Zbornik 20. mednarodne multikonference INFORMACIJSKA DRUŽBA - IS 2017 Zvezek B Proceedings of the 20th International Multiconference INFORMATION SOCIETY - IS 2017 Volume B Kognitivna znanost Cognitive Science Uredili / Edited by Olga Markič, Toma Strle, Tine Kolenik, Urban Kordeš, Matjaž Gams http://is.ijs.si 9.–13. oktober 2017 / 9–13 October 2017 Ljubljana, Slovenia Zbornik 20. mednarodne multikonference INFORMACIJSKA DRUŽBA – IS 2017 Zvezek B Proceedings of the 20th International Multiconference INFORMATION SOCIETY – IS 2017 Volume B Kognitivna znanost Cognitive Science Uredili / Edited by Olga Markič, Toma Strle, Tine Kolenik, Urban Kordeš, Matjaž Gams http://is.ijs.si 9. - 13. oktober 2017 / 9th – 13th October 2017 Ljubljana, Slovenia Uredniki: Olga Markič Univerza v Ljubljani, Filozofska fakulteta Toma Strle Univerza v Ljubljani, Pedagoška fakulteta Tine Kolenik Univerza v Ljubljani, MEi:CogSci Matjaž Gams Odsek za inteligentne sisteme Institut »Jožef Stefan«, Ljubljana Založnik: Institut »Jožef Stefan«, Ljubljana Priprava zbornika: Mitja Lasič, Vesna Lasič, Lana Zemljak Oblikovanje naslovnice: Vesna Lasič Dostop do e-publikacije: http://library.ijs.si/Stacks/Proceedings/InformationSociety Ljubljana, oktober 2017 Kataložni zapis o publikaciji (CIP) pripravili v Narodni in univerzitetni knjižnici v Ljubljani COBISS.SI-ID=30859303 ISBN 978-961-264-113-9 (pdf) PREDGOVOR MULTIKONFERENCI INFORMACIJSKA DRUŽBA 2017 Multikonferenca Informacijska družba (http://is.ijs.si) je z dvajseto zaporedno prireditvijo osrednji srednjeevropski dogodek na področju informacijske družbe, računalništva in informatike. Letošnja prireditev je ponovno na več lokacijah, osrednji dogodki pa so na Institutu »Jožef Stefan«. Informacijska družba, znanje in umetna inteligenca so spet na razpotju tako same zase kot glede vpliva na človeški razvoj. Se bo eksponentna rast elektronike po Moorovem zakonu nadaljevala ali stagnirala? Bo umetna inteligenca nadaljevala svoj neverjetni razvoj in premagovala ljudi na čedalje več področjih in s tem omogočila razcvet civilizacije, ali pa bo eksponentna rast prebivalstva zlasti v Afriki povzročila zadušitev rasti? Čedalje več pokazateljev kaže v oba ekstrema – da prehajamo v naslednje civilizacijsko obdobje, hkrati pa so planetarni konflikti sodobne družbe čedalje težje obvladljivi. Letos smo v multikonferenco povezali dvanajst odličnih neodvisnih konferenc. Predstavljenih bo okoli 200 predstavitev, povzetkov in referatov v okviru samostojnih konferenc in delavnic. Prireditev bodo spremljale okrogle mize in razprave ter posebni dogodki, kot je svečana podelitev nagrad. Izbrani prispevki bodo izšli tudi v posebni številki revije Informatica, ki se ponaša s 40-letno tradicijo odlične znanstvene revije. Odlične obletnice! Multikonferenco Informacijska družba 2017 sestavljajo naslednje samostojne konference:  Slovenska konferenca o umetni inteligenci  Soočanje z demografskimi izzivi  Kognitivna znanost  Sodelovanje, programska oprema in storitve v informacijski družbi  Izkopavanje znanja in podatkovna skladišča  Vzgoja in izobraževanje v informacijski družbi  Četrta študentska računalniška konferenca  Delavnica »EM-zdravje«  Peta mednarodna konferenca kognitonike  Mednarodna konferenca za prenos tehnologij - ITTC  Delavnica »AS-IT-IC«  Robotika Soorganizatorji in podporniki konference so različne raziskovalne institucije in združenja, med njimi tudi ACM Slovenija, SLAIS, DKZ in druga slovenska nacionalna akademija, Inženirska akademija Slovenije (IAS). V imenu organizatorjev konference se zahvaljujemo združenjem in inštitucijam, še posebej pa udeležencem za njihove dragocene prispevke in priložnost, da z nami delijo svoje izkušnje o informacijski družbi. Zahvaljujemo se tudi recenzentom za njihovo pomoč pri recenziranju. V 2017 bomo petič podelili nagrado za življenjske dosežke v čast Donalda Michija in Alana Turinga. Nagrado Michie-Turing za izjemen življenjski prispevek k razvoju in promociji informacijske družbe bo prejel prof. dr. Marjan Krisper. Priznanje za dosežek leta bo pripadlo prof. dr. Andreju Brodniku. Že šestič podeljujemo nagradi »informacijska limona« in »informacijska jagoda« za najbolj (ne)uspešne poteze v zvezi z informacijsko družbo. Limono je dobilo padanje slovenskih sredstev za akademsko znanost, tako da smo sedaj tretji najslabši po tem kriteriju v Evropi, jagodo pa »e-recept«. Čestitke nagrajencem! Bojan Orel, predsednik programskega odbora Matjaž Gams, predsednik organizacijskega odbora i FOREWORD - INFORMATION SOCIETY 2017 In its 20th year, the Information Society Multiconference (http://is.ijs.si) remains one of the leading conferences in Central Europe devoted to information society, computer science and informatics. In 