna že presence of gas oil or its derivatives or a distinct samo ob prisotnosti vonja po plinskem olju. odour were not detected. From December 1998 until 70 5. Izlitja nevarnih snovi ogrožajo kraške vode Navzočnost plinskega olja so ugotovili tudi v March 1999 the precipitation events were rare and Kompoljski jami (3). Po pripovedovanju domačinov mainly in the form of snow. so plinsko olje vidno zaznali v Tominčevem studen- For continuous measurements of gas oil concen- cu v dolini Krke, vendar pa tega izvira tedaj v sklopu trations an automatic detector of hydrocarbons was monitoringa niso opazovali. installed on 15 April 1999. The maximum allowed concentration of gas oil in water (0.01 mg/l) had 5.3 Raziskave ugotavljanja been exceeded for 5 hours on 21 May 1999 following možnega vpliva skladišča heavy rain in the catchment area of the Tržiščica naftnih derivatov stream. Later no such increases were noticed. How- na kraške vode ever, during our field trip to the Tržiščica ponor at the end of August 1999, one year after the accident, Sledilni poskusi so učinkovita metoda za ugotavlja- a distinctive odour of the gas oil absorbed on the nje podzemnih vodnih povezav v krasu in tako tudi za river sediments was still present. A long-lasting določanje smeri prenosa onesnaženja s površja skozi and gradual transfer was confirmed by monitor- kraške vodonosnike. Zaradi kasnejše načrtovane raz- ing of the presence of gas oil and its odour in the širitve skladišča v Ortneku je bila izvedena raziskava Globočec spring. Already a detection of odour možnega vpliva na kraške vode s sledilnim poskusom. makes the water unsuitable. Poskus z injiciranjem sledila na ponoru Tržiščice The presence of gas oil in the cave Kompoljska (3, 4), v katero bi v primeru razlitja iztekli naftni deri- jama was confirmed, too (3). According to the in- vati iz skladišča, je pokazal, da v hidroloških razmerah formation given by the locals, the gas oil was vis- upadanja pretokov od srednjih do nizkih vodostajev ible in the spring Tominčev studenec in the Krka vode odtekajo predvsem v Tominčev studenec ter Ja- valley. However, no monitoring was organized at vornikov in Debeljakov izvir v dolini Krke (3). Ker ni this location then. 4 Iz skladišča naftnih derivatov pri Ortneku, ki leži na nekraškem 5 Izvir Globočec, zajet za oskrbo prebivalstva Suhe krajine s pitno vodo. svetu, je plinsko olje odteklo po Tržiščici do ponora. The Globočec spring used for the water supply of the Suha krajina region. From the petrochemical depot near Ortnek which is located on a non-karst terrain the gas oil flowed along the Tržiščica stream into the ponor. 5. Spil ages of hazardous substances endanger karst waters 71 bilo natančnih meritev pretokov izvirov, smo lahko 5.3 The study of a possible le ocenili, da sta skozi te izvire do konca maja 2000 impact of the petrochemical iztekli nekako 2/3 injiciranega sledila. V znatno manjši depot on karst waters meri in z velikim časovnim zamikom se je sledilo po- javilo tudi v Podpeški jami in v Šici pri Mali Račni na Tracer tests are a very useful tool for defining the Radenskem polju ( Kogovšek in Petrič 2002b). Nismo characteristics of the groundwater flow and the transport pa ugotovili povezave z izvirom Globočec, ki je zajet za of pol ution from the surface through karst aquifers. Be- oskrbo prebivalstva Suhe krajine s pitno vodo, čeprav cause of the planned enlargement of the petrochemical je bilo vzorčenje tam najbolj pogosto. depot near Ortnek an assessment of the possible impacts Voda se je v stalni Tominčev studenec pretakala z na- on the karst water by a tracer test was carried out. videzno hitrostjo 144 m/h, v občasni Javornikov izvir s 137 The tracer was injected into the Tržiščica sinking m/h, v Debeljakov izvir pa s 86 m/h, računano glede na stream (3, 4), into which the petroleum products from pojav maksimalne koncentracije (dominantne hitrosti). the depot would flow in a case of accident. The main Te dokaj velike hitrosti pretakanja vode nakazujejo v pri- flow towards the springs in the Krka val ey (Tominčev meru onesnaženja Tržiščice tudi hiter prenos onesnažil studenec, Javornikov izvir, Debeljakov izvir) was do naštetih izvirov. V Javornikovem izviru smo zabeležili proved at medium to low recession conditions (3). kar trikrat višje koncentracije sledila kakor v Tominče- In the absence of reliable discharge data the recovery vem studencu, kar kaže na bolj koncentriran odtok oz. through the three springs until the end of May 2000 manjše razredčevanje vzdolž podzemnega toka (6). was only roughly assessed to 2/3 of the injected tracer. Zaključimo lahko, da je podzemno raztekanje vode In much lower amount and with a significant time )3 10,000 60 (mm) . (mg/m tion onc 1,000 ecipitapr anine c 40 Ur vine / anina / 0,100 pada . ur konc 20 0,010 0,001 0 15. 3. 2000 4. 4. 2000 24. 4. 2000 14. 5. 2000 3. 6. 2000 23. 6. 2000 13. 7. 2000 2. 8. 2000 datum / date Debeljakov izvir / spring Podpeška jama / cave padavine / precipitation Tominčev studenec / spring Javornikov izvir / spring 6 Rezultati sledenja za ugotovitev možnega vpliva skladišča naftnih derivatov pri Ortneku na kraške vode. The results of tracer tests aimed at the assessment of a possible influence of the petrochemical depot near Ortnek on karst waters. 72 5. Izlitja nevarnih snovi ogrožajo kraške vode iz Tržiščice zelo odvisno od hidroloških razmer. O lag the tracer appeared in the cave Podpeška jama pretakanju voda ob zelo visokem vodostaju imamo and in the Šica spring near the village Mala Račna on nekaj informacij iz zgoraj opisanih posledic razlitja Radensko polje ( Kogovšek and Petrič 2002b). Although plinskega olja oktobra 1998. Le občasno, kratkotrajno the sampling was the most frequent in the Globočec pojavljanje plinskega olja po vsakokratnih padavinah spring, which is used for the water supply of the Suha nakazuje, da se lahko snovi, ki se v vodi ne topijo oz. krajina region, no tracer was detected there. se z njo ne mešajo, v kraškem podzemlju za dlje časa The dominant velocity of flow (regarding the time akumulirajo in se po vsakih izdatnejših padavinah of detected maximal tracer concentration) towards dolgo, postopno spirajo. the spring Tominčev studenec was 144 m/h, towards Sklepamo lahko, da ob visokih vodostajih obstaja the intermittent spring Javornikov izvir 137 m/h and tudi zveza med Tržiščico in Globočcem. Čeprav je po- towards Debeljakov izvir 86 m/h. Considering these vezava slaba in so bile izmerjene koncentracije nizke relatively high velocities, we can predict that in a ter so se pojavljale le občasno, pa ugotavljamo, da je case of pollution of the Tržiščica stream the contami- v primeru onesnaženja z nevarnimi snovmi (kot so nants would soon appear in the springs. The tracer tudi naftni derivati) to dovolj za onesnaženje zajetega concentrations in Javornikov izvir were three times izvira, saj so ga morali za daljši čas izključiti iz omrežja. higher than in Tominčev studenec which indicates Zaledje Tržiščice je torej tudi zaledje Globočca in vsako more concentrated flow and less dilution along the onesnaženje na tem območju pomeni tudi nevarnost groundwater flow (6). za slednjega. Pokazalo se je še, da netopne, nepolarne The results indicate that hydrological conditions tekočine ubirajo podzemne vodne poti, da pa je dina- significantly influence the groundwater flow of the mika njihovega prenosa drugačna in močno odvisna Tržiščica stream. Observed consequences of the spil age od spreminjanja hidroloških razmer, ki omogočajo v of gas oil in October 1998 are a source of information kraškem vodonosniku akumuliranje in kasnejše raz- about the characteristics of flow at very high waters. lično intenzivno potiskanje teh snovi v smeri izvirov. Only occasional, short-lived occurrences of gas oil in- duced by precipitation events indicate that substances, 5.4 Iztekanje kurilnega which are not soluble in water and can be delayed in olja na dolomitnem svetu the underground, are flushed out after the following precipitation events in a long-continued process. Ko je iz Tovarne kemičnih kondenzatorjev v Žu- We can therefore infer that the underground con- žemberku, ki leži na dolomitnem svetu neposredno nection between the Tržiščica sinking stream and ob reki Krki (3), leta 1991 izteklo približno 30 m3 the Globočec spring exists at high waters. Although kurilnega olja, smo spremljali značilnosti njegovega the connection is weak, in the case of pollution with prenosa skozi dolomit. harmful substances (e.g. petroleum products) the Ugotovljeno je bilo, da se je velik del olja dlje časa water source can be polluted and for a longer period zadržal v podzemlju kot izoliran oljni madež. Dosegli excluded from the water supply system. Any pollu- so ga z vrtino in ga določeno količino izčrpali, pozneje tion in the catchment of the Tržiščica stream, which pa spremljali višino olja v vrtini. Od začetnih več kot is within the recharge area of the Globočec spring, 30 m višine ga je po 6 letih ostalo še 0,26 m. To kaže na may endanger the quality of this drinking water source. zelo počasno odtekanje z območja oljnega madeža, kar Substances, which are not soluble in water, fol ow un- je bil tudi razlog, da med nesrečo ni prišlo do hitrega derground watercourses, however the dynamics of their in velikega onesnaženja Krke. Počasno in dolgotrajno transfer differ significantly from the dynamics of water iztekanje pa pomeni pomembno akumulacijo tega flow and depend largely on the changes of hydrological onesnažila v kraškem podzemlju. conditions, which enable longer accumulation in the Da bi pridobili novo znanje o pretakanju snovi, karst aquifer and later variously intensive outflow of ki se z vodo ne mešajo, je bilo opazovanje širjenja these substances towards karst springs. 5. Spil ages of hazardous substances endanger karst waters 73 TTima imavvaa 0 10 km AUT HUN 0 10 km Br Br ojnica ojnica SLO ITA CRO Labodnica Labodnica Škocjanske jame Škocjanske jame B O B O s K K OZINA OZINA R a Boljunec R sa p Boljunec K p K s sk I a I k N re a k N reka a II Obr Obr o ovv Rek Rekaa PODGR PODGR AD AD K K ubed ubedRRižana ižana R-6 R-6 A Ar raa a a B ačan Brračan SSvv. I . Ivvan an Bulaž Bulaž M Mi irrn naa Opa Opa tija tija t točk očk a izlitja / a izlitja leakage point stranska zveza po jama / vršinski t ca ok ve zelo slabo prepustne kamnine leakage point secondary connection surface stream very low pearmeable rocks izvir / spring površinski tok / surface stream izvir nezanesljiva zveza kraški vodonosnik glavna zveza / main connection kraški vodonosnik / karst aquifer spring uncertain connection karst aquifer stranska zveza / secondary connection medzrnski vodonosnik / porous aquifer glavna zveza jama medzrnski vodonosnik nezanesljiv main connec a z tion veza / uncertain connec cave tion zelo slabo pr porous aquifer epustne kamnine / very low pearmeable rocks 7 Kraja razlitja naftnih derivatov pri Kozini in Obrovu ter smeri pretakanja podzemne vode, ugotovljene s sledilnimi poskusi ( Krivic idr. 1987, 1989). Locations of spillages of petroleum products near Kozina and Obrov, and by tracer tests proved directions of the groundwater flow ( Krivic et al. 1987, 1989). kurilnega olja dopolnjeno s sledilnim poskusom s 5.4 A spillage of heating fluorescentnima slediloma, ki sta topni v vodi ( Habič oil on dolomitic terrain 1991). Na površju, kjer je iztekalo kurilno olje, je bil injiciran uranin, v vrtino pa rodamin. Od številnih The spillage of approximately 30 m3 of heating oil manjših izvirov ob Krki sta se sledili tako kot kurilno happened in 1991 in the factory of chemical condensers, olje najizraziteje pojavili v največjem, Žlajpahovem which is located on dolomitic terrain near Žužemberk izviru (3). Uranin se je najprej pojavil v vrtini, kasneje above the Krka river (3). The characteristics of the oil pa v izviru v več valovih po zaporednih vlitjih vode na transport through dolomite were surveyed. mestu injiciranja. Spremljanje koncentracij obeh sledil 74 5. Izlitja nevarnih snovi ogrožajo kraške vode v vrtini je pokazalo na počasno izmenjavanje kraške A large portion of oil was retained for longer time vode v dolomitu na območju vrtine in the underground as an isolated contaminant plume. A borehole was dril ed through it and a certain amount 5.5 Izlitje kurilnega olja v was pumped out. Later the level of oil in the borehole prometni nesreči pri Kozini was measured. From the initial height of 30 m it has dropped to 0.26 m in the period of 6 years. Such slow Oktobra 1993 se je v prometni nesreči na kraškem flow from the area of oil plume was the reason why no svetu pri Kozini (7) v bližnjo okolico izlilo 18 ton nafte immediate and serious pol ution of the Krka river oc- in kurilnega olja. Nafta je s površja z malo preperine curred in the time of the accident. However, very slow pod travnato rušo hitro odtekla, po ocenah očividcev and long-lasting outflow means an important accumu- je bila požiralnost okoli 15 l/s. Na podlagi že pred ča- lation of the contaminant in the karst underground. som opravljenih sledilnih poskusov na tem območju, With the aim to get some new knowledge about the ki so dokazali odtekanje podzemnih voda izpod Br- transfer of substances, which are not soluble in water, kinov v izvire Osapske reke, Rižane, Bračane, Mirne the tracer test with two water-soluble fluorescent dyes in v obmorske kraške izvire v Kvarnerskem zalivu pri were carried out parallel to the monitoring of the oil Opatiji ( Krivic idr. 1987, 1989), smo sklepali na možen spreading ( Habič 1991). Uranine was injected on the pojav nafte na vseh teh točkah. Možen je bil tudi pojav surface at the location of spil age, and Rhodamine in the nafte v izvirih Timave, saj vode z območja severoza- borehole. The tracers as well as the heating oil occurred hodno od Kozine odtekajo v to smer. Vzorčenje na mainly in the spring Žlajpahov izvir, which is the biggest terenu in ogled jam smo opravili sodelavci Inštituta among numerous smal er springs along the Krka river za raziskovanje krasa ZRC SAZU ( Knez idr. 1994) po (3). Uranine was first detected in the borehole, and then naročilu Ministrstva za okolje in prostor. later in the spring in several successive peaks fol owing Spremljanje koncentracije mineralnih olj v izvi- the flushing with water at the injection point. Measure- rih Rižane, ki je glavni vir za vodooskrbo obalnih ments of tracer concentrations in the borehole showed občin (9), je potekalo redno od 9. oktobra do 17. that the exchange of karst water in dolomite is slow. novembra, kasneje do večjega zmanjšanja vodostaja pa le še občasno. Mineralna olja se v Rižani niso 5.5 A spillage of pojavila. Ta nesreča se je tako za izvir Rižane srečno heating oil in a traffic končala, je pa nakazala možnost, da bi v primeru accident near Kozina onesnaženja lahko prišlo do zelo hudih posledic. Vzorci vode so bili vzeti še na šestih drugih me- In October 1993 a spillage of 18 tons of petroleum stih, a le v Osapski reki je bila 18 dni po nesreči, ob and heating oil occurred in a karst area near Kozina zelo visokem vodostaju, zabeležena navzočnost olj (7). The petroleum ran quickly off the surface through a (0,016 mg/l). Povečanja so bila ugotovljena v Veliki thin layer of soil. Eyewitnesses estimated that the swal- Kozinski jami in v Cikovi jami, vendar smo jih pri- low capacity was 15 l/s. On the basis of the earlier tracer pisali direktnemu prenikanju s površja. tests carried out in this area, which showed the flow of Naftni derivati se z vodo ne mešajo oz. se v njej groundwater from under the Brkini hil s into the karst ne topijo in so lažji. Zato se njihov prenos skozi springs Osapska reka, Rižana, Bračana and Mirna and kras verjetno precej razlikuje od prenosa topnih the coastal karst springs in the Kvarner Gulf near Opatija snovi, čeprav smo ob spremljanju razlitij naftnih ( Krivic et al. 1987, 1989), it was concluded that petroleum derivatov ugotavljali, da se pretakajo po vodnih could appear at all these points. The appearance of pe- poteh in iztekajo skozi izvire, v zaledju katerih je troleum was also possible in the Timava spring since the prišlo do nesreče. waters north-west of Kozina flow in this direction. By the order of the Ministry of the Environment and Spatial Planning the field sampling and the surveying of caves 5. Spil ages of hazardous substances endanger karst waters 75 5.6 Onesnaženje kraških was carried out by the co-workers of the Karst Research izvirov zaradi izlitja Institute at ZRC SAZU ( Knez et al. 1994). plinskega olja v prometni The concentrations of mineral oils in the Rižana nesreči pri Obrovu spring, which is used for the water supply of the whole coastal region (9), were measured regularly from 9 Dne 12. oktobra 1994 je prišlo do prometne ne- October to 17 November, and later only occasional y in sreče na cesti Podgrad–Kozina pri Obrovu v zaledju the period of recession. However, the mineral oils were Rižane (7), ko je iz cisterne izteklo blizu 16 m3 plin- not detected. This accident ended happily as far as the skega olja D2. Kot je bilo ugotovljeno že ob omenjeni Rižana spring is concerned. It showed, however, that nesreči pri Kozini, je izliti tovor tudi tokrat zelo hitro the pol ution of this water source could have extremely odtekel s površja (po oceni v 15 do 20 minutah). Po serious consequences. tem sklepamo, da ob podobnih nesrečah na kraškem The water samples were taken at six other loca- svetu izlite snovi ni možno pravočasno prečrpati in tions. Only in the Osapska reka spring the oils were preprečiti njenega odtoka v kras. V primeru izlitja pri detected (0.016 mg/l) 18 days after the accident, at very Obrovu se je posrečilo izolirati samo zemljo, prepo- high waters. Increased concentrations in the caves jeno z oljem (8). Do izlitja je prišlo na območju dru- Velika Kozinska jama and Cikova jama were attributed gega varstvenega pasu zajetega vodnega vira Rižana, to a direct seepage from the surface. približno kilometer jugozahodno od ponikalnice v Petroleum products are not soluble in water slepi dolini Jezerina, za katero je bila s sledilnimi and are lighter. Therefore the mode of their transfer poskusi leta 1986 ugotovljena zanesljiva povezava z through karst probably differs significantly from the izviroma Rižane in Osapske reke ( Krivic idr. 1989). transfer of water-soluble substances. The monitor- V Rižani se je pri poskusu leta 1986 sledilo po- ing of spreading of petroleum products after spill- javilo po padavinah, in sicer 18 dni po injiciranju. ages showed, however, that they flow along the water V enem mesecu po prvem pojavu je skozi Rižano courses and outflow through the springs which drain izteklo 10,6 % sledila, hitrost pretakanja pa je znašala the areas of accidents. 35 m/h. V Osapski reki se je sledilo pojavilo 21 dni po injiciranju v vodnem valu po padavinah, maksimalna 5.6 Pollution of karst koncentracija pa je bila štirikrat manjša kot v Rižani. springs due to a spillage Hitrost pretakanja v smeri Osapske reke je bila enaka of gas oil in the traffic kakor v smeri Rižane. V nizkih koncentracijah se je accident near Obrov sledilo pojavilo tudi v izviru Ara pri naselju Mlini in v izviru Sv. Ivan v Buzetu na Hrvaškem, in sicer 11 On 12 October 1994 an accident occurred on the dni po injiciranju, še pred nastopom vodnega vala po Podgrad–Kozina road near Obrov in the catchment padavinah. Izračunana hitrost pretakanja bi bila 67 of the Rižana spring (7) when almost 16 m3 of D2 gas m/h do izvira Ara in 72 m/h do izvira Sv. Ivan. Zaradi oil spilled from a tanker. Similar as it was observed nizkih koncentracij ni bilo moč ne ovreči ne potrditi during the before mentioned accident near Kozina, vodne zveze s povodjem Mirne ( Krivic idr. 1987). the oil ran rapidly off the surface (in an estimated 15 Na podlagi tega znanja je bila ob nesreči pri to 20 minutes). We observe that with such accidents Obrovu sprejeta ocena, da bodo na širjenje one- in karst areas it is not possible to pump up the spilled snaženja vplivale predvsem padavine oz. povečani substance in time to prevent its drainage into the pretoki voda in da je treba podrobneje spremljati karst. Only the soil soaked with oil was isolated after Rižano (9), pa tudi izvir Osapske reke in izvir Ara. the spillage near Obrov (8). The spillage occurred in Najpogosteje je bila vzorčena Rižana; podatki o koli- the area of the second protection zone of the Rižana čini padavin so bili pridobljeni na bližnji padavinski catchment, approximately one kilometre south-west postaji Podgrad, srednji dnevni pretoki Rižane pa na of the sinking stream in the blind valley of Jezerina, 76 5. Izlitja nevarnih snovi ogrožajo kraške vode 8 Po izlitju plinskega olja pri Obrovu se je posrečila le izolacija z 9 Izvir Rižane je zajet za oskrbo prebivalstva obalne regije s pitno vodo. oljem prepojene prsti. The Rižana spring is used for the water supply of the coastal region. Only the soil soaked with oil was isolated after the spillage of gas oil near Obrov. vodomerni postaji Kubed. Pregledane so bile tudi jame for which a reliable connection with the spring of the na območju med krajem nesreče in naštetimi izviri. rivers Rižana and Osapska reka was established by means of tracer test in 1986 ( Krivic et al. 1989). 5.6.1 Pojav plinskega In 1986 the tracer was detected in the Rižana spring olja D2 v Rižani following a precipitation event 18 days after the injec- Po izlitju plinskega olja v prometni nesreči 12 dni tion. In one month after this first appearance, 10.6 % ni bilo padavin, ki bi pospešile pretakanje olja skozi of the injected tracer was recovered in the spring and vadozno kraško cono. Med padavinami, ki so sledile the apparent flow velocity was 35 m/h. In four-times 14 dni po nesreči, pa je bil ob nekoliko povečanem lower concentrations and with similar flow velocity pretoku zabeležen pojav plinskega olja v Rižani (80 the tracer was detected in the spring of Osapska reka µg/l), kar pomeni hitrost pretakanja 45 m/h (10). 21 days after injection. Already 11 days after injection, Ob nadaljnjih izdatnih padavinah (70 mm) se je in a recession period, the tracer has appeared in low 29. oktobra pretok Rižane povečal na 22,8 m3/s in concentrations in the springs Ara near Mlini and Sv. naslednji dan so bile zabeležene tudi višje koncen- Ivan near Buzet in Croatia. The apparent flow velocity tracije plinskega olja ( Kogovšek idr. 1994; Kogovšek towards the Ara spring was 67 m/h, and towards the 1995b). Izvir Rižane je bil zato kar nekaj časa izključen Sv. Ivan spring 72 m/h. Due to low concentrations it iz vodovodnega omrežja. was not possible to confirm or reject the groundwater Glede na razpoložljive podatke o srednjih dnev- connection with the Mirna river ( Krivic et al. 1987). nih pretokih Rižane in analize koncentracije oglji- On the basis of this knowledge, during the acci- kovodikov smo izračunali količino plinskega olja, dent near Obrov the view was taken that the spread of ki je odtekla skozi Rižano. Ta znaša za čas meritev pollution would be affected by rainfall and increased v zadnjem tednu oktobra 88 kg, kar je dobrega pol discharges, and that it was therefore necessary to odstotka izlite količine. Sklepamo, da se je iztekanje monitor closely the Rižana spring (9), and additional y nadaljevalo po vsakokratnih izdatnih in intenzivnih the Osapska reka and Ara springs. The most frequent padavinah dlje časa, verjetno tudi skozi Osapsko sampling was organized at the Rižana spring; the pre- reko, ko je bila aktivna. cipitation data for the nearby Podgrad precipitation 5. Spil ages of hazardous substances endanger karst waters 77 Kraško vodo, ki jo uporabljamo za pitje, je treba station and the discharge data for the Kubed gauging v večini primerov dezinficirati, preden prispe do station were obtained. Several caves in the area be- uporabnikov. V Rižanskem vodovodu, ki upravlja tween the accident location and the observed springs z zajetjem Rižana, so jo v času opisanih nesreč pri were also surveyed. Kozini in Obrovu klorirali s plinskim klorom. V strokovni literaturi opozarjajo na negativni vpliv 5.6.1 The appearance of D2 kloriranja, kadar so v vodi navzoče organske snovi, gas oil in the Rižana spring ker s klorom nastajajo halogenirani ogljikovodiki, ki so rakotvorni. Njihova maksimalna dopustna For 12 days fol owing the gas oil spil age there was meja je 30 µg/l. Pri kontroli pitne vode po nesreči no rainfal , which would accelerate the flow of the oil so v končnih točkah rižanskega vodovoda ugo- through the karst vadose zone. But then light rainfall 14 tavljali koncentracijo halogeniranih ogljikovodi- days after the accident caused an increase in discharge kov – skupnih trihalogenmetanov 10 µg/l ( Ožbolt and the appearance of increased concentrations of gas 1994). Upravljavci so ugotovili, kakšno nevarnost oil (80 µg/l). The apparent flow velocity of 45 m/h was pomenijo takšne nesreče v zaledju Rižane in po- calculated (10). A further 70 mm of rain led to an in- znejše kloriranje, zato vodo Rižane že nekaj časa crease of discharge of the Rižana spring to 22.8 m3/s on čistijo z ultrafiltracijo brez dodanih kemikalij. 29 October, and the fol owing day higher concentrations 100 25 /s)3 (m . (µg/l) ge onc 80 20 dischar oleum c ok / petr 60 et 15 pr 40 10 . min. olja / konc 20 5 0 0 8. 10. 1994 15. 10. 1994 22. 10. 1994 29. 10. 1994 5. 11. 1994 12. 11. 1994 19. 11. 1994 datum / date Rižana - konc. min. olja / petroleum conc. Osapska reka - konc. min.olja / petroleum conc. Ara - konc. min. olja / petroleum conc. Rižana - pretok / discharge Sv. Ivan - konc. min. olja / petroleum conc. 10 Rezultati spremljanja pojava plinskega olja v opazovanih kraških izvirih. Results of the gas oil monitoring in the observed karst springs. 78 5. Izlitja nevarnih snovi ogrožajo kraške vode 5.6.2 Pojav plinskega olja D2 of gas oil were detected ( Kogovšek et al. 1994; Kogovšek v Osapski reki in v izviru Ara 1995b). As a result, the spring was excluded from the water supply network for quite some time. Osapska reka je bila do padavin na začetku no- The quantity of gas oil calculated to have drained vembra suha, ob pojavu vode 2. novembra pa nismo through the Rižana spring by the end of October was ugotovili povišanih vsebnosti mineralnih olj. Ob 88 kg, which is over half a percent of the total quantity naraščajočem pretoku 9. in 12. novembra sta zaje- spil ed. The existing data on mean daily discharges of ta vzorca vsebovala 0,014 mg/l mineralnih olj (10). the Rižana river and measured concentrations of hydro- Možno je, da se je onesnaženje pojavilo že kak dan carbons were used for the assessment. It clearly indicates prej, ko nismo jemali vzorcev, zelo verjetno v višjih the gradual rate of discharge of such substances fol ow- koncentracijah. Sklepamo, da je bila hitrost pretaka- ing each instance of heavier rainfal . When the Osapska nja v Osapsko reko okrog 30 m/h. Verjetno pa bi se reka spring was still active, it is highly probable that the ob visokem vodostaju mineralna olja pojavila v izviru oil also discharged through this spring. prej, kar bi pomenilo večjo hitrost. Usually karst water has to be disinfected before it Izvir Ara je bil aktiven že v času izlitja. Med 18. is used as a drinking water source. At the time of the oktobrom in 2. novembrom sta bila zajeta le dva vzorca described accidents near Kozina and Obrov the water in in oba sta imela zvišano koncentracijo mineralnih olj the Rižana water supply system was chlorinated with gas (10). Prvo povišanje smo zabeležili že dan pred poja- chlorine, which in the presence of organic substances vom plinskega olja v Rižani. Ocenjena hitrost preta- leads to the formation of carcinogenic halogenated hy- kanja s točke razlitja v izvir Ara bi bila ob sorazmerno drocarbons. Their maximum allowed concentration nizkem vodostaju približno 50 m/h ali celo nekoliko is 30 µg/l. After the accidents, the concentrations of večja. S sledilnim poskusom junija 1986 ( Krivic idr. halogen hydrocarbons of 10 µg/l were measured in the 1989) so zaradi neizrazitega pojava sledila v izviru final sections of the Rižana water supply system ( Ožbolt Ara ugotavljali vprašljivo povezavo, ocenjena hitrost 1994). The operators of the Rižana water supply system pa bi bila 67 m/s. Čeprav je tudi pojav izlitega olja recognized the danger represented by accidents of this po nesreči pri Obrovu v izviru Ara zaradi majhnega type in the catchment area of the Rižana river and by števila vzorcev in nizkih koncentracij vprašljiv, pa se subsequent chlorination, and therefore for some time zdi povezava verjetna. Zanesljivo bi jo lahko potrdili now its water has been purified by means of ultrafiltra- samo z dodatnim sledilnim poskusom. tion without added chemicals. Od 24. oktobra 1994 naprej so spremljali vsebnost mineralnih olj v izviru Sv. Ivan v Buzetu ( Vlahović 5.6.2 The appearance of D2 gas oil 2000). Iz njihovih podatkov je razvidno opazno po- in the Osapska reka and Ara springs večanje vsebnosti mineralnih olj in skupnih maščob od 27. do 30. oktobra (10). Tako sklepamo, da je izlito Until the precipitation occurred in the beginning of plinsko olje verjetno odtekalo tudi v tej smeri, čeprav November, the spring of Osapska reka was dry, and no niso znane izhodne vrednosti merjenih parametrov increased concentrations of mineral oils were detected pred nesrečo. V primeru sledenja iz Jezerine v juniju in the spring activated on 2 November. The concentra- 1986 se je sledilo v tem izviru pojavilo podobno šibko tion 0.014 mg/l was measured in two samples taken kakor v izviru Ara. on 9 and 12 November, in the time of the increase of discharge (10). It is possible that the tracer has appeared Sklep in higher concentrations already some day before when no samples were collected. The assessed flow velocity Nesreče, pri katerih odtečejo v kras večje količine was approximately 30 m/h. At high waters the mineral nevarnih netopnih snovi (npr. naftni derivati), pome- oils would probably appear at the spring earlier, which nijo nevarnost za naše okolje in kraške vode, saj lahko would also give a higher flow velocity. 5. Spil ages of hazardous substances endanger karst waters 79 že majhne količine za dolga obdobja onesnažijo vodne The Ara spring has already been active in the time vire. Še posebej so nevarna izlitja naftnih derivatov in of the spil age. Only two samples were taken between 18 podobnih snovi zato, ker o pretakanju nepolarnih sno- October and 2 November, and in both increased con- vi (kamor uvrščamo tudi naftne derivate, ki niso topni centrations of mineral oils were detected (10). The first v vodi in so lažji od nje) skozi kraške vodonosnike rise occurred even before the gas oil was detected in the vemo še zelo malo. Številne prometne nesreče z razli- Rižana spring. The flow velocity from the spil age point tji naftnih derivatov na krasu so sčasoma le prinesle to the Ara spring at relatively low waters was assessed spoznanje, da se je treba lotiti reševanja na strokoven to 50 m/h or even more. At the tracer test in June 1986 način. Ob nesrečah konec prejšnjega stoletja je Inštitut ( Krivic et al. 1989) the concentrations of tracer in the za raziskovanje krasa ZRC SAZU pogosto sodeloval Ara spring were low and the groundwater connection pri ugotavljanju, kateri izviri so ogroženi, kar je bila with the flow velocity of 67 m/s was characterized as podlaga za spremljanje njihove kakovosti. Na podlagi uncertain. Although the appearance of oil from the dosedanjih opazovanj nesreč z izlitji naftnih derivatov spil age near Obrov is due to the low number of samples na kraškem svetu vemo, da ti odtekajo po poteh, ki jih and low concentrations uncertain as wel , the connec- ubira s površja v kraško notranjost padavinska voda. tion with the Ara spring seems possible. An additional Na prvi pojav v izvirih vplivajo predvsem razmere v tracer test is needed for confirmation. prsti in vadozni coni ter padavine, ki sledijo. Opra- Since 24 October 1994, mineral oil content has also vljene primerjave prenosa naftnih derivatov in topnih been monitored in the Sv. Ivan spring in Buzet ( Vlahović sledil nakazujejo, da je poznejši način prenosa teh 2000). These data reveal a perceptible increase in min- snovi skozi kraške vodonosnike bistveno drugačen od eral oil content and total fats between 27 and 30 October prenosa topnih snovi. Predvidevamo predvsem daljše (10). Since measurements were not taken before the zadrževanje ter le postopno spiranje naftnih derivatov accident, we can only predict that gas oil also drained in zaradi možnosti zastajanja v sifonih in adsorpcije na this direction. Similar as for the Ara spring, only a weak sedimente. Kljub temu pa ostaja še veliko neznank. connection was indicated by the tracer test in June 1986. V primeru pogostejših nesreč na nekem območju bi prav zaradi vsakokratnega akumuliranja snovi v zaledju Conclusion lahko prišlo do trajnejšega onesnaženja izvira, kar bi lahko onemogočilo njegovo uporabo. Glede na dana- Traffic accidents involving the drainage of large šnje poznavanje pretakanja topnih snovi skozi vadozno quantities of hazardous substances into the karst repre- cono pa vemo, da je to močno odvisno od predhodne sent a danger for our environment and for karst waters, namočenosti prsti in zapolnjenosti vadozne cone z vodo since even small quantities can contaminate karst springs ( Kogovšek 2010) ter od padavinskih razmer, ki sledijo. for long periods. Specially dangerous are spillages of Lahko prihaja tudi do daljšega zadrževanja v vadozni substances which are insoluble in water and lighter than coni in pojava v kraškem izviru z večjim časovnim water (e.g. petroleum products) since we still know very zamikom ( Kogovšek in Šebela 2004). Zato je ob nesre- little about how these contaminants behave in karst aqui- čah smiselno daljše opazovanje, še posebno v času po fers. Based on the experiences of several traffic accidents intenzivnejših in izdatnejših padavinah. involving spil ages of petroleum products on karst the Omejevalni faktor pri ugotavljanju navzočnosti need for the involvement of experts has been acknowl- mineralnih olj je sorazmerno visoka meja določljivosti edged in time. In the case of accidents towards the end of metode. Plinsko olje je verjetno iztekalo skozi izvir last century the Karst Research Institute frequently took Rižane daljši čas in v zelo nizkih koncentracijah, pod part in identifying those springs that were at risk, which 0,01 mg/l. Čeprav jih nismo mogli določiti, pa lahko was the basis for the monitoring of their quality. By ob- ob dlje časa trajajočih pretokih pomenijo prenos večje serving the accidents involving spil ages of petroleum količine snovi. Tako bi ob koncentraciji 0,005 mg/l in products in karst areas to date, we know that they drain pretoku 20 m3/s v enem mesecu izteklo 260 kg plin- along the routes that rainfall fol ows from the surface 80 5. Izlitja nevarnih snovi ogrožajo kraške vode skega olja. In tako spiranje verjetno lahko traja nekaj into the karst interior. Their first appearance in springs mesecev ali celo več let. is influenced by conditions in the soil and the vadose Vsekakor je reševanje posameznih primerov, ko zone and by the rainfall that fol ows. Comparisons of the dejansko pride do izlitja nevarne snovi in je treba oce- transmission of petroleum products and soluble tracers niti, kateri kraški izviri bodo onesnaženi, povezano s indicate that the subsequent mode of transfer of these poznavanjem značilnosti pretakanja podzemnih voda substances through karst aquifers differs significantly. na obravnavanem območju oz. z že predhodno opra- Above all it involves longer retention and gradual wash- vljenimi raziskavami. Hidrogeološke in hidrokemične ing away of petroleum products due to their accumula- raziskave, predvsem pa sledilni poskusi (3, 7), nam tion in siphons and adsorption on sediments. However, omogočajo ugotavljanje podzemnih vodni poti. many other questions remain unsolved. Le majhen del trenutno izlite večje količine tekočin In the case of more frequent accidents in a given v sušnih obdobjih preide vadozno cono po najprepu- area, the accumulation of substances in the hinterland stnejših razpokah in se pojavi na izviru, medtem ko se of a spring on each occasion could lead to more perma- pretežni del snovi akumulira v vadozni coni. Raziskave nent pol ution of the spring, which could render its use pretakanja vode skozi prst in vadozno cono ( Kogovšek impossible for a long time. A modern understanding in Šebela 2004; Kogovšek 2010) so pokazale, da lahko of the flow of soluble substances through the vadose prihaja v vodonosniku prav v vadozni coni do najdalj- zone recognizes an important influence of the previous šega zadrževanja vode in morebitnih drugih tekočin na saturation of soil and vadose zone ( Kogovšek 2010) and poti v bolj prepustne dele, kjer je pretakanje bistveno of the precipitation regime on the characteristics of this hitrejše. Zato se onesnaženje lahko pojavi v kraškem flow. Longer retention in the vadose zone and appear- izviru tudi z večjim časovnim zamikom in traja daljši ance at the spring with a significant time lag are possible čas (nekaj let in več), saj lahko postopno iztekanje pri- ( Kogovšek and Šebela 2004). Therefore in the case of an čakujemo po vsakih izdatnejših padavinah v zaledju. accident a long-lasting monitoring is necessary, espe- V primeru nesreč je zato smiselno daljše opazovanje, cial y in the periods of intensive precipitation. skladno s hidrološkimi in padavinskimi razmerami. A limiting factor in the detection of mineral oils is Za vsak izvir, ki je zajet za oskrbo prebivalstva s pi- a relatively high detection limit of the method. In the tno vodo, bi morali dobro poznati njegovo zaledje, da case of the Rižana spring, a long-lasting outflow of gas bi lahko varovali kakovost vode in primerno ukrepali, oil in very low concentrations below 0.01 mg/l was very če bi že prišlo do nepričakovanega onesnaženja. Ven- likely. Although we were not able to detect them, a larger dar to ni dovolj, da bi si zagotovili kakovostno vodo. amount of these substances was probably transferred Treba bi se bilo izogniti možnim posledicam nesreč in in the periods of higher discharges. In one month, the s primerno gradnjo cest preprečiti neposredni odtok outflow with the concentration 0.005 mg/l and the dis- nevarnih snovi v kras. Prvi korak je bil narejen že ob charge 20 m3/s would wash out 260 kg of gas oil. And gradnji avtoceste Ljubljana–Razdrto, ko so na kraškem such outflow could last for several months or even years. svetu zgradili lovilnike olj, v katere bi v primeru izlitij When taking action in concrete cases of spil age, it is v prometnih nesrečah stekle nevarne snovi, lažje od necessary to predict what karst springs will be pol uted. vode ( Kogovšek 1995c). Ob novejši gradnji avtocest This is connected to the knowledge of flow in the area na kraškem svetu postavljajo tudi nove generacije za- in question, in other words to researches already car- drževalnih in čistilnih objektov ( Kompare idr. 2002). ried out. Hydrogeological and hydrochemical studies, Čeprav so v onesnaženem kraškem izviru kon- and above all the tracer tests (3, 7) are efficient tools for centracije onesnažil pod mejnimi vrednostmi in celo assessing the characteristics of the groundwater flow. pod mejo določljivosti ter se pojavljajo povišanja le In the case of currently spil ed larger quantities of občasno, ugotavljamo, da je v primeru onesnaženja liquids in dry periods, only a small part passes through z naftnimi derivati (Globočec) to dovolj, da je treba the vadose zone via the most permeable fractures and vodni vir izključiti iz uporabe. Tu se je kot omejitve- appears at the springs, while the largest part of the sub- 5. Spil ages of hazardous substances endanger karst waters 81 ni faktor pokazala sorazmerno visoka meja detekcije stances accumulates in the vadose zone. Research of metode določevanja mineralnih olj. the flow of water through the soil and the vadose zone V primerih, ko je tak izvir zajet za vodovod in se za ( Kogovšek and Šebela 2004; Kogovšek 2010) has shown dezinfekcijo vode uporablja klor, nastajajo halogenira- that it is actual y in the vadose zone of an aquifer that the ni derivati, ki so rakotvorni. To je bil tudi razlog, da so longest retention of water and potential contaminants v Rižani po omenjenih nesrečah prešli na čiščenje vode can occur, as they make their way to more permeable z ultrafiltracijo. Vendar pa se v Sloveniji za dezinfekcijo parts of the aquifer, where flow is significantly faster. The vode še vedno najpogosteje uporablja prav kloriranje. pol ution can occur in the springs with a significant time lag and longer duration (several years or more) since it is later gradual y pushed in the direction of springs by each more intensive precipitation event in the catch- ment. In the case of such accidents, longer observation is therefore necessary, in accordance with hydrological and precipitation conditions. The characteristics of the recharge area of each spring, which is used for the water supply, should be wel understood to properly protect the water quality and to take efficient measures in the cases of an unexpected pol- lution. However, this is not enough to ensure good water quality. Possible consequences of accidents should be avoided by adequate construction of roads, which would prevent direct infiltration of hazardous substances into the karst. The first step was made during the construc- tion of the motorway Ljubljana–Razdrto. Oil col ectors were designed to col ect harmful substances lighter than water in the cases of traffic accidents involving spil ages on karst terrains ( Kogovšek 1995c). In the recent con- struction of motorways, new generations of retention ponds and purification facilities are being built ( Kompare et al. 2002). Although the concentrations of contaminants in a polluted karst spring are below the allowed values or even below the detection limits, and they only appear occasionally, in the case of pollution with petroleum products (e.g. the Globočec spring) this is a sufficient reason to exclude the spring from use. A limiting factor in this process is a relatively high detection threshold of mineral oils. Disinfection of karst water sources with gas chlorine leads to the formation of carcinogenic halogenated hy- drocarbons. This is the reason why after the described accidents the process of ultrafiltration was implemented in the Rižana water supply system. However, the chlo- rination is still the most often applied method of a drink- ing water treatment in Slovenia. 