ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA Studies in Adult Education and Learning Vsebina/Contents Uvodnik/Editorial Borut Mikulec UVODNIK 3 EDITORIAL 5 Netematski članki/ Open Papers Katja Jeznik VPLIV SISTEMSKE ORGANIZIRANOSTI IZOBRAŽEVANJA OSEB S POSEBNIMI POTREBAMI NA INKLUZIVNO NARAVNANOST UČNIH SKUPNOSTI 7 Souksakhone Sengsouliya, Vanmany Vannasy ETHNIC MINORITIES’ DROPOUT DECISIONS IN HIGHER EDUCATION: AN INTEGRATIVE REVIEW 23 Igor Ivašković UČENJE TUJIH JEZIKOV NA PODROČJU POSLOVNIH IN EKONOMSKIH VED: ANALIZA PREFERENC ŠTUDENTOV EKONOMSKE FAKULTETE V LJUBLJANI 41 Concetta Tino, Maria Cristina Lavagnolo, Monica Fedeli, Laura Bierema WOMEN’S CAREER DECISION MAKING AND INTEREST IN ENGINEERING: A QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF INFLUENTIAL PERSONAL AND CONTEXTUAL FACTORS 59 Vanmany Vannasy, Souksakhone Sengsouliya KEY PREDICTORS OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF WORKPLACE LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION 81 Jernej Širok, Martina Mravlja PHASE MODALITY OF EXTERNAL EVALUATIONS IN HIGHER EDUCATION: EXPLORING THE PROPERTIES OF STUDY PROGRAMME EVALUATIONS IN SLOVENIA 99 AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 1 5. 04. 2023 11:38:25 Poročila, odmevi, ocene/Reports, Replies, Reviews Monika Govekar Okoliš, Nina Breznikar, Katja Jeznik VZGOJA IN IZOBRAŽEVANJE ZA VKLJUČUJOČO SKUPNOST 119 Knjižne novosti/ Book Reviews Nada Žagar STO.LET.JE ZNANJA: 100 LET LJUDSKIH UNIVERZ NA SLOVENSKEM 125 Nina Vodopivec PREHODI OD IZOBRAŽEVANJA NA TRG DELA: POSKUSI VSTOPANJA V POKLICE BLAGINJE IN VKLJUČEVANJA NA (TRANS)NACIONALNI TRG DELA 127 AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 2 5. 04. 2023 11:38:25 Andragoška spoznanja/Studies in Adult Education and Learning, 2023, 29(1), 3-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4312/as/12429 Uvodnik UVODNIK Prva letošnja številka Andragoških spoznanj je netematska in vsebuje šest člankov, eno poročilo ter dve knjižni recenziji. Katja Jeznik v članku Vpliv sistemske organiziranosti izobraževanja oseb s posebnimi potre­ bami na inkluzivno naravnanost učnih skupnosti razpravlja o inkluzivnosti izobraževalnega sistema kot cilju, h kateremu stremimo na vseh ravneh. V članku so predstavljene teo- retske opredelitve koncepta inkluzije in sistemske rešitve vključevanja oseb s posebnimi potrebami v izobraževanje, kakor tudi podobnosti in razlike med izobraževanjem oseb s posebnimi potrebami na različnih ravneh izobraževanja. Izhajajoč iz analize relevantnih zakonodajnih dokumentov, spletnih strani in sekundarnih virov o vključevanju oseb s posebnimi potrebami v sistem izobraževanja v Sloveniji, avtorica ugotavlja, da bolj kot inkluzivno prevladuje integracijsko razumevanje vključevanja oseb s posebnimi potrebami na vseh ravneh izobraževanja, kar pomeni odmik od razumevanja inkluzije kot temelja za vzpostavljanje inkluzivno naravnanih učnih skupnosti. Souksakhone Sengsouliya in Vanmany Vannasy v članku Etnične manjšine in osip v visoko­ šolskem izobraževanju: integrativni pregled proučujeta teoretične poglede na odločitve o opustitvi izobraževanja pri pripadnikih manjšin v visokošolskem izobraževanju. Analiza avtoric pokaže, da je vprašanje osipa izredno kompleksno ter ga zaznamujejo raznolike opredelitve in značilnosti. Ugotavljata, da na odločitve predstavnikov manjšin o opustitvi študija vplivajo dejavniki na treh različnih ravneh: na psihološki ravni posameznikova motivacija, percepcije, odnos in učenje; na fizični ravni posameznikovo zdravstveno stanje in pripravljenost za učenje in na okoljski ravni vpliv družinskega ozadja, življenjskega okolja, institucionalne podpore ter socializacije z drugimi. Avtorici skleneta, da morajo visokošolske institucije te študente pri pridobivanju izobrazbe še posebej podpirati s ciljno zastavljenimi ukrepi. Igor Ivašković v članku Učenje tujih jezikov na področju poslovnih in ekonomskih ved: analiza preferenc študentov Ekonomske fakultete v Ljubljani analizira, kako študenti ekonomskih in poslovnih visokošolskih študijskih programov zaznavajo potencialno korist od učenja tujih jezikov ter njihove izkušnje z učenjem jezikov. Rezultati, pridobljeni z anketo na vzorcu 272 študentov, kažejo, da ta populacija pogosto zaznava potrebo po znanju tujega jezika. Delovno aktivni, še posebej zaposleni na delovnih mestih, kjer se zahteva vsaj vi- sokošolska izobrazba, to potrebo zaznavajo bolj od delovno neaktivnih ali zaposlenih na delovnih mestih, kjer se ne zahteva visokošolska izobrazba. Proučevana populacija učenje AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 3 5. 04. 2023 11:38:26 4 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 jezika v največjem delu vidi kot sredstvo, ki enakomerno prispeva tako k razvoju osebnosti kot k večji zaposljivosti. Avtorice Concetta Tino, Maria Cristina Lavagnolo, Monica Fedeli in Laura Bierema v članku Karierno odločanje in zanimanje študentk na področju inženirstva: kvalitativna ana­ liza vpliva osebnih in kontekstualnih dejavnikov proučujejo vpliv, ki ga imajo osebni in kon- tekstualni dejavniki na karierno odločanje in zanimanje žensk za študij inženirstva. Na podlagi socialno kognitivne karierne teorije in ob uporabi kvalitativnega pristopa so izve- dle devet intervjujev z dodiplomskimi študentkami na univerzi v severni Italiji. Rezultati študije razkrivajo naslednje prevladujoče vidike, ki imajo pomemben vpliv na zanimanje študentk za inženirstvo: osebne sposobnosti in predanost študiju; inženirsko zanimanje, ki ga oblikujejo dejavniki, kot so podpora družine, pomembne učne izkušnje in kultura družbe; ter percepcije o notranjem (učinkovitost, samozavest) in zunanjem pripoznanju. Vanmany Vannasy in Souksakhone Sengsouliya v članku Ključni kazalniki pri izvajanju učenja na delovnem mestu v visokošolskem izobraževanju z uporabo metode integrativnega pregleda opredelita ključne napovedovalne kazalnike pri izvajanju učenja na delovnem mestu v visokošolskem izobraževanju. Konceptualni okvir študiji postavlja teoretična in empirična literatura o učenju na delovnem mestu. Na podlagi analize identificiranih član- kov sta odkrili sedem ključnih napovedovalnih kazalnikov za učenje na delovnem mestu v visokošolskem izobraževanju: individualno učenje, skupinsko učenje, organizacijska kul- tura učenja, vodstvo, partnerstvo, odnos med delodajalcem in zaposlenim ter nacionalna sistemska politika. Ti kazalniki so prav tako ključni dejavniki za preoblikovanje univerz v učeče se organizacije. Na koncu Jernej Širok in Martina Mravlja v članku Fazni način zunanjih evalvacij v viso­ kem šolstvu: raziskovanje lastnosti evalvacij študijskih programov v Sloveniji tematizirata še lastnosti in vpliv evalvacijskih praks v visokem šolstvu, ki jih uokvirja bolonjski proces. Na podlagi teoretskega modela in kontekstualizacije rezultatov statistične analize evalvacij- skih poročil strokovnjakov v postopkih podaljšanja akreditacije 485 študijskih programov v slovenskem visokošolskem prostoru pokažeta, kako zagotavljanje kakovosti prek ukre- pov za izboljšanje v praksi vpliva na visoko šolstvo. Številko zaključujejo poročilo Monike Govekar-Okoliš, Nine Breznikar in Katje Jeznik Vzgoja in izobraževanje za vključujočo skupnost o Pedagoško-andragoških dnevih, ki so ja- nuarja letos potekali na Filozofski fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani, ter recenziji knjig Sto.let. je znanja: 100 let ljudskih univerz na Slovenskem, ki jo je pripravila Nada Žagar, in Prehodi od izobraževanja na trg dela: poskusi vstopanja v poklice blaginje in vključevanja na (trans) nacionalni trg dela, ki jo je pripravila Nina Vodopivec. Borut Mikulec AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 4 5. 04. 2023 11:38:26 Andragoška spoznanja/Studies in Adult Education and Learning, 2023, 29(1), 3-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4312/as/12429 Editorial EDITORIAL This year’s first issue of Studies in Adult Education and Learning is a non-thematic one and comprises six articles, a report and two book reviews. Katja Jeznik’s The Impact of the Systemic Organisation of Special Needs Education on the In­ clusivity of Learning Communities focuses on an inclusive educational system as the goal we are striving for on all levels. The article presents the theoretic concepts of inclusion and the systemic solutions for including people with special needs in education, as well as the similarities and differences in special needs education at different levels of education. Based on an analysis of the relevant legal documents, websites and secondary sources on the inclusion of people with special needs in the education system in Slovenia, Jeznik finds that integration is a more prevalent strategy than inclusion when it comes to special needs students. This signifies a step away from understanding inclusion as the foundation for establishing inclusivity-oriented learning communities. Souksakhone Sengsouliya and Vanmany Vannasy’s Ethnic Minorities’ Dropout Decisions in Higher Education: An Integrative Review looks at the theoretical perspectives on drop- out decisions made by members of ethnic minorities in higher education. The authors’ analysis shows that the question of dropping out is very complex and is defined and char- acterised in various ways. They find that three levels of factors influence the decision to abandon one’s studies: the psychological level of the individual’s motivation, perceptions, attitude, and learning; the physical level of the individual’s health and readiness for learn- ing; and the environmental level of family background, environment, institutional support and socialisation with other people. Sengsouliya and Vannasy conclude that higher edu- cation institutions need to provide special support and introduce goal-oriented measures to better support ethnic minority students. Igor Ivašković’s Learning Foreign Languages in the Fields of Business and Economics: An Anal­ ysis of Preferences Among Students at the School of Economics And Business Ljubljana analyses how economics and business students perceive the potential benefits of learning foreign languages and their experiences with language learning. The results acquired by polling a sample of 272 students indicate that the population is often aware of the need to speak a foreign language. The students who are employed, particularly in positions that require a minimum higher level of education, perceive this need more than those who do not work or work in positions that require lower levels of education. The participants largely see learn- ing a language as equally beneficial to their personal development and their employability. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 5 5. 04. 2023 11:38:29 6 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 Concetta Tino, Maria Cristina Lavagnolo, Monica Fedeli and Laura Bierema’s Women’s Career Decision Making and Interest in Engineering: A Qualitative Analysis of Influential Personal and Contextual Factors explores the influence that personal and contextual factors have on women’s career choices and their interest in studying engineering. Based on social cognitive career theory and utilising a qualitative approach, nine interviews were conduct- ed with women undergraduates at a university in Northern Italy. The results show the following major aspects that influence the level of interest women have in engineering: personal abilities and commitment; an interest in engineering influenced by factors such as familial support, significant learning experiences and social culture; and the perceptions of internal (efficacy, confidence) and external recognition. Vanmany Vannasy and Souksakhone Sengsouliya’s Key Predictors of the Implementation of Workplace Learning in Higher Education uses an integrative review approach to determine the key predictors of the implementation of workplace learning in higher education. The- oretical and empirical literature on workplace learning form the conceptual framework of the study. By analysing the relevant articles, the authors identify seven key predictors that make workplace learning in higher education possible: individual learning, team learn- ing, the organisational culture of learning, leadership, partnership, the employer-employee relationship, and the national policy. These predictors also represent the key factors in transforming universities into learning organisations. Jernej Širok and Martina Mravlja’s Phase Modality of External Evaluations in Higher Ed­ ucation: Exploring the Properties of Study Programme Evaluations in Slovenia explores the characteristics and influence of the evaluation practices in higher education set by the Bologna process. Developing a theoretical framework and contextualising the statistical analysis results of the external evaluation reports of 485 study programmes in Slovenian higher education, Širok and Mravlja show how quality assurance and the improvement measures involved impact higher education in practice. The issue comes to a close with a report and two book reviews. Monika Govekar-Okoliš, Nina Breznikar and Katja Jeznik’s Education for an Inclusive Community reports on the Days of Pedagogy and Andragogy, which took place in January 2023 at the Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana. Nada Žagar reviews Sto.let.je znanja: 100 let ljudskih uni­ verz na Slovenskem, a book on the centenary of adult education centres (so-called people’s universities) in Slovenia, and Nina Vodopivec reviews Prehodi od izobraževanja na trg dela: poskusi vstopanja v poklice blaginje in vključevanja na (trans)nacionalni trg dela, a book on the process of education-to-work transitions. Borut Mikulec AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 6 5. 04. 2023 11:38:29 Andragoška spoznanja/Studies in Adult Education and Learning, 2023, 29(1), 7-22 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4312/as/10533 Znanstveni prispevek Doc. dr. Katja Jeznik, Oddelek za pedagogiko in andragogiko, Filozofska fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani, kat­ ja.jeznik@ff.uni­lj.si Katja Jeznik VPLIV SISTEMSKE ORGANIZIRANOSTI IZOBRAŽEVANJA OSEB S POSEBNIMI POTREBAMI NA INKLUZIVNO NARAVNANOST UČNIH SKUPNOSTI POVZETEK Čim višja stopnja inkluzivnosti izobraževalnega sistema je cilj, h kateremu stremimo na vseh vzgojno­izobra­ ževalnih ravneh. Inkluzivnost se nanaša na tiste posameznike in skupine, ki so bili skozi zgodovino večkrat izključeni, zaradi odstopanja od pričakovanih norm razvoja pa so bili pogosto tudi stigmatizirani. V članku so predstavljene glavne teoretske opredelitve koncepta inkluzije in sodobne sistemske rešitve vključevanja oseb s posebnimi potrebami v izobraževanje. Osredotočamo se na podobnosti in razlike med izobraževanjem oseb s posebnimi potrebami na različnih ravneh izobraževanja. Zanima nas, ali se identif icirane prepreke na poti k inkluzivnosti šolskega sistema prenašajo z nižjih na višje ravni vzgojno­izobraževalnega sistema in kako to vpliva na inkluzivno naravnanost učnih skupnosti. Izhajamo iz analize relevantnih zakonodajnih dokumen­ tov, spletnih strani, teoretske literature in sekundarnih virov o vključevanju oseb s posebnimi potrebami v sistem izobraževanja v Sloveniji. Ugotavljamo, da to, kar velja za izobraževalni sistem na douniverzitetni ravni, v veliki meri velja tudi za terciarno izobraževanje. Bolj kot inkluzivno se na vseh ravneh izobraževanja odraža integracijsko razumevanje vključevanja oseb s posebnimi potrebami. To hkrati pomeni odmik od širšega razu­ mevanja inkluzije kot temelja za vzpostavljanje bolj inkluzivno naravnane učne skupnosti. Ključne besede: sistemske rešitve, integracija, inkluzija, osebe s posebnimi potrebami, učitelji THE IMPACT OF THE SYSTEMIC ORGANISATION OF SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION ON THE INCLUSIVITY OF LEARNING COMMUNITIES – ABSTRACT Maximising the inclusivity of the education system is a goal that we strive for at all levels of education. Inclusiv­ ity refers to those individuals and groups who have been repeatedly excluded throughout history, and often stig­ matised for deviating from expected norms of development. This article presents the main theoretical definitions of the concept of inclusion and contemporary systemic solutions for the inclusion of people with special educational needs. We focus on the similarities and differences between the education of people with special needs at different levels of education. We are interested in whether the identif ied barriers to inclusivity within the school system are transferred from lower to higher levels of the education system and how this affects the inclusive orientation AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 7 5. 04. 2023 11:38:30 8 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 of learning communities. We draw on an analysis of relevant legislative documents, websites, theoretical liter­ ature, and secondary sources on the inclusion of people with special educational needs in the education system in Slovenia. We f ind that what is true for the education system at the primary and secondary level is also largely true for the tertiary level of education. Rather than an inclusive, an integrative understanding of the inclusion of people with special educational needs is reflected at all levels of education. This also represents a shift away from a broader understanding of inclusion as the foundation for building a more inclusive learning community. Keywords: system solutions, integration, inclusion, students with special educational needs, teachers UVOD Od podpisa Salamanške izjave leta 1994 (UNESCO, 1994) do danes so evropske države različno uspešno implementirale načela inkluzije v svoje šolske sisteme, sprva na primar- ni in sekundarni ravni izobraževanja, vse bolj pa je izpostavljena potreba po tem, da se ustrezne sistemske rešitve oblikujejo tudi na ravni terciarnega izobraževanja (OZN, 2016; Schmidt, 2021; UNESCO, 2015), pa tudi na ravni vseživljenjskega učenja in izobraževanja odraslih s posebnimi potrebami (Srebotnik in Povše, 2021). Inkluzija je že na douniverzi- tetni ravni izobraževanja težko dosegljiv cilj, v zadnjih desetletjih pa so bile identificirane tudi različne ovire na poti do nje (Arduin, 2015; Ermenc idr., 2019; Florian, 2014; Lesar, 2009; Thomas, 2013). V članku bomo najprej predstavili teoretske opredelitve koncepta inkluzije in sistemske rešitve na področju izobraževanja oseb s posebnimi potrebami na do- univerzitetni ravni. Na ravni terciarnega izobraževanja bomo izhajali iz rešitev izobraževa- nja študentov s posebnimi potrebami na najstarejši in največji univerzi v Sloveniji, Univerzi v Ljubljani. Zanimalo nas bo, katere so podobnosti in razlike med izobraževanjem oseb s posebnimi potrebami na različnih vzgojno-izobraževalnih ravneh. Osredotočili se bomo na presojo tega, ali se že identificirane težave pri izobraževanju oseb s posebnimi potrebami na primarni in sekundarni ravni prenašajo na višje ravni izobraževanja in kako to vpliva na inkluzivno naravnanost visokošolskih učnih skupnosti. Izhajali bomo iz pregleda relevan- tnih zakonodajnih dokumentov, spletnih strani, teoretske literature in sekundarnih virov o vključevanju oseb s posebnimi potrebami v izobraževanje v Sloveniji. RAZUMEVANJE INKLUZIJE KOT OBČEGA PEDAGOŠKEGA KONCEPTA Koncept inkluzije sredi devetdesetih let prejšnjega stoletja vpelje Salamanška izjava (UNESCO, 1994), še danes pa ni enoznačnih teoretskih opredelitev koncepta. Sledimo lahko pluralizaciji opredelitev (Ermenc idr., 2019), vse bolj relevantno pa je tudi vprašanje uresničevanja načel inkluzije za različne ciljne skupine (Lesar, 2009), na različnih ravneh izobraževanja in tudi na ravni njihove zaposljivosti (Hugo in Hedegaard, 2017; Hedega- ard idr., 2021). Nekateri avtorji (Booth in Ainscow, 2002; Florian, 2014; Mitchell, 2015) usmerjajo raziskovalno pozornost na opredeljevanje kazalnikov in elementov inkluzije. Z vidika razumevanja razvoja koncepta inkluzije pa so pomembne tudi opredelitve, v katerih se avtorji (Arduin, 2015; Haug, 2017) osredotočajo na klasifikacijo njegovih razvojnih AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 8 5. 04. 2023 11:38:31 9Katja Jeznik: Vpliv sistemske organiziranosti izobraževanja oseb s posebnimi potrebami ... stopenj. Ker slednje pomembno pripomore k razumevanju sistemskih rešitev izobraževa- nja oseb s posebnimi potrebami, eno od teh povzemamo v nadaljevanju. Haug (2017) loči tri stopnje razvoja koncepta inkluzije. Njene začetke postavi v šestdeseta leta 20. stoletja, ko so v nekaterih državah že začeli vključevati osebe s posebnimi potre- bami v večinske šole. To fazo imenuje integracija in je prvenstveno vezana na vprašanje usmeritve oseb v večinske šole in na vprašanje organizacije izobraževanja (Lesar, 2009; Florian, 2014). Pred temi prvimi koraki so v izobraževalnih sistemih obstajale različne prakse izobraževanja oseb s posebnimi potrebami. Slovenijo lahko uvrstimo med države z relativno dolgo tradicijo izobraževanja oseb s posebnimi potrebami. Prvi podatki o šolah, ki so bile namenjene osebam s posebnimi potrebami, so povezani z ustanovitvijo šole za gluhe in naglušne v Novi Gorici v prvi polovici 19. stoletja. Leta 1911 je bil v Ljubljani organiziran prvi oddelek za osebe z motnjo v duševnem razvoju, leta 1919 je bila usta- novljena še prva specializirana šola za slepe osebe (Košir idr., 2011). Bolj celostno pa področje izobraževanja oseb s posebnimi potrebami uredi šele šolski zakon leta 1958, ki opredeli, da imajo vsi državljani enake pravice do vzgoje in izobraževanja. Dve leti kasneje je bil sprejet Zakon o posebnem šolstvu, še osem let kasneje pa Zakon o usposabljanju otrok in mladostnikov z motnjami v telesnem in duševnem razvoju. Leta 1976 je bil sprejet Zakon o izobraževanju otrok in mladostnikov z motnjami v telesnem in duševnem razvoju, sledil pa mu je Pravilnik o razvrščanju in razvidu otrok, mladostnikov in mlajših polnoletnih oseb z motnjami v telesnem in duševnem razvoju. S tem naj bi se začelo postopno opuščanje kate- gorizacije oseb s posebnimi potrebami v skupine, sledilo pa mu je razvrščanje. Razvrščali so se duševno moteni otroci, otroci s slušnimi in govornimi motnjami, slepi in slabovidni otroci, otroci z drugimi telesnimi motnjami, vedenjsko in osebnostno moteni ter otroci z več vrst motenj (Košir idr., 2011). Osamosvojitvi Slovenije je v sredini devetdesetih let prejšnjega stoletja sledila obsežna prenova izobraževanja na vseh ravneh, tudi za osebe s posebnimi potrebami. Zadnje večje spremembe so bile vpeljane leta 2000 s sprejetjem Zakona o usmerjanju otrok s posebnimi potrebami (2011), ki je urejal področje vzgoje in izobraževanja po celotni izobraževalni vertikali do terciarne ravni. Zakon je bil večkrat dopolnjen, od januarja 2019 pa za pred- šolsko vzgojo velja nova ureditev, ki izhaja iz Zakona o celostni zgodnji obravnavi predšolskih otrok s posebnimi potrebami (2017). Sklenemo lahko, da je šele zakon leta 2000 v Sloveniji spodbudil vključevanje oseb s po- sebnimi potrebami v večinske vzgojno-izobraževalne ustanove, kar Haug (2017) imenuje integracija. Predpostavka koncepta je, da bo ustrezna (tj. glede na diagnosticirane pri- manjkljaje osebe) usmeritev osebe bodisi v večinsko bodisi specialno šolo imela že sama po sebi pozitivne učinke. Predpostavka se je sčasoma izkazala za napačno, saj sama po sebi ne more odpraviti segregacije, marginalizacije in diskriminacije učencev, do katerih je prihajalo ob takšnih rešitvah izobraževanja (Lesar, 2009). Kot prvi odziv na kritike integracije se je v sedemdesetih letih v ZDA in kasneje še v Evropi pojavil koncept inkluzije, ki ga danes Haug (2017) imenuje ožja inkluzija. Več AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 9 5. 04. 2023 11:38:31 10 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 pozornosti se nameni samemu pedagoškemu procesu, učeči se pa naj bi postali polnoprav- ni člani oddelka in šole. Izobraževali naj bi se skupaj s svojimi vrstniki iz soseske, hkrati pa naj bi imeli dostop do diferencirane in individualizirane podpore, prilagojenih progra- mov in prilagojenega ocenjevanja, skladno s svojimi zmožnostmi in interesi (Ermenc idr., 2019). Kot je bilo že izpostavljeno, naj bi postopki ugotavljanja učenčevih primanjkljajev dajali podlago za izbiro intervencij s strani ustreznih strokovnjakov (Ermenc idr., 2019). Ti naj bi imeli posebno strokovno znanje in tehnično podporo za izničevanje ali pa vsaj zmanjševanje posebnih potreb osebe. V izobraževalnih ustanovah se ob takšnem razume- vanju inkluzije pojavi potreba po večjem številu kadra s specialno pedagoško izobrazbo, ki naj bi nosili tudi večji delež odgovornosti za uspeh in vključenost oseb s posebnimi potre- bami. To fazo inkluzije lahko prepoznamo tudi v slovenskem izobraževalnem okolju. De- lež oseb, ki so prepoznane kot osebe s posebnimi potrebami in se izobražujejo v večinskih šolah, narašča (Kozmelj, 2020). Pojavlja pa se tudi potreba po ustrezno izobraženem kadru za delo z osebami s posebnimi potrebami, kot jih določa Pravilnik o izobrazbi učiteljev in drugih strokovnih delavcev v izobraževalnem programu osnovne šole (2011). Tretja faza oz. širše razumevanje inkluzije pa se od prejšnjih dveh razlikuje že v sa- mem izhodišču in prepričanju, da mora šola sprejeti raznolikost kot pozitivno izhodišče svojega delovanja (Haug, 2017). Koncept inkluzije torej ni več vezan zgolj na osebe s posebnimi potrebami, temveč se nanaša na vse, ki se pri učenju in participaciji soočajo z ovirami (Lesar, 2009), kot tudi na učeče se na splošno, saj naj bi šola za vse osebe vzpostavljala optimalne pogoje za izobraževanje in jih hkrati učila živeti z raznolikostjo (Ermenc idr., 2019). Zaradi preobrata v filozofiji v ozadju je uveljavljanje širšega razumevanja inkluzije velik izziv, ki terja koherentno delovanje celotnega sistema (od zakonodaje, programov, učnih gradiv, šolske organizacije do ravni pouka in odnosov) (Ermenc idr., 2019). Avtorice izpo- stavijo, da je ključni premik od ožjega k širšemu razumevanju inkluzije na izobraževalnem polju premik od specialnega pedagoškega k občemu pedagoškemu diskurzu o osebah s posebnimi potrebami. Specialne pedagoške intervencije, ki jih izvedejo specialni pedago- gi, naj bi nadomestila težnja h kakovostnemu pedagoškemu procesu za vse. Učitelj naj bi na podlagi poznavanja načel individualizacije in diferenciacije obče učne metode, oblike in strategije izbiral in uporabljal glede na zmožnosti učečih se. Raznolikost bi morala biti temelja vrednota, diskurz o dihotomiji med »običajnimi« in »drugačnimi« pa naj bi zamenjal kontinuum skrbi za vključenost in uspeh vseh (Ermenc idr., 2019). Kot dodaja Kodele (2017), pa je pomembno še, da vse učeče se ne glede na to, ali se soočajo z ovirami ali ne, razumemo kot aktivne udeležence učnega procesa in da so aktivno vključeni v pro- ces reševanja svojih težav na področju učenja. Nekateri avtorji (Arduin, 2015; Ermenc idr., 2019; Thomas, 2013) poudarijo, da ima ta- kšno širše razumevanje inkluzije pomembne implikacije tudi na skupnostni, ne samo na šolski ravni. Intervencije s strani skupnosti navadno sledijo izhodiščem Rawlsove (1971) teorije pravičnosti in ideji, da bomo z dodatnim angažmajem in finančnimi vložki po- magali deprivilegiranim. A kot opozarja Lesar (2018), se zdi za uresničevanje inkluzije v AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 10 5. 04. 2023 11:38:31 11Katja Jeznik: Vpliv sistemske organiziranosti izobraževanja oseb s posebnimi potrebami ... kontekstu izobraževanja nujno Rawlsov koncept distributivne pravičnosti dopolniti vsaj še s pripoznanjem (Fraser in Honneth, 2003), participacijo (Kodele, 2017) in soodvisno- stjo (Lynch idr., 2009). Mažgon idr. (2019) zapišejo, da je inkluzija koncept, ki presega izobraževanje in sega v skupnost. Le v vključujoči skupnosti je namreč mogoče optimal- no udejanjiti izobraževalne cilje in posameznikove zmožnosti, hkrati pa inkluzivno šolo težko razvijamo v neinkluzivni skupnosti. V tem smislu lahko razumemo tudi pomen inkluzivne naravnanosti učnih skupnosti na vseh izobraževalnih ravneh. PRIMARNA IN SEKUNDARNA RAVEN IZOBRAŽEVANJA OSEB S POSEBNIMI POTREBAMI V nadaljevanju bomo na kratko povzeli ureditev izobraževanja oseb s posebnimi potreba- mi na ravni primarnega in sekundarnega izobraževanja. V skladu z Zakonom o usmerjanju otrok s posebnimi potrebami (ZUOPP-1, 2011) se je v Sloveniji uveljavila naslednja razpo- reditev otrok in mladostnikov v devet skupin: • otroci z motnjami v duševnem razvoju, • gluhi in naglušni otroci, • slepi in slabovidni otroci oz. otroci z okvaro vidne funkcije, • otroci z govorno-jezikovnimi motnjami, • gibalno ovirani otroci, • otroci s primanjkljaji na posameznih področjih učenja, • dolgotrajno bolni otroci, • otroci s čustvenimi in vedenjskimi motnjami in • otroci z avtističnimi motnjami. Kot smo že izpostavili, je z zadnjimi sistemskimi spremembami Slovenija skladno z med- narodnimi priporočili vpeljala integracijski model šolanja za osebe s posebnimi potre- bami. Cilj odločevalcev je bil predvsem, da jih je čim več vključenih v večinske šole, a hkrati se Slovenija ni odločila v celoti opustiti šolanje v specialnih vzgojno-izobraževalnih ustanovah (Ermenc idr., 2019). ZUOPP-1 (2011) določa, da o načinu vključevanja oseb s posebnimi potrebami v izobraževalni sistem odloča ustrezna strokovna komisija, ki v procesu usmerjanja opredeli posebno potrebo osebe in jo skladno z njenimi potrebami usmeri v enega izmed izobraževalnih programov, namenjenih osebam s posebnimi potre- bami. Zakon loči pet vzgojno-izobraževalnih programov za obvezno raven izobraževanja. V vzgojno­izobraževalni program s prilagojenim izvajanjem in dodatno strokovno pomočjo so vključene osebe, ki jim zadostujejo prilagoditve pri izvajanju programa, ki je sicer iden- tičen programu večinske osnovne šole. Osebe, ki so usmerjene v ta program, ki se izvaja sočasno z običajnim programom, so praviloma upravičene do različnih prilagoditev uč- nega procesa in dodatne strokovne pomoči v obsegu do pet ur, od tega je vedno ena ura namenjena svetovalnim storitvam. Pri prilagojenem programu vzgoje in izobraževanja z enakovrednim izobrazbenim standardom gre za prilagoditve programov za različne skupine oseb s posebnimi potrebami (npr. za gluhe, gibalno ovirane, slepe). Prilagajajo se lahko organizacija pouka, načini ocenjevanja znanja ipd. Tudi v teh programih se osebam lahko AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 11 5. 04. 2023 11:38:31 12 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 zagotovi dodatna strokovna pomoč, program pa se lahko izvaja v oddelkih z običajnim programom, lahko pa tudi v specializiranih ustanovah. Prilagojeni program vzgoje in izo­ braževanja z nižjim izobrazbenim standardom je namenjen zlasti osebam z lažjo motnjo v duševnem razvoju in se praviloma izvaja v specializiranih ustanovah oz. ločenih oddelkih večinske šole. Program traja devet let, po devetih letih uspešnega izobraževanja in preha- janja med razredi pa imajo učenci priznan sedmi razred večinske osnovne šole in končano osnovnošolsko obveznost. Posebni program vzgoje in izobraževanja je namenjen osebam z zmerno, težjo in težko motnjo v duševnem razvoju, vzgojni program pa tistim z vedenj- skimi težavami. Posamezna šola lahko torej po trenutno veljavni zakonodaji izvaja več programov hkrati, a jih v primeru znižanega standarda znanja izvaja v ločenih oddelkih. Za vsako osebo, vključeno v enega izmed naštetih programov, na šoli pripravijo individualiziran program. Vanj zapišejo vse prilagoditve, ki jih posameznik potrebuje za enakovredno sodelovanje pri pouku in doseganje optimalnih učnih ciljev. V osnovnošolskih programih se je v šolskem letu 2019/20 izobraževalo 13.302 oseb s posebnimi potrebami. Večina (81 %) je bila vključena v izobraževalni program s prila- gojenim izvajanjem in dodatno strokovno pomočjo. Pomenili so 5,7 % vseh učencev v večinskem osnovnošolskem programu. V specializiranih ustanovah pa se je izobraževalo okoli 2 % celotne generacije (Kozmelj, 2020). Tudi srednješolsko izobraževanje ponuja dijakom različne vzgojno-izobraževalne progra- me. Učenci, ki so zaključili devetletno osnovnošolsko obveznost in hkrati niso zaključi- li vseh devetih razredov, temveč devetletni prilagojeni program z nižjim izobrazbenim standardom, se lahko vpišejo v programe nižjega poklicnega izobraževanja, ki se izvajajo v okviru srednjih šol ali srednješolskih centrov. Ti programi so, poleg pridobitve poklicne kvalifikacije, namenjeni temu, da dijaki pridobijo manjkajočo osnovnošolsko izobrazbo. Po pridobitvi te ravni izobrazbe se lahko osebe zaposlijo oz. vpišejo v poklicne programe srednjih šol. Po zaključku teh pa se lahko skupaj s preostalimi dijaki vpišejo še v program strokovnega tehniškega izobraževanja ter šolanje po zaključku nadaljujejo tudi na višjih ravneh izobraževanja oz. se zaposlijo. Tako kot za raven osnovnošolskega izobraževanja tudi za srednje šole velja sistem usmer- janja posameznikov v izobraževalni program v skladu z ZUOPP-1 (2011). Nekateri programi srednješolskega izobraževanja pa se, podobno kot osnovnošolski, izvajajo le v ločenih vzgojno-izobraževalnih ustanovah (za gibalno ovirane,1 slepe in slabovidne, glu- he in naglušne ter dijake z govorno-jezikovnimi motnjami). Večina dijakov s posebnimi potrebami se vključuje v večinske srednje šole, kjer se jim glede na odločbo o usmeritvi 1 Na spletni strani ustanove CIRIUS Kamnik (b. d.) denimo preberemo, da se lahko dijaki vpišejo v dva programa nižjega poklicnega izobraževanja (Pomočnik v tehnoloških procesih in Pomožni administrator), v tri programe poklicnega izobraževanja (Računalnikar, Elektrikar in Administrator), v dva programa strokovnega izobraževanja (Administrator in Ekonomski tehnik) in dva programa strokovnega tehniškega izobraževanja (Elektrotehnik in Ekonomski tehnik). AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 12 5. 04. 2023 11:38:31 13Katja Jeznik: Vpliv sistemske organiziranosti izobraževanja oseb s posebnimi potrebami ... v izobraževalni program omogočijo prilagoditve učnega procesa in izvajajo ure dodatne strokovne pomoči. Pregled statistike dijakov, vpisanih v različne srednješolske programe (skupno 72.783 di- jakov) potrjuje podobno rast števila dijakov s posebnimi potrebami, kot jo v zadnjih letih opažamo v obveznem izobraževanju. V šolskem letu 2010/11 je bilo v različne programe vpisanih 2.780 dijakov s posebnimi potrebami, v šolskem letu 2019/20 pa že 5.311 (Mini- strstvo za izobraževanje, znanost in šport [MIZŠ], b. d.). Trenutno delež vpisanih dijakov s posebnimi potrebami znaša 8,35 % vseh dijakov. Skoraj četrtina oz. 24,1 % omenjenih dijakov je vpisanih v nižje poklicno izobraževanje, slaba petina oz. 17,9 % v poklicno izobraževanje, slaba desetina oz. 8 % v srednje strokovno izobraževanje, 3,7 % v splo- šne izobraževalne programe in 7,8 % v programe strokovnega tehniškega izobraževanja (MIZŠ, b. d.). TERCIARNA RAVEN IZOBRAŽEVANJA OSEB S POSEBNIMI POTREBAMI Področje izobraževanja oseb s posebnimi potrebami se na ravni terciarnega izobraževanja sistemsko ureja šele v zadnjih letih, po sprejetju Zakona za urejanje položaja študentov (2017). Prvi razlog za to lahko najdemo v vsesplošni masifikaciji terciarnega izobraževanja od druge svetovne vojne naprej (Rebolj, 2018). Drugi razlog, ki ga omenja Rebolj (2018), se nanaša na zvišano stopnjo podpore osebam s posebnimi potrebami na douniverzitetnih ravneh izobraževanja, ki smo jo povzeli v prejšnjem poglavju. Tretji razlog, da se je podro- čje študija za osebe s posebnimi potrebami začelo urejati tudi na sistemski ravni, pa lahko povežemo s prepričanjem, da je izobraževanje ena izmed poti, ki osebam s posebnimi po- trebami v odraslosti omogoča večjo finančno neodvisnost in večjo kompetentnost na trgu dela. Sicer so lahko osebe s posebnimi potrebami izpostavljene brezposelnosti in nižjim dohodkom ter posledično večjemu tveganju revščine in socialne izključenosti (Cankar, 2020; Rebolj, 2018). Tako kot za vse tudi za študente s posebnimi potrebami velja, da jim lahko višja stopnja izobrazbe omogoča tudi siceršnji dvig kakovosti življenja. Osnovne sistemske podlage za študij oseb s posebnimi potrebami izhajajo iz Zakona o visokem šolstvu (2011), ki od leta 2017 v 69. a členu določa, kdo so študenti s posebnimi potrebami in študenti s posebnim statusom ter do česa so upravičeni. Slednje se nanaša na dvoje: • na ugodnejšo obravnavo v izbirnem postopku v primeru omejitve vpisa in • na prilagoditve izvajanja študijskih programov in dodatno strokovno pomoč pri študiju, pri čemer lahko napredujejo in dokončajo študij v daljšem času, kot je predvideno s štu- dijskim programom, ter pri tem obdržijo druge pravice in ugodnosti študentov iz prvega odstavka 69. člena zakona. Ta člen določa še druge pravice in ugodnosti študentov, npr. do preventivnega zdravstvenega pregleda, bivanja v študentskih domovih ipd. Ker gre za novejše rešitve, še ni zbrana baza podatkov o tem, koliko je dejansko študentov, ki študirajo ob posebnem statusu, za daljše časovno obdobje. Podobno Rebolj (2018) ugo- tavlja tudi za nekatere druge evropske države. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 13 5. 04. 2023 11:38:31 14 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 Formalna ureditev študija za osebe s posebnimi potrebami na primeru Univerze v Ljubljani V nadaljevanju bomo ureditev statusa študenta s posebnimi potrebami povzeli glede na ureditev področja na največji univerzi v Sloveniji, Univerzi v Ljubljani. Osredotočili se bomo na tri vprašanja: • Ali se poimenovanje, ki se uporablja za študente s posebnimi potrebami, sklada s poi- menovanji na predhodnih ravneh izobraževanja? • Ali in kako se postopki pridobitve statusa študenta s posebnimi potrebami in iz tega izhajajoče pravice razlikujejo od postopkov in pravic na predhodnih ravneh izobraževanja? • Kolikšen je delež študentov s posebnimi potrebami v primerjavi s prehodnimi ravnmi izobraževanja? Ključne informacije o študentih s posebnimi potrebami so objavljene na spletnih straneh Univerze v Ljubljani (UL, b. d.-a). Študenti s posebnimi potrebami so obravnavni skupaj z vsemi drugimi študenti, ki potrebujejo posebni status: »Študenti s posebnim statusom so študenti, ki izkazujejo pomembne dosežke na področju športa, umetnosti in kulture, študenti starši in študenti s posebnimi potrebami, kamor se uvrščajo tudi študenti v iz- rednih socialnih razmerah« (UL, b. d.-a). Status si študent ureja skladno s Pravilnikom o študentih s posebnim statusom na Univerzi v Ljubljani (UL, 2018). V tem pravilniku so v 5. členu študenti s posebnimi potrebami opredeljeni kot: Študenti s posebnimi potrebami so študenti, ki zaradi dolgotrajnih okvar, mo- tenj, primanjkljajev ali bolezni (v nadaljevanju: težave) potrebujejo pomoč in prilagoditve za svojo učinkovito vključitev v študij in opravljanje študijskih ob- veznosti. To so zlasti študenti z delno ali popolno izgubo vida (slabovidni in slepi študenti), študenti z delno ali popolno izgubo sluha (naglušni in gluhi študenti), študenti z govorno-jezikovnimi težavami (težavami v komunikaciji), študenti z gibalno oviranostjo, študenti z dolgotrajno ali kronično boleznijo, študenti s primanjkljaji na posameznih področjih učenja (težave na področju branja in pisanja, npr. disleksija ipd.), študenti z motnjami avtističnega spektra, telesnimi poškodbami in/ali dolgotrajnejšo rehabilitacijo, z motnjami v tele- snem in duševnem zdravju ter s čustvenimi in vedenjskimi motnjami. Status študenta s posebnimi potrebami ima lahko tudi študent na podlagi izrednih socialnih razmer. (UL, 2018) Ugotovimo lahko, da se na ravni terciarnega izobraževanja ohranja terminologija o osebah s posebnimi potrebami, kot je uveljavljena na primarni in sekundarni ravni izobraževanja. Pravilnik določa tudi postopek in pogoje za pridobitev posebnega statusa, možne načine prilagoditve okolja in načina izvajanja študija ter opravljanja študijskih obveznosti glede na pogoje izvajanja študija na članicah, koordinacijo aktivnosti za spremljanje in podporo študentov s posebnim statusom na Univerzi v Ljubljani in njenih članicah ter vodenje AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 14 5. 04. 2023 11:38:31 15Katja Jeznik: Vpliv sistemske organiziranosti izobraževanja oseb s posebnimi potrebami ... evidence in dokumentacije na članicah (UL, 2018). V nadaljevanju povzamemo postopek pridobitve statusa. Oseba za status zaprosi v individualni prošnji na članici Univerze v Ljubljani oz. koordinatorici študijskega programa, v katerega je vpisana. Prošnjo pravi- loma odda ob vpisu, lahko pa tudi kadarkoli med študijem. V vlogi oseba sama opredeli svoje potrebe po prilagoditvi študija in opravljanju študijskih obveznosti. Priložiti mora ustrezna dokazila, ki potrjujejo potrebo po prilagoditvah. O tem, ali bo osebi status odo- bren ali ne, odloča pristojni organ članice. Člani organa se odločijo tudi o morebitnem pogovoru z osebo, ki prosi za status. Status se lahko podeli za različno obdobje. Lahko se podeli za eno študijsko leto, za celoten čas študija ali pa za čas veljavnosti dokazil. Pristojni organ mora sklep izdati en mesec po prejemu vloge, v njem pa opredeliti tako prilagoditve študijskega procesa kot tudi obdobje, za katerega so te veljavne. Ob morebitnih spremem- bah se lahko izdani sklep dopolni oz. ustrezno spremeni (UL, 2018). Iz povzetega lahko ugotovimo, da je postopek v formalnem smislu podoben postopku pridobitve statusa na primarni in sekundarni ravni izobraževanja. Organ, ki odloča o pro- šnji, ni več organiziran na ravni Zavoda RS za šolstvo, temveč na ravni članic Univerze v Ljubljani. Večji poudarek je na samoiniciativnosti osebe s posebnimi potrebami in komu- nikaciji na ravni posameznih izobraževalnih programov znotraj članic univerze. Tudi pravice, ki izhajajo iz statusa študenta s posebnimi potrebami, so podobne pravicam na primarni in sekundarni ravni izobraževanja. Študenti lahko pridobijo pomoč in različ- ne prilagoditve pri opravljanju študijskih obveznosti ter tako vplivajo na svoje vključevanje v študijski proces. Ni pa na primer jasno, kako naj uresničijo pravico do dodatne strokovne pomoči, kot jo lahko uveljavljajo učenci in dijaki na predhodnih ravneh izobraževanja. Ključna razlika je še v tem, da za študente s posebnimi potrebami ne obstajajo poseb- ni študijski programi, kot velja to na ravni primarnega in sekundarnega izobraževanja (ZUOPP-1, 2011). Kljub določenim razlikam lahko sklenemo, da pregled ureditve študija za osebe s posebni- mi potrebami na primeru Univerze v Ljubljani kaže, da pomeni formalna ureditev podro- čja študija za študente s posebnimi potrebami v določenem smislu nadaljevanje ureditve na douniverzitetni ravni izobraževanja. Na Univerzi v Ljubljani je bila perspektiva študentov s posebnimi potrebami ovrednotena februarja 2021 v anketi za študente s posebnimi potrebami, iz poročila pa je razvidno tudi število teh študentov za študijsko leto 2020/21 (UL, 2021), in sicer jih je bilo 1,2 % celotne populacije študentov, vpisanih na Univerzo v Ljubljani, oz. 489 od 40.607 vpisa- nih študentov (UL, b. d.