2017 it is organized at various locations, with the main events at the Jožef Stefan Institute. The pace of progress of information society, knowledge and artificial intelligence is speeding up, and it seems we are again at a turning point. Will the progress of electronics continue according to the Moore’s law or will it start stagnating? Will AI continue to outperform humans at more and more activities and in this way enable the predicted unseen human progress, or will the growth of human population in particular in Africa cause global decline? Both extremes seem more and more likely – fantastic human progress and planetary decline caused by humans destroying our environment and each other. The Multiconference is running in parallel sessions with 200 presentations of scientific papers at twelve conferences, round tables, workshops and award ceremonies. Selected papers will be published in the Informatica journal, which has 40 years of tradition of excellent research publication. These are remarkable achievements. The Information Society 2017 Multiconference consists of the following conferences:  Slovenian Conference on Artificial Intelligence  Facing Demographic Challenges  Cognitive Science  Collaboration, Software and Services in Information Society  Data Mining and Data Warehouses  Education in Information Society  4th Student Computer Science Research Conference  Workshop Electronic and Mobile Health  5th International Conference on Cognitonics  International Conference of Transfer of Technologies - ITTC  Workshop »AC-IT-IC«  Robotics The Multiconference is co-organized and supported by several major research institutions and societies, among them ACM Slovenia, i.e. the Slovenian chapter of the ACM, SLAIS, DKZ and the second national engineering academy, the Slovenian Engineering Academy. In the name of the conference organizers we thank all the societies and institutions, and particularly all the participants for their valuable contribution and their interest in this event, and the reviewers for their thorough reviews. For the fifth year, the award for life-long outstanding contributions will be delivered in memory of Donald Michie and Alan Turing. The Michie-Turing award will be given to Prof. Marjan Krisper for his life-long outstanding contribution to the development and promotion of information society in our country. In addition, an award for current achievements will be given to Prof. Andrej Brodnik. The information lemon goes to national funding of the academic science, which degrades Slovenia to the third worst position in Europe. The information strawberry is awarded for the medical e-recipe project. Congratulations! Bojan Orel, Programme Committee Chair Matjaž Gams, Organizing Committee Chair ii KONFERENČNI ODBORI CONFERENCE COMMITTEES International Programme Committee Organizing Committee Vladimir Bajic, South Africa Matjaž Gams, chair Heiner Benking, Germany Mitja Luštrek Se Woo Cheon, South Korea Lana Zemljak Howie Firth, UK Vesna Koricki Olga Fomichova, Russia Mitja Lasič Vladimir Fomichov, Russia Robert Blatnik Vesna Hljuz Dobric, Croatia Aleš Tavčar Alfred Inselberg, Israel Blaž Mahnič Jay Liebowitz, USA Jure Šorn Huan Liu, Singapore Mario Konecki Henz Martin, Germany Marcin Paprzycki, USA Karl Pribram, USA Claude Sammut, Australia Jiri Wiedermann, Czech Republic Xindong Wu, USA Yiming Ye, USA Ning Zhong, USA Wray Buntine, Australia Bezalel Gavish, USA Gal A. Kaminka, Israel Mike Bain, Australia Michela Milano, Italy Derong Liu, Chicago, USA Toby Walsh, Australia Programme Committee Bojan Orel, chair Mitja Luštrek Niko Schlamberger Franc Solina, co-chair Marko Grobelnik Stanko Strmčnik Viljan Mahnič, co-chair Nikola Guid Jurij Šilc Cene Bavec, co-chair Marjan Heričko Jurij Tasič Tomaž Kalin, co-chair Borka Jerman Blažič Džonova Denis Trček Jozsef Györkös, co-chair Gorazd Kandus Andrej Ule Tadej Bajd Urban Kordeš Tanja Urbančič Jaroslav Berce Marjan Krisper Boštjan Vilfan Mojca Bernik Andrej Kuščer Baldomir Zajc Marko Bohanec Jadran Lenarčič Blaž Zupan Ivan Bratko Borut Likar Boris Žemva Andrej Brodnik Janez Malačič Leon Žlajpah Dušan Caf Olga Markič Saša Divjak Dunja Mladenič Tomaž Erjavec Franc Novak Bogdan Filipič Vladislav Rajkovič Andrej Gams Grega Repovš Matjaž Gams Ivan Rozman iii Invited lecture AN UPDATE FROM THE AI & MUSIC FRONT Gerhard Widmer Institute for Computational Perception Johannes Kepler University Linz (JKU), and Austrian Research Institute for Artificial Intelligence (OFAI), Vienna Abstract Much of current research in Artificial Intelligence and Music, and particularly in the field of Music Information Retrieval (MIR), focuses on algorithms that interpret musical signals and recognize musically relevant objects