82 5. Izlitja nevarnih snovi ogrožajo kraške vode V V O JU V TATO ADK ODE ODP V OBMOČ GI REZUL POSKUSO VANJE A O ORINGA GALIŠČ ASU A 6 ČRT KRVPLIVNEM NA ME OF TR MONIT B PODZEMNE OF L V IN ODL GR NA PL NA PODL SLEDILNIH TK ASED ON A PE THE IMP OUND ANNING OF ANDFILLS IN K TRIČ, JANJA K ACER TEST W THE RESUL A A OGO C TER T AREAS VŠEK S MONIT ARST TS ORING V številnih delih sveta uporaba in odlaganje odpadkov in celo strupenih snovi še vedno In many parts of the world the use and disposal of wastes and even toxic materials are still growing, naraščata, s tem pa se povečuje tudi nevar- therefore the danger of pollution is increasing, nost onesnaženja. Odlagališča odpadkov so resna too. The landfills are a serious threat to environment, grožnja za okolje, zaradi odtekanja izcednih vod v specially to groundwater due to percolation of lea- podzemlje so ogrožene predvsem podzemne vode. chates into the underground. This is especially true Še posebej to velja za odlagališča na krasu, ki je zelo for the landfills in karst areas with very high intrinsic ranljiv za posledice različnih virov onesnaževanja. vulnerability. The capacity of natural treatment of wa- Sposobnost naravnega čiščenja onesnaževal v kraški terborne contaminants in karst is relatively ineffective vodi je majhna in možni negativni vplivi zelo verjetni. and the possible negative influences are very likely. Za njihovo ustrezno ovrednotenje je treba vzpostaviti To assess them properly, a well-planned, long-term dobro načrtovan, dolgotrajen monitoring kakovosti water quality monitoring has to be implemented. In vode. Za izbiro najbolj primernih točk za monitoring karst areas, tracer tests were proved a valuable research in izdelavo njegovega programa na kraških območjih method for defining the most suitable monitoring so se kot zelo uporabna raziskovalna metoda pokazali points and preparing efficient monitoring plans. sledilni poskusi. 6.1 Landfills in karst areas 6.1 Odlagališča odpadkov na krasu For karst areas, the selection of monitoring points in the impact areas of landfills has some specific prin- Izbira točk za monitoring kakovosti kraških voda ciples. Because of high heterogeneity of karst aquifers, v vplivnem območju odlagališč odpadkov temelji na the monitoring boreholes in the vicinity of the land- nekaterih posebnih značilnostih. Zaradi velike hete- fill are not representative for detecting the pollution rogenosti kraških vodonosnikov vrtine za monitoring, of karst waters ( Kaçaroğlu 1999; Vadillo et al. 2005; izvrtane na območju odlagališča, niso reprezentativne Kogovšek and Petrič 2010a). Therefore, the main paths za zaznavanje morebitnega onesnaženja kraških voda of groundwater flow from the landfill area have to be ( Kaçaroğlu 1999; Vadillo idr. 2005; Kogovšek in Petrič defined and their accessible sections selected. Usu- 2010a). Zato je treba ugotoviti glavne smeri podze- ally these are springs or water courses in caves. Ad- mnega odtoka z območja odlagališča in določiti točke, ditional to basic hydrogeological mapping, the tracer kjer so ti tokovi dostopni. Običajno so to izviri ali vo- tests were proved a very useful method for detecting dni tokovi v jamah. Za določitev smeri in značilnosti the directions and characteristics of the groundwater podzemnega pretakanja so se poleg osnovnih hidro- flow ( Eiswirth et al. 1999; Zhou et al. 2002; Benischke geoloških metod kot zelo primerni pokazali sledilni et al. 2007). poskusi ( Eiswirth idr. 1999; Zhou idr. 2002; Benischke In recent years, the tracer tests were successfully idr. 2007). applied in several case-studies of planning the water V zadnjih letih so bili uspešno uporabljeni v več quality monitoring in the impact areas of landfills študijah za izdelavo načrta monitoringa v vplivnem in the Slovene karst ( Kogovšek et al. 1999; Petrič and območju odlagališč na slovenskem krasu ( Kogovšek Šebela 2005; Kogovšek and Petrič 2006, 2007, 2010a). idr. 1999; Petrič in Šebela 2005; Kogovšek in Petrič 2006, According to the Slovene legislation it is not possible 2007, 2010a). Po slovenski zakonodaji gradnja novih to plan new landfills on the so-called risky areas to odlagališč na tako imenovanih rizičnih območjih, med which also the karst belongs. For the still existing ones katera spada tudi kras, ni več možna. Za še obstoječa (1), the closing as well as their further maintenance odlagališča na krasu (1) pa je predvideno zapiranje, na- and protection are foreseen. Therefore, the landfill daljnje vzdrževanje in varovanje. Upravljavci odlaga- managers are obliged to prepare the programme of lišč morajo pripraviti program monitoringa kakovosti water quality monitoring, which should consider the 84 6. Načrtovanje monitoringa podzemne vode v vplivnem območju odlagališč odpadkov na krasu na podlagi rezultatov sledilnih poskusov vode v skladu s Pravilnikom o obratovalnem monito- requirements of the Rules on the performance of op- ringu onesnaževanja podzemne vode ( PrOM, 2006). erational monitoring of groundwater pollution ( PrOM, V programu so predstavljene hidrogeološke razmere 2006). In the programme the hydrogeological condi- in značilnosti podzemne vode pred izgradnjo odlaga- tions and characteristics of groundwater previous to lišča, ciljne hidrogeološke cone, določene so lokacije the landfill construction, target hydrogeological zones, objektov za monitoring in opisani načini izgradnje in locations of monitoring points and description of the opreme teh objektov, prikazana opazovanja nivojev construction and equipment of these objects, observa- podzemne vode in smeri toka podzemne vode ter po- tions of water table and groundwater flow directions, dan načrt testiranja ustreznosti točk monitoringa. Kot and the plan of testing the adequacy of monitoring primerne raziskovalne metode so predlagani sledilni points have to be described. As research methods the poskusi, strukturno kartiranje, hidrokemične analize tracer tests, structural mapping, hydrochemical analy- in geofizikalne metode. Po naših izkušnjah dobimo ses and geophysical methods are suggested. According najboljše rezultate z vzporedno uporabo teh metod, to our experiences, the best results are obtained by a zlasti pa priporočamo izvedbo sledilnega poskusa. parallel application of the listed methods, however, 1 Leta 2011 še aktivna odlagališča odpadkov na krasu v Sloveniji. In 2011 still active landfills in the Slovene karst. 6. Planning of groundwater monitoring in the impact areas of landfil s in karst based on the results of tracer tests 85 RADENSK R Zat ADENSK očna jama Zatočna jama POL POL Šica - R JE O JE O Šica - ADENSK Krška jamaKršk Zatočna jama Mala Račna a jama Mala Račna POL 2 Hidrogeološka karta širšega območja JE O Šica - Poltarica Poltarica Krška jama odlagališč Mala gora in Mozelj. Mala Račna Hydrogeological map of the br S oader Poltarica S Krka Krka area of the Mala gora and Mozelj U H U H D D S landfills. o o A Globočec A Krka U Globočec b b H r r K K D e e p p R R o A Globočec Podpeška P o odpeška o b ŽUŽEMBERK l l A ŽUŽEMBERK rA K jama j jama j e e e J p R Podpešk a o J I l I Šica - Dv A jama j or N e ŽUŽEMBERK N J Šica - Dvor Javornikov izvir Kompoljsk Javornikov izvir Kompoljska jama a jama A A I N Šica - Dvor Tominčev studenec Tominč Ja ev studenec vornikov izvir Tr T Kompoljska jama r ž ž ADebeljakov iz D vir ebeljakov izvir išč iš T Tominčev studenec č r ic ic ž a a i Debeljakov izvir ščica Tentera Tentera Tentera Obrh Obrh MALA GORA Radešica Radešica Obrh RIBNICA RIBNICA RIBNICA Radešica KOČEVJE KOČEVJE R R KOČEVJE in in R ž ž in a a ža MOZELJ MOZELJ MOZELJ K K K o o o l l l p p p a a a Kotnica Dolski Dolski Dolski Bilpa potok Bilpa Bilpa potok potok 0 10 km 0 0 10 km 10 km Šumetac Šumetac Šumetac točka injiciranja / injection point površinski tok / surface stream točka injicirtanja / očk injec a injicir tion poin anja / t injection point površinski tok / po surfac vršinski t e stream ok / surface stream odlagališče / landfill kraški vodonosnik / karst aquifer odlagališče / landfill odlagališče / landfill kraški vodonosnik / kraški v karst aquif odonosnik / er karst aquifer izvir / spring medzrnski vodonosnik / porous aquifer izvir / spring izvir / spring medzrnski vodonosnik / medzrnski v porous aquifer odonosnik / porous aquifer glavna zveza / main connection zelo slabo prepustne kamnine / very low permeable rocks glavna zveza / gla main c vna zv onnec eza / tion main connection zelo slabo pr z epustne kamnine / elo slabo pr v epustne k ery poorly per amnine / ver meous y poor rocks ly permeous rocks stranska zveza / secondary connection razpoklinski vodonosnik / fissured aquifer stranska zveza / str sec ansk ondar a zv y c eza / onnec sec tion ondary connection razpoklinski vodonosnik / fissured aquifer razpoklinski vodonosnik / fissured aquifer ostala sledenja / other tracer tests ostala sledenja / other tracer t ostala sledenja / ests other tracer tests 86 6. Načrtovanje monitoringa podzemne vode v vplivnem območju odlagališč odpadkov na krasu na podlagi rezultatov sledilnih poskusov RADENSK Zatočna jama POL V nadaljevanju so predstavljeni primeri opravljenih we strongly recommend the use of tracer tests. Three JE O Šica - Krška jama Mala Račna študij na treh odlagališčih na slovenskem krasu: na examples of case-studies of the Mala gora, Mozelj and Poltarica Mali gori, v Mozlju in Sežani. Sežana landfil s in the Slovene karst are presented below. S Krka U H D o A Globočec b 6.2 Hidrogeološke 6.2 Hydrogeological r K e p R Podpeška ŽUŽEMBERK značilnosti območij characteristics of the o l A jama j e J izbranih odlagališč selected landfill areas I N Šica - Dvor Javornikov izvir Kompoljska jama A T Tominčev studenec r Odlagališči odpadkov Mala gora in Mozelj ležita The Mala gora and Mozelj landfills are situated in ži Debeljakov izvir ščic na kraškem območju med rekama Krko in Kolpo v the karst area of south-eastern Slovenia between the a jugovzhodni Sloveniji (2). Osrednji kraški vodonosnik Krka and Kolpa rivers (2). The main karst aquifer is Tentera gradijo dobro prepustne jurske in kredne karbonatne composed of well permeable Jurassic and Cretaceous MALA GORA Obrh Radešica kamnine. Jurski apnenci z vložki dolomita prevladu- carbonate rocks. Jurassic limestone with inliers of RIBNICA jejo v južnem delu, v severnem pa najdemo predvsem dolomite is dominant in the southern part, while in kredne apnence prav tako z vložki dolomita. Na jugo- the northern part Cretaceous limestone with inliers zahodnem robu kraškega platoja se na manj prepustnih of dolomite prevails. On the south-western part of triasnih karbonatnih kamninah ter slabo prepustnih the karst plateau are less permeable Triassic carbon- permijskih in triasnih klastičnih kamninah, prekritih s ate rocks and poorly permeable Permian and Trias- kvartarnimi rečnimi in jezerskimi sedimenti, pojavljajo sic clastic rocks covered with Quaternary river and površinski tokovi. Med njimi je največja reka Rinža, lacustrine sediments, on which the surface drainage KOČEVJE ki odvisno od hidroloških razmer ponika na različnih net has developed. The biggest is the Rinža river, which Rinža mestih zahodno od odlagališča Mozelj in se pretaka sinks at various locations (depending on hydrologi- podzemno proti izvirom v dolini reke Kolpe. cal conditions) west of the Mozelj landfill and flows MOZELJ Podzemni tok v kraškem vodonosniku je usmer- underground towards the springs in the Kolpa val ey. jen proti kraškim izvirom v obeh rečnih dolinah. Na The underground flow within the karst aquifer is severozahodni strani sta dva glavna izvira reke Krke directed towards several karst springs in the two river s skupnim srednjim pretokom 8,3 m3/s, minimalnim valleys. On the north-western side is the Krka river pretokom 0,8 m3/s in maksimalnim pretokom 80 m3/s with two main springs. Their common mean dis- K ( Kolbezen in Pristov 1998). V jugozahodnem delu za- charge is 8.3 m3/s, the minimum measured discharge olpa Kotnica ledja obeh izvirov je nekaj občasnih izvirov, ki so ak- 0.8 m3/s and the maximum one 80 m3/s ( Kolbezen Dolski tivni le po močnejših padavinah, ob nizkih vodostajih and Pristov 1998). South-west of the springs, within Bilpa potok pa je voda dostopna le v Podpeški in Kompoljski jami. their catchment, some intermittent springs are ac- 0 10 km Šumetac Dolvodno ob reki Krki je njen desni pritok izvir tive after heavy raining, while during low waters the Globočec, ki je regionalno pomemben vir za oskrbo s underground water can only be reached in the caves točka injiciranja / injection point površinski tok / surface stream pitno vodo. Njegovi srednji pretoki se gibljejo med 1 Podpeška jama and Kompoljska jama. odlagališče / landfill kraški vodonosnik / karst aquifer in 1,5 m3/s ( Novak 1985). Jugovzhodno od Žužemberka The Globočec spring, a right tributary of the Krka izvir / spring medzrnski vodonosnik / porous aquifer so trije izviri: Tominčev studenec, Debeljakov izvir in river, is a regionally important source of drinking wa- glavna zveza / main connection zelo slabo prepustne kamnine / very low permeable rocks Javornikov izvir. Slednji je le občasno aktiven. Največji ter with the mean discharge between 1 and 1.5 m3/s stranska zveza / secondary connection razpoklinski vodonosnik / fissured aquifer je Tominčev studenec z minimalnim pretokom 0,54 ( Novak 1985). South-east of Žužemberk there are ostala sledenja / other tracer tests m3/s, srednjim pretokom 1,6 m3/s in maksimalnim three springs: Tominčev studenec, Debeljakov izvir pretokom 10 m3/s ( Novak 1992). Naprej proti vzhodu and Javornikov izvir. The latter is only temporarily je potok Radešica, ki je še en pomemben desni pritok active. The biggest among them is Tominčev studenec Krke. Napajajo ga številni izviri, največja med njimi sta with the minimum discharge 0.54 m3/s, mean discharge Radešica in Obrh. V obdobju od aprila do septembra 1.6 m3/s and maximum discharge 10 m3/s ( Novak 1988, za katero razpolagamo s podatki, so se pretoki 1992). Further towards east runs the Radešica stream, 6. Planning of groundwater monitoring in the impact areas of landfil s in karst based on the results of tracer tests 87 Soča Soča Soča Vi Soča pava Vipava Vipava Vipav 3 Hidrogeološka karta območja Krasa z a odlagališčem Sežana. Hydrogeological map of the Kras area with the Sežana landfill ITALY . ITALY ITALY ITALY SLOVENIA SLOVENIA SLOVENIA SLOVENIA Vipava Vipava Vipava Vipava K K K K R R R R KLARIČI KLARIČI A A A KLARIČI A KLARIČI S S R S S R R R a a a a š š š š Timava Timava Timava Timava a a a a Brojnica Brojnica Brojnica Br Tojnica T T T r r r r ž ž ž ž a a a a š š š š k odlagališče k k k i i i i odlagališče / odlagališče / odlagališče / z z z z a landfill a a a l l l l i i i i v v v v / / / / T T T T r r r r i e i i i e e e s s s s t S Škocjanske e t t t S S S L e e e O L Škocjanske O LO LO V Škocjanske Škocjanske jame b b b b a V V V jame E jame jame I E E E T N a a a I y I I A I T N T N T N L J y y y A I L JA A I L JA A I L J R I A Rek e J a I I A I k A J J J a R R A eka A eka A TRST 0 TRST / 10 km TRST / TRST / TRIESTE 0 0 0 10 km 10 km TRIESTE 10 km TRIESTE TRIESTE točka injiciranja / injection point površinski tok / surface stream točka injiciranja točka injicir t anja očka injicir izvir / anja spring ostala sledenja ostala sledenja medzr ostala sledenja nski v kraški v medzr odonosnik / odonosnik nski v medzrnsk karst aquif odonosnik i v er odonosnik injection pointinjection point injection pointother tracer tests other tracer tests other tracer t por estsous aquiferporous aquif porer ous aquifer glavna zveza / main connection medzrnski vodonosnik / porous aquifer izvir izvir izvir stransk čr a z pališč v eeza / sec čr ondar pališče y c čr onnec pališč tion e zelo slabo pr z z elo slabo pr epustne kz epustne k amnine elo slabo pr amnine / epustne kamnine epustne k very low per amnine meable rocks spring spring spring ostala sledenja / pumping sta other tracer tests tion pumping station pumping sta very lo tion w per razpoklinski vodonosnik meable r very lo ocks w per v meable r ery low per / ocks fissured aquifer meable rocks črpališče / pumping station glavna zveza glavna zveza glavna zveza površinski tokpovršinski tok površinski t razpoklinski vodonosnik ok razpoklinski vodonosnik razpoklinski vodonosnik main connection main connection main connec sur tion face streamsurface stream surface str fissured aquifer eam fissured aquifer fissured aquifer stranska zvezastranska zveza stranska zv k eza raški vodonosnik kraški vodonosnik kraški vodonosnik secondary connec sec tion ondary connec sec tion ondary c karst aquif onnection er karst aquif k er arst aquifer Radešice gibali med 0,5 in 23 m3/s, pretoki Obrha pa another important right tributary of the Krka river. med 0,5 in 2,5 m3/s. It is recharged by several karst springs, the biggest V zgornjem delu doline Kolpe je več izvirov na among them are the Radešica and Obrh springs. In the njenem levem bregu. Večji in stalni so Bilpa, Dolski period from April to September 1988, the discharges potok, Šumetac in Kotnica. Po podatkih, ki nam jih je of Radešica ranged from 0.5 to 23 m3/s, and of Obrh za obdobje od septembra 2005 do avgusta 2007 posre- from 0.5 to 2.5 m3/s. dovala Agencija Republike Slovenije za okolje (ARSO), In the upper part of the Kolpa valley there are sev- so se pretoki Bilpe gibali med 0,1 in 35,7 m3/s. eral springs on the left bank. Larger and permanent are Odlagališče Sežana leži na območju Krasa v ju- the springs Bilpa, Dolski potok, Šumetac, and Kotnica. gozahodni Sloveniji (3). Osrednji del Krasa gradijo The discharge data of the Bilpa spring were provided zakraseli in dobro prepustni kredni apnenci in deloma by the Slovenian Environment Agency (ARSO). In dolomiti v debelini več kot 1000 m ( Kranjc 1997). Proti the period from September 2005 to August 2007 they severu, jugu in vzhodu prehajajo v ploščaste apnence ranged from 0.1 to 35.7 m3/s. terciarne starosti, ki so prav tako razpokani in zakra- The Sežana landfill is situated in the Kras area in seli. Karbonatni masiv obdaja zelo slabo prepusten south-western Slovenia (3). The central part of Kras is 88 6. Načrtovanje monitoringa podzemne vode v vplivnem območju odlagališč odpadkov na krasu na podlagi rezultatov sledilnih poskusov Soča Vipava ITALY SLOVENIA Vipava K R A KLARIČI S Raš Timava a Brojnica T r ž a š k odlagališče i z a landfill l i v / T r i e s t S Škocjanske e L OV jame b a E IT N y A I L J I A Rek J a A TRST 0 10 km TRIESTE točka injiciranja / injection point površinski tok / surface stream izvir / spring kraški vodonosnik / karst aquifer glavna zveza / main connection medzrnski vodonosnik / porous aquifer stranska zveza / secondary connection zelo slabo prepustne kamnine / very low permeable rocks ostala sledenja / other tracer tests razpoklinski vodonosnik / fissured aquifer črpališče / pumping station 4 Odlagališče Mozelj s točkama injiciranja T-1 in T-2 ter vrtinami za monitoring Mo-1, Mo-2 in Mo-3 (topografska osnova: ARSO 2010). The Mozelj landfill with injection points T-1 and T-2 and monitoring boreholes Mo-1, Mo-2, Mo-3 (topographic base: ARSO 2010). eocenski fliš, ki ima vlogo hidrogeološke pregrade. Po- composed of well karstified and well permeable Cre- vršinski tokovi s fliša ponikajo na vzhodnem obrobju taceous limestone and partly dolomite in the thick- na stiku s karbonatnimi kamninami in napajajo kraški ness of more than 1000 m ( Kranjc 1997). To the north, vodonosnik. Najpomembnejši je prispevek reke Reke, south and east these pass into bedded and tabular ki ponika v Škocjanske jame na jugovzhodnem robu limestone of Tertiary age, which is also fissured and Krasa. V obdobju 1961–1990 je bil najnižji izmerjeni karstified. The carbonate massif is surrounded with pretok Reke na vodomerni postaji približno 7 km pred very poorly permeable Eocene flysch which acts as ponorom 0,18 m3/s, srednji pretok pa 8,26 m3/s ( Kol- an important hydrogeological barrier. On the eastern bezen in Pristov 1998). V obdobju zelo visokih vod pa side, the surface streams from flysch areas sink at the lahko pretoki celo presežejo 300 m3/s. Manj pomem- contact with carbonate rock and recharge the karst ben je prispevek manjših ponikalnic, ki se nahajajo aquifer. The most important is the contribution of naprej proti severu. the Reka river which sinks into the Škocjan caves/ Na severozahodnem robu je kraški vodonosnik Škocjanske jame at the south-eastern border of Kras. v dinamičnem stiku z medzrnskim vodonosnikom In the period 1961–1990, the lowest measured dis- aluvialnih sedimentov ob rekah Soči in Vipavi. Prazni charge of the Reka river at the gauging station approxi- 6. Planning of groundwater monitoring in the impact areas of landfil s in karst based on the results of tracer tests 89 se skozi številne izvire v Tržaškem zalivu Jadranskega mately 7 km upstream the ponor was 0.18 m3/s and the morja v Italiji. Največji je izvir Timava s pretoki med 9,1 mean discharge 8.26 m3/s ( Kolbezen and Pristov 1998). in 127 m3/s ter srednjim pretokom 30,2 m3/s v obdobju In the time of extremely high waters the discharge 1972–1983 ( Civita idr. 1995). Naprej proti notranjosti can reach up to more than 300 m3/s. Less important is je še več manjših izvirov na nadmorskih višinah med the contribution of the inflows from smaller sinking 0,4 in 12 m. Med številnimi podmorskimi izviri vzdolž streams located further towards the north. obale je najpomembnejši izvir Brojnica pri Nabrežini. On the north-western part the karst aquifer is in V slovenskem delu vodonosnika ni izvirov, podzemna a dynamic contact with a porous aquifer of alluvial voda pa je dosegljiva le v nekaterih globokih jamah in sediments deposited along the Soča and Vipava rivers. vrtinah. V črpališču Klariči jo od leta 1983 črpajo za The Kras area is discharged through several springs in oskrbo s pitno vodo v petih kraških občinah. the Trieste Bay of the Adriatic Sea in Italy. The biggest is the Timava spring with discharges from 9.1 m3/s to 127 6.3 Sledilni poskusi m3/s, and the mean discharge 30.2 m3/s in the period 1972–1983 ( Civita et al. 1995). Several smaller springs Z namenom, da bi simulirali pretakanje izcednih are located further inland at the altitudes from 0.4 to vod iz opisanih odlagališč odpadkov na krasu, smo 12 m above the sea level. Among numerous subma- v obdobju 2004–2006 izvedli tri sledilne poskuse z rine springs along the coast the Brojnica spring near injiciranjem fluorescentnih sledil (uranin na vseh treh Nabrežina/Aurisina is the most important one. There lokacijah, na odlagališču Mozelj pa še dodatno eozin) are no springs in the Slovene part of the aquifer, and v dobro prepustne površinske razpoke na območju groundwater is only accessible in some deep caves and odlagališč. Iskali smo odgovore na naslednja vpraša- boreholes. In the pumping station Klariči it has been nja: v kateri smeri in kako hitro odtekajo z odlagališča pumped out for the water supply of 5 municipalities in padavinske vode in z njimi škodljive snovi, kakšne the Kras region since 1983. so značilnosti dinamike transporta v odvisnosti od padavinskih razmer in v katerih izvirih ali vodnih 6.3 Tracer tests jamah lahko pričakujemo pojav škodljivih snovi. Na osnovi teh podatkov je bilo možno izdelati program With the aim of simulating the flow of leachates monitoringa kakovosti podzemnih voda v vplivnih from the described landfills in karst, three tracer tests območjih odlagališč. Na odlagališču Mozelj pa smo with the injection of fluorescent tracers (Uranine at al dodatno preizkusili reprezentativnost treh vrtin za three locations, and additionally Eosin at the Mozelj monitoring, ki so bile predhodno izvrtane na obrobju landfill) into well permeable fissures on the surface odlagališča (4). near the landfil s were carried out in the period 2004– Injiciranja so bila izvedena v času po obilnih pred- 2006. The tests were aimed to answer the following hodnih padavinah, ko je bil velik del por in razpok questions: in which direction and how fast infiltrated v prsti in vadozni coni začasno napolnjen z vodo in precipitation water (and with water also harmful sub- hidravlično povezan. Takšne razmere omogočajo stances) from the landfill flows, which are the char- hitro infiltracijo in hitro odtekanje skozi vadozno acteristics of transport dynamics in dependence of cono. Dežemeri Onset RG2-M in Eijkelkamp e+ so precipitation conditions, and in which springs or water bili uporabljeni za merjenje padavin na odlagališčih caves the appearance of the harmful substances can be v 15-minutnih intervalih. Na izvirih Tominčev stu- expected. Based on these data, it was possible to pre- denec in Globočec smo nivoje vode merili v urnih pare the plans of groundwater quality monitoring in intervalih z Eijkelkamp CTD diverjem in modulom the impact areas of the landfills. An additional goal of 750-ISCO 6700, pretoke pa izračunali na osnovi pre- the tracing at Mozelj was the testing of the functioning točnih krivulj. Za izvir Bilpa smo podatke o pretokih of three monitoring boreholes, which were previously pridobili na Agenciji Republike Slovenije za okolje, za drilled at the margins of the landfill (4). 90 6. Načrtovanje monitoringa podzemne vode v vplivnem območju odlagališč odpadkov na krasu na podlagi rezultatov sledilnih poskusov Točka injiciranja Datum M Dokazana zveza L t v R C dom dom max (sledilo) injiciranja (kg) Proved connection (km) (d) (m/h) (%) (mg/m3) Injection point Date of (tracer) injection Tominčev studenec/ spring 17.80 5 145 0.19 Javornikov izvir/ spring 17.70 6 122 1.18 Mala gora Debeljakov izvir/ spring 18.00 6 126 0.08 ( uranin/Uranine) 14.10.2004 7 Globočec 12.70 5 102 3 0.09 Podpeška jama /cave 10.70 17 26 0.13 Bilpa 10.30 9 48 79 12.00 Šumetac 13.30 56 11 0.30 Dolski potok/ spring 15.30 56 10 0.18 Mozelj – T-1 (eozin /Eosin) 5.4.2006 18 Radešica 18.70 56 14 0.10 Vrtina /Borehole Mo-2 0.19 1.2 7 0.52 Vrtina /Borehole Mo-3 0.46 1.9 10 0.68 Bilpa 10.30 9 48 92 19.00 Šumetac 13.30 56 11 0.09 Mozelj – T-2 5.4.2006 18 Dolski potok/spring 15.30 56 10 0.04 (uranin/ Uranine) Radešica 18.70 56 14 0.03 Vrtina/Borehole Mo-3 0.38 0.2 85 0.11 Timava 21.40 23 39 93 0.48 Sežana 20.4.2005 38 (uranin/ Uranine) Brojnica 14.20 31 19 0.14 Tabela 1 Značilnosti in rezultati sledilnih poskusov (M – količina injiciranega sledila, L – zračna razdalja med točko injiciranja in izvirom, t – dom čas od injiciranja do izmerjene najvišje koncentracije, v – dominantna navidezna hitrost toka, R – delež povrnjenega sledila, C dom max – maksimalna koncentracija). Tabela 1 The characteristics and results of tracer tests (M – amount of injected tracer, L – air distance between the injection point and the spring, t – time between injection and detection of the maximum concentration, v – dominant apparent flow velocity, R – tracer dom dom recovery, C – maximum concentration). max 6. Planning of groundwater monitoring in the impact areas of landfil s in karst based on the results of tracer tests 91 ) 10 /s3 (m ) 10 /s ge 8 3 (m ) 10 /s ge 8 dischar 3 6 (m ok / ge 8 dischar et 6 pr 4 5 Pretoki in koncentracije sledila v izvirih ok / na vplivnem območju odlagališča Mala dischar et /s) 10 6 3 pr 4 gora. 2 ok / Discharges and breakthrough curves at (m et ge the springs in the influence area of the 8 pr 4 2 M 0 ala gora landfill. dischar ) 6 3 1,2 2 0 ok / et ) 1,0 pr 3 1,2 4 (mg/m 0 ) 1,0 ation 0,8 3 1,2 (mg/m tr 2 en 0,6 1,0 ation 0,8 (mg/m tr conc 0 en 0,6 0,4 ) ation 0,8 3 1,2 tr conc acija / tr en 0,6 0,4 en 0,2 1,0 (mg/m conc acija / tr konc 0,4 en 0,2 0 ation 0,8 tr acija / 14. 10. 2004 13. 12. 2004 11. 2. 2005 12. 4. 2004 11. 6. 2005 10. 8. 2005 9. 10. 2005 tr en konc en 0,2 0 0,6 datum / date conc 14. 10. 2004 13. 12. 2004 11. 2. 2005 12. 4. 2004 11. 6. 2005 10. 8. 2005 9. 10. 2005 konc Tominčev studenec / spring 0 0,4 Javornikov izvir / spring izvir / spring Globočec datum / date acija / 100 14. 10. 2004 13. 12. 2004 11. 2. 2005 12. 4. 2004 11. 6. 2005 /s) 40 10. 8. 2005 9. 10. 2005 3 tr Tominčev studenec / spring Javornikov izvir / spring iz en 0,2 vir / spring Globočec (m datum / date 100 y (%) /s) 40 ge 80 ver 3 konc 30 0 Tominčev studenec / spring Javornikov izvir / spring izvir / spring Globočec (m y (%) 100 14. 10. 2004 13. 12. 2004 11. 2. 2005 12. 4. 2005 reco 11. 6. 2005 10. 8. 2005 9. 10. 2005 /s) 40 ge 3 dischar 80 ver 30 60 datum / date (m ok / y (%) reco ge dischar et 20 80 ver pr Tominč 60 ev studenec / spring 30 6 Pretoki, koncentracije uranina in eozina 40 ok / reco ter krivulja deleža povrnjenih sledil v izvir / spring Globočec dischar et 20 njeno sledilo / 100 pr 60 izviru Bilpa. /s) 40 vr 3 10 Jav 40ornikov izvir / spring ok / et 20 Discharges, breakthrough curves and (m 20 po y (%) njeno sledilo / pr recovery of Uranine and Eosin detected ge vr 80 ver 10 40 in the Bilpa spring. 30 20 po reco njeno sledilo / 0 vr dischar 0 10 60 20 po ok / 0 ) et 1,2 20 0 3 pr 40 njeno sledilo / 0 ) 0 vr 3 1,2 1,0 (mg/m 10 po 20 )3 1,2 1,0 ation (mg/m 0,8 tren 1,0 ation 0,6 0 0 0,8 (mg/m tr conc en ation 0,8 0,6 0,4 )3 tr acija / 20 conc tr en 0,6 0,4 en conc acija / 0,2 (mg/m 16 tr konc en 0,4 ation 0,2 0 acija / tr tr konc 05. 04. 2006 25. 04. 2006 15. 05. 2006 en 1204. 06. 2006 24. 06. 2006 14. 07. 2006 en 0,2 0 datum / date conc konc 05. 04. 2006 25. 04. 2006 15. 05. 2006 04. 06. 2006 24. 06. 2006 8 14. 07. 2006 eozin / Eosin ur 0 acija / datum / anin / da Ur te anine izvir / spring Bilpa tr 05. 04. 2006 25. 04. 2006 15. 05. 2006 04. 06. 2006 24. 06. 2006 14. 07. 2006 en 4 eozin / Eosin uranin / da Ur tum / anine date izvir / spring Bilpa konc eozin / Eosin uranin / Uranine izvir / spring Bilpa 0 05. 04. 2006 25. 04. 2006 15. 05. 2006 04. 06. 2006 24. 06. 2006 14. 07. 2006 datum / date 92 6. Načrtovanje monitoringa podzemne vode v vplivnem območju odlagališč odpadkov na krasu na podlagi rezultatov sledilnih poskusov eozin / Eosin uranin / Uranine izvir / spring Bilpa izvir Timava pa pri podjetju ACEGAS, ki upravlja s The injections were performed in conditions of tržaškim vodovodom. abundant previous precipitation, when a major part of Vzorce smo zajemali z avtomatskim zajemalnikom pores and fissures in the soil and vadose zone was tem- ISCO 6700 ali ročno na izbranih izvirih. Fluorescenco porarily fil ed with water and hydraulical y connected. uranina (E = 491 nm, E = 512 nm, meja detekcije These conditions are favorable for rapid infiltration ex em 0,01 mg/m3) in eozina (E = 516 nm, E = 538 nm, and quick flow through the vadose zone. Rain-gauges ex em meja detekcije 0,05 mg/m3) smo merili v našem la- Onset RG2-M and Eijkelkamp e+ were used to mea- boratoriju z luminiscenčnim spektrometrom LS 30, sure precipitation at 15-minute intervals at the landfil s. Perkin Elmer. Prve meritve smo izvedli takoj po za- At the springs Tominčev studenec and Globočec the jemu vzorcev, ponovili pa smo jih pozneje z dekanti- water levels were measured in hourly intervals with an ranimi vzorci. V izviru Bilpa in črpališču Klariči smo Eijkelkamp CTD diver and ISCO 6700 with 750 Area- fluorescenco dodatno merili in situ s fibrooptičnim velocity flow module, and discharges were calculated fluorimetrom LLF-M Gotschy Optotechnik v 30-mi- based on the existing stage-discharge curves. For the nutnih intervalih. Bilpa spring the discharge data were provided by the Slovenian Environment Agency, and for the Timava 6.4 Smeri in značilnosti spring by the water supply company ACEGAS. podzemnega toka z Samples were collected with automatic samplers območja odlagališč ISCO 6700 or manually at the selected springs. Fluo- rescence of Uranine (E = 491 nm, E = 512 nm, de- ex em S sledilnimi poskusi so bile ugotovljene glavne in tection limit 0.01 mg/m3) and Eosin (E = 516 nm, E ex em stranske podzemne vodne povezave med odlagališči = 538 nm, detection limit 0.05 mg/m3) was measured in kraškimi izviri (2, 3). Za vsako od dokazanih zvez in our laboratory by a Luminescence Spectrometer smo izračunali dominantno navidezno hitrost toka v LS 30, Perkin Elmer. First measurements were car- dom glede na zračno razdaljo med točkama injiciranja in ried out immediately after the sampling and then later pojava sledila ter s časom t , v katerem je bil zabeležen when possible suspended particles in the samples were dom prvi višek na krivulji koncentracije sledila (tabela 1). decanted. In the Bilpa spring and at the Klariči pump- Poleg tega smo na temelju podatkov o koncentraciji in ing station, fluorescence was additionally measured pretoku ocenili še delež povrnjenega sledila. in situ by a Fiber-optic Fluorometer LLF-M Gotschy Optotechnik at 30-minute intervals. 