-b). Rezultati ankete za študente s posebnimi potrebami (UL, 2021) kažejo tudi, da so študenti večinoma zadovoljni s prilagoditvami študijskega procesa in da so bile te upoštevane tudi v obdobju študija na daljavo. Čeprav lahko ugotovimo, da je delež študentov s posebnimi potrebami manjši kot med dijaki in učenci, lahko predvidevamo, da se bo v prihodnje povečeval. Zato bo tudi na sis- temski ravni treba bolj poskrbeti za ustrezne podatkovne baze ter druge sisteme podpore in pomoči posameznikom, ki nadaljujejo študij na višjih ravneh izobraževalne vertikale. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 15 5. 04. 2023 11:38:31 16 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 NEKATERE PREPREKE NA POTI VZPOSTAVLJANJA BOLJ INKLUZIVNO NARAVNANEGA IZOBRAŽEVANJA Čeprav je izobraževanje oseb s posebnimi potrebami danes v Sloveniji urejeno bolje kot pred spremembo zakonodaje leta 2000, še vedno ni dovolj vključujoče, še zlasti za do- ločene skupine oseb s posebnimi potrebami in na vseh izobraževalnih ravneh (Ermenc idr., 2019; Šelih, 2013). Razlogi so zelo raznoliki. Kot je že bilo poudarjeno, jih lahko deloma razumemo kot posledico velikih paradigmatskih razlik med strokovnjaki, oprtimi vsak na drugačne raziskovalne izsledke (Ermenc idr., 2019). Eni dokazujejo, da osebe s posebnimi potrebami v večinskih šolah napredujejo manj kot vrstniki v ločenih specialnih izobraževalnih ustanovah, drugi dokazujejo nasprotno, torej da te osebe v večinskih šolah napredujejo bolje. Dijaki s posebnimi potrebami so bistveno bolj zastopani v programih srednjega poklicnega in strokovnega izobraževanja, manj pa jih je na gimnazijah (Cankar, 2020). Ta ugotovitev sicer ne drži za skupino dijakov z organskimi ovirami (slepi, slabo- vidni in z okvaro vidne funkcije, gibalno ovirani, gluhi in naglušni). Njihov delež je na gimnazijah celo večji kot v preostali populaciji (Cankar, 2020). Kako se razlike kažejo na ravni študijskih programov, pa v tem trenutku še ni razvidno, ker se to področje sistemsko ureja šele zadnjih nekaj let. Ermenc idr. (2019) med pomembne ovire pri vzpostavljanju inkluzije v Sloveniji uvrščajo sistem študija bodočih pedagoških delavcev, ki je dvotiren ter loči študij specialne in reha- bilitacijske pedagogike od splošnih pedagoških programov. Nekateri avtorji (Lesar, 2018; Messner idr., 2016; Peček in Macura-Milovanović, 2015) ugotavljajo, da so v splošnih pedagoških programih sicer teme izobraževanja oseb s posebnimi potrebami v primerjavi z ostalimi ranljivimi skupinami zastopane v večjem deležu, vprašanje pa je, ali pomenijo tudi odmik od medicinskega diskurza in diskurzov nezmožnosti o osebah s posebnimi potrebami k diskurzu demokratizma in pedagoškemu diskurzu, kjer na vse gledamo kot zmožne učenja (Lesar, 2009; Rebolj, 2018) ter prave participacije (Kodele, 2017). Še večji manko pa se kaže na ravni univerzitetnih pedagoških delavcev. Vršnik Perše (2021) v monografiji Učenje in poučevanje v visokem šolstvu: Spoznanja in izzivi ugotavlja, da v Slo- veniji ni sistematičnega uvajanja v opravljanje poklica visokošolskega učitelja in to lahko postane tudi nekdo, ki ni usvojil niti osnovnih učiteljskih kompetenc in znanja (Košir, 2021). Zato od visokošolskih učiteljev ne moremo pričakovati niti posebnih specialnih pedagoških niti občih pedagoških znanj. V odnosu do oseb s posebnimi potrebami zanje velja podobno, kot velja za zaposlene na ostalih ravneh izobraževanja – prepričanja in stališča so posamezniki oblikovali predvsem na podlagi lastnega raziskovanja in izkušenj. To pa ni zadostno niti ustrezno izhodišče za vzpostavljanje inkluzivno naravnane visoko- šolske skupnosti. Ta vrzel se skuša v zadnjih letih napolniti s številnimi izobraževanji in usposabljanji z najrazličnejših pedagoško-didaktičnih področij, a še vedno gre le za delno in sistemsko nezadostno podprto rešitev. Zaradi omenjenega je pri visokošolskih učiteljih bolj kot proučevanje poznavanja po- sebnih potreb, ki jih imajo študenti, smiselno proučevati njihov odnos do študentov s posebnimi potrebami. Pred leti je sicer bila opravljena nacionalna študija o stanju ureditve AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 16 5. 04. 2023 11:38:31 17Katja Jeznik: Vpliv sistemske organiziranosti izobraževanja oseb s posebnimi potrebami ... posebnih skupin študentov, tudi študentov s posebnimi potrebami (Košak Babuder idr., 2018; Schmidt, 2021), ki je ob zaznanem napredku na tem področju razkrila tudi šibkosti. Poleg ustreznih infrastrukturnih pogojev za organizacijo postopkov, svetovalnih in pod- pornih mehanizmov študentom s posebnimi potrebami je nujno pozornost in energijo usmeriti tudi v usposabljanja in podporo visokošolskim učiteljem in drugim strokovnim delavcem za delo s to skupino študentov. Pomemben korak na tem področju je bil narejen ob izdaji priročnika Poučevanje študentov s posebnimi potrebami: Priročnik za visokošolske učitelje, strokovne sodelavce in druge, ki se v študijskem procesu srečujejo s študenti s posebnimi potrebami ( Jakšić Ivačič idr., 2020). Dosedanje raziskave o odnosu pedagoških delavcev do oseb s posebnimi potrebami so se osredotočile predvsem na douniverzitetno raven izobraževanja (Kobal Grum, 2018; Schmidt in Vrhovnik, 2017; Štemberger in Kiswarday, 2018), Lesar in Žveglič Mihelič (2020) pa sta predstavili rezultate raziskave, ki povzema stališča in prepričanja univerzi- tetnih učiteljev na pedagoških študijskih programih. Ugotovili sta, da je več kot polovica vprašanih izbrala inkluzivno naravnane trditve pred integrativnimi. Med inkluziji bolj naklonjenimi je bil statistično značilno večji delež tistih, ki se vsaj nekaj časa v svojem poučevanju posvečajo temam marginaliziranih družbenih skupin, kot tistih, ki tem temam posvetijo zelo malo časa (Lesar in Žveglič Mihelič, 2020). Avtorici menita, da iz njune raziskave veje zmerni optimizem. Tisti, ki vsaj nekaj časa posvetijo inkluzivnim temam, bolj sledijo ugotovitvam raziskav in priporočilom o uresničevanju socialnega vidika inklu- zivnosti in ne le individualističnega. Diskurz profesionalizma bolj nadomešča pedagoški diskurz, asimilacijo pa teženje k dnevno prilagojenemu pedagoškemu delu v heterogenih učnih skupinah (Lesar in Žveglič Mihelič, 2020). Ugotovili sta še, da je naklonjenost inkluziji statistično pomembno povezana s študijskim programom. Ideji so bolj naklonjeni visokošolski učitelji na študijskih programih peda- gogike kot na primer na študijskem programu predšolske vzgoje ali razrednega pouka (Lesar in Žveglič Mihelič, 2020). Dokaj visoko stopnjo inkluzivne naravnanosti študen- tov pedagogike je potrdila tudi druga raziskava (Mažgon idr., 2018). Razloge Lesar in Žveglič Mihelič (2020) povezujeta z razlikami v načinu dela. Pedagogi so bolj usmerjani v individualno delo in manj v delo v večjih heterogenih skupinah, ki z vidika vključevanja vsekakor pomenijo večji izziv. Lesar in Žveglič Mihelič (2020) zaključujeta, da je med univerzitetnimi učitelji koncept integracije prepoznan, v ospredju pa sta psihomedicinska paradigma in individualistična perspektiva ali diskurz profesionalizma. Avtorici ocenita, da le nekaj čez polovico inkluziji bolj naklonjenih pedagoških delavcev ni zadovoljiv rezultat in ga razumeta kot pomemb- no oviro na poti implementacije inkluzivnosti v slovenski šolski sistem. Iz raziskav med študenti s posebnimi potrebami so zanimive tudi ugotovitve Rebolj (2018). Avtorica je v svoji doktorski raziskavi s pomočjo poglobljenih intervjujev kot ena od prvih v Sloveniji proučevala stališča študentov s posebnimi potrebami in prilagodi- tve študijskega procesa med pedagoškimi delavci na dveh članicah Univerze v Ljubljani. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 17 5. 04. 2023 11:38:31 18 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 Njene ugotovitve so spodbudne. Ugotovila je namreč, da v raziskavo vključeni visokošol- ski učitelji večinoma izražajo pozitivna stališča do prilagoditev za študente s posebnimi potrebami in da so se pripravljeni odzvati na prošnje študentov po prilagoditvah, prav tako pa so pripravljeni omogočati različne prilagoditve študijskega procesa (Rebolj, 2018). Na drugi strani pa je ugotovila tudi, da v raziskavo vključeni študenti s posebnimi potre- bami poročajo o srečevanju z nerazumevanjem in negativnih izkušnjah (Rebolj, 2018). Prilagoditve študijskega procesa najpogosteje odprejo vprašanje ogrožanja akademskih standardov. Rebolj (2018) ugotavlja, da do tega neželenega pojava pride predvsem zara- di občutka nemoči visokošolskih učiteljev, ki ne vedo zmeraj, kako izvajati prilagoditve študijskega procesa, ter se srečujejo z dilemami in vprašanji, povezanimi s smiselnostjo posameznih prilagoditev. Vendar pa avtorica hkrati ugotavlja, da vprašanje nižanja aka- demskih standardov ni povezano le z odpiranjem fakultet študentom s posebnimi potre- bami, ampak tudi s splošno večjo dostopnostjo študija, prisotnostjo diskurza usmiljenja na univerzah in podobnim pritiskom, ki rezultirajo v popuščanju in zniževanju študijskih zahtev (Rebolj, 2018). ZAKLJUČEK V članku smo analizirali nekatere vidike sistemskih rešitev izobraževanja oseb s po- sebnimi potrebami na primarni, sekundarni in terciarni ravni izobraževanja. V razisko- valnem delu smo se osredotočili na terciarno stopnjo izobraževanja, ki je tako na ravni sistemskih rešitev kot na raziskovalni ravni pogosto spregledana dimenzija inkluzivnega izobraževanja. Pregled in analiza sistemskih rešitev izobraževanja oseb s posebnimi potrebami vodi do ugotovitve, da se sistemske rešitve prenašajo z nižje na višje izobraževalne ravni. Ohra- njata se terminologija in sistem prilagoditev kot ena od temeljnih pravic, ki izhajajo iz statusa osebe s posebnimi potrebami. Posledično lahko v prihodnje na terciarni ravni iz- obraževanja pričakujemo podobne prepreke na poti do oblikovanja bolj inkluzivne učne skupnosti, kot se pojavljajo na primarni in sekundarni ravni izobraževanja. Ključna razlika med sistemskimi rešitvami izobraževanja oseb s posebnimi potrebami na različnih izo- braževalnih ravneh pa se kaže v tem, da se izobraževalni programi na ravni primarnega in sekundarnega izobraževanja diferencirajo glede na zmožnosti oseb s posebnimi potreba- mi, na ravni terciarnega izobraževanja pa te diferenciacije ni. Pregled raziskav o inkluzivni naravnanosti izobraževalnega sistema v Sloveniji utrdi sklep, da ni problem le manko poznavanja posameznih skupin s posebnimi potrebami med pe- dagoškimi delavci, kar lahko razumemo kot neposreden rezultat njihovega neustrezne- ga izobraževanja, ampak tudi naravnanost, stališča in prepričanja, ki so navadno rezultat spontanega pridobivanja izkušenj z osebami s posebnimi potrebami. Našteto odraža in- tegracijsko logiko razumevanja vključevanja oseb s posebnimi potrebami v izobraževalni sistem, ki je daleč od tega, kar, vsaj v teoriji, opredeljujemo kot širše razumevanje inklu- zije kot podlage za vzpostavljanje bolj inkluzivno naravnane učne skupnosti. Teoretsko AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 18 5. 04. 2023 11:38:31 19Katja Jeznik: Vpliv sistemske organiziranosti izobraževanja oseb s posebnimi potrebami ... zastavljeni potencial inkluzivno naravnane učne skupnosti, katere izhodišče je razumeva- nje raznolikosti kot pozitivne vrednotne naravnanosti na vseh ravneh izobraževanja, bo lahko uresničen le ob oblikovanju ustreznih sistemskih rešitev na eni strani ter ob ustrezni podpori pedagoškim delavcem in osebam s posebnimi potrebami na drugi strani. V prihodnje bi bilo treba raziskati, ali se podobna logika razumevanja inkluzivnega izo- braževanja nadaljuje tudi na ravni vseživljenjskega izobraževanja oseb s posebnimi potre- bami. Še bolj izzivalno pa bi bilo proučevanje inkluzivne naravnanosti na ravni različnih zaposlitvenih možnosti za osebe s posebnimi potrebami glede na raven izobrazbe, ki jo dosežejo. Tudi na tem področju je zaznati manko raziskav, ne pa tudi manko raziskoval- nega interesa, kar kažeta nedavno izdani publikaciji v okviru Andragoškega društva Slo- venije: Andragog pri učenju in izobraževanju odraslih s posebnimi potrebami (Povše in Jelenc, 2016) in Izzivi inkluzije pri vseživljenjskem učenju in izobraževanju odraslih s posebnimi potrebami (Srebotnik in Povše, 2021).  Financiranje Članek je nastal v okviru raziskovalnega programa št. P5­0174 Pedagoško­andragoške raziskave – Učenje in izobraževanje za kakovostno življenje v skupnosti, ki ga je sof inancirala Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije iz državnega proračuna. LITERATURA IN VIRI Arduin, S. (2015). A review of the values that underpin the structure of an education system and its approach to disability and inclusion. Oxford Review of Education, 41(1), 105–121. https://doi.org/10 .1080/03054985.2015.1006614 Booth, T. in Ainscow, M. (2002). 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Rezultati ankete za študente s posebnimi potrebami. https://www.uni-lj.si/ studij/studenti-s-posebnim-statusom/porocila-in-analize/ AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 21 5. 04. 2023 11:38:32 22 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 Vršnik Perše, T. (2021). Spoznanja in izzivi sodobnih pogledov na učenje in poučevanje v visokem šol- stvu. V T. Vršnik Perše (ur.), Učenje in poučevanje v visokem šolstvu: Spoznanja in izzivi (str. 5–18). Univerza v Mariboru, Univerzitetna založba. https://doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-466-8 Zakon o celostni zgodnji obravnavi predšolskih otrok s posebnimi potrebami (ZOPOPP). (2017). Ura­ dni list RS, št. 41/17. http://www.pisrs.si/Pis.web/pregledPredpisa?id=ZAKO7681 Zakon o usmerjanju otrok s posebnimi potrebami (ZUOPP-1). (2011). Uradni list RS, št. 58/11, 40/12 – ZUJF, 90/12 in 41/17 – ZOPOPP. http://pisrs.si/Pis.web/pregledPredpisa?id=ZAKO5896# Zakon o visokem šolstvu (ZViS). (2011). Uradni list RS, št. 32/12, 40/12 – ZUJF, 57/12 – ZPCP- -2D, 109/12, 85/14, 75/16, 61/17 – ZUPŠ, 65/17 in 175/20 – ZIUOPDVE. http://pisrs.si/Pis.web/ pregledPredpisa?id=ZAKO172 Zakon za urejanje položaja študentov (ZUPŠ). (2017). Uradni list RS, št. 61/17. http://pisrs.si/Pis.web/ pregledPredpisa?id=ZAKO7696 AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 22 5. 04. 2023 11:38:32 Scientific article Andragoška spoznanja/Studies in Adult Education and Learning, 2023, 29(1), 23-39 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4312/as/10444 Souksakhone Sengsouliya, Lecturer, Faculty of Education, National University of Laos, Lao PDR, noysoukssly@yahoo.com Vanmany Vannasy, Lecturer, Faculty of Education, National University of Laos, Lao PDR, vanmanyv@gmail.com Souksakhone Sengsouliya, Vanmany Vannasy ETHNIC MINORITIES’ DROPOUT DECISIONS IN HIGHER EDUCATION: AN INTEGRATIVE REVIEW ABSTRACT The objective of this paper is to examine theoretical views on minority dropout decisions in higher education. This integrative review demonstrates that the dropout issue is highly complex and is comprised of different defi­ nitions and characteristics. It is required that educators clearly define the term. The review’s f indings also show that minority students’ decisions to drop out from higher education involve factors of three different dimensions: psychological, physical, and environmental factors. Institutional support is necessary to assist minority students in their educational attainment. The review concludes that future research will be key in further exploring the issue of minority dropout. Keywords: dropout decisions, ethnic minorities, higher education, minority dropout ETNIČNE MANJŠINE IN OSIP V VISOKOŠOLSKEM IZOBRAŽEVANJU: INTEGRATIVNI PREGLED – POVZETEK Cilj prispevka je preučiti teoretične poglede na odločitve o opustitvi izobraževanja pri pripadnikih manjšin v visokošolskem izobraževanju. Integrativni pregled je pokazal, da je vprašanje osipa izredno kompleksno ter ga zaznamujejo raznolike definicije in značilnosti, zato je treba jasno definirati sam pojem. Ugotovitve prav tako kažejo, da na odločitve predstavnikov manjšin, da opustijo študij, vplivajo dejavniki treh različnih dimenzij: psihološki, f izični in okoljski. Pri pridobivanju izobrazbe morajo ustanove te študente še posebej podpirati. Pri­ spevek postavlja sklep, da je nadaljnje raziskovanje ključnega pomena pri preučevanju problematike osipa med etničnimi manjšinami. Ključne besede: odločitve o opustitvi študija, etnične manjšine, visokošolsko izobraževanje, osip med manjšinami AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 23 5. 04. 2023 11:38:32 24 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 INTRODUCTION This research reviews both theoretical and empirical literature, focusing on the issue of minority dropout in higher education. Minority dropout in the present paper discuss- es the educational failure, not restricted to a minority group, of students from minority backgrounds considered to be ethnically distinct and subordinate to a more dominant group in different contexts found in the reviewed literature. Likewise, in some contexts (e.g., in the UK, USA), immigrants are considered a minority group. In the present study, the literature review includes definitions of “dropout”, the use of terminology, minority groups and their respective education, as well as reasons for dropping out from schooling among minority students. The minority dropout issue has been of great interest among researchers around the world for decades, especially dropout rates in higher education (e.g., Grubb, 1989; Reisel & Brekke, 2010; Rodgers, 2013; Samora, 1963; Williams, 2019; Wong & Wong, 1980). The focus of the scholarly discussion lies on withdrawal from higher education. Regarding the terminol- ogy, the literature indicates that in addition to “dropout”, several other terms exist which are used interchangeably, such as “withdrawal”, “non-completion”, “departing”, “leave or student leaver”, “non-persistence, non-persisters” (e.g., Astin & Cross, 1979; Bidgood et al., 2006; Gross et al., 2013; Meeuwisse et al. 2010; O’Keeffe, 2013; Woodfield, 2017). According to the literature review, “dropout” has been introduced with different terms in different studies. Moreover, defining “dropout” is quite complicated and it may lead to misunderstanding due to its several conditions, styles/types, and patterns. For instance, students transferring from one institution to another can be called “dropout” (as in the work of Grubb, 1989), but on the other hand, the case can be categorized as “switcher,” which is not really “dropout” as proposed by Meeuwisse et al. (2012). Likewise, “dropout” can be grouped into two sub-cat- egories: voluntary and involuntary, as Wong and Wong (1980) mentioned. However, the definition of dropout for the present paper is about minority students leaving their studies in university and/or college. Furthermore, dropout decisions made by ethnic minority stu- dents involve several factors, for instance, poor learning history in past education (Attinasi, 1989), motivation (Bidgood et al., 2006), peer interaction (Azaola, 2020), parental educa- tion (Chen & DesJardins, 2010), etc. There have been a number of studies investigating the reasons members of ethnic minorities drop out or leave their studies, however, only a few have used an integrative review research approach. Investigating minority dropout is not a new phenomenon and it is not a concern limited to the regional level; rather, it is a global issue. The UN (2015) and its Agenda 2030 called for the global community to join hands to achieve Sustainable Development Goal  4 (SDG 4), which envisions the provision of quality education for all, promoting equity and equality in education, without discrimination based on social class, ethnicity, and gender. According to SDG 4, the quality of an educational system is measured through the eq- uity and equality of educational access for all learners. Despite the global community’s agreement on working towards SDG 4, minority inclusion remains an issue in educa- tion. The existing literature reveals that minority students continue to lag behind their AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 24 5. 04. 2023 11:38:32 25Souksakhone Sengsouliya, Vanmany Vannasy: Ethnic Minorities’ Dropout Decisions... non-minority peers, particularly in educational life as demonstrated by their underrep- resentation in academia and low levels of academic attainment amongst minority groups. Minority students are more likely to leave or withdraw from their schooling without a degree, especially at the undergraduate level (Reisel & Brekke, 2010). In order to compre- hend the issue of minority education and to contribute to the existing body of knowledge, the present paper looks into the theoretical views of minority dropout, with a particular focus on the structural reasons for dropout decisions in higher education amongst stu- dents who are from ethnic minorities. The guiding question for this research is: “How is dropout conceptualised and what reasons for ethnic minority dropout in higher education can be found in the integrative review of literature?” METHODOLOGICAL DESIGN An integrative review of literature was conducted for this research. We reviewed the ex- isting literature to understand the theoretical perspectives on minority dropout and to identify the key issues driving minority students to drop out of higher education. This review follows the framework proposed by Tavares de Souza et al. (2010), analysing both theoretical and empirical studies to describe the problems of a particular concern. We exe- cuted five steps of the integrative review method. To begin with, the research question was developed. Secondly, we took stock of the existing literature. As a third step, the identified literature was evaluated and screened according to a set of criteria, and subsequently, data gathered in this way was analysed. Lastly, in line with Whittemore and Knafl’s (2005) recommendation, we presented the results in a structured manner in the form of this pa- per. In addition to this integrative review method, this paper incorporates the systematic review method. This research method analyses secondary and primary data to present findings according to the established research questions (Newman & Gough, 2020). We used several online databases to source appropriate literature, such as ASC, ERIC, SCOPUS, SocINDEX, and Web of Sciences. According to the nature of systematic re- view, we developed the search terms (keywords): “dropout,” “minority,” “adult education”, then developed three search strings from the determined keywords using the Boolean operators “AND” and “OR” (see Fig. 1). This review searched with a combination of Figure 1 Search terms of the integrative review 1. (“dropout” OR “withdrawal” OR “loss”) AND 2. (“minority” OR “ethnic minority” OR “minority group” OR “indigenous group” OR “tribal group”) AND 3. (“adult education” OR “higher education” OR “lifelong learning” OR “further education” OR “continuing education” OR “further study” OR “university education” OR “lifelong education”) AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 25 5. 04. 2023 11:38:35 26 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 the three search strings. This is a type of keyword search. It functions well in searching and broadening results on the web and in databases because the search looks for items of studies in every record to see if the words used are present in article titles, abstracts or keywords tagged to the text. From a total pool of 420 papers examined, 28 were deemed appropriate and analysed for the purpose of this study. The exclusion criteria defined to reject/exclude articles were: articles not relevant to the topic, such as dropout issues in mainstream schools, STEM education, etc.; articles not published in English; articles not academic papers, such as magazines, news, conference speeches, etc.; and articles not available/not downloadable. On the other hand, articles met the review criteria if they discussed the keywords of this paper: minority dropout, dropout issues among minorities, dropout decisions at higher education or college level. The review took into consideration academic papers, empirical Figure 2 Flow chart of the screening process for the integrative review ASC= 50 ERIC= 93 SCOPUS= 178 SocINDEX= 21 Web of Sciences= 78 282 records excluded Not relevant to the topic (n= 190) (health sciences, STEM education, construction industry, etc.) Not relevant to higher education context (n=40) (early childhood education, primary school, secondary school) Not in English (n=3) (German) Not academic papers (n=8) (magazines, conference speeches, essays, news, etc.) Not available (n=7) (preview only) 0 full-text articles excluded Records identified through databases n= 420 n= 420 Records after duplicates were removed 3 5 Records after reading titles and abstracts n= 55 Full-text articles assessed for eligibility n= 28 Studies included in the analysis n= 28 Id en tif ic at io n Sc re en in g El ig ib ili ty In cl us io n • • • • • • • • • • AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 26 5. 04. 2023 11:38:35 27Souksakhone Sengsouliya, Vanmany Vannasy: Ethnic Minorities’ Dropout Decisions... research pieces, reports, and books concerned with minority dropout perspectives, as well as the reasons for the dropout decisions of minorities in higher education. The present study only considered sources written in English (see Fig. 2). In the synthesis process for this study, we listed all the findings from the included articles in an attempt to inte- grate all the information from the individual articles to produce a better response to the research question developed for the review. In the process, coding and making themes/ categories were also conducted in order to present the findings in a structured way, in particular regarding the reasons for dropout decisions among minorities. RESULTS The results of the research question, “How is dropout conceptualised and what reasons for ethnic minority dropout in higher education can be found in the integrative review of literature?”, are reported in two parts: the conceptualisation of dropout and the reasons for dropout decisions in higher education amongst ethnic minority students. The Conceptualisation of Dropout The results from the present study showed that the term “dropout” has been introduced and/or replaced in the reviewed literature by words such as “withdrawal” (in the studies of Astin & Cross, 1979; Bidgood et al., 2006; Meeuwisse et al. 2010, Wong & Wong, 1980), “non-completion” (in the investigations of O’Keeffe, 2013; Rodgers, 2013), “departing” (in Gross et al., 2013; Radunzel, 2017), “leave, student leaver” (in Woodfield, 2017), and “non-persistence, non-persisters”. Even the antonym for the latter, “persistence”, has been used to compare, clarify, and explain the definition through contrasting (as shown in Astin & Cross, 1979; Attinasi, 1989; York et al., 1993). Regarding meaning, “dropout” is defined in different words, for instance, Reisel and Brekke (2010) noted that “dropout” refers to students leaving or withdrawing from their studies without degree completion and without plans to return within the next four semesters. In the same vein, Grubb (1989) stated that “dropout” refers to students who leave university and/or college without credentials. This definition also includes students who transfer to other institutions. Due to its many dimensions, the term “dropout” needs to be used carefully by educators. Astin and Cross (1979) noted that when students withdraw from higher education only tem- porarily, this phenomenon is called “stopout”. According to Chen (2008, as cited in Chen & DesJardins, 2010), there are three distinctive types of dropout in higher education: (1) “stopout” refers to students who quit their studies for some period of time and who sub- sequently return to continue their enrolment; (2) “institutional dropout” refers to those who leave their current institutions to transfer to another school; and (3) “system dropout” applies to students who completely withdraw from their education. In addition, Meeuwisse et al. (2010) referred to students who withdraw from their studies completely and do not return as the “dropout type”, whilst calling students who leave one program and shift to enrol in another “switchers”. According to Meeuwisse et al. (2010), “switchers” applies to students who transfer from one major to another as well AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 27 5. 04. 2023 11:38:35 28 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 as to students who change their educational institution. Similarly, Kim et al. (2012) af- firmed that the term “dropout” is concerned with different patterns of transfer: students transferring from a four-year institution to another four-year institution are referred to as “lateral transfers”, whilst a transfer from a four-year institution to a two-year institution is labelled a “reverse transfer”. Kim et al. (2012) agreed with Chen (2008, as cited in Chen & DesJardins, 2010) and argued that students who take a temporary break from their ed- ucation and plan to return in the future are “stopouts”. An older study by Astin and Cross (1979) pointed out that the reasons students transfer are influenced by different factors such as their residence or accommodation while at university, career plans, social life, and attendance costs. For instance, students who change their career plans, live far away from university, struggle to pay their tuition fees, and do not experience a satisfying social life on campus are highly likely to withdraw from their current university and transfer to a university that they see as a better fit when it comes to the factors mentioned. Moreover, a recent study conducted by Radunzel (2017) found that students’ transfers are linked to their academic preparation, meaning that students who are better prepared for their studies have little tendency to transfer. According to the literature, a succinct definition of the term “dropout” is necessary, es- pecially for data analysis and interpretation. Dropout refers to an individual’s or learner’s decision to completely withdraw from their studies, including to quit all school-related activities, and having no plan to return to schooling in the future. Furthermore, there are plenty of conditions in dropout itself, especially in higher education, and the term “drop- out” can be categorised by types/styles of leaving or withdrawing from education. The existing literature cautions researchers and educators to use the term “dropout” carefully and to define it clearly. Moreover, “dropout” has been categorised into two types: the voluntary (students who leave their schooling because of their academic failure) and the non-voluntary type (students who leave their schooling due to personal reasons). Reasons for Dropout Decisions among Minority Students This paper found a number of reasons why minority students decide to withdraw from schooling. The reasons are categorised into three different levels: the psychological level, which encompasses the individuals’ motivation, perception, attitudes, and learning; the physical level, referring to the individuals’ readiness in health for learning; and the en- vironmental level, referring to the influences of family background, living environment, institutional support, and socialisation with others. Each level is further comprised of sub-categories and the detailed descriptions are indicated in Table 1 and the following paragraphs. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 28 5. 04. 2023 11:38:35 29Souksakhone Sengsouliya, Vanmany Vannasy: Ethnic Minorities’ Dropout Decisions... Table 1 Reasons for dropout decisions found in existing literature The psychological level: learning conditions, personal attitudes and learning aspirations Learning conditions: Poor learning performance Meeuwisse et al. (2010); O’Keeffe (2013); Psathas (1968, as cited in Wong & Wong, 1980); Woodfield (2017) Poor learning history in past education, specifically in high school Astin & Cross (1979); Attinasi (1989); Commission on the Higher Education of Minorities (1982); Grubb (1989); Hoffman (2002); Radunzel (2017) Little engagement in learning Rodgers & Thandi (2010, as cited in Rodgers, 2013) Personal attitudes and learning aspirations: Personal motivation Bidgood et al. (2006); Grubb (1989); Samora (1963) Self-determination to reach one’s goals Astin & Cross (1979); Chen & DesJardins (2010); Commission on the Higher Education of Minorities (1982) Personal interest Astin & Cross (1979); Commission on the Higher Education of Minorities (1982); Meeuwisse et al. (2010); Psathas (1968, as cited in Wong & Wong, 1980) Self-esteem Commission on the Higher Education of Minorities (1982) Self-efficacy Anderson (1985, as cited in Berry & Asamen, 1989); Meeuwisse et al. (2010) The physical level: health issues Health issues: Health conditions (e.g., mental health) O’Keeffe (2013); Woodfield (2017) Anxiety, stress Astin & Cross (1979); Meeuwisse et al. (2010) The environmental level: need for employment, institutional support, social interactions, family background, and distance from home to school Need for employment: Off-campus job, full-time job Astin & Cross (1979); Commission on the Higher Education of Minorities (1982); Grubb (1989) Needs and expectations of employment Meeuwisse et al. (2010); Radunzel (2017); Woodfield (2017) Institutional supports: Policy body (recruitment, financial policies) and administrative system Bernasconi (2015); Commission on the Higher Education of Minorities (1982); Gross et al. (2013); O’Keeffe (2013); Radunzel (2017); Rogers (2009); Samora (1963); Williams (2019); York et al. (1993) AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 29 5. 04. 2023 11:38:35 30 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 Mismatches in cultures, interests between students and the university Jenkins & Guthrie (1976, as cited in Berry & Asamen, 1989); Kim et al. (2012); Radunzel (2017); Samora (1963); Williams (2019) School connectedness (supportive learning environment, counselling desk) Anderson et al. (2018); Astin & Cross (1979); Azaola (2020); Deil-Amen (2011); Radunzel (2017); Rogers (2009); York et al. (1993) Faculty/body catering to the needs of minorities Commission on the Higher Education of Minorities (1982); Williams (2019) Social interactions: Providing involvement/feeling of belonging/ not feeling rejected Nagasawa & Wong (1997); Hoffman (2002); Hurtado & Carter (1997); O’Keeffe (2013) Interactions with peers Attinasi (1989); Azaola, 2020; Baysu & Phalet (2012); Deil-Amen (2011); Gross et al. (2013); Meeuwisse et al. (2010); Samora (1963) Interactions with faculty/mentors Attinasi (1989); Baysu & Phalet (2012); Deil-Amen (2011); Gross et al. (2013); Meeuwisse et al. (2010); Samora (1963) Family background: Parents’ educational qualifications Astin & Cross (1979); Chen & DesJardins (2010); Grubb (1989); Radunzel (2017); Reisel & Brekke (2010) Parents with little appreciation for education Astin & Cross (1979); Meeuwisse et al. (2010); Samora (1963) Family’s financial constraints Astin & Cross (1979); Bidgood et al. (2006); Rodgers (2013); Rogers (2009); York et al. (1993) Distance from home to school: Living far away from home at the time of studying Commission on the Higher Education of Minorities (1982); Mattern et al. (2013, as cited in Radunzel, 2017) Staying in university accommodation Astin & Cross (1979) The Psychological Level This level focuses on the individuals’ psychological reasons for withdrawing from ed- ucation. It includes several factors which may contribute to student dropout decisions: the learning conditions of individuals, their personal attitudes and learning aspirations. According to the review, the ability to learn and study habits are strongly associated with dropping out from schooling among minority students. That means students with pre- vious poor learning outcomes and limited academic readiness are most likely to perform poorly in future education also, which eventually leads them to leaving their studies with- out a degree. Moreover, personal attitudes and aspiration for learning, self-efficacy as well as self-determination matter. Simply speaking, students with high self-efficacy and AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 30 5. 04. 2023 11:38:35 31Souksakhone Sengsouliya, Vanmany Vannasy: Ethnic Minorities’ Dropout Decisions... self-esteem who don’t possess positive attitudes towards the program they are studying, will tend to push themselves to step away from schooling and not engage in learning tasks anymore. Learning conditions Meeuwisse et al. (2010) found that minority dropout is linked to concerns about their restricted learning abilities rooted in language barriers, cultural differences, and struc- tural disadvantages. O’Keeffe (2013) found the same tendency that students’ inability to perform well is highly likely to contribute to non-completion of a program. Rodgers (2013), citing a previous piece of research by Rodgers and Thandi (2010), stated that the underperformance of ethnic minority students is rooted in their low socioeconomic backgrounds and lack of their perceived expectations of the institution and of potential future employers, causing low engagement in learning processes. Moreover, the learning environments of past educational stages matter. Students who experienced poor learn- ing outcomes and who acquired only a limited extent of academic readiness during the previous stages of their education are most likely to continue performing poorly during the subsequent stage, which might lead them to leave their studies prior to completion. Grubb (1989) proposed that the phenomenon of dropouts strongly correlates with the experience of poor learning environments during high school, such as lenient perfor- mance control in the form of few assignments or negligent attendance standards enabling students to skip class and work during school time. Grubb added that students with poor learning outcomes in high school tend to have similarly low performance at higher edu- cation levels. Attinasi (1989) agreed with this view and stated that high school curricula have far-reaching effects on students beyond the stage of high school education alone. Personal attitudes and learning aspirations Students who do not see the intrinsic value of education tend to neglect their studies and eventually withdraw entirely. According to the literature reviewed (e.g., Bidgood et al., 2006; Chen & DesJardins, 2010; Meeuwisse et al., 2010; Rodgers, 2013; Samora, 1963), personal attitudes and learning aspirations, as well as uncertainty about the future, influence the dropout decision. Samora (1963) conducted a study with Spanish-speaking students in the south-west of the United States and found that this particular group of students demonstrated low levels of motivation to persist in school. The students did not see their education as effective in furthering their economic and social upward mobility. The perceived value of education was low and the students consequently did not invest high levels of energy into their studies (Samora, 1963). Accordingly, students with lim- ited educational aspirations will tend to be disengaged from educational activities and they might eventually withdraw from school (Grubb, 1989). Chen and DesJardins (2010) pointed out that several factors influence students’ decisions to drop out of higher educa- tion, including age, being a first-year student, and personal educational goals. The latter issue is mainly linked to personal attitudes towards the chosen subject, course, or program. This finding is consistent with Astin and Cross (1979), who explained that students AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 31 5. 04. 