and patterns at various levels -- from notes to beats and rhythm, to melodic and harmonic patterns and higher-level segment structure --, with the goal of supporting novel applications in the digital music world. This presentation will give the audience a glimpse of what musically "intelligent" systems can currently do with music, and what this is good for. However, we will also find that while some of these capabilities are quite impressive, they are still far from (and do not require) a deeper "understanding" of music. An ongoing project will be presented that aims to take AI & music research a bit closer to the "essence" of music, going beyond surface features and focusing on the expressive aspects of music, and how these are communicated in music. This raises a number of new research challenges for the field of AI and Music (discussed in much more detail in [Widmer, 2016]). As a first step, we will look at recent work on computational models of expressive music performance, and will show some examples of the state of the art (including the result of a recent musical 'Turing test'). References Widmer, G. (2016). Getting Closer to the Essence of Music: The Con Espressione Manifesto. ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology 8(2), Article 19. iv KAZALO / TABLE OF CONTENTS Kognitivna znanost / Cognitive Science .................................................................................................................. 1 PREDGOVOR / FOREWORD ................................................................................................................................. 3 PROGRAMSKI ODBORI / PROGRAMME COMMITTEES ..................................................................................... 5 Povezave med telesnimi merami, gibalnimi spretnostmi in kognitivnimi sposobnostmi v zgodnjem otroštvu / Bregant Tina, Tacol Lovro ............................................................................................................................... 7 Asilomar AI Principles / Gams Matjaž .................................................................................................................. 10 Influence Of Self Observation In The Process Of Two-Dimensional Creation In Visual Arts / Golob Urška ....... 14 Analysis of EEG visual evoked potential (VEP) acquisition delays / Gombač Leo, Rogelj Peter ........................ 17 O fenomenologiji prepričanj, od Husserla do enaktivizma / Klauser Florian ........................................................ 21 The Use of Genetic Algorithms in Researching Non-Veridical Perception / Kolenik Tine ................................... 25 What is it like to be a bat/man: consciousness and performance studies / Leš Marinko ..................................... 29 Consciousness - one, two or many? / Malec Maja ............................................................................................... 32 Tek časa / Markič Olga ......................................................................................................................................... 36 "Cognitive modulation of pain: how do cognition/mind influence pain processing?" / Meh Duška, Georgiev Dejan, Meh Kaja ............................................................................................................................................... 40 Modeling the Model: the World Beyond the Immediate Sensorium / Petlevski Sibila .......................................... 44 Psihološki in fiziološki odzivi ob robotski vadbi v različnih pogojih navidezne resničnosti / Pinoza Jasna, Podlesek Anja, Geršak Gregor ......................................................................................................................... 48 Semantic Implication of Traditional Values in Conscience of Modern Teenagers / Shchukina Irina, Dzurnáková Ludmila, Shchukin Oleg ............................................................................................................... 52 Problematičnost integracije nevroznanosti v pravne kontekste / Strle Toma ....................................................... 56 Zavest in samozavedanje: iluzija ali realnost / Ule Andrej ................................................................................... 60 Indeks avtorjev / Author index ................................................................................................................................ 