6.4.1 Odlagališče Mala gora 6.4 Directions and Uranin, ki smo ga injicirali na odlagališču Mala characteristics of gora, smo že po 5 dneh in v najvišjih koncentracijah groundwater flow from do 1,18 mg/m3 zaznali v Javornikovem izviru (2, 5). the landfill areas Hkrati se je v koncentracijah do 0,19 mg/m3 pojavil v Tominčevem studencu, nekoliko kasneje pa še v Debe- The main and secondary directions of groundwa- ljakovem izviru. Velike oscilacije vsebnosti uranina v ter flow from the landfill areas to karst springs were Podpeški jami kažejo na dotoke vode iz različnih delov defined by performed tracer tests (2, 3). For each of vodonosnika. Prvi višek se je pojavil že po 3 dneh, the proved connections the dominant apparent flow najvišja koncentracija 0,135 mg/m3 pa po 17 dneh. V velocity v —regarding the air distance between the dom Kompoljski jami je bilo odvzetih le nekaj vzorcev, v injection and sampling points and the time t at dom katerih je bil signal občasno povečan. which the first peak of breakthrough curve C was max Koncentracije uranina v izviru Globočec so bile le detected—was calculated (table 1). Additionally, the malenkost nad mejo detekcije, ker pa so se ta pove- recovery of injected tracer was assessed based on the čanja pojavila hkrati kakor v drugih izvirih, lahko ob discharge and tracer concentration data. 6. Planning of groundwater monitoring in the impact areas of landfil s in karst based on the results of tracer tests 93 visokih vodostajih potrdimo stransko povezavo odla- 6.4.1 The Mala gora landfill gališča s tem izvirom. Večinoma pa se Globočec na- paja iz drugih delov kraškega vodonosnika. Povečane Uranine injected at the Mala gora landfill was de- koncentracije uranina so se pojavljale tudi ob kasnejših tected already after 5 days and in highest concentra- padavinskih dogodkih, najvišja vrednost 0,085 mg/ tions up to 1.18 mg/m3 at the spring Javornikov izvir m3 je bila izmerjena šele oktobra 2005, skoraj eno leto (2, 5). At the same time it was detected in the spring po injiciranju. Po vsakih bolj intenzivnih padavinah Tominčev studenec in concentrations up to 0.19 mg/ pride do iztekanja sledila iz slabše prepustnih delov m3, and with a short delay also in Debeljakov izvir. kraškega vodonosnika. V tako obsežnem in hetero- Strong oscillations of Uranine concentrations meas- genem sistemu je pojavljanje sledila v izvirih odvisno ured in the cave Podpeška jama indicate inflows from od hidroloških razmer, ki se značilno spreminjajo v various parts of the aquifer. The first peak has appeared prostoru in času. Ugotovitve o daljšem zadrževalnem already after 3 days, while maximum concentration času v smeri proti izviru Globočec je treba upoštevati 0.135 mg/m3 was detected after 17 days. In the cave pri načrtovanju monitoringa podzemne vode v vpliv- Kompoljska jama only some separate samples were nem območju odlagališča. taken, in which the signal was occasionally increased. Zaradi pomanjkanja ustreznih podatkov o preto- Measured concentrations of Uranine in the kih smo delež povrnjenega sledila ocenili le približno. Globočec spring were only slightly above the detec- Na opazovanih izvirih se je pojavila več kot polovica tion limit, however the signal was simultaneous to injiciranega uranina, od tega približno 3 % na izviru the one at all the other springs. We can conclude that Globočec ( Kogovšek in Petrič 2006). additional to the main direction of the flow towards the springs near Žužemberk also the secondary con- 6.4.2 Odlagališče Mozelj nection with the Globočec spring was confirmed in the existing conditions of high waters. However, this Dokazana je bila glavna smer podzemnega preta- spring is mainly recharged from other parts of the kanja z odlagališča Mozelj proti izviru Bilpa. Uranin in karst aquifer. Increased concentrations of tracer were eozin sta se pojavila praktično sočasno, sedem dni po detected at this spring also after later precipitation injiciranju, ko je pretok izvira upadal (6). Zaradi nizkih events, and the maximum value 0.085 mg/m3 was pretokov so bile koncentracije sledil visoke. Najvišje measured in October 2005, almost one year after vrednosti so bile izmerjene 9 dni po injiciranju, potem the injection. After each more intensive precipita- pa so hitro upadale in ostajale nekoliko nad 1 mg/m3 do tion event the tracer stored in the low-permeable konca aprila. Po padavinskem dogodku, ki je sledil, je parts of the karst water system is pushed out. In such bila iztisnjena večja količina sledila, zaradi povečanih extensive and heterogeneous system the appearance pretokov pa so bile izmerjene nižje koncentracije. Že of tracers in the springs and the tracer concentra- v enem tednu po injiciranju je bilo povrnjenega 70 % tions are largely influenced by hydrological condi- uranina in 55 % eozina, v treh mesecih po injiciranju pa tions which differ significantly in time and space. 92 % uranina in 74 % eozina ( Kogovšek in Petrič 2010a). The information about longer retention time in the V drugih opazovanih izvirih sta se sledili pojavili direction towards the Globočec spring should be le v nizkih koncentracijah. V izvirih Dolski potok in considered in the planning of water quality monitor- Šumetac smo bolj izrazito povišanje zaznali vzporedno ing in the impact area of the landfill. s povečanjem pretoka 30. maja 2006. Zvezno pojavlja- Due to the lack or low accuracy of discharge data, nje eozina in uranina v izviru Radešica smo po vsakem the tracer recovery was estimated only roughly. More bolj intenzivnem padavinskem dogodku beležili od than a half of injected tracer was recovered in all the začetka maja 2006 do januarja 2007. Lahko sklepamo, observed springs, approximately 3 % in the Globočec da je povezava med odlagališčem in temi tremi izviri spring ( Kogovšek and Petrič 2006). možna, a šibka. 94 6. Načrtovanje monitoringa podzemne vode v vplivnem območju odlagališč odpadkov na krasu na podlagi rezultatov sledilnih poskusov Vzorčili smo tudi v vseh treh vrtinah za monitoring. 6.4.2 The Mozelj landfill V vrtini Mo-1 so koncentracije sledila ostajale okrog meje določljivosti. V vrtini Mo-2 smo zaznali le eozin From the Mozelj landfill the main flow towards s kratkim in neizrazitim vrhom krivulje koncentracije the Bilpa spring was proved. Uranine and Eosin were sledila (7). V vrtini Mo-3 sta se pojavili obe sledili v first detected practically simultaneously 7 days after relativno nizkih koncentracijah. Ti rezultati kažejo, da je the injection when the discharge of the spring was in večji del injiciranih sledil odtekel po dobro prepustnih recession (6). Due to low discharges the concentra- razpokah, ki jih vrtine za monitoring niso dosegle. tions of tracers were high and the maximum values were measured 9 days after the injection. Afterwards 6.4.3 Odlagališče Sežana concentrations decreased quickly, and persisted at the values slightly above 1 mg/m3 until the end of April. Uranin, ki smo ga injicirali na odlagališču Sežana, Then precipitation washed out an additional amount se je najprej pojavil v izviru Timava po 12 dneh (8), of tracer, however the measured concentrations de- maksimalna koncentracija 0,48 mg/m3 pa je bila iz- creased due to increased discharges. Approximately 70 merjena 23 dni po injiciranju. V izviru Brojnica smo % of injected Uranine and 55 % of Eosin were recov- sledilo zaznali šele mesec dni po injiciranju, z maksi- ered within one week after the injection, and 92 % and malno koncentracijo 0,14 mg/m3. V celotnem obdo- 74 %, respectively, in three months after the injection bju opazovanja, ki je trajalo 17 mesecev, je bilo skozi ( Kogovšek and Petrič 2010a). izvir Timava povrnjenega 93 % injiciranega sledila In the other observed springs the tracers appeared ( Kogovšek in Petrič 2007). Podatkov o pretokih izvira only in low concentrations. In the springs Dolski potok Brojnica nimamo, zato izračun deleža povrnjenega and Šumetac a more significant increase was detected sledila skozi ta izvir ni bil mogoč. Terensko opazo- parallel with the discharge increase on 30 May 2006. vanje pa je pokazalo, da so ti pretoki značilno manjši Continuous appearances of Eosin and Uranine were od pretokov Timave. Ker so bile v Brojnici nizke tudi detected in the Radešica spring from the beginning of koncentracije uranina, ocenjujemo delež povrnjenega May 2006 to January 2007 after each more intensive sledila na manj kot 1 %. precipitation event. We can conclude that the under- Na črpališču Klariči so bile merjene vrednosti kon- ground water connections between the landfill and centracije sledila večinoma pod mejo določljivosti. Po these three springs are possible but weak. intenzivnih padavinah konec novembra in v začetku The sampling was organized in all three moni- decembra 2005 se je koncentracija sledila povišala toring boreholes, too. In the borehole Mo-1 the con- na 0,015 mg/m3. Vrednosti so bile le malo nad mejo centrations of tracers remained around the detection določljivosti, a so se pojavile v več zaporednih vzorcih. limit. In the borehole Mo-2 only Eosin was detected Na območju med odlagališčem in izviri v Tržaškem in one short and low peak of the breakthrough curve zalivu prevladuje tok v glavnih kraških kanalih, ob (7). Both tracers were detected in the borehole Mo-3 izrazitem dvigu nivoja podzemne vode pa se slednja in relatively low concentrations. This indicates that a preceja tudi po širšem območju z relativno slabšo pre- greater portion of injected tracers was washed through pustnostjo. Na podlagi rezultatov sledenja sklepamo, well permeable fissures which do not intersect the da lahko v izjemnih hidroloških razmerah zelo majhen monitoring boreholes. del sledila s počasnim tokom skozi manjše razpoke v kratkem vodnem valu doseže črpališče Klariči. Izra- 6.4.3 The Sežana landfill čunana količina povrnjenega sledila v črpališču (ob upoštevanju količine črpanja 140 l/s) je zelo majhna The first traces of Uranine injected at the Sežana (približno 1 g uranina), kar pomeni, da je samo 0,003 landfill were detected in the Timava spring 12 days % injiciranega sledila doseglo črpališče. Po drugi strani after the injection (8). The breakthrough curve reached pa ne moremo izključiti možnosti, da so izmerjene its maximum 0.48 mg/m3 23 days after the injection. In 6. Planning of groundwater monitoring in the impact areas of landfil s in karst based on the results of tracer tests 95 7 Koncentracije sledil v vrtinah Mo-2 ) ) 3 3 in Mo-3. Tracer concentrations in boreholes 0,12 0,12 Mo-2 and Mo-3. (mg/m (mg/m 0,08 0,08 anine anine Ur Ur 0,04 0,04 anin / anin / 0,00 0,00 ur ur )3 )3 0,8 0,8 (mg/m 0,6 0,6 (mg/m osin 0,4 0,4 Er Eosin 0,2 0,2 zin / ozin / er 0 eo 0 05. 04. 2006 05. 04. 2006 06. 04. 2006 06. 04. 2006 06. 04. 2006 06. 04. 2006 07. 04. 2006 07. 04. 2006 07. 04. 2006 07. 04. 2006 08. 04. 2006 08. 04. 2006 12:00 12:00 0:00 0:00 12:00 12:00 0:00 0:00 12:0012:00 0:00 0:00 Mo - 2 Mo - 3 Mo - 2 Mo - 3 8 Pretoki in krivulja deleža povrnjenega )/s 120 100 sledila v izviru Timava ter koncentracije 3 y (%) sledila v izvirih Timava in Brojnica ter v (m /s) 120 100 3 100 ver črpališču Klariči. ge 80 (m y (%) 100 Discharges and recovery curves in the eco ge 80 80 ver Timava spring, and the breakthrough dischar 60 80 reco curves of the Timava and Brojnica ok / dischar 60 60 springs, and the Klariči pumping et 40 station. ok / 60 et 40 40 Q - pr njeno sledilo / r pr 40 vr 20 20 njeno sledilo / vr 20 20 R - po po 0 0 0 0 )3 /m )30,5 /m (mg 0,5 (mg0,4 ationtr 0,4 en ationtr 0,3 en 0,3 conc conc 0,2 acija / 0,2 tr acija / en0,1tren0,1 konc 0 konc 0 20. 04. 2005 29. 07. 2005 06. 11. 2005 14. 02. 2006 25. 05. 2006 02. 09. 2006 20. 04. 2005 29. 07. 2005 06. 11. 2005 14. 02. 2006 25. 05. 2006 02. 09. 2006 povrnjeno sledilo / povrnjeno sledilo / recover recovery y pr pretok et / ok / dischar discharge ge Timava Brojnica Klariči Timava Brojnica Klariči 96 6. Načrtovanje monitoringa podzemne vode v vplivnem območju odlagališč odpadkov na krasu na podlagi rezultatov sledilnih poskusov povečane koncentracije posledica naravnega iztekanja the Brojnica spring the tracer was detected only one onesnaženja iz zaledja. Za potrditev ali zavrnitev te month after the injection with the peak concentration hipoteze bi bila nujna analiza serije slepih vzorcev, 0.14 mg/m3. During the total sampling period of 17 odvzetih v podobnih razmerah visokih vodostajev. months, almost 93 % of injected Uranine was washed out through the Timava spring ( Kogovšek and Petrič 6.5 Uporaba rezultatov 2007). No data on discharges of the Brojnica spring are sledilnih poskusov pri available therefore calculation of the recovered amount načrtovanju monitoringa of tracer was not possible. However, according to our kakovosti podzemnih voda field observations the discharges of this spring were significantly smal er than the discharges of the Timava Visoke dominantne navidezne hitrosti toka s spring. As the measured concentrations of Uranine treh odlagališč proti glavnim izvirom kažejo, da v were low too, the assessed amount of recovered tracer primeru obilnih predhodnih padavin (in posledično in the Brojnica spring remains below 1 %. v razmerah, ko je velik del por in razpok v prsti in At the Klariči pumping station the measured val- vadozni coni začasno zapolnjen z vodo in hidravlično ues were in general below the detection limit. After povezan) prenos sledila ni zadržan niti v debelejši intensive precipitation at the end of November and in vadozni coni. To kaže na zelo veliko ranljivost in the beginning of December 2005 the tracer concen- resno nevarnost onesnaženja s škodljivimi snovmi tration increased to 0.015 mg/m3. These values were z odlagališč. Poleg tega smo povišanje koncentracij only slightly above the detection limit, but they were sledila zaznali po vsakem intenzivnejšem padavin- measured in several successive samples. In the studied )/s 120 100 skem dogodku. Čeprav se del sledila prenaša hitro po karst area between the landfill and the springs in the 3 y (%) (m 120 100 primarnih drenažnih poteh, se preostanek uskladišči Trieste Bay a water flow through the main conduits is /s)3 ge 100 80 ver (m y (%) v vadozni coni in ga potem v daljšem časovnem ob- dominant, while in conditions of a significant rise of 100 eco ge 80 80 ver dobju iztiska novo infiltrirana voda ob padavinskih water table the groundwater can spill over in a broader dischar 60 80 reco 60 dogodkih, ki sledijo. area of low-permeable parts. From the results obtained ok / dischar 60 et 60 40 we can infer that in extreme hydrological conditions ok / et40 40 Q - pr njeno sledilo / r 6.5.1 Predlagane točke and flowing slowly through small fissures only a very pr 40 vr 20 20 njeno sledilo / monitoringa small portion of injected tracer reached the Klariči vr 20 20 R - po po 0 0 pumping station in a short water pulse. The calculated 0 0 Za odlagališče Mala gora je bil za glavno točko amount of recovered tracer (considering the quantity )3 monitoringa predlagan Tominčev studenec. Dodatno of pumping 140 l/s) is very low (approximately 1 g of /m )30,5 /m naj bi opazovali še Javornikov izvir, kjer lahko priča- Uranine). This would mean that only 0.003 % of the (mg 0,5 0,4 kujemo najbolj intenziven vpliv z odlagališča (značilno injected quantity was detected at the Klariči pumping (mg ationtr 0,4 višje koncentracije ob prvem pojavu sledila kakor v station. On the other hand, we can not exclude the en ationtr 0,3 drugih izvirih), in izvir Globočec, ki je regionalno possibility that the increased concentrations reflect a en 0,3 conc 0,2 pomemben vir za oskrbo s pitno vodo. natural outflow of pol ution from the catchment. To ac- conc acija / 0,2 Rezultati sledenja z odlagališča Mozelj so pokazali, cept or reject this hypothesis we would need to analyse tr acija / en0,1 da tri vrtine ne ustrezajo objektom za monitoring. To a series of blind samples taken in similar hydrological tren 0,1 konc se ujema s splošno ugotovitvijo, da zaradi izrazite hete- conditions of high waters. 0 konc 0 20. 04. 2005 29. 07. 2005 06. 11. 2005 14. 02. 2006 25. 05. 2006 02. 09. 2006 rogenosti kraških vodonosnikov monitoring v vrtinah 20. 04. 2005 29. 07. 2005 06. 11. 2005 14. 02. 2006 25. 05. 2006 02. 09. 2006 večinoma ni primeren za kraška območja. Ustreznejša izbira so kraški izviri ali drugi naravni objekti. povrnjeno sledilo / povrnjeno sledilo / recover recovery y pr pretok et / ok / dischar discharge ge Zaradi hitrega pretakanja proti izviru Bilpa in Timava Brojnica Klariči Timava Brojnica Klariči zaznanih visokih koncentracij sledila je ta izvir naj- primernejša točka za oceno vpliva odlagališča Mozelj 6. Planning of groundwater monitoring in the impact areas of landfil s in karst based on the results of tracer tests 97 na kraške vode. Ker pa se izvir napaja tudi iz ponikal- 6.5 The use of tracer nice Rinže, ki jo onesnažujejo različni onesnaževalci tests results in planning s kočevskega območja, je interpretacija rezultatov of the groundwater monitoringa zelo težka. Za ločevanje vplivov bi bil quality monitoring potreben vzporedni monitoring Bilpe in Rinže. Iz- brati bi bilo treba značilne kontaminante in monito- High dominant apparent flow velocities from the ring zasnovati predvsem na njih. Ker pa h glavnemu three landfills to the main springs indicate that in podzemnemu toku proti Bilpi dodatno prispeva conditions of previous abundant precipitation (and avtogeno napajanje neonesnažene vode, to vodi k consequently in conditions when a greater propor- razredčenju onesnažil, na katero značilno vplivajo tion of pores and fissures in the soil and the vadose padavinske in hidrološke razmere. Posledica je boljša zone is temporarily fil ed with water and hydraulical y kakovost Bilpe v primerjavi z Rinžo. Zaradi naštetega connected) the transport of tracers is not hindered sta za ustrezno interpretacijo rezultatov monitoringa even in a thicker vadose zone. This means a very high pomembna spremljanje in primerjava dotokov iz vulnerability and a serious danger of pollution with različnih delov zaledja. harmful substances from the landfil . Additional y, the Za monitoring kakovosti podzemne vode v vpliv- increase of tracer concentrations was detected after nem območju odlagališča Sežana sta bila izbrana each more intensive precipitation event. Even though izvira Timava in Brojnica. Čeprav je možnost vpliva one part of a soluble tracer flows rapidly through the na črpališče Klariči zelo majhna, je bil zaradi izjemne primary drainage paths, the remainder is retained in pomembnosti za vodooskrbo Krasa tudi ta vir pre- the vadose zone and is pushed out by newly infiltrated dlagan za monitoring. water in the following precipitation events over a long time period. 6.5.2 Smernice za monitoring 6.5.1 Proposed monitoring points Da bi povečali možnost zaznave onesnaženja, je smiselno vzorčiti v času, ko lahko pričakujemo As the main monitoring point of the Mala gora najvišje koncentracije onesnažil. V vlažnih obdobjih landfill the spring Tominčev studenec was suggested. so taki pogoji doseženi že po srednje intenzivnih The spring Javornikov izvir should be observed ad- padavinah, ob suši pa so potrebne močnejše pada- ditionally because the influences from the landfill are vine. V sušnih razmerah se padavinska voda najprej the most intensive there (significantly higher con- porabi za omočitev odloženih odpadkov in prsti, centration of tracer in the first peak than at the other šele potem se izcedne vode infiltrirajo v vadozno springs), and the Globočec spring as the main regional cono in odtekajo naprej proti izvirom. Posebno ob source of water supply. dolgih poletnih sušah, ko se padavinska voda samo Results of the tracer test at the Mozelj landfill in- skladišči v smeteh, prsti in vadozni coni, izcedne dicate that the three boreholes are not representative vode z odlagališča ne dosežejo izvirov. Šele dovolj for monitoring. This confirms a general finding that intenzivne padavine v nadaljevanju povzročijo iz- the monitoring in boreholes is unsuitable in karst in piranje onesnažil iz odlagališča in iztiskanje pred- the majority of cases due to a high heterogeneity of hodno uskladiščenih onesnažil iz vadozne proti karst aquifers. Therefore karst springs or other natural freatični coni ( Kogovšek 2010). Naprej proti izvirom objects with water flow should be a better choice. je prenos zelo hiter. A rapid flow towards the Bilpa spring and high Ker se razmere v kraških vodonosnikih hitro concentrations of tracers confirmed that this spring spreminjajo, se zdi najbolj učinkovit odvzem več was the best location to assess the impacts of the Mo- zaporednih vzorcev v obdobju celotnega poplavnega zelj landfill on karst waters. However, the interpreta- vala: od začetka naraščanja pretoka, preko doseže- tion of the monitoring results of this spring only would 98 6. Načrtovanje monitoringa podzemne vode v vplivnem območju odlagališč odpadkov na krasu na podlagi rezultatov sledilnih poskusov nega viška, v recesijskem delu do začetnega stanja. be difficult, because the sinking Rinža river, polluted Da bi se izognili prevelikemu razredčenju, je bolje, with various pollution sources from the Kočevje area, da ne zajemamo v času zelo velikih pretokov. is also recharging the spring. To distinguish the influ- Ker imajo številni izviri velika in kompleksno ences, a simultaneous monitoring of the Bilpa spring zgrajena zaledja, je možno prepletanje negativnih and the Rinža stream is necessary. Some characteristic vplivov iz različnih virov onesnaževanja. Za ustrezno contaminants should have to be selected and the mon- interpretacijo rezultatov monitoringa je zato potrebno itoring concentrated mainly on them. Furthermore, dobro razumevanje delovanja kraških vodonosnikov. the main underground flow towards the Bilpa spring Vzporedno mora potekati merjenje padavin, preto- gets an additional contribution by autogenic recharge kov in fizikalnih parametrov vode. Stalno vzdrževanje of unpolluted water. It leads to a dilution of contami- mreže monitoringa in primerjava dobljenih rezultatov nants, which is highly influenced by precipitation and zagotavljata izboljšanje njegove učinkovitosti. hydrological conditions. As a consequence, the water quality of the Bilpa spring is better than the quality of Zahvala the Rinža stream. Therefore, for interpreting properly the results of monitoring it is important to measure Sledilne poskuse smo izvedli v sodelovanju z In- and compare the inflows from various contribution štitutom za rudarstvo, geologijo in geotehnologijo iz areas within this complex catchment. Ljubljane ter ob podpori javnih podjetij Komunala The Timava and Brojnica springs were selected as Ribnica, Komunala Kočevje in Komunalno stano- the monitoring points in the impact area of the Sežana vanjsko podjetje Sežana, ki so upravljavci odlagališč. landfil . Even though a possible influence of the landfil Za brezplačno posredovanje podatkov o padavinah on the Klariči pumping station is very low, this loca- in pretokih se zahvaljujemo Agenciji Republike Slo- tion was suggested as the monitoring point due to its venije za okolje in podjetju ACEGAS, za sodelovanje exceptional importance for the water supply in the pri pripravi projektov pa Andreju Jurnu (GeoSi d.o.o., Kras region. Inštitut za zemljeslovje). 6.5.2 Guidelines for monitoring With the aim of increasing the possibility of detect- ing the pol ution, it is sensible to sample in the periods when the highest concentrations of pollutants can be expected. During wet periods these conditions are caused already by precipitation of a medium intensity, while during dry periods a more intensive precipitation is needed. In dry conditions rainwater is first used to saturate deposited waste and the soil; only then do lea- chates infiltrate into the vadose zone and then further on towards the springs. Especial y during long summer droughts, when precipitation water is only stored in the wastes, soil and vadose zone, the leachates from the landfill do not reach the springs. Only sufficiently intensive precipitation in the fol owing period induces the leaching of contaminants out of the landfill and pushing the previously stored contaminants out of the vadose zone towards the phreatic zone ( Kogovšek 2010). From there to the springs the transport is very rapid. 6. Planning of groundwater monitoring in the impact areas of landfil s in karst based on the results of tracer tests 99 As conditions in karst aquifers change quickly, it seems the most efficient to take several samples in the time of a complete flood wave: from the beginning of the increase of discharge, through the discharge peak, and in the recession phase back to the initial state. To avoid strong dilution, it is better not to sample in conditions of very high discharges. As many karst springs have large catchment areas with a complex structure, the overlapping of negative influences from various pollution sources is possi- ble and a good understanding of the functioning of karst aquifers is necessary to consistently interpret the monitoring results. Therefore, the monitoring should be supported by the measurements of precipitation, discharges and physical parameters of water. A per- manent supervision of the monitoring net, as well as the comparison of the obtained results will help to im- prove the performance and efficiency of monitoring. Acknowledgement The tracer tests were supported by the Institute of Mining, Geology and Geotechnology from Ljubljana, and the public companies Komunala Ribnica, Ko- munala Kočevje, and Komunalno stanovanjsko pod- jetje Sežana, which are the managers of the landfills. We would like to thank the Slovenian Environment Agency and the ACEGAS company for giving us the precipitation and discharge data free of charge, and Mr. Andrej Juren (GeoSi d.o.o., Geological Institute) for co-operation in the preparative arrangements. 100 6. Načrtovanje monitoringa podzemne vode v vplivnem območju odlagališč odpadkov na krasu na podlagi rezultatov sledilnih poskusov A A ADIŠČ ODE VPLIV AŠKE VKR 7 OJAŠKEGA V JANJA K MOJCON MILIT OCENA OF THE V ASSESSMENT OF IMPPOČEK NA A BOLE OGO KARST W AR V , SA ŠEK M Y POČEK , ME AR AL SA TR TK A PE A AINING YEGH-PE TERS TRIČ, BOŠT TK O JAN POK VŠEK AREA A , POL C ORN T ONC Y A DR UKS GA JŠEK , Kljub mnogim pozitivnim spremembam v svetu in Sloveniji ostaja uporaba vojaške Despite many positive changes in the world and in Slovenia, the use of military force in sile v miru in vojni stalnica v naših življe- peace and in war remains a constant of our njih in našem okolju. Oborožene sile vojaško spo- lives and in our environment. Armed forces maintain sobnost ohranjajo z urjenjem svojih vojakov in testi- their military capability by training their soldiers and ranjem vojaške opreme. Slednje se izvaja na vojaških testing military equipment. The latter takes place in vadiščih (poligonih), ki imajo pomembno vlogo military training areas, which therefore have an im- pri vzdrževanju usposobljenosti in pripravljenosti portant role in maintaining the level of training and oboroženih sil. Pomen vojaških poligonov se ne readiness of armed forces. The importance of military zmanjšuje, ampak v nekaterih primerih celo pove- training areas shows no signs of diminishing. In some čuje, saj uporaba sodobnih oborožitvenih sistemov cases it is even increasing, since the use of modern mnogokrat narekuje povečanje površine vadišč (za- weapons systems often requires an increase in the size radi povečane mobilnosti in ognjene moči orožja) of training areas (because of increased mobility and the ali celo spremembo njihovih lokacij ( Prebilič 2004). increased firepower of weapons) or even a change of V zgodnjih devetdesetih letih prejšnjega stoletja location ( Prebilič 2004). In the early 1990s the members so članice Severnoatlantske zveze NATO razširile of NATO expanded their concept of national security svoj koncept nacionalne varnosti tako, da so vanj so as to incorporate security of the natural environment vključile tudi varnost okolja in začele sistematično and began to systematically study the changes to the preučevati tudi spremembe naravnega okolja, nasta- natural environment that occurred as a result of pol u- le zaradi onesnaževanja, ki ga povzročajo oborožene tion caused by armed forces or the use of a wide range of sile oziroma uporaba najrazličnejšega orožja in obo- weapons and weapons systems ( Prebilič and Ober 2004). rožitvenih sistemov ( Prebilič in Ober 2004). 7.1 Military training areas 7.1 Vojaški poligoni as a source of pollution kot vir onesnaževanja Activities that take place in military areas affect Dejavnosti, ki se izvajajo na vojaških območjih, the environment as a whole. Land use changes, loss vplivajo na okolje kot celoto. Spremeni se raba and degradation of habitats occurs, and biodiversity is prostora, pride do izgube in degradacije habitatov, reduced; pol ution of water sources, soil and plants is biotska pestrost se zmanjša; verjetna je onesnaže- likely; noise pol ution and dust are a frequent problem; nost vodnih virov, tal in rastlin; pogostokrat prihaja the significant sociological impact on the population do obremenjenosti s hrupom in do zapraševanja of the surrounding area should not be overlooked. The okolice; nikakor ne gre zanemariti niti velike- most important pol utants are petroleum derivatives of ga sociološkega vpliva na okoliško prebivalstvo. all types (particularly in the case of spil ages), sulfates Najpomembnejša onesnažila so vse vrste naftnih and nitrates (a by-product of explosives), heavy met- derivatov (še posebej ob izlitjih), sulfati in nitrati als and plastic debris from weapons and ammunition. (posledica eksplozivov), težke kovine ter plastični According to some estimates, armies around the world ostanki orožja in streliva. Po nekaterih ocenah so are responsible for between 6–10 % of global pol ution, vojske na svetu odgovorne za 6–10 % svetovnega while other estimates even place this figure as high as onesnaženja, po drugih pa celo za 20 % ( Mekina 20 % ( Mekina 2002; Myrttinen 2002). 2002; Myrttinen 2002). Quite a number of environmental research pro- V svetu je znanih kar nekaj okoljskih raziskav in jects and programmes to reduce the impact of military programov za zmanjšanje vpliva vojaške aktivnosti activity on the environment in military training areas na okolje na vojaških vadiščih ( Trame in Harper have taken place around the world (T rame and Harper 1997; Kress 2001; Bleise idr. 2003; Hynes in Ibragimov 1997; Kress 2001; Bleise et al. 2003; Hynes and Ibragimov 102 7. Ocena vpliva vojaškega vadišča Poček na kraške vode 2003; Clausen idr. 2004; Barnes idr. 2005; Bennet idr. 2003; Clausen et al. 2004; Barnes et al. 2005; Bennet 2007). V Evropi je problematika sanacije opuščenih et al. 2007). In Europe the issue of the remediation of vojaških baz in poligonov zelo aktualna; še zlasti so abandoned military sites and training areas is a very problematična območja, ki jih je upravljala bivša current one; areas that were managed by the former Sovjetska zveza. Ponekod je onesnaženost zraka Soviet Union are particularly problematic. In places, in podtalnice dosegla katastrofalne razsežnosti. V air pol ution and groundwater pol ution have reached sedanji Ruski federaciji je 12,800.000 ha nekdanjih catastrophic proportions. In the present Russian Federa- vojaških površin, za katere predvidevajo, da jih bo tion there are 12,800,000 hectares of former military treba sanirati. Na Madžarskem (na bivših sovjetskih areas for which remediation is expected to be necessary. vojaških območjih in na območjih, ki jih je upora- In Hungary (in former Soviet military areas and areas bljala madžarska vojska) pomeni največje tveganje used by the Hungarian armed forces), the biggest risk onesnaženje tal in podtalnice z naftnimi derivati, is presented by pollution of the soil and groundwater kot so kerozin, dizel in bencin. Druga najpomemb- with petroleum derivatives (e.g. kerosene, diesel and nejša skupina onesnažil so težke kovine, še posebej petrol). The second most important group of pollut- baker in svinec, medtem ko na območjih strelišč in ants consists of heavy metals, in particular copper and delavnic za popravilo prevoznih sredstev najdemo lead; in the areas of firing ranges and vehicle workshops velike količine kadmija, kroma in arzena. Tretjo we find large quantities of cadmium, chromium and skupino onesnažil predstavljajo različni kemijski arsenic. The third group of pollutants is represented agensi v odpadnih vodah. Omenjenim onesnaži- by various chemical agents in waste-water. These pol- lom se pogostokrat pridružujeta še problematika lutants are often joined by the problem of radioactivity radioaktivnosti in radioaktivnih odpadkov ter nav- and radioactive waste and the presence of unexploded zočnost neeksplodiranih topniških izstrelkov (npr. artil ery projectiles (for example in Belarus). Many of v Belorusiji). Mnoge države bivše Sovjetske zveze the countries of the former Soviet Union (Ukraine, Ar- (Ukrajina, Armenija, Azerbajdžan, Kazahstan, Ta- menia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Uzbeki- džikistan in Uzbekistan) poskušajo rešiti problem stan) are attempting to resolve the problem of storage skladiščenja oksidantov goriv raketnih motorjev, ki of rocket fuel oxidizers, which are highly toxic and at so zelo strupeni in hkrati korozivni ter prestavljajo the same time corrosive and represent a serious risk to veliko tveganje za okolje in javno zdravje ( Science, the environment and human health ( Science, Society, Society, Security News 2005). Security News 2005). Vprašanje varovanja okolja postaja čedalje po- The issue of environmental protection is becoming membnejše v vojaški sferi. Konec šestdesetih let 20. increasingly important in the military sphere. In the late stoletja je NATO ustanovil Odbor za preučevanje 1960s NATO set up the Committee on the Chal enges izzivov sodobne varnosti (CCMS), ki vodi in orga- of Modern Society (CCMS), which leads and organizes nizira okoljske raziskave, povezane z delovanjem environmental research connected with the operations vojaških sil. Primer sodelovanja Republike Slove- of military forces. An example of the cooperation of the nije s Severnoatlantsko zvezo NATO na področju Republic of Slovenia with NATO in the field of environ- varovanja okolja je izvedba projekta »Določitev mental protection is the implementation of a project vpliva vojaškega poligona Krivolak na okolje z entitled »Determination of the environmental impact namenom njegove ekološke sanacije«, ki je v letih of the Krivolak military training area for the purpose 2006–2007 potekal na območju vojaškega poligona of its environmental remediation« ( Al Sayegh Petkovšek Krivolak v Makedoniji ( Al Sayegh Petkovšek idr. et al. 2007), which took place in the years 2006–2007 in 2007). Določili smo onesnaženost posameznih the Krivolak military training area in Macedonia. We okoljskih segmentov na omenjenem poligonu in determined the level of pol ution of individual segments ocenili vpliv vojaških dejavnosti nanje; opravili smo of the environment in the above military training area meritve radioaktivnosti in ugotavljali navzočnost and assessed the impact of military activities on them; 7. Assessment of impact of the Poček military training area on karst waters 103 osiromašenega urana v različnih tipih vzorcev; we measured radioactivity and detected the presence obravnavali smo ravnanje z odpadki ter izvedli me- of depleted uranium in samples of various types; we ritve hrupa na poligonu in v okolici. Posebej nas je also addressed the management of waste and carried zanimala naravovarstvena vrednost območja; s tem out measurements of noise in the military training namenom smo opravili inventarizacijo rastlinskih area and the surrounding area. We were particularly vrst in njihovih habitatov. Na podlagi kemijskih interested in the nature protection value of the area; analiz v različnih tipih vzorcev smo ugotovili, da to this end we made an inventory of plant species and tamkajšnja vojaška dejavnost na splošno ne vpliva their habitats. On the basis of chemical analyses using na onesnaženost okolja. Še najbolj problematično different types of samples we discovered that in general je širjenje erozijskih procesov, do katerih prihaja terms military activity in this area has no effect on zaradi