2023 11:38:36 32 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 might reject to continue their studies when they are under-stimulated in school and lose interest in their courses. The interests of students who persist in their studies, in contrast, are more likely to fit well with their respective programs. Persisting students also tend to be engaged in several school activities, such as sports, music, student organisations, and other school events. Low self-efficacy and self-esteem also matter. Astin and Cross noted that withdrawing students tend to engage in self-deprecating behaviour and have low lev- els of self-esteem. This behaviour can even extend to the dropouts’ physical presentation of themselves (Astin & Cross, 1979). The Physical Level This level is concerned with the physical readiness of individuals for learning. It takes into account health issues (both physical and mental conditions) which may aggravate edu- cational attainment among minority students. According to the review, students with a health issue, physical or mental conditions will have problems with their learning progress and that negatively affects their persistence or stay in education because this factor is key to readiness for learning. That means if students are strong in both mental and physical health, they have more possibility to study and remain in schooling. Health issues The present review found health issues to be a dropout reason for students from ethnic minority backgrounds. O’Keeffe (2013) found that students with mental health issues are more likely to have a risk of non-completion or drop out midway in their studies, especial- ly members of minority groups. O’Keeffe highlighted that mental health matters and that it influences student retention. Other authors supported this notion and emphasized that anxieties around one’s personal life, lack of confidence, dissatisfaction with one’s physical appearance (Astin & Cross, 1979), financial stress (Rodgers, 2013), or worries about the home and family-related responsibilities (Meeuwisse et al., 2010) can negatively impact educational attainment. However, little attention has been paid to this factor. The Environmental Level This level is concerned with environmental dimensions that may have an impact on mi- nority groups’ dropout decisions, including the need for employment (during and af- ter their studies), institutional support, social interactions, family background, and the distance from home to school. Institutions of higher education and their staff, such as administrators, teaching staff, faculty mentors, and other relevant persons, are very influ- ential to students’ feelings of belonging and their learning success. The need for employ- ment has a strong impact on minority students’ education as well. Having a part-time or full-time job tends to decrease engagement in learning and tolerance for learning activ- ities. Moreover, institutional support, for instance, a caring policy and facilities provided by the institution could help minimise the thoughts of transfer, withdrawal, and attrition among students, in particular those who are from ethnic minority groups. Social interac- tion is another element on the environmental level that is linked to the dropout decisions AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 32 5. 04. 2023 11:38:36 33Souksakhone Sengsouliya, Vanmany Vannasy: Ethnic Minorities’ Dropout Decisions... of minority students. It likely relates to the development of feelings of belonging. Class interaction, which involves teacher-student and student-student interaction, can be en- hanced by providing both formal and informal study group environments. Furthermore, the key parental support includes not only encouragement and payment of expenses, but is also linked to the parents’ educational experiences and value orientations. If students lack such support, they will likely find it difficult to learn and remain in higher educa- tion. Finally, the distance from home to school affects the dropout decisions of minority students. For instance, students who take plenty of time travelling home will miss oppor- tunities for participating in school-related activities and peer interaction. If they study far from their hometown, without visiting or travelling back home so often, they could experience better social and academic integration, which could affect their learning en- gagement and success of learning. Need for employment Need for employment is found to have a strong impact on minority students’ education. Grubb (1989) suggested that some students, whom he calls “experimenters”, enrol in higher education driven by the knowledge that completing a higher education program will enhance their employment prospects, but without having identified a specific course they are invested in. Should “experimenters” be offered an appealing job, they are likely to leave their studies to take up employment prior to degree completion. Grubb added that an increase of the dropout rate is affected by “cyclical forces” rather than “underly- ing trends”. This is to say, a higher unemployment rate can reduce a high dropout rate as students will have fewer reasons in the form of potential employment opportunities to leave school prematurely. Similarly, Astin and Cross (1979) pointed out that students who work hard in off-campus jobs, for instance, more than 21 hours per week, are more likely to withdraw from their studies. Two more studies (Radunzel, 2017; Woodfield, 2017) also found that the issue of dropping out from higher education is linked to the students’ needs centred around employment whilst studying as well as expectations of future employment. Institutional support Some authors suggested that appropriate institutional support can not only reduce the likelihood of minority dropout but may additionally enhance the educational progress of minority students (e.g., O’Keeffe, 2013; Radunzel, 2017; Rogers, 2009; Samora, 1963). Andersen et al. (2018) showed that student well-being factors (school connectedness, student support, being able to relate to one’s teachers, and valuing one’s subject/program) influence student performance and are therefore predictors of student dropout. School connectedness is particularly important as it makes students feel comfortable and happy relating to their peers and their faculty, and it enhances the students’ positive attitudes towards the institution. Azaola (2020) agreed that social support can help students who are at risk of dropping out if support is offered during the first year of entering university or college. Azaola (2020) wrote that universities should invest efforts into developing AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 33 5. 04. 2023 11:38:36 34 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 student networks and activities fostering student gatherings and communication both on and off campus, facilitated through both online and traditional platforms. Institu- tions should note that “one size cannot fit all”. York et al. (1993) pointed out that one of the reasons for withdrawing from university and areas causing dissatisfaction amongst non-persisters may include “administrative facilities and/or units” (p. 7). Thus, social sup- port could be a way of assisting new enrolees in adapting themselves to a new learning environment (Deil-Amen, 2011; York et al., 1993) and helping them develop a sound relationship with their faculty (Rogers, 2009). It can be challenging for minority students in higher education to adjust to campus life without social support provided by the edu- cational institution (Nagasawa & Wong, 1999). In the same vein, a study by Meeuwisse et al. (2010) showed that a lack of support within the academic system and a lack of social integration with peers are reasons minority students decide to withdraw from their studies. Astin and Cross (1979) also suggested that providing psychological support to minority students could help prevent them from withdrawing from school. Social interactions Social interaction constitutes a crucial factor influencing minority dropout decisions. It refers to relationships or social interactions on the student-student and student-in- structor level; these interactions are likely to be connected to students developing feel- ings of belonging. Hoffman (2002) supported this perspective and stated that student involvement in school-provided activities is especially important for the educational attainment of minority students, and that it enhances academic integration. Attinasi (1989) explored Mexican-American students’ decision making to remain at or with- draw from university. Attinasi analysed data from interviews with 18 then-current and former students, 13 of whom were enrolled students during their second year, and five of whom had dropped out during their first year. The study found that interactions and friendship with peers and mentors influenced the students to remain in school. Attinasi stated that such interaction facilitates cognitive skills, fosters socialisation, and supports physical and academic interactions. The level of anticipatory socialisation has an effect on student decisions regarding both college-going and persistence in college. Having a sense of belonging is linked to students’ experiences of social and academic integration (Deil-Amen, 2011; Hurtado & Carter, 1997). O’Keeffe (2013) noted that it is not easy for students to develop a good relationship with their faculty. Especially reticent students are likely to communicate with their instructors or faculty members through digital channels rather than face-to-face. Students from minority backgrounds who may be more likely to have low levels of confidence and self-esteem might find it particularly challenging to contact their instructors or faculty personnel for academic support (Kelly et al., 2004, as cited in O’Keeffe, 2013). Family background Much evidence in the literature confirms the influence of familial or parental support in this field. The key behaviours of parental support include encouragement, payment of AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 34 5. 04. 2023 11:38:36 35Souksakhone Sengsouliya, Vanmany Vannasy: Ethnic Minorities’ Dropout Decisions... expenses, as well as appreciation for education by the parents themselves. Several schol- ars demonstrated that minority dropout is influenced by family background, regarding families’ financial constraints (e.g., Astin & Cross, 1979; Bidgood et al., 2006; Chen & DesJardins, 2010; Woodfield, 2017), parents with low educational qualifications (Grubb, 1989; Radunzel, 2017; Reisel & Brekke, 2010), and parents who provide little encour- agement to their children regarding education (Astin & Cross, 1979; Meeuwisse et al., 2010; Samora, 1963). According to Astin and Cross (1979), financial worries are linked to withdrawing from school, and the withdrawers are the most likely to be anxious about their families not being able to afford to pay for their education. York et al. (1993) agreed with this perspective, arguing that financial concerns are amongst the five leading rea- sons minority students drop out of higher education. Similarly, a study conducted by Bidgood et al. (2006) explored influential factors predicting student withdrawal from further education in the United Kingdom. The study analysed withdrawal issues across White and Black groups (Black groups, for the purpose of that study, included all stu- dents of colour). The authors showed that financial difficulties strongly impact educa- tional retention by tending to cause students to drop out. A recent work by Radunzel (2017) also found that students who are the first in their families to endeavour to attain higher education are more likely to drop out. This is in line with the findings of Reisel and Brekke (2010), who argued that parents of minority students who are not familiar with their children’s educational system, the language and culture of the institution, are less likely to support their children’s study efforts. Lack of parental support is a strong factor influencing minority dropout as encouragement from family members, especially parents, is seen to be key to keeping students in school. Astin and Cross (1979) agreed that students from families who are not supportive of their studies are likely to leave prematurely. Distance from home to school According to the literature reviewed, a considerable distance from home to school also has an influence on the decision to drop out or remain in higher education. An investigation of the Commission on the Higher Education of Minorities (1982) showed that students who live far away from home at the time of studying are more likely to persist in college or university than those who live near or at home with their family. The underlying ar- gument is that students whose hometown is far from their school are more committed to their studies and have more time to engage in learning as they have fewer opportunities to go home and visit their families. Astin and Cross (1979) supported this notion and argued that students who live in dormitories or university accommodation on campus are more likely to persist in school whilst students who live with their spouses and/or with other family members are more likely to drop out. Staying in university dormitories may facil- itate learning conditions as students are able to interact with peers and classmates, and they are more likely to have the opportunity to participate in academic and non-academic activities organised by their faculty or university. Moreover, travelling home infrequently can reduce expenses and help save money which may be of particular importance for AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 35 5. 04. 2023 11:38:36 36 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 students from low-income backgrounds, which minority students are more likely to come from. Students who often make time to go back home could be limited in their capacity to study as visits take time, reduce opportunities for peer interaction, and may distract them from their studies by being recruited for domestic and/or family chores. However, a more recent piece of research conducted by Mattern et al. (2013, as cited in Radunzel, 2017) found a contrary trend, arguing that students who enrol in an institution far away from their home are more likely to withdraw or transfer to another institution which is closer to their home. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION An integrative review was designed for this study. We reviewed the literature systemat- ically to examine the conceptualisation of “dropout” and find out the structural reasons minority students leave their studies in university/college. Thus, the guiding research question for the study was: “How is dropout conceptualised and what reasons for ethnic minority dropout in higher education can be found in the integrative review of literature?” The review’s findings show that several authors define “dropout” as students who leave their schooling without a degree. Certain terms provide a more detailed account of the dropout issue. Dropout is a complex issue as there are different types and styles of drop- out. Previous literature revealed that three distinctive types of dropouts can be determined at the higher education level, namely (1) “stopout”, (2) “institutional dropout”, and (3) “system dropout”. “Dropout” has been categorised into two types: the voluntary and the non-voluntary type. The empirical literature also noted that minority dropout in higher education is a serious issue as minority students are much more likely to leave school without a degree than their non-minority peers, especially at the undergraduate level. The literature demonstrated that there are a number of reasons facilitating dropout decisions among minority students. We grouped these into three levels of structural reasons for dropping out or withdrawing from schooling. The first level encompasses psychological reasons, including students’ personal attitudes, motivation, and/or learning aspirations, as well as the learning conditions of the individual. The second level is concerned with the physical dimension, i.e., the physical learning readiness based on students’ physical and mental health. The third level involves environmental factors such as the need for em- ployment, institutional support, social interaction, family background, and the distance from home to school. This paper supports the development of feelings of belonging and appreciation of edu- cation amongst minority students as these elements could foster their educational attain- ment. Special support for minority students from institutions should not be limited to standard provisions such as guidance and enabling recruitment policies, but it should en- compass additional measures such as facilitating opportunities for meaningful participa- tion in campus life, scholarships covering tuition fees, improving faculty-student relation- ships, and offering flexible degree-completion schemes. Importantly, a stringent moni- toring system including follow-ups is required to ensure the efficient implementation AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 36 5. 04. 2023 11:38:36 37Souksakhone Sengsouliya, Vanmany Vannasy: Ethnic Minorities’ Dropout Decisions... of these special support provisions. What seems to be an issue found in the literature reviewed is that “dropout” is actually defined extensively, however, “minority” or “minority dropout” is not really mentioned clearly because in some contexts, immigrants can also represent a minority group. This study employed an integrative review of literature and reviewed theoretical and empirical data only; future research could consider a mix of a systematic review and collecting actual quantitative data from a case study of target mi- norities to comprehend a full overview of their dropout issues. 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Igor Ivašković, Ekonomska fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani, igor.ivaskovic@ef.uni­lj.si Igor Ivašković UČENJE TUJIH JEZIKOV NA PODROČJU POSLOVNIH IN EKONOMSKIH VED: ANALIZA PREFERENC ŠTUDENTOV EKONOMSKE FAKULTETE V LJUBLJANI POVZETEK V prispevku analiziramo, kako študenti ekonomskih in poslovnih študijskih programov zaznavajo poten­ cialno korist učenja tujih jezikov, kakšna je njihova nagnjenost k učenju tujih jezikov in kakšne so njihove izkušnje, dobre in slabe, pri učenju jezikov. Rezultati, pridobljeni med januarjem in aprilom 2021 v spletni anketi na vzorcu 272 študentov ekonomskih in poslovnih ved Ekonomske fakultete v Ljubljani, kažejo, da ta populacija pogosto zaznava potrebo po znanju tujega jezika. Delovno aktivni, med njimi še posebej zaposleni na delovnih mestih, kjer je potrebna vsaj visokošolska izobrazba, to potrebo zaznavajo bolj od delovno neaktivnih ali zaposlenih na delovnih mestih, kjer ni zahtevana visokošolska izobrazba. Prav tako zaznavanje potrebe po znanju tujega jezika narašča s stopnjo študija. Proučevana populacija učenje jezika v največjem delu vidi kot sredstvo, ki enakomerno prispeva k razvoju osebnosti in večji zaposljivosti, obenem tudi v največjem delu meni, da je študijski program treba sestaviti tako, da bo enakomerno vključeval tako individualne kot skupinske oblike dela. Ključne besede: tuji jeziki, ekonomske in poslovne vede, Slovenija, visokošolsko izobraževanje LEARNING FOREIGN LANGUAGES IN THE FIELDS OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS: AN ANALYSIS OF PREFERENCES AMONG STUDENTS AT THE SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS LJUBLJANA – ABSTRACT The paper analyses how students in the f ields of business and economics perceive the potential benefits of learning foreign languages, their attitudes towards learning foreign languages, and the nature of their experiences with foreign language learning. The results obtained between January and April 2021 using an online survey with a sample of 272 students from the School of Economics and Business Ljubljana show that the surveyed population often needs to know how to communicate in a foreign language. Employees, especially those in positions where higher education is required, are more aware of this need than those who are either unemployed or those in jobs that do not require a higher level of education. Likewise, the perception of the need for foreign language skills increases with the level of study. The participants perceive language learning as a means that equally contributes AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 41 5. 04. 2023 11:38:36 42 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 to personality development and greater employability, but also believe that the curriculum should be designed in a way that will evenly include both individual and group forms of learning. Keywords: foreign languages, economics and business, Slovenia, higher education UVOD Visokošolski in univerzitetni študijski programi imajo kot dve skupini visokošolskih izobraževanj dvojno poslanstvo, in sicer se prva komponenta nanaša na t.  i. razvoj osebnosti študenta, druga pa na ponujanje možnosti pridobivanja uporabnega znanja, ki naj bi študentu po študiju tudi s praktičnega (materialnega) vidika olajšalo življenje v sodobni družbi. Študij ekonomskih in poslovnih ved naj bi torej poleg razvoja nje- gove osebnosti študenta opremil tudi z veščinami, ki mu bodo povečale konkurenčnost na trgu dela po obdobju študija. Učenje jezika je s tega vidika pogosto zaznano kot tisti element študijskega izobraževanja, ki najbolj povečuje možnosti diplomantov za zaposlitev, kar je posledica pospešenih procesov globalizacije in znotraj Evropske unije (EU) tudi vse lažjega prehajanja meja za delovno silo. Ravno povezovanje trgov dela in internacionalizacija skupnega trga naj bi ponudila boljši izhodiščni položaj ljudem z več jezikovnimi kompetencami (Altbach in Knight, 2007; Kohont, 2011, str. 116). Razis kava avtorjev Jarc in Zorko (2013) kaže, da se največja potreba po znanju tu- jih jezikov ob pravnem področju pojavlja ravno na področju poslovnih ved. Tudi v Sloveniji na teh področjih lahko opazimo povečanje interesa vključenih deležnikov, kar se manifestira prek povečanja števila diskurzivnih in žanrskih analiz za poslovni svet značilnih besedil, in sicer oglaševalskih ter različnih tipov poslovnih korespondenc (Čepon, 2006; Kilar, 2008). V okviru uvajanja novih izobraževalnih vsebin v visokošolski prostor, vključno z uvaja- njem tujih strokovnih jezikov na področju ekonomije in poslovanja, je ključna analiza potreb pri vseh deležnikih visokošolskega procesa. Čeprav to seveda niso le študenti in visokošolski učitelji, ampak tudi številni drugi, ki neposredno ali posredno sporočajo, kakšne in kako obsežne koristi lahko pričakujemo od določenih znanj, analiza potreb neizogibno vključuje predvsem proučevanje značilnosti oseb, ki jim je novi program namenjen (Ličen, 2015, str. 61), obenem pa je zaželena tudi analiza njihovih preferenc glede učnega procesa. Te ugotovitve namreč načrtovalcem olajšajo oblikovanje predlo- gov za modifikacijo obstoječih ali uvedbo novih vsebin in metod poučevanja. Ker na tem področju za zdaj ne obstaja sistematično spremljanje potreb glede znanja jezikov in preferenc glede načinov poučevanja pri tisti populaciji, ki so ji te izobraževalne vsebine namenjene, v tem prispevku analiziramo, kako študenti ekonomskih in poslovnih štu- dijskih programov zaznavajo potencialno korist učenja tujih jezikov, kakšna je njihova nagnjenost k učenju tujih jezikov in kakšne so njihove izkušnje, dobre in slabe, pri učenju jezikov. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 42 5. 04. 2023 11:38:36 43Igor Ivašković: Učenje tujih jezikov na področju poslovnih in ekonomskih ved POMEMBNOST UČENJA TUJIH STROKOVNIH JEZIKOV NA PODROČJU POSLOVNIH IN EKONOMSKIH VED Učenje jezikov je pomembno, saj znanje tujih jezikov povečuje konkurenčnost posame- znikov na trgu dela, obenem pa omogoča koristi tudi zunaj tržnih kategorij, kar ravno tako pozitivno vpliva na kakovost življenja posameznika, ki obvlada tuje jezike (Gomzi Praprotnik, 2016; Thitivesa in Wongsoothorn, 2018). Akkuyunlu idr. (2009, str. 15) so na primer v več državah (tudi Sloveniji) ugotovili, da je znanje tujih jezikov na petem mestu med skupno 13 ključnimi kompetencami, potrebnimi za uspeh na trgu dela in nasploh za študentovo socializacijo. V Sloveniji je znanje tujih jezikov še bolj pomembno, posle- dično tudi (visoko)šolske institucije nosijo večjo odgovornost pri njihovem poučevanju. Slovenija je namreč relativno majhna država z relativno majhnim številom prebivalstva, obenem pa slovenski govorni prostor meji na štiri druge jezikovne prostore, ki so si, mi- mogrede, med seboj povsem različni. Majhnost slovenskega govornega prostora implicira večjo verjetnost, da bo relativno velik delež slovenskih govorcev prihajal v stik z drugimi jeziki, obenem pa bodo ti stiki v prvi vrsti, poleg angleščine, ravno s sosednjimi jeziki oz. na poslovnem področju s tistimi jeziki, od koder prihajajo poslovni subjekti, s katerimi najpogosteje poslujemo. Posledično večina družboslovnih študijskih programov že vklju- čuje predmete s področja tujih strokovnih jezikov, pri čemer izobraževalne institucije, ki delujejo na področju ekonomskih in poslovnih ved, niso izjeme. Ob pomembnosti znanja tujih jezikov je treba poudariti, da ne glede na to, da je angleški jezik v sodobnih globalizacijskih procesih postal »lingua franca«, raziskave kažejo, da uče- nje ostalih jezikov vendarle ne bo postalo nepotrebno. To izhaja iz dejstva, da pomemb- nost znanja posameznih tujih jezikov v določenem okolju ni statična kategorija, potrebe po različnih tujih jezikih se namreč spreminjajo. Tudi če se bo položaj angleščine še krepil, manjši jeziki, vsaj tisti, za katerimi stojijo različne državne institucije, še manj pa jeziki drugih velikih sil, na primer Kitajske, nikakor ne bodo izginili. Posledično Jarc in Zorko (2013) menita, da bodo prebivalci EU primorani v učenje vsaj dveh ali treh tujih jezikov. Danes je to še posebej opazno med študentsko populacijo zaradi številnih študijskih iz- menjav in lažje migracije pri iskanju zaposlitve v drugih državah EU. Pomembnost posameznih jezikov v različnih okoljih, tudi v različnih državah znotraj EU, ni enaka. Posledično je tudi možnost učenja jezikov odvisna od razmerij v stvarnem svetu, ki določajo pomembnost jezika v nekem okolju. Kdo se bo komu prilagajal v konteks tu internacionalizacije, je odvisno od številnih predvsem zunajjezikovnih dejavnikov. V okvi- ru različnih oblik poslovne dejavnosti lahko pričakujemo, da bosta stopnja prilagajanja in posledična pripravljenost za učenje tujih jezikov sledila trenutnim in pričakovanim interesom posameznika. Z drugimi besedami lahko rečemo, da bo posameznik pripra- vljen povečevati vložek svojega časa in truda v učenje tujih jezikov do te mere, da bo ta vložek manjši ali enak pričakovanim kumulativnim koristim, ki jih bo imel od znanja tega jezika. V primeru dobrin, ki niso eksistencialne narave in pri katerih na trgu obsta- jajo razmere svobodne menjave, lahko predvidimo, da se bo prilagajal tisti, ki ima interes na tujem trgu (ali do subjektov s tujega trga), obenem pa ima manjšo pogajalsko moč, AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 43 5. 04. 2023 11:38:36 44 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 ali subjekt v razmerju, pri katerem je prilagajanje bolj enostavno (je hitrejše in povzroča manj stroškov). Statusi posameznih jezikov v različnih okoljih torej niso enaki, ker na vse skupnosti ob globalizacijskih procesih delujejo tudi lokalizacijske silnice, ki spodbujajo procese prilagajanja vsebine, izdelkov ali storitev tujim jezikom, trgom in kulturam oz. lokalnim specifičnostim določenega okolja. Pri tem tudi Slovenija ni izjema, kar lahko hitro ugotovimo ob pregledu učnih načrtov študijskih programov na področju poslovnih in ekonomskih ved, kjer lahko, ob že omenjenem angleškem jeziku, opazimo tudi nemški, italijanski in francoski jezik (Ekonomska fakulteta, 2021). Slednje očitno ni v skladu s svetovnim povprečjem, saj sta španski in kitajski jezik globalno gledano pogosteje po- učevana od na primer italijanskega, ki je pri nas zastopan ravno zaradi lokalnih specifik (Looney in Lusin, 2018; Maria, 2021). Nekoliko bolj presenetljivo je opažanje, da različne slovenske izobraževalne institucije, ki delujejo na identičnih področjih in ponujajo enakovredne certifikate, izvajajo lekto- rate različnih jezikov, ne da bi bili ti podprti z analizo potreb. Teh ni odpravila niti t. i. bolonjska reforma, ki naj bi med temeljnimi cilji vključevala tudi lažjo primerljivost študijskih programov, lažje prehajanje med programi in večjo izbirnost z vidika študen- tov. Pomanjkanje usklajenosti med programi je razvidno z ožjega organizacijskega vidika, predvsem pa z vsebinskega in kadrovskega (Horvath idr., 2012; Jakoš, 2007; Jurković in Djurić, 2008). Po eni strani se namreč učitelji tujih jezikov znotraj ene institucije pogosto soočajo s težavo pomanjkanja pedagoških in andragoških ur, na drugi strani pa organi- zacijska neusklajenost onemogoča deljenje kadrov med različnimi fakultetami že znotraj iste univerze, še manj pa je meduniverzitetnega sodelovanja. To ne kaže le na slabosti v organizaciji, temveč je to tudi indikator pomanjkanja sistematičnega spremljanja potreb študentov. Zdi se, kot bi bila vsaka izobraževalna institucija prepuščena sama sebi, kar je nekoliko nenavadno. RAZVOJ POUČEVANJA IN POMEN ANALIZE POTREB PRI TUJIH STROKOVNIH JEZIKIH Zgodovinsko gledano je razvoj učenja in poučevanja tujih strokovnih jezikov na različnih jezikovnih področjih potekal različno, je pa bilo pri pripravi učnih načrtov vendarle naj- prej v ospredju besedišče, iz česar je izšla teza, da tuji strokovni jezik v prvi vrsti obravnava posebno terminologijo na določenem področju v tujem jeziku ( Jarc in Zorko, 2013). Nato se je raziskovanje razširilo še na analizo jezikovnih registrov, kar je še posebej močno na- predovalo v času razvoja jezikovne tehnologije, poučevanje pa je vključevalo tudi retorične in diskurzne vidike tujih strokovnih jezikov (Dudley-Evans in St. John, 1998, str. 19–30). Čeprav se v praksi učenje in posledično tudi poučevanje tujih strokovnih jezikov izvajata dalj časa, nam je šele v osemdesetih letih prejšnjega stoletja opredelitev strokovnega jezika ponudil Lothar Hoffmann (1984, str. 53; Osolnik Kunc, 2006, str. 79), ki pravi, da gre pri strokovnem jeziku za »skupek jezikovnih sredstev, ki služi za sporazumevanje med delujočimi znotraj strokovno zamejenega komunikacijskega področja«. Takšna definicija nakazuje, da je strokovni jezik vendarle več kot le specifična terminologija ali jezikovni AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 44 5. 04. 2023 11:38:36 45Igor Ivašković: Učenje tujih jezikov na področju poslovnih in ekonomskih ved slog. Poučevanje tujega jezika na posebnih strokovnih področjih je bilo namreč v preteklo- sti pogosto reducirano tudi na poučevanje specifične funkcijske zvrsti jezika (Buhlmann in Fearns, 2000, str. 11). Hoffmann torej zanika tako terminološko kot funkcionalistično tezo. Pri tem je vsekakor treba poudariti, da meja med strokovnim in splošnim jezikom sicer nikoli ni ostra, posledično tudi poučevanje nima ostrih ločnic ne glede na to, da do- ločene potrebe po učenju povsem determinira trg dela. Kljub nekoliko zapozneli opredelitvi strokovnega jezika se je njegovo proučevanje kot posebne discipline začelo že v šestdesetih letih prejšnjega stoletja. Dudley-Evans in St. John (1998, str. 19–30) povezujeta to z rastjo potrebe po znanju angleščine in deloma tudi francoščine v letalstvu in nekaterih drugih specializiranih tehniških vedah. V tem obdob- ju, natančneje leta 1962, k razvoju poučevanja tujih jezikov s svojimi deli pomembno prispevajo tudi Barber idr. (2009) z analizo žanrov ter Halliday idr. (1964), ki sistema- tično predstavijo stanje na področju poučevanja jezikov. V sedemdesetih letih 20. stoletja s komunikacijskim pristopom na pedagoškem področju stopi v ospredje analiza potreb študenta. Med prva sistematizirana dela, ki opredeljujejo postopek analize potreb in ob- stoječega znanja ter posledično ugotavljanje vrzeli, sodi delo Johna Munbyja (1978), ki so ga tudi v tem stoletju številni nadgrajevali (npr. Peacock, 2001). Bistvo Munbyjevega modela je procesiranje informacij o učencu z vidika več kategorij, kar pripelje do profila potreb oz. opisa, kaj se od učenca pričakuje, da bo z znanjem jezika počel po obdobju uče- nja. Sočasno so v obdobju ekspanzije mednarodnega trgovanja s trga dela prihajali signali o potrebnosti znanja na področju pravnih in poslovnih ved, ki so ključne za učinkovito delovanje na mednarodnih trgih. Posledično so se ti signali, ki so prihajali do učencev/štu- dentov, prek analize potreb prelivali tudi v izobraževalne institucije, ki so začele ponujati vse več izobraževalnih vsebin v tujih strokovnih jezikih. Buhlmann in Fearns (2000, str. 11) sta pred dvema desetletjema zaznala upad interesa za učenje splošnega jezika in sočasno rast povpraševanja po učenju strokovnih jezikov, pri čemer kot glavni razlog navajata pojav specifičnih potreb na trgu dela. Še bolj je rast potreb po znanju tujih jezikov na področju poslovanja zaznana v obdobju pandemije covi- da-19, pričakuje pa se rast vsaj do leta 2024 (Businesswire, 2020). Iz tega izhaja tudi eno od vprašanj, na katero poskušamo ponuditi odgovor v tem prispevku, in sicer ali tudi v slovenskem prostoru na področju poslovanja in ekonomije potrebe po učenju tujih stro- kovnih jezikov determinirajo razmere na trgu dela. O atraktivnosti strokovnih jezikov na področju ekonomije in poslovanja na svetovni ravni je namreč mogoče implicitno sklepati na podlagi hitro rastočega števila publikacij na strokovnih področjih, med katerimi so tudi izdaje različnih združenj učiteljev tujih strokovnih jezikov. Pri tem sodobna informacij- sko-komunikacijska tehnologija omogoča hitrejše oblikovanje in prilagajanje tako učnih programov kot orodij za učenje tistemu, kar od svojih zaposlenih zahtevajo delodajalci. Med strokovnimi jeziki na področju poslovanja je zagotovo največje povpraševanje po poslovni angleščini. Ta trend je močan že od šestdesetih let prejšnjega stoletja, v začetku tega stoletja pa angleščina pospešeno zapolnjuje tudi prostor na drugih področjih. Tako je na primer v mednarodnih institucijah pogosto opažena tudi potreba po vojaški angleščini, AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 45 5. 04. 2023 11:38:36 46 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 kar je posledica številnih mednarodnih vojaških misij v svetu ( Jarc in Zorko, 2013). Z ekspanzijo ameriškega gospodarstva po 2. svetovni vojni je razumljivo, da sta se interes in posledično proučevanje tujih jezikov za poslovne in ekonomske vede v tem obdobju hitro krepila. V okviru analize poslovnega žanra je v zadnjem času predvsem pomembno delo Alexandra Hollingerja (2005), ki je odkrival skupne točke v različnih vrstah pisnih poslovnih besedil, na podlagi katerih je nato predlagal modifikacije poučevanja poslovne angleščine. Na njegovem delu so temeljili nadaljnji predlogi, ki so postavljali v ospredje še druge spremenljivke v procesih poučevanja in učenja, predvsem s ciljem poudarjanja pomembnosti preseganja razlik med kulturnim okoljem jezika, ki se ga uči, in okolja, iz katerega prihaja učeči se (Bhatia, 2008). Hutchinson in Waters (1987, str. 21) sta v svojem vodniku za oblikovanje načrta programa za učenje tujih strokovnih jezikov to opredelila kot specializirano učenje tujih jezikov, pri katerem so v ospredju študentove neposredne potrebe. Gre torej za podvrsto učenja in poučevanja splošnih tujih jezikov, pri katerem se poudarjajo vsebine, ki jih študent najbolj potrebuje oz. za katere se predvideva, da bodo najbolj uporabne v vnaprej opredeljenih konkretnih situacijah. V okviru poslovnih in eko- nomskih ved pri tem lahko govorimo o tistem delu jezika, ki se uporablja v kritičnih točkah, ki determinirajo (ne)uspešno izpeljavo posla. Če se na primer od študenta po za- ključku študija pričakuje, da bo posloval na določenem etnično mešanem območju, kjer so jeziki sorodni, a kljub temu v poslovnem svetu vsaka etnična skupina uporablja določene zaznamovane izraze, bo poudarek pri procesu učenja ravno na razlikovanju izrazov, ki se uporabljajo pri poslovanju s temi etničnimi/narodnostnimi skupinami. Ravno tako se bo v procesu učenja jezika nekaj časa namenilo tudi obravnavi zunajjezikovnih dejavnikov, na primer zaznavi okoliščin, ki nam narekujejo uporabo določenega izraza. Študentove potrebe so, kot lahko najbolj jasno vidimo ravno na primeru poslovnega jezi- ka, izpeljane iz potreb, ki obstajajo na trgu. Kljub temu pa trg dela še zdaleč ni edini sklop dejavnikov, ki vpliva na oblikovanje teh potreb. Ne nazadnje se didaktične metode prila- gajajo tudi individualnim potrebam in značilnostim študentov, ki niso vedno odsev po- treb trga, kar je še posebej pomembno na področju poučevanja jezika (Mourlhon-Dallies, 2008, str. 41). Ravno zato je treba v analizo potreb vključiti proučevanje tistih dejavnikov, ki lahko vplivajo na motiviranost študentov za učenje, rezultati analize pa načrtovalcem učnega procesa olajšajo odločitve pri organizaciji. Med slednje zagotovo lahko uvrstimo dilemo, ali naj učenje v čim večjem delu poteka v individualnih oblikah (učenje, pri ka- terem učenec ni v interakciji z drugimi učenci) ali v skupinskih (učenje, pri katerem je vključena interakcija med učenci). Jasno je namreč, da individualne oblike omogočajo višjo raven posvečanja učitelja učečemu se in povečujejo možnosti prilagajanja programa učenja potrebam specifičnega udeleženca v vsakem trenutku. Na drugi strani učenje v skupinah omogoča optimizacijo učiteljevega časa in posledično boljšo dostopnost učenja, hkrati pa ima udeleženec možnost komunikacije z drugimi, ki so na približno enaki ravni znanja. Posledično naj bi bile psihološke ovire pri komunikaciji manjše. Ravno odprav- ljanje strahu pred delanjem napak je eden od poglavitnih vmesnih učnih ciljev vsakega procesa učenja jezika. Ob tem je v analizo potreb zagotovo treba vključiti tudi možnost, da proučevana populacija izrazi svoja mnenja, ki se nanašajo na dosedanje izkušnje, kar AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 46 5. 04. 2023 11:38:36 47Igor Ivašković: Učenje tujih jezikov na področju poslovnih in ekonomskih ved načrtovalcem omogoča izogibanje tistim elementom učenja, ki povzročajo najbolj nega- tivne asociacije, in poudarjanje tistih, ki vzbudijo največ pozitivnih asociacij. Kot sklep lahko v tem poglavju poudarimo, da naj bi bil prvi korak vsakega načrtovalca učnega programa analiza potreb pri skupinah, ki jim je izobraževanje namenjeno, kar je v skladu s tezo o nujnosti prilagajanja učenčevim potrebam, pri čemer seveda ne zmanj- šujemo pomembnosti ostalih deležnikov tega procesa, predvsem učiteljev, visokošolskih organizacij in potencialnih delodajalcev ( Jurković, 2003). METODOLOŠKI OKVIR Namen, cilji in raziskovalna vprašanja Raziskavo smo izvedli z izhodiščnim namenom ugotavljanja, kakšen odnos imajo študenti s področja ekonomskih in poslovnih ved do učenja tujih jezikov. Pri tem smo želeli identi- ficirati različne dimenzije odnosa pri tej populaciji, ki sodi v krog potencialnih učencev tu- jih strokovnih jezikov na področju ekonomskih in poslovnih ved, kar nam lahko služi kot izhodišče za oblikovanje izobraževalnih programov, ki bodo čim bolj zadovoljili potrebe udeležencev. Predvsem nas je zanimalo, kako pogosto se študenti na področju ekonomskih in poslovnih ved srečujejo s potrebo po znanju tujih jezikov in kakšna je njihova naklo- njenost učenju teh jezikov. Obenem smo želeli ugotoviti, koliko je motivacija za učenje posledica želje po večji konkurenčnosti na trgu dela in, nasprotno, koliko se učenje jezika doživlja kot vzvod za osebnostni razvoj posameznika. Zanimalo nas je tudi, ali se odnos do učenja tujih jezikov razlikuje glede na delovno aktivnost in glede na stopnjo študija udeležencev. Poleg eksplicitnega preverjanja naklonjenosti skupinskim ali individualnim oblikam učenja smo predvsem poskušali zbrati in sistematizirati pozitivne in negativne izkušnje, ki so jih anketiranci pri procesu učenja tujih jezikov pridobili v preteklosti. Pri zasledovanju navedenih ciljev smo torej poskušali odgovoriti na naslednja vprašanja: 1. Kako pogosto se študenti na področju ekonomskih in poslovnih ved srečujejo s potre- bami po znanju tujih strokovnih jezikov? 2. Koliko se učenje tujih jezikov zaznava kot vzvod za večjo konkurenčnost na trgu dela in koliko kot vzvod za osebnostni razvoj posameznika? 3. Ali proučevana populacija daje prednost individualnim ali skupinskim metodam uče- nja tujih jezikov? 4. Kaj proučevana populacija zaznava kot pozitivno in kaj kot negativno pri učenju tujih jezikov? Opis merskega inštrumenta V vprašalniku je prvi sklop 11 trditev preverjal odnos do učenja tujih jezikov, in sicer tako, da so anketiranci na Likertovi lestvici izražali strinjanje s posamezno trditvijo. Pri tem je vrednost 1 pomenila, da se anketiranec sploh ne strinja s trditvijo, ocena 5 pa, da se popolnoma strinja z njo. Anketiranci so izražali stopnjo (ne)strinjanja z naslednjimi trditvami: AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 47 5. 04. 2023 11:38:36 48 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 1. Menim, da je učenje tujega jezika pomemben del visokošolskega izobraževanja. 2. Jeziki, ki jih govorim, povsem zadoščajo za vse, kar počnem in bi želel početi v življenju. 3. Za učenje tujih jezikov ne najdem časa. 4. Učenje tujih jezikov je izredno zahtevno. 5. Od tujih jezikov mi povsem zadošča znanje angleščine. 6. Želel bi znati več tujih jezikov. 7. Visokošolski učitelji in sodelavci bi se morali učiti tujih jezikov. 8. Študenti podiplomskih programov bi se morali učiti tujih jezikov. 9. Pogosto se soočam s potrebo po znanju tujega jezika. 10. Pri učenju jezika se je potrebno učiti tudi kulture okolja, v katerem se ta jezik govori. 11. Pogosto se soočam s potrebo po znanju tujega jezika pri delu (v okviru zaposlitve ali dela prek študentske napotnice). V drugem delu vprašalnika smo anketirance z uporabo Likertove lestvice od 1 do 5, kjer je ocena 3 pomenila nevtralno mejo oz. stališče, da je učenje tujega jezika enako pomembno za razvoj osebnosti kot za konkurenčnost na trgu dela, neposredno vprašali, koliko zazna- vajo učenje tujih jezikov kot vzvod za osebnostno rast in koliko kot orodje za povečanje svoje konkurenčnosti na trgu dela. V zadnjem delu vprašalnika, ki je bil namenjen merjenju izbranih dejavnikov motivacije, smo preverjali, ali študentska populacija preferira skupinski ali individualni način učenja. Pri tem je mnenje, da naj učenje v čim večjem delu poteka v individualnih oblikah, pri katerih učenec ni v interakciji z drugimi učenci, na petstopenjski Likertovi lestvici bilo označeno z oceno 1. Ocena 5 je pomenila mnenje, da naj učenje poteka v čim večjem delu v skupinskih oblikah, ki vključujejo interakcijo med učenci. Na koncu tega dela vprašalni- ka smo anketirancem ponudili odprto vprašanje, v odgovoru na katero so lahko s svojimi besedami zapisali najbolj pozitivne in najbolj negativne izkušnje, ki so jih doslej doživeli pri učenju jezika. Postopek zbiranja podatkov, vzorec in opis analize podatkov Raziskava je potekala med študenti poslovnih in ekonomskih ved Ekonomske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani. Spletni vprašalnik je med 4. 