63 v vi Zbornik 20. mednarodne multikonference INFORMACIJSKA DRUŽBA – IS 2017 Zvezek B Proceedings of the 20th International Multiconference INFORMATION SOCIETY – IS 2017 Volume B Kognitivna znanost Cognitive Science Uredili / Edited by Olga Markič, Toma Strle, Tine Kolenik, Urban Kordeš, Matjaž Gams http://is.ijs.si 12. - 13. oktober 2017 / 12th – 13th October 2017 Ljubljana, Slovenia 1 2 PREDGOVOR Na letošnji konferenci Kognitivna znanost sodelujejo avtorji/ice z različnih disciplinarnih področij, ki predstavljajo tako empirične rezultate svojih raziskav kot tudi teoretska raziskovanja. Osrednja tema konference je “Znanstveni pristopi k raziskovanju zavesti: premoščanje vrzeli in perspektiv”. Vsak prispevek se vsaj posredno dotika ali namiguje na vprašanje zavesti in njenih vlog v najrazličnejših kontekstih raziskovanega znotraj kognitivne znanosti. Avtorji/ice so kritično razmišljali o vprašanju večih zavesti, se poglobljeno spraševali o resničnosti zavesti, o času in zavesti ter premišljevali o hipotezi bayesianskih možganov in njihove kognitivne penetrabilnosti. Poročali so o raziskovanju doživljanja prepričanj, preiskovali kvalije drugih zavesti skozi gledališko igro in preučevali vpliv opazovanja lastnega ustvarjanja znotraj vizualne umetnosti. Obravnavali so, kako različni vidiki kognicije oblikujejo bolečino, empirično preverjali motiviranost udeležencev v navidezni resničnosti za pomoč pri rehabilitaciji ter odkrivali povezave med gibanjem in kognicijo v zgodnjem otroštvu. Predstavljali so genetske algoritme in njihovo rabo v raziskovanju neveridičnega zaznavanja ter opozarjali na različne načine za stvarjenje družbeno koristne, nenevarne umetne inteligence. Raznolikost predstavljenih tem zaokrožujeta premislek o vključevanju nevroznanostvenih izsledkov v pravo ter metodološka analiza zamikov vidnih evociranih potencialov (VEP) pri elektroencefalografiji (EEG). Upamo, da bo letošnja disciplinarno in metodološko bogata kognitivna konferenca odprla prostor za izmenjavo zanimivih misli in idej ter povezala znanstvenike/ice različnih disciplin, ki se ukvarjajo z vprašanji kognitivnih procesov. Olga Markič Toma Strle Tine Kolenik 3 FOREWORD 2017 conference Cognitive Science boasts with authors from numerous disciplines presenting their empirical as well as theoretical work. This year’s topic is “Scientific approaches in researching consciousness: building bridges above chiasms and between perspectives”. Each contribution at least indirectly speaks of consciousness and its roles in various contexts of cognitive science. Authors critically contemplate the question of many consciousnesses, dig deep into whether consciousness is real or not, into time and consciousness, and assess the hypothesis on the Bayesian brain and cognitive penetrability. They survey their research on experiencing beliefs, on examining qualia of different minds through theatre performance and on the influence of self-observation on visual art creation. They discuss how cognition influences pain processing, they empirically test virtual reality users’ motivation in relation to rehabilitation and they discover links between motion and cognition in early childhood. They present genetic algorithms and their use in researching non-veridical perception, and they bring attention to ways of making AI useful and safe. The thematic diversity of contributions is wrapped up with a reflection on using neuroscientific research in law practice and a methodological analysis of EEG visual evoked potential (VEP) acquisition delays. We hope that this year’s cognitive conference, being extremely diverse in disciplines and methodologies, will become a welcoming space for exchanging intriguing ideas and thoughts as well as for bringing together scientists from all the different areas exploring the questions of cognitive processes. Olga Markič Toma Strle Tine Kolenik 4 PROGRAMSKI ODBOR / PROGRAMME COMMITTEE Olga Markič Toma Strle Tine Kolenik Urban Kordeš Matjaž Gams ORGANIZACIJSKI ODBOR / ORGANIZING COMMITTEE Tine Kolenik Olga Markič Toma Strle 5 6 Povezave med telesnimi merami, gibalnimi spretnostmi in kognitivnimi sposobnostmi v zgodnjem otroštvu Dr. Tina Bregant, dr. med. Lovro Tacol, dipl. psih. (UN) Univerzitetni Rehabilitacijski Inštitut URI Soča MEi:CogSci program Linhartova 51 Univerza v Ljubljani 1000 Ljubljana 1000 Ljubljana +386 41 749 061 +386 51 252 346 tina.bregant.drmed@gmail.com lovro.tacol@gmail.com POVZETEK podobno verjetno velja za kognicijo. Hkrati sam učni uspeh ni V prispevku predstavimo zasnovo raziskave o vplivu rasti in nujno povezan s kognitivnimi sposobnostmi. Na kognitivni razvoj splošnega telesnega vpliva več dejavnikov, zato v raziskavi upoštevamo tudi socio razvoja na otrokove gibalne in kognitivne - spretnosti. V raziskavi vzdolžno spremljamo otroke (N = 158) demografske dejavnike (socialno-ekonomski status – SES). tipičnega slovenskega urbano-ruralnega okolja v razvoju od Predvidevamo, da sta glavna, med seboj sicer odvisna dejavnika, rojstva do zaključene prve osnovnošolske triade (starost 8 let) ter ki otrokom, ki so sicer v rasti v zgornjih percentilih, onemogočata merimo njihove značilnosti in sposobnosti ter iščemo možne doseganje v percentilih enako visokih gibalnih in kognitivnih povezave med gibalnimi spretnostmi, telesnim in kognitivnim sposobnostih, socioekonomski status družine in zasedenost (sedeč razvojem. življenski slog). S pridobljenimi podatki želimo identificirati otroke, ki od tipičnega razvoja odstopajo ter ponuditi ustrezne Ključne besede intervencijske programe. Antropometrija, gibalne spretnosti, kognitivne sposobnosti, izvršilne funkcije, zgodnje otroštvo. 