fizične degradacije tal kot posledice antropo- the level of pollution of the environment. The most genih vplivov oz. vojaških aktivnosti, in v omejenem problematic issue is the spread of erosion processes obsegu tudi širjenje hrupa med vojaškimi vajami. that occur as a result of physical degradation of the Vojaška dejavnost oziroma navzočnost vojaškega soil as a consequence of anthropogenic impacts or poligona na tem območju Makedonije ima lahko military activities and, to a limited extent, the problem na okolje celo pozitiven vpliv, in sicer predvsem of noise during military exercises. Military activity or v smislu ohranjanja biotske pestrosti rastlin in the presence of a military training area in this part of živali zaradi relativne nedostopnosti in zaprtosti Macedonia can even have a positive impact on the območja ter njegove ekstenzivne rabe ( Al Sayegh environment, above all in the sense of the conserva- Petkovšek idr. 2007). tion of biodiversity of plants and animals owing to the Vojaške dejavnosti v Republiki Sloveniji morajo relative inaccessibility and closed nature of the area biti usklajene z ekološkimi normami ter okoljsko and its extensive use ( Al Sayegh Petkovšek et al. 2007). zakonodajo Slovenije (Direktiva o varstvu okolja Military activities in the Republic of Slovenia have v Slovenski vojski) in zveze NATO, ki predpisuje to be harmonized with the ecological norms and envi- izhodišča za varstvo okolja. V Sloveniji imamo si- ronmental legislation of Slovenia (Directive on environ- cer kar nekaj območij, ki jih uporablja Slovenska mental protection in the Slovenian armed forces) and of vojska, manj pa je kompleksnih raziskav o vplivih NATO, which set out starting points for environmental njene dejavnosti na okolje. Potreba po tovrstnih protection. Although in Slovenia we have quite a num- raziskavah obstaja tako z vidika uporabnika ka- ber of areas that are used by the armed forces, there has kor tudi okoliškega prebivalstva. Prva kompleksna not been much complex research into the effects of this raziskava o celovitih vplivih vojaške dejavnosti na activity on the environment. A need for research of okolje v Sloveniji je potekala v letih 2004–2006. this kind exists from the point of view of both the user Projekt z naslovom »Določitev vpliva vojaškega po- (the Slovenian armed forces) and the local population. ligona na okolje kot modelna študija za varovanje The first complex research into the overall effects of in sanacijo okolja na območjih delovanja Slovenske military activity on the environment in Slovenia took vojske«, ki ga je vodil ERICo Velenje, Inštitut za place between 2004 and 2006. The project, entitled ekološke raziskave, in sta ga financirala Ministr- »Determination of the impact of the military train- stvo za obrambo Republike Slovenije in Agencija ing area on the environment as a model study for the za raziskovalno dejavnost, je obravnaval območje protection and remediation of the environment in the osrednjega vojaškega poligona v Sloveniji – območje areas of operation of the Slovenian armed forces«, was Počka ( Al Sayegh Petkovšek idr. 2006). Z izvedbo led by the environmental research institution ERICo, tega projekta smo določili stanje onesnaženosti Velenje, and financed by the Ministry of Defence of posameznih segmentov okolja (zrak, tla, rastline, the Republic of Slovenia and the Slovenian Research živalstvo, vodni viri) na vojaškem vadišču Poček Agency. The project covered the area of the main mili- in skušali oceniti vpliv vojaške dejavnosti nanje. tary training area in Slovenia, the Poček area ( Al Sayegh 104 7. Ocena vpliva vojaškega vadišča Poček na kraške vode Hkrati smo obravnavali ravnanje z odpadki in iz- Petkovšek et al. 2006). With the implementation of this vedli študijo ranljivosti okolja. Slednja je z vredno- project we determined the state of pollution of indi- tenjem naravnih pokrajinskih virov opozorila na vidual segments of the environment (air, soil, plants, najšibkejša pokrajinska vira – matično podlago in animals, water sources) in the Poček military training relief, ki pogojujeta majhno do kritično majhno area and attempted to assess the impact of military samočistilno sposobnost preučevanega območja, še activity on these segments. At the same time we looked zlasti na zahodnem robu Javornikov. Pričakovano je at the management of waste and carried out an envi- bil največji negativni vpliv ugotovljen na tleh. Na ronmental vulnerability study. By means of evaluation podlagi ugotovitve, da so bila tla najbolj onesnažena of natural landscape resources, the latter drew attention na pehotnem strelišču, smo oblikovali projektno to the two weakest landscape resources—bedrock and nalogo »Pehotna strelišča kot dejavnik tveganja za relief—which condition the low to critically low self- okolje s poudarkom na ekološki sanaciji pehotnega cleaning ability of the area being studied (in particular strelišča na vojaškem poligonu Poček«, v kateri smo on the western margin of the Javorniki). As expected, obravnavali pehotna strelišča Slovenske vojske ( Al the biggest negative impact was identified in the soil. Sayegh Petkovšek idr. 2009). V sklopu omenjenega On the basis of the finding that the highest level of soil projekta smo dodatno raziskali še vplive vojaškega pol ution was in the infantry firing range, we developed poligona Poček na vodne vire. a project entitled »Infantry firing ranges as an environ- V pričujočem prispevku predstavljamo sintezo mental risk factor with an emphasis on the ecological rezultatov, ki smo jih pridobili z obema raziskavama remediation of the infantry firing range in the Poček ( Al Sayegh Petkovšek idr. 2006, 2009), z namenom military training area«, in which we covered the infan- oceniti potencialne vplive vojaškega poligona Poček try firing ranges used by the Slovenian armed forces na vodne vire njegovega vplivnega območja. V tal- ( Al Sayegh Petkovšek et al. 2009). As part of the above nih vzorcih s poligona smo namreč ponekod izmeri- project we additionally researched the impacts of the li povečane vsebnosti težkih kovin (npr. prekoračene Poček military training area on water sources. kritične imisijske vrednosti za svinec in baker v tleh This chapter contains a synthesis of the results that pehotnega strelišča), ki bi se lahko ob spremembi we obtained during the course of the two research mobilnosti v tleh izpirale v vodne vire. Zaenkrat so projects ( Al Sayegh Petkovšek et al. 2006, 2009) for the vrednosti mobilnega dela svinca relativno nizke. Z purpose of assessing the potential impact of the Poček raziskavo njegove mobilnosti je bilo namreč ugo- military training area on the water sources of the area tovljeno, da delež mobilnega dela ne presega 0,1 % of influence. Increased heavy metal contents were in celotne vsebnosti svinca v talnih vzorcih pehotnega fact measured in soil samples from parts of the Poček strelišča ( Al Sayegh Petkovšek idr. 2009). Obenem military training area (e.g. exceeded critical thresholds smo predlagali ukrepe za zaščito kraških voda in for lead and copper in the soil of the infantry firing ustrezne monitoringe, ki bi prepoznali oz. preprečili range) which, with a change in mobility in the soil, širjenje potencialnega onesnaženja s Počka v vodne could be washed into water sources. For the time being, vire, ki so tudi vir pitne vode. values for the mobile component of lead are relatively low. Research into Pb mobility in fact showed that the proportion of its mobile component does not exceed 0.1 % of the total lead content in soil samples from the infantry firing range ( Al Sayegh Petkovšek et al. 2009). At the same time we proposed measures for the pro- tection of karst waters or appropriate monitoring that would identify or prevent the spread of potential pol u- tion from Poček to water sources that are also a source of drinking water. 7. Assessment of impact of the Poček military training area on karst waters 105 7.2 Ogroženost vodnih 7.2 Threat to water virov na vplivnem območju sources in the area of vojaškega poligona Poček influence of the Poček military training area 7.2.1 Hidrogeološki opis vplivnega območja poligona 7.2.1 Hydrogeological description of the area of Območje vojaškega vadišča zajema severni del influence of the training area Javornikov, ki so 11 km široko in 30 km dolgo hribov- je, razpotegnjeno v smeri severozahod–jugovzhod The military training area covers the northern (1). Na zahodni strani mejijo na Pivško kotlino, na part of the Javorniki, a range of hills 11 km wide and severovzhodu pa na Cerkniško in Planinsko polje. 30 km long extending in a NW–SE direction (1). They Površje večinoma prekrivajo tanke rjave prsti tipa are bounded to the west by the Pivka basin and to the redzina, katerih debelina v povprečju ne presega 20 northeast by two karst poljes—Cerkniško polje and cm. Pogosto pa plast prsti ni sklenjena. Na najbolj Planinsko polje. The surface is for the most part covered kamnitih površinah se je ohranil gozd, drugod je bil by thin layers of brown soil of the redzine type, with an gozd spremenjen v travnike in pašnike, ki se v zadnjih average thickness of less than 20 cm. The soil layer is fre- letih intenzivno zaraščajo. Na dnu depresij ali vrtač so quently unconsolidated. Forest survives in the rockiest ponekod nastale debelejše plasti koluvialne prsti. Na areas, while elsewhere it has given way to meadows and območju vojaškega vadišča je 39 kraških jam (Kataster pastures, which however in recent years have become jam JZS), kjer prevladujejo brezna. Le Brezno v Kobi- increasingly overgrown. In places, thicker layers of col- ljih grižah (kat. št. 166), ki je 72 m globoko, je vodna luvial soil have formed at the bottom of depressions jama ( Kogovšek idr. 1999). or dolines. There are 39 karst caves within the military Celotno območje Javornikov je zgrajeno iz kre- training area (Caves Register of the Caving Association dnih apnencev, ki ponekod prehajajo v dolomit ali of Slovenia), the majority of them of the pothole type. apnene breče. Eocenski fliš pokriva skoraj vso Pivško The only water cave is Brezno v Kobiljih grižah (cat. no. kotlino, razteza se tudi v Vipavsko dolino. Ob povr- 166), which is 72 m deep ( Kogovšek et al. 1999). šinskih tokovih in na kraških poljih na obrobju so The entire area of the Javorniki hills is composed odloženi kvartarni sedimenti. Karbonatne kamnine of Cretaceous limestones that in places transition to so zakrasele, z razvitimi tipičnimi površinskimi in dolomite or limestone breccias. Eocene flysch covers podzemnimi kraškimi oblikami, značilno kraški pa almost the whole of the Pivka basin and also extends je tudi podzemni način pretakanja vode. Padavinska into the Vipava val ey. Quaternary sediments are depos- voda hitro in relativno neovirano odteka v podzemlje, ited along surface streams and in the karst poljes at the z njo se prenašajo tudi kontaminanti. Na obravnava- margins. The carbonate rocks are karstified, with well- nem območju je bilo ugotovljeno, da padavinska voda developed typical surface and underground karst for- po izdatnih in intenzivnih padavinah preide 150 m mations. Groundwater flow is also typical of karst areas. debele apnence že v 6 urah ( Kogovšek in Habič 1981), Rainwater drains underground quickly and relatively medtem ko se v sušnih poletnih obdobjih z manjšimi, unimpeded, carrying contaminants with it. In the area neintenzivnimi padavinami lahko pojavi šele po dveh in question it has been established that fol owing abun- do treh mesecih ( Kogovšek idr. 1999). V slabše prepu- dant and heavy rainfall rainwater passes through 150 m stnih conah vodonosnikov pa se lahko vode zadržijo of limestone in just 6 hours ( Kogovšek and Habič 1981), tudi dlje časa. Snovi, ki jih voda nosi s seboj, se tako while in dry summer periods when rainfall is less and kopičijo v podzemlju, predvsem v vadozni coni, dokler lighter, it can take up to two to three months to appear jih intenzivni padavinski dogodki postopno ne izti- ( Kogovšek et al. 1999). In the less permeable zones of snejo iz podzemlja. Ta proces lahko traja tudi več let. aquifers, water can be retained for a considerable time. 106 7. Ocena vpliva vojaškega vadišča Poček na kraške vode V zasičeni coni se podzemna voda pretaka veči- The substances carried by this water thus accumulate noma po razširjenih razpokah in kraških kanalih v underground, above all in the vadose zone, until they različnih smereh proti kraškim izvirom, značilnosti are gradual y driven out of the underground by intense pretakanja pa se spreminjajo v različnih hidroloških rainfall events. This process can last several years. razmerah. Z opravljenim sledilnim poskusom so In the saturated zone, groundwater mainly flows bile dokazane smeri odtekanja s Počka proti izvi- through widened fissures and karst conduits in different rom na Planinskem polju (Malenščica, Unica) in v directions towards karst springs, while the flow charac- Rakovem Škocjanu (Kotliči, Prunkovec), proti izviru teristics change with different hydrological conditions. P l a n i n s k o p o l j e Vipava N A N O S Unica Malenščica Pivški rokav Rakov rokav R a k o v Š k o c j a nRak C Kotliči e r Prunkovec k n Postojna p i o š l k j e o Grobišče Brezno v Stržen Kobiljih P grižah POČEK Prestranek ivka I K I 0 5 km Žeje Žejski izviri R N kraški vodonosnik / karst aquifer razpoklinski vodonosnik / poros aquifer medzrnski vodonosnik / porous aquifer Trnje J A V O zelo slabo prepustne kamnine very low permeable rocks narivnica / thrust plane prelom / fault površinski tok / surface stream S N presihajoče jezero / intermittent lake E Zagorje BAČ Ž zajemno mesto, ponor / sampling point, ponor N I vojaško vadišče / military training area K Rek kraška jama / karst cave a glavna zveza / main connection stranska zveza / secondary connection 1 Hidrogeološka karta širšega območja vojaškega poligona Poček z rezultati sledenj. Hydrogeological map of the broader area of the Poček military training area with the results of tracer tests. 7. Assessment of impact of the Poček military training area on karst waters 107 Stržen pri Postojni, pa tudi proti izvirom Vipave v A tracer test revealed the directions of drainage from Vipavski dolini ( Kogovšek idr. 1999; Kogovšek 1999; Poček towards springs on Planinsko polje (Malenščica, Kogovšek in Petrič 2004). Predhodna sledenja so po- Unica) and in Rakov Škocjan (Kotliči, Prunkovec), to- trdila tudi podzemno vodno povezavo med ponori wards the Stržen spring near Postojna, and also towards v strugi Stržena in izvirom Vipave ( Habič 1989). the Vipava stream in the Vipava val ey ( Kogovšek et al. Pretoki izvira Malenščica, ki je zajet za vodooskrbo 1999; Kogovšek 1999; Kogovšek and Petrič 2004). Earlier občin Postojna in Pivka, se po podatkih za obdobje tracer tests also confirmed an underground water con- 1961–1990 gibljejo med 1,1 in 9,9 m3/s, srednji pretok nection between ponors in the bed of the Stržen stream je 6,7 m3/s ( Kolbezen in Pristov 1998). Izvir Unice and the Vipava spring ( Habič 1989). The discharges of iz Planinske jame je največji ob visokih vodah, ko the Malenščica spring, which is used to supply water preseže 70 m3/s, precej manjši pa je pretok ob suši z to the Postojna and Pivka municipalities, range from le nekaj sto litri v sekundi. V Planinski jami se zdru- 1.1 m3/s to 9.9 m3/s, with a mean discharge of 6.7 m3/s, žita vodotoka iz Rakovega in Pivškega rokava. Prvi according to figures for the period 1961–1990 ( Kolbezen zbira podzemno vodo predvsem iz smeri Rakovega and Pristov 1998). The spring of the Unica river from Škocjana in Cerkniškega jezera, drugi pa iz Pivške the cave Planinska jama has the highest discharge at kotline. Poleg tega Unico tudi neposredno napajajo high water levels, when it exceeds 70 m3/s, while the podzemne vode iz Javornikov. V Rakovem Škocjanu discharge fal s to just a few hundred litres per second sta najpomembnejša leva pritoka Raka iz izvirov in dry periods. Watercourses from the Rak and Pivka Kotliči in Prunkovec. underground streams merge in the Planinska jama. Sedem stalnih izvirov Vipave je razporejenih The former collects groundwater above all from the ob zahodnem vznožju Nanosa v mestu Vipava na direction of Rakov Škocjan and the Cerknica lake, and nadmorski višini 98 m. Eden izmed njih je zajet za the latter from the Pivka basin. The Unica river is also vodooskrbo zgornje Vipavske doline. Njihov skupni directly fed by groundwater from the Javorniki hil s. In pretok se po podatkih za obdobje 1961–1990 giblje Rakov Škocjan the most important water sources are med 0,7 in 70 m3/s, srednji pretok je 6,78 m3/s ( Kol- the two left tributaries of the river Rak from the Kotliči bezen in Pristov 1998). and Prunkovec springs. Stržen napajajo kraške vode iz izvirov ob robu The seven permanent springs of the Vipava river are Javornikov južno od Postojne. Ko kraški dotok pre- distributed along the western foot of the Nanos moun- sahne, ga hranijo manjši dotoki s fliša in iztok iz tain in the town of Vipava at a height 98 m a.s.l. One of komunalne čistilne naprave. Na različnih točkah na them is used to supply water for the upper Vipava val ey. dnu struge ponika voda v podzemlje. According to figures for 1961–1990, their total discharge ranges from 0.7 m3/s to 70 m3/s with a mean discharge 7.2.2 Značilnosti pretakanja of 6.78 m3/s ( Kolbezen and Pristov 1998). podzemnih vod in prenosa snovi The Stržen spring is fed by karst waters from springs v vplivnem območju poligona on the edge of the Javorniki hills, south of Postojna. When the karst inflow dries up, it is fed by smal er in- S sledilnim poskusom smo določili smeri in flows from the flysch and by outflow from the municipal značilnosti pretakanja podzemnih voda in preno- treatment plant. Water percolates underground at vari- sa snovi z območja vojaškega vadišča Poček. Ob ous points in the bed of the stream. nizkem vodostaju junija 1997 smo v dnu skalne vr- tače injicirali 4 kg fluorescentnega sledila uranin. Ugotovljena je bila glavna smer pretakanja proti izviru Malenščica, pa tudi dobra povezava s Piv- škim rokavom v Planinski jami in z izviri Vipave. Uranin se je pojavil še v izviru Stržen in v izvirih 108 7. Ocena vpliva vojaškega vadišča Poček na kraške vode v Rakovem Škocjanu: v Raku pred Prunkovcem, v 7.2.2 Groundwater flow Prunkovcu in Kotličih. Sledilo, ki je iztekalo skozi characteristics and the izvire v Rakovem Škocjanu, smo delno zaznali v transport of substances in Malenščici, delno pa v Rakovem rokavu v Planinski the area of influence of the jami. Glede na pojav prvega sledilnega vala (navide- military training area zna dominantna hitrost v , izračunana za zračno dom razdaljo med točko injiciranja in izviri, ter čas po- We conducted a tracer test to determine the direc- java maksimalne koncentracije sledila) se je voda tions and characteristics of groundwater flow and the s sledilom najhitreje pretakala v Malenščico (v transport of substances from the Poček military training dom = 26 m/h) in Vipavo (v = 26 m/h), najpočasneje area. In June 1997, when the water level was low, we dom pa v izvir Stržena (v = 10 m/h) ( Kogovšek 1999; injected 4 kg of the fluorescent tracer Uranine at the dom Kogovšek in Petrič 2004). bottom of a rocky doline. The main direction of flow Spiranje in iztekanje injiciranega uranina skozi towards the Malenščica spring was identified, along opazovane izvire je trajalo skoraj eno leto, ko je na with a good connection with the Pivka branch of the območju padlo 1400 do 1500 mm padavin. Glavnina cave Planinska jama and with the springs of the Vipava uranina je bila sprana skozi izvir Malenščica v 7 river. Uranine also appeared in the Stržen spring and mesecih (55 % injiciranega sledila), ko je od začetka in the Rak, Prunkovec and Kotliči springs in Rakov poskusa padlo več kot 1000 mm dežja. Kar 33 % Škocjan. The tracer that flowed out through springs in uranina se je pojavilo v Malenščici šele 5 mesecev po Rakov Škocjan was partly detected in the Malenščica injiciranju, ko je ob intenzivnem jesenskem deževju spring and partly in the Rak branch of Planinska jama. padlo 550 mm padavin. Skozi Malenščico in Vipavo Regarding the appearance of the first tracer peak (ap- je skupaj priteklo približno 80 % sledila. Količin parent dominant velocity v calculated for the crow dom povrnjenega uranina v drugih izvirih ni bilo možno line between the injection point and the springs and ovrednotiti, ker pretoki niso bili merjeni. Predvide- the time of appearance of the maximum concentra- vamo pa, da je bil celokupni povrnjeni delež sledila tion of the tracer), water containing tracer flowed most blizu 100 %. quickly into the Malenščica spring (v = 26 m/h) and dom Zgradba sorazmerno plitve vadozne cone na ob- the Vipava spring (v = 26 m/h), and most slowly dom močju Počka (ocenjujemo jo na do 40 m) pogojuje into the Stržen spring (v = 10 m/h) ( Kogovšek 1999; dom pretežno le počasno pretakanje vode in z njo sledila Kogovšek and Petrič 2004). oz. daljše zadrževanje v njej. Občasne intenzivnej- It took almost a year for the injected Uranine to be še padavine v poletnem sušnem obdobju so tako washed out through the observed springs, in which sprale le del injiciranega uranina. Šele intenzivne time precipitation in the area was between 1400 and in izdatne padavine, ki na tem območju nastopijo 1500 mm. The bulk of Uranine was washed out through predvsem jeseni, kot se je to zgodilo novembra 1997, the Malenščica spring in a period of 7 months (55 % so popolneje sprale in iztisnile sledilo iz vadozne of the injected tracer), when more than 1000 mm of cone proti kraškim izvirom. Prenos sledila je torej rain had fal en since the start of the test. Up to 33 % of zelo odvisen od padavinskih razmer. Uranine did not appear in the Malenščica spring until Podobno sklepamo za prenos topnega onesna- 5 months after injection, in which time heavy autumn ženja, ki ga prenašajo padavine. Manjše in manj rain produced 550 mm of precipitation. A total of ap- intenzivne padavine potisnejo onesnaženje le delno proximately 80 % of the injected tracer flowed through v smeri proti izvirom, lahko pa ta prenos celo izo- the Malenščica and Vipava springs. It was not possible stane, ker se večina onesnaženja zadrži v vadozni to evaluate the quantity of recovered Uranine in the coni. Tam lahko nekaj mesecev in več čaka na do- other springs because discharges were not measured. volj izdatne in intenzivne padavine, ki ga začnejo We do, however, envisage that the total share of recov- spirati proti izvirom. Seveda pa lahko v tem času, ered tracer was close to 100 %. 7. Assessment of impact of the Poček military training area on karst waters 109 2 Koncentracija KPK v odvzetih vzorcih sedimenta na vplivnem območju vojaškega poligona Poček Žejski izvir / Žeje spring (maksimalna dovoljena koncen- tracija ali MDK – po priporočilih za Pivka pri Žejah / Pivka at Žeje klasificiranje sedimentov v ZDA). Pivka pri Prestranku / Pivka at Prestranek COD concentration in samples of sediment taken in the area of influence Stržen of the Poček military training area Pivka pri Grobišču / Pivka at Grobišče (maximum allowable concentration or MAC—after recommendations for the Rak - Rakov Škocjan classification of sediments in the USA). Prunkovec - izvir / Prunkovec - spring Kotliči - izvir / Kotliči - spring Malenščica - izvir / Malenščica - spring Vipava - izvir / Vipava - spring 0 50 100 150 200 KPK - COD (mg/g) srednje osnesnaženo / polluted močno onesnaženo / highly polluted posebno še v vadozni coni, potekajo različni fizi- The structure of the relatively shallow vadose kalni in kemijski procesi, kar lahko zadrževanje še zone in the area of Poček (estimated depth of up to znatno podaljša. 40 m) conditions the predominantly slow flow of water and, with it, tracer, in other words a longer 7.2.3 Obremenjenost voda period of retention in the vadose zone. Occasional in sedimentov z onesnažili heavy rainfall during the dry summer period thus only washed out part of the injected Uranine. It took 7.2.3.1 Posnetek stanja kakovosti heavy and plentiful rainfall, which in this area mainly voda in sedimentov na vplivnem occurs in autumn, as happened in November 1997, to območju Počka wash the tracer more completely out of the vadose zone and drive it towards karst springs. The transport Vzorčna mesta za fizikalno-kemijske analize of the tracer is therefore very dependent on precipita- vodnih vzorcev in sedimentov smo izbrali glede na tion conditions. rezultate sledilnih poskusov. Vsi vodotoki (izviri) so A similar conclusion may be reached for the izbrani v širšem vplivnem območju, saj na vojaškem transport of soluble pollution carried by precipi- poligonu zaradi kraškega terena površinskih voda tation. Smaller quantities of rainfall and lighter ni. Vzorčenje je potekalo v času upadanja pretokov, rainfall only partially push pollution towards kar pomeni, da je že pred tem prišlo do intenzivnej- springs, and this transport can even be absent be- šega spiranja zaledja pa tudi sedimentov na izvirih. cause the majority of the pollution remains in the Vsa vzorčenja in vse kemijske analize so bili opra- vadose zone. It can wait there for several months vljeni v skladu z zahtevami ustreznih standardov. or longer for sufficiently copious and heavy rainfall V odvzetih vzorcih vode so bile na splošno iz- that begins to wash it towards the springs. During merjene nizke koncentracije organsko razgradljivih this time, of course, and in particular in the vadose in nerazgradljivih snovi (izražene kot kemijska po- zone, various physical and chemical processes can treba po kisiku – KPK), medtem ko so bile v odvze- take place that can significantly extend the period tih vzorcih sedimenta, upoštevajoč priporočila za of retention. 110 7. Ocena vpliva vojaškega vadišča Poček na kraške vode klasificiranje sedimentov v ZDA, izmerjene visoke 7.2.3 Pollutants in vsebnosti KPK (2). Glede na omenjeno klasifi- water and sediments ciranje je bil v času vzorčenja močno onesnažen sediment na lokacijah Prunkovec–izvir, Kotliči– 7.2.3.1 Quality of water and sediments izvir, Malenščica–izvir in Pivka pri Prestranku. in the area of influence of Poček Izmerjena koncentracija razgradljivih organskih snovi (izražena kot biokemijska potreba po kisiku Sampling points for physical-chemical analyses – BPK ) je bila v vseh odvzetih vzorcih vode pod of water samples and sediments were selected on the 5 mejo določljivosti metode. basis of the results of the tracer tests. All the selected V nobenem odvzetem vzorcu vode niso izmerje- watercourses (springs) are in the wider area of influ- ne koncentracije nitratov presegale vrednosti MDK, ence because the karst terrain means that there are določenih v Uredbi o kemijskem stanju površinskih no surface streams in the military training area itself. voda ( UrKSPV, 2002). Največje koncentracije ni- Sampling took place in the period of diminution of tratov v vodi v času vzorčenja so bile izmerjene na flow, which means that the intensive washing-out of lokacijah Kotliči–izvir in Pivški rokav v Planinski the catchment area, and also of sediments in springs, jami ter so lahko posledica tako kmetijske dejav- had already taken place. All sampling and all chemical nosti kakor tudi vpliva vojaškega območja (ostanki analyses were done in accordance with the require- streliv). Prav tako ni bila v času vzorčenja na nobeni ments of the relevant standards. lokaciji presežena priporočena vrednost celotnega In the water samples taken, generally low concen- dušika v vodi glede na Uredbo o kakovosti površin- trations of organical y degradable and non-degradable skih voda, ki se jih odvzema za oskrbo s pitno vodo substances (expressed as chemical oxygen demand— ( UrKPV, 2000). V odvzetem sedimentu je bila COD) were measured, while in the samples of sedi- izmerjena najvišja vsebnost celotnega dušika na ments COD contents that were high in terms of the lokacijah Kotliči–izvir, Prunkovec–izvir in Pivka recommendations for the classification of sediments in pri Žejah. Na vseh lokacijah smo izmerili zelo nizke the USA were measured (2). In terms of this classifica- koncentracije celotnega fosforja v vodi. Enako velja tion, there was heavily polluted sediment at the time za kloride in sulfat. Izmerjene vsebnosti celotnega of sampling at the Prunkovec, Kotliči, and Malenščica fosforja v odvzetih sedimentih pa so nihale in so se springs and in the Pivka river at Prestranek. The meas- gibale med 454 mg/kg na lokaciji Vipava–izvir do ured concentration of degradable organic substances 1350 mg/kg na lokaciji Prunkovec–izvir. Na posame- (expressed as biochemical oxygen demand—BOD ) 5 znih lokacijah (Pivka pri Prestranku, Kotliči–izvir was below the limit of quantification of the method in in Stržen) so bile izmerjene večje koncentracije ad- all the water samples taken. sorbljivih organskih halogenov (AOX) v vodi, ki pa In none of the water samples did the measured niso presegale predpisane MDK, medtem ko so bile concentrations of nitrate exceed the maximum allow- na drugih lokacijah izmerjene koncentracije AOX v able concentration or MAC set out in the Decree on the vodi pod mejo določljivosti metode. chemical status of surface waters ( UrKSPV, 2002). The V času vzorčenja vode niso bile obremenjene highest concentrations of nitrate in water at the time of s kovinami in niso presegale predpisanih mejnih sampling were measured at the locations Kotliči spring vrednosti v že omenjenih Uredbi o kemijskem sta- and Pivka branch of the cave Planinska jama and could nju površinskih voda in Uredbi o kakovosti povr- be the consequence both of agricultural activity and of šinskih voda, ki se jih odvzema za oskrbo s pitno the impact of the military area (ammunition residues). vodo. Izmerjene koncentracije niklja (Ni), svinca Furthermore, the recommended value of total nitro- (Pb), kroma (Cr), živega srebra (Hg), arzena (As), gen in water with regard to the Decree on the quality selena (Se) in kadmija (Cd) v vodi so bile pod mejo of surface water abstracted for drinking water supply določljivosti za posamezno kovino. ( UrKPV, 2000) was not exceeded in any location at 7. Assessment of impact of the Poček military training area on karst waters 111 Razporeditev po razredih (koncentracija kovin v mg/kg) Parameter Classification into quality classes (concentration of metals in mg/kg) Parameter I. II. III. IV. Baker / Copper (Cu) < 40 40–100 100–340 > 340 Krom / Chromium (Cr) < 50 50–150 150–540 > 540 Nikelj / Nickel (Ni) < 50 50–100 100–360 > 360 Cink / Zinc (Zn) < 200 200–1300 1300–4600 > 4600 Svinec / Lead (Pb) < 50 50–120 120–1000 > 1000 Kadmij / Cadmium (Cd) < 1 1–12 12–40 > 40 Tabela 1 Kriteriji za razporeditev vodotokov v kakovostne razrede glede na vsebnost kovin v sedimentu ( MOP 1997). Table 1 Criteria for the classification of watercourses into quality classes with regard to metals content in sediment ( MOP 1997). 4 200 (mg/g) e (mg/kg) 3 d, S 150 COD , CHg 2 100 s (mg/kg), KPK / b, A 1 i, P 50 u, N 0 0 Cr, Zn, C Stržen Žejski izvir Žeje spring Pivka at Žeje Kotliči - izvir Vipava - izvir Pivka pri Žejah Kotliči - spring Vipava - spring Pivka at Grobišče Pivka pri Grobišču Prunkovec - izvir Malenščica - izvir Pivka pri Prestranku Pivka at Prestranek Rak - Rakov Škocjan Prunkovec - spring Malenščica - spring Hg Cd Se Pb As Ni Cu Zn Cr KPK / COD 3 Vsebnosti kovin v vzorcih sedimenta v izvirih na vplivnem območju poligona Poček (enkratni zajem 9. in 13. decembra 2005). Metals content in samples of sediment in springs in the area of influence of the Poček military training ground (one-off samples taken on 9 and 13 December 2005). 112 7. Ocena vpliva vojaškega vadišča Poček na kraške vode Mesto vzorčenja / Sampling location u ank e anek ocjan ing vir vir ejah restr obišču obišč vem Škocjanu ov Šk -iz ing ing vir i Ž eje i P restr i Gr vir vir ako ak vec i iz ovec-spring Parameter va-iz va-spr Enota a pr a at Ž a pr a at P žen a pr a at Gr alenščica-iz alenščica-spr Parameter Unit Žejsk Žeje spring Pivk Pivk Pivk Pivk Str Pivk Pivk Rak v R Rak in R Prunko Prunk Kotliči-iz Kotliči-spr M M Vipa Vipa pH 7.98 7.60 7.44 6.58 6.71 7.44 7.14 7.21 7.97 8.34 H20 Suha snov % Dry matter 98.6 97.4 98.4 98.4 94.2 98.8 96.9 81.8 98.8 98.9 Žarina % Anneal product 92.0 81.1 78.6 89.8 84.5 90.4 73.4 59.3 88.2 96.1 Živo srebro mg/kg Mercury (Hg) < 0.10 0.16 0.10 < 0.10 0.20 0.10 0.24 0.27 0.13 < 0.10 Svinec mg/kg Lead (Pb) 37.6 55.5 31.4 26.7 39.5 32.5 59.0 54.8 81.7 16.9 Arzen mg/kg Arsenic (As) 21.10 20.40 10.20 7.16 11.70 17.50 23.20 21.00 15.10 6.80 4 200 Nikelj (mg/g) mg/kg 78.9 114 88.7 62.2 98.5 50.7 59.7 55.1 Nickel (Ni) 37.6 72.3 e (mg/kg) 3 d, S 150 COD Kadmij , C mg/kg Cadmium (Cd) 0.67 1.88 0.55 0.25 0.59 0.69 1.51 1.28 0.75 0.38 Hg 2 Selen 100 mg/kg Selenium (Se) 2.03 3.50 1.47 1.16 2.02 1.81 3.01 2.48 2.23 1.34 s (mg/kg), KPK / b, A Baker i, P mg/kg 44.4 68.6 57.0 1 50 Copper (Cu) 31.8 59.9 26.8 43.2 34.8 33.1 26.1 u, N Cink mg/kg Zinc (Zn) 118 175 114 81.6 155 99.5 155 130 100 73.2 0 0 Cr, Zn, C Krom mg/kg 118 156 96.5 94.5 128 80.7 85.7 79.3 62.4 93.5 Chromium (Cr) Stržen Žejski izvir Žeje spring Pivka at Žeje Kotliči - izvir Dušik (celotni) Kotliči - spring Vipava - izvir % Pivka pri Žejah Vipava - spring Nitrogen (total) 0.170 0.620 0.396 0.288 0.340 0.188 0.818 0.848 0.289 0.073 Pivka at Grobišče Pivka pri Grobišču Prunkovec - izvir Malenščica - izvir Pivka pri Prestranku Pivka at Prestranek Rak - Rakov Škocjan Prunkovec - spring Malenščica - spring Fosfor (celotni) mg/kg Phosphorus (total) 628 1120 636 564 654 524 1350 1250 820 454 Hg Cd Se Pb As Ni Cu Zn Cr KPK / COD Tabela 2 Rezultati fizikalno-kemijskih preiskav odvzetih vzorcev rečnega sedimenta na vplivnem območju poligona Poček (9. in 13. decembra 2005). S krepkim tiskom so označene vrednosti, ki uvrščajo sediment glede na vsebnost kovin v sedimentu v II. ali III. kakovostni razred ( MOP 1997). Table 2 Results of physical-chemical investigations of samples of the river sediment taken in the area of influence of the Poček military training ground (9 and 13 December 2005). Bold print indicates values that classify the sediment in terms of metals content in quality classes II or III ( MOP 1997). 7. Assessment of impact of the Poček military training area on karst waters 113 V tabeli 1 so zbrani kriteriji za razporeditev vo- the time of sampling. The highest total nitrogen con- dotokov v kakovostne razrede glede na vsebnost tent in sediment samples was measured at the Kotliči kovin v sedimentih, ki jih je določilo Ministrstvo spring, Prunkovec spring, and Pivka river at Žeje. za okolje in prostor 1997 ( MOP 1997). Zakonski Very low concentrations of total phosphorus in water predpisi sicer teh kriterijev ne vsebujejo, vendar were measured at all locations. The same applies to smo kljub temu pridobljene rezultate primerjali z chlorides and sulfate. The measured total phospho- njimi, da bi ustrezno ovrednotili izmerjene vsebno- rus contents in sediment samples fluctuated, ranging sti kovin. S krepkim tiskom poudarjene vrednosti from 454 mg/kg at the Vipava spring to 1350 mg/kg at pomenijo razmejitev med naravnimi vrednostmi the Prunkovec spring. At individual locations (Pivka in onesnaženjem. at Prestranek, Kotliči and Stržen springs) higher con- V tabeli 2 in na sliki 3 prikazujemo vsebnosti centrations of adsorbable organically bound halogens posameznih kovin v odvzetih vzorcih sedimentov, (AOX) were measured in the water, but did not exceed ki jih v nadaljevanju obravnavamo z vidika ugo- the prescribed MAC, while at other locations the AOX tovljenih povezav med Počkom in ostalimi izviri, concentrations measured in the water were below the še zlasti pa z izviri Malenščice in Vipave, kjer so limit of quantification of the method. povezave najboljše. Hkrati smo upoštevali tudi že At the time of sampling the water was not pol- omenjene kriterije za razporeditev vodotokov v ka- luted with metals and did not exceed the prescribed kovostne razrede. Iz opravljenih analiz je razvidno, limit values from the already mentioned Decree on da je bil sediment v času vzorčenja na posameznih the chemical status of surface waters and the Decree lokacijah obremenjen s težkimi kovinami: svincem on the quality of surface water abstracted for drink- (Pb), nikljem (Ni), bakrom (Cu), kromom (Cr) in ing water supply. Measured concentrations of nickel kadmijem (Cd). (Ni), lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), mercury (Hg), ar- Upoštevaje zgornji kriterij ugotavljamo, da je bil senic (As), selenium (Se) and cadmium (Cd) in the v času vzorčenja najbolj obremenjen sediment na water were below the limit of quantification for the lokaciji Pivka pri Žejah, kjer je znašala izmerjena individual metal. vsebnost Cr v sedimentu 156 mg/kg (III. kakovostni Table 1 shows the criteria for the classification of razred), Ni 114 mg/kg (III. kakovostni razred), Pb watercourses into quality classes with regard to the 55,5 mg/kg (II. kakovostni razred), Cu 68,6 mg/kg metals content of sediments defined by Ministry of (II. kakovostni razred) in Cd 1,88 mg/kg (II. kako- the Environment and Spatial Planning in 1997 ( MOP vostni razred). Povečane koncentracije Cr in Ni v 1997). Although the statutory regulations do not con- vzorcih Pivke (pri Žejskih izvirih in nižje) so lahko tain these criteria, we compared our results with the posledica vpliva vadišča na Baču. Ker pa so možni criteria in order to evaluate appropriately the metals še drugi viri, bi bilo vzorec sedimenta dobro vzeti content measured. The values shown in bold indicate še na ostalih izvirih ob Pivki, kjer še ni možnosti a divergence between natural values and pollution. onesnaženja iz drugih virov. Še primernejše pa bi Table 2 and figure 3 show the contents of indi- bilo sledenje s strelišča Bač, ki bi konkretno poka- vidual metals in sediment samples, which are con- zalo, kateri izviri so neposredno povezani z njim in sidered below from the point of view of established katere so možne smeri prenosa onesnažil. connections between Poček and other springs, in Prav tako so bile izmerjene povečane vsebnosti particular the Malenščica and Vipava springs, where posameznih kovin v odvzetih vzorcih sedimenta the connections are best. At the same time we took na lokacijah Malenščica–izvir, kjer je znašala vseb- into account the criteria for the classification of water- nost Pb v sedimentu 81,7 mg/kg (II. kakovostni courses mentioned above. On the basis of the analyses razred) in Cr 62,4 mg/kg (II. kakovostni razred), carried out, it is clear that at the time of sampling the ter na lokaciji Kotliči-izvir, kjer je znašala vseb- sediment in individual locations was polluted with nost Pb v sedimentu 54,8 mg/kg (II. kakovostni heavy metals (Pb, Ni, Cu, Cr, Cd). 