1. in 4. 4. 2021 izpolnilo 272 oseb, ki so bile o raziskavi informirane v sklopu predmetov Uvod v poslovanje, Ravnanje s človeški- mi viri in Strateški management 1 na 1. stopnji ter Strateški management 2 na 2. stopnji študija. Diplomanti, ki so študij zaključili, so bili k izpolnjevanju vprašalnika povabljeni prek združenja diplomantov. Vzorec je vključeval večinoma ženske (64,8 %) in v povpre- čju relativno mlade anketirance (povprečna starost je bila 23,2 leta, najmlajša oseba 19, najstarejša 44 let, standardni odklon 5,5). Med vsemi je bilo 63,3 % študentov na 1. stopnji študija (dodiplomska raven), 24,5 % anketirancev je bilo na 2. stopnji oz. na podiplom- skem magistrskem študiju, medtem ko je bilo doktorskih študentov (3. stopnja študija) v celotnem vzorcu 1,6 %. 10,6 % vprašancev je bilo torej v trenutku zbiranja podatkov brez statusa študenta. Diplomantov z vsaj zaključeno 1. stopnjo študija je bilo torej 36,7 %. V celotnem vzorcu je bila dobra petina (21,0 %) anketirancev redno zaposlena, dobra AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 48 5. 04. 2023 11:38:37 49Igor Ivašković: Učenje tujih jezikov na področju poslovnih in ekonomskih ved tretjina (36,8 %) je v trenutku zbiranja podatkov opravljala študentsko obliko dela, 42,3 % vprašancev pa v tistem trenutku ni bilo zaposlenih. Med študenti na 1. stopnji študija je bilo 57,0 % neaktivnih na trgu dela, na 2. stopnji je bilo takšnih le 22,4 %. Med vsemi vprašanci, ki v trenutku zbiranja niso imeli študentskega statusa, je bilo le 3,4 % neaktiv- nih na trgu dela. Podatke smo zbirali v času izrednih razmer, povzročenih s pandemijo covida-19, zato je bil delež delovno aktivnih študentov nekoliko manjši, in sicer se zmanj- šanje ocenjuje za približno 10,5 % glede na leto prej (Kajzer, 2020, str. 8–9). Vprašanci so imeli v času zbiranja podatkov v povprečju 3,8 leta (minimalno 0 in maksimalno 24 let, standardni odklon 4,2) delovnih izkušenj (vključno s študentskim delom). Med zaposle- nimi je 3,9 % anketirancev zasedalo vodstveni položaj v organizaciji zaposlitve, 17,1 % jih je bilo na položaju t. i. srednjega managementa, 79,1 % pa je delalo na izvedbeni ravni. 52,6 % delovno aktivnih anketirancev je menilo, da za njihovo delovno mesto ni potrebna visokošolska izobrazba, ostali pa, da jo potrebujejo. 59,4 % delovno aktivnih anketirancev je bilo zaposlenih v podjetjih, ki so v trenutku zbiranja podatkov redno poslovala tudi s tujimi poslovnimi subjekti. Razpredelnica 1 Vzorec Vprašanci (v %) 1. stopnja (n = 172) 2. stopnja (n = 67) 3. stopnja (n = 4) Brez statusa (n = 29) Skupaj (n = 272) Neaktivni 57,0 22,4 25,0 3,4 42,3 Študentsko delo 39,5 47,8 0 0 36,8 Redno zaposleni 3,5 29,9 75,0 96,6 21,0 REZULTATI IN DISKUSIJA Potreba po učenju tujih jezikov in odnos do učenja tujih jezikov V Razpredelnici 2 vidimo, da anketiranci v povprečju dojemajo učenje tujega jezika kot zelo pomemben del visokošolskega izobraževanja, menijo, da jim znanje angleščine ne zadostuje, ter želijo znati več tujih jezikov. Ravno tako lahko opazimo, da anketiranci v povprečju pogosto zaznavajo potrebo po znanju tujega jezika, izražajo mnenje o po- membnosti učenja kulture okolja posameznega tujega jezika ter večinoma menijo, da bi se tujih jezikov v visokošolskem okolju morali učiti tako študenti kot visokošolski učitelji. Ugotovimo lahko, da rezultati potrjujejo domnevo o obstoju potrebe po uvajanju dodatnih vsebin v učenje tujih jezikov v slovenskem visokošolskem prostoru na področju ekonomije in poslovanja. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 49 5. 04. 2023 11:38:37 50 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 Razpredelnica 2 Potreba po učenju tujih jezikov in odnos do učenja tujih jezikov Trditev M 1 Menim, da je učenje tujega jezika pomemben del visokošolskega izobraževanja. 4,47 2 Jeziki, ki jih govorim, povsem zadoščajo za vse, kar počnem in bi želel početi v življenju. 3,01 3 Za učenje tujih jezikov ne najdem časa. 2,99 4 Učenje tujih jezikov je izredno zahtevno. 3,20 5 Od tujih jezikov mi povsem zadošča znanje angleščine. 2,36 6 Želel bi znati več tujih jezikov. 4,49 7 Visokošolski učitelji in sodelavci bi se morali učiti tujih jezikov. 3,92 8 Študenti podiplomskih programov bi se morali učiti tujih jezikov. 3,93 9 Pogosto se soočam s potrebo po znanju tujega jezika. 3,98 10 Pri učenju jezika se je potrebno učiti tudi kulture okolja, v katerem se ta jezik govori. 4,00 Opomba: n = 272. V nadaljevanju smo analizirali, koliko se študenti na različnih stopnjah študija razlikujejo glede zaznavanja potrebe po znanju tujega jezika pri delu. Pri analizi smo upoštevali le odgovore tistih vprašancev, ki imajo delovne izkušnje. Rezultati, predstavljeni v Razpre- delnici 3, so v skladu s predvidevanji, in sicer zaznavanje potrebe po znanju tujega jezika s stopnjo študija očitno narašča. Manj kot četrtina vseh vprašancev se večinoma ali sploh ne strinja s trditvijo, da se pri delu pogosto srečujejo s potrebo po znanju tujega jezika. Trg dela in potreba po znanju tujih jezikov sta torej v zavesti študentske populacije močno povezana. Razpredelnica 3 Zaznavanje potrebe po znanju tujega jezika pri delu glede na raven študija (v %) Trditev: »Pogosto se soočam s potrebo po znanju tujega jezika pri delu (v okviru zaposlitve ali dela prek študentske napotnice).« Sploh se ne strinjam Večinoma se ne strinjam Ne morem se odločiti Večinoma se strinjam Popolnoma se strinjam 1. stopnja (n = 74) 4,1 17,6 13,5 40,5 24,3 2. stopnja (n = 52) 0,0 23,1 5,8 34,6 36,5 3. stopnja (n = 3) 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 100,0 Skupno (n = 129) 2,3 19,4 10,1 37,2 31,0 Analiza povezanosti zaznavanja potrebe po znanju tujega jezika glede na vključenost v trg dela (Razpredelnica 4) kaže, da zaposleni na delovnih mestih, kjer je potrebna viso- košolska izobrazba, nekoliko bolj zaznavajo obravnavano potrebo od tistih, ki delajo na AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 50 5. 04. 2023 11:38:37 51Igor Ivašković: Učenje tujih jezikov na področju poslovnih in ekonomskih ved delovnih mestih, ki ne zahtevajo visokošolske izobrazbe. Zanimivo je, da velikih razlik ni opaziti med tistimi, ki delajo v podjetjih, ki poslujejo samo v Sloveniji, in tistimi, ki delajo v podjetjih, ki imajo poslovne odnose tudi s poslovni subjekti iz tujine. Pri tem je treba opomniti, da je le 123 delovno aktivnih anketirancev dalo informacijo o tem, ali njihovo podjetje posluje tudi s tujino ali ne. Razpredelnica 4 Zaznavanje potrebe po znanju tujega jezika pri delu glede na značilnosti zaposlitve (v %) Trditev: Pogosto se soočam s potrebo po znanju tujega jezika pri delu (v okviru zaposlitve ali dela prek študentske napotnice). Sploh se ne strinjam Večinoma se ne strinjam Ne morem se odločiti Večinoma se strinjam Popolnoma se strinjam Študentsko delo (n = 100) 2,0 15,0 11,0 37,0 35,0 Redno zaposleni* (n = 57) 5,3 15,8 3,5 35,1 40,4 Na DM, kjer je potrebna VŠ-izobrazba (n = 70) 2,9 11,4 2,9 44,2 38,6 Na DM, kjer ni potrebna VŠ-izobrazba (n = 87) 3,4 18,4 12,6 29,9 35,6 DM v organizaciji, ki posluje s tujino (n = 72) 6,9 12,5 8,3 33,3 38,9 DM v organizaciji, ki posluje samo v Sloveniji (n = 51) 2,0 19,6 5,9 47,1 25,5 Skupno (n = 157) 3,2 15,3 8,3 36,3 36,9 Opomba: * aktivni na trgu dela s podpisano pogodbo o zaposlitvi (vključno samozaposleni) ne glede na časovno (ne) določenost pogodbe; DM – delovno mesto; VŠ – visokošolska. Učenje tujih jezikov kot vzvod za osebnostno rast ali za povečevanje konkurenčnosti na trgu dela V nadaljevanju raziskave smo anketirance neposredno vprašali, koliko zaznavajo uče- nje tujih jezikov kot vzvod za osebnostno rast in koliko kot orodje za povečanje svoje konkurenčnosti na trgu dela. Rezultati potrjujejo, da proučevana populacija v povprečju učenje jezika zaznava nekoliko bolj kot vzvod za povečanje konkurenčnosti na trgu dela. Povprečni rezultat odgovorov je bil namreč 3,2. Večina anketirancev se sicer uvršča v tisti segment, ki jezik vidi kot sredstvo, ki enakomerno prispeva k razvoju osebnosti in k večji zaposljivosti. Pri tem obstaja 34 % študentov 2. bolonjske stopnje študija, ki učenje tujih jezikov vendarle nekoliko bolj kot vzvod za razvoj osebnosti vidi kot orodje za izboljšavo položaja na trgu dela. Skupno s tistimi, ki jezik vidijo izključno kot sredstvo večje konkurenčnosti, je to že skoraj polovica drugostopenjskih študentov, medtem ko je le slaba petina nasprotnega mnenja, in sicer da učenje tujega jezika predvsem služi razvoju osebnosti (Razpredelnica 5). Sklepamo lahko, da je ravno ta segment študentske populacije, ki je blizu konca svojega študijskega obdobja, med proučevano populacijo AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 51 5. 04. 2023 11:38:37 52 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 najbolj izpostavljen pritiskom oz. potrebi po iskanju zaposlitve, zato tudi večji del svojih aktivnosti, vključno z učenjem, usmerja v povečevanje svoje konkurenčnosti na trgu dela. Razpredelnica 5 Zaznavanje učenja jezika kot vzvoda za razvoj osebnosti/večjo konkurenčnost na trgu dela glede na raven študija (v %) Učenje jezika vidim kot vzvod: Za razvoj osebnosti Nekoliko bolj za razvoj osebnosti Enako za razvoj oseb- nosti in konkurenč- nost na trgu dela Nekoliko bolj za konkurenčnost na trgu dela Za večjo konkurenčnost na trgu dela 1. stopnja 4,8 17,5 47,6 19,0 11,1 2. stopnja 4,0 14,0 34,0 34,0 14,0 3. stopnja 0,0 0,0 100,0 0,0 0,0 Skupno 4,5 16,2 44,7 22,9 11,7 Pri analizi rezultatov glede zaznavanja učenja jezika kot vzvoda za razvoj osebnosti ali za večjo konkurenčnost na trgu dela lahko opazimo večjo razpršenost rezultatov pri tistih, ki opravljajo študentsko delo, kot pri tistih, ki so bodisi redno zaposleni bodisi so neaktivni na trgu dela. Redno zaposleni v večini ocenjujejo, da učenje enako prispeva k razvoju oseb- nosti in konkurenčnosti na trgu dela. Tako namreč meni 58,5 % redno zaposlenih, skupno jih med redno zaposlenimi 31,7 % dojema učenje jezika bolj kot vzvod za konkurenčnost na trgu dela (pri zaposlenih na študentskih delih je takšnih 43,8 %, med neaktivnimi na trgu dela 27,0 %), le 9,8 % redno zaposlenih se nagiba k stališču, da znanje jezika več prinese k razvoju osebnosti. Pri neaktivnih na trgu dela je takšnih 24,7 %, med tistimi, ki opravljajo študentsko delo, pa 17,8 % (Razpredelnica 6). Razpredelnica 6 Zaznavanje učenja jezika kot vzvoda za razvoj osebnosti/večjo konkurenčnost na trgu dela glede na aktivnost na trgu dela (v %) Učenje jezika vidim kot vzvod: Za razvoj osebnosti Nekoliko bolj za razvoj osebnosti Enako za razvoj osebnosti in konkurenčnost na trgu dela Nekoliko bolj za konkurenčnost na trgu dela Za večjo konkurenčnost na trgu dela Študentsko delo 2,7 15,1 38,4 34,2 9,6 Redno zaposleni 0,0 9,8 58,5 19,5 12,2 Neaktivni 6,7 18,0 48,3 14,6 12,4 Skupno 4,0 15,3 46,5 22,8 11,4 Izbrani elementi motivacije v procesu učenja Rezultati odgovorov o preferencah študentske populacije glede oblike učenja kažejo, da relativna večina, skupno 36,5 %, meni, da je učni program treba sestaviti tako, da bo AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 52 5. 04. 2023 11:38:37 53Igor Ivašković: Učenje tujih jezikov na področju poslovnih in ekonomskih ved enakomerno vključeval tako individualne kot skupinske oblike dela (Razpredelnica 7 in Razpredelnica 8). Individualno obliko učenja bolj preferirajo študenti 2. stopnje v primer- javi s študenti 1. stopnje, ti zadnji zagovarjajo enakomerno zastopanost individualnih in skupinskih oblik učenja oz. dajejo prednosti skupinskim oblikam dela pred individualni- mi. Največji delež anketiranih v vseh segmentih je, kot rečeno, zainteresiran za enakomer- no porazdelitev individualnih in skupinskih oblik učenja, vendar pa delovno aktivni prek študentskih servisov v primerjavi z redno zaposlenimi in neaktivnimi anketiranci nekoliko bolj preferirajo skupinske oblike učenja. Razpredelnica 7 Preference glede skupinskega/individualnega učenja glede na raven študija (v %) Želite pri učenju tujega jezika več skupinskega ali individualnega dela? Predvsem individualno Nekoliko več individualno Enakomerno individualno in skupinsko Nekoliko več skupinsko Predvsem skupinsko 1. stopnja 8,6 19,0 37,1 26,7 8,6 2. stopnja 7,7 35,9 20,5 28,2 7,7 3. stopnja 0,0 0,0 50,0 50,0 0,0 Skupno 8,2 22,6 33,3 27,7 8,2 Razpredelnica 8 Preference glede skupinskega/individualnega učenja glede na aktivnost na trgu dela (v %) Želite pri učenju tujega jezika več skupinskega ali individualnega dela? Predvsem individualno Nekoliko več individualno Enakomerno individualno in skupinsko Nekoliko več skupinsko Predvsem skupinsko Študentsko delo 8,7 21,7 30,4 29,0 10,1 Redno zaposleni 9,1 15,2 48,5 24,2 3,0 Neaktivni 7,9 25,0 36,8 22,4 7,9 Skupno 8,4 21,9 36,5 25,3 7,9 Izmed 272 vprašancev jih je 127 navedlo vsaj eno dobro izkušnjo pri učenju tujih jezikov, zato seštevki odstotkov, ki kažejo na pojavnost posameznega elementa v navedbah, prese- gajo 100 %. Odgovore smo razporedili v štiri večje segmente, in sicer smo opazovali, ali so anketiranci v ospredje postavljali učne metode in orodja, učno vsebino, deležnike procesa ali pa so poudarjali lastno dejavnost in dosežke. Največkrat so se pojavile učne metode in orodja, pri katerih so študenti najbolj pogosto omenjali učenje prek praktičnih primerov (32,3-odstotna pojavnost). V tem sklopu so anketiranci pogosto omenjali tudi učne me- tode, ki so vključevale igro (13,4-odstotna pojavnost), obenem pa je visoko pojavnost med pozitivnimi izkušnjami imelo še učenje s pomočjo glasbe in filmov (11-odstotna pojav- nost). Pozitivne asociacije v kontekstu učenja tujega jezika se nekoliko redkeje nanašajo na samo učno vsebino, pri čemer izstopa spoznavanje kulture držav in družb, katerih jezika so AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 53 5. 04. 2023 11:38:37 54 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 se anketiranci učili. Skupno je ta kategorija imela 26-odstotno pojavnost in je zasedla dru- go mesto, takoj za navedbami, ki so povezovale pozitivno izkušnjo z učenjem skozi prakso. Manj je bilo navedb, ki so pozitivne spomine na učenje tujih jezikov povezovale z učenjem besedišča (11 %) in slovnice (3,9 %). Manjšo pojavnost so nasploh imele navedbe, ki so se nanašale na lastno aktivacijo; to kategorijo smo naprej razdelili na zadovoljstvo z dosega- njem ciljev in zadovoljstvo s pozitivnimi občutji pri odkrivanju novosti. Obe postavki sta imeli 9,4-odstotno pojavnost. Končno je del anketirancev pozitivne izkušnje povezoval z drugimi deležniki učnega procesa, predvsem s sošolci (11,8 %) in nekoliko manj z učitelji (3,9 %) (Razpredelnica 9). Slednje je lahko indic, da je kakovosten učitelj neke vrste hi- gienik, ki ga običajno v kakovostni izvedbi ne opazimo, pokaže pa se, če udeleženci niso zadovoljni s procesom učenja in poučevanja. Razpredelnica 9 Pozitivne izkušnje pri učenju tujih jezikov Učne metode in orodja Vsebina Deležniki procesa Samoaktivacija Igra Praksa Glasba/ filmi Besede Slovnica Kultura Učitelj Sošolci Doseganje ciljev Odkritje novega f 17 41 14 14 5 33 5 15 12 12 f % 13,4 32,3 11,0 11,0 3,9 26,0 3,9 11,8 9,4 9,4 Opomba: Skupno je bilo zabeleženih 127 odgovorov, nekateri so izpostavili več segmentov. Tretja vrstica prikazuje število omemb (f), četrta pa pojavnost v odstotkih glede na vse anketirance, ki so navedli vsaj eno izkušnjo (f %). Rezultati analize negativnih izkušenj, ki so jih bili anketiranci pripravljeni razkriti, na- kazujejo, da učitelje opazimo šele, ko nismo zadovoljni s poučevanjem. Izmed 272 anke- tirancev jih je 138 navedlo vsaj eno negativno izkušnjo, pri čemer je v teh 138 primerih drugo največjo (23,2-odstotno) pojavnost imelo ravno nezadovoljstvo s pristopom oz. osebnimi lastnostmi učitelja. Pri tem so izstopale neprijaznost ali strogost ter diskrimina- cija študentov glede na predhodno znanje tujega jezika. Potrdila se je torej domneva Lidije Kraljević (2000), da je za učitelja bolje, da je v drugem planu učnega procesa. Na drugi strani so negativne izkušnje s sošolci relativno redke (le 2,9-odstotna pojavnost) in se na- našajo predvsem na zasmehovanje tistih, ki delajo napake. Nezadovoljstvo z učiteljem ali/ in sošolci je omenila približno četrtina tistih, ki so navedli slabe izkušnje. Nekoliko večjo pojavnost so imele neprimerne učne metode, pri čemer izstopata kritiki učenja na pamet in prevelikega poudarka celotnega procesa na končnih ocenah. Nekaj manj nezadovoljstva je bilo izraženega zaradi prisilnega javnega nastopanja pred soudeleženci in zaradi vsi- ljenega dela v skupinah, kjer sta bila večinoma moteča neenakomerno znanje učencev in neenakomerna vestnost pri opravljanju skupinskih nalog. Največjo pojavnost je pričako- vano dosegla kritika učne vsebine, pri čemer so anketiranci najbolj pogosto navajali preveč časa za učenje slovničnih pravil (24,6-odstotna pojavnost) in premajhno uporabnost učne AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 54 5. 04. 2023 11:38:37 55Igor Ivašković: Učenje tujih jezikov na področju poslovnih in ekonomskih ved vsebine (10,9-odstotna pojavnost) (Razpredelnica 10). Na koncu je treba omeniti še slabo desetino navedb, kjer je šlo za samokritiko. V 13 primerih so namreč anketiranci omenili, da bodisi niso bili dovolj sposobni za določeno raven bodisi niso pri učenju imeli dovolj motivacije, kar pa nekateri danes obžalujejo. Tudi v tej samokritiki se skriva dodaten pro- stor za napredek, za katerega bi bilo dobro, da bi se ga učitelji zavedali, in sicer kako po- membno je identificirati stopnjo motiviranosti in dejavnike, ki spodbujajo učenčevo moti- vacijo, ter nato tudi izbrati primerne tehnike motiviranja učencev pri pouku tujega jezika. Razpredelnica 10 Negativne izkušnje pri učenju tujih jezikov Neprimerne učne metode in orodja Neprimerna (pomanjkljiva) vsebina Nezadovoljstvo z udeleženci procesa Nizka spo- sob- nost/ interes učenca Učenje na pamet Javni nastop Fokus na evalvaciji (izpiti/ ocene) Prisilna interakcija/ delo v skupini Premajhna uporabnost Preveč slovnice Učitelj Sošolci f 16 8 14 6 15 34 32 4 13 f % 11,6 5,8 10,1 4,3 10,9 24,6 23,2 2,9 9,4 Opomba: Odgovorov je bilo 138, nekateri so navajali več segmentov. Tretja vrstica prikazuje število omemb, četrta pa pojavnost v odstotkih glede na vse anketirance, ki so navedli vsaj eno izkušnjo. SKLEPI Za Slovenijo je značilna relativno večja potreba po znanju tujih jezikov, kar je posledi- ca razmeroma majhne slovensko govoreče skupnosti v primerjavi z večino drugih jezi- kovnih skupin. Več strokovnjakov (npr. Jarc in Zorko, 2013; Mertelj idr., 2016) je tako že v preteklosti ugotavljalo, da na Slovenskem obstajajo vsa izhodišča, ki potrjujejo ne le potrebnost, temveč nujnost vključevanja tujih strokovnih jezikov v visokošolski pro- stor. Obenem to dejstvo potrjujejo določene sodobne raziskave na področju ekonomije in poslovanja (Ivašković, 2021). Pričujoča študija se je lotila drugega segmenta analize potreb po poučevanju tujih jezikov na področju ekonomskih in poslovnih ved, in sicer ugotavljanja značilnosti študentov na tem strokovnem področju ter njihovega odnosa do učenja tujih jezikov. Pri tem smo ugotovili, da večina učenje tujega jezika vidi kot zelo pomemben del visokošolskega izobraževanja in si želi znati več tujih jezikov. Ravno tako se proučevana populacija razmeroma pogosto srečuje s potrebo po znanju tujega jezika. Delovno aktivni, med njimi pa še posebej tisti, ki so zaposleni na delovnih mestih, kjer je zahtevana visokošolska izobrazba, nekoliko bolj zaznavajo to potrebo. Zaznavanje po- trebe po znanju tujega jezika narašča tudi s stopnjo študija. Indikativno je, da študenti poslovnih in ekonomskih ved izražajo željo tudi po učenju kulture okolja tujega jezika in večinoma menijo, da bi se tujih jezikov v visokošolskem okolju morali učiti ne samo AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 55 5. 04. 2023 11:38:37 56 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 študenti, temveč tudi visokošolski učitelji. Pri analizi motivov za učenje tujega jezika ugotavljamo, da proučevana populacija učenje jezika zaznava nekoliko bolj kot vzvod za povečanje konkurenčnosti na trgu dela, in sicer predvsem študenti na 2. bolonjski stopnji, medtem ko ostali anketiranci učenje jezika vidijo kot sredstvo, ki enakomerno prispeva k razvoju osebnosti in večji zaposljivosti. Vse to je v skladu s tezo o obstoju potrebe po uvajanju dodatnih vsebin na področju učenja tujih jezikov v slovenskem visokošolskem prostoru, in sicer tako v univerzitetne kot tudi v študijske programe visokih šol, ki naj bi še nekoliko večji poudarek dajale ravno pridobivanju praktičnega znanja, neposredno uporabnega na trgu dela. V drugem delu smo preverili preference v povezavi z učenjem tujih jezikov pri študent- ski populaciji, ki je že aktivna na trgu dela. Relativna večina meni, da je učni program treba sestaviti tako, da bo enakomerno vključeval tako individualne kot skupinske oblike dela. Vendar pri primerjavi študentov na različnih ravneh študija lahko opazimo, da so prvostopenjski nekoliko bolj od drugostopenjskih naklonjeni skupinskim oblikam. Rav- no tako so tudi redno zaposleni in zaposleni prek študentskih servisov bolj naklonjeni skupinskim oblikam poučevanja od neaktivnih na trgu dela. Anketiranci so izrazili pre- ferenco do učenja prek praktičnih primerov in učnih metod, ki vključujejo igro, glasbo ter filme. Ravno tako v pozitivnem kontekstu izpostavljajo učenje ob spoznavanju kulture držav in družb, katerih jezika se učijo. Potrdila se je torej pomembnost kulturne kompo- nente pri poučevanju jezika, kar je v skladu z domnevami strokovnjakov na tem področju (npr. Bhatia, 2008). Učitelji se redkeje povezujejo s pozitivnimi in bistveno pogosteje z negativnimi izkušnjami, kar potrjuje domnevo, da je kakovosten učitelj higienik, ki ga pri kakovostni izvedbi običajno ne opazimo, pokaže pa se, če udeleženci niso zadovoljni s procesom učenja in poučevanja. Negativne asociacije vzbujata učenje na pamet in pou- darek učnega procesa na ocenjevanju. Pri učni vsebini pa je pričakovano med anketiranci najmanj popularno učenje slovničnih pravil. 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V The 2018 International Academic Multidiscipline Research Conference in Vienna (str. 28–33). ICBTS. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 58 5. 04. 2023 11:38:38 Scientific article Andragoška spoznanja/Studies in Adult Education and Learning, 2023, 29(1), 59-80 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4312/as/10408 Concetta Tino, PhD, Asst. Prof., Department of Philosophy, Sociology, Pedagogy, and Applied Psychology, University of Padova, Italy, concetta.tino@unipd.it Maria Cristina Lavagnolo, PhD, Assoc. Prof., Department of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering, University of Padova, Italy, mariacristina.lavgnolo@unipd.it Monica Fedeli, PhD, Assoc. Prof., Department of Philosophy, Sociology, Pedagogy, and Applied Psychology, University of Padova, Italy, monica.fedeli@unipd.it Laura Bierema, PhD, Prof., Department of Adult Learning, Leadership, and Organization Development, University of Georgia (UGA), Athens, USA, bierema@uga.edu Concetta Tino, Maria Cristina Lavagnolo, Monica Fedeli, Laura Bierema WOMEN’S CAREER DECISION MAKING AND INTEREST IN ENGINEERING: A QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF INFLUENTIAL PERSONAL AND CONTEXTUAL FACTORS ABSTRACT The aim of the paper was to better understand the influence of personal and contextual factors on women’s career decision making and interest in undergraduate engineering students. On the basis of Social Cognitive Career Theory and utilising a qualitative approach, nine interviews were conducted with women undergraduates at a university in Northern Italy. The results reveal four major aspects: a) the women’s interest in engineering is cultivated by different contextual factors in the same way across multiple cultures; b) self­eff icacy affects their interest in engineering; c) this interest is nurtured by internal and external recognition; d) their career decision making is determined by an interdependence of personal and contextual factors. The paper contributes to pro­ moting cultural changes in engineering f ields. Some practical implications for education professionals and policy makers were also reported. Keywords: women’s career decision making, self­eff icacy, social cognitive career theory, environmental engi­ neering education, recognition AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 59 5. 04. 2023 11:38:38 60 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 KARIERNO ODLOČANJE IN ZANIMANJE ŠTUDENTK NA PODROČJU INŽENIRSTVA: KVALITATIVNA ANALIZA VPLIVA OSEBNIH IN KONTEKSTUALNIH DEJAVNIKOV – POVZETEK Cilj analize je bil bolje razumeti vpliv, ki ga imajo osebni in kontekstualni dejavniki na karierno odločanje in zanimanje žensk za študij inženirstva. Na podlagi socialno kognitivne karierne teorije in ob uporabi kvalitativnega pristopa je bilo izvedenih devet intervjujev z dodiplomskimi študentkami na univerzi v severni Italiji. Rezultati kažejo na štiri glavne vidike: a) zanimanje za inženirstvo pri študentkah na enak način kultivirajo kontekstualni dejavniki v različnih kulturah; b) na njihovo zanimanje za področje inženirstva vpliva občutek samoučinkovitosti; c) to zanimanje krepi notranje in zunanje priznavanje; d) na njihovo karierno odločanje vplivajo tako osebni kot kontekstualni dejavniki. Članek spodbuja h kultur­ nim spremembam na področju inženirstva ter poroča o praktičnih ugotovitvah za izvajalce izobraževanj in oblikovalce politik. Ključne besede: karierno odločanje žensk, samoučinkovitost, socialno kognitivna karierna teorija, študijski program okoljsko inženirstvo, priznavanje INTRODUCTION Promoting initiatives and actions to retain or recruit students in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) fields has become a priority in many coun- tries (OECD, 2017) to drive innovation, with a corresponding impact on the economy and labour market. Although STEM disciplines have attractive levels of employment and earnings, they still attract a small number of students. Further, gender equality has made very little progress in these male-dominated fields. Women represent fewer than 20% of entrants into tertiary level computer science programs in OECD countries and only around 18% of engineering entrants (OECD, 2017). They dominate in other more feminized fields such as health and welfare but remain significantly underrepresented in STEM studies. Engineering is one of the most male-dominated professions, and the few women who have engineering careers face gendered stereotypes and cultures, which make launching and sustaining such a career difficult. According to Makarem and Wang’s (2020) research, women take up 14.5% of architectural and engineering occupations and 11% of civil engineering occupations in the US. In Australia, women account for 12.4% of employment in engineering and in the European Union, they represent approximately 40% of employment in science and engineering, with steady increases. Globally, women tend to feel stalled in STEM occupations and plan to leave these careers due to gender bias, isolation, hostile masculine cultures, inadequate feedback, a lack of mentors and sponsors, and the challenges of gendered organisational structure, culture, and manage- ment. The limited access of women to masculinized fields perpetuates the occupational segregation of women and men (Avolio et al., 2020). AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 60 5. 04. 2023 11:38:38 61C. Tino, M. C. Lavagnolo, M. Fedeli, L. Bierema: Women’s Career Decision Making... SOCIAL COGNITIVE CAREER THEORY Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT), the framework of reference for the data collect- ed, was developed by Lent et al. (1994) on the basis of Bandura’s (1989) social cognitive theory, according to which there is a triadic reciprocality among three components: per- sonal attributes (cognitive, affective, physical), external environmental factors, and behav- iours. Within this triad, the constructs of human agency (the ability to behave actively and intentionally in the context to generate a change) and self-efficacy (the beliefs of people regarding their effectiveness in managing events through their choices and decisions) express themselves. SCCT aimed to explain the interconnection between personal and contextual variables that can affect human agency in relation to career development. According to SCCT, people exercise their personal agency on the basis of three social cognitive mechanisms that have an important role in the career development process: self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and personal goals (Brown & Lent, 2019). Self-efficacy refers to the per- ceived capabilities for learning or performing actions at expected levels (Bandura, 1989). It affects people’s vocational interests and their career goals. Outcome expectations are connected to people’s beliefs regarding the consequences of activity engagement. Goals represent the personal intentions to take part in an activity or achieve a certain level of performance (Brown & Lent, 2019). However, personal variables such as gender, race/ ethnicity, or age and contextual factors (barriers and support) can affect self-efficacy, inter- ests, goals, and outcome expectations. According to SCCT, contextual barriers (obstacles) and supports related to economic and emotional resources, career role models, presence of gender stereotypes, are social and financial variables that can facilitate or impede the formation and pursuit of an individual’s career choices (Lent & Brown, 2013). Social and familial support plays an important role in people’s career understanding (aspirations) and decision-making behaviour. In fact, people who receive social and familial support, such as opportunities to engage with certain tasks and role model exposure, encouragement in one’s chosen goal, can develop a positive attitude toward the difficulties encountered in their life, improving their self-efficacy (Lent et al., 1994). Within the SCCT, the components that better fit with this study are: cognitive-personal factors such as self-efficacy and outcome expectations; contextual factors such as familial influence and learning experiences. Personal Factors: Self-Efficacy and Outcome Expectations Self-efficacy is the perception that people have of their capabilities to succeed in different activities. For example, if a woman believes in her ability to succeed in a STEM career, she will be more likely to pursue one. Self-efficacy is an important variable of people’s career choice (Lent et al., 1994). The more people’s self-efficacy increases, the less they perceive obstacles or avoid challenging experiences. In this perspective, self-efficacy represents the central mechanism of personal agency (Bandura, 1989). It affects young people’s career choices and positively predicts their career outcome expectations in specific fields that AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 61 5. 04. 2023 11:38:38 62 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 are related to personal beliefs about probable outcomes in terms of anticipating certain results (e.g., money, social recognition and approval, self-satisfaction). It was identified as an important component for understanding women’s career development in STEM fields because it affects women’s vocational behaviour and career decision making (McKinney et al., 2021). Contextual Factors: Families and Learning Experiences Lent et al. (1994) considered two groups of contextual variables for career development on the basis of their proximity: (a) “more distal, background influences” (p. 170) that precede and contribute in shaping interests (e.g., opportunities, role model exposure; support; cul- tural and gender role); and (b) “proximal influences” (personal network/relationships, dis- crimination, stereotypes). This last group includes the family as an ever-present variable because it plays an important role throughout people’s academic and career development. According to SCCT, when people perceive difficulties and barriers in their context, they are less willing to transform their goals into actions. For example, daughters in families holding traditional views of women’s roles as caretakers, not professionals, might hesitate to articulate their career goals or seek out a non-traditional career. Learning experiences shape self-efficacy beliefs, but they do not occur in isolation. For example, people’s learning environment can provide the relevant activities for developing career interests through direct and vicarious experiences, but the way they live and inter- pret the learning experiences is influenced by distal background variables (e.g., education- al background, family). In fact, educational and family background are the basis on which the new learning experiences are built, influencing interests and self-efficacy (Ferry et al., 2000). Proximal variables (e.g., teachers, peers) play an additional role in people’s critical choices and in shaping their self-efficacy beliefs (Lent et al., 1994). THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The purpose of this study was to understand what factors influenced international and domestic students’ decisions to pursue engineering. Specifically, the study aimed to ex- amine personal and contextual factors through the lens of SCCT since behavioural and organisational perspectives are the most common lenses through which women’s career experiences are studied (Makarem & Wang, 2020). This study addressed the following research questions: (I) What is the impact of personal and contextual factors on the career interests of undergrad­ uate women across multiple cultures? (II) How are the internal and external recognition of women students related to engineering career decision making? AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 62 5. 04. 2023 11:38:38 63C. Tino, M. C. Lavagnolo, M. Fedeli, L. Bierema: Women’s Career Decision Making... METHODOLOGY This study was developed according to qualitative descriptive research (Sandelowski, 2010) since it was designed to carry out an in-depth analysis and understanding of those factors that influence women students’ careers and interests. The descriptive design al- lowed us to conduct the analysis by staying close to the data and avoiding significant inference interpretations. A qualitative descriptive (QD) design was considered the most appropriate as it recognises the subjective nature of the different experiences that partici- pants have. QD research generates data that describe the “who, what, and where of events or experiences” from a subjective perspective (Kim et al., 2017, p. 23). Study Context This study was conceived during a faculty development program of a university in North- ern Italy, when a partnership between faculty members and researchers of the Education and Engineering Departments was established based on a common interest in gender issues. Specifically, the idea was born when a member of the engineering faculty described the paucity of women students of different cultures in her master’s course on Environ- mental Engineering that she has delivered completely in English since 2007. Due to the international context of the course (50% students come from non-EU countries), students benefit from collaboration with many other professional groups such as agronomists, biologists, doctors, and economists. Compared to other engineer- ing courses, where women represent 20% of the student body on average, in this course, about 45% of the enrolled students have on average been women over the past three years. Participants The participants volunteered their involvement in the study when the professor of the Environmental Engineering course presented the project during one of her lessons. The selection criteria included being a domestic or international woman student in the course and willingness to participate in the interviewing process. Nine students meeting the criteria were voluntarily recruited and interviewed (56% of the women, 22% of the total students in class). The purposive sample represented different countries or various regions of Italy (Table 1). Despite the small number of participants, their different cultures helped researchers to collect perspectives belonging to various countries. Data Collection This study was carried out through semi-structured interviews during the autumn of 2019. After ascertaining the students’ availability for taking part in the study, the inter- views were scheduled and conducted in a private office on the university campus. The interview guide was developed based on theoretical frameworks of career development to investigate the following dimensions: family and cultural context of life, educational background, career interests, and outcome/career expectations. It was used as a dynamic AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 63 5. 04. 2023 11:38:38 64 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 Table 1 Participants Country N. st. Age and pseudonym Characteristics of High school Bachelor’s course Parents’ professional role And other role models Why at an Italian university Brazil 1 25 (Sofie) Public school (not very good) Environmental Engineering Father: civil engineer Mother: artist A woman civil engineer, who ran a lot of environmental projects in her country. It was suggested by Brazilian course coordinator. She had an Italian scholarship. Germany 1 24 (Vanessa) Gymnasium that gives access to university (in Cologne) Civil and Environmental Engineering (in Hamburg) Both teachers (education for students with special needs). A Gymnasium Maths teacher. Agreement between the two universities in Italy and Hamburg. She had an Italian scholarship. Iran 1 32 (Helen) School for talented students (very strict) Agriculture Water Engineering Not very well educated. A woman cousin is an engineer. Other relatives are pharmacists. Less expensive compared to other countries. She had an Italian scholarship North of Italy 1 23 (Sally) Scientific Lyceum Environmental Engineering Father: computer programmer Mother: doctor Aunt, uncle, and grandfather are engineers. Grandmother was a Maths teacher. She lives in the North of Italy with her family. South of Italy 1 23 (Lisa) Scientific Lyceum Environmental Engineering Father: worker Mother: teacher Teachers of scientific subjects (Maths, Physics, Science). The opportunity to gain a master’s degree in the English language at a good university. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 64 5. 04. 2023 11:38:38 65C. Tino, M. C. Lavagnolo, M. Fedeli, L. Bierema: Women’s Career Decision Making... and flexible tool that gave participants the opportunity to reflect on their experience and to share the meaning of their stories with the researchers. The interviews ranged from 1 to 1½ hours; sometimes follow-up prompts were used to encourage the interviewee to expand on her thoughts concerning a specific question. The interviews were audiotaped with the participants’ informed consent, and later transcribed Country N. st. Age and pseudonym Characteristics of High school Bachelor’s course Parents’ professional role And other role models Why at an Italian university Centre of Italy 1 23 (Anna) Classic Lyceum Mechanical Engineering Both public administrative officers. A cousin is an engineer. A teacher of maths. Her boyfriend is studying Physics at the same university. Russia 1 26 (Mary) General school: balance between humanities and science subjects Two bachelors’ degrees: Engineering and Economics Parents are both engineers. Inspired by the university’s history and scientists who studied at the Italian university. She had an Italian scholarship. Argentina 1 24 (Laura) Scientific Lyceum (near Treviso) Environmental Engineering Father: electrical engineer in Italy Mother: teacher Her brother is an engineer. Her boyfriend is an engineering student. Engineering at the Italian university is famous. She had an Italian scholarship. Turkey 1 24 (Nicole) Public school (not very good) Engineering at Technical University (Ankara) Father: has an internet café and works there with computers Mother: works in social services (the protection of women) One woman friend with the same passion for scientific subjects. An agreement between the two universities. She had an Italian scholarship. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 65 5. 04. 