2. TEORETIČNO OZADJE Raziskave, ki hkrati preučujejo um in telo – kognitivni in gibalni ABSTRACT razvoj, se praviloma osredotočajo na populacije z določeno In the article we present the concept of research on the influence patologijo. Tako v literaturi zasledimo raziskave, ki preučujejo of growth and physical development on the child's motor and povezave med gibalnimi spretnostmi in kognitivnimi cognitive skills. In the survey, we longitudinally follow children sposobnostmi ali pa različne intervence na omenjenih ravneh pri (N = 158) of the typical Slovenian urban-rural environment from otrocih z Downovim sindromom [4], pri otrocih z mišično birth to the first elementary school triad (8 years of age). We distrofijo [5], otrocih s cerebralno paralizo [6] ali otrocih z measure their physical characteristics and abilities. We are motnjo koordinacije [7]. Raziskav, ki bi iskale povezave med looking for possible links between growth (anthropometrics gibalnim in kognitivnim razvojem pri zdravih otrocih v obdobju, measures), physical performance, and cognitive development. ki nas zanima, pa je malo. Van der Fels in drugi [8] so povzeli 21 študij, ki so preučevale otroke med 4. in 16. letom starosti in Key words zabeležili srednje velike do močne korelacije med nekaterimi Anthropometry, motor skills, cognitive abilities, executive gibalnimi spretnostmi in kognitivnimi sposobnostmi. V zaključkih functions, early childhood. navajajo, da lahko pestri interventni programi, osredotočeni na gibanje, vzpodbujajo tako gibalne spretnosti kot tudi višje 1. NAMEN RAZISKAVE kognitivne funkcije pri prepubertetnih otrocih. Namen raziskave je ugotoviti, ali so pri zdravih otrocih v zgodnjem otroštvu mere telesne rasti, gibalne spretnosti in Gibalni in kognitivni razvoj sta neločljivo povezana. Razvoj kognitivne sposobnosti povezane in če so, kako so povezane med otrokovih grobomotoričnih spretnosti sicer odseva rast in razvoj otrokovega telesa, vendar ne gre za enoznačno, linearno seboj. Izhajamo iz starodavne maksime » Mens sana in corpore sano« (''Zdrav duh v zdravem telesu' ) in predvidevamo, da otroci, povezanost. Kako uspešen je sicer zdrav otrok v grobomotoričnih ki tipično sledijo rastnim krivuljam, pridobijo podobno tipično funkcijah je odsev koherentnega sodelovanja med njim in okoljem, ki določeno veščino spodbuja [9]. tudi gibalne in kognitivne spretnosti. V raziskavi nas zanima, kaj Pri razvojnih motnjah se dogaja z otroki, ki so za rast večji in bolj razviti, kar se je pogosta povezava med kognitvnim in gibalnim razvojem oz. praviloma povezuje z boljšimi gibalnimi spretnostmi (povezano s zaostankom, kar korelira tudi z mestom poškodbe. Mali možgani samimi telesnimi dejavniki, ki povečajo npr. dolžino koraka, so danes prepoznani kot struktura, ki ni ključna le pri gibalnih pač mišično moč, navor ipd.), vendar pa pa tudi višjih miselnih procesih; podob kognitivne spretnosti tega no velja za striatum, ki je razvoja ne dohajajo vedno. del omrežja, skupaj z dorzolateralnim predelom prefrontalne skorje [10]. Določeni pokazatelji telesnega in gibalnega razvoja se povezujejo Po drugi strani vemo, da telesni parametri določajo nekatere z znanimi zdravstvenimi tveganji [1, 2]. Veliki in hkrati gibalne spretnosti. Višina, telesna masa, obseg pasu in velikost neprimerno prehranjeni otroci, ki imajo pretežno sedeč način kožne gube so pokazali rahlo do srednjo obratno povezanost z življenja, niso gibalno uspešni, hkrati pa raziskave tudi v Sloveniji gibalno koordinacijo. Biološka zrelost kažejo, da tudi učno niso uspešni pa je bila statistično [3]. Tako veliki in telesno bolj pozitivno pomembno povezana s posebnimi gibalnimi veščinami, razviti otroci, ki pa jih hkrati spremlja neustrezna prehrana in sedeč življenski slog, niso nujno tudi gibalno bolj razviti; npr. s poligonom nazaj. Grobomotorične spretnosti so korelirale 7 tudi s koordinacijo in sposobnostjo fine manipulacije ter splošnim (npr. inhibicija neželenih dražljajev) zrcali v analogni gibalni zdravstvenim stanjem (t. i. fitnes) [11]. spretnosti (npr. poligon nazaj) ter kako korelira z otrokovo rastjo Pri vplivih