114 7. Ocena vpliva vojaškega vadišča Poček na kraške vode razred), Cd 1,28 mg/kg (II. kakovostni razred), Cr Taking into account the above criterion, we can state 79,3 mg/kg (II. kakovostni razred) in Ni 55,1 mg/kg at the time of sampling the most polluted sediment (II. kakovostni razred). Tudi na vseh drugih loka- was at the location Pivka at Žeje, where the Cr content cijah so bile v času vzorčenja izmerjene povečane measured in the sediment was 156 mg/kg (quality class vsebnosti Cr v sedimentu (II. kakovostni razred), III), content of Ni 114 mg/kg (quality class III), Pb 55.5 občasno pa tudi Cu (II. kakovostni razred: Žejski izvir, mg/kg (quality class II), Cu 68.6 mg/kg (quality class II) Pivka pri Grobišču, Prunkovec-izvir in Pivka pri Pre- and Cd 1.88 mg/kg (quality class II). The increased con- stranku), Ni (II. kakovostni razred: Žejski izvir, Stržen, centrations of Cr and Ni in samples from the Pivka river Pivka pri Grobišču, Prunkovec-izvir, Pivka pri Pre- (at the Žeje springs and further downstream) could be stranku in Vipava-izvir) in Cd (II. kakovostni razred: the result of the impact of the military training area at Prunkovec-izvir). Bač. Since, however, other sources are possible, it would Izvir Vipave v primerjavi z Malenščico dosega be a good idea to take a sample of sediment from other večje vrednosti Cr in Ni ter nekoliko nižje vrednosti springs along the Pivka river where the possibility of Cu, Cd in Pb, kar nakazuje veliko verjetnost vpliva pol ution from other sources does not yet exist. Tracing strelišča na Počku, saj se tudi Vipava delno napaja s from the Bač firing range would be even more suitable, tega območja. Dodaten vpliv na Vipavo predstavlja s since this would clearly show what springs are directly sledilnim poskusom dokazan dotok iz Stržena, ki je connected to it and reveal the possible directions of onesnažen z istimi kovinami. V Stržen pritekajo voda transport of pol utants. s Počka, pa še očiščene odpadne vode iz Postojne, Increased contents of individual metals were also tudi iz obrata kovinske industrije. Da bi preverili ta measured in sediment samples at the Malenščica spring, možni vpliv iztoka iz čistilne naprave, bi bilo smiselno where the Pb content in the sediment was 81.7 mg/kg pregledati sestavo sedimenta za čistilno napravo. (quality class II) and Cr content 62.4 mg/kg (quality Povečane koncentracije Cr v izvirih v Rakovem class II), and at the Kotliči spring where the content Škocjanu so lahko odraz vpliva dejavnosti na Počku, of Pb in the sediment was 54.8 mg/kg (quality class možno pa je tudi, da priteka s Cerkniškega polja, ki II), of Cd 1.28 mg/kg (quality class II), Cr 79.3 mg/kg dobiva vodo še z Babnega in Loškega polja s poseli- (quality class II) and Ni 55.1 mg/kg (quality class II). tvijo in industrijo, tudi kovinsko. Enako velja za Ni. Increased Cr contents in sediment (quality class II) Možen vpliv s Cerkniškega polja bi se dalo preveriti were also measured at all other locations at the time z ustreznimi referenčnimi vzorci sedimenta in vode of sampling, and occasional y also increased contents na Cerkniškem polju izven vplivnega območja Počka. of Cu—quality class II (Žeje-spring, Pivka at Grobišče, Poleg že obravnavanih fizikalno-kemijskih Prunkovec-spring and Pivka river at Prestranek), Ni— parametrov smo v vodnih vzorcih in sedimentu quality class II (Žeje-spring, Stržen, Pivka at Grobišče, analizirali tudi vsebnosti organskih onesnažil. V Prunkovec-spring, Pivka at Prestranek, Vipava-spring) času vzorčenja so bile izmerjene koncentracije lah- and Cd—quality class II (Prunkovec-spring). kohlapnih halogeniranih ogljikovodikov (LHCH) The Vipava spring has higher Cr and Ni values than in lahkohlapnih aromatskih ogljikovodikov (BTX) the Malenščica spring and slightly lower Cu, Cd and v vodi pod mejo zaznavnosti metode za posamezen Pb values, which indicates the high probability of the parameter. Enako velja za celotne ogljikovodike, le influence of the firing range at Poček, since the Vipava v vodi na lokaciji Stržen je koncentracija 2,14 mg/l river is also partly fed from this area. An additional presegala predpisano mejno vrednost, ki po Uredbi influence on the Vipava spring is represented by inflow o kemijskem stanju površinskih voda ( UrKSPV, from the Stržen spring—proved by the tracer test— 2002) znaša za celotne ogljikovodike 0,05 mg/l. which is polluted with the same metals. Water from Tudi izmerjene koncentracije tenzidov in fenolov Poček flows into Stržen, but also treated waste water v vodi so bile pod mejo zaznavnosti metode. from Postojna, including water from a metal industry plant. In order to verify this possible impact of outflow 7. Assessment of impact of the Poček military training area on karst waters 115 7.2.3.2 Kakovost vodnih valov from the treatment plant, it would be a good idea to Malenščice po padavinah verify the composition of sediment at the outflow from the treatment plant. Do največjih sprememb sestave kraške vode Increased concentrations of Cr in the springs in prihaja po padavinah, ki sledijo daljšemu sušnemu Rakov Škocjan could be a reflection of the impact of obdobju, zato smo podrobneje spremljali kako- activities in Poček but it is also possible that it comes vost Malenščice v dveh zaporednih vodnih valovih from Cerkniško polje, which also receives water from septembra 2007. Meritve pretokov Malenščice smo Babno polje and Loško polje, the areas of habitation and dopolnili z zveznimi meritvami temperature in spe- industrial activity (including the metal industry). The cifične električne prevodnosti (EC). Vzporedno same applies to Ni. A possible impact from Cerkniško smo zajemali vodne vzorce Malenščice v dveur- polje could be checked by means of suitable reference nem intervalu za kemijske analize. Določili smo samples of sediment and water in Cerkniško polje out- naslednje parametre: kalcij (Ca), magnezij (Mg), side the area of influence of Poček. kloridi, nitrati, o-fosfati, sulfati, aluminij (Al), anti- In addition to the physical-chemical parameters mon (Sb), arzen (As), baker (Cu), barij (Ba), berilij already covered, we also analysed the organic pol utants (Be), bor (B), cink (Zn), kadmij (Cd), kobalt (Co), content of the water samples and sediment. At the time kositer (Sn), krom (Cr), mangan (Mn), molibden of sampling, the measured concentrations of highly vol- (Mo), nikelj (Ni), selen (Se), srebro (Ag), stroncij atile halogenated hydrocarbons (HVHHC) and highly (Sr), svinec (Pb), talij (Tl), telur (Te) in vanadij (V). volatile aromatic hydrocarbons (BTX) were below the V prvem vodnem valu sta ob naraščanju pretoka detection limit of the method for the individual param- do maksimalne vrednosti (7,6 m3/s) 19. septembra eter. The same applies to total hydrocarbons, except in 2007 ostali temperatura (8,9 ºC) in specifična ele- water at the Stržen spring, where a concentration of 2.14 ktrična prevodnost (370 µS/cm) Malenščice ne- mg/l exceeded the prescribed limit value, which for total spremenjeni (4). Tedaj je bil pretok vodotokov na hydrocarbons is 0.05 mg/l ( Decree on the chemical status Cerkniškem polju minimalen in sklepamo, da je of surface waters – UrKSPV, 2002). Measured concentra- iztekala v zaledju shranjena voda, predvsem infil- tions of tenzids and phenols in the water were likewise trirana voda z območja Javornikov. Ob prvem pove- below the detection limit of the method. čanju pretoka Malenščice izstopa višja vrednost Sn (39,6 µg/l), ki je ob nadaljnjem naraščanju pretoka 7.2.3.2 Quality of the Malenščica spring najprej upadla na 5,8 µg/l, nato pa celo pod mejo during the water pulses following rainfall določljivosti. Sočasno je bil nekoliko povečan Mo (0,6 µg/l). Od kovin smo ves čas meritev beležili The biggest changes in the composition of karst povečane koncentracije Ba (okoli 6 µg/l) in Sr (113 water occur after rainfall that fol ows a long dry period. µg/l), ki verjetno odražata naravne značilnosti za- Therefore we closely monitored the water quality of ledja izvira, kar pa bi bilo treba še preveriti. Vse the Malenščica spring in two successive water pulses in druge merjene kovine so bile pod mejo določljivosti September 2007. Measurements of the discharges of the uporabljenih metod. spring were complemented by continuous measurements Do bolj izrazitega dogajanja je prišlo v dru- of temperature and electrical conductivity (EC). At the gem vodnem valu konec septembra (4), ko so bile same time we took water samples from the spring at a padavine izdatnejše. Nekoliko višja temperatura two-hour interval for chemical analysis. We determined Malenščice pred začetkom naraščanja pretoka v the fol owing parameters: calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), omenjenem valu je nakazovala tudi dotok toplejše chlorides, nitrates, o-phosphates, sulfates, aluminium (Al), vode s Cerkniškega polja v primerjavi z začetkom antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), barium (Ba), beryl ium (Be), prvega vala. Koncentracija nitratov v Malenščici je boron (B), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), ves čas upadala. Kloridi so sočasno z naraščanjem copper (Cu), lead (Pb), manganese (Mn), molybdenum 116 7. Ocena vpliva vojaškega vadišča Poček na kraške vode 12 420 a/Mg 10 12 ), C 420 400 a/Mg 8 EC (µS/cm) 10 T (°C ), C /s), 400 3 6 8 EC (µS/cm) 380 T (°C /s), 6 Q (m 4 3 380 360 Q (m 4 2 360 2 0 340 0 Ca / Mg T Q EC 340 Ca / Mg T Q EC 14 0,2 14 12 0,2 mg/l) (mg/l) ti (mg/l) 12 tes mg/l) ( 0,15 tes ( 10 ti tes 0,15 tes 10 , sulfa ati, sulfa 8 , sulfa ati, sulfa 8 ates 0,1 6 ates 0,1 idi, nitr , nitr o - phopha 6 ti / o - phospha idi, nitr , nitr lor ides 4 ti / 0,05 lor ides 4 osfa osfa 0,05 k chlor 2 2 o - f o - f k chlor 0 0 0 0 NO PO SO Cl NO PO SO Cl 14 120 14 120 12 o (µg/l) 12 o (µg/l) 100 100 l, Sr (µg/l) 10 10 l, Sr (µg/l) 80 80 Sn, A Sn, A Ba, Zn, M Ba, Zn, M8 8 60 60 6 6 4 40 4 40 2 2 20 20 0 0 0 0 17. 09. 2007 17. 09. 2007 19. 09. 2007 19. 09. 2007 21. 09. 2007 21. 09. 2007 23. 09. 2007 23. 09. 2007 25. 09. 2007 25. 09. 2007 27. 09. 2007 27. 09. 2007 29. 09. 200729. 09. 2007 01. 10. 2007 01. 10. 2007 03. 10. 2007 03. 10. 2007 datum / da date tum / date Zn AI Sr Mo Ba Sn Zn AI Sr Mo Ba Sn 4 Merjeni parametri v opazovanih vodnih valovih: pretok (Q), temperatura (T), specifična električna prevodnost (EC), razmerje Ca/Mg, kloridi (Cl-), nitrati (NO -), sulfati (SO 2-), o-fosfati (PO 3-) in kovine (Ba, Zn, Mo, Al, Sn in Sr). 3 4 4 Measured parameters in the observed water pulses: discharge (Q), temperature (T), electrical conductivity (EC), Ca/Mg ratio, chlorides (Cl-), nitrates (NO -), sulfates (SO 2-), o-phosphates (PO 3-), and metals (Ba, Zn, Mo, Al, Sn and Sr). 3 4 4 7. Assessment of impact of the Poček military training area on karst waters 117 temperature in specifične električne prevodnosti (Mo), nickel (Ni), selenium (Se), silver (Ag), strontium dosegli maksimalno vrednost (9 mg Cl-/l), kar ver- (Sr), thal ium (Tl), tel urium (Te), tin (Sn), vanadium jetno odraža povečan dotok s Cerkniškega polja in (V) and zinc (Zn). spiranje onesnaženja. Tudi koncentracije o-fosfatov In the first water pulse, with an increase of discharge so se povečale do 0,07 mg PO 3-/l. Ob poznejšem to the maximum value (7.6 m3/s) on 19 September 2007, 4 nižanju temperature v upadajočem delu vodnega the temperature (8.9 ºC) and electrical conductivity (370 vala je naraščalo razmerje Ca/Mg, iz česar sklepa- µS/cm) of the Malenščica spring remained unchanged mo na povečan dotok vode z območja Javornikov, (4). At that time the flow of watercourses on Cerkniško morda pa gre tudi za vpliv Pivke iz ponora pri Tr- polje was minimal and we conclude that water stored nju. Povečanja koncentracije kovin (Pb, Cr, Cd, Ni, in the catchment area, above all infiltrated water from Cu in Co), navzočih v tleh na pehotnem strelišču the area of the Javorniki hil s, was draining out. With vojaškega poligona Poček ( Al Sayegh Petkovšek idr. the first increase in discharge of the Malenščica spring, 2009), pa v vodnih vzorcih nismo določili oz. so bile a higher value is noticeable for Sn (39.6 µg/l), which as koncentracije pod mejo določljivosti metod. Zaznali the discharge continued to grow first fell to 5.8 µg/l and smo le večkratna občasna povečanja Zn (do 5,6 µg/l) then even dropped below the detection limit. At the in zvezno pojavljanje Al z maksimalno vrednostjo same time there was a slight increase in the value for 22,5 µg/l, doseženo v času največjih vrednosti Ca/ Mo (0.6 µg/l). With regard to the metals, throughout the Mg in ob padcu temperature. Velja opozoriti, da period of measurements, we noted increased concentra- so se v tleh vojaškega poligona Poček vsebnosti Zn tions of Ba (around 6 µg/l) and Sr (113 µg/l), which are praviloma nahajale v okviru normalnih vrednosti probably a reflection of the natural characteristics of the ( Al Sayegh Petkovšek idr. 2006). catchment area of the spring, although this would need to be checked further. All the other measured metals 7.2.4 Ocena ogroženosti kraških were below the detection limit of the methods used. vodnih virov v vplivnem območju The situation was more marked during the second water pulse, at the end of September (4), when rainfal Iz rezultatov fizikalno-kemijskih preiskav odvze- was more plentiful. The slightly higher temperature of tih vzorcev vode je razvidno, da je bila med vzorče- the Malenščica spring before the start of the increase njem voda obremenjena s celotnimi ogljikovodiki of discharge in the second water pulse also indicated (mineralna olja) na lokaciji Stržen. Povsod drugod the inflow of warmer water from Cerkniško polje in so bile izmerjene koncentracije organskih in anor- comparison to the start of the first water pulse. The ganskih snovi nizke. V odvzetih vzorcih sedimenta concentration of nitrates in the Malenščica spring fel so bile glede na priporočila za klasificiranje sedi- steadily. Simultaneous with the increases in temperature mentov v ZDA izmerjene visoke vsebnosti KPK. and electrical conductivity, chlorides reached their max- V času vzorčenja so bili tako močno onesnaženi imum value (9 mg Cl-/l), which probably reflects the sedimenti na lokacijah Prunkovec–izvir, Kotliči–iz- increase in flow from Cerkniško polje and the washing vir, Malenščica–izvir in Pivka pri Prestranku. Rezul- out of pollution. Concentrations of ortophosphates also tati analize sedimenta so pokazali tudi onesnaženje increased to 0.07 mg PO 3-/l. With the subsequent fal 4 rečnega sedimenta z določenimi kovinami (Pb, Ni, in temperature in the recession period, the Ca/Mg ratio Cu, Cr, Cd). Na splošno je bil med vzorčenjem s increased, from which we can conclude an increased kovinami najbolj obremenjen sediment na loka- flow of water from the area of the Javorniki hills, and ciji Pivka pri Žejah (Cr in Ni v III. kakovostnem perhaps also the influence of the Pivka river from the razredu; Pb, Cu in Cd v II. kakovostnem razredu). ponor near Trnje. Increases in the concentrations of the Prav tako so bile izmerjene povečane vsebnosti metals present in the soil in the infantry firing range of posameznih kovin v odvzetih vzorcih sedimen- the Poček military training area (Pb, Cr, Cd, Ni, Cu and ta na lokacijah Malenščica–izvir (Pb in Cr v II. Co; Al Sayegh Petkovšek et al. 2009) were not identified 118 7. Ocena vpliva vojaškega vadišča Poček na kraške vode kakovostnem razredu) in Kotliči–izvir (Pb, Cd, Cr, in the water samples or the concentrations were below Ni v II. kakovostnem razredu). Poudariti moramo, the detection limit of the methods. We merely observed da smo vode in sediment vzorčili le enkrat, pa še to several occasional increases in Zn (up to 5.6 µg/l) and ob upadajočih pretokih po izdatnejših padavinah, the continuous appearance of Al with a maximum value kar je za dejansko določitev vpliva vojaškega poli- of 22.5 µg/l, which was reached at the time of the high- gona na vodne vire premalo. est Ca/Mg values and with the fall in temperature. It is Na temelju podrobnih analiz v obdobju dveh vo- worth pointing out that concentrations of Zn in the soil dnih valov sklepamo, da je začetnemu intenzivnemu of the Poček military training area were situated within spiranju onesnaženja, ki se je akumuliralo v pred- normal values ( Al Sayegh Petkovšek et al. 2006). hodnem sušnem obdobju, sledil dotok čistejše vode s Cerkniškega polja, pa tudi delež vode z območja 7.2.4 Estimate of the threats Javornikov se je povečeval. Ob koncu opazovanega to karst water sources in prvega vodnega vala je pritekalo v izvir Malenščice the area of influence tudi nekaj vode s Cerkniškega polja. V drugem vodnem valu konec septembra 2007 It is clear from the results of physical-chemical in- je bilo dogajanje izrazitejše. Takrat so bile pada- vestigation of the water samples taken that at the time vine izdatnejše in je bila prst omočena, vadozna of sampling the water was pol uted with total hydrocar- cona vodonosnika na območju Javornikov pa bolj bons (mineral oils) at the location Stržen. At all other zapolnjena z vodo kakor v predhodnem valu. V ta- locations the measured concentrations of organic and kšnih razmerah prihaja po padavinah do spiranja inorganic substances were low. In the sediment sam- tal ter pretakanja vode po celotni hierarhiji razpok ples taken, COD values that were high with regard to skozi vadozno cono in nato po sklenjenih kanalih recommendations for the classification of sediments do izvira. Zaznan je bil dotok toplejše vode s Cer- in the USA were measured. At the time of sampling, kniškega polja. V upadajočem delu vodnega vala se there were highly pol uted sediments at the Prunkovec je povečal dotok vode z Javornikov, lahko pa bi šlo spring, Kotliči spring, Malenščica spring and Pivka at tudi za vpliv Pivke iz ponora pri Trnju. Vsebnosti Prestranek. The results of analyses of the sediment also nekaterih kovin (Pb, Cu, Cr, Cd, Ni in Co) so bile v showed pollution of the river sediment with specific vodnih vzorcih iz Malenščice pod mejo določljivosti metals (Pb, Ni, Cu, Cr, Cd). In general, at the time of analitske metode. sampling the sediment was most pol uted with metals V vodnih vzorcih izvirov z vplivnega območja at the Pivka river at Žeje (Cr and Ni in quality class III; vojaškega poligona Poček so bile sicer izmerjene Pb, Cu and Cd in quality class II). Increased contents zelo nizke vsebnosti kovin, vendar pri vrednotenju of individual metals were likewise measured in the vpliva poligona na vodne vire velja upoštevati, da samples of sediment taken at the Malenščica (Pb and so bile izmerjene povečane vsebnosti kovin v se- Cr in quality class II) and Kotliči springs (Pb, Cd, Cr, dimentih. Slednje nakazuje možen vpliv Počka na Ni in quality class II). It is worth emphasising that we izvira Malenščice in Vipave, ki sta zajeta za oskrbo only sampled the water and sediment once, at a time of prebivalstva s pitno vodo. Ker pa obstaja tudi mo- recession fol owing abundant rainfal , which is too little žnost vplivov iz drugih virov, bi bilo treba napraviti to actual y determine the impact of the military training še nekaj referenčnih preiskav na Cerkniškem polju area on water sources. in na ponoru Pivke pri Trnju. Tako bi ugotovili mo- On the basis of detailed analysis at the time of two rebiten vpliv drugih dejavnosti še pred vplivnim water pulses we conclude that the initial intensive flush- območjem Počka. Glede na znano vodno poveza- ing of the pol ution accumulated during the previous vo med ponorom pri Trnju in izvirom Malenščice dry period was followed by the inflow of clean water ugotavljamo, da bi v primeru potrjenega vpliva from Cerkniško polje, while the proportion of water strelišča Bač na Pivko in ob izključitvi vpliva drugih from the Javorniki area also increased. At the end of the 7. Assessment of impact of the Poček military training area on karst waters 119 dejavnosti na območju od izvira Pivščice do ponora observed first water pulse, some water from Cerkniško v Trnju, morali tudi strelišče Bač obravnavati zno- polje also flowed to the Malenščica spring. The situation traj območja vpliva na Malenščico. Vsekakor je v was more marked during the second water pulse, at the tako občutljivem okolju, kot je kras, in še posebej, če end of September 2007, when rainfall was more plentiful gre za zaledje izvirov, zajetih za oskrbo prebivalcev s and the soil was damp, and the vadose zone of the aq- pitno vodo, nujna sodobna gradnja vojaških objek- uifer in the area of the Javorniki contained more water tov, ki onemogoča nekontroliran vstop onesnažil v than in the previous water pulse. In such conditions, kraške vodne vire. rainfall is fol owed by a flow of water through the soil and the entire hierarchy of fissures through the vadose 7.3 Ukrepi za zaščito zone and then along conduits to springs. An inflow of kraških voda warmer water from Cerkniško polje was noted. In the recession period, there was an increased inflow of water Na podlagi opisanih splošnih značilnosti in from the Javorniki area, and perhaps also the influence rezultatov opravljenega sledilnega poskusa lahko of the Pivka river from the ponor near Trnje. Contents potrdimo, da obremenjenost tal s kovinami na posa- of metals (Pb, Cu, Cr, Cd, Ni and Co) that showed in- meznih območjih vojaškega poligona Poček (zlasti na creased values in the soil of the infantry firing range in pehotnem strelišču) lahko ogroža kakovost zajetih iz- Poček ( Al Sayegh Petkovšek et al. 2006) were below the virov Malenščice in Vipave, izvira Unice iz Planinske detection limit of the analytical method in the water jame, izvirov v Rakovem Škocjanu in izvira Stržen pri samples from the Malenščica spring. Postojni, značilnosti pojava onesnažil v teh izvirih Although very low metals contents were measured pa so odvisne od padavinskih in hidroloških razmer. in the water samples from springs from the area of in- Kljub temu da delež mobilnega dela Pb ne presega 0,1 fluence of the Poček military training area, in evaluat- % celotne vsebnosti Pb v talnih vzorcih pehotnega ing the impact of the military training area on water strelišča, kjer so bile izmerjene največje vsebnosti te sources it is worth taking into account the fact that kovine ( Al Sayegh Petkovšek idr. 2009), pa spremem- the increased metal contents were measured in sedi- ba razmer v tleh (na poligonu nastajajo namreč tudi ments. The latter indicates a possible impact of Poček nitrati in sulfati) lahko sproži intenzivnejše spiranje on the Malenščica and Vipava springs, which are used Pb in drugih kovin, ko s padavinami hitro in neovi- to supply the population with drinking water. Since, rano prodirajo globlje v kraški vodonosnik. Ko so however, there also exists a possibility of impacts from kovine vezane v tleh, je z njihovo odstranitvijo še other sources, it would be necessary to carry out a num- možna sanacija, ko pa vstopijo v vodonosnik, sana- ber of reference investigations on Cerkniško polje and cija ni več mogoča. Tudi sanacija v primeru razlitja in the ponor of the Pivka river near Trnje. In this way nevarnih snovi je na takem kraškem terenu praktično we would establish the potential impact of other fac- nemogoča, kar so dokazala razlitja naftnih derivatov tors even before the area of influence of Poček. Given v raznih nesrečah ( Kogovšek 1995b; Kogovšek in Petrič the known water connection between the ponor near 2002a, b). Vse napore je zato potrebno usmeriti v Trnje and the Malenščica spring, we can state that in preventivo. Nevarnost predstavlja onesnaženje voda the case of a confirmed impact of the Bač firing range tako zaradi spiranja onesnaženih tal s padavinami on the Pivka river, and with the exclusion of the impact kakor tudi zaradi aktivnosti, ki spremljajo nastanitev of other factors in the area from the spring of the Pivka in oskrbo vojaških enot na vadišču (npr. komunalne river to the ponor in Trnje, we would also have to treat odpadne vode). Tudi sama degradacija okolja s po- the Bač firing range as being within the area of influence večano erozijo prsti vpliva na vodne vire. on the Malenščica spring. In any case, in such a sensitive Pri načrtovanju aktivnosti na vojaškem poligo- environment as the karst, and in particular in the case of nu so zato potrebni zaščitni in varovalni ukrepi na the catchment area of springs that are used to supply the njem. Ker vode s tega območja odtekajo tudi proti population with drinking water, the modern construc- 120 7. Ocena vpliva vojaškega vadišča Poček na kraške vode virom pitne vode, je treba upoštevati vse vodovar- tion of military facilities that prevents the uncontrol ed stvene predpise. access of pol utants to karst water sources is vital. Na območju vojaških vadišč zato predlagamo naslednje ukrepe: 7.3 Measures for the • padavinske vode z utrjenih površin je treba voditi protection of karst waters preko usedalnikov in oljnih lovilcev; • zaradi večjih količin ostankov streliva je nujen On the basis of the general characteristics de- stalen pregled kakovosti vodnih izvirov in zajetij; scribed above and the results of the tracer test, we • uporabo streliva je treba prostorsko omejiti in can confirm that the pollution of soil with metals in tako fizično preprečiti vplive na podzemno vodo individual parts of the Poček military training area (strokovno odstranjevanje ostankov streliva z ob- (in particular the infantry firing range) can threaten močja poligona); the quality of the captured Malenščica and Vipava • zagotoviti je treba pravilno ravnanje z naftnimi springs, the Unica spring from the cave Planinska derivati in olji; jama, the springs in Rakov Škocjan and the Stržen • pod vozila, parkirana na neutrjenih površinah, spring near Postojna, while the characteristics of the je treba podstaviti lovilne posode ali pivnike, z appearance of pollutants in the springs are dependent namenom, da se prepreči onesnaženje tal in vode on rainfall and hydrological conditions. Despite the z naftnimi derivati in olji; fact that the mobile component of Pb does not exceed • pretakanje naftnih derivatov in olj mora potekati 0.1 % of the total Pb content in the soil samples from na utrjenih površinah, da ne pride do nekontro- the infantry firing range where the highest contents of liranih izpustov v okolje (urejene lovilne posode); this metal were measured ( Al Sayegh Petkovšek et al., • treba je primerno urediti odvajanje in čiščenje 2009), changing conditions in the soil (nitrates and vode iz nastanitvenih objektov. sulfates also occur in the training area) can trigger the more intensive flushing of Pb and other metals, 7.4 Smernice za when with rainfal they penetrate quickly and without monitoring kakovosti obstruction deeper into the karst aquifer. When met- kraških voda v vplivnem als are bound within soil, remediation is still possible območju vojaških vadišč through removal of the soil, but when they enter an aquifer, remediation is no longer possible. In the karst Za spremljanje negativnih vplivov vojaških va- terrain of this kind, remediation is also practically dišč na vodne vire je treba vzpostaviti ustrezen mo- impossible in the case of the spillage of hazardous nitoring. Na kraških območjih vstopajo onesnažila substances, something that has been demonstrated s površja neposredno v kraški vodonosnik, vode by spillages of petroleum derivatives in various ac- pa se nato pretakajo podzemno na večjih razdaljah cidents ( Kogovšek 1995b; Kogovšek and Petrič 2002a, in jih običajno lahko zajamemo šele v izvirih. Za b). All efforts therefore need to be directed towards določanje primernih točk monitoringa in za izbiro prevention. The danger comes from both the pollu- najbolj učinkovitega režima vzorčenja moramo zato tion of water as the result of wash-off of polluted soil dobro poznati hidrogeološke značilnosti območja. with rainfall, and from activities that accompany the Dosedanje raziskave ( Kogovšek 2010) so pokazale, quartering and supply of military units in the training da je smiselno vzorčenje po padavinah ob narašča- area (e.g. communal waste water). Degradation of the nju pretokov, saj v sušnih obdobjih prenos skozi environment through increased soil erosion also has vadozno cono krasa skoraj popolnoma izostane. an impact on water sources. Zbrani podatki kažejo na nujnost izvajanja mo- In planning activities in the military training area, nitoringa voda in sedimenta v vplivnem območju protective measures are therefore necessary within the vojaškega vadišča Poček večkrat na leto (predvsem area itself. Because waters from this area also drained 7. Assessment of impact of the Poček military training area on karst waters 121 monitoring kakovosti na izvirih Malenščice in towards sources of drinking water, all water protection Vipave, ki sta zajeta za vodooskrbo, občasno pa regulations must be observed. tudi na izvirih Prunkovec in Kotliči ter izviru reke We propose the fol owing measures in the military Pivke), v odvisnosti od hidroloških razmer. Poleg training areas: takega stalnega monitoringa v določenih intervalih • rainwater from paved surfaces should be channel ed je smiselno tudi podrobno spremljanje izbranih via sedimentation basins and oil traps; parametrov v času vodnih valov, ki nastopijo ob • owing to the large quantities of ammunition residues, izdatnejših padavinah po daljših sušnih obdobjih. the quality of springs and catchworks needs to be Pri tem je treba podrobno preučiti način prenosa subject to constant inspection; vseh onesnažil, posebno kovin, ki dosegajo na po- • the use of ammunition should be restricted to a spe- sameznih območjih na Počku velike vsebnosti tudi cific area, in this way physical y preventing impacts globlje (5–20 cm) v tleh ( Al Sayegh Petkovšek idr. on groundwater (professional removal of ammuni- 2006, 2009), torej neposredno na vstopu v dobro tion residues from the training area); prepustno kraško kamnino. Morda prav nevtralnost • the correct management of petroleum derivatives and karbonatnih kamnin v vadozni coni zaenkrat one- oils should be ensured; mogoča intenzivnejši nadaljnji prenos. Vendar pa • drip trays should be placed under vehicles parked on druge dejavnosti na poligonu vplivajo tudi na kislost non-paved surfaces in order to prevent soil and water oz. alkalnost tal, ki pa je pomembna za prenos ne- pol ution with petroleum derivatives and oils; katerih kovin (svinec). Zato lahko zaenkrat, dokler • siphoning of petroleum derivatives and oils must ne bodo opravljene podrobnejše raziskave prenosa, take place on paved surfaces in order to prevent le predpostavljamo, da pride tudi v vadozni coni uncontrolled discharges into the environment (use do spremenjenih pogojev in preboja v prenosu teh of drip trays); nevarnih snovi. Iz dosedanjih raziskav krasa ( Kogo- • the drainage and treatment of waters from accom- všek in Habič 1981) pa vemo, da se lahko s površja modation facilities should be arranged appropriately. globlje v kras po bolj prepustnih razpokah prenašajo tudi majhni trdni delci, na katere se vežejo kovine, 7.4 Guidelines for pa tudi mikroorganizmi. Torej lahko kovine tudi v monitoring the quality takšni obliki dosežejo kraške izvire. of karst waters in the Podobne smernice veljajo za načrtovanje moni- area of influence of the toringa v vplivnih območjih vseh vojaških vadišč military training areas na krasu, vendar bi jih bilo treba prilagoditi ugoto- vljenim hidrogeološkim značilnostim posameznih In order to monitor the negative impacts of the območij. Osnova izdelave vsakega programa moni- military training areas on water sources, an appropri- toringa je torej ustrezna predhodna hidrogeološka ate form of monitoring needs to be set up. In karst areas študija, ki lahko temelji na že obstoječih podatkih pol utants enter the karst aquifer directly from the sur- ali pa jo je ob pomanjkanju ustreznih podatkov face. Waters then flow underground over large distances treba dopolniti z novimi terenskimi raziskavami. and can usually only be sampled in springs. In order V naši dosedanji praksi so se kot ena od najbolj to identify suitable monitoring points and choose the primernih metod za tovrstne raziskave na krasu most effective sampling regime, we therefore need good pokazali sledilni poskusi. knowledge of the hydrogeological characteristics of the area. Research to date ( Kogovšek 2010) has shown that it makes sense to carry out sampling fol owing rainfal when discharges increase, since in dry periods trans- port through the vadose zone of the karst ceases almost entirely. 122 7. Ocena vpliva vojaškega vadišča Poček na kraške vode The col ected data point to the necessity of carrying out monitoring of waters and sediments in the area of influence of the Poček military training area several times a year (above al monitoring of water quality in the Malenščica and Vipava springs, which are used for water supply, and periodically of the Prunkovec and Kotliči springs and the spring of the Pivka river), depending on hydrological conditions. In addition to this constant monitoring at specific intervals, detailed monitoring of selected parameters during the water pulses that occur at times of abundant rainfall fol ow- ing longer dry periods is also a good idea. Here it is necessary to study in detail the method of transport of all pol utants, particularly metals, that in individual parts of the Poček military training area also reach high levels deeper down in the soil (5–20 cm) ( Al Sayegh Petkovšek et al. 2006, 2009), in other words directly at the entrance to the highly permeable karst rock. It may be that the neutrality of carbonate rocks in the vadose zone for the time being prevents more intensive further transport. Other factors in the training area, however, also affect the acidity or alkalinity of the soil, which is important for the transport of some metals (lead). For the time being, then, until more detailed research of transport is carried out, we can only assume that con- ditions also change in the vadose zone and that there is a breakthrough in the transport of these hazardous substances. We know, in fact, from previous research of the karst ( Kogovšek and Habič 1981) that small solid par- ticles to which metals bind, and also microorganisms, can be carried from the surface deeper into the karst along more permeable fissures. Metals can therefore also reach karst springs in this form. Similar guidelines apply to the planning of moni- toring in the areas of influence of all military training areas in the karst areas, although it would be neces- sary to adapt them to the identified hydrogeological characteristics of these areas. The basis for drawing up each monitoring program is therefore a suitable preliminary hydrogeological study which can be based on existing data or, in the case of a lack of suitable data, supplemented as necessary by new field research. In our activities to date, tracer tests have proved to be one of the most suitable methods for this kind of research in the karst. 