2023 11:38:39 66 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 verbatim1 as electronic documents. The data were stored in password-protected files in a secure location. Data Analysis The interviews were transcribed verbatim as electronic documents, and the content anal- ysis was conducted using Atlas.ti.07 software. The qualitative content analysis allowed us to interpret the participants’ experiences using the theoretical lens of SCCT. The analysis was carried out through multiple readings and interpretations of the raw data. At the beginning, three authors analysed a single transcript with the same approach and coded it separately. Then the authors compared, discussed and modified the codes. After these phases, two of us coded the other transcripts using the same method. At the end the codes were organised into themes relevant to the research questions. FINDINGS The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the factors influencing women’s career decision making of undergraduate engineering students (some pseudonyms were used). Interviews were conducted with nine students of different cultures attending the Environmental Engineering master’s degree course at a university in Northern Italy. The final themes that emerged from our analysis were related to personal and contextual fac- tors, and to internal and external recognition (Table 2). Table 2 The Emerged Themes, the Research Questions, and the Relative Theories of Interpretation Number of themes Description of themes and subthemes Research Questions Theory of interpretation 1 Personal Determinants for women seeking engineering careers: Abilities; and Commitment How do personal and contextual factors develop engineering educational career interest among women students of different cultures? Social Cognitive Career Theory 2 Engineering interest is cultivated by multiple variables: 1) Family modelling and support; 2) Significant learning experiences, and 3) Society culture 3 Women students’ career decision making is influenced by perceptions of: Internal (efficacy, self-beliefs) External recognition How are internal and external recognition of women students related to engineering career decision making? Personal Abilities and Commitment Are Determinants for Being an Engineer 1 The statements from the three Italian students, “Sally”, “Lisa” and “Anna”, have been translated from Italian into English. The other interviews were conducted in English and the students are cited verbatim. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 66 5. 04. 2023 11:38:39 67C. Tino, M. C. Lavagnolo, M. Fedeli, L. Bierema: Women’s Career Decision Making... Although abilities can be considered as individuals’ potential, their transformation into relevant career skills requires personal commitment. In fact, commitment as “one’s determination to reach a goal” (Locke & Latham, 1990, p. 125), motivates people to implement goal-oriented actions that nurture their abilities, interests and career choice. Abilities The participants recognised that careers in the engineering field require a belief in their own ability to be successful. One student provided accounts of a personal awareness of her abilities and determination for considering engineering as a profession: “I think I have the ability in all the mathematical subjects. I’m good and… I don’t know, I think it’s something that I like to do” (Laura). Engineering is perceived as a challenging learning field, but the students seem to not let it discourage them because they recognise themselves as talented and able to deal with stress and demanding tasks. In fact, abilities appear as aspects attributed to an elite group of students which the participants implicitly feel they belong to, as “Helen”, “Lisa” and “Vanessa” explained: If you get a high mark, you can go to the best university and study electrical engineering, mechanical engineering or something like this. […] [T]here is a choice, but you have to be so talented to get this. (Helen) I have a degree in engineering and they [people] look at me […]. For me, it seems a natural thing. […] One friend of mine said: ‘I can’t, I wouldn’t be able to study mathematics, physics ...’, so I think that some women set some limits that they do not have. (Lisa) […] I actually like math a lot. And that I find it easy to understand all the things that are happening in the lectures, while most of my friends didn’t really understand math. (Vanessa) Commitment The participants considered the engineering field a demanding area of study. They rec- ognised that engineering careers require hard work and commitment. Specifically, the students said: “To be an engineer you have to study hard, but I think engineering, with engineering I can create and study, and develop things and have a better place on earth” (Mary). “Yeah, I’m able to do that [engineering], because even if it will be too difficult and too stressful, it’s something that’s more or less easy because you like what you are doing” (Laura). All these statements appear also as a tacit recognition of their abilities and indirectly as a belief in their capacity and evidence of their self-efficacy. Engineering Interest AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 67 5. 04. 2023 11:38:39 68 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 Engineering Interest is cultivated by multiple variables: 1) Family Modelling and Sup- port, 2) Significant Learning Experiences, and 3) Society Culture. Family Modelling and Support The findings showed that families have influenced the students’ career choice and self-ef- ficacy both directly and indirectly. Most of the participants received direct parental en- couragement and persuasion that they could be successful in engineering. Some students felt that they were fortunate to have received this kind of family support despite the tradi- tional culture of their own countries, according to one participant who noted, “women are for marriage and men for getting money” (Helen). Most of the participants identified a relative who explicitly encouraged them to choose a career in engineering. The direct im- pact of the family was declared by “Jessica”, who stated: “[…] my sister actually, graduated from the physical gravitation department, but she directed me: ‘You can choose engineer- ing, because the job opportunities are higher in engineering.’” And “Nicole” added: “My mother told me that it is a hard chance to find a job with a higher salary and like [sic] to stay at the job for long years, I think that was the main reason.” A father’s passion for real problem solving within the family was another direct effect on “Laura’s” choice. She recalled: [My father] is always focused on the mechanics that I don’t like too much. Maybe the thing that he really likes is to solve the problems and understand how the things work. I think it was important for me, because yeah, I like it too. “Helen’s” statement showed the indirect influence of her relatives’ professional roles: “I have a cousin; she is studying chemical engineering; it is so great […]. We are really close to each other. Our discussions, sometimes, inspired me.” A family’s educational expectations also influenced the students’ learning and career choices because their families respected their children’s choices even if they did not match their parents’ desires: My parents are not so strict, so I choose everything by myself […]; my mother said, ‘you have to be successful, in whichever way you want’. […] [P]robably the freedom of the choice was the best thing for me. (Helen) The students’ family-modelling, their references to their relatives’ engineering professions, impacted the students’ choices indirectly because of their constant exposure to particular environments and discourse, which was a strong inspiration for them. Most of the stu- dents have had at least one engineer in their family: a brother, an aunt and an uncle, a cousin, a grandfather or a parent. The following quotes are evidence of how family-mod- elling has impacted the students’ lives: […] [M]y mother is a doctor, but her brother, her sister and her father are engineers. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 68 5. 04. 2023 11:38:39 69C. Tino, M. C. Lavagnolo, M. Fedeli, L. Bierema: Women’s Career Decision Making... I talked about my choice with my aunt, and she said: ‘If you do engineering, it’s a bit more practical and you can realize projects.’ I chose it in the end. (Sally) […] [M]y parents support me a lot […]. I always see [my father] like running from one side to another, resolving things and fixing things, and I like to have this challenge of resolving things or problems. […] When I was 16, I started a ‘safety engineering course’ during the night […] and when I finished it, I worked a bit with my father. (Sofie) One student, “Sally”, expressed satisfaction at being able to continue the family-model, “to have something in common with other family members”. This statement indicates identification with the family-model identity and culture. Significant Learning Experiences Learning Experiences in High School. Apart from familial support and models, the students’ learning experiences also affected their career choices. Different factors were mentioned as characteristics of their learning experiences: • the type of high school and school curriculum, • the relationships with teachers or peers, and • the bachelors’ degree experience. The participants chose different high schools but most with a scientific curriculum. Spe- cifically, some of them said: […] [I]n high school actually, I went to […] a school for talented students, so I got an exam for entrance [sic] to this school for both middle and high school. And we lived in this school. So, we studied there, where we had dormitories. [The school] from the scientific point of view was so good. (Helen) I attended the ‘Marie Curie scientific lyceum’, because already from middle and elementary school, I preferred to do science subjects such as computer science, physics, mathematics. […] I had the most important results in these subjects. (Sally) One of the students had an internship at an architectural firm as part of her high school curriculum, which was an opportunity for her to realize she wouldn’t like to be an archi- tect. It was an occasion for her to have a significant conversation with a professional at that firm who helped her to examine her real passion, discovering her interest in engi- neering. This is evidence of how experiential learning can support people in the explora- tion of their vocational behaviour and preferences. The participants’ learning experiences were also influenced by the perception of unfair assessment that caused one student to lose interest in the humanities or by the demands of the teacher of History and Philosophy: AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 69 5. 04. 2023 11:38:39 70 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 During an oral Philosophy test, even if I had answered well, I had the same grade as someone else who instead didn’t answer. I didn’t like it anymore. […]. I consider subject [sic] such as Italian, History related to content that you need to learn just by heart, without understanding them. (Sally) I feel still anxious about some school subjects, above all Philosophy. I don’t know, I can’t understand it. Probably because the teacher of high school taught at university and she wanted us to learn as university students. (Lisa) The role of the teacher as part of the students’ learning experiences was also highlight- ed by “Helen”, who stressed the importance of teaching ability. The instructor needs to engage students in activities and promote their positive feelings about the subject. The following quote explains her feelings and how good teaching practice can support teach- er-student relationships: I remember some teachers that I really liked, their way to teach us. For example, one of them was so strict, but his way to teach [sic] was so interesting, for ex- ample, about Physics. It was so practical, and my mind was so involved… wow! It was so interesting for me [sic]. He played a so strong [sic] influence on me. (Helen) Two other students recognised that they have always had an interest in scientific sub- jects, while another student identified the teacher of mathematics as her model because “she was really straight in what she was saying and had a good way of explaining things” (Vanessa). Peer relationships as the opportunity to share the same interests with peers or the trust that peers showed in one’s abilities reinforce personal goals. In fact, the participants said: […] [T]wo of my closest friends from my high school and actually all of them are engineers. (Helen) While I attended high school, I gained high marks, and in general my class- mates relied on me. They asked me to provide them with some explanations on scientific subjects. (Anna) Learning Experiences at University. Additionally, for some students the bachelor’s course was significant in their learning career choices; in fact, they persisted along the same path in- stead of leaving the engineering field thanks to the quality of the course, the encouragement of the teachers, the teaching methods, and the final impact of engineering knowledge on real contexts. These exemplary quotes describe some reasons for student retention: I believe that my bachelor’s course in engineering promoted the development of critical thinking, and it can’t be taken for granted. Engineering will allow me to solve problems. […] The term ‘engineer’ is like a ‘genius’. (Anna) AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 70 5. 04. 2023 11:38:39 71C. Tino, M. C. Lavagnolo, M. Fedeli, L. Bierema: Women’s Career Decision Making... During my bachelor I really liked topics about wastewater treatment in devel- oping countries, […] I really like it, because I want to improve something of the environmental situation of the world. (Vanessa) [During the bachelor’s course] I learned a learning method. […] And I experi- enced a learning environment where I’m assessed for the results that I obtained. (Sally) In contrast, Helen’s statement explains the impact that a negative teaching approach can have on retention: “I choose [sic] the agriculture water engineering [Bachelor]. But the teacher, for example, was a hole in the ground, and all the students choose [sic] to change the way [their course], even boys, but me, I said, can I jump? No…”. These comments highlight the distinctive importance of the students’ learning expe- riences. The participants named some relevant reasons they persevered in the course, including the opportunity to develop important abilities (critical thinking), the link between the curriculum and personal goals (improvement of real situations), and the feeling of being in a learning environment where a fair assessment can give students due recognition. Society Culture While the patriarchal culture of the society of some of the participants was not men- tioned as an explicit determinant of their own choices, it was indirectly presented as a de- terminant for women’s careers in general. The following statements offered a clear picture of the different cultures of the students’ countries of origin: […] [I]n Turkey, generally, if your father told you that, ‘no, you will not leave this city, you will study in the same city as me’, most of the students accept this. They have to accept this one. But when I told my father, ‘I will go to another country and I will study engineering’, he said, ‘OK’. (Nicole) […] I think that a lot of times women are expected to be smarter or more am- bitious in their educational level during high school. (Vanessa) My parents are both engineers and they didn’t face any problems. My mom didn’t face any problems. It depends if you want to have a real good job, if you have connections. (Mary) […] [We] are in a religious country so we all have to wear a hijab from 7 years old, so if you ask about the discrimination, I can say just a little bit about that. For example, you can’t play volleyball, football, something like this, because you have to wear a hijab; women don’t have to do that. But personally, I don’t care about these things, and also my parents don’t care so. I always play football with my neighbour’s children, and my brothers support me. (Helen) AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 71 5. 04. 2023 11:38:39 72 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 From my high school class, I think only me and one other girl decided to go into engineering. I think it depends more on the society, because some people still consider women to be successfully married than to build a career [sic]. […] But it’s not like if you want to build a career, nobody is going to stop you. (Mary) Participants highlighted different societal cultures: “masculinity-normed”, where the fa- ther is the one who makes decisions; “male-modelling”, where women are expected to be “smarter” if they want to be as successful as men; “success-oriented” with a prestigious profession recognised as a “good job”; “religion-normed”, where the difference between men and women is part of everyday life. This aspect was explained well by “Helen” when she said: […] [Y]ou know our government and religion, I can say that they prefer wom- en to stay at home. They say that, for example, engineering, it’s not so… I mean, related to girls, no. Probably, if you choose something like art, something like teaching, it’s more acceptable. […] My story is a little bit complicated. In my country if you are 32 years old you have to be married. For example, if you are at university, everybody around you can say, ‘Why are you not married? Where is your husband?’ (Helen) She also experienced this cultural and religious impact at a school where the rules were too strict: [I attended] a good school […], but from the gender point of view, or the reli- gious one, not so good, it was so strict, like in all parts of the country; you have to wear hijab. They check us every day, for example, if you have make-up, if your nails are long, that stuff, so that was so awful, but in any case, I liked living with so many of my peers. (Helen) Even if all of the gender and cultural dimensions mentioned above did not affect this group of women students so much, some participants highlighted the fact that in their country women students generally choose to pursue academic studies in education, eco- nomics, law, or medicine, or if they do choose engineering fields, they generally avoid civil or mechanical engineering, as they did: Generally, women don’t choose civil engineering or mechanical engineering, because mechanical things are dirty, or civil engineering as you know is hard for women, so they don’t choose this engineering generally. […] We can choose environmental engineering, or chemical engineering. (Nicole) This statement showed that even the most emancipated families cannot be protected from the influence of a society’s culture. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 72 5. 04. 2023 11:38:39 73C. Tino, M. C. Lavagnolo, M. Fedeli, L. Bierema: Women’s Career Decision Making... Internal and External Recognition Internal Recognition The students’ internal recognition emerged from those variables that helped us to identify both their intrinsic interest for the engineering field, and the self-awareness of their abil- ities and talent, as the following statements show: The engineering is part of me. I can’t imagine myself as anything else. I really need to be in an engineering world. But there is no chance, there wasn’t any chance in Iran so. […] I can’t imagine life without engineering. (Helen) I’ve always been fascinated, not just by being an engineer, let’s say as a profes- sion, but by doing a job that somehow makes you make decisions, makes you carry out projects. (Lisa) Their internal recognition is also linked to their beliefs of belonging to “talented and deter- mined people” or having the ability to attend “scientific high school”, as some students stated: Actually I choose this engineering because of my exam results. They were good and I just choose engineering because it was in the Middle East Technical, a famous university. (Nicole). I have always been really good at science subjects. […] When I enrolled in university, I chose STEM fields straight away. (Sally) I attended a school for talented students, so I had a hard entrance exam to that school. (Helen). [Engineering] is a kind of job where I can make decisions and have a lot of satisfaction [...] I want to solve problems and go beyond the things… I want to be an engineer who reaches the highest level of [their] own competences. (Lisa) The following statements show that the participants believe in being able to make choices related to their engineering learning paths and to persist on this path after their bachelor’s degree: Yes, during my bachelor I really liked topics about wastewater treatment in de- veloping countries. And yes, it’s something that I really like, because I want to improve something of the environmental situation of the world. (Laura) When I completed the bachelor’s degree, I was exhausted, and I wasn’t sure [I was going] to continue […] Then, I thought that it was better to continue and now I’m really happy, because I couldn’t have done anything else. (Anna) Being one of the few women attending Mechanical Engineering supported my motivation to continue along the same path. (Nicole) AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 73 5. 04. 2023 11:38:39 74 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 The students’ choice was also impacted by their belief in pursuing an altruistic career, giving back and having a positive impact on society and the environment. These quotes explain the meaning of their beliefs about being an engineer: I think being an engineer means to be able to solve technical and mathematical problems, in order to improve systems […] Protecting the environment had always been a big subject for me. (Vanessa) I really like nature. I want to improve the environmental situation: it is my ob- jective. So […] I decided to do engineering, because I said OK, it can change the situation more in respect to the other [disciplines], because I really understand how to design, how to plan, how to understand better the problem. (Laura) I think engineering, because I can create, study and develop things for having a better place on earth. (Sofie) [As an engineer] I can do something a little bit useful for the world. […] I have lots of cousins, and there are some girls in there, if they watch [sic] that Helen does some engineering stuff, has a good job, and has a good opportunity to improve their world situation, so they can imagine themselves in that position too. (Helen) All these comments show that the students recognise themselves as “science people”, re- flecting a significant sense of self-efficacy (Papafilippou & Bentley, 2017). External Recognition In this study external recognition, being recognised as a science person by others, is situat- ed on a continuum with internal recognition. In fact, while students recognised their own abilities, the contextual factors such as parents, teachers, peers, relatives, positive results in scientific subjects, gave them positive feedback, encouragement, freedom in making choices, and support for starting and continuing on their engineering learning paths. This empowering “attitude” of their contextual components gave them an external recogni- tion of their abilities, knowledge and performance related to their learning experiences in engineering fields. This contextual behaviour sent the students the message that they can belong to a STEM field and that they can be “science people”. Consequently, as in a virtuous circle, external recognition affected the students’ self-efficacy and the internal recognition of their scientific career interest. External recognition can also be identified in the outcome expectations that the students highlighted during the interviews as further determinants for becoming engineers. They are connected to different elements such as social recognition, and the possibility of be- coming a problem-solver of environmental and systemic issues, a decision maker, or a manager of local or foreign companies becomes a career possibility. These example state- ments illustrate the students’ outcome expectations and external recognition in a variety of ways: AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 74 5. 04. 2023 11:38:39 75C. Tino, M. C. Lavagnolo, M. Fedeli, L. Bierema: Women’s Career Decision Making... [Being an engineer for] Being respected, and they are more active in Turkey, I mean not like teachers: if you are a teacher you have lots of holiday, and your work is not so hard. In engineering you have to study and improve yourself always. (Nicole) I think I don’t want to have a job without an actual purpose. I think I want to have a job where I have the feeling that I am doing something […] that actually has a positive impact on the whole world. (Vanessa) [I imagine myself as] a manager of a company that focuses on the solid waste management. […] [W]e need to improve this in Brazil, so I think I have this opportunity to be here and learn, so when I go back to Brazil I can work on it. (Sofie) Beside the social recognition and their active role in society, they didn’t omit their desire to achieve a satisfying and rewarding job; for example, the students stated: I hope that I have a job that I really like. That still gives me the opportunity to learn more, during working, and not being stuck in the same system of working every day. (Vanessa) I like being [an] engineer because there is the possibility to experience the balance between the economic aspect and the effort required by the job. (Lisa) […] I am still thinking that engineering is a really good career opportunity. [To study Economics] it’s risky because small business is not so very stable. (Mary) These comments enhance the understanding of their choices: they are connected to so- cial recognition, to creating solutions for real issues, but also to personal satisfaction. The statements also illuminate the students’ self-efficacy and career interest. DISCUSSION The purpose of this study was to understand what factors influenced the international and domestic students’ decisions to pursue engineering. This study addressed the fol- lowing research questions: (i) What is the impact of personal and contextual factors on career interests of women across multiple cultures? (ii) How are internal and external recognition of women students related to engineering career decision making? Consistent with previous research (e.g., Lent et al., 1994), the study showed that per- sonal and contextual factors play an important role in determining the career interests of women, and together with other variables, such as learning experiences (activities, curric- ulum, peer/teacher-relationship; extracurricular experiences) and family/society’s culture cultivate the women’s interest in engineering (Marra et al., 2009). More importantly, the study’s findings point to the important role that self-efficacy, nurtured by internal and external recognition, plays in influencing women’s engineering career choice. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 75 5. 04. 2023 11:38:40 76 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 Compared to other studies focused on women’s careers (e.g., Carlone & Johnson, 2007; Jackson & Bridgstock, 2019), the originality of this study is related to the possibility of highlighting the same effects of internal and external recognition on the students’ career choices among students who belong to different cultures. Indeed, the richness of the interviews and the commonalities of variables with their effects on the internation- al students’ career decision making, gave the researchers the possibility to obtain data saturation. In particular, the findings allowed us to focus on the following aspects: 1) the interplay of personal and contextual determinants that acted as different components of a single system, the career decision-making process; 2) how participants make their career choice; 3) the role of self-efficacy; 4) the role of gender and the impact of culture. The Multifaceted Career Decision-Making Process The findings allowed us to identify the multifaceted character of career decision making (Figure 1). Figure 1 The multifaceted career decision-making process Note. Authors’ own. The figure shows a continuous relationship between self-efficacy and internal and exter- nal recognition as determinants of women students’ career choice process. Self-efficacy is the key factor of the participants’ career decisions, but it has been determined by a AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 76 5. 04. 2023 11:38:40 77C. Tino, M. C. Lavagnolo, M. Fedeli, L. Bierema: Women’s Career Decision Making... well-functioning process made up of different, intertwined, internal and external com- ponents. Personal (abilities, commitment, determination), and contextual factors (family support, modelling, and culture), have nurtured their self-efficacy since the early stages of the participants’ lives through informal (family, peers) and formal learning experiences (high school and bachelors’ degree), which supported the reinforcement of their interest in the engineering field and their outcome expectations, also through a continuous inter- nal and the external recognition process. This developmental process has facilitated their further choices supporting their persistence in the same field of study, and their career goals as well. Therefore, in connection with the theoretical framework of this study (Lent et al., 1994), for the group of undergraduate women, self-efficacy is a key determinant that has been developed and will probably continue to increase along a continuum, thanks to their strong family and cultural heritage and support, their learning experiences, and their outcome expectations (respected profession, permanent job, world/environment’s problem solver, company management); their internal (awareness of their own abilities, talent, determination) and external (familial, school, peer, teacher, social) recognition, and their environments (family, high schools, university contexts). These factors helped them to connect their career identity development to engineering fields. How the Participants Make their Career Choices The participants’ career choices have been determined not only by their personal abilities, but above all by the experiences that they have lived in their families, with their peers, dur- ing high school and bachelors’ courses, receiving positive feedback and encouragement. Through the experiences, they have tested their abilities, received external recognition, reinforced their internal recognition (sense of self and self-efficacy), and received affirma- tion regarding their career goals, leading to persistence (Lee et al., 2015). The participants’ outcome expectations (prestigious position, respect, social recognition), and professional interests (being a real problem-solver) display their desire to give back and contribute to society, which in turn drives learning. The Role of Self-Efficacy The students’ self-efficacy appears as the engine of their career-interest and decision-mak- ing development. However, self-efficacy needs to be nurtured by recognition. The partici- pants experience a double nature of recognition: 1) individual, when they recognised their own personal abilities and themselves as talented people; and 2) social, when they received recognition from their peers, teachers, parents, society. Individual and social recognition have fed the students’ self-efficacy, increasing their capabilities perception for learning or performing actions and activities at expected levels, affecting their career identity and interest (Lent et al., 2008). The Role of Gender and The Impact of Culture The participants often connected gender to their native cultures to explain percep- tions of women’s career opportunities or limitations in their countries, citing dominant AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 77 5. 04. 2023 11:38:40 78 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 cultural characteristics as “male-normed”, “male-modelling”, “stigmatized professions”, “religion-normed”, “success-oriented”. Despite some cultural barriers, the participants chose to move to a foreign country for learning and realizing their career choices, even sometimes challenging their native masculine or religious cultures. Emancipatory fami- ly cultures propelled these women to exercise educational and career freedom of choice counter to their home cultures and societal pressures. These results echo Eccles’ (2014) theory, according to which parents influence children through their advice, materials, and the exposure to a variety of experiences. This group of women had the advantage of their family contexts, but in their narratives hide traditional cultural views relating to STEM fields. There is a well-known cultural model according to which STEM fields are too “hard” for women. In fact, the students highlighted the importance of having talent and engineering abilities, indirectly reinforc- ing their beliefs about the difficult nature of this discipline (Haswell, 2019). Implications The findings suggest relevant practical implications for educational policy makers and educational professionals in schools and higher education. Schools and communities should provide young women with exposure to scientific experiences, discourses, models, and to other women excelling in engineering and STEM careers. Gender-role socialisa- tion should be a further initiative. Gender roles are the behaviours and attitudes that in general are encouraged and supported on the basis of the students’ gender. This phenom- enon generates negative stereotypes and women leave the STEM pipeline before entering STEM professions (Tino et al., 2018, 2021), with a strong impact on their career. The impact of learning experiences on career choices underline some implications for high school teachers and faculty: their teaching influences women’s choices and career identities. Learning environments based on peer support and positive feedback help so- cialise learners for careers. The exposure to real experiences, to role models in the engi- neering field, and teaching methods based on the management of diversity can generate an open culture of learning. We also recommend a systematic collaboration among high school, higher education, and professional engineering contexts, to create continuous and effective action. Limitations Two limitations of the study can be stressed. First, the sample study was too small and may not be representative of the factors influencing all women students in engineering. Second, we interviewed a small number of participants from one institution who did not represent the full range of engineering majors. No other studies were carried out with engineering students from different countries, so other longitudinal studies can be devel- oped, and results compared with those of international women students in other STEM programs and different universities or countries. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 78 5. 04. 2023 11:38:40 79C. Tino, M. C. Lavagnolo, M. Fedeli, L. Bierema: Women’s Career Decision Making... CONCLUSIONS We conclude that: a) women students’ engineering interest is cultivated by different con- textual factors in the same way across multiple cultures because they contribute to devel- oping the students’ self-beliefs and outcome expectations, keeping them on the engineer- ing path; b) self-efficacy process development affects the students’ engineering interest; c) self-efficacy is not a stand-alone factor, but is nurtured by internal (efficacy, self-beliefs) and external (by others) recognition; d) the students’ engineering career decision making is the result of a well-functioning system determined by the interdependence of personal and contextual factors. The combination of supportive factors creates favourable conditions for developing wom- en’s interest in the engineering field. The development of engineering career decision making is a multifaceted process that starts in the early stages of women’s lives. 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International journal of gender studies, 10(19), 240–267. https://doi.org/10.15167/2279-5057/AG2021.10.19.1254 AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 80 5. 04. 2023 11:38:40 Scientific article Andragoška spoznanja/Studies in Adult Education and Learning, 2023, 29(1), 81-97 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4312/as/10447 Vanmany Vannasy, lecturer, Faculty of Education, National University of Laos, Lao PDR, vanmanyv@gmail.com Souksakhone Sengsouliya, lecturer, Faculty of Education, National University of Laos, Lao PDR, noysoukssly@yahoo.com Vanmany Vannasy, Souksakhone Sengsouliya KEY PREDICTORS OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF WORKPLACE LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION ABSTRACT This paper employed an integrative review approach to identify the key predictors of the implementation of workplace learning in higher education. The conceptual framework for this review stems mainly from the the­ oretical and empirical literature on workplace learning. Using the methods of integrative review, the authors of the present paper synthesized and integrated the f indings from 38 included papers. The review suggests that there are seven key predictors that make workplace learning in higher education realistic, including individual learning, team learning, the organisational culture of learning, leadership, partnership, the employer­employee relationship, and the national policy system. Future inquiries would benefit from conducting a comparative study of theoretical perspectives and gathering empirical data within a particular context. Keywords: higher education, predictors of workplace learning, workplace learning KLJUČNI KAZALNIKI PRI IZVAJANJU UČENJA NA DELOVNEM MESTU V VISOKOŠOLSKEM IZOBRAŽEVANJU – POVZETEK Članek uporabi metodo integrativnega pregleda, s katerim opredeli ključne napovedovalne kazalnike pri izva­ janju učenja na delovnem mestu v visokošolskem izobraževanju. Konceptualni okvir pregleda izhaja predvsem iz teoretične in empirične literature o učenju na delovnem mestu. Na podlagi analize 38 člankov je bilo identi­ ficiranih sedem ključnih kazalnikov, zaradi katerih je učenje na delovnem mestu v visokošolskem izobraževanju realistično: individualno učenje, skupinsko učenje, organizacijska kultura učenja, vodstvo, partnerstvo, odnos med delodajalcem in zaposlenim ter nacionalna sistemska politika. Članek se sklene s priporočili za prihodnje izvajanje primerjalne raziskave teoretičnih perspektiv in empiričnih podatkov. Ključne besede: visokošolsko izobraževanje, kazalniki učenja na delovnem mestu, učenje na delovnem mestu AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 81 5. 04. 2023 11:38:40 82 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 INTRODUCTION In the competitive world, it is necessary for every workplace to develop in line with learn- ing organisation concepts. In doing so, the workplace needs to increase its roles, responsi- bilities, and commitment ( Jenner, 2020; Ovesni, 2020). However, workplace learning is a complicated area that consists of several dimensions. This paper reviews a wide range of literature, looking into theoretical perspectives on workplace learning such as definitions, activities, goals, as well as factors that influence the realisation of workplace learning. The present paper aims to investigate the key predictors of the implementation of workplace learning in the higher education context. Investigations of workplace learning have been of great interest among educational re- searchers (e.g., Kerka, 1997; Lester & Costley, 2010; Maxwell, 2014; Mills & Whit- taker, 2001). In previous literature, different terms are used interchangeably for “work- place learning”, including learning on the job, learning at work, learning through work, work-based learning, organisational learning or learning within organisations. This begs the question: what is the full definition of the term “workplace learning”? According to Arygris (1964, as cited in Jones & Hendry, 1994), workplace learning is related to the characteristics of the learning of individuals. For Jones and Hendry (1994), “workplace learning” refers to training focusing on sharing knowledge and discussing the present conditions of work. Learning can be flexible and depends on its modes of conduct and assessment. Seagraves et al. (1996, as cited in Keeling et al., 1998) stated that workplace learning is “learning linked to the requirements of peoples’ jobs… learning for work… learning at work… learning through work” (p. 6). Workplace learning practitioners de- fine the term as a process of changing organisations as a collective by jointly creating knowledge for innovation and extending this pursuit to organisational routines (Fenwick, 2010), as well as a process of change within organisations at multiple levels, through so- cial, psychological, and knowledge transfer aspects (Souza & Takahashi, 2019). In short, workplace learning discusses individuals’ activities of learning about a job that prepare them and their organisation for the changing world. The concept of workplace learning appeared in the 1980s. This type of learning has be- come very popular among studies of management, leadership, and business as a basis of better understanding how organisations can learn and initiate transformations in re- sponse to environmental factors (Wang & Ahmed, 2003, as cited in Cebrian et al., 2013). Shaffer (1992) wrote that “[t]he concept of organizational learning includes expecta- tional learning and experiential learning. Organizations use expectations about future outcomes to select current alternatives, borrow ideas from other organizations, introduce incremental changes based on environmental feedback, and introduce original innovative variations” (p. 24). Furthermore, Shaffer (1992) reviewed and agreed with other studies (e.g., Duncan, 1992, as cited in Shaffer, 1992; Hedberg, 1981, as cited in Shaffer, 1992) that organisational learning constitutes a continuous process driven by the organisation’s interactions with external networks. Several scholars see learning as a key driving force for growth and innovation in every organisation. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 82 5. 04. 2023 11:38:40 83Vanmany Vannasy, Souksakhone Sengsouliya: Key Predictors of the Implementation... Workplace learning has some unique characteristics that might be different from tradi- tional learning in school. Lester and Costley (2010) explained that workplace learning constitutes activities enhancing the employees’ skills through professional development and problem-solving tactics in order to improve their work performance. Lester and Costley (2010) stated that workplace learning is sometimes referred to as informal or non-formal learning. Workplace learning can consist of low and high levels of academic knowledge, thus enabling multi-tiered learning. For Juceviciene and Edintaite (2012), workplace learning is most likely to occur in informal rather than formal environments; especially in a university context, faculty members are likely to learn and exchange ideas about work with colleagues in their own unit/department only. That means they are not likely to interact for learning with others in different units. Effective workplace learning has to be integrated with knowledge of pedagogical science which involves understanding how to educate adults as well as grasping students’ learning realities and their existing experience (Costley, 2011). Costley (2011) further noted that workplace learning does not exclusively occur within a university campus but can also be conducted in other workplac- es beside universities. Recent studies ( Jenner, 2020; Ovesni, 2020) have found that learning within the work- place is to occur if the workplace increases its roles, responsibilities, and commitment. According to Jenner (2020), developments in the workplace can be achieved as long as the workplace structure is supportive. Jenner further argued that learning within the workplace is influenced not only by active employees but also the workplace’s qualified structures. Similarly, it is a key task for every workplace to establish an organisational climate that fosters positive perceptions and behaviours regarding continuous education/ learning among employees (Ovesni, 2020). According to the existing literature, the de- velopment of organisational learning is linked to two learning patterns called “single loop learning” and “double loop learning” ( Jones & Hendry, 1994). Explaining these concepts, Bateson (1972, as cited in Jones & Hendry, 1994) argued that “single loop learning” is about searching for errors and correcting them. “Double loop learning” is the process of identifying the causality and/or the consequences of a problem prior to solving the prob- lem itself. In this way, “double loop learning” refers to learning that brings changes to an organisation’s values which may cause “conflicts” and “power struggles”. The concept of workplace learning is connected to the concept of adult learning. The learning mode of adults, as opposed to children, tends to be oriented towards autonomous learning, expe- riential learning, and learning in relation to different aspects of their work lives ( Jones & Hendry, 1994). Jones and Hendry also referred to the works of authors such as Knowles (1980, as cited in Jones & Hendry, 1994), who argued that adults favour self-regulated learning, learning by doing, or actively participating in activities in the learning process. Kerka (1997) pointed out that what is taking place in workplace learning is constructivist. From the literature reviewed, workplace learning actually shares similar concepts with adult learning, in which adults prefer to learn about work and/or learn how to address some particular problems concerning their work. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 83 5. 04. 2023 11:38:40 84 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 Crossan et al. (1999, as cited in Chuen Huang & Shih, 2011) coined the 4I Model of organisational learning which identifies the four stages of implementing organisational learning: (1) Intuiting: learning or transfer of knowledge and experiences between indi- viduals; (2) Interpreting: learners process ideas, actions, etc. stemming from interacting or discussing with other people. At this stage, learners develop their own cognitive map; (3) Integrating: learners translate these ideas from communication into practice; (4) In- stitution: the final stage refers to the process of shaping organisational learning in more structured, institutional, and strategic ways. Mills and Whittaker (2001) wrote that workplace learning, in the context of higher ed- ucation institutions, has three overall roles. Firstly, it fulfils the needs of employers and industries to upskill their respective workforces. Secondly, it analyses problems regarding work performance within organisations and strengthens the connection between indus- tries and educational institutions. Thirdly, workplace learning meets the needs of indi- viduals for personal growth and professional development. According to Andersen and Morch (2005, as cited in Gustafsson & Thang, 2017), “work-based learning”, “work-in- tegrated learning”, or “problem-based learning” are called new learning processes that meet the demands of people’s modern working lives, and they can be both self-regulated learners and problem solvers. Costley (2007) added that the aims of workplace learning are to enable employees to attain high levels of knowledge and to have the opportunity to participate in professional development activities, with businesses aiming to utilise this knowledge and these skills to the benefit of their organisations. Workplace learning is beneficial to workplace growth and productivity in many ways: it improves human capital, helps to reduce skills gaps, and increases employees’ motivation (Basit et al., 2015). Guta (2018) agreed that workplace learning improves organisational performance as the aim of learning within an organisation is to increase the capacity of the organisation’s employ- ees. To underline this notion, Guta referred to two well-known theorists (Crossan et al., 1995, as cited in Guta, 2018; Fiol & Lyles, 1985, as cited in Guta, 2018), who proposed the assumption that learning influences, enhances, and leads to changes in performances. Workplace learning is found to have a positive impact on teaching performance through improving lecturers’ teaching skills (Hartono et al., 2017). Workplace learning serves as a framework that enhances young learners’ abilities for employment; it also enables adult learners to be exposed to continuous learning opportunities for autonomous professional development (Garnett, 2016). Garnett further noted that workplace learning is crucial for all workplaces as its activities aim to improve overall performance. In the words of Durrant et al. (2009, as cited in Garnett, 2016), “Work-Based Learning programmes are designed to promote professional and personal development and intend to benefit both learners and the workplace” (p. 2). The review of literature suggests that there are two key elements to workplace learn- ing, namely individual learning and organisational learning; together, these two modes of learning lead to change (Rowley, 1998). Any organisational growth cannot be realis- tic without learning. Jones and Hendry (1994) noted that organisations usually depend AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 84 5. 04. 2023 11:38:40 85Vanmany Vannasy, Souksakhone Sengsouliya: Key Predictors of the Implementation... on “acceptable learning” that promotes the direction of the organisation and perpetuates how the employees ought to act. The organisation’s ability to learn is recognised as a key characteristic of the “efficacious organization” (Cepic & Krstovic, 2011). Furthermore, Garnett (2016) argued that “individual knowledge” is even more important as it serves as a basis of communication with others in the workplace. In the same vein, Basit et al. (2015) stated that the success of workplace learning programs in higher education de- pends on how actively learners participate and how much learners take away from them. Most importantly, all of the relevant people, from executives to deans, should collaborate closely within these institutions, including putting efforts into and having positive at- titudes towards the implementation of workplace learning. Moreover, it is necessary to have a good connection with employers. Close collaboration with employers is key for determining the learners’, i.e., the employees’, training needs, and for designing training content accordingly. A model proposed by Watkins and Marsick (1993, 1996, as cited in Cepic & Krstovic, 2011), the “integrative model of learning organisations”, aims to capture the development process and transformational revolution of organisations. Several organisations have uti- lised the model to turn themselves into learning organisations. This model focuses on the two main parts of an organisation, people and structure. It encompasses seven dimensions of making the learning process within organisations more realistic at each level (individual, team, organisation-wide). The seven dimensions include: (1) Providing opportunities for continuous learning; (2) Promoting research and dialogue; (3) Promoting collaboration and team learning; (4) Establishing a collective learning system; (5) Supporting a shared vision; (6) Linking the organisation to its partners; and (7) Enhancing strategic leader- ship for learning. Garnett et al. (2008, as cited in Garnett, 2016) proposed the key features of the structural capital of higher education institutions which make workplace learning more realistic: (1) Structures, regulations and procedures should enhance partnerships with other stakeholders; (2) Structures and procedures should encourage learning at work rather than classroom-based learning on campus; (3) Regulations and procedures should facilitate individual learning and trainings; (4) A system for evaluating learning outcomes should be established; and (5) The administrative system should be supportive of and flexible for learners who work full-time. What is mentioned above can be a useful model for developing a learning organisation, especially Watkins and Marsick’s (1993, 1996) integrative model, as it serves as a framework for workplace learning practitioners and/or adult educators to further strengthen the activities of workplace learning in their own work environments. Several scholars (e.g., Aminbeidokhti et al., 2016; Basit et al., 2015; Ponnuswamy & Manohar, 2016) agree that learning at work is important to many organisations, includ- ing higher education institutions. Simply put, workplace learning is recognised as a very valuable concept because its institutions serve as role models in developing and increasing knowledge and skills for human resources. Higher education organisations need to devel- op to become learning organisations and be committed to the world of learning within AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 85 5. 04. 2023 11:38:41 86 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 the workplace to prepare its employees for the challenges of the 21st century (Cepic & Krstovic, 2011). Yet the literature reviewed pointed out that the higher education sec- tor, especially universities, are not effectively engaged in workplace learning (Bauman, 2005). Universities face significant barriers to embrace workplace learning, e.g., in re- gard to many universities’ more traditional learning modes which are different from the workplace learning approach ( Johnson, 2001). Many faculties are also rather reluctant to change (Abbasi et al., 2015). The issue of workplace learning in higher education institu- tions is of great interest to educators yet few works have explored which factors influence or predict its likelihood. This paper, therefore, examines the theoretical perspectives of workplace learning in order to identify predictors for making workplace learning more re- alistic in higher education. The guiding research question for the present paper is: “What are the key predictors of the implementation of workplace learning in higher education?” METHODOLOGICAL DESIGN This paper is an integrative review of literature. According to Tavares de Souza et al. (2010), this type of research design involves analysing both theoretical and empirical studies and has several purposes, one of which is discussing a wide range of problems of a particular topic. There are five steps in the process of an integrative review. First, key guiding questions are established. Second, relevant literature is identified and in the third step evaluated according to a set of criteria. Fourth, the data is analysed in response to the research question. Finally, the findings are presented in a structured way (Whittemore & Knafl, 2005). This paper follows the five-step method to ensure a systematic, integrative review of the proposed topic, whilst also incorporating the approach of systematic review. Newman and Gough (2020) noted that the systematic review approach analyses second- ary research together with the results of primary research to respond to a set research question. Figure 1 Search terms for the integrative review Search string 1: “workplace learning” OR “work-based learning” OR “organisational learning” OR “organizational learning” OR “on the job learning” OR “learning organization” AND Search string 2: “adult education” OR “adult learning” OR “lifelong learning” OR “lifelong education” OR “continuing education” OR “continuing study” OR “higher education” OR “further study” OR “vocational education” The papers included in the review were downloaded from different electronic databases, such as ASC, ERIC, SCOPUS, SocINDEX, and Web of Sciences. According to the na- ture of systematic review, we developed the search terms (keywords) “workplace learning” AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 86 5. 04. 2023 11:38:41 87Vanmany Vannasy, Souksakhone Sengsouliya: Key Predictors of the Implementation... and “adult education”, then developed two search strings from the determined keywords using the Boolean operators “AND” and “OR”. That means this review searched for pa- pers/studies from the databases with a combination of the two search strings. This is a type of keyword search. It functions well with searching and broadening results on the web and in databases because the search looks for items of studies in every record if the words used are present in article titles, abstracts or keywords tagged to the text (see Fig. 1 for details). Figure 2 Flow diagram of the search process according to the integrative review method Records identified through databases n=227 Records after duplicates removed n=158 After screening titles and abstracts n=75 Full-text articles assessed for eligibility n=38 Studies included in the analysis n=38 Id en tif ic at io n Sc re en in g El ig ib ili ty In cl ud ed 39 Web of Science• • • • • 18 Academic Search Complete 111 Scopus 3 SocINDEX 56 ERIC 120 records excluded No empirical study (n=33) (interview, letter to the editor, commentary, etc.) Language (n=3) (Spanish, French) Not available (n=9) (Not available via interlibrary loan, No Open Access license from the author’s institution) Not relevant to the topic (n=75) (scientific writing, science communication, genetic research, etc.) 0 Full-text articles excluded • • • • Applying this strategy, 227 papers were initially identified. However, the criteria employed for including qualified papers in the review were: (a) relevant to the research topic, i.e., including keywords such as workplace learning, organisational learning, learning organi- sation, learning on the job, and continuing education; (b) empirical research on workplace learning; (c) theoretical literature on concepts of workplace learning; (d) papers published in English only; papers relevant to the university context; and (f ) papers downloadable or accessible as a PDF file. In the present review, 38 papers met the set criteria and were used in the review. The remaining articles were excluded based on the following reasons: 33 were not empirical studies (e.g., reports, conference speeches), 3 were written in other AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 87 5. 04. 2023 11:38:42 88 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 languages, such as Spanish and French, 9 were non-downloadable/accessible, and 75 were not relevant to the topic (see Fig. 2 for details). Regarding the synthesis process, we listed all the findings from the individual papers that were included with the goal of integrating all the information to produce a better response to the research question. Likewise, coding and making categories were also conducted in order to present the findings in a structured way, in particular regarding the key predictors of workplace learning. RESULTS The review suggests that the implementation of workplace learning is predicted by sev- en factors (see Table 1): (1) Individual learning, which refers to the learning processes of individuals. Simply put, individuals are key drivers for workplace changes because individuals are the starting point of learning. Through workplace learning, they can fur- ther support workplace goals, be role models, and promote the interaction of work and learning. Individuals’ readiness for change is a prerequisite for workplace change; (2) Team learning, which discusses the learning of and within the team. This factor is an- other powerful predictor for workplace learning to occur. Team learning constitutes an open space in which to exchange ideas and to learn together as workplace members. The literature review indicated that teams empower change, teams determine the quality of teamwork, and teams develop a culture of learning. In other words, people cannot learn without sharing; (3) Organisational culture of learning, which concerns learning behaviours within the workplace. To make learning at work possible, there needs to be a culture of learning within the organisation. The presence of such a culture can take shape in the form of systematic working methods, learning management systems, as well as the presence of working strategies; (4) Leadership, which refers to the abilities such as motivating all members at work to participate in learning activities, arranging or providing learning opportunities, planning and understanding benefits of workplace learning, as well as the leadership’s active participation in and commitment to knowledge acquisition; (5) Partnership, which refers to the care for collaboration with others in pro- moting learning at work. Developing effective workplace learning is strongly associated with clearly understanding the context in which the learning process is to be established. This involves having good partners promoting the relevance of learning which also in- creases organisations’ understanding of social trends; (6) Employer-employee relation- ship, which discusses the relationship between employer and employee. This factor has been found to be another influential predictor of workplace learning. Several organ- isations put great emphasis on strengthening the relationship between employer and employee as the congruency of their respective needs contributes to the betterment of workplace learning opportunities; and (7) National policy system, which describes the governmental support in policy. A guiding, central policy framework could be a starting point for workplace learning practitioners to consider when developing positive learning environments. Simply put, acknowledgement and comprehensive support for workplace learning from the government is necessary. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 88 5. 04. 2023 11:38:42 89Vanmany Vannasy, Souksakhone Sengsouliya: Key Predictors of the Implementation... Table 1 Key predictors of workplace learning Individual Learning: Individuals with interest in and readiness for learning Argyris and Schon (1978, as cited in Cebrian et al., 2013); Cepic and Krstovic (2011); Čierna et al. (2016), Garnett (2016); Gustafsson and Thang (2013); Keeling et al. (1998); Maxwell (2014); Shaffer (1992); Simon (1991, as cited in Ponnuswamy & Manohar, 2016); Hartono et al. (2017) Individuals supporting workplace goals Hartono et al. (2017) Individuals as role models Farmer et al. (1992, as cited in Kerka, 1997) Individuals as key for team interaction Johnson and Thomas (1994, as cited in Kerka, 1997); Juceviciene and Edintaite (2012) Individuals having readiness for change Reuter and Backer (2015) Team Learning: Teams empowering and driving change at the workplace Hartono et al. (2017); Khasawneh (2011); Toma (2012) Teams as incubators of teamwork Bauman (2005); Jones and Hendry (1994); Khasawneh (2011); Sessa et al. (2011, as cited in Hartono et al., 2011) Teams developing cultures of learning Bui and Baruch (2012); Fenwick (2010); Juceviciene and Edintaite (2012); Maxwell (2014) Organisational Culture of Learning: Creating working values and practices Cepic and Krstovic (2011); Čierna et al. (2016); Maxwell (2014); Rowley (1998); Ponnuswamy and Manohar (2016) Giving roles and rights Chueng Huang and Shih (2011); Maxwell (2014); Shaffer (1992) Encouraging further learning Aminbeidokhti et al. (2016); Voolaid and Ehrlich (2017) Fostering self-reflection and learn to learn Čierna et al. (2016); Costley (2007); Fenwick (2010); Jones and Hendry (1994); Habtoor et al. (2019); Rowley (1998); Salaman and Butler (1994, as cited in Rowley, 1998); Schmidt and Gibbs (2009); Souza and Takahashi (2019) Leadership: Facilitating learning opportunities Basit et al. (2015); Keeling et al. (1998); Jones and Hendry (1994), Shaffer (1992) Developing structures and cultures of learning Amenbeidokhti et al. (2016); Francis (2014); Knight and Trowler (2000, as cited in Ponnuswamy & Manohar, 2016); Popper and Lipshitz (2000, as cited in Khalifa & Ayoubi, 2015); Voolaid and Ehrlich (2017) AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 89 5. 04. 2023 11:38:42 90 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 Caring for security, stability, and responding to the needs of employees Reuter and Backer (2015) Enhancing learning outcomes Hartono et al. (2017) Enhancing equity Hartono et al. (2017) Partnership: Promoting relevance in learning processes Garnett (2016) Understanding social trends Schmidt and Gibbs (2009) Employer-Employee Relationship: Fulfilling shared needs of learning Keeling et al. (1998) Facilitating interaction and reflection Dernova and Perevozniuk (2017); Voolaid and Ehrlich (2017) National Policy System: Receiving policy support Cepic and Krstovic (2011); Costley (2007); Lauer and Wilkesmann (2017, as cited in Souza & Takahashi, 2019); Mills and Whittaker (2001) The detailed descriptions of key predictors of workplace leaning are reported below. Individual Learning Individuals’ learning is a key driver for workplace changes. This notion is supported by the literature reviewed (Cepic & Krstovic, 2011; Costley, 2011; Garnett, 2016; Hartono et al., 2017; Juceviciene & Edintaite, 2012; Maxwell, 2014). According to Cepic and Krstovic (2011), the core concept of a learning organisation is founded in the transformation of individual learning to workplace learning that is not merely concerned with every indi- vidual’s learning process, but rather with the notion of collective learning. The learning processes of individuals are necessary for organisational change and development. An organisation, therefore, needs to develop learning experiences among its employees by providing a space for learning together, in which a substantial number of employees can participate, rather than only the managers (Cepic & Krstovic, 2011). Reuter and Backer (2015) stated that a main barrier for organisational change is individuals’ resistance to change. These authors analysed theories of organisational change and pointed out that organisational change is firmly linked to the individualism of organisational members. Reuter and Backer (2015) noted that individuals’ “readiness for change”, i.e., their read- iness to adapt their beliefs and attitudes, is a prerequisite for any organisational change. In addition, such readiness also includes the employees’ understanding and acceptance of different cultures in the workplace, “motivation for change”, “opportunity to change”, and the “capacity to change” (Reuter & Backer, 2015), which are key for driving change within the workplace. A previous study on the capabilities of workplace learning in higher education confirmed that the faculty’s acceptance and their attitudes towards workplace learning influence the transformation in the workplace (Abbasi et al., 2015). Moreover, individuals’ readiness for learning new things matters. This may involve the individuals’ AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 90 5. 04. 2023 11:38:42 91Vanmany Vannasy, Souksakhone Sengsouliya: Key Predictors of the Implementation... ability to learn as well as their existing knowledge. As Garnett (2016) put it, “individual knowledge” is important as it serves as a basis for the ability to communicate with others in the workplace. A study by Juceviciene and Edintaite (2012) pointed out that individual faculty members are more likely to exchange and share their experiences on work perfor- mance with their colleagues. This represents a form of learning which individuals typical- ly conduct in the workplace. Furthermore, individual learning is influenced by individual characteristics such as learning experience, confidence levels, self-esteem, job intentions, and job position (Maxwell, 2014), self-perceived needs for achievement and existing pro- fessional knowledge (Hartono et al., 2017), as well as interests and benefits perceived by individuals and the organisation (Costley, 2011). Team Learning Team learning matters. Several authors support this view (Dennis, 2007, as cited in Fran- cis, 2014; Juceviciene & Edintaite, 2012; Khasawneh, 2011; Maxwell, 2012; Sessa et al., 2011, as cited in Hartono et al., 2017; Toma, 2012). As Khasawneh (2011) noted, in working as a team, its members can develop open spaces where dialogue and discussion are welcomed by individual members. The sustainability of learning within the workplace involves team learning and empowerment (Toma, 2012). A piece of work conducted by Khasawneh (2011) showed that two of Senge’s (1990, as cited in Khasawneh, 2011) five aspects of a learning organisation are particularly crucial for team learning and having a shared vision. Khasawneh (2011) explored Jordanian faculty members’ perceptions of Senge’s (1990) five aspects and found that faculty members were more likely to be com- mitted to a shared vision of the institution as they feel welcomed to share ideas with other colleagues in the university. In the same vein, Hartono et al. (2017) agreed with Sessa et al. (2011, as cited in Hartono et al. 2017) that organisational learning is strongly associ- ated with the quality of teamwork. The culture at group level or at departmental level can also predict learners’ experiences and their learning (Maxwell, 2014). Wenger (2000, as cited in Fenwick, 2010) argued that learning is facilitated by participation and structured actions of groups of practitioners where group members share aligned identities and tasks. Fenwick further saw such team learning to be concerned with real phenomena occurring at work, and it reflects the employees’ daily communication at work. Organisational Culture of Learning This paper suggests that for learning at work to be possible, there needs to be a culture of learning within the organisation. Several authors (Maxwell, 2014; Rowley, 1998; Shaffer, 1992; Voolaid & Ehrlich, 2017) agree with this argument. According to Rowley (1998), in developing a learning organisation there is no one correct model or recipe for success; every organisation needs to create its own values, practices, and systems in which to synthesize learning and working across the organisation. Rowley further noted that an organisation must be able to continuously learn from its own learning processes. If the organisation fails to do so, it may miss its chance to adapt and follow through with its transformation. Agreeing with this, Megginson and Pedler (1992, as cited in Rowley, 1998) argued that AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 91 5. 04. 2023 11:38:42 92 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 an organisational learning strategy embodies the ways in which an organisation develops its learning processes. Recent studies pointed out that to sustain the practice of workplace learning, a culture of learning needs to be developed first (e.g., Habtoor et al., 2019; Pon- nuswamy & Manohar, 2016). However, it can be challenging for organisations to develop a culture of learning as this requires strong leadership (Popper & Lipshitz, 2000, as cited in Khalifa & Ayoubi, 2015). Leadership The feasibility of workplace learning is predicted by qualified leadership. Several authors confirmed this standpoint (Basit et al., 2015; Bui & Baruch, 2012; Hartono et al., 2017; Ponnuswamy & Manohar, 2016; Popper & Lipshitz, 2000, as cited in Khalifa & Ayou- bi, 2015; Voolaid & Ehrlich, 2017). Popper and Lipshitz (2000, as cited in Khalifa and Ayoubi, 2015) argued that leadership serves as a key predictor of organisational learning through developing both the structure and the culture of an organisation. Good leader- ship may encompass the establishment of a supporting system or motivational factors to enhance the desired outcomes of organisational learning (Hartono et al., 2017). The workplace leader must care to respond to the needs, security, and stability of and among the organisation’s employees (Reuter & Backer, 2015). Voolaid and Ehrlich (2017), who conducted research in the context of higher education, also noted that quality leadership may create feelings of belonging among members at work by developing institutional strategies, visions, and other action plans to further organisational learning. Ponnuswamy and Manohar (2016) articulated a similar view, stating that the organisational structure in higher education institutions influences staff work performance. Moreover, Basit et al. (2015) supported the view that deans’ or leaders’ close engagement matters as it promotes learning at work if leaders take part in every process related to organisational tasks. Partnership Higher education institutions require partnerships and collaboration with others in pro- moting learning at work. Partnerships have been shown to be a key predictor of work- place learning (Akdere & Conceição, 2006; Dernova & Perevozniuk, 2017; Garnett, 2016; Schmidt & Gibbs, 2009). According to Dernova and Perevozniuk (2017), the core concept of workplace learning in higher education requires the involvement of several parties. Gar- nett (2016) explained that such collaborations are needed as partnerships promote learning that responds to the needs of both organisations and their individuals. As Garnett noted, flexibility is necessary in the context of workplace learning and higher education institu- tions. He argued that flexibility is crucial for higher education institutions to fulfil their function of upskilling labour to meet the ever changing demands of labour markets. To achieve this mission, it is very important for higher education institutions to work closely and collaboratively with partners in providing education, such as employers and other part- ner institutions. In the same vein, Akdere and Conceição (2006) regarded concepts such as human resource development and adult education as valuable strategies of implementing workplace learning which may help limit competency gaps at work. These two concepts AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 92 5. 04. 2023 11:38:42 93Vanmany Vannasy, Souksakhone Sengsouliya: Key Predictors of the Implementation... can be used in conjunction as they have several aims in common. Furthermore, Akdere and Conceição (2006) recommended that for an organisation to successfully achieve its workplace learning and organisational growth goals, human resources development and re- sponsible professionals need to give priority to continuous learning activities. This requires the active collaboration of both practitioners and planners of adult education and human resource development. Schmidt and Gibbs (2009) agreed that partnerships matter and that the implementation of workplace learning may be realistic if organisations nominate their human resources departments to oversee workplace learning as well as of collaborations with industry partners, and with people who joined recent learning activities. Employer-Employee Relationship The relationship between employer and employee matters. The literature review (Der- nova & Perevozniuk, 2017; Keeling et al., 1998; Voolaid & Ehrlich, 2017) showed that alignment between employer and employee strongly contributes to the implementation of workplace learning. For instance, Keeling et al. (1998) argued that a form of mismatch between the two parties may lead to negative feelings towards resource development, particularly approaches to skills and knowledge development and other capacity building affairs. Such a situation may be caused by a type of top-down management. For instance, employees who have served an organisation for years tend to feel neglected if opportu- nities for personal or professional development needs are ignored (Keeling et al., 1998). Other authors (e.g., Dernova & Perevozniuk, 2017) agreed with this standpoint, arguing that successful learning can be facilitated through close reflection on the relationship between the employer and the employee. National Policy System The present paper suggests that government policy serves as a significant predictor for making workplace learning realistic. Several authors agreed with this point of view ( Cepic & Krstovic, 2011; Costley, 2007; Lauer & Wilkesmann, 2017, as cited in Souza & Taka- hashi, 2019; Mills & Whittaker, 2001; Souza & Takahashi, 2019). According to Mills and Whittaker (2001), the government’s acknowledgement and understanding are necessary to implement workplace learning as a government policy and incentives can contribute to the creation of an organisation’s strategies for workplace learning. Government policies act as key drivers at the macro level. Mills and Whittaker further noted that appropriate policies from the government may involve practical support, such as increased access to workplace learning resources, increased competitiveness, and innovative pedagogy. Cost- ley (2007) agreed and stated that appropriate policies facilitate workplace learning. In addition, it is crucial to consider the effective implementation of workplace learning and developing an effective assessment approach. In public higher education institutions, the transformation of standard practices is dependent on government policies and systems. Therefore, the establishment of appropriate policies is necessary, including the require- ments and the principles of the implementation of workplace learning at each level: indi- vidual, team, and organisation-wide (Cepic & Krstovic, 2011). AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 93 5. 04. 2023 11:38:42 94 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION One main role of higher education institutions is to transfer knowledge to people. Yet recent literature identified several barriers for the implementation of workplace learning in universities. The present paper examined key predictors enabling workplace learning in higher education. Through an integrative review of literature, the present paper identified seven predictors, including individual learning (individuals with interest in and readi- ness for learning; supporting workplace goals; role models; team interaction; readiness for change), team learning (empowering and driving change; incubators of teamwork; de- veloping cultures of learning), organisational culture of learning (organisational working values; roles and rights; encouragement; self-reflection and learning to learn), leadership (facilitating learning opportunities; developing structures of learning; caring for secu- rity, stability, responding to the needs of employees; enhancing learning outcomes and equity), partnership (promoting relevance of learning; understanding social trends), em- ployer-employee relationship (fulfilling needs and close interaction), and national policy system (central policy support). The findings of the present paper were discussed referring to theoretical perspectives of workplace learning in higher education. The paper’s findings aim to be practical for ad- dressing issues of implementing workplace learning. The findings may also be helpful in promoting or encouraging institutions to integrate the concept of workplace learning into their professional development activities. The identified predictors are key factors for uni- versities to consider in their transformations to become learning organisations. However, we recommend carefully considering each organisation’s context as the factors identified and analysed in this paper might not represent the realities of some countries. Bearing this in mind, Rowley (1998) noted that in developing a learning organisation there is no one correct model or recipe for success. Readers should pay close attention to the dif- ferences between countries’ and organisations’ environments, demographic aspects, and contextual factors. This paper and its authors are open to exchanging views and sharing experiences with researchers, adult educators, as well as workplace learning practitioners. This piece of work conducted an integrative review of literature. The papers included in the review were selected based on a set of criteria. However, the final number of papers, i.e., the sources of data for this review, was limited. This issue might concern the fact that the present paper did not use a search filter in its search strategy. Using an appropri- ate filter helps to narrow the search, so that the results are more relevant to the research question. Future research on the related area/topic might consider using a search filter in the searching process (e.g., article/publication type, publication dates). Moreover, some predictors identified in this paper need to be verified by more empirical evidence. This applies particularly to the factors of the employer-employee relationship and the national policy system. These two predictors have not been researched deeply and they are firmly linked to local cultures, political conditions, and socio-economic situations in a particu- lar country where workplace learning may take place. In conclusion, further enquiries are necessary, including taking into account different contexts, to gain a more comprehensive AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 94 5. 04. 2023 11:38:42 95Vanmany Vannasy, Souksakhone Sengsouliya: Key Predictors of the Implementation... picture. A mixed-method approach would be suitable for such further studies, particularly a comparative study of theoretical perspectives and empirical data within a specific context. REFERENCES Abbasi, E., Akbari, M., & Tajeddini, K. (2015). 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It develops a theoretical framework for observing evaluation practices to support the statistical analysis of external evaluation reports for 485 study programmes in Slovenian higher education. The f indings offer insight into how quality assurance impacts high­ er education in practice, considering that the subsequent measures taken by the higher education institutions correspond with the outcomes of the evaluations. Keywords: impact of quality assurance, properties of external evaluations, phase modality of external evalua­ tions, criticality of external evaluations, higher education study programmes FAZNI NAČIN ZUNANJIH EVALVACIJ V VISOKEM ŠOLSTVU: RAZISKOVANJE LA- STNOSTI EVALVACIJ ŠTUDIJSKIH PROGRAMOV V SLOVENIJI – POVZETEK Kritična raziskava presoj kakovosti pri zunanjih evalvacijah v skladu z bolonjskim procesom pojasnjuje lastno­ sti in vpliv evalvacijskih praks tako, da obravnava način izrekanja sodb glede na tri faze: pogojno, procesno in fazo končnega stanja. Obravnava tudi, kako je ta način povezan s kritičnostjo presoj. Izhaja iz teoretskega okvi­ ra evalvacijskih praks, ki omogoča kontekstualizacijo rezultatov statistične analize evalvacijskih poročil stro­ kovnjakov v postopkih podaljšanja akreditacije 485 študijskih programov v slovenskem visokošolskem prostoru. Rezultati raziskave prikazujejo, kako zagotavljanje kakovosti prek ukrepov za izboljšanje v praksi vpliva na visoko šolstvo, ter spodbujajo tako k skrbnemu opredeljevanju standardov kakovosti in usmeritev za presojo kot k boljšemu razumevanju lastnosti in vpliva evalvacijskih praks. Ključne besede: vpliv zagotavljanja kakovosti, lastnosti zunanjih evalvacij, fazna modalnost zunanjih eval­ vacij, kritičnost zunanjih evalvacij, visokošolski študijski programi Jernej Širok, PhD student, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, jernej.sirok@gov.si Martina Mravlja, PhD student, Faculty of Mathematics, Natural Sciences and Information Technologies, University of Primorska, martina.mravlja@nakvis.si AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 99 5. 04. 