na razvoj moramo upoštevati tudi socialne, ekonomske (splošnim telesnim razvojem). in demografske posebnosti proučevane populacije. V raziskavi Diagram 1: Shema pridobivanja podatkov (raziskovalni načrt). Gadžić idr. [12] sta imeli na merjene gibalne spretnosti in kognitivne sposobnosti statistično pomemben vpliv dve socio- Zdravstveni dom (T. B.) demografski spremenljivki, in sicer bivanjsko okolje (urbano ali ruralno) ter očetova izobrazba. Osnovnošolci, živeči v urbanem Antropometrija in telesni razvoj okolju, so dosegali višje rezultate tako na testih gibalnih 2009-2014 spretnosti kot tudi kognitivnih sposobnosti. Očetova izobrazba je N = 158 M = 82 Ž = 76 na rezultate vplivala posredno, preko okolja, tako da so najvišje rezultate dosegali šolarji z višjo izobrazbo očetov, ki so živeli v mestih. 3. RAZISKOVALNI NAČRT Osnovne šole (L. T.) V raziskavo smo vključili vse otroke, rojene v letu 2009, vodene v Kognitivni razvoj primarni pediatrični ambulanti izbranega zdravstvenega doma 2017 (ruralno-urbano območje) pod vodstvom istega pediatra (T. B.). Otroci so bili redno spremljani in pregledani ob sistematičnih N = 53 M = 26 Ž = 27 pregledih pri 1., 3., 6., 9., 12., 18., 36. in 60. mesecu starosti (od rojstva do vstopa v šolo). Na ta način smo pridobili antropometrične podatke, od katerih se bomo pri statistič ni analizi SLOfit osredotočili na telesno višino in maso ter iz njih izračunan indeks telesne mase ter na podlagi tega izdelali njihove rastne krivulje Športnovzgojni karton (primerljivo z nacionalnim standardom). Otrok, ki imajo popoln 2017 zdravniški karton, brez manjkajočih podatkov, in ki so se torej N = 53 M = 26 Ž = 27 uvrstili v nadaljnji del raziskave, je 158. Trenutno so ti otroci v tretjem razredu osnovne šole. Da bi ohranili vzdolžen značaj raziskave, torej skozi čas merili iste posameznike, smo otroke poiskali na štirih osnovnih šolah v Analiza podatkov izbrani občini (3 manjše šole in ena večja s pripadajočima podružničnima šolama). Ker so otroci vključeni v reden, obvezen 4. SKLEPI šolski program, so podatki o njihovih telesnih merah in gibalnih Z raziskavo bomo poskusili opredeliti povezave med splošnim spretnostih (z zdravjem povezan fitnes in z gibalno učinkovitostjo telesnim razvojem, gibalnimi spretnostmi in kognitvnimi povezan fitnes) že zbrani v t. i. športno-vzgojnem kartonu. Med sposobnostmi. Predvidevamo, da bomo uspeli identificirati poukom športne vzgoje je namreč na nacionalnem nivoju socioekonomske dejavnike (SES), ki na te povezave najbolj predviden vsakoletni preizkus otrokovih telesnih mer in gibalnih vplivajo. S pridobljenimi podatki želimo prepoznati področja spretnosti, ki ga poznamo pod tem imenom, v zadnjem času otrokovega razvoja, kjer bi usmerjena intervenca (npr. v gibalno uveljavljen tudi kot program SLOfit [13]. Podatke s kartona še dejavnost) spodbudila tudi specifično kognitivno in splošno- pridobivamo. Zaradi interpretacije bomo podatke razvrstili v zdravstveno korist. podkategorije (npr. spretnosti, vezane na lokomocijo, spretnosti, vezane na ravnotežje in stabilnost, spretnosti, vezane na ravnanje Diagram 2: Preučevane interakcije, ki vplivajo na otrokovo s predmeti). splošno zdravje in razvoj. V raziskavo smo se odločili vključiti še komponento kognitivnih Kognicija Telesni dejavniki Gibanje sposobnosti otrok. Testiranje kognitivnih sposobnosti smo, za razliko od prejšnjih dveh, izvedli posebej, samo za tiste otroke, katerih starši so se za to svobodno odločili. Otrokom (N = 79) Splošno zdravje in razvoj smo izven rednega pouka razdelili posebej oblikovane testne otrok baterije, ki so jih oblikovali na Oddelku za psihologijo Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani [14]. Testna baterija preizkuša delovni spomin in izvršilne funkcije (prepoznavanje besed, kognitivni nadzor, inhibicija). Reševanje testov je potekalo Socioekonomski dejavniki skupinsko, v skupinah do največ 20 otrok, po sprotnih navodilih testatorja (L. T.). Čas testiranja ni presegel 45 minut in za otroke 5. ZAHVALA ni predstavljal obremenitve, večje od običajne šolske dejavnosti. Zahvaljujemo se ravnatelju in ravnateljicam osnovnih šol, ki so nam omogočili, da na njihovih šolah izvedemo testiranje Podatke bomo statistično obdelali s pomočjo orodij za statistično kognitivnih sposobnosti, prav tako pa vsem otrokom in njihovim analizo (SPSS, R) in poiskali korelacije med izbranimi staršem, ki so nam s podpisanim soglasjem dovolili, da jih spremenljivkami. Pri tem bomo še posebej pozorni na povezave vključimo v raziskavo. Zahvaljujemo se tudi doc. dr. Gregorju med različnimi gibalnimi spretnostmi in kognitivnimi Starcu s Fakultete za šport za pripravljenost na sodelovanje. sposobnostmi. Zanima nas, kako se določena izvršilna funkcija 8 6. 