7. Assessment of impact of the Poček military training area on karst waters 123 JE V A O ONOD ČILNOSTIM AK ODONOSNIK JANJE GAA 8 VENSKE ZO AŠKIH V METKA PETRIČ, JANJA KOGOVŠEK, NATAŠA RAVBAR OF PRIL SL SPECIAL POSEBNIM ZNA SL KR ADJUST O K VENE ARST MENT CHAR A LEGISL QUIFERS A OF C A TERISTICS TION T THE O THE Za učinkovito varovanje kraških vodnih vi- rov pred negativnimi posledicami različnih An adequate legal frame is essentially impor- tant for efficient protection of karst water človekovih dejavnosti so zelo pomembne od- resources against negative impact of various govarjajoče zakonske podlage. Te vsebujejo pravila, types of human activities. It defines the rules which ki omejujejo ali prepovedujejo aktivnosti z možnimi limit or prohibit the activities with possible harm- škodljivimi učinki in nalagajo izvajanje ukrepov za ful influences and impose the implementation of preprečevanje in omejevanje negativnih posledic. measures for prevention and reduction of negative Slovenska zakonodaja na tem področju je prilagojena consequences. The Slovene legislation is adapted to evropski zakonodaji in direktivam, v katerih pa kraški the European legislation and directives. As in the vodonosniki niso ustrezno izpostavljeni kot poseben latter the karst aquifers are not adequately treated as tip z zelo specifičnimi značilnostmi. Posledično tudi an environment with very specific characteristics, the prvotno sprejeti zakoni, uredbe in pravilniki, ki ure- particularities of karst areas were practically ignored jajo varovanje voda pri nas, večinoma niso posebej in the first adopted Slovene laws, regulations and omenjali kraških območij. V nadaljnjih letih je praksa rules dealing with the water protection. In the fol- pokazala pomanjkljivosti tovrstnega pristopa in poja- lowing years many deficiencies of such approach were vile so se številne težave pri obravnavanju posameznih encountered in the practice of dealing with the prob- primerov vodnih virov, onesnaževalcev ali onesnaženj lems of water resources, contaminants and pollution na krasu. Pripravljavci zakonodaje so se na to odzvali in karst. The legislator responded with a gradual s postopnim vključevanjem sprememb in dopolnil v incorporation of changes in the existent regulations. osnovnih uredbah, vendar pa gre za relativno poča- However, the process is relatively slow and still many sen proces in za številne probleme še ni bila najdena problems remain unsolved. primerna rešitev. In this chapter some basic characteristics and V nadaljevanju poglavja je najprej izpostavljenih principles of karst water protection, which should nekaj značilnosti in osnovnih načel varovanja kraških be considered in preparation of the legislation, are vodnih virov, ki jih je treba upoštevati pri postavitvi recapitulated and in the existing regulations included zakonskih osnov za njihovo zaščito. Nato so pred- articles dealing specially with karst are described. We stavljeni deli vsebine pravnih podlag, ki upoštevajo comment these provisions and compare them with the posebne značilnosti krasa. V zaključku komentiramo results of our studies of groundwater flow and trans- ta posebna določila in jih primerjamo z izsledki naših port of substances in karst. raziskav o značilnostih pretakanja vode in prenosa snovi v krasu. 8.1 The basic principles of karst water protection 8.1 Osnovna načela varovanja kraških The specific characteristics of karst and karst aq- vodnih virov uifers in the sense of their vulnerability are: absence of efficient protective cover (e.g. soil, sediments), rap- Posebnosti krasa in kraških vodonosnikov se v id infiltration of water into the underground (ponors, smislu njihove ranljivosti kažejo predvsem v: odsotno- fissured rock), rapid groundwater flow through karst sti varovalnega pokrova (npr. prst, sediment), hitri in- channels, quick spreading of pollution in various filtraciji vode v podzemlje (ponori, razpokana kamni- directions and long residence times and accumula- na), hitrem podzemnem pretakanju po kraških kanalih tion of contaminants in the low-permeability parts. z možnostmi širjenja onesnaženja v različnih smereh Depending on the hydrological conditions, these ter v možnostih daljšega podzemnega uskladiščenja in pollutants may be washed out later through karst kumulativnega kopičenja onesnaženja v conah slab- springs. The consequences of these characteristics še prepustnosti, ki ga lahko nato voda ob ustreznih are the following: 8. Adjustment of the Slovene legislation to the special characteristics of karst aquifers 125 hidroloških pogojih iztisne skozi kraške izvire. • high vulnerability of karst aquifers and much Posledice teh značilnosti so naslednje: reduced self-purification; • velika ranljivost kraških vodonosnikov in močno • the contamination may spread rapidly and far zmanjšana samočistilna sposobnost; away from the pollution source due to high • zaradi velikih hitrosti toka se lahko onesnaženje flow velocities; hitro razširi daleč proč od mesta vnosa v vodonosnik; • long residence times and accumulation of harmful • možno dlje časa trajajoče uskladiščenje škodljivih snovi substances lead to long-term pollution of the je razlog za dolgotrajno onesnaženost vodnega vira; water source; • najpomembnejši dejavnik zmanjševanja onesnaženja • dilution may be the main form of pollution je razredčenje. attenuation. V procesu varovanja kraških voda je prvi korak An adequate evaluation of karst waters, which njihovo ustrezno ovrednotenje, ki je tesno povezano is closely connected with the evaluation of the karst z vrednotenjem celotnega kraškega sistema. Pri tem system as a whole, is the first step in the process of moramo upoštevati, da je kraška voda bistveni del their protection. Karst waters are an essential part ekosistema, naravni vir ter javno in ekonomsko do- of the ecosystem, a natural source and a public and bro, katerega kakovost in količina določata njegovo economic good. The use of water is conditioned by uporabo. Kraški vodni viri morajo biti zaščiteni, upo- its quality and quantity. The karst water sources have števati pa je treba tudi odzivanje vodnih ekosistemov to be protected, and the response of water ecosystems in obnovljivo naravo virov. Pomembni so predvsem and their renewable nature considered. The following trije glavni vidiki: three aspects are the most important: • poznavanje naravnih značilnosti: v tem okviru mo- • understanding of natural characteristics: e.g. we ramo opredeliti obseg in način napajanja kraških should study the extent and type of recharge of karst vodonosnikov, značilnosti pretakanja in uskladišče- aquifers, the characteristics of groundwater flow nja podzemne vode, značilnosti izvirov ali površin- and storage, and the characteristics of springs and skih tokov in podobno; posebej je treba izpostaviti surface streams; the distribution and quantity of podatke o razporeditvi in količini vode; water are two significant parameters; • kakovost voda: nanjo poleg naravnega ozadja v veli- • water quality: additional to natural background the ki meri vplivajo tudi človekove dejavnosti; human activity largely affect the quality; • sedanje in načrtovane potrebe po vodi ter možnosti • present and future needs for water and feasibility njihove izrabe: kraški vodonosniki so pomemben of their use: karst aquifers are an important source, vodni vir, pri načrtovanju njihovega izkoriščanja and it is essential to consider the needs as well as pa moramo upoštevati tako potrebe kot možnosti the feasibility of their consumption while planning njihove izrabe. their use. V drugi fazi je potrebna ocena ogroženosti kraških In the second phase the risk assessment includ- voda, ki je odvisna od naravne ranljivosti vodonosnika ing the intrinsic vulnerability and pollution hazards in njegove obremenjenosti. Ranljivost opisuje naravne should be implemented. The intrinsic vulnerability značilnosti kraških vodonosnih sistemov z vidika nji- describes the natural characteristics of karst aquifers hovega varovanja ( Vrba in Zaporozec 1994). Določamo from the protection point of view ( Vrba and Zaporozec jo na podlagi geoloških in hidrogeoloških raziskav 1994). It takes into account the result of geological ter analize občutljivosti za vplive človeka in narave. and hydrogeological researches and the sensibility Običajno jo predstavljamo v obliki kart ranljivosti, analyses of human and natural influences. Various s katerimi lahko tudi grafično ponazorimo različne and complex hydrogeological characteristics are usu- in kompleksne hidrogeološke značilnosti. Obreme- ally presented graphically on vulnerability maps. The njenost okolja je odvisna od različnih oblik in obse- analysis of hazard depends on various types and extent ga človekovih dejavnosti. Dejanska obremenjenost of human activities. The existing hazard includes all 126 8. Prilagajanje slovenske zakonodaje posebnim značilnostim kraških vodonosnikov vključuje vse vire onesnaževanja, opredelimo pa lahko the pollution sources, and additionally the potential tudi potencialno obremenjenost. Ocena ogroženosti hazard may be defined. The risk assessment is based temelji na identificiranju nevarnosti in oceni verje- on the identification of hazard and the assessment tnosti pojavljanja negativnih vplivov, ki je odvisna od of probability of negative impacts occurring, which ranljivosti in obremenjenosti. Pri tem je treba opre- depends on vulnerability and hazard. The idea is to deliti možne posledice, tudi v povezavi s pomenom predict the possible consequences, also with regard to posameznih vodnih virov za vodooskrbo. the importance of individual water sources. Naslednja faza je priprava strategije ter načrta pri- The next phase is preparation of the water re- mernega varovanja in gospodarjenja z vodami. Na te- sources protection and management strategies and melju pripravljenih strokovnih podlag je treba za vodne plans. Based on the prepared expert basis the adequate vire določiti način njihove zaščite in sprejeti ustrezne methods and measures for the protection of water ukrepe za njihovo varovanje. Zelo velik pomen pri tem sources have to be implemented. The legislation is an ima zakonodaja, ki mora postaviti odgovarjajoče pravne important legal frame for efficient protection, and it okvire za izvajanje zaščite. Zagotoviti je treba učinkovit should ensure a proper control over implementation nadzor nad uresničevanjem predvidenih ukrepov. of the prescribed measures. K uspešni zaščiti lahko bistveno pripomoreta Education and training of public can significantly vzgoja in izobraževanje ljudi. Ljudje se moramo namreč contribute to efficient protection. People need to be zavedati življenjskega pomena podzemne vode in njene aware of the importance of groundwater to their lives občutljivosti za onesnaževanje s kraškega površja. and the vulnerability of this resource to pol ution from Če torej povzamemo, mora varovanje kraških the karst surface. vodnih virov temeljiti na: Therefore, the protection of karst water resources • dobrem poznavanju značilnosti krasa (izdelava should be based on: ustreznih strokovnih podlag); • good understanding of the characteristics of karst • sprejetju uredb o varovanju (območja in načini za- (setting up the adequate expert basis); ščite: določitev vodovarstvenih pasov, znotraj njih pa • legal acts of protection (designation of water protec- opredelitev omejenih in prepovedanih aktivnosti); tion zones, and within them definition of control ed • razumni izrabi; or prohibited activities); • stalnem monitoringu kakovosti; • reasonable consumption; • ozaveščenosti prebivalcev o pomenu in ranljivosti • permanent quality monitoring; kraških voda ter o ukrepih za njihovo zaščito. • public awareness of the importance and vulner- ability of karst waters and of the measures for their 8.2 Prilagajanje protection. slovenske zakonodaje posebnim značilnostim 8.2 Adjustment of the kraških vodonosnikov Slovene legislation to the special characteristics Temeljno pravno podlago na področju voda pred- of karst aquifers stavlja Zakon o vodah ( ZV-1, 2002) , ki ureja upravlja- nje z morjem, celinskimi in podzemnimi vodami ter The Waters Act ( ZV-1, 2002) governs the manage- vodnimi in priobalnimi zemljišči. (V celotnem poglavju ment of marine, inland and groundwaters, and the man- 8.2 so v poševnem tisku zapisane navedbe ali pov- agement of water and waterside land. (In the whole zetki navedb iz zakonskih aktov, v navadnem tisku chapter 8.2 the text or summary of the text of the legal pa naši komentarji.) V zakonu izraza 'kras' in 'kraški' acts is cited in italic, and our comments in regular nista omenjena. Med drugim predvideva tudi izde- font style). In this Act the terms ‘karst’ and ‘karstic’ lavo območij in režimov varovanja vodnih virov, ki se are not mentioned. The government shall designate 8. Adjustment of the Slovene legislation to the special characteristics of karst aquifers 127 uporabljajo za javno vodooskrbo (1). Za določanje var- the protected water areas (1) and water protection re- stvenih pasov in za nadzor nad izvajanjem predpisanih gimes if the water body is intended for the supply of ukrepov so odgovorne pristojne državne ustanove. Po drinking water, and shal supervise the implementa- prejšnji zakonodaji je bilo to v pristojnosti občinskih tion of the prescribed measures. In the previously valid uprav. Največji problemi so se pojavljali tam, kjer so legislation, the local communities were responsible bili vodovarstveni pasovi določeni izven meja občine, for these actions. However, many problems occurred ki vodni vir izrablja. Zato predvsem pri večjih kraških in the areas where the protection zones extend to the izvirih z velikim obsegom zaledja ustrezni odloki niso territory of communes which do not use the drink- bili sprejeti. Stanje se s prenosom tega pooblastila na ing water source in question. As a consequence, for državo izboljšuje, vendar pa smo zaenkrat večinoma many important karst sources with a large extent of the še v prehodni fazi pripravljanja ustreznih odlokov. catchment no adequate legal acts for their protection Način določitve vodovarstvenih območij predpi- were implemented. Now we are still in a transitional suje Pravilnik o kriterijih za določitev vodovarstve- phase, however in the future the conditions should nega območja ( PrKDVO, 2004), ki ločeno obravnava improve due to the transfer of responsibility to the medzrnski, razpoklinski in kraški tip vodonosnika. governmental services. Izpostavljene so posebne značilnosti pretakanja vode The methods for the designation of water protec- v kraških vodonosnikih, zaradi katerih je treba upo- tion zones are defined in the Rules on criteria for the rabiti drugačne metode za opredelitev vodovarstvenih designation of a water protection zone ( PrKDVO, območij. Našteti so geološki, geomorfološki in hidroge- 2004). In the Rules the porous, fissured and karst types ološki podatki, ki jih je treba določiti: hitrosti in smeri of aquifers are treated separately. Special characteristics toka podzemne vode, piezometrična gladina podzemne of water flow in karst aquifer are emphasised owing to vode, razredčenje dejanskih in morebitnih onesnaže- which some specific methods for the designation of pro- val, velikost in zakraselost napajalnega območja ter tection zones should be applied. The fol owing geological, 1 Vodovarstvena območja na ozemlju Slovenije po stanju avgusta 2008 (vir EIONET). Water protection zones in Slovenia, situation in August 2008 (source EIONET). 0 0 50 km 50 km varstvena območja / protection zones: varstvena območja / protection zones: najo najo žje / žje / innerinner širše / outer o o žje / žje / middle middle vplivno / area of influence širše / outer vplivno / area of influence 128 8. Prilagajanje slovenske zakonodaje posebnim značilnostim kraških vodonosnikov geološko-kemijske lastnosti podzemne vode. Poleg tega je geomorphological, and hydrogeological data have to be navedenih šest raziskovalnih metod, s katerimi naj bi te defined: the velocities and directions of groundwater podatke pridobili. Pravilnik dopušča možnost uporabe flow, piezometric levels, dilution of actual and potential samo ene metode, je pa v posebnem odstavku dodano, contaminants, extent and karstification of the catch- da je treba v primeru, ko ta ne zagotavlja zanesljive in ment, and geochemical characteristics of groundwater. učinkovite določitve mej, uporabiti rezultate različnih Six research methods can be applied to get these data. metod. Glede na naše izkušnje je zaradi kompleksne The use of only one method is al owed, however in a zgradbe in delovanja kraških vodonosnikov uporaba special paragraph the application of several methods is več vzporednih metod nujna in bi jo bilo smiselno pred- requested in the cases when the limits of protection zones pisati. Poleg osnovnega geološkega, geomorfološkega can’t be defined reliably and efficiently by the use of only in hidrogeološkega kartiranja bi bilo treba izpostaviti one method. According to our experiences, the paral el zlasti sledilne poskuse, ki največ povedo o smereh in use of several methods is essential due to the complex značilnostih podzemnega pretakanja vode v krasu. structure and functioning of karst aquifers and should Za vsak vodni vir so predvideni vsaj trije vodovar- be obligatory. Besides basic geological, geomorpho- stveni pasovi (2). Meja širšega območja je enaka zunanji logical and hydrogeological mapping, the most useful meji celotnega naravnega napajalnega območja. Na method for defining the directions and characteristics ožjem območju mora biti zagotovljeno varovanje zajetja of groundwater flow in karst are tracer tests. z izvedbo interventnih ukrepov v zelo kratkem času (čas For each water source at least three protection zones dotoka v zajetje večji od 12 ur), na najožjem območju should be designed (2). The boundary of the outer zone pa zagotovljeno varovanje zajetja pred kakršnimko- is the same as the catchment boundary. In the middle li onesnaženjem, ker možnosti izvedbe interventnih zone the implementation of intervention measures for ukrepov na tem območju ni (čas dotoka manjši kot 12 protection of the source should be feasible in a very short ur). Pravilnik navaja tudi značilna kraška območja period (the travel time to the abstraction site more than 2 Shema omejitve vodovarstvenih pasov v kraških vodonosnikih. Schematic presentation of water protection zones in karst aquifers. t > 12h t < 12h t < 12h t > 12h t > 12h t < 12h t < 12h t > 12h t > 12h t > 12h t < 12h t < 12h 0 50 km širše v varstvena območja / protection zones: širše v odov odo arstv varstveno območje / eno območje / outer protec out tion zer pr one otection zone ožje vodovarstveno območje / middle protection zone najožje / inner ožje vodovarstveno območje / middle protection zone najožje vodovarstveno območje / inner protection zone ožje / middle najožje vodovarstveno območje / inner protection zone vodni vir / water source širše / outer vodni vir / water source vplivno / area of influence 8. Adjustment of the Slovene legislation to the special characteristics of karst aquifers 129 (zakrasela območja z visokimi hitrostmi pretakanja, 12 hours). In the inner zone no time for the implemen- ponori in ponikalnice, kraška polja) in jih glede na po- tation of intervention measures is available, therefore vezavo z zasičeno cono uvršča v ožji in najožji varstveni the protection against any kind of pol ution should be pas. Težavo pri upoštevanju tega določila predstavlja assured within this area (the travel time less than 12 dejstvo, da so enake značilnosti za ponore in kraška hours). In the Rules various types of karst are defined polja navedene pri obeh pasovih. (karstified areas with high flow velocities, ponors and Pravilnik v prilogi 1 vključuje nabor prepovedi, ome- sinking streams, karst poljes) and according to their jitev in zaščitnih ukrepov za posege v okolje, v prilogi connection to the saturated zone they are classified into 2 dopustne vrednosti relativne občutljivosti za izdelavo the middle or inner protection zone. However, it is not ocen tveganja, v prilogi 3 pa predpisuje obliko strokov- possible to apply this classification unambiguously, nih podlag za pripravo akta o zavarovanju. because for the two types of protection zones the same Drugi krovni zakon, ki ureja tudi področje varova- characteristics of ponors and karst poljes are defined. nja voda, je Zakon o varstvu okolja ( ZVO-1, 2004) oz. In the Appendix 1 of the Rules the prohibited and predvsem podzakonski akti, ki ga spremljajo. Tako so controlled activities and protection measures are listed, bile sprejete uredbe o ravnanju z različnimi škodljivimi in the Appendix 2 the al owed values of relative sensitiv- snovmi in o mejnih vrednostih emisij nevarnih snovi. ity for the risk assessment analysis are given, and the V Uredbi o emisiji snovi pri odvajanju odpadne Appendix 3 regulates the form of the expert report on vode iz komunalnih čistilnih naprav ( UrES, 2007a) which the design of the protection act is based. kraški vodonosniki niso bili posebej omenjeni. Nato The second important act in the field of water pro- pa je bila sprejeta Uredba o spremembah in dopolni- tection is the Environment Protection Act ( ZVO-1, tvah Uredbe o emisiji snovi pri odvajanju odpadne 2004), which is supplemented with numerous Imple- vode iz komunalnih čistilnih naprav ( UrsdES, 2010), menting regulations. These manage the treatment of ki vsebuje dopolnilo za kraške in razpoklinske vodo- various harmful substances and define the limit values nosnike. Za ta območja predpisuje poleg terciarnega of their emissions. čiščenja tudi dodatno obdelavo odpadne vode, če se In the Decree on the emission of substances in le-ta odvaja posredno v podzemno vodo na zakraselih waste water discharged from urban waste water območjih. Upravljavec se mora prilagoditi tem zahte- treatment plants ( UrES, 2007a) the karst aquifers vam najpozneje do 22. decembra 2015. were not mentioned. However, later the Decree on Podobno je bil dodan člen za kraške in razpoklinske changes and completion of the decree on the emis- vodonosnike v Uredbi o emisiji snovi pri odvajanju sion of substances in waste water discharged from odpadne vode iz malih komunalnih čistilnih naprav urban waste water treatment plants ( UrsdES, 2010) ( UrES, 2007b). Pri odvajanju odpadne vode na površje was approved. It contains the supplement about the tal ali s ponikanjem v tla mora biti zagotovljeno ponika- karst and fissured aquifers. Additional to the tertiary nje preko objekta za ponikanje vode, katerega prostornina purification, an additional treatment of waste waters is za zadrževanje očiščene komunalne odpadne vode ne needed in the cases of indirect drainage of waste waters sme biti manjša od povprečne dnevne količine, odvedene into groundwater in karst areas. The managers of the iz male komunalne čistilne naprave, med dnom objekta water treatment plants should adapt to this new regula- za ponikanje in najvišjo gladino podzemne vode pa se tion by 22 December 2015. mora nahajati plast neomočenih sedimentov ali kamnin A similar article for karst and fissured aquifers was ali filtrskega materiala, debeline najmanj 1 m. added to the Decree on the emission of substances in Uredba o emisiji snovi in toplote pri odvajanju the discharge of waste waters from small urban waste odpadnih vod v vode in javno kanalizacijo ( UrES, water treatment plants ( UrES, 2007b). In the cases 2005b) določa, da je odpadne vode prepovedano odva- when waste waters are discharged on the soil surface or jati neposredno (brez precejanja skozi neomočene sedi- sink into the ground, the flow must be drained through mente ali kamnine, ki so pod površjem tal) v podzemne a sinking facility for the retention of treated communal 130 8. Prilagajanje slovenske zakonodaje posebnim značilnostim kraških vodonosnikov vode. Tudi posredno odvajanje je dovoljeno le v izjemnih waste waters. Its volume should not be less than the primerih, ko te prepovedi niso določene s predpisi, ki mean daily amount of water drained out of the smal urejajo vodovarstveni režim. Pri tem parametri odpa- urban waste water treatment plant. The layer of un- dne vode ne smejo presegati za napravo predpisanih saturated sediments or rocks or filter material between mejnih vrednosti za odvajanje neposredno v vode in the bottom of the sinking facility and the highest level of odvajanje ne sme vplivati na kakovost tal in podzemne groundwater should be at least 1 m thick. vode. Dovoljenje izda ministrstvo v okoljevarstvenem According to the Decree on the emission of sub- dovoljenju, če iz priložene dokumentacije izhaja, da stances and heat in the discharge of wastewater into so izpolnjeni zgoraj navedeni pogoji. Problem pri tej waters and public sewage system ( UrES, 2005b) it določbi je v zelo ohlapni definiciji, da odvajanje ne sme is not al owed to drain waste waters directly (without vplivati na kakovost tal in podzemne vode. Odločitev filtration through a layer of unsaturated sediments or o tem je prepuščena pripravljavcu strokovnih podlag rocks below the surface) into the groundwater. The in- za izdajo okoljevarstvenega dovoljenja, saj merila še direct drainage is permitted only in exceptional cases dopustnega vpliva niso postavljena. Smiselna bi bila when no prohibitions are set in the regulations of water zato določitev teh meril ob upoštevanju pomembnega protection zones. Additional y, the waste water param- vpliva hidroloških razmer. eters should not exceed the limit values defined for a Uredba o emisiji snovi pri odvajanju padavinske direct drainage into waters, and should not reduce the vode z javnih cest ( UrES, 2005a) razlikuje med cestami quality of soil and groundwater. The permission is issued na različnih tipih vodonosnikov in z različno gostoto pro- in the Environment Protection Licence by the Ministry meta. Za nekatere izmed tako določenih razredov predpi- only if it is evident from the enclosed documentation suje, da je treba za padavinsko vodo, ki odteka s cestišča, that the above mentioned conditions are fulfil ed. A zagotoviti zajetje v zadrževalniku padavinske odpadne weak point of this provision is in a loose definition that vode ločeno od zalednih vod, ki nastajajo na območju the drainage of waste waters should not reduce the qual- javne ceste. Pri kraških vodonosnikih je ta meja pri nižji ity of soil and groundwater. As no exact values of al- gostoti prometa. Prepovedano je neposredno odvajanje v lowed concentrations of possible contaminants in the podzemne vode. Določene so mejne vrednosti parametrov soil and groundwater are prescribed, only a subjective za padavinsko odpadno vodo, in sicer različno, glede na assessment of the experts preparing the documenta- način odvajanja. Pri preseženih mejnih vrednostih je tre- tion is possible. Therefore the completion of this act is ba zagotoviti dodatno čiščenje. Če gre za vodovarstveno necessary. In its preparation an important influence of območje, je treba upoštevati predpise, ki urejajo varstveni hydrological conditions should be taken into account. režim znotraj tega območja. In the Decree on the emission of substances in the V Uredbi o emisiji snovi pri odvajanju izcedne discharge of meteoric water from public roads ( UrES, vode iz odlagališč odpadkov ( UrES, 2008) in Uredbi 2005a) the roads on various types of aquifers and with o mejnih vrednostih vnosa nevarnih snovi in gnojil different traffic density are classified. The discharge of v tla ( UrMVVNS, 2005) območja krasa niso posebej precipitation water from the roads with higher traffic omenjena. density has to be directed through a retention pond, V Pravilniku o obratovalnem monitoringu one- separated from the meteoric water within the catch- snaževanja podzemne vode ( PrOM, 2006) je posta- ment of the road. The threshold density is lower for vljenih več posebnih določil za kraške vodonosnike. karst aquifers. A direct discharge into the groundwater Meritve osnovnih in indikativnih parametrov ter drugih is prohibited. The limit values for the quality parameters onesnaževal, vključenih v obratovalni monitoring, se iz- of precipitation water from the roads are set. They differ vajajo najmanj štirikrat letno na kraških vodonosnikih, for various types of drainage. An additional treatment če za posamezni vir onesnaževanja v predpisu, ki ureja is necessary when the limit values are exceeded. For the emisije v okolje iz tega vira, ni drugače določeno. Glede roads within the water protection zones the protection na naše izkušnje z veliko spremenljivostjo fizikalnih measures defined for these zones have to be respected. 8. Adjustment of the Slovene legislation to the special characteristics of karst aquifers 131 in kemičnih parametrov kraških voda s hidrološkimi In the Decree on the emission of substances in the razmerami lahko rečemo, da so štirje vzorci letno pre- discharge of landfill effluent ( UrES, 2008) and in the malo, da bi bili rezultati reprezentativni. V določilu je Decree on the limit input concentration values of dan- sicer uporabljena beseda najmanj, ki pa ne zagotavlja, gerous substances and fertilizers in soil ( UrMVVNS, da bo dejansko predpisano večje število vzorčenj. 2005) the karst areas are not specially mentioned. Številna pa so posebna določila za kras v Navodilih In the Rules on the performance of operational za izdelavo hidrogeološkega poročila za program monitoring of groundwater pollution ( PrOM, 2006) obratovalnega monitoringa, ki so priloga 1 k Pravilni- several particular regulations for karst aquifers are set. ku. Pri posnetku ničelnega stanja je treba opredeliti naj- If there is no other specification in the act regulating the bolj verjetne poti toka podzemne vode. Te smeri so lahko emissions from an individual pol ution source, the meas- določene na podlagi strukturnega kartiranja, sledilnih urements of basic and indicative parameters and other poskusov in opazovanja kemijskega stanja podzemne contaminants, which are included in the operational vode ali geofizikalnih raziskav. Na podlagi teh raziskav monitoring, should be performed at least four times a je treba podati oceno hitrosti in pretoka podzemne vode. year in karst aquifers. According to our experiences Vsak obstoječi vir onesnaževanja na krasu se obrav- the physical and chemical parameters of karst waters nava posebej. Za monitoring se uporabljajo predvsem are highly variable at different hydrological conditions. naravni hidrogeološki objekti. Tam, kjer teh objektov ni Therefore only four samples per year are not enough ali pa so tako daleč, da lahko na poti od vira onesnaže- to get representative results. Even though in the Rules vanja do njih pride do velikega razredčenja onesnaževal the term at least is used, this is no assurance that a in zaradi tega izvajanje obratovalnega monitoringa larger number of samples would be requested in the podzemne vode ni mogoče neposredno, je treba z obrato- regulations for an individual pollution source. vanjem vira onesnaževanja v najkrajšem možnem času Numerous particular regulations for karst are de- prenehati. Učinke na podzemno vodo se na teh virih fined in the Instructions for preparation of the hydro- onesnaževanja opazuje posredno preko obremenitev in geological report for the operational monitoring pro- hidrološke bilance padavinskih in izcednih voda ter s gramme which are the supplement 1 of the Rules. In preverjanjem hidravličnih značilnosti prekrivnih ma- the estimation of the zero conditions, the most probable terialov. Ustreznost prekrivnih materialov se dokaže s directions of groundwater flow have to be defined based hidrološko bilanco. Zvezne meritve pretokov so obvezne on the structural mapping, tracer tests, monitoring of the na vseh naravnih hidrogeoloških objektih, ki se nahajajo chemical state of groundwater or geophysical researches. v dolvodni smeri od vira onesnaževanja in so vključeni The flow velocities and discharges of groundwater have kot točke za opazovanje kemijskega statusa podzemne to be assessed. vode. Opustitev monitoringa za vire onesnaževanja, ki Each existent pol ution source in karst is treated leže na kraških kamninah, ni dovoljena. individual y. The natural hydrological objects are usu- al y used as the monitoring points. Any activity at the 8.3 Ocena pomanjkljivosti pollution source should be stopped in a shortest possible in dobrih rešitev time in the areas where no such objects exist or in the cases when they are so remote that a direct monitoring V Zakonu o vodah kraške vode sploh niso omenje- of groundwater is not possible due to a significant dilu- ne, čeprav bi glede na delež oskrbe iz kraških vodo- tion of contaminants in the flow between the source nosnikov v Sloveniji to pričakovali. Dobra rešitev pa and this point. The impacts on groundwater can only je prenos pristojnosti za sprejetje uredbe o varovanju be monitored indirectly. The pol ution and hydrologi- vodnih virov na državne organe, saj so prej na občin- cal balances of precipitation and waste waters have to skem nivoju pogosto prevladali lokalni interesi in so be assessed. The hydraulic characteristics of the cover bili odloki sprejeti le v omejenem obsegu ali pa sploh materials and their suitability have to be tested by hy- ne. Žal poteka proces na državni ravni le počasi in je drological balance. Continuous discharge measurements 132 8. Prilagajanje slovenske zakonodaje posebnim značilnostim kraških vodonosnikov zaenkrat za večje kraške vodne vire sprejeta le Uredba are obligatory at all natural hydrological objects down- o vodovarstvenem območju za vodno telo vodonosni- stream of the pol ution source, on which the monitoring kov Rižane ( UrVORiž, 2008). of the chemical state of groundwater is organized. It is Še najbolj podrobno so posebnosti krasa opredelje- not al owed to abandon the monitoring in the impact ne v Pravilniku o kriterijih za določitev vodovarstvenih areas of pol ution sources in karst. območij ( PrKDVO, 2004). Ta dokaj natančno navaja hidrogeološke parametre, ki jih je treba določiti v stro- 8.3 The assessment kovnih podlagah za omejitev vodovarstvenih območij, of deficiencies and predpisuje pa tudi raziskovalne metode, s katerimi jih good solutions je možno določiti. Po našem mnenju je pomanjkljivost v tem, da dopušča uporabo samo posameznih metod, In the Waters Act the karst is not mentioned, even s katerimi dobimo le del potrebne informacije in ne though this would be expected taking into account that moremo ustrezno pojasniti delovanja kompleksnih a great portion of drinking water in Slovenia is supplied kraških vodonosnikov. Izdelovalci strokovnih podlag from karst aquifers. A good solution is the transfer of zato pogosto določijo vodovarstvena območja na pod- competences for preparation of the water protection lagi skopih hidroloških in geoloških podatkov, le redko acts to the governmental services. Previously often the pa so v te namene opravljene raziskave načina napa- local interests prevailed and the water sources were janja, podzemnega pretakanja in praznjenja kraških protected only partly or not at all. Unfortunately, the vodonosnikov ter izvedeni sledilni poskusi v zaledju process on the state level is slow and among larger karst vodnih virov. Prav sledilni poskusi so metoda, ki daje water sources only for the Rižana spring the Decree on najbolj uporabne podatke za razumevanje značilnosti determining the drinking water protection area for the podzemnega pretakanja vode in prenosa snovi v krasu aquifers of Rižana ( UrVORiž, 2008) was implemented. ( Petrič 2009; Kogovšek in Petrič 2004). Pogosto tudi The most detailed consideration of specific charac- ni upoštevana v prostoru zelo spremenljiva ranljivost teristics of karst is given in the Rules on criteria for the kraških vodonosnikov (vloga zaščitnih slojev, razvitost designation of a water protection zone ( PrKDVO, 2004). kraške mreže, spreminjanje obsega zaledja ob različ- They contain a detail list of hydrogeological parameters nih hidroloških razmerah ipd.). V številnih evropskih based on which the water protection zones should be državah, predvsem tistih z večjim deležem krasa, je že designed. The research methods for the assessment predpisana uporaba koncepta kartiranja ranljivosti in of these parameters are suggested. In our opinion the ogroženosti. Več podatkov o teh metodah in o celo- deficiency is in the provision that the use of only one stno zasnovanem Slovenskem pristopu h kartiranju method is al owed. In this way only a part of informa- ranljivosti in ogroženosti ( Ravbar 2007) je zbranih tion needed is obtained and it is not possible to prop- v poglavju »Alternativna metoda za zaščito kraških erly explain the complex functioning of karst aquifers. vodnih virov« v tej knjigi. Therefore the water protection zones are often designed V uredbah o emisiji snovi pri odvajanju odpadne on the basis of deficient hydrological and geological vode iz čistilnih naprav (3) je upoštevana velika ranlji- data, and only rarely the conditions of recharge, ground- vost krasa in so zato od leta 2010 naprej za ta območja water flow and discharge of karst aquifers are thor- postavljene posebne zahteve v smislu dodatnega či- oughly studied. In the catchment of water sources the ščenja ali zagotavljanja počasnejšega precejanja skozi tracer tests are applied very seldom, even though this slabše prepustne plasti. Tudi pri Uredbi o emisiji snovi research method gives the most valuable information in toplote pri odvajanju odpadnih vod v vode in javno for understanding the characteristics of groundwater kanalizacijo ( UrES, 2005b) so bile ugotovljene težave flow and transport of substances in karst ( Petrič 2009; pri postavljanju pravil za kraške vodonosnike, vendar Kogovšek and Petrič 2004). High spatial variability of the pa po našem mnenju zaenkrat še niso bile ustrezno vulnerability of karst aquifers (role of protection cover, rešene. Problem je namreč v razumevanju določila, da development of karst network, changes of the catchment 8. Adjustment of the Slovene legislation to the special characteristics of karst aquifers 133 3 Uredba, ki obravnava odvajanje izcednih voda iz komunalnih čistilnih naprav, ima vključena posebna dopolnila za kraške in razpoklinske vodonosnike. Decree on the discharge of waste waters from the urban waste water treatment plants contains specific regulations for karst and fissured aquifers. 