2023 11:38:43 100 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 INTRODUCTION In the European system of quality assurance, external evaluations are based on estab- lishing links between specifications, such as standards of quality, the actual state of af- fairs which is the perceived reality of what the evaluators scrutinised, and, in parts where specifications or the evaluators exceed the level of objectivity, also with the ideals of what is good. Research of this undertaking revolves around the conceptualisation of quality, organisation and operationalisation of external quality assurance, as well as around its outcomes, effects and implications (Biesta, 2010; Collini, 2012; Harvey & Green, 1993; Van Kemenade et al., 2008). However, prior research has arguably focused less on the functioning of evaluation practices at the ontological, epistemological and methodolog- ical level (Bornmann et al., 2006; Seyfried & Pohlenz, 2018; Tavares et al., 2016). To our knowledge, previous research has not yet focused on the phase modality of external evaluations, on corresponding offsets or on its relationship to the way standards of quality are defined. The purpose of the research is to observe the extrinsic properties of external evaluations in relation to sets of their intrinsic properties or modalities that are derived through interpretation from the content of proclaimed judgements. The research revolves around the question how phase modality and its offsets function in practice, as well as how phase modality helps to understand and how it relates to the crit- icality of evaluations. It hypothesises that there is a link between the phase modality and criticality of external evaluations. The research question further touches on the possibility of evaluation practices to produce overly positive appearances of quality, or to conflate the techniques and processes in the name of quality assurance with what is or is not good in higher education. It is therefore also important whether evaluators exhibit reluctance to passing judgements on end states – i.e. on outcomes or results – where this should be done, and instead resort to judging conditions and processes and thus do not reveal the quality of what has really been observed or has happened. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The direct extrinsic properties of external evaluations are frequency and criticality. The first refers to the question whether evaluators passed a judgement based on a certain specification or not. Hence, it is binary. The Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education Area are not hierarchically structured (European As- sociation for Quality Assurance in Higher Education [ENQA] et al., 2015). Following these guidelines, no Slovenian standards of quality have so far been prescribed as more important than others (Slovenian Quality Assurance Agency [SQAA], 2014). However, the empirical results show that in practice some specifications are more often the basis for judgement than others. The second property refers to the varying grades that judgements manifest. These grades may range from examples of excellence, strengths, compliance, opportunities for improvement, threats, to examples of inconsistencies or non-compliance depending on the specifics of the national external evaluation systems. If the grades in a AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 100 5. 04. 2023 11:38:43 101Jernej Širok, Martina Mravlja: Phase Modality of External Evaluations in Higher Education... national quality assurance system, like in Slovenia, allow for it, criticality can for a given specification be understood as a relation. The latter can be defined as the ratio between the share of positive evaluations, proclaimed for instance as strengths, and the sum of shares of grades proclaimed as opportunities for improvement and inconsistencies, which represent evaluations that are critical or negative. While both extrinsic properties materi- alise through the proclamation of a grade, another, indirect one, can be derived from pre- dispositions that judgements have in specifications or guidelines. Predisposition means that the way a specification or a guideline for evaluation is defined influences whether evaluators will at all evaluate a certain (aspect of the) state of affairs, and if so, how they will do it. Since all three properties come about as proclamations, predefined regulations or guidelines, they are extrinsic to or independent of the observer of evaluation practices, the evaluated state of affairs and the way a judgement is substantiated. Especially for the first two properties, no or little interpretation is required to identify them – they tell if and what they are. To demonstrate, evaluators may characterise a judgement as a strength even though it conveys no quality of the evaluated state of affairs or no relation to the ideal of quality harboured by the observer. Modalities are intrinsic to the proclaimed judgement. They arise not from its external property, for instance, from a standardised grade, but from the way the judgement is articulated and substantiated. Since modalities depend on language and content, they are connected with ontological, epistemological and methodological properties of quality. Concretely, conceptual modality is a type of ontological modality derived from the pos- sibility of applying different essentialist and functionalist concepts of quality (Harvey & Green, 1993). Another one, a type of epistemic and methodological modality, is that of treating quality as a matter of commensurable fact which results in a relative judgement, or that of passing an absolute judgement of value based on an ideal (Wittgenstein, 1965). While the former focuses on material existence and properties of the object under evalu- ation with regard to an objective specification, be it an indicator or a criterium, the latter focuses on qualities or recognition thereof and, however professional, unavoidably leans on quality related opinions, values, ideals or concepts. This brings us to the third modality, which is the focal point of this research. Phase modal­ ity is a derivative of ontological modality that serves to distinguish whether judgements are passed on conditions or inputs (conditional phase of quality); on processes and pro- cedures including the performative and transformative aspect of quality (process phase of quality); or on end states, end phenomena, results, outputs or outcomes (end phase of quality; hereinafter shortened to: end states) (Ben-Gal & Dror, 2016; Thareja, 2009). Phase modality splits quality into three phases and invites the observer to approach quali- ty on the axis from promise or possibility of quality to action or change towards enhanced, eventual or just possible quality, and finally to quality which has been achieved, obtained, demonstrated or recognised. Attention shifts towards how close judgements get to invok- ing the quality of end states, especially if the observed specifications too refer to end states and are defined with the predisposition of end states. Examples of such specifications AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 101 5. 04. 2023 11:38:43 102 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 refer to learning outcomes, competences, employability of graduates, and research. To demonstrate using employability: the observer considers whether the evaluators com- mend or criticise a condition (for example, the structure of a university’s employability survey), a process (for example, regularly including employers in curricular design), or an end state (for example, the actual employment rates of graduates). The way phase modality has been laid out inadvertently triggers the question of offsets. The critical aspect of this question is twofold. It refers to the image of quality that eval- uation practices paint when they resort to the quality of conditions or processes rather than to the quality of results where results should be addressed. But it also refers to qual- ity as possibility, credit or promise, which through accreditation transforms into quality as an official guarantee granted by the overseeing institution, into public recognition of achieved or demonstrated quality. An offset is a shift in modality resulting from a disconnect between the judgement, spec- ification, actual state of affairs and, where applicable, the ideal. Therefore, phase modality is offset when the phase that is inscribed in the specification is shifted by the evaluator to another phase. The evaluation consequently turns towards a different phase of the concerning state of affairs. An offset in phase modality therefore has to be differentiated from any shift from end state evaluations towards evaluations of conditions and processes. Anchoring Phase Modality Research of quality and its assurance has readily touched on the notion of phase modal- ity. It has done so through deducing their systemic building blocks or inducing from the effects of adopted policies rather than from the properties of evaluation practices or their modalities (Lagrosen et al., 2004; Seyfried & Pohlenz, 2018). In systems theory, Luh- mann (2008) leans on the input-output model of how systems relatively autonomous- ly from their environment transform inputs into outputs. Such transformations can be considered a matter of machine-like operations, which in the system of higher education touch on education and research, and which in the system of quality relate to a specifica- tions-based programme of converting inputs into positive or negative outputs. Located in the cross-section of both systems is quality assurance. It appears as a control mechanism not for producing quality outputs but for controlling the transformations in order to avoid or reduce deviations from what is expected, and at the same time, as a mechanism for allocating specific values in the name of quality (Harvey & Green, 1993; Luhmann, 2008; Westerheijden, 2007). Van Kemenade et al. (2008) remind us of past attempts at defining quality related value systems. Through the lens of quality management, the authors share an overview of qual- ity assurance transitioning from controlling the process to continuous improvement, then to commitment, which in the educational sense relates to the transformative aspect of quality, and finally, to breakthrough that rests on flexflow and on opportunistic adaptation of processes. In all developmental stages, values of quality are process-laden and lean on acts of change. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 102 5. 04. 2023 11:38:43 103Jernej Širok, Martina Mravlja: Phase Modality of External Evaluations in Higher Education... In their seven models of educational quality, Asif and Raouf (2013) mention the re- source-input model in which quality is linked with acquiring scarce resources and inputs, and the process model that attaches quality to the issue of how smoothly the internal processes of a higher education institution function. Harvey and Green (1993) pointed out that “quality is relative to ‘processes’ or ‘outcomes’” (p. 9). Their concept of quality as perfection or consistency is focused on consistency of processes and compliance with specifications rather than on essential quality of inputs and outputs. This concept togeth- er with that of quality as fitness for purpose to this day prevails in the European Standards and Guidelines (ENQA et al., 2015) as well as in the Slovenian Criteria for Accreditation (SQAA, 2014). These regulations integrate the concept of quality as fitness for purpose into specifications reducing it to prescribing, managing and processing stakeholder re- quirements, inclusion, and participation. Hence, the evaluation practices tend to blur the otherwise clear theoretical distinction between the two concepts. Freitag (1995) claims that normativity in the technological and technocratic society di- rects towards procedures rather than synthetic values. Bourdieu and Passeron (1990) tie such procedures with measuring the efficiency and productivity of the education system to meet the requirements of economy. While discipline and surveillance are exercised through quality related processes, the latter thus also serve as means of reproducing econ- omistic behavioural patterns, values and norms (Biesta, 2010; Cannizzo, 2016; Charlton, 2002; Shore, 2008). Following Foucault’s concept of the technique of power, Cannizzo (2016) continues that agents entangled in processes are reified by performance evaluation and become visible through the documentation of their conduct. It becomes apparent that quality and its assurance pose a problem not only for the process phase but also for that of end states. Biesta (2010) observes how both reproduction and production of knowledge are systematically squeezed into objectively measurable quantities despite severe limitations of such conversion. Evidence-based practice assumes that the ends of professional or scientific action are given and that “the only relevant (professional and research) questions to ask are about the most effective and efficient way of achieving these ends” (Biesta, 2010, p. 35). The thread of this argument also winds around the problem of not measuring what we value, but instead valuing what we measure while neglecting that reification of education and research considerably limits our scope (Biesta, 2010). Biesta’s predicament that is applicable to quality assurance can be traced back to the historical rise of instrumentalised subjective reason (Horkheimer, 2004). Collini (2012), Findlow (2008), Harvey (2009), Rué et al. (2010) and Wittek and Kvernbekk (2011) provide ar- guments on how quality and its assurance have been unable to overcome the deficits of their positivist approach in converting education and research into quantities and then equating these with quality. With their unsolved ontological, epistemological and meth- odological problems, quality and its assurance thus foster a breeding ground for offsets in the modalities of external evaluations. Alvesson (2013) has exposed the force of the image and the surface appearance that determine the behaviour of people and institutions alike. Higher education institutions, AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 103 5. 04. 2023 11:38:43 104 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 their study programmes and representatives are driven to present themselves positively and pay attention to their appearance rather than to substance and the actual state of affairs. In doing so, they may resort to grandiosity, illusion tricks, exaggerated, pretentious and inflated claims, titles and labels while marginalising the issues of substance, veiling unfavourable appearances of the state of affairs, and possibly stopping short of misleading, of disguising inconvenient facts (Alvesson, 2013). Grandiosity, more likely reduced to benevolence, seeks its domain in self-evaluation re- ports which serve as one of the main pieces of evidence in external evaluations. During site visits, evaluators check the information from such reports against the testimonies of interviewees who are also driven to resort to grandiosity and illusion tricks. In doing so, questionable information is occasionally escorted on its way to becoming evidence and the basis for passing judgements. In addition, eventual pseudo-structures may offer themselves either as false signs of quality or quality offset to conditions and processes. Creating organisational goals, appointing committees, participating in quality assur- ance projects, adopting quality related policies and trends, managerial practices, and continuous institutional reorganisation may be proposed to evaluators as evidence of achieved quality, even excellence. At the same time, specifications that govern external evaluations may steer evaluators towards paying attention to exactly such structures and practices over substance or essence. Although this negative approach to quality assurance is not to be adopted as a rule of thumb, Alvesson (2013) has nevertheless demonstrated that his findings cannot be neglected in the research of evaluation prac- tices. Therefore, the question is, how do evaluators buy into this, and if or how do they perpetuate or even amplify this? By succumbing to appearance, quality and its assurance consequently also foster a breeding ground for offsets in the frequency and criticality of external evaluations. The immanent quality of the depth of student knowledge, of a diploma thesis, and aca- demic recognition of pedagogical or scientific achievement, such as a great lecture, mon- ograph, patent or discovery, find themselves in the company of adopting managerial or administrative decisions, appointing task forces or focus groups, changing internal regu- lations, producing self-evaluations, surveying particular stakeholder groups, etc. Harvey (2009) points out that external quality assurance is also considered a “process designed to obscure what has really happened to higher education” (p. 10). The field of quality in higher education has so far been governed by specifications and guidelines that rather than determining the value and substance of this field’s sym- bolic capital in its end state, instead focus, on the one hand, on efficiently processing its accumulation – on goal-oriented planning, measuring, documenting, reporting and overseeing –, and on the other hand, on the conditions for its accumulation – on rules themselves, on stakeholder inclusion and on minimum requirements that standard- ise higher education. These specifications and guidelines then influence the practices, the rituals of quality assurance, and colonise them with the vocabulary of bureaucrats and managers that Bourdieu and Wacquant (2001) termed newspeak. Therefore, the AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 104 5. 04. 2023 11:38:43 105Jernej Širok, Martina Mravlja: Phase Modality of External Evaluations in Higher Education... immanent quality of end states is, more than that of conditions and especially processes, left to diverse disciplines, to dispersed external pressures on higher education and to the relativistic eye of a professional beholder. And in practice, this beholder wrestles with the politics and policing of his contractor, the quality assurance agency, with possibly enhanced presentations of what he or she evaluates, with disqualifying interests and tastes elevated by the necessity of stakeholder inclusion, as well as with the disparate academic and economistic imperatives cultivating his or her habitus. This sets the richly layered context for interpreting phase modality, its offsets and relation to the criticality of evaluations. METHOD AND SAMPLE The research of phase modality proceeds from a system-wide analysis of quality in Slove- nian tertiary education and of the properties of the external evaluation practices of SQAA (Širok, 2018). It examines the frequency, criticality, and phase modality of external evalu- ations according to 32 categorical variables that are derived from the specifications in the Criteria for Accreditation (SQAA, 2014). These variables, presented in Table 1, were select- ed out of 63 (of otherwise 123 in total) with a frequency greater than 20%, meaning that 20% of observed study programmes where evaluators proclaimed a strength, opportunity for improvement or an inconsistency (with regulations) for a corresponding specification were considered. This allowed us to test the sensitivity of evaluations to phase modality in variables with the greatest frequency across all areas that the Criteria for Accreditation cover, and therefore with the greatest potential to reflect the impact of quality assurance on higher education. The sample includes 485 study programmes which is 99% of all pro- gramme re-accreditations by the SQAA during 2014 and 2017, and 49% of all accredited study programmes in Slovenia according to the Register of Higher Education Institutions and Study Programmes in 2017 (Širok, 2018). Observation of Phase Modality Observing frequency and criticality required collecting the proclamations of the three qual- itative categories according to individual variables. Interpretation was necessary only in assigning individual judgements to individual variables. Decisions had to be made wheth- er a judgement is too broad or too narrow or whether it corresponds with the variable, while the proclamation of compliance or quality was clear (Širok, 2018). In establishing phase modality, guidelines were introduced to limit the empirical gap. Judge- ments were interpreted as those of conditions if they referred to conditions, possibilities, motivations, interests, requirements, demands, guarantees and promises for quality or for an end state that has yet to be achieved or demonstrated. (1) Judgements of conditions re- ferred to material, financial, organisational, managerial and intellectual conditions. They were expressed with verbs like: ensure, set-up, appoint, determine, check, consider, start, introduce, support, encourage, prepare, propose, promote, acquire, look or strive for, in- vite, regulate, include, define. (2) Judgements of processes had to point towards processes, AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 105 5. 04. 2023 11:38:43 106 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 procedures, practices, action, motion and transformation with the possibility of eventually achieving the quality of an end state or enhancing something. They were to include signi- fiers such as: to participate, convene, coordinate, repeat, disseminate or inform, document, report, plan, systematise, formalise, monitor, improve, ensure, assure, organise, manage, lead, change, continue, pursue, strengthen, renovate, refresh, enhance, accommodate, ad- just, function. (3) Judgements of end states were identified as such if they aimed at some- thing final, terminal, accomplished, achieved, realised and completed – a result or an outcome. Such judgements leaned on signifiers like: a recognition, commendation, award, creation, publication, quotation, graduation and graduation related outcomes such as a diploma, habilitation, completion of a research project or a conference, patent, discovery, employment, promotion, tenure, acquisition. A proclamation of compliance or quality has the possibility to produce all three phase modalities for each specification and each state of affairs regardless of the underlying specification’s relation to an outcome or result. For instance, if a judgement on premises and equipment, which are only conditions for eventual accomplishment in study, teaching or research, refers to a promise of their acquisition, to the process of their renovation, or to them already having served as a quality basis for accomplishing an educational goal, a judgement for either of the variables may be that of a condition, process or end state. Similarly, if a judgement on the functioning of the internal quality assurance system refers to introducing a new quality manual, formalising stakeholder participation in ongoing processes, or to the impact of quality assurance related improvements, the first is that of a condition, the second is that of a process and the third is that of an end state. In sum- mary, a crude approach to interpreting phase modality could be to ask whether evaluators judged the target implied by the specification, an underlying process or a condition for what is implied. Following the same guidance, the predisposition of phase modality was assigned to each variable by observing the way respective specifications are defined in the valid Criteria for Accreditation (SQAA, 2014). Even though premises and equipment are only conditions for eventual accomplishment, they are specified as end states, meaning that the criterium for the re-accreditation of a study programme requires the higher education institution to already have availed appropriate premises and equipment. The specification regarding the scientific, research, professional or artistic work of students, however, is neither de- fined as a possibility that a higher education institution must provide to students nor as an end state meaning that student achievements such as publications are not expected. Instead, it is defined as a process, as a requirement of ongoing student participation in research (SQAA, 2014). The more evaluators are sensitive to phase modality and careful in applying the specifications, the more external evaluations are likely to be influenced by definitions of specifications. Therefore, the effects of the predisposition of phase modality on evaluation practices were observed as well. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 106 5. 04. 2023 11:38:43 107Jernej Širok, Martina Mravlja: Phase Modality of External Evaluations in Higher Education... Structure of Collected Data The acquired database structures the results according to categorical variables as frequen- cies and total counts of strengths (S), opportunities for improvement (OI), inconsistencies (with regulations) (I) and at the same time of conditions (C), processes (P) and end states (ES). The frequency of judgements is labelled either with the category mentioned (M) or its complementary category not mentioned (NM). All (M) are either (S), (OI) or (I), and at the same time either (C), (P) or (ES), while all (NM) are neither. For comparison, the results for these categories are reduced to two ratios – criticality ratio (CR) and phase modality ratio (PMR). Both are weighted by the frequency of judgements (M). The for- mer is given by the following formula: CR = (S – (OI + I)) * M * 100, and the latter by: PMR = (ES – (C + P)) * M * 100. Variables are assigned the predisposition of phase modality (PPM) ranging from 0 (con- dition) to 1 (process) and 2 (end state). Averages and standard deviations are given for all 32 variables and the entire sample of study programmes. Averages are calculated for top and bottom quartiles of observed mo- dalities, and in case of predisposition of phase modality for all three groups of variables. The association between the variables is further explored with Paerson’s Chi Square Test to observe the differences between criticality and phase modality, as well as phase modal- ity and its predisposition. In the supporting contingency tables that are stated in case of p < 0.05, the observed counts for phase modality are structured into ES and C+P, and the observed counts for criticality are structured into S and OI+I. RESULTS The first array of results (Table 1) gives the shares for phase modality, criticality, fre- quency, as well as both ratios, CR and PMR, for individual variables at the level of the entire sample of evaluated study programmes. It shows that some specifications are more frequently used as a basis for evaluation (see changes in NM) and how criticality and phase modality of evaluations vary. On average, the selected variables had a 50% chance of being connected with a commendation or a recommendation for the eval- uated study programme. Although more than half of the evaluations in relative terms referred to end states, more than a third were evaluations of processes or conditions, which is considerable. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 107 5. 04. 2023 11:38:43 108 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 Table 1 Variables according to phase modality ratio (PMR) for all 485 study programmes Variables PPM S OI I NM CR C P ES PMR 1 Premises for teaching, research or artistic creation 2 59.59% 20.41% 0.00% 20.00% 31.34 4.12% 1.86% 74.02% 54.43 2 Equipment for teaching, research or artistic creation 2 52.78% 24.74% 0.00% 22.47% 21.74 10.52% 5.77% 61.24% 34.85 3 General support to ex- tracurricular activities of students 2 50.72% 25.77% 0.00% 23.51% 19.08 16.49% 9.07% 50.93% 19.40 4 Library resources 2 31.13% 16.91% 0.00% 51.96% 6.83 3.71% 3.30% 41.03% 16.34 5 Self-evaluation at the high- er education institution (HEI) - completion of quality loop 0 8.25% 34.85% 0.21% 56.70% -11.61 0.82% 2.89% 39.59% 15.53 6 Informing about the find- ings of self-evaluation 2 7.84% 37.73% 3.71% 50.72% -16.56 4.95% 5.57% 38.76% 13.92 7 Pedagogical workload of teachers 2 5.57% 35.46% 0.62% 58.35% -12.71 7.01% 0.82% 33.81% 10.82 8 Participation of important stakeholder groups in inter- nal quality assurance 2 16.91% 41.03% 0.21% 41.86% -14.15 4.33% 17.32% 36.49% 8.63 9 Delivery of organised con- tact hours, their extent and distribution 2 14.64% 23.71% 1.24% 60.41% -4.08 7.22% 2.68% 29.69% 7.84 10 Correspondence of study programme’s content with the allocated credits or stu- dent workload 2 2.89% 38.56% 2.68% 55.88% -16.92 7.22% 10.10% 26.80% 4.18 11 Financial resources for teaching, research or artistic creation 2 28.66% 20.82% 0.21% 50.31% 3.79 6.19% 14.85% 28.66% 3.79 12 Functioning of the internal quality assurance system 1 20.62% 10.31% 0.41% 68.66% 3.10 5.98% 4.33% 21.03% 3.36 13 Completion of study pro- gramme’s structure 2 3.71% 22.27% 0.21% 73.81% -4.91 5.57% 1.86% 18.76% 2.97 14 Scientific, research, pro- fessional or artistic work (SRPAW) of teachers 0 38.76% 14.02% 0.41% 46.80% 12.94 12.37% 11.55% 29.28% 2.85 15 Correspondence of study programme content with programme objectives, anticipated knowledge, competences and learning outcomes 2 16.08% 29.69% 0.82% 53.40% -6.73 16.91% 3.51% 26.19% 2.69 AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 108 5. 04. 2023 11:38:44 109Jernej Širok, Martina Mravlja: Phase Modality of External Evaluations in Higher Education... Variables PPM S OI I NM CR C P ES PMR 16 Complexity of study (of contents, anticipated knowl- edge, enrolment criteria, criteria for progression and completion) 2 9.90% 21.44% 0.21% 68.45% -3.71 8.66% 3.92% 18.97% 2.02 17 Organisation of the HEI 0 19.18% 16.08% 0.00% 64.74% 1.09 7.84% 7.84% 19.59% 1.38 18 Validity of habilitations and their correspondence with the cycle of the study programme 2 11.55% 7.01% 1.86% 79.59% 0.55 4.74% 2.89% 12.78% 1.05 19 Transfer of SRPAW out- comes into teaching 2 19.18% 3.51% 0.00% 77.32% 3.55 0.41% 8.66% 13.61% 1.03 20 Management of the HEI 0 16.29% 5.77% 0.00% 77.94% 2.32 5.77% 3.51% 12.78% 0.77 21 Graduate competences 0 29.90% 12.58% 0.21% 57.32% 7.30 9.28% 11.75% 21.65% 0.26 22 Cooperation with the business sector through pedagogical work 1 29.69% 8.45% 0.00% 61.86% 8.10 4.74% 14.43% 18.97% -0.08 23 Student participation in HEI management 2 44.12% 28.04% 0.62% 27.22% 11.26 13.81% 23.51% 35.46% -1.35 24 Scientific or professional cooperation with the busi- ness sector 1 37.94% 11.13% 0.00% 50.93% 13.15 10.52% 16.29% 22.27% -2.23 25 Quality culture 1 17.94% 7.84% 3.51% 70.72% 1.93 12.58% 7.01% 9.69% -2.90 26 Changes or upgrades to study contents (curriculum, syllabi) 2 35.46% 7.42% 0.00% 57.11% 12.03 7.01% 19.38% 16.49% -4.24 27 Including students into SRPAW at the HEI 1 43.51% 18.97% 0.41% 37.11% 15.17 17.11% 22.68% 23.09% -10.50 28 Activity of central organ- isational units in the field of graduate employability 1 18.76% 60.41% 0.00% 20.82% -32.98 15.46% 31.55% 32.16% -11.75 29 Employability or employ- ment of graduates 1 26.80% 34.43% 0.82% 37.94% -5.25 16.08% 26.60% 19.38% -14.46 30 Quality of teaching 2 37.32% 19.59% 0.00% 43.09% 10.09 31.13% 10.93% 14.85% -15.49 31 Student mobility 0 19.38% 62.68% 0.00% 17.94% -35.53 43.09% 8.87% 30.10% -17.94 32 SRPAW at the level of HEI or its founder 2 54.43% 21.44% 0.21% 23.92% 24.94 21.44% 31.34% 23.30% -22.43 Average 25.92% 23.22% 0.58% 50.28% 1.41 10.72% 10.83% 28.17% 3.27 Standard deviation 15.80% 14.48% 0.99% 18.57% 15.10 8.73% 8.75% 14.18% 14.81 Note. Abbreviations: predisposition of phase modality (PPM), strengths (S), opportunities for improvement (OI), inconsistencies (with regulations) (I), not mentioned (NM), criticality ratio (CR), conditions (C), processes (P), end states (ES), phase modality ratio (PMR). AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 109 5. 04. 2023 11:38:44 110 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 Individual shares for categories of frequency, criticality, and phase modality are similarly affected by how broadly the specifications are defined. Unlike the specifications of con- tent and delivery of study programmes, those of material conditions and student support are less fragmented and consequently exhibit greater frequency. It is also due to this that variables of conditions and support for study, teaching and research (variables 1, 2 and 3) receive greater absolute shares of positive evaluations with a stronger reference to the target implied by the specification. But other variables with highly positive PMR are also essentially more closely connected with inputs or processes (variables 4, 5 and 6) rather than outputs. Strong drops in evaluations of end states can be observed in variables more closely con- nected with outputs. Despite its PPM, scientific, research, professional or artistic work at the institutional level (variable 32) shows a strong offset. Here, evaluators are preoccupied with conditions and especially processes leading to research outcomes. To exemplify, they evaluate support for research, funding, pending research projects and project applications, as well as research related strategic objectives. Rather than assessing the quality or impact of completed research, they only encourage research or emphasize raising awareness of its importance. Quality of teaching (variable 30) with the predisposition of an end state and essentially referring to an end state demonstrates a strong offset towards conditions. Here, evaluations focus on the funding of compulsory teacher training, introducing trending policies in teaching, teaching methods, modes of assessment and supporting technolo- gies, as well as on incentives for efficiency or excellence in teaching, rather than on direct quality of teachers and their work. Evaluations are again strongly process-laden in case of employability or employment of graduates (variable 29, PPM = 1). While mostly critical, they pay attention to monitoring and surveying the employability of graduates as well as to the underlying methodology or to informing about employability (SQAA, n.d.). Other individual variables, such as student mobility (variable 31, PPM = 0) or activity of central organisational units in the field of graduate employability (variable 28, PPM = 1) behave differently than those previously presented. Both may essentially be deemed as conditions or processes that contribute to eventual outcomes in education, and yet they have a strongly negative PMR. Despite such exceptions, individual results indicate a pat- tern that evaluators resort to offsets or shifts from end states in variables that are essen- tially more closely connected with end states (to some extent variables 14 and 21, but especially variables 27, 29, 30 and 32), whereas greater shares of end state evaluations can be found in variables at the top of Table 1 that essentially refer to conditions and process- es – to prerequisites for relevant outcomes. Apart from this pattern and the influence of PPM which will be discussed below, no other distinctive property of individual specifica- tions could be identified that influences the phase modality of evaluations. Leaving immanent properties of variables aside, there seems to be no obvious relation between phase modality and criticality on the level of individual variables. This can be observed in the visualisation of the relation between PMR and CR for variables 1 through 32 in Figure 1. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 110 5. 04. 2023 11:38:44 111Jernej Širok, Martina Mravlja: Phase Modality of External Evaluations in Higher Education... Figure 1 PMR against CR for 32 variables and the entire sample of study programmes -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 PMR CR Note. Abbreviations: criticality ratio (CR), phase modality ratio (PMR). Based on the amount of scatter in Figure 1, it seems that phase modality and criticality behave independently and differently. Looking past the individual variables, the changes in phase modality and its relation to criticality were examined for variables grouped ac- cording to results for CR and PMR. When comparing the averages for categories of phase modality in the quartile of variables least critically evaluated with those in the quartile of most critically evaluated variables, individual phases including PMR differ little. Similarly, the comparison of averages for strengths, opportunities for improvement or inconsistencies in the quartile of variables with greatest shares of end state evaluations to that of variables with least shares of end state evaluations produces hardly any difference. Table 2 suggests that great changes in the phase modality of evaluations result in smaller changes in their criticality, which remains close to average values for all 32 variables and vice versa. However slightly, the more critical the evaluations are, the more they deviate from end states. Table 2 Averages for variables grouped according to CR and PMR Quartiles S OI I NM CR C P ES PMR CR - Upper quartile (aver. top 8) 46.65% 17.99% 0.13% 35.23% 18.80 12.45% 14.74% 37.58% 9.02 CR - Lower quartile (aver. bottom 8) 11.96% 42.55% 1.03% 44.46% -18.40 12.47% 10.08% 32.99% 3.26 PMR - Upper quartile (aver. top 8) 29.10% 29.61% 0.59% 40.70% 3.00 6.49% 5.82% 46.98% 21.74 PMR - Lower quartile (aver. bottom 8) 31.70% 29.10% 0.62% 38.58% -1.20 20.49% 19.79% 21.13% -12.46 Note. Abbreviations: strengths (S), opportunities for improvement (OI), inconsistencies (with regulations) (I), not mentioned (NM), criticality ratio (CR), conditions (C), processes (P), end states (ES), phase modality ratio (PMR). AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 111 5. 04. 2023 11:38:44 112 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 The Chi Squared Test (2x2) shows that there indeed is significant association between the criticality and phase modality of evaluations χ2 (1) = 6845, p < 0.05. The observed counts of strengths and the sum of counts of opportunities for improvement and in- consistencies on the one hand, and the observed counts of end states and the sum of counts of conditions and processes on the other, produce the following contingency table: Table 3 Contingency table – phase modality vs. criticality Observed ES C+P Total Expected ES C+P S 2477 1546 4023 2279.2 1743.8 OI+I 1895 1799 3694 2092.8 1601.2 Total 4372 3345 7717 Note. Abbreviations: strengths (S), opportunities for improvement (OI), inconsistencies (with regulations) (I), conditions (C), processes (P), end states (ES), phase modality ratio (PMR). When compared to expected values, an increase in the criticality of evaluations produces a statistically significant decrease in end state evaluations. The size of this change in phase modality, which can be derived from the ratio between the observed and expected counts of end state evaluations, amounts to 9%. It is similar to the size of the excess of observed counts of end states on the positive end of evaluations. Despite the scatter in Figure 1 and the small compared differences in Table 2, this general association cannot be neglected. Evaluators to some extent tend not to pass critical judgements on end states and positive judgements on conditions and processes. Proceeding from the above contingency table (Table 3) while returning to the results for individual variables, overly positive appearances of quality cannot be confirmed. Although a combination of positive evaluations and strong offsets in phase modality is a condition for eventual false signs of quality or succumbing to appearance, few variables, such as the above presented variables 30 and 32, have highly negative PMRs and highly positive CRs. Instead, the results for several variables show that evaluators also prefer to attach positive judgements to specifications that regardless of the phase modality of evaluations essentially refer to conditions or processes for education and research rather than end states. Such are the results for variables of material conditions (variables 1, 2, 3 and 4) or stakeholder inclusion which is also aimed at the process of serving society (variables 22, 23 and 24). Evaluators tend to focus on end states when outputs are not constitutive elements of specifications. In the critical spectrum of evaluations with higher positive PMRs, specifications essentially unrelated to end states crop up again. Such are the results for variables 5, 6 and 8, which refer to internal quality assurance processes and stakeholder participation therein. Next is the question of the influence of the predisposition of phase modality (PPM) on the phase modality of evaluations. Averages were calculated for groups of variables with AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 112 5. 04. 2023 11:38:45 113Jernej Širok, Martina Mravlja: Phase Modality of External Evaluations in Higher Education... varying PPM for the entire sample of evaluated study programmes (Table 4). 