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The principles present support for each version of each principle. an attempt to provide guidelines for human-beneficial AI, the one that would prevent possibilities for AI to turn into human-harmful After the consuming and meticulous process, a high level of ways. The principles were defined during the Future of Life consensus emerged around many of the statements during that Institute’s second conference on the future of artificial final survey. The final list retained the principles if at least 90% of intelligence in early 2017. The aim of the paper is to bring these the attendees agreed on them. The 23 principles were grouped issues to our society through presentation and discussions. into research strategies, data rights and future issues including potential superintelligence, signed by those wishing to associate their name with the list. The principles will hopefully provide Keywords some guidelines as to how the power of AI can be used to Artificial intelligence, AI principles, Future of life institute improve everyone’s lives in coming years. 1. INTRODUCTION At the web page of the event on the web pages of the Future of Life Institute [3], the following original presentations can be The Future of Life Institute’s [3] second conference on the future obtained with additional interviews on the consequent links. This of artificial intelligence was organized in January 2017. The original text of the asilomar principles, which is according to the purpose of this paper is to present, in a rather original way, the 23 opinion of this author the most important contribution of this asilomar AI principles [1] defined at the BAI 2017 conference, paper, is accompanied with additional analyses and discussion. accompanied with the original discussions, the comments and The overall intention of the author is to spread the ideas of the analysis of the author of this paper. beneficial AI, which can be also seen as kind of directions for the advanced civilization, to the audience of the Slovenian cognitive While not attending the conference, the author is well familiar conference and into Slovenian public. The final goal, of course, is with the studies of the artificial intelligence [4], superintelligence to design a beneficial superintelligence, and not a malignant one. [2, 5, 6] and contributions of the Future of Life institute. The opinion of the community is pretty a shared one: “a major change 3. THE 23 ASILOMAR AI PRINCIPLES is coming, over unknown timescales but across every segment of society, and the people playing a part in that transition have a huge responsibility and opportunity to shape it for the best.” Artificial intelligence has already provided beneficial tools that are used every day by people around the world. Its continued AI is again experiencing the golden times after so many ups and development, guided by the following principles, will offer downs, but this time the stakes are much higher and the amazing opportunities to help and empower people in the decades probability to achieve major changes bigger than ever. The rising and centuries ahead. awareness of AI-related changes in human society are appearing 3.1 Research Issues in scientific, academia and general public. Dozens of major 1) Research Goal: The goal of AI research should be to create not reports have emerged from academia (e.g. the Stanford 100-year undirected intelligence, but beneficial intelligence. report), government (e.g. two major reports from the White House), industry (e.g. materials from the Partnership on AI), and This overall goal determines the motivation for asilomar the nonprofit sector (e.g. a major IEEE report). principles: to research and implement beneficial AI and not “any” AI. In extreme: suppose a scientist develops a totally original, novel bomb that can destroy our world. Would it be 2. THE PROCCESS AND DISCUSSION OF smart to fund, support or even allow such a research? This THE ASILOMAR PRINCIPLES principle says: No, nobody should research and implement such things. The reason is pretty simple: sooner or later somebody will discover something really dangerous and potentially lethal for the The first task of the organizers was to compile a list of scores of whole human civilization. But as in any situation there are always opinions about what society should do to best manage AI in exceptions: What if someday a hostile alien civilization attacks coming decades. From this list, the organizers distilled as much as our planet and we are not familiar with the lethal technology and they could into a core set of principles that expressed some level consequently not able to defend? of consensus. The coordinating effort was dominating the event, 2) Research Funding: Investments in AI should be accompanied resulting in a significantly revised version for use at the meeting. by funding for research on ensuring its beneficial use, including There, small breakout groups discussed subsets of the principles, thorny questions in computer science, economics, law, ethics, and giving detailed refinements and commentary on them. This social studies, such as: 10  How can we make future AI systems highly robust, so that be only welcome, but more or less a necessity taking care of from they do what we want without malfunctioning or getting the start of the design of the system. hacked? 