4 Lovilnik olj ob avtocesti Postojna–Vrhnika pri Ravbarkomandi. The oil collector by the motorway Postojna–Vrhnika near Ravbarkomanda. 5 Prenikanje izcednih voda z neurejenih odlagališč odpadkov ogroža kakovost kraških vodnih virov. Leachates from unsuitable landfills endanger the quality of karst water resources. 134 8. Prilagajanje slovenske zakonodaje posebnim značilnostim kraških vodonosnikov pri posrednem odvajanju v podzemne vode to ne sme extent at different hydrological conditions, etc.) is often vplivati na kakovost tal in podzemne vode. Natančneje neglected, too. In many European countries, mainly in merila o mejnih vrednostih za določitev tega vpliva those with a great portion of karst, the use of the vulner- niso opredeljena, zato je odločitev o njih prepuščena ability and risk mapping approach is obligatory. More pripravljavcu strokovnih podlag. Težava pa je še v tem, about these methods and the comprehensively designed da bi bilo treba znanje o prenosu onesnaževal v krasu Slovene approach to the vulnerability and risk mapping dopolnjevati tudi na teoretični ravni, da bi ustrezna ( Ravbar 2007) is presented in the chapter »An alterna- merila sploh lahko postavili. tive method for the protection of karst water sources« Ob gradnji avtocest v Sloveniji pred letom 1991 of this book. so bili zgrajeni lovilniki olj (4), ki naj bi zagotovili In the decrees on the emission of substances in zadrževanje izlitih naftnih derivatov in olj v prime- waste water discharged from waste water treatment ru prometnih nesreč. Kasneje so bile izdelane nove plants (3) a high vulnerability of karst aquifers is con- generacije zadrževalnih in čistilnih objektov, ki naj bi sidered. Therefore some special demands in the sense preprečili odtok prve, najbolj onesnažene padavinske of additional water treatment or retarded flow through odpadne vode s cestnih površin neposredno v kras. Za poorly permeable layers have been in force since 2010. ureditev iztoka iz teh objektov so za kraška območja In our opinion no adequate solutions for karst aquifers predvidena nekoliko strožja merila kot za nekraške have been found so far in the Decree on the emission terene. Po naših izkušnjah pa predstavljajo nevarnost of substances and heat in the discharge of wastewater zlasti težave v zvezi s tehnično izvedbo in vzdrževa- into waters and public sewage system ( UrES, 2005b). njem objektov. Rezultati opravljenih raziskav so bolj The problem is in the implementation of the regulation podrobno predstavljeni v poglavju pričujoče knjige that in the case of an indirect discharge the quality of »Ogroženost kraških vodnih virov zaradi prometa v soil and groundwater should not be reduced. As the rednih razmerah«. values of al owed concentrations of quality parameters V navodilih za izdelavo hidrogeološkega poročila, are not exactly defined, the experts preparing the docu- ki je strokovna osnova za izdelavo programa obrato- mentation can only make a subjective assessment. An valnega monitoringa onesnaževanja podzemne vode additional problem is the lack of theoretical knowledge (5), je postavljenih več posebnih določil za kraške about the transport of contaminants in karst. Further vodonosnike. Glede na naše poznavanje značilnosti studies are necessary for setting the adequate standards. prenosa snovi v krasu ( Kogovšek 2001a, 2010) pa lah- During the motorway construction before 1991 the ko kot pomanjkljivo ocenimo določilo o pogostnosti oil col ectors (4) were designed to retain the petroleum vzorčenja za monitoring. Z občasnim in skozi celo leto products and oils in the cases of traffic accidents involv- časovno enakomerno razporejenim vzorčenjem zaradi ing spil ages. Later new generations of retention ponds velike spremenljivosti kakovosti kraških voda ne dobi- and purification facilities were built to prevent the initial mo reprezentativnih vzorcev. Vzorčenje bi bilo treba discharge of the most pol uted precipitation water from ustrezno prilagoditi hidrološkim razmeram. Načrt the roads directly into the karst. The regulations regard- vzorčenja bi moral biti zasnovan na temelju rezulta- ing the characteristics of outflow from these objects are tov sledilnih poskusov, ki ne povedo le, kam, ampak more strict for karst areas. Nevertheless, according to tudi, kako se pretaka voda od vira onesnaženja do our experiences the main problems are connected with kraških izvirov ( Kogovšek in Petrič 2006, 2007, 2010a). the technical construction and maintenance of these Pri tem pa bi ga bilo smiselno ob novih spoznanjih facilities. The results of our researches are described in stalno posodabljati. Problem monitoringa kakovosti the chapter »Threats to karst water sources from traffic kraških voda je podrobneje predstavljen v poglavju in normal conditions« of this book. »Načrtovanje monitoringa podzemne vode v vplivnem In the Instructions for preparation of the hydro- območju odlagališč odpadkov na krasu na podlagi geological report for the programme of operational rezultatov sledilnih poskusov« v tej knjigi. monitoring of groundwater pol ution (5) several special 8. Adjustment of the Slovene legislation to the special characteristics of karst aquifers 135 Sklep regulations for karst aquifers are set. However, based on our understanding of the transport of substances V procesu prilagajanja slovenske zakonodaje in karst ( Kogovšek 2001a, 2010) we can assess as inad- evropski so bili na področju varovanja voda sprejeti equate the regulation on the sampling frequency. The številni zakoni, uredbe in pravilniki, v njih pa kras kot quality of karst waters varies significantly dependent zelo razširjen, poseben in za Slovenijo značilen tip po- on hydrological conditions therefore only occasional krajine ni bil ustrezno upoštevan. Zaradi tega so se pri sampling in regular time intervals is not representative izvajanju predpisov v praksi pojavljale številne težave, enough. Our proposal is to adapt the sampling plan to zelo ranljivi kraški vodonosniki pa niso bili primerno hydrological conditions. Furthermore, the results of zaščiteni. Postopno so bili tako dodani nekateri novi tracer tests, which simulate the directions and charac- členi, ki so uvedli posebna določila za kraške sisteme. teristics of groundwater flow from pol ution sources to S tem je bil storjen pomemben korak k bolj učin- karst springs ( Kogovšek and Petrič 2006, 2007, 2010a), kovitemu varovanju izjemno pomembnih kraških should be considered. The sampling plan should be vodnih virov. Vendar pa se vsa uveljavljena dopolnila regularly updated according to the results of new scien- niso pokazala kot dovolj dobre rešitve, zato je treba s tific researches. The chapter »Planning of groundwater prilagajanjem in dopolnjevanjem še nadaljevati. Pri monitoring in the impact areas of landfil s in karst based tem je smiselno upoštevati vse dosedanje izsledke o on the results of tracer tests« of this book deals with the značilnostih pretakanja voda in prenosa snovi v krasu problems of water quality monitoring in karst areas. ter jih po potrebi dopolniti z novimi, usmerjenimi raziskavami prenosa kontaminantov v razmerah, ki Conclusion se pojavljajo v praksi. In the process of adjustment of the Slovene water protection legislation to the European legislation many new laws, decrees and rules were adopted. Even though karst is a widely spread, specific and for Slovenia typical environment, no adequate attention was devoted to karst in these acts. This resulted in numerous problems when the new acts were actual y implemented in prac- tice. In consequence the karst aquifers were not properly protected. Gradual y the acts were supplemented with some new articles introducing special regulations for karst systems. These adjustments are an important step forward to assure a more efficient protection of extremely im- portant karst water resources. However, not all new regulations are the proper solutions and it is important to continue with the process of adjustments. The exist- ing knowledge about the characteristics of groundwa- ter flow and transport of substances in karst has to be considered and if necessary supplemented with new, targeted researches of the contaminant transport in specific conditions. 136 8. Prilagajanje slovenske zakonodaje posebnim značilnostim kraških vodonosnikov A TOD AŠKIH VO O KR TIVNA ME AŠČIT 9 TERNA ODNIH VIR NAWALTHE PRZA ZAN VTAŠA ATER SOURALRAVBTERNAAROTEC TION OF K CES TIVE ME THOD ARST FOR Pri nas je kraška podzemna voda zelo pomem- ben vir pitne vode, saj skoraj polovico potreb Karst groundwater is a very important source of drinking water in Slovenia since almost pokrivamo s črpanjem iz kraških vodono- half the demand is covered by exploiting snikov (1). Čeprav so kraški vodni viri v primerjavi karst aquifers (1). Although karst water sources are z nekraškimi še posebej občutljivi na onesnaženje, very susceptible to pol ution in comparison with non- pa mnogi še vedno ostajajo neprimerno zaščiteni karst ones, many of them are inadequately protected ( Ravbar in Kovačič 2006). ( Ravbar and Kovačič 2006). Varovanje vodnih virov (iz izvirov, vrtin) pred- Protection of water sources (from springs, wells) videva Zakon o vodah ( ZV-1, 2002) z dopolnitvami, is provided for by the Waters Act ( ZV-1, 2002) and ki v svojih podzakonskih aktih predpisuje merila its supplements. Its implementing regulations pre- za določitev vodovarstvenih območij in režimov scribe measures for the creation of water protection varovanja ( Pravilnik o kriterijih za določitev vodo- areas and protection regimes ( Rules on the criteria for varstvenega območja – PrKDVO, 2004). Kriteriji za the designation of a water protection zone – PrKDVO, zaščito navadno temeljijo na oddaljenosti od vodne- 2004). The criteria for protection are usually based ga vira oziroma na hitrosti toka podzemske vode do predominantly on the distance from the water source vodnega vira. or the groundwater flow velocity. Žal v slovenski zakonodaji posebne značilnosti Unfortunately, Slovene legislation does not suf- pretakanja voda v krasu niso zadovoljivo upošte- ficiently consider the special characteristics of the vane, kar je podrobneje predstavljeno v poglav- groundwater flow in karst which has been in more ju »Prilagajanje slovenske zakonodaje posebnim detail described in chapter »Adjustment of the Slovene 1 Razširjenost karbonatnih kamnin v Sloveniji in pomembnejši kraški vodni viri (po Ravbar in Kovačič 2006). Distribution of carbonate rock in Slovenia and major karst water sources (from Ravbar and Kovačič 2006). Završnica Peričnik Završnica O P včje jame eričnik Ovčje jame Pod Krvavcem Zadlaščica Pod Krvavcem Zadlaščica Prilesje Prilesje Mrzlek Mrzlek Hubelj Hubelj Vipava Globočec Klariči Vipava Malenščica Globočec Klariči Malenščica Rakitnica Rakitnica Obrh Obrh Bistrica Bistrica 0 50 km Rižana Dobličica 0 50 km Rižana Dobričica karbonatne kamnine / carbonate rock karbonatne kamnine kraški vodni vir / karst water source: krašk car i vodni vir / bonate rock karst water source: povprečna količina črpanja / average captured quantity povprečna količina črpanja / average captured quantity 100 - 250 l/s 100 - 250 l/s 50 - 99 l/s 50 - 99 l/s 16 - 49 l/s 16 - 49 l/s 138 9. Alternativna metoda za zaščito kraških vodnih virov značilnostim kraških vodonosnikov« v tej knjigi. legislation to the special characteristics of karst aqui- Varovanje kraških vodnih virov pogosto ne vključu- fers« of this book. The protection often fails to include je posebnosti pretakanja vode v krasu, kot so hete- special features of water percolation in karst such as rogenost in kompleksnost napajanja vodonosnikov, the heterogeneity and complexity of aquifer recharge, spreminjanje hitrosti in smeri pretakanja voda v changes in velocity and direction of water flow under različnih hidroloških razmerah ipd. various hydrological conditions, etc. V medzrnskih vodonosnikih so hitrosti pretaka- Intergranular aquifers display very low groundwa- nja podzemskih voda zelo nizke, manjše od 10 m na ter flow velocities, less than 10 m per day. The water dan. Vodovarstvena območja imajo tako premer le protection areas are therefore only several hundred nekaj sto metrov. Na kraških območjih so zadrževal- metres in diameter. In karst areas, however, ground- ni časi voda v podzemlju kratki (nekaj ur do nekaj water retention times are short (a few hours to a few dni), kar pomeni omejeno zmožnost razgradnje days), which means a limited capacity for the degrada- onesnaževal in odmrtje mikroorganizmov. Obenem tion of pollutants and the die off of microorganisms. pa večja oddaljenost od vodnega vira ne pomeni At the same time, a larger distance from the water nujno tudi večje varnosti pred onesnaženjem. Zato source does not necessarily mean greater protection zgolj upoštevanje hitrosti ali oddaljenosti nista za- from pollution. Therefore, velocity or distance alone dostna kriterija za varovanje kraških vodnih virov, do not comprise adequate criteria for the protection saj bi vodovarstvena območja obsegala več deset of water sources since water protection areas could do več sto km2 oziroma celotna zaledja. V različnih encompass tens or hundreds of km2 or even entire hidroloških razmerah se v krasu spreminjajo tudi catchment areas. The velocities and directions of water hitrosti in smeri pretakanja voda. Zato se lahko percolation also change under different hydrologi- spreminja obseg prispevnega zaledja, kar je še zlasti cal conditions in karst. The extent of catchment areas pomembno pri določanju vodovarstvenih območij can change as a result, which is an important issue ( Bonacci 1999; Ravbar idr. 2011). in determining water protection areas ( Bonacci 1999; Ravbar et al. 2011). 9.1 Ranljivost in tveganje za onesnaženje 9.1 Vulnerability and contamination risk Za učinkovito varovanje najbolj občutljivih območij kraških vodonosnikov se v nekaterih For the effective protection of the most sensitive evropskih državah pri določanju vodovarstvenih areas of karst aquifers, a concept of mapping or as- pasov uporablja koncept kartiranja oziroma oce- sessing vulnerability is used in a number of European njevanja ranljivosti, pri načrtovanju rabe prostora countries when identifying water protection zones, pa v ospredje vse bolj stopa ocenjevanje tveganja and land use planning is placing increasing emphasis za onesnaženje ( Vrba in Zaporozec 1994). V ta na- on the assessment of contamination risk ( Vrba and men so bile v okviru mednarodnega projekta COST Zaporozec 1994). To this end, guidelines for making Action 620, pri katerem je sodelovala tudi Slove- these types of assessments were elaborated ( Daly nija, izdelane smernice za izdelavo tovrstnih ocen et al. 2002) in the framework of the COST Action ( Daly idr. 2002). 620 international project in which Slovenia took an Na teh osnovah so bile, upoštevajoč razlike med active part. posameznimi kraškimi vodonosnimi sistemi ter On this basis and taking differences between razlike v dostopnosti do podatkov in v ekonomskih individual karst aquifer systems, differences in data zmožnostih, izdelane številne metode ocenjeva- accessibility, and the framework of economic capa- nja in kartiranja občutljivosti kraške podtalnice, ki bilities into account, numerous methods of assessing so bile tudi večkrat uporabljene in preizkušene na and mapping karst groundwater vulnerability were 9. An alternative method for the protection of karst water sources 139 različnih testnih poligonih po svetu ( Zwahlen 2004; elaborated that were applied and tested in a variety Ravbar 2007; Goldscheider 2010 itd.). of test areas across the world ( Zwahlen 2004; Ravbar V Sloveniji smo na temelju predlaganih smernic 2007; Goldscheider 2010, etc.). razvili celostno zasnovan Slovenski pristop ( Ravbar Here in Slovenia, the comprehensively designed Slo- in Goldscheider 2007), ki ustreza slovenski okoljski vene approach based on the suggested guidelines was zakonodaji in omogoča primerjavo z razmerami v developed ( Ravbar and Goldscheider 2007). This Evropi. Vključuje ocenjevanje naravne ranljivosti in method complies with the Slovene environmental obremenjevalcev. Ti dve oceni sta podlaga izdelavi legislation and enables comparison with conditions ocen tveganja za onesnaženje. Metoda ponuja tudi elsewhere in Europe. It includes assessments of natu- možnost ocene pomembnosti podzemne vode oziro- ral vulnerability and contamination hazards. These ma vodnega vira, na osnovi katere lahko v primerih two assessments form the basis for evaluating con- onesnaženja predvidimo ekološko in materialno tamination risk. The method also offers the possibility škodo ter izdelamo prednostni seznam saniranja ali of assessing the importance of the water resource or preventivnih varovalnih ukrepov (2). source, on the basis of which it is possible to anticipate Ocenjevanje naravne ranljivosti upošteva ge- ecological and material damage in the event of pollu- ološke, hidrološke in hidrogeološke značilnosti tion and formulate a priority list of rehabilitation or kraškega sistema ter je neodvisno od lastnosti in preventive protection measures (2). obnašanja posameznih onesnaževal. Glede na na- The assessment of natural vulnerability includes men sta na voljo dve vrsti ocenjevanja ranljivosti: the geological, hydrological, and hydrogeological char- za podzemno vodo in za vodni vir. Ocenjevanje acteristics of a karst system and is independent of the ranljivosti podzemne vode upošteva parametre, properties and behaviour of individual contaminants. ki nadzorujejo tok infiltrirane vode vse od površja Relative to the purpose, two types of vulnerability as- do gladine podzemne vode. Pri tem so pomembni sessment are available: for resources and for sources. kazalniki prepustnost in debelina prsti in kamnin, Assessment of resource vulnerability includes param- ki sestavljajo nezasičeno cono, koncentracija odto- eters that control the flow of infiltrated water from the ka v podzemlje, na katero vplivata topografija in surface all the way to the water table. Here, relevant 2 Shematski prikaz ocenjevanja naravne ranljivosti in tveganja podtalnice ali KARTA RANLJIVOSTI OCENA POMEMBNOSTI KARTA OBREMENJEVALCEV vodnih virov za onesnaženje. VULNERABILITY MAP IMPORTANCE ASSESSMENT HAZARD MAP Schematic presentation of natural vulnerability assessment and water resources or sources contamination risk. KARTA TVEGANJA ZA ONESNAŽENJE CONTAMINATION RISK MAP 140 9. Alternativna metoda za zaščito kraških vodnih virov Kazalnik / Factor Debelina prsti / Topsoil thickness Struktura prsti / Topsoil structure Tekstura prsti / Topsoil texture Prepustnost podtalja / Subsoil permeability Kraška nezasičena cona Debelina podtalja / Subsoil thickness Karst unsaturated zone Globina do nezasičene cone / Depth to the unsaturated zone Razpokanost / Fracturation Razvoj epikrasa – kraške geomorfološke oblike Epikarst development – geomorphological features Zaprtost vodonosnika / Confined situation of the aquifer Koncentracija toka / Flow concentration Naklon površja / Slope gradient Načini napajanja Raba tal – vegetacijski pokrov / Land use – vegetation cover Recharge conditions Avtogeno napajanje / Autogenic recharge Alogeno napajanje / Alogenic recharge Časovna hidrološka spremenljivost / Temporal hydrological variability Navzočnost mreže aktivnih kraških kanalov Kraška zasičena cona Presence of an active karst network Karst saturated zone Hidrološke značilnosti izvira / Hydrological characteristics of a source Interpretacija sledilnih poskusov / Tracer test interpretation Tabela 1 Podatki in kazalniki, ki jih za ocenjevanje naravne ranljivosti upošteva Slovenski pristop. Table 1 Data and factors included in the Slovene approach to assessing natural vulnerability. vegetacijski pokrov, ter distribucija in intenziteta factors include the permeability and thickness of the padavin. Metoda ponuja možnost upoštevanja ča- soil and rock composing the unsaturated (vadose) zone sovne hidrološke spremenljivosti ter povezovanja and the concentration of runoff in the underground as zaščite površinskih in podzemnih voda. Z dodatnim influenced by topography, the vegetation cover, and the parametrom, ki upošteva značilnosti pretakanja distribution and intensity of precipitation. The meth- voda v zasičeni coni, je moč oceniti ranljivost vo- od offers the possibility of considering the temporal dnega vira (3, tabela 1). variability of hydrological conditions and the linked Pri kartiranju obremenjevalcev je za vsakega protection of surface waters and groundwater. The ad- onesnaževalca predvidena določena vrednost glede ditional parameter, which considers the characteristics na kvalitativno primerjavo potencialne škode (to- of water flow in the saturated (phreatic) zone, makes ksičnost substanc, njihova topnost in mobilnost), it possible to assess the vulnerability of a water source za primerjavo znotraj ene vrste obremenjevalcev pa (3, table 1). se predvideva proces razvrščanja glede na stopnjo In mapping contamination hazards, a specific value strupenosti substanc, čas izpostavljanja obremenje- is assigned to each source of pollution relative to the vanju ali glede na količino oziroma velikost onesna- qualitative comparison of potential damage (toxicity ževalca. Upoštevana je še verjetnost onesnaženja, of substances, their solubility and mobility); compari- na kar vplivajo tehnični status, stopnja vzdrževanja, son within one type of pollutant, however, requires a varnostne razmere in druge okoliščine. Ocenjevanje classification process relative to the level of toxicity of 9. An alternative method for the protection of karst water sources 141 pomembnosti podzemne vode oziroma vodnega substances and time of exposure to pollution or rela- vira združuje socialno, ekonomsko in biološko vre- tive to the quantity or size of the source of pollution. dnotenje. Another factor to consider is probability of pollution Končni rezultat ocenjevanja naravne ranljivo- as influenced by technical status, maintenance level, sti je karta, na kateri so različne stopnje ranljivosti safety conditions, and other circumstances. Assess- kraških voda za onesnaženje prikazane v različnih ment of the water resource or source importance barvah in jih je mogoče preoblikovati v vodovar- combines social, economic, and biological factors. stvene pasove. Z identifikacijo najbolj ranljivih The final result of the natural vulnerability as- območij ponujajo karte naravne ranljivosti optimi- sessment is a map showing various levels of vulner- zacijo vodovarstvenih pasov, primerno in previdno ability to pollution of karst waters in different colours upravljanje vodnih virov ter podlago za načrtovanje that can possibly be converted into water protection monitoringa kakovosti podzemne vode. Na najbolj zones. By identifying the most vulnerable areas, natu- ranljivih območjih naj bi veljali najstrožji ukrepi ral vulnerability maps offer the optimization of water varovanja, tako da bi bile najbolj škodljive človekove protection zones, proper and careful management of dejavnosti prepovedane. water sources, and a basis for planning the monitor- Ko te karte dopolnimo še s tistimi, na katerih pri- ing of groundwater quality. The strictest protection kažemo potencialne in dejanske obremenjevalce, lah- measures should apply to the most vulnerable ar- ko ocenimo tveganje podzemne vode ali vodnih virov eas, and the most harmful human activities should za onesnaženje. Tako lahko celostno ovrednotimo be prohibited. padavine / precipitation prst in sedimenti soil and sediments koncentriran odtok vegetation and topography NEZASIČENA CONA izvir / spring vrtina / well UNSATURATED ZONE ZASIČENA CONA SATURATED ZONE podzemna voda / groundwater 3 Konceptualni model kraškega vodonosnika in parametri, ki vplivajo na ranljivost podzemne vode ali vodnega vira (po Andreo idr. 2006). Conceptual model of karst aquifer and parameters influencing the vulnerability of water resources or sources (from Andreo et al. 2006). 142 9. Alternativna metoda za zaščito kraških vodnih virov a a stopnja ranljivosti stalni izvir / permanent spring vulnerability degree: občasni izvir / temporal spring zelo visoka / very high ponor / swallow hole visoka / high stopnja ranljivosti vodotok / surface stream zmerna / moderate stalni izvir / permanent spring vulnerability degree: nizka / low občasni izvir / temporal spring zelo visoka / very high ponor / swallow hole visoka / high vodotok / surface stream zmerna / b moderate nizka / low b stopnja ranljivosti stalni izvir / permanent spring vulnerability degree: občasni izvir / temporal spring visoka / high ponor / swallow hole zmerna / moderate stopnja ranljivosti vodotok / surface stream nizka / low stalni izvir / permanent spring vulnerability degree: občasni izvir / temporal spring visoka / high ponor / swallow hole zmerna / moderate vodotok / surface stream nizka / low 4 Naravna ranljivost a) Orehovškega vodonosnika in b) izvira Korentan, ocenjena z uporabo Slovenskega pristopa (po Marin idr. 2011). Natural vulnerability of a) the Orehek aquifer and b) the Korentan spring assessed using the Slovene approach (from Marin et al. 2011). 9. An alternative method for the protection of karst water sources 143 dosedanje človekove vplive in identifikacijo območij When these maps are complemented by those z neustreznim upravljanjem, nakažemo reorgani- showing potential and actual sources of pollu- zacijo rabe prostora in boljšo prakso v prihodnjem tion, it is possible to assess the water resources načrtovanju, izdelamo podlago za različne presoje or sources risk of contamination. Thus it is pos- vplivov na okolje ter lažje predvidimo posledice in sible to make a comprehensive assessment of ex- škodo (ekološko in materialno) ob različnih onesna- isting human impacts and identify areas with in- ženjih. Stopnjo tveganja za onesnaženje dosežemo adequate management, reorganize land use and z upoštevanjem ocen ranljivosti, obremenjevanja in apply better practice in future planning, create a pomembnosti. foundation for a variety of environmental impact assessments, and facilitate the predictions of conse- 9.2 Aplikacija nove metode quences and damage (ecological and material) of a in preverjanje rezultatov variety of pol ution events. The level of contamination risk can be determined by taking the vulnerability Doslej je bil Slovenski pristop v okviru različ- assessment, hazard assessment, and importance as- nih projektov apliciran na treh različnih kraških sessment into account. vodonosnikih pri nas. Uporabljen je bil za ocenje- vanje naravne ranljivosti Orehovškega kraškega 9.2 Application of vodonosnika in v preteklosti opuščenega vodnega the new method and vira Korentan pri Postojni (4; Marin idr. 2011). Za- verification of results radi pomanjkanja raziskav in podatkov je bila na območju Krvavca z uporabo Slovenskega pristopa Up to date the Slovene approach was applied in napravljena le analiza naravne ranljivosti podzemne the framework of various projects to three different vode ( Juvan in Čenčur Curk 2008). Slovene karst aquifers. It has been used to assess the Najbolj celostna študija kartiranja ranljivosti in natural vulnerability of the Orehek karst aquifer and of tveganja, skupaj s preskusom veljavnosti dobljenih the no longer exploited Korentan spring near Postojna rezultatov, je bila opravljena v zaledju manjšega (4; Marin et al. 2011). Due to lack of research and data kraškega izvira Podstenjšek v jugozahodni Sloveniji, was in the area of Krvavec using the Slovene approach ki je zajet za lokalno vodooskrbo ( Ravbar 2007). made only the analysis of resource natural vulnerability Hidrografsko zaledje sestavljajo zakraseli apnenci in ( Juvan and Čenčur Curk 2008). dolomiti, ki so narinjeni na neprepustne eocenske The most comprehensive study mapping vulner- flišne plasti. Spodaj ležeče flišne kamnine vplivajo ability and risk including a test of validity of the results na obstoj plitvega kraškega vodonosnika, kar ob was conducted in the catchment area of the Podstenjšek izjemno visokih vodah omogoča dvig kraške pod- spring, a smal er karst spring in southwestern Slovenia zemne vode na površje in pojavljanje dveh presiha- exploited for the local water supply ( Ravbar 2007). The jočih jezer, Šembijskega jezera in Narič. Na obmo- hydrographical catchment area is composed of karsti- čju presihajočih jezer prekrivajo apnence različno fied limestone and dolomite thrust over impermeable debeli kvartarni aluvialni nanosi, v suhi dolini, na Eocene flysch. The underlying flysch rock caused the vzhodnih obronkih zaledja, pa se ponekod pojavlja- formation of a shal ow karst aquifer that al ows the ris- jo pleistocenski periglacialni sedimenti. ing of karst groundwater to the surface during extreme V zaledju vodnega vira Podstenjšek ni resnejših high water conditions and the appearance of two inter- dejanskih in potencialnih virov onesnaženja. Večji mittent lakes, Šembijsko jezero and Nariče. In the area del zaledja je neposeljen, poraščen z gozdom ali of these intermittent lakes, the limestone is covered by pa se uporablja za ekstenzivne pašnike in travnike. variously thick Quaternary al uvial deposits while Pleis- Strnjena poselitev je le na območju spalnega nase- tocene periglacial sediments are found in some places lja Šembije, v katerem živi okrog 200 prebivalcev. in a dry val ey at the eastern edge of the catchment area. 144 9. Alternativna metoda za zaščito kraških vodnih virov 5 Primer aplikacije Slovenskega pristopa na obronkih snežniškega vodonosnika: karti naravne ranljivosti a) podzemne a vode, b) kraškega izvira Podstenjšek in c) karta tveganja Podstenjška za onesnaženje (po Ravbar 2007). Example of application of the Slovene a approach at the edge of the Snežnik aquifer: maps of natural vulnerability of a) groundwater, b) of the Podstenjšek karst spring and c) a contamination risk map of the Podstenjšek spring (from Ravbar 2007). b b c c 0 1 km 0 1 km stopnja ranjlivosti in tveganja / vulnerability and risk degree: st z opnja relo visok anljiv a / e osti in t x v treme eganja / vulnerability and risk degree: visoka / high zelo visoka / extreme nizka / low kraški izvir / karst spring zmerna / moderate visoka / high zelo nizka / very low vodotok / surface stream nizka / low zmerna / moderate zelo nizka / very low kraški izvir / karst spring vodotok / surface stream 9. An alternative method for the protection of karst water sources 145 Naselje ima urejeno kanalizacijsko omrežje, odpa- There are no major actual or potential hazards dne vode pa so speljane v manjšo čistilno napravo in the catchment area of the Podstenjšek spring. The zunaj napajalnega zaledja izvirov. greater part of the catchment is unpopulated, cov- Vodni vir ogroža regionalna cesta, ki nima ered with forest, or used for extensive pastures and urejenih obcestnih kanalov za odvajanje izcednih meadows. Denser settlement is only found in the area voda, razen skozi naselje. Kakovost vodnega vira of the Šembije suburban town which has about 200 obremenjuje pokopališče, ležeče neposredno nad inhabitants. The settlement has a regulated sewage sys- izviri, in sedem manjših divjih odlagališč odpadkov tem, and waste waters are channeled to a small sewage v zaledju. treatment plant outside the spring’s catchment area. Rezultate ocenjevanja ranljivosti smo preverili However, the water source is threatened by a re- s pomočjo dveh kombiniranih sledilnih poskusov, gional road that has no gutters for controlling runoff. ki sta skupno zajemala šest injicirnih točk. Prever- The quality of the water source is also threatened by janje je potrdilo ocenjeno naravno ranljivost re- the cemetery located directly above the springs and prezentativnih točk, izbranih za injiciranje sledila, seven small illegal dumps in the catchment. in obenem to, da je metoda verodostojna. Končne The results of the vulnerability assessment were karte tako omogočajo izpopolnjeno razmejitev vo- verified by two multi-tracer tests that together includ- dovarstvenih pasov, označujejo območja neprimer- ed six injection points. The verification confirmed nega ravnanja in dajejo podlago za boljše rešitve v the assessed natural vulnerability of the representa- prihodnjem načrtovanju rabe prostora (5). tive points selected for injection of the tracer and the credibility of the method. The final maps thus al owed 9.3 Uporabnost an improved demarcation of water protection zones, Slovenskega pristopa identified areas of inadequate management, and pro- vided a foundation for better solutions in future land Koncept ocenjevanja ranljivosti in tveganja ponu- use planning (5). ja ravnotežje med varovanjem na eni ter prostorskim načrtovanjem in ekonomskimi interesi na drugi stra- 9.3 Applicability of ni. Preprečuje postavitev potencialnih onesnaževal- the Slovene approach cev na območjih, kjer obremenjevanje že dosega ali celo presega naravne samočistilne sposobnosti, in The concept of assessing vulnerability and risk of- hkrati opozarja na območja z najvišjo stopnjo tvega- fers a balance between protection on the one hand and nja, ki terjajo takojšnje ukrepanje in sanacijo. spatial planning and economic interests on the other. Uporabna vrednost takšnih kart je zelo velika, It prevents adding potential sources of pollution in saj lahko odgovorni za odločanje o izrabi prostora z areas where pollution already reaches or even exceeds njihovo pomočjo ugotovijo, katera območja znotraj natural self-cleansing capacities and at the same time zaledja posameznega vodnega vira so primerna za shows areas of the highest risk level that call for im- določene človekove dejavnosti ter katera in do kakšne mediate action and rehabilitation. mere so potrebna zaščite, kar pa lahko pomeni tudi The maps produced by the Slovene approach are prepoved opravljanja kakšne dejavnosti. Predvidimo extremely useful since those responsible for making lahko tudi sanacijske ukrepe dejanskih onesnaže- decisions about land use can employ them to identify valcev in skladno s tveganjem določimo terminski areas inside individual catchment areas suitable for plan njihove izvedbe. Karte ranljivosti in tveganja certain human activities, areas in need of protection, za onesnaženje podzemne vode so tako za držav- and the level of their protection, which can result in ne in krajevne organe, odgovorne za načrtovanje in banning certain activities. It is also possible to envisage odločanje o rabi prostora, koristna osnova pri njiho- rehabilitation measures for actual sources of pol ution vih odločitvah. and determine a schedule for their implementation 146 9. Alternativna metoda za zaščito kraških vodnih virov Slovenski pristop spada med izredno sofisticirane relative to the level of risk. Maps of natural vulner- metode, saj je za aplikacijo treba ogromno podatkov, ability and the pol ution risk to groundwater therefore časa, finančnih in tehničnih virov. Vendar je preskus provide a useful decision-making basis for national veljavnosti dobljenih rezultatov pokazal, da je upo- and local authorities responsible for spatial planning raba takšnih metod v primerjavi s preprostejšimi bolj and land use. upravičena, saj prinaša zanesljivejše in manj subjek- While the Slovene approach is a very sophisticated tivne rezultate ( Ravbar in Goldscheider 2009). method that requires vast amounts of data, time, and Ker je Slovenski pristop zasnovan celostno in financial and technical resources, the validity of the re- kot edina izmed obstoječih metod za ocenjevanje sults acquired demonstrates that the use of such meth- ranljivosti in tveganja kraške vode za onesnaženje ods is justified in comparison with simpler methods upošteva posebnosti slovenskega krasa in pretakanje because it achieves more reliable and less subjective voda v različnih hidroloških razmerah, bi bil lahko results ( Ravbar and Goldscheider 2009). kot dopolnilo vključen v obstoječo slovensko zako- Because the Slovene approach is comprehensive and nodajo na področju varovanja kraških vodnih virov is the only existing method for assessing the vulner- in načrtovanja rabe prostora na krasu. ability of and contamination risk to karst waters that considers the special features of Slovenian karst and the flow of groundwater under various hydrological condi- tions, it could be included in the upgrading current Slovene legislation in the field of protecting karst water sources and planning land use in karst areas. 9. An alternative method for the protection of karst water sources 147 ASU 10 VE GODITA AVAM NA KRGREGOR KON KPRILPOPLADAPTING TOARSTVAČIČ, NA T AŠA R O AVB FL AR OODING Poplave na kraških poljih, območjih plitvega in kontaktnega krasa, so reden pojav, saj lahko Karst poljes, areas of shallow karst and con- tact karst, experience regular flooding that nastopajo večkrat letno. Med katastrofalne do- can occur several times a year. Catastrophic godke uvrščamo deset-, petdeset- ali stoletne poplave, ki events such as ten-, fifty-, or hundred-year floods ogrožajo okrog 68 km2 v kraških pokrajinah, od tega je threaten around 68 km2 in Slovenian karst regions, slab odstotek urbanih površin ( Anzeljc idr. 1995). Večja about one percent of which is in urban areas ( Anzeljc poplavna območja na krasu so ob Pivki in spodnjem et al. 1995). Major flood areas on karst are found along toku Reke, na Cerkniškem, Planinskem, Ribniško–Ko- the Pivka river and the lower reach of the Reka river, čevskem in Radenskem polju ter v Dobrepolju. on the Cerkniško, Planinsko, Ribniško-Kočevsko, and Tovrstne poplave so povezane z višino vode v Radensko poljes, and in Dobrepolje. kraškem podzemlju oziroma s presežkom doteka- These floods are linked to the water level in the karst joče vode nad zmogljivostjo odtočnih kanalov. Na underground or a surplus of inflowing water above the različen vodostaj vplivajo hidrogeološki (velikost in swal ow capacity of runoff channels. The water level is geometrija vodonosnika, efektivna poroznost, veli- influenced by hydrogeological factors (size and geom- kost in povezanost kraških kanalov) in meteorološki etry of the aquifer, effective porosity, size and linkage dejavniki (tip, količina, intenzivnost in razporeditev of karst channels) and meteorological factors (type, padavin ter intenzivnost taljenja snega). quantity, intensity, and distribution of precipitation and V kraških pokrajinah ločimo dve vrsti poplav: factors affecting the intensity of snow melting). zajezitvene in prelivne ( Kranjc 1981). Zajezitvene po- Two types of floods can be distinguished in karst plave so značilne za območja ponikalnic, kjer vode regions: sinkhole floods and overflow floods ( Kranjc vtekajo v podzemlje z nekraškega obrobja. Zaradi 1981). Sinkhole floods are characteristic of sinkhole ar- premajhne požiralne zmogljivosti podzemskih kana- eas where waters flow into the underground from the lov, ki niso sposobni prevajati dotekajočega presežka surrounding non-karst areas. Due to the insufficient vode, se vodostaj viša gorvodno in preplavi bližnji swal ow capacities of underground channels that are not okoliški svet. Za takšna območja so značilna pogo- able to carry surpluses of inflowing water, the water level sta in velika nihanja vode, ki se lahko spreminjajo za rises upstream and floods the surrounding areas. The več deset, ob nenadnih zajezitvah odtočnih kanalov frequent and large oscillations of water characteristic celo več kot sto metrov v zelo kratkem času, kot je of such areas can display changes of tens of metres or primer zajezitvene poplave leta 1965 v Škocjanskih even more than a hundred metres in a very short time jamah. Takrat je nivo vode v podzemeljskem kanjonu when runoff channels experience sudden blockages Reke naraščal s povprečno hitrostjo 5 m/h, s približno as, for example, the 1965 sinkhole flood in the Škocjan enako intenziteto se je poplavna voda tudi umaknila caves/Škocjanske jame. During this flood, the water in ( Habe 1966). the underground canyon of the Reka river rose at an Prelivne poplave nastanejo zaradi dviga piezome- average speed of 5 m/h; the floodwater also receded at tra v kraškem vodonosniku. Ko se podzemlje napolni approximately the same velocity ( Habe 1966). z vodo, se aktivirajo občasni izviri in estavele. Voda Overflow floods occur due to the rising water table se razlije po uravnanem svetu, dnu kraških kotanj. in karst aquifers. Once the underground is fil ed with Zaradi kraškega zadržka se poplave pojavijo z za- water, periodic springs and estavel es are activated. The mikom in se obdržijo različno dolgo, več dni ali več water overflows leveled areas at the bottom of karst tednov. Zaradi majhnega strmca voda nima velike depressions. Due to the retention of water in karst aq- transportne moči in odlaga malo gradiva, navadno uifers, the flooding occurs after a time lag and remains le mulj ali droben pesek. Poplave na kraških poljih so for various periods ranging from several days to many lahko obenem obojega tipa, zajezitvene in prelivne. weeks. Due to the small inclination, the water does not Ojezeritev večine večjih kraških polj v Sloveniji je have major transporting power and deposits only smal posledica razlike v količini dotekajoče in odtekajoče amounts of material, usual y just mud or fine sand. Both 10. Adapting to flooding on karst 149 vode. Kraška polja so naravni zadrževalniki pretočnih types of flooding, sinkhole and overflow, can occur on viškov in pomembni regulatorji vodnih razmer rek v karst poljes at the same time. In Slovenia, the formation spodnjih delih porečij. of lakes on the majority of larger karst poljes is the con- sequence of the difference in the volumes of inflowing 10.1 Pregled večjih and outflowing water. Karst poljes are natural retainers poplav in njihove škode of discharge surpluses and important regulators of water conditions in rivers in the lower parts of river basins. Celovitega zgodovinskega pregleda poplav na kra- ških območjih Slovenije ni, v literaturi razpolagamo 10.1 A survey of major le z nekaterimi podatki. Med večje poplave uvrščamo floods and flood damage poplavo na Kočevskem polju septembra 1973, ko je bilo v 8 vaseh zalitih 24 hiš in še precej več kleti. Nekatere There is no comprehensive historical survey of floods hiše so bile poplavljene do 1,5 m visoko. Največja škoda in the karst areas of Slovenia and only minimal data is je bila na obdelovalnih zemljiščih, saj pridelki še niso available in the literature. One major flood occurred in bili pobrani. Poplavljena je bila glavna prometnica Lju-September 1973 on the Kočevsko polje when 24 houses bljana–Kočevje. Zalitih je bilo več gospodarskih obra- and many more basements in 8 vil ages were flooded. tov, kjer so bili poškodovani izdelki in naprave. Prišlo The water rose up to 1.5 m high in several houses. Culti-je tudi do izpada proizvodnje ( Kranjc in Lovrenčak vated land suffered the greatest damage because the crops 1981). Veliko škode je bilo tudi v Dobrepolju, kjer so were still unharvested. The main Ljubljana–Kočevje road poplave pogostejše v njegovem južnem delu (Struge). was also flooded. The flood affected a number of in-Katastrofalne poplave so območje Strug prizadele že dustrial facilities and damaged stocks, inventory, and leta 1933, 1939 in 1948 ( Kranjc 1981; Meze 1983). equipment. In some places production stopped ( Kranjc Na Cerkniškem polju je bil nivo vode povečan and Lovrenčak 1981). There was also considerable damage nad običajnega spomladi 1985. Škoda, nastala na in-in Dobrepolje, where floods most frequently occur in its frastrukturi in v kmetijstvu, je bila ocenjena na pri- southern part (Struge). The Struge area had previously bližno 514.400 evrov ( Kranjc 1986). Ob novembrskih been struck by catastrophic floods in 1933, 1939, and 1948 poplavah 1990 je bila povzročena škoda ob Reki 1,61 ( Kranjc 1981; Meze 1983). milijona evrov ( Kranjc in Mihevc 1991), vendar gre The water level increased above its usual highs on the v večini za škodo v nekraškem delu njenega porečja. Cerkniško polje in the spring of 1985, and the damage to Takrat je bilo popolnoma ojezerjeno tudi Planinsko infrastructure and agriculture was estimated at around polje. Preplavljenih je bilo približno 9 km2 zemljišč, 514,400 euros ( Kranjc 1986). The November 1990 flood neprevozne so bile vse ceste, ki prečkajo polje, večje caused 1.61 million euros of damage in the area along škode pa visoke vode niso povzročile ( Bat 1992). the Reka river ( Kranjc and Mihevc 1991) but most of the V preteklih letih so bile izjemno visoke vode, tako damage occurred in the non-karst part of the river basin. po obsegu, najvišjem vodostaju kakor trajanju, za- At the same time, the Planinsko polje was completely beležene novembra 2000. V polnem obsegu so bila flooded and turned into a lake. About 9 km2 of land was poplavljena kraška polja Notranjske in Dolenjske. Voda flooded, the roads crossing the polje were impassable, je na Loškem, Cerkniškem in Planinskem polju ter v but the high waters caused no major damage ( Bat 1992). Rakovem Škocjanu poplavila ceste in izpostavljene More recently, the highest waters were recorded in stanovanjske objekte. Gladina Cerkniškega jezera na November 2000 according to their extent, level, and vodomerni postaji Dolenje Jezero je 29. novembra duration. Karst poljes in the Notranjska and Dolenjska dosegla rekorden vodostaj v opazovanem obdobju regions were flooded to their full extent. On the Loško, 1995–2011 in je bila podobno rekordna kakor leta 1926 Cerkniško and Planinsko poljes, and in Rakov Škocjan, ( Kogovšek 2001b). Vodostaj je bil na nadmorski višini roads and residences were exposed to flooding. On 29 552,096 m, površina jezera 26 km2, prostornina vode v November, Cerknica lake reached a record-breaking 150 10. Prilagoditve poplavam na krasu jezeru pa je znašala nekaj več kot 82 milijonov m3 ( Ko- water level at the Dolenje Jezero water gauging station vačič 2010b). Na Zgornji Pivki so bila poleg poplav ob for the 1995–2011 monitoring period and matched the strugi Pivke ojezerjena vsa presihajoča Pivška jezera, similar record of 1926 ( Kogovšek 2001b). The water level poplavljena pa tudi območja, kjer poplave še niso bile reached 552.096 m a.s.l., the surface of the lake covered zabeležene ( Kovačič 2005). Na kraškem polju med 26 km2, and the volume of the lake water was just above Bačem, Knežakom in Koritnicami je izjemen porast 82 million m3 ( Kovačič 2010b). The Upper Pivka area ex- gladine kraške podtalnice (20–35 m) povzročil ojeze- perienced flooding along the course of the Pivka river, al ritev na skupni površini 0,6 km2, oživela je tudi suha the intermittent Pivka lakes were ful , and even areas that struga nekdanje Pivke, ki je tekla po cesti skozi naselje had never recorded flooding were under water ( Kovačič Bač. Največ škode je bilo povzročene na cestah in v 2005). The exceptional y high rise of the water table level kmetijstvu. Poplava je prizadela 23 stanovanjskih in 7 (20–35 m) in the karst polje between Bač, Knežak, and drugih objektov, tako da je bilo skupno prizadetih 15 % Koritnice resulted in a lake that covered 0.6 km2 and a re- vseh stavb s stanovanji v omenjenem naselju. Poplava vival of a dry river bed of the former Pivka river that ran je poškodovala tudi manjši proizvodni obrat in pov- down the road through the settlement of Bač. Roads and zročila izpad proizvodnje. Ocenjena skupna škoda je agriculture suffered the most damage, but the flooding znašala približno 248.200 evrov ( Kovačič 2005, 2010a). also affected 23 residential and 7 other buildings, a total of 15 % of all buildings in the settlement. The flooding 10.2 Visoke vode also affected a smal er industrial facility and caused pro- septembra 2010 duction to stop. The total estimated damage was about 248,200 euros ( Kovačič 2005, 2010a). Izredno visoke vode septembra 2010 so najhuje prizadele južni del Dobrepolja pri Strugah (1). Voda 10.2 The high waters je na polje bruhala iz jam in izvirov ob vznožju Male of September 2010 gore, s severa pa se je pridružila poplavna voda Raši- ce, ki ni mogla ponikniti v ponorih pri Ponikvah. Na The exceptional y high waters of September 2010 hit območju Struške doline je bilo poplavljenih 60 hiš, the southern part of Dobrepolje near Struge worst (1) as gladina vode je ponekod segala tudi do 4 m visoko. Od water erupted onto the polje from the caves and springs sveta je bilo odrezanih okrog 300 prebivalcev iz treh at the foot of the Mala gora ridge. It was joined from vasi, na oceno škode pa bo treba še počakati. Vzroka the north by floodwater from the Rašica river that was septembrskih poplav v Strugah v letih 1933 in 2010 sta unable to sink in the ponors near Ponikve. There were bila enaka: součinkovanje prekomernega dotoka iz 60 houses in the Struge val ey flooded, the water level kraških izvirov in poplavne vode površinske Rašice. reached up to 4 m high in places, and about 300 residents Nižje ležeči deli cestišč so bili neprevozni tudi na from three vil ages were cut off from the world. The dam- Babnem, Loškem, Cerkniškem, Planinskem, Ribni- age has not yet been ful y calculated. The causes of the ško–Kočevskem in Radenskem polju ter v Rakovem September flooding of the Struge area in 1933 and 2010 Škocjanu, poplavljenih je bilo nekaj hiš. Ker so bila were the same: the coincidence of excess discharge from polja Notranjske pred obilnim deževjem med 17. in karst springs and the flooding of the surface Rašica river. 19. septembrom – takrat je v njihovem zaledju padlo Sections of lower-lying roads were also impassable okrog 300 mm dežja – suha, vodostaji poplave niso in the Babno, Loško, Cerkniško, Planinsko, Ribniško- bili rekordni, so pa dosegli višino pogostih velikih Kočevsko and Radensko poljes, and in Rakov Škocjan, poplav. Zalito je bilo tudi rekordno obsežno območje and several houses were flooded. Prior to the abundant pred Postojnsko jamo (do nadmorske višine 520 m), precipitation event between 17 and 19 September when narasla Pivka pa je terjala smrtno žrtev. Na Zgornji around 300 mm of rain fel in their catchment areas, the Pivki so bile poplave v obsegu rednih visokih poplav poljes in the Notranjska region were dry, so flood water in niso dosegle rekordnih vodostajev iz leta 2000. levels did not reach record heights although they did 10. Adapting to flooding on karst 151 1 Poplavljena hiša v Dobrepolju 21. septembra 2010. 2 Poplavljena hiša v naselju Log pri Hotedršici v A flooded house in Dobrepolje on 21 September 2010. Hotenjskem podolju 18. septembra 2010 (foto Arhiv Prostovoljnega gasilskega društva Hotedršica). A flooded house in Log near Hotedršica in the Hotenjsko valley system on 18 September 2010 (photo Archive of the Volunteer firemen society Hotedršica). 90 eišč 450,0 90 e (mm) 80 išč 450,0 (mm) tion 80 tion Jur 70 tion tion Jur g) - (m n. m. / asl) 449,0 70 ecipitapr tion sta 60 g) - (m n. m. / asl) 449,0 ecipitapr tion sta 60 vine / ecipita 448,0 50 vine / ecipita pr 448,0 50 pr pada e / Unica (Haasber pada e / 40 išč Unica (Haasber 40 išč 446,9 446,9 30 30 postaja Jur postaja Jur 20 20 446,0 10 10 445,0 0 01. 10. 2008 445,0 17. 10. 2008 02. 11. 2008 18. 11. 2008 04. 12. 2008 20. 12. 2008 05. 01. 2009 21. 01. 2009 0 01. 10. 2008 17. 10. 2008 02. 11. 2008 18. 11. 2008 04. 12. 2008 20. 12. 2008 05. 01. 2009 21. 01. 2009 datum / date datum / date poplava / flood poplava / flood padavine / precipitation padavine / precipitation 3 Dinamika poplavljanja Planinskega polja decembra 2009 (vir Kovačič in Ravbar 2011). Dynamics of the Planinsko polje flooding in December 2009 (source Kovačič and Ravbar 2011). 152 10. Prilagoditve poplavam na krasu Škodo so povzročali tudi ekstremno visoki pretoki na reach the level of frequent major flooding. The flooded kraških izvirih, še posebej Hubelj, ki je spodjedel cesto area in front of the Postojna cave reached a record height tik pod izvirom in poplavljal dolvodno. V njegovem (up to 520 m a.s.l.), and the swol en Pivka river claimed zaledju, na območju Trnovskega gozda, je med 16. in one life. In the Upper Pivka area the floods were within 20. septembrom padlo več kot 500 mm dežja in izvir je the limits of regular high levels and did not reach the dosegel rekorden pretok (59 m3/s). Izjemne 4-dnevne record levels of the year 2000. Damage was also caused septembrske padavine na območju Trnovskega goz- by extremely high discharges at karst springs, particu- da so povzročile poplavo Zadloškega polja in Zadlog larly Hubelj, which undermined the road just below the odrezale od cestne povezave čez Črni vrh, škode na spring and flooded downstream. More than 500 mm of objektih ni bilo. V tem obdobju je v Hotenjskem podo- rain fell between 16 and 20 September in its Trnovski lju v Hotedršici poplavljala Hotenjka, na ravniku med gozd catchment area, and the spring achieved a record Godovičem in Grčarevcem so se napolnile suhe struge discharge of 59 m3/s. The exceptional 4-day Septem- in pojavili so se površinski vodotoki, voda je zalila ber precipitation in the Trnovski gozd area also caused številne vrtače in ogrožala stanovanjske objekte (2). the flooding of the Zadloško polje and cut off Zadlog’s Zaprti sta bili cesti Godovič–Kalce pri Hotedršici in road link to Črni vrh but caused no damage to build- Kalce–Col pri Kalcah. Poplavljeni so bili tudi najnižji ings. In the same period, the Hotenjka river flooded at deli Logaškega polja, kjer je Logaščica pred ponorom Hotedršica in the Hotenjsko river system, dry riverbeds Jačka poplavila številne stanovanjske objekte. filled on the plain between Godovič and Grčarevec, Visoki so bili tudi pretoki Vipave (poplave v spo- surface streams appeared, and water flooded numerous dnjem delu porečja) in Kolpe. Veliko škode je pov- dolines and threatened residential buildings (2). The zročila Rižana, ki je poplavljala stanovanjske objekte, Godovič–Kalce road near Hotedršica and the Kalce–Col 90 e onemogočala promet po regionalni in lokalnih cestah road near Kalce were closed to traffic. The lowest parts išč 450,0 ter železniški progi in iz ribogojnice odplavila za 150 of the Logaško polje, where the Logaščica river flooded (mm) 80 tion ton rib. Ljubljanica in Krka, ki imata večinoma kraško numerous residential buildings above the Jačka ponor, tion Jur 70 zaledje, sta zaradi zadrževalne zmogljivosti njunih were flooded as wel . g) - (m n. m. / asl) 449,0 ecipitapr tion sta zaledij izkazali sekundarni poplavni val, ki je povzročil The Vipava (on the lower reach of the river) and Kol- 60 upočasnjen odtok voda z že poplavljenih območij. pa rivers were high as wel , and the Rižana river caused vine / ecipita 448,0 50 pr considerable damage by flooding residential buildings, pada e / 40 10.3 Dinamika poplavljanja disabling traffic on local and regional roads and the rail- Unica (Haasber išč 446,9 kraških polj way, and washing 150 tons of fish from a fish farm. The 30 Ljubljanica and Krka rivers, which have predominantly postaja Jur 20 Meritve vodostajev (pretokov) oziroma analiza karst catchment areas with high retention capacities, ex- 446,0 dinamike naraščanja in upadanja vodostajev so te- perienced secondary flood waves that slowed the runoff 10 meljno orodje za preučevanje ekstremnih hidroloških from already flooded areas. 445,0 0 dogodkov in njihovih posledic. Ilustrativen je primer 01. 10. 2008 17. 10. 2008 02. 11. 2008 18. 11. 2008 04. 12. 2008 20. 12. 2008 05. 01. 2009 21. 01. 2009 dinamike poplavljanja Planinskega polja, tipičnega 10.3 Dynamics of karst datum / date kraškega polja. Poplavni val decembra 2009 so povzro- polje flooding poplava / flood čile tritedenske intenzivne padavine, katerih količina padavine / precipitation je za dvakrat presegla povprečne vrednosti iz obdobja Measurements of water levels and discharges and 1975–2004. Vodostaj Unice (Haasberg) je naraščal 3–4 analyses of the dynamics of the rise and fall of water cm/h in dosegel višek na nadmorski višini 450,12 m, levels are basic tools for studying extreme hydrological kar lahko označimo kot veliko, a običajno poplavo. events and their consequences. An illustrative study Površina poplave je obsegala 9,84 km2, prostornina of the flood dynamics of the Planinsko polje, a typical vode pa je bila 40,6 milijonov m3. Najnižji predeli polja karst polje, considered a large flood wave that occurred so bili do 8 m pod vodo, poplava pa je trajala 37 dni (3). in December 2009. The flooding was caused by three 10. Adapting to flooding on karst 153 Študija je pokazala, da je po izjemno intenzivnih weeks of intense precipitation when the amount was padavinah reakcija kompleksnega kraškega sistema z twice the average values of the 1975–2004 period. The avtogenim in alogenim napajanjem ravno tako hitra water level of the Unica river (Haasberg) rose by 3–4 kot reakcija površinskih voda in da so zadrževalne cm/h and reached its peak at an altitude of 450.12 m a.s.l., zmogljivosti krasa v takšnih situacijah zanemarljive which can be considered major but still normal flooding. ( Kovačič in Ravbar 2011). The flooded area covered 9.84 km2 and the water volume was 40.6 million m3. The lowest parts of the polje were 10.4 Človek in 8 m below the high water level and the flood lasted for poplave na krasu 37 days (3). These measurements and the subsequent analysis Za poplave na kraških poljih je značilna umirje- showed that after exceptional y intense precipitation, the nost, pojavljanje na istih mestih in do približno enake reaction of this complex karst system with its autogenous višine. V preteklosti so se domačini poplavam prila- and al ogenous recharging is just as rapid as the reaction godili s primerno rabo tal, gradnjo naselij pa so po- of its surface waters and that the retention capacity of maknili na višja obrobja (4). Poplave zato niso posebej the karst in such situations is negligible ( Kovačič and nevarne in ne povzročajo večje škode, razen ob izje- Ravbar 2011). mno visokih vodah, ki so navadno sezonske, vezane na poznojesenski padavinski višek, zimska deževja in 10.4 Man and taljenje snega. Škoda nastaja zgolj v kmetijstvu in na flooding on karst infrastrukturi, redkeje na bivalnih in gospodarskih objektih. Žal pa se sodobna gradnja tudi na krasu vse Calm floods occurring in the same places and reach- pogosteje usmerja v potencialno poplavna območja, ing approximately the same levels are characteristic of zlasti tam, kjer poplave niso vsakoleten pojav in so karst areas. In the past, local populations adapted to the potrebe po novih zazidalnih površinah velike (npr. flooding by adopting suitable land use and building their Logaško polje). settlements on the higher margins of poljes (4). Floods 4 Na Planinskem polju so hiše postavljene nad nivo najvišje poplave; stanje 25. decembra 2010 pri vodostaju jezera na nadmorski višini 449,66 m. Houses on the Planinsko polje are located above the level of the highest recorded flood; situation on 25 December 2010 at the water level of 449.66 m a.s.l. 154 10. Prilagoditve poplavam na krasu Lep primer prilagojene rabe zemljišč na poplav- therefore do not present any particular danger and do not nih območjih na krasu so kraška polja Notranjskega cause significant damage except during seasonal high wa- podolja. Prikazan je primer Planinskega polja. Raven ters associated with the late fall precipitation peak, winter običajne poplave je na nadmorski višini 448,2 m. Ta- rains, and the melting of snow. The damage is limited krat voda sega preko mostu čez Unico na cesti Pla- mainly to agriculture and infrastructure and rarely affects nina–Laze. Raven velike poplave je 449,5 m, ko voda residential and industrial buildings. Regrettably, mod- delno že zalije most čez Unico pri Haasbergu in je ern construction in karst areas is increasingly oriented cesta Unec–Planina neprevozna. Kot izredno poplavo towards potential flood areas, especial y where floods lahko označimo vodostaj 450,2 m, ko je poplavljen are not an annual occurrence and where there is major most v Malne ( Kovačič in Ravbar 2011). Tudi izredne demand for new built-up areas (e.g. Logaško polje). poplave na Planinskem polju, ko prostornina jezera, The poljes of the Notranjska region are a fine example ki doseže obseg 9,86 km2, znaša po izračunih približno of properly adapted land use in karst flood areas. On the 41,5 milijona m3, ne povzročajo škode in otežujejo Planinsko polje, for example, the level of regular floods zgolj promet po lokalnih cestah, razen če se pojavi- reaches 448.2 m a.s.l., and the water typical y overflows jo v času, ko kmetijski pridelki še niso pospravljeni. the bridge across the Unica river on the Planina–Laze Zaradi hitrejšega odtekanja vode so pod cestami na road. The major flood level is 449.5 m a.s.l. when the polju zgrajeni številni prepusti, ponori so opremljeni water floods the bridge across Unica near Haasberg and z železnimi rešetkami, mostovi čez reke in ceste so the Unec–Planina road becomes impassable. A water dvignjeni nekoliko nad okoliški svet (5). level of 450.2 m a.s.l. marks an extraordinary flood when Kartografski sloji območij poplavljanja v Sloveniji, the bridge to Malni is flooded ( Kovačič and Ravbar 2011). ki so dostopni na spletnem portalu Agencije RS za However, even major floods on the Planinsko polje, okolje (ARSO), opredeljujejo Planinsko polje kot ob- when the lake stretches to cover 9.86 km2 and accord- močje katastrofalnih poplav, čeprav se te redno poja- ing to calculations its volume reaches 41.5 million m3, do vljajo. V tem oziru je treba natančno določiti poplavne not usual y cause any serious damage. They merely affect kote rednih in izrednih poplav ter kartografske prikaze the traffic on local roads, unless they occur when the temu primerno popraviti. crops are still in the fields. To facilitate more rapid runoff, Primerov neustrezne rabe prostora na poplavnih numerous culverts have been instal ed under the roads območjih na krasu je veliko. Logaško polje oziroma on the polje, ponors are furnished with iron gratings to območje ob ponoru Jačka, kjer ponika Logaščica, je eno avoid blockages, there are bridges across the river and izmed bolj znanih. Občina in država sta na poplavnem stream beds, and the roads are raised somewhat above območju, ki je ustrezno označeno tudi na kartografskih the surroundings (5). prikazih poplav ARSO, dovolili gradnjo stanovanjskih The maps of flood areas in Slovenia available on the blokov in hiš ( Trček 2010). Omenjeno območje je bilo web site of the Environmental Agency of the Republic of v zadnjem času poplavljeno decembra 2009, spomladi Slovenia (EARS) identify the Planinsko polje as a ‘cata- 2010, septembra 2010 pa so narasle vode Logaščice po- strophic’ flood area, even though floods occur regularly. novno poplavile v večjem obsegu in poškodovanih je In this context it is necessary to define precisely the flood bilo 46 stanovanjskih objektov. Realna škoda posledic heights of regular and extraordinary floods and correct septembrske poplave v občini Logatec znaša 2,5 milijona the cartographic presentations accordingly. evrov ( Barut 2011), vendar je tu zajeta škoda, ki je na- There are many examples of inappropriate land use stala tudi na drugih poplavnih območjih v občini (npr. on karst flood areas. The Logaško polje, the area by Hotenjsko podolje). Po poplavah decembra 2009 je the Jačka ponor where the Logaščica river sinks, is one občina naročila poplavno študijo za naselje Logatec, ki well-known example. The municipality and the state predvideva ohranjanje neposeljenih poplavnih površin allowed the construction of apartment buildings and na Logaškem polju in gradnjo na stavbnih zemljiščih houses on the flood area, even though it is appropriately izključno pod posebnimi pogoji ( Žagar 2011). marked on EARS maps ( Trček 2010). In recent times, this 10. Adapting to flooding on karst 155 5 Poplavljena cesta v Malne (Planinsko polje) dne 25. decembra 2010, 6 Poplavno območje v okolici Bača (vir Kovačič 2010a). kjer so vidni prepusti pod cesto za hitrejše odtekanje poplavne vode. The flood area in the vicinity of Bač (source Kovačič 2010a). The flooded road to Malni (Planinsko polje) on 25 December 2010 showing culverts for faster runoff of floodwater. Manj znano območje neprilagoditve poplavam na area was flooded in December 2009 and the spring of krasu je Zgornja Pivka pri naselju Bač. Študija viso- 2010, and in September 2010 the swol en waters of the kih voda novembra 2000 je pokazala, da se obstoječa Logaščica river flooded a large area and damaged 46 stavbna zemljišča in stavbna zemljišča dolgoročne- residential buildings. The total damage resulting from ga občinskega načrta prekrivajo z območji izrednih the September flooding in the Municipality of Logatec poplav v Baču in okolici (6). Za doseganje poplavne amounted to 2.5 million euros ( Barut 2011), but this varnosti bi morali izdelati karte poplavnih območij v figure includes damage that occurred in other flooded okolici Knežaka, Bača in Koritnic, na katerih bi ozna- areas in the municipality as well (e.g. Hotenjsko val ey čili ogrožena območja, kjer bi morali gradnjo novih system). After the December 2009 flood, the Munici- objektov omejiti, četudi je povratna doba izrednih pality of Logatec commissioned a flood study for the poplav zelo dolga ( Kovačič 2010a). town of Logatec that envisages the preservation of Pregled kartografskih prikazov območij pogostih unsettled flood areas on the Logaško polje and con- in katastrofalnih poplav ARSO v kraških pokrajinah struction on building land exclusively under special Slovenije odkrije vrsto pomanjkljivosti in nedosledno- conditions ( Žagar 2011). sti. Poplavna območja na kraških poljih Notranjske so The Upper Pivka area near the settlement of Bač označena kot območja katastrofalnih poplav, četudi so is a less well-known area of inadequate adaptation to redno poplavljena in poplave na njih večje škode ne floods on karst. A study of high waters in November povzročajo. Enako so kot območja katastrofalnih po- 2000 showed that the existing building land and the plav označene poplavne površine v Pivškem podolju, projected building land of the long-term municipal čeprav so poplave ob Pivki v zgornjem in spodnjem plan overlap with areas of extraordinary flooding in toku (pred ponorom) redne. Kotanje presihajočih Piv- Bač and the surroundings (6). To achieve flood safety, ških jezer so tudi označene kot območja katastrofalnih flood maps of the areas around Knežak, Bač, and Ko- poplav, kljub temu da se večina kotanj napolni vsaj ritnice should be elaborated that designate risk areas enkrat letno, med poplavna območja pa denimo niso where construction of new buildings should be limited uvrščeni Šembijsko jezero in Nariče (7) pri Šembijah, even though the return period of extraordinary floods Bačko in Laneno jezero pri Baču ter poplavno obmo- is very long ( Kovačič 2010a). 156 10. Prilagoditve poplavam na krasu čje na kraškem polju med Koritnicami, Knežakom in A survey of EARS maps of catastrophic flood ar- Bačem. V Notranjskem podolju niti Rakov Škocjan eas in the Slovene karst regions reveals a number of niti Hotenjsko podolje na zemljevidih ARSO nista shortcomings and inconsistencies. Flood areas on karst označena kot poplavni območji, enako pa velja tudi poljes of the Notranjska region are marked as areas of za Zadloško polje na Črnovrški planoti. catastrophic floods even though they experience regu- Podobnih primerov je v Sloveniji še več, kar kaže lar flooding that causes no major damage. Similarly, potrebo po natančni preučitvi obsega, pogostosti flood areas in the Pivka valley system are marked as pojavljanja in višin poplav na poplavnih območjih catastrophic flood areas even though floods along the na krasu. S poglobljeno študijo zgodovinskih virov, upper and lower (before the ponor) courses of the Pivka natančnih kartografskih prikazov, digitalnega modela river occur regularly. The basins of the intermittent Pivka višin, satelitskih posnetkov poplav septembra 2010 in lakes are also marked as catastrophic flood areas, even poplav v bližnji preteklosti ter z uporabo GIS-ov bi though the majority of the basins are fil ed at least once morali na državni ravni v dovolj natančnem merilu a year. On the other hand, flood areas such as the lakes (parcele) določiti površine in višine rednih in izrednih Šembijsko jezero and Nariče (7) near Šembije, the lakes poplav za vsako območje poplav na krasu posebej ter Bačko jezero and Laneno jezero near Bač, and the flood v seznam poplavnih območij uvrstiti tudi tista, ki na area on the karst polje between Koritnice, Knežak, and obstoječih zemljevidih niso opredeljena kot poplavna. Bač are not identified. Rakov Škocjan and Hotenjsko Za razlikovanje med redno in izredno poplavo se zdi val ey system in the Notranjska region are not marked as 7 Šembijsko jezero in Nariče (spredaj) 21. decembra 2008. The lakes Šembijsko jezero and Nariče (front) on 21 December 2008. 0 500 m požiralnik / ponor stavbno zemljišče - dejansko stanje / building land - present state stanovanjska hiša / residential building stavbno zemljišče - prostorski plan / building land - spatial plan nestanovanjska zgradba / non-residential building poplava nov. 2000 / flood Nov. 2000 industrijski obrat / industrial facility površinski tok / surface flow 583 najvišji vodostaj nov. 2000 v m n. m. / max. water level in nov. 2000 in m asl 10. Adapting to flooding on karst 157 bolj smiselno uporabiti kriterij višine poplave in ne flood areas on the EARS maps, nor is the Zadloško polje pogostost pojavljanja. Tovrstni poplavni zemljevidi bi on the Črni Vrh plateau. služili kot podlaga za načrtovanje rabe prostora na po- Numerous similar cases exist in Slovenia, pointing plavnih območjih na krasu, s čimer bi se lahko izognili to the need for a detailed study of the extent, frequency, neprimernim posegom na teh območjih, še posebno and height of floods in flood areas on karst. An in-depth gradnji objektov. study of historical sources, precise cartographic presen- tations, a digital elevation model, satellite shots of the Sklep September 2010 floods and floods in the recent past, and the use of geographical information systems should be Vodne ujme uvrščamo med najbolj pogoste narav- employed at the national level to identify the areas and ne nesreče na krasu, ki povzročajo predvsem gospo- heights of regular and extraordinary floods at a precise darsko škodo, terjajo pa tudi človeška življenja. Kraška enough scale (plots) for each flood area on karst. Fur- polja in druge kraške pokrajine so sicer naravni zadr- thermore, the list of flood areas should include all those ževalniki pretočnih viškov in dobri regulatorji poplav areas not identified as flood areas on the existing maps. v spodnjih delih porečij (npr. na Ljubljanskem barju, v To distinguish between regular and extraordinary floods, dolini Krke), lahko pa povzročijo tudi sekundarne po- flood height seems to be a more appropriate criterion plavne viške v dolinah rek, ki jih napajajo kraški izviri. than frequency. This type of the flood map would serve Zato je ne le za kraške pokrajine ključno dobro as a basis for land use planning on flood areas on karst poznavanje pretakanja voda v krasu, zadrževalne ka- in order to avoid inappropriate encroachments on these pacitete vodonosnikov in reakcije izvirov na napajanje. areas, particularly the construction of buildings. Tako lahko predvidimo izpostavljenost določenega območja vodnim ujmam, ki je ključni del prostorskega Conclusion načrtovanja in nam je lahko v bodoče v pomoč pri boljšem preventivnem delovanju in zaščiti. Floods rank among the most frequent natural disas- Žal pa še vedno ostajamo brez ustreznih meritev ters in karst regions, causing primarily economic damage dinamike naraščanja in upadanja vodostajev na kra- but occasional y claiming lives. Karst poljes and other ških območjih. Hidrološke opazovalnice so redke. Za karst areas are natural reservoirs for discharge surpluses morebitno predvidevanje visokih voda v prihodnosti and good flood regulators in the lower parts of the river bi bilo zato nujno treba obnoviti v preteklosti opuščene basins (e.g., the marsh Ljubljansko barje, the val ey of the vodomerne postaje oziroma vzpostaviti sistematični Krka river), but they can also cause secondary flood peaks dolgotrajni monitoring na kraških vodotokih in do- in the val eys of rivers fed by karst springs. stopnih mestih do kraške podtalnice. A good understanding of water flow in karst areas, the retention capacity of aquifers, and the reactions of springs to recharging is therefore of key importance, and not just for karst regions. With this knowledge, it is possible to anticipate the exposure of certain areas to flooding, which is an essential part of spatial planning that can help us im- prove prevention and protection measures in the future. Unfortunately, there are stil no appropriate measure- ments of rising and falling water levels in karst areas at our disposal and only a few hydrological observation points. The possible prediction of floods in the future requires the urgent restoration of abandoned water gauging stations or the implementation of systematic long-term monitoring of karst aquifers and access points to karst groundwater. 158 10. Prilagoditve poplavam na krasu 159 160 arso 2010: Agencija Republike Slovenije za okolje, Atlas okolja. / Slovene Environmental Agency, Environmental Atlas [Online]: http://gis.arso.gov.si/atlasokolja (11.3.2010) al sayegh petkovšek, s., b. pokorny, m. bole, n. vrbič kugonič, d. končnik, n. špeh, j. flis, z. pavšek, m. šešerko, p. druks gajšek, m. zaluberšek, m. petrič, j. kogovšek, t. grebenc, h. kraigher, 2006: Določitev vpliva vojaškega poligona na okolje kot modelna študija za varovanje in sanacijo okolja na območju delovanja Slovenske vojske, poročilo DP 16/02/06. 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