6 variables are predisposed as conditions (PPM = 0), 7 as processes (PPM = 1) and 19 as end states (PPM = 2). Table 4 Averages for variables grouped according to PPM Groups of variables S OI I NM CR C P ES PMR PPM - All 0 (aver. 6 variables) 21.96% 24.33% 0.14% 53.57% -3.91 13.20% 7.73% 25.50% 0.48 PPM – All 1 (aver. 7 variables) 27.89% 21.65% 0.74% 49.72% 0.46 11.78% 17.56% 20.94% -5.51 PPM - All 2 (aver. 19 variables) 26.45% 23.45% 0.66% 49.44% 3.44 9.55% 9.33% 31.68% 7.39 Note. Abbreviations: predisposition of phase modality (PPM), strengths (S), opportunities for improvement (OI), inconsistencies (with regulations) (I), not mentioned (NM), criticality ratio (CR), conditions (C), processes (P), end states (ES), phase modality ratio (PMR). A comparison of averages between the three groups of variables reveals that variables with PPM = 2 have considerably greater shares of end state evaluations. Phase modality in those with PPM = 1 is predominantly shifted towards evaluations of processes and in those with PPM = 0 mostly towards conditions. The average PMR for all 32 variables (see Table 1) is also sizeably smaller than the average PMR for variables with PPM = 2 and larger than the average PMR for variables with PPM = 1. However, the averages for conditions, processes and end states in variables with PPM = 2 hardly differ from the averages of these categories in all 32 variables. The results of the Chi Squared Test (3x2) nevertheless confirm that there is significant association between PPM and the phase modality of evaluations χ2 (2) = 51242, p < 0.05. Table 5 Contingency table – phase modality vs. PPM Observed ES C+P Total Expected ES C+P PPM - All 0 (6 variables) 742 609 1351 765.4 585.6 PPM – All 1 (7 variables) 711 996 1707 967.1 739.9 PPM - All 2 (19 variables) 2919 1740 4659 2639.5 2019.5 Total 4372 3345 7717 Note. Abbreviations: predisposition of phase modality (PPM), conditions (C), processes (P), end states (ES). Table 5 reaffirms that with regard to expected values, variables with PPM = 2 are more likely to produce evaluations of end states. It is therefore important to consider phase mo- dality when defining specifications. The less the definition of standards of quality targets end states, the more likely evaluations will focus on conditions and especially processes. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 113 5. 04. 2023 11:38:45 114 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 DISCUSSION This analysis of external evaluations reveals considerable offsets in phase modality which are evident both in individual variables and in averages for all variables at the level of the entire sample of the observed study programmes. Offsets towards processes and conditions can be tied with the process character of quality assurance as it is also evident in its prevailing definitions. Quality is readily “in danger of being defined in terms of the existence of suitable mechanisms and procedures, but in and of themselves they tell us nothing about the quality of the results” (Wittek & Kvernbekk, 2011, p. 674). Let us remember that preoccupation with the operationalisation of quality and the processes of its assurance has been observed on numerous occasions (Charlton, 2002; Findlow, 2008; Harvey, 2009; Lorenz, 2012; Shore, 2008). With regard to phase modality, processes are central both in the prevailing concepts of quality as well as in quality assurance mechanisms, while conditions and end states tend to get limited to processes and reduced to matter that is processed. Processes may not only assim- ilate conditions and end states but may also be offset to other phases. For instance, the continuous process of quality management at a higher education institution may through proclamation of compliance with the respective specification become a symbol of achieved quality. Evaluations that are based on several outcome related specifications tend to aim at condi- tions and processes while unexpectedly greater shares of end state evaluations are likely to arise from specifications that have essentially to do with conditions and processes. Thus, conditions and processes are likely to manifest themselves as ends of quality assurance, as a sign of good or bad quality. Although to a lesser extent, offsets are also evident in vari- ables with the predisposition of end states. On the one hand, this points to the tendency of evaluators to relate to quality through processes and techniques rather than to identify what in the observed education and research is or is not good or what in terms of quality has happened to it. On the other hand, however, it is apparent that the kind of phase modality that is inscribed in the standards of quality has a significant chance to surface in evaluations. Before expanding on the results of how critical the evaluations are, one should notice that in total averages the shares of strengths are well balanced with the sums of shares of op- portunities for improvement and inconsistencies. This is because SQAA’s evaluators were expected to produce critically balanced and sufficiently motivating assessments. Considering also the criticality of evaluations, positive evaluations are in general not char- acterised by strong offsets in phase modality or shifts from end states. Instead of smug- gling praise through evaluations of conditions and processes, evaluators actually tend to reserve the latter for criticism. When external quality assurance intervenes, it prefers to intervene in processes and conditions. External evaluations therefore do not so much catalyse grandiosity, illusion tricks or pseudo-structures that might have resulted from the higher institution’s presentation of the actual state of affairs as much as they divert AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 114 5. 04. 2023 11:38:45 115Jernej Širok, Martina Mravlja: Phase Modality of External Evaluations in Higher Education... attention away from end states. The quality that evaluators proclaim to some extent ends up being not an inflated but a skewed image of what may be considered good education and research or what has happened to both. In response to such external evaluations, higher education institutions are then more likely to reply with action plans saturated with administrative and managerial measures as a technique of gradual and constant im- provement, rather than indirectly assuring desired or required end states. This then is the character of the impact of external evaluations on higher education. Arguably, evaluators might avoid criticism of end states because it requires greater profes- sional exposure, exactness and confronting disparate economistic and academic questions of relevance, value and achievement. And since specifications as well as quality assurance processes are framed by process-laden values, evaluation of end states according to ideals is likely to give way to administrative and managerial issues of transparency, stakeholder inclusion, efficiency and effectiveness. The tendency to avoid critically evaluating end states might lastly be traced back to even- tual backlash from those who are being evaluated. In the case of critical evaluations, insti- tutions can expect sanctions or are at least faced with having to act by adopting corrective measures. But remedying insufficiencies in end states may prove far more resource or time consuming than adjusting organisational and administrative processes or improving less immediate conditions. Lack of good research, teachers, students and eventually em- ployable or accomplished and well-educated graduates is something a higher education institution may not be able to overcome, regardless of how well it tunes its internal quality assurance system. CONCLUSION This research offers specific insight into how quality assurance impacts higher educa- tion in practice. Across the spectrum of quality and its standards, evaluators do not con- sistently focus their evaluations on end states where they should do so. While there is statistically significant association between phase modality and criticality, the increase in the criticality of evaluations does not produce a strong decrease in the evaluations of end states. Nevertheless, the more evaluators focus on conditions and processes, the more their evaluations are critical. Significant association was also found between phase mo- dality and its predisposition. It is therefore important to consider phase modality when defining specifications that govern quality in higher education. The presented theoretical framework and research could be either further developed to other modalities of external evaluations or they could cover other evaluation practices, for instance, external evalua- tions of higher education institutions, in order to better understand the impact of quality assurance in practice and to raise critical awareness of this impact when drafting the standards of quality. 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On the problems of asking for a definition of quality in education. Scandinavian Journal of Education Research, 55(6), 671–684. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.201 1.594618 Wittgenstein, L. (1965). A lecture on ethics. The Philosophical Review, 74(1), 3–12. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 117 5. 04. 2023 11:38:45 AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 118 5. 04. 2023 11:38:45 Andragoška spoznanja/Studies in Adult Education and Learning, 2023, 29(1), 119-123 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4312/as/12471 Poročila, odmevi, ocene VZGOJA IN IZOBRAŽEVANJE ZA VKLJUČUJOČO SKUPNOST Na Oddelku za pedagogiko in andragogiko Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani smo v januarju 2023, kot je že tradicija, organizirali Pedagoško-andragoške dneve (PAD). Or- ganizacijski odbor PAD 2023 smo sestavljali dr. Monika Govekar Okoliš kot predsednica ter člana Nina Breznikar in dr. Marko Radovan, programski odbor pa poleg dr. Monike Govekar Okoliš še Nina Breznikar, dr. Barbara Samaluk in dr. Katja Jeznik. PAD 2023 (40. jubilejna izvedba) je ponudil osrednji dogodek, ki je potekal v četrtek, 26. januarja, in je vključeval tri plenarna predavanja, tri vzporedne diskusijske delavnice in zaključno okroglo mizo. Že drugo leto zapored je pred osrednjim PAD potekal tudi predkonferenčni dogodek Študentski PAD (šPAD), ki so ga tako v vsebinskem kot orga- nizacijskem smislu pripravili in izpeljali študentke in študentje Oddelka za pedagogiko in andragogiko. V okviru šPAD so predstavili tri magistrske in štiri seminarske naloge, ki so v preteklem letu nastale na Oddelku za pedagogiko in andragogiko. Po koncu vsake predstavitve je sledila tudi krajša diskusija. šPAD smo tudi letos zaokrožili z doktorsko kavarno, ki jo je vodila dr. Andreja Hočevar. Osrednji dogodek PAD 2023 je imel naslov Vzgoja in izobraževanje za vključujočo skup­ nost. Omenjena tematika je v današnji družbi vse bolj pomembna, ker se v pedagoški in andragoški praksi soočamo s številnimi vprašanji in izzivi, kako uresničevati vzgojo in izobraževanje za vključujočo skupnost. Na PAD smo se posvetili razmislekom, izzivom in iskanju skupnih rešitev, kako prispevati h kakovostnejšemu in hitrejšemu uresničevanju vzgoje in izobraževanja za vključujočo skupnost. Na začetku PAD sta dekanja Filozofske fakultete dr. Mojca Schlamberger Brezar in pred- stojnica Oddelka za pedagogiko in andragogiko dr. Klara Skubic Ermenc v uvodnem nagovoru poudarili pomen PAD in njegovo aktualno tematiko. S formalnostmi poteka PAD pa je udeležence seznanila vodja osrednjega dogodka dr. Monika Govekar Okoliš. V dopoldanskem delu PAD so se zvrstila tri plenarna predavanja. Prvo plenarno predava- nje z naslovom Nevidno delo in učenje v procesu vstopanja v poklic in vključevanja na trg dela v dejavnosti vzgoje in izobraževanja ter socialnega varstva je imela dr. Barbara Samaluk. Najprej je predstavila izsledke andragoško-sociološke kvalitativne raziskave, ki je potekala v letih od 2017 do 2020. Raziskava je temeljila na podatkih iz Slovenije in EU ter se osredotočala na proces prehoda mladih od izobraževanja na trg dela oziroma v poklice znotraj nacionalno reguliranih dejavnosti vzgoje in izobraževanja ter socialnega varstva. Spoznali smo, da je bil za obdobje trajanja raziskave značilen otežen prehod na trg dela, saj so v tistem času zaznali izpad pripravništva. Raziskava je razkrila, da so bili prehodi iz izobraževanja na trg dela dolgotrajni in zaznamovani s prekarizacijo, nevidnim delom, AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 119 5. 04. 2023 11:38:45 120 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 tranzicijskim učenjem in številnimi tveganji. Prav otežen, nejasen in pogosto nestabilen prehod mladih na trg dela pa je onemogočal tudi načrtovanje njihove karierne in življenj- ske poti, povzročal je naključno usmerjanje v poklic na podlagi prekarnih okoliščin in trenutno dostopnih vstopnih zaposlitev ter poglabljal razredne zaostanke in intersekcijske neenakosti. Predavateljica je ob koncu predavanja ponudila nekatera priporočila ter po- sebej poudarila pomembnost zagotavljanja trajno integralnega financiranja pripravništva, izboljšanja informiranosti novih generacij in delodajalcev o pravilih vstopanja na trg dela in obstoječih vstopnih shemah ter pomembnost okrepitve izobraževanja in svetovanja na prehodih, da bodo mladi kos izzivom vse bolj prožnega, prekarnega in transnacionalnega trga dela. Ugotovili smo, da imamo pri nas novo ranljivo in vse večjo družbeno skupino mladih, ki imajo težave s prehodom od izobraževanja na trg dela oziroma v poklic. Drugo plenarno predavanje z naslovom Vključevanje učencev priseljencev v šolo: vloga drža­ ve, šole, strokovnih delavcev in univerz je imela dr. Klara Skubic Ermenc. Najprej je izpo- stavila pomembnost inkluzivno zasnovanega sistema vzgoje in izobraževanja, ki upošteva načelo medkulturnosti. Omenjeno se odraža na sistemski, kulturni, didaktično-organiza- cijski, odnosni ravni in na ravni izobraževanja strokovnih delavcev. V nadaljevanju pa je predstavila nekatere izzive udejanjanja medkulturne vzgoje in izobraževanja v Sloveniji. Kot prvega izmed izzivov je navedla ohranjanje primerljivih standardov znanja in upošte­ vanje načela visokih pričakovanj ob hkratnem zagotavljanju intenzivnih oblik učne pomoči. V zvezi s tem je poudarila, da imajo pričakovanja učiteljev velik vpliv na učno uspešnost učencev, na ta pričakovanja pa močno vplivajo stališča strokovnih delavcev do učencev, ki ne sodijo v isto kulturno ali socialno skupino kot sami. Poleg pozitivne naravnanosti strokovnih delavcev do tovrstnih ranljivih skupin imajo pri ohranjanju kakovostnih do- sežkov učencev priseljencev pomembno vlogo tudi različne prilagoditve (na primer pri- prava individualnega načrta aktivnosti, individualno tutorstvo, sistemske prilagoditve na ravni ocenjevanja znanja priseljencev). Kot drugi izziv je omenila vzpostavljanje ustreznih pogojev za učenje slovenščine in način vključevanja učencev priseljencev v pouk. Spomnila je na nekatere sistemske in organizacijsko-izvedbene rešitve, ki so pri nas že uveljavljene (na primer dodatno mesto učitelja, ki izvaja dodatne ure slovenščine za učence priseljence, učni načrti za začetni pouk slovenščine, obvezni tečaji slovenščine), a hkrati opozorila, da ti ukrepi še vedno ne zapolnjujejo vrzeli v znanju slovenščine, zato je vključevanje učencev priseljencev v pouk še vedno oteženo. Kot zadnji izziv pa je izpostavila vzpostavljanje ustreznega načina vključevanja drugih materinščin v pouk v kontekstu evropske politike večje­ zičnosti in raznojezičnosti. Zadnje plenarno predavanje z naslovom Inkluzija pomeni konceptualno preobrazbo šole sta imela gostujoča predavatelja dr. Špela Razpotnik s Pedagoške fakultete Univerze v Ljub ljani in dr. Matej Rovšek, ravnatelj Centra Janeza Levca Ljubljana. Predavateljica je uvodoma poudarila pomembnost premisleka o inkluziji kot glavnem toku razvoja vzgoje in izobraževanja. Opozorila je, da je v šolskem prostoru opaziti trend naraščanja števila otrok, ki imajo dodatno strokovno pomoč, vse več učencev se šola na domu, pogostejši so tudi odlogi šolanja ter predvsem po obdobju dolgotrajnega zaprtja šol v času covida-19 AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 120 5. 04. 2023 11:38:45 121Poročila, odmevi, ocene tudi naraščajoče število najrazličnejših psihosocialnih stisk mladih. Ob tem je v ospredje postavila vlogo šole kot prostora srečevanja najrazličnejših posameznikov, pri čemer bi moral eden od pomembnejših ciljev šole postati tudi razvijanje (pro)socialnosti v konte- kstu učenja sobivanja in medsebojnega sodelovanja. V drugem delu predavanja je dr. Ro- všek poskušal odgovoriti na vprašanje, zakaj inkluzija v našem šolskem sistemu ne zaživi. Poudaril je, da ima inkluzija pozitivne učinke na celoten družbeni sistem in da je hkrati tudi pomembno merilo pravičnosti šolskega sistema. Ob koncu je navedel dve področji, ki sta poleg izobraževalnih politik in zakonodaje najbolj povezani z inkluzivnim izobraževa- njem na ravni osnovne šole, to sta kurikulum in poučevanje ter ocenjevanje in napredovanje. V popoldanskem delu PAD so se udeleženci razdelili v tri tematsko različne diskusijske de­ lavnice. Prvo delavnico z naslovom Ko pride do samomora v vzgojno­izobraževalni organiza­ ciji – kako ravnati sta moderirali svetovalna delavka z Gimnazije Bežigrad Ajda Erjavec in dr. Petra Gregorčič Mrvar. Predstavili sta Smernice za postvencijo v šoli ob samomoru učenca ali dijaka (2021), ki so nastale pod okriljem programa MIRA. Smernice je pripravil inter- disciplinarni tim strokovnjakov ter so v pomoč predvsem pri načrtovanju in izvajanju kurativnih dejavnosti, ko se samomor že zgodi. Moderatorki sta opozorili, da je v kriznih situacijah vnaprej pripravljen akcijski načrt ključen, saj je potrebno ustrezno in pravoča- sno ukrepanje, hkrati pa krizne situacije pogosto ustvarijo čustveno stresne razmere. Pri tem sta še posebej poudarili pomembnost ustreznega reagiranja tik po samomoru, saj je v prvi vrsti treba na soočanje s tem dogodkom pripraviti kolektiv. Med drugim smo skozi diskusijo iskali odgovore na vprašanja, kako ravnati, če ima otrok samomorilne misli, na katere znake moramo biti pozorni in kako na tem področju v šolskem prostoru delovati preventivno. Ob rasti števila samomorov pri nas v zadnjem času in ob dejstvu, da se staro- stna meja vsako leto znižuje, so predstavljene smernice pomemben dokument, ki nam ob krizni situaciji omogoča refleksijo znotraj strokovnega okvira. Diskusijsko delavnico smo sklenili z mislijo, da je pomembno, da imamo v šolskem prostoru pripravljene različne krizne scenarije, ki so nam v pomoč pri reagiranju v različnih situacijah, ki zahtevajo hitro odzivanje v pogosto precej čustveno stresnih okoliščinah. V drugi diskusijski delavnici z naslovom Inkluzija v poklicnem in strokovnem izobraževanju so dr. Katja Jeznik, Darja Štirn, Barbara Bauman in Nina Kristl predstavile nekatere re- zultate raziskave o inkluzivni naravnanosti poklicnih in strokovnih šol, ki je bila spomladi 2022 izvedena v okviru Centra RS za poklicno izobraževanje. Namen raziskave je bil posnetek stanja glede uresničevanja inkluzije ob upoštevanju večdimenzionalnega modela pravičnosti. Razprava je bila osredotočena na razumevanje redistributivne in relacional- ne dimenzije pravičnosti. Udeleženci so se strinjali, da lahko redistributivna pravičnost pomeni podporo posameznikovi vključenosti, hkrati pa lahko ukrepi pozitivne diskrimi- nacije vodijo k večji stigmatizaciji pogosto izključenih. Udeleženci so se strinjali tudi o tem, da je odnosna raven v šolskem sistemu tradicionalno zapostavljena in raziskovalno manj zanimiva, čeprav zelo pomembna. Diskusijska delavnica se je končala s predstavit- vijo osnovnih korakov, ki so načrtovani na ravni Centra RS za poklicno izobraževanje in bodo vodili v pripravo orodja za samoevalvacijo šol, ki pa ga bo moral, če želimo na tem AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 121 5. 04. 2023 11:38:45 122 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 področju resne premike, Center RS za poklicno izobraževanje dopolniti z ustrezno proce- sno naravnanimi usposabljanji za pedagoške delavce. Tretjo diskusijsko delavnico z naslovom Izzivi inkluzije za odrasle s posebnimi potrebami so moderirale dr. Petra Javrh z Andragoškega centra Slovenije, dr. Metka Novak s Centra za usposabljanje, delo in varstvo Dolfke Boštjančič – CUDV Draga, Ida Srebotnik iz An- dragoškega društva Slovenije in Maja Povše z Univerzitetnega rehabilitacijskega inštituta Republike Slovenije Soča. Dr. Metka Novak je najprej razložila pomen in uresničevanje inkluzije odraslih oseb s posebnimi potrebami ter prikazala primere dobre prakse in pro- jektnega dela. Poleg nje se je predstavil tudi eden od uporabnikov CUDV Draga iz Bival- ne enote Vodnikova cesta Blaž Pirman. Poudarila je, da so najboljši promotorji sprememb in vključevanja kar odrasli s posebnimi potrebami sami, in opozorila na nujne izboljšave na področju dela z odraslimi s posebnimi potrebami (ureditev ustreznih normativov, skrb za boljšo usposobljenost učiteljev in drugo). Ida Srebotnik je predstavila znanstveno mo- nografijo Izzivi inkluzije pri vseživljenjskem učenju in izobraževanju odraslih s posebnimi potrebami, ki jo je izdalo Andragoško društvo Slovenije. Rezultati raziskave so pokazali, da premalo vemo o dodatnih vsebinah in pristopih, o tem, kakšne so posebnosti odraslih udeležencev s posebnimi potrebami ter katere metode in prilagoditve te osebe danes po- trebujejo, da se lahko uspešno vključijo v vseživljenjsko učenje in izobraževanje. Dr. Petra Javrh je govorila o vzvodih motivacije za inkluzijo odraslih oseb s posebnimi potrebami. Izpostavila je vlogo svojcev pri vključevanju odraslih oseb s posebnimi potrebami v vseživ- ljenjsko učenje in izobraževanje ter poudarila pomen upoštevanja zunanjih dejavnikov in objektivnih ovir v okolju. Ugotavlja, da so mnogi posamezniki s posebnimi potrebami po končanem obveznem šolanju prepuščeni družini in domačemu okolju. Le od družine je v celoti odvisno, ali bo odraslo osebo s posebnimi potrebami spodbujala oziroma ji omogo- čila vključevanje v izobraževanje odraslih. Maja Povše je predstavila konkreten program za svojce, ki ga izvajajo na nevrološkem oddelku URI Soča. Opozorila je, da so svojci zara- di poškodbe ali bolezni družinskega člana tudi sami pod stresom, spremenita se jim način in ritem vsakodnevnega življenja, družinske vloge in podobno. Poudarila je, da bi svojci potrebovali več individualne (psihološke) pomoči, dobrodošle pa bi bile tudi številčnejše skupine za samopomoč svojcem. Po omenjenih predstavitvah je sledila diskusija, katere sklep je bil, da bi se morali strokovnjaki sami najprej bolje izobraziti o posebnostih učenja in izobraževanja odraslih oseb s posebnimi potrebami. Morali bi bolje spoznati razloge za ustreznost koncepta inkluzivnosti odraslih oseb s posebnimi potrebami v izobraževalnem sistemu. Poudarjeno je bilo, da je po 26. letu starosti zakonska meja oskrbe oseb s posebni- mi potrebami presežena in bi se ti morali nadalje vključevati v programe vseživljenjskega učenja in izobraževanja. To je še toliko bolj pomembno, ker je med temi osebami veliko nadarjenih in talentiranih za različne ročne spretnosti in umetnosti. Zato je v stroki po- membna posebna skrb za bolj sistematično vključevanje odraslih s posebnimi potrebami v vseživljenjsko učenje in izobraževanje, kar je njihova neodtuljiva pravica. PAD smo končali z okroglo mizo z naslovom Vzgoja in izobraževanje za vključujočo skupnost, ki jo je vodil dr. Robi Kroflič. Uvodoma so moderatorke diskusijskih delavnic AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 122 5. 04. 2023 11:38:45 123Poročila, odmevi, ocene povzele ključne ugotovitve posamezne delavnice, nato je moderator okrogle mize izluščil še ključne misli uvodnih plenarnih predavanj. V nadaljevanju je sledila razprava, v kateri so udeleženci opozorili na upad ukvarjanja z inkluzijo, ki je opazen v zadnjih desetih letih, kar se kaže tudi v izrazito manjšem števila strokovnih srečanj, ki so se v zadnjem obdobju posvečala tej problematiki. Poudarili so tudi, da svojih razmislekov o inkluziji ne smemo vezati samo na osnovnošolsko in srednješolsko izobraževanje, ampak da je treba narediti premik tudi na področje odraslih s posebnimi potrebami ter njihovih možnosti vključeva- nja v vseživljenjsko učenje in izobraževanje. Ob tem so opozorili na pretirano administra- tivno-birokratsko naravnanost obravnave oseb s posebnimi potrebami po celotni vertikali, kar nas vodi v papirnato inkluzijo. Ena od ključnih ugotovitev srečanja je bila, da imamo v našem prostoru že od vsega začetka razmisleka o inkluziji izrazito različna razumeva- nja, kaj je inkluzija in na kakšni vrednotni podlagi naj temelji. Ravno zaradi različnega pojmovanja koncepta so v ospredje postavili pomembnost oblikovanja skupne pedagoške oziroma andragoške podlage, ki bo omogočila, da inkluzija ne bo ostala samo geslo. Znotraj vzgoje in izobraževanja za vključujočo skupnost ostaja veliko odprtih vprašanj, izzivov in področij, potrebnih temeljitega premisleka. Glede na to, da se sistemu vzgoje in izobraževanja v Sloveniji v prihodnjih letih obeta obsežna kurikularna in sistemska prenova po celotni vertikali, upamo, da poglobljeni razmisleki o inkluziji ne bodo umanj- kali. Le ob premišljenih sistemskih in kurikularnih podlagah bomo namreč vzpostavili ustrezne pogoje za udejanjanje načel inkluzivne šole, inkluzivnega vključevanja odraslih s posebnimi potrebami v vseživljenjsko učenje in izobraževanje oziroma načel inkluziv- ne družbe. Cilj te je, da bo lahko vsak posameznik uresničil pravico do kakovostnega vključevanja v izobraževanje, usposabljanje ter v vseživljenjsko učenje in izobraževanje. Prav to mu namreč omogoča aktivno vključitev v družbo, ob tem pa več enakopravnosti, pravičnosti, nediskriminacije in več spodbujanja državljanskih kompetenc. Cilj vzgoje in izobraževanja za vključujočo skupnost je, da bi drugačnost začeli razumevati v kontekstu različnosti vseh nas. Monika Govekar Okoliš, Nina Breznikar in Katja Jeznik AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 123 5. 04. 2023 11:38:45 AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 124 5. 04. 2023 11:38:45 Andragoška spoznanja/Studies in Adult Education and Learning, 2023, 29(1), 125-126 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4312/as/12485 Knjižne novosti Alenka Grželj, Eva Mermolja, Tina Bazjako, Anja Benko, Nives Ličen (ur.) STO.LET.JE ZNANJA: 100 LET LJUDSKIH UNIVERZ NA SLOVENSKEM Zveza ljudskih univerz Slovenije, 2022 Leta 2019 je večina ljudskih univerz po Sloveniji praznovala 60 let svojega delovanja. Govorimo seveda o organiziranem izobraževanju in usposabljanju, ker je splošno ljudsko prosvetljevanje potekalo v vseh krajih veliko prej. O tem priča tudi uradna ustanovitev celjske, mariborske in jeseniške ljudske univerze, ki so praznovale častitljivo stoto oblet- nico. Zadnje jubileje sta v prejšnjih letih pospremili kar dve strokovni publikaciji Zveze ljudskih univerz Slovenije (ZLUS). Gre za hvale vredno potezo izdajateljice, saj v obilici strokovnega dela in nenehnih prizadevanj za ohranjanje dejavnosti izobraževanja odraslih ni enostavno najti čas še za raziskovanje, brskanje po arhivih in pisanje. Avtorski prispevki so za izdajo v knjigi povezani v smiselno strukturo s časovno usklaje- nim besedilom. V treh povezanih sklopih delo prikaže razvojne korake ljudskih univerz, sedanje izzive in njihove želje za prihodnost. Ta razvojni razpon ponazarja simbolika ko- lesja, od njegovega zaganjanja do vrtenja in poganjanja naprej. Če uporabimo enega od frazemov, ki vsebuje besedo kolo – kolo sreče se vrti –, in ga primerjamo z vsebino publi- kacije, najbolj nazorno razumemo osrednjo temo in srž pisanja. Zadnjih 36 let sem bila soudeležena v vseh vidikih delovanja ljudskih univerz na Slo- venskem, zato sem zadnjo ZLUS-ovo monografijo prebirala z očali lastnih razumevanj, dojemanj in izkušenj. Bila sem priča obdobju, ko se je izobraževanje odraslih razvijalo iz nebodigatreba področja, tako so vsaj nanj gledali odločevalci, prek javne mreže organizacij za izobraževanje odraslih in do, po obsegu sicer nezadostno določene, javne službe, ki je bila uzakonjena šele pred petimi leti. Ljudske univerze so v tem času odigrale zgodovinsko pomembno vlogo, saj so se v finanč- no nestabilnem okolju obdržale, še več, ohranjale so svoje poslanstvo in se strokovno raz- vijale v sodobna središča za vseživljenjsko učenje. O tem pričajo prispevki predstavnikov strokovne javnosti, ki poosebljajo vztrajnost, zavzetost in predanost. Prav oni so zaslužni, da lahko slavimo dolgoživost ljudskih univerz, edinstvenih zaradi celovitosti svoje po- nudbe. Izobraževalci odraslih, pisci monografije Sto.let.je znanja, so včasih preskromni, saj precej sramežljivo opozarjajo na pomen svojega (osebnega) prispevka k ohranjanju in razvoju ljudskih univerz. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 125 5. 04. 2023 11:38:45 126 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 Organizacije za izobraževanje odraslih, ki ponosno nosijo ime ljudska univerza, imajo izjemen pomen in ugled v okolju, ki ga včasih premalo ozaveščamo in poudarjamo. V monografiji pogrešamo nekoliko več pričevanja o spremenjenem odnosu odločevalcev in širše javnosti do izobraževanja odraslih, kar se je zgodilo sočasno z vstopom Slovenije v evropsko skupnost. Predolgo smo čakali, da nam iz tujine potrdijo, da opravljamo vzvi- šeno poslanstvo. Šele evropski dokumenti so poudarili pomen izobraževanja odraslih in ga tesno povezovali z vseživljenjskim učenjem. Nacionalne smernice so tako postopoma umeščale izobraževanje odraslih na mesto, ki mu pritiče. Bi pa težko rekli, da so ljudske univerze tam, kjer bi morale biti. Ker jih praviloma ustanav- ljajo lokalne skupnosti, imajo redkokje spodobno sofinanciranje dejavnosti, kljub novemu zakonu iz leta 2018. V monografiji zasledimo zapise o odnosu županov kot zakonitih predstavnikov lokalnih skupnosti, ki bolj kot ne zgolj na načelni ravni govorijo, kaj bi bilo treba. Vse občine bi morale v celoti prevzeti zakonske obveznosti do organizacij, ki so jih ustanovile, namesto da se izmikajo odgovornosti. Na področju javnega sektorja bi težko našli primerljive institucije, ki bi se bolj odločno in družbeno odgovorno odzivale na spremembe v svojem okolju in prispevale k njegovemu razvoju, kot to počnejo slovenske ljudske univerze. Iz monografije veje celostna razvojna naravnanost ljudskih univerz, vendarle najmanj na področju promocije dejavnosti, kar je razvidno tudi iz prispevkov avtorjev. Promocija predvsem sloni na aktivnostih Andragoškega centra Slovenije, ki sicer zgledno opravlja to nalogo, bi pa ljudske univerze ravno tako morale razvijati sveže in inovativne obli- ke komunikacije z različnimi javnostmi, kot je primeroma monografija Sto.let.je znanja. Dostojen prikaz dejavnosti s poudarkom na rezultatih dela pritegne nove udeležence in spodbudi naklonjenost odločevalcev. Glede na dolgoživost ljudskih univerz in njihovo trdno vpetost v okolje ne gre dvomiti, da so pripravljene na vse izzive prihodnosti in da bodo vedno našle odgovore na vprašanja, ki še niso postavljena. Nada Žagar AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 126 5. 04. 2023 11:38:46 Andragoška spoznanja/Studies in Adult Education and Learning, 2023, 29(1), 127-130 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4312/as/13196 Knjižne novosti Barbara Samaluk PREHODI OD IZOBRAŽEVANJA NA TRG DELA: POSKUSI VSTOPANJA V POKLICE BLAGINJE IN VKLJUČEVANJA NA (TRANS)NACIONALNI TRG DELA Založba Univerze v Ljubljani, 2023 Monografija Barbare Samaluk raziskuje prehode iz izobraževanja na trg dela v Sloveniji, pri čemer se osredotoča na nacionalno regulirane poklice socialnega varstva, vzgoje in šolstva. Cilj študije je razkriti izkušnje generacije, ki so jo pri prehodu iz izobraževanja na (trans)nacionalni trg dela zaznamovali varčevalni ukrepi (po krizi leta 2008), regula- cija s fiskalno disciplino in aktivacijske politike. Avtorica torej raziskuje makrokontekste družbenoekonomskih procesov, spremenjene politike zaposlovanja, izobraževanja in so- cialnega varstva, hkrati pa izkušnje študentk in študentov, diplomiranih in brezposelnih posameznikov z izbranih področij. Kot napoveduje že slika na naslovnici knjige, je njeno temeljno vprašanje, ali ne gre pri vstopanju v blaginjske poklice za Sizifovo delo. Monografija temelji na obsežni mednarodni in slovenski literaturi, analizi številnih do- kumentov, sekundarnih virov, tehniki opazovanja z udeležbo in več kot 100 intervjujih (večinoma opravljenih med letoma 2017 in 2020) s ključnimi akterji ter študenti, brez- poselnimi, diplomanti in prekarci s področja socialnega varstva, predšolske, osnovno- in srednješolske vzgoje ter slovenskimi migranti, kvalificiranimi za ta področja. Longitudi- nalni kvalitativni metodološki pristop omogoča poglobljen vpogled v izkušnje nevidnih delavcev, v njihove investicije v znanje in delo. Empirična raziskava po eni strani potrjuje izsledke mednarodnih raziskav, da krčenje dr- žave blaginje povzroča kroženje med občasno integracijo, ranljivostjo in izključenostjo, a hkrati s konkretno študijo primera opozarja na nacionalne specifike. Študija ugotavlja, da vlada v Sloveniji veliko neskladje med profesionalnimi standardi, zakoni, kolektivnimi po- godbami, ki regulirajo vstop v poklic, in dejanskimi možnostmi za pridobivanje potrebnih uvajalnih izkušenj na trgu dela. Klasična pripravništva so nadomestile stalno spreminjajo- če se in neustrezne alternative z nejasnimi pravili. Takšna neskladja in vrzeli mlade gene- racije pri vstopu na trg dela krožno izključujejo, onemogočajo vstop v družbeno odraslost, poglabljajo prekarizacijo in družbene neenakosti. Prekarni in krožni prehodi onemogočajo oblikovanje jasne profesionalne identitete, načr- tovanje karierne in življenjske poti, povzročajo prekarno staranje »mladih«, saj podaljšu- jejo njihovo ekonomsko in socialno negotovost v starejša leta. To ni problematično zgolj AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 127 5. 04. 2023 11:38:46 128 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 za posameznike, temveč za širšo družbo, za solidarnostni družbeni sistem in družbeno reprodukcijo, še posebej so tveganja problematična za ženske in nižji družbeni razred. Avtorica v knjigi odlično prepleta sociološko in andragoško literaturo ter vprašanja. Pre- hode iz izobraževanja na trg dela obravnava v kontekstu preoblikovanja keynesijanskih politik države blaginje v državo pogojevanja. Politike, namesto da bi spodbujale k inte- graciji na trg dela, normalizirajo prekarnost in poglabljajo strukturne neenakosti. Aktivne politike zaposlovanja, utemeljene na človeškem kapitalu in prepričanju, da je brezposel- nost rezultat pomanjkanja motivacije, ne pa strukturnih pogojev, ne določajo le politik zaposlovanja in socialnega varstva, temveč tudi izobraževanja, prepletajo se z imperativom vseživljenjskega učenja, ki od posameznika terja konstantno identitetno delo. Takšno uče- nje namreč zaradi potrebe po zaposljivosti ne zahteva zgolj učenja novih veščin, temveč nenehno prilagajanje razmeram, odnosom in s tem povezano preoblikovanje identitet. Učenje v takšnem kontekstu je torej usmerjeno v preseganje konstantnih primanjkljajev ter pomeni dodatno delovno in eksistencialno obremenitev. V konkretnem primeru izbranih dejavnosti v Sloveniji pridobitev ustreznih kvalifika- cij ni odvisna le od študija na univerzi, temveč vključuje tudi obvezno študijsko prakso, na podlagi česar se odmerja še obvezno podiplomsko pripravništvo. Pogoje za pristop k strokovnemu izpitu spremlja vrsta nejasnosti. Čeprav je bila večina varčevalnih ukrepov odpravljena, fiskalna politika še vedno omejuje ponovno vpeljavo integralno financira- nih pripravništev znotraj dejavnosti (in s tem v nadaljevanju zaposlovanje). V letu 2022 so se sicer te razmere na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja izboljšale, deloma so k temu pripomogli tudi interventni zakoni v času obvladovanja covida-19, a po drugi strani je s pandemijo narasla stopnja brezposelnosti mladih med 15. in 29. letom. Terensko gradivo kaže, da bi morala ministrstva pripraviti jasnejša navodila. Študentje pogosto dobijo informacije prepozno ali so te pomanjkljive, nejasnosti pa še dodatno spodbuja formalističen birokratski govor. Slabe možnosti zaposlovanja in brezposelnost spodbujajo k nadaljnjemu izobraževanju, pridobivanju dodatnih kvalifikacij in drugih certifikatov za večjo konkurenčnost na trgu dela. A takšne investicije, ki ne zagotavlja- jo zaposlitve na trgu dela, so drage, pomenijo lahko tudi časovno izgubo in poglabljajo prekarnost. Posledično se v družbi povečujejo neenakosti in izključujejo ranljivi ljudje. Prekarizacijo avtorica prikaže kot multidimenzionalen proces, ki ga ne narekujejo zgolj strukturne spremembe (politike EU in nacionalne politike), temveč tudi dejanja ljudi sa- mih, ki skušajo predvideti možne izide, načrtovati in vlagati. Kot antropologinja, ki se že več let ukvarjam s študijem izkušenj dela, še posebej cenim avtoričin pristop terenskega dela in pomen, ki ga pripisuje intersekcionalnosti. Osebne izkušnje, ki so, kot dobro pokaže avtorica, družbeno sooblikovane, nam dajejo vpogled v učinke politik in preplet kulturnih, političnih ter drugih strukturnih omejitev v življe- njih ljudi. Interpretacija izkušenj pa je mogoča le s poznavanjem konkretnih življenjskih okoliščin posameznika ali posameznice, na kar nas opozarja intersekcionalnost. Nimajo namreč vsi študentje ali brezposelni diplomanti enakih izhodišč. Pri interpretaciji je torej AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 128 5. 04. 2023 11:38:46 129Knjižne novosti pomembno upoštevati preplet starosti, razreda, spola, nacionalnosti, družinskih, bivanj- skih in zdravstvenih razmer. Družbene kategorije niso fiksne. Še posebej je to pomembno omeniti pri obravnavi kategorije starosti. Avtorica »mladih« ne obravnava kot biološko, temveč kot družbeno kategorijo. To je pomembno poudariti, saj povečana prožnost in pre- karnost na trgu dela onemogočata vstop mladih v družbeno odraslost. Konkretne politike spodbujajo »čakanjstvo« vstopajočih generacij in s tem otežujejo vstop v družbeno odra- slost. Dolgotrajno »čakanjstvo« s seboj prinese izgubo ekonomske in socialne neodvisnosti (v številnih primerih so študentje med študijem opravljali študentsko delo, to možnost pa so po diplomi izgubili), nekateri so se bili zato prisiljeni vrniti k staršem oziroma ostati pri njih, kar je vplivalo na njihovo samopodobo, povzročalo težka občutja odvisnosti, pred- vsem pri starejši generaciji. Namen monografije pa ni zgolj v razkrivanju učinkov strukturne pogojenosti, temveč tudi v razbijanju stigmatizirajočih stereotipov o pasivnih odzivih mladih in brezposelnih. In to poudarjam kot pomembno. Sama sem raziskovala doživljanje deindustrializacije in brezposelnosti »odvečnega industrijskega delavstva« v Sloveniji. Tudi moje sogovornice in sogovorniki so se spopadali s stigmatizirani diskurzi o »lenih brezposelnih«, pa čeprav so vsak dan znova dokazovali (sebi in drugim), kako zmotne so takšne predstave. Monogra- fija me je opozorila, kako pomembno je razbiti podobo »čakanjstva« kot pasivnega pro- cesa in detektirati nevidno delo ter učenje, vsakodnevne napore brezposelnih (s trga dela izključenih ljudi), da bi presegli strukturne ovire in omejitve. Napori so bili v marsičem v obeh primerih podobni: pridobivanje kvalifikacij, certifikatov, učenje birokracije, razpisnih pogojev različnih shem ter nenehno delo na sebi. Kot pokaže Barbara Samaluk, iskanje dela za brezposelne postane delo, ki zajema iskanje prostih delovnih mest in odzivanje na razpise zanje, aktiviranje socialnih mrež, redefini- cijo identitet, veliko študija birokracije in razpisne dokumentacije. Slednje otežuje po- manjkanje informacij in zahtevnost evropsko financiranih shem. V nekaterih primerih so se morali iskalci zaposlitve celo transformirati v podajalce informacij, kar je zahtevalo še dodatno učenje, spoznavanje kompleksnosti in konstantno spreminjajočih se pogojev evropsko financiranih shem. V monografiji beremo, kako učitelji niso mogli dobiti dela na šoli, ker so bile kvazipripravniške sheme preveč zakomplicirane, nejasne in so za šolo pomenile dodatno birokracijo, zato so se jih otepali. Odpor organizacij do evropskih raz- pisov poglabljajo kratki razpisni roki. Vstop v organizacije je bil tako mogoč le, če so po- tencialni pripravniki neuradno prevzeli birokratsko delo koordinatorjev projekta. Vse to je bilo težje za manjše nevladne organizacije, ki so še bolj kadrovsko podhranjene. Še težje je bilo vse skupaj pri evropsko financiranih shemah aktivne politike zaposlovanja (APZ), prek katerih bi lahko brezposelni diplomanti potencialno pridobivali potrebne izkušnje za pristop k strokovnemu izpitu. Pomembna noviteta knjige je obravnava transnacionalne mobilnosti, ki pokaže, da ta sicer prinaša nove izkušnje in znanja, ne pa tudi ustreznih materialnih vrednosti. Povratniki so celo soočeni z migracijskih zaostankom, ki od njih zahteva še dodatno delo, pridobivanje kvalifikacij in licenc. AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 129 5. 04. 2023 11:38:46 130 ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA/STUDIES IN ADULT EDUCATION AND LEARNING 1/2023 Avtorica dobro manevrira med opisom strukturne pogojenosti in opisom aktivnosti »mla- dih«. Pokaže namreč, da prekarizacija spodbuja kolektivne strategije tranzicijskega uče- nja, na podlagi katerih se razvija kritična pismenost o strukturnih neenakosti ter gradita skupnost in samooroganizacija za odpravljanje neenakosti. Avtorica tako nadgradi študije o tranzicijskem učenju, saj pokaže, da gre za kolektiven proces in strategijo upora. Samo- organizacija zajame posamezne kampanje med letoma 2009 in 2016, ki so med drugim opozorile na problematičen odnos do izključenih in nevidnih delavcev na prehodu, tudi s strani organiziranega sindikalizma. Problem je, da sindikati ne nagovarjajo tistih, ki v trg dela niso integrirani. Izjema je sindikat Mladi Plus, ki se je zavzel za trajnejše in stabilno financiranje vstopnih poti. K temu poziva tudi avtorica. Knjigo zato sklene s priporočili, ki so namenjeni političnim odločevalcem, delodajalcem, univerzi, kariernim centrom Za- voda za zaposlovanja RS, sindikatom, tudi novi generaciji študentov. Osrednje sporočilo njenega poziva pa je, da bi se morali vsi akterji v prihodnosti več povezovati, sodelovati in bolje medsebojno informirati. Knjiga je torej nujno branje za številne javnosti. K temu pripomorejo tudi njena struktura in jasno oblikovane ugotovitve. Zaradi interdisciplinarne zasnove in poglobljene kritične drže je pomembno delo za vse raziskovalke in raziskovalce, ki preučujejo izkušnje na trgu dela, izkušnje brezposelnih, sodobno prekarizacijo, vseživljenjsko učenje in družbene neenakosti. Nina Vodopivec AS_2023_1_FINAL.indd 130 5. 04. 2023 11:38:46