8) Judicial Transparency: Any involvement by an autonomous  How can we grow our prosperity through automation while system in judicial decision-making should provide a satisfactory maintaining people’s resources and purpose? explanation auditable by a competent human authority.  How can we update our legal systems to be more fair and It is quite likely that the owners of the systems will shield efficient, to keep pace with AI, and to manage the risks themselves from any responsibility. Consider a case where an AI associated with AI? system is granted rights of a live being, e.g. a dog. The owner of a  What set of values should AI be aligned with, and what legal dog is responsible for the actions of the dog, and the dog itself and ethical status should it have? takes negative consequences if, for example, a harm was done to In short: funding policies should not consider only the scientific another human. Basically, it would be a major error to give excellence and novelty, they should take into account also rights of live beings to the non-alive ones, so analogy with relevance, safety, benefits for individuals and society, and its machines is a better option. A self-adapting car could become relation to the real world including legislation. This is how dangerous if hacked or under wrong influence, but whose error is normal research funding should look anyway, but this principle is that – of the hacker, the influence or the owner? All these issues a bit more specific regarding a couple of issues. should be resolved before actually using AI systems such as self- 3) Science-Policy Link: There should be constructive and healthy driving cars, but at least in the opinion of this author, legislators exchange between AI researchers and policy-makers. should not get confused and should apply direct analogy with Another principle that is beneficial for all research and science. It machines. A robot, however intelligent, is still a machine. is too often that the officially leading part of the human society 9) Responsibility: Designers and builders of advanced AI systems (politicians, government officials) are quite ignorant of the are stakeholders in the moral implications of their use, misuse, scientific powers and potentials. That makes government much and actions, with a responsibility and opportunity to shape those less efficient as it should be. However, it is not clear how this implications. feed-back from the scientists actually facing problems and the The designers and builders often say that they are not responsible officials should work since there is no direct influence on officials for the actual use, that the owners decide how the system will be – they either decide on their own or follow instructions of the used. Our history teaches us that there are many eager to earn politicians. Unfortunately, it is just too common that science and money without hesitation even when other people are evidently politics are worlds apart. harmed. The Stanford prison and Milgram experiment showed 4) Research Culture: A culture of cooperation, trust, and that people are rather senseless for the suffering of others when transparency should be fostered among researchers and their gains are in question if they will not get prosecuted for that. developers of AI. Probably that indicates also something about the social It is often the case that developers of the big companies are under orientation that all punishments are worthless. This, ninth direct instructions from the company leadership, pursuing their principle says that designers should be responsible and that at specific goals. These goals are often beneficial for individuals, for least the research society, which is quite harsh to scientific fraud capital gains, and not the society. The principle promotes better (and has to be), will not tolerate excuses from those designers cooperation which can be only positive for faster and more that intentionally or not enable creation of harmful AI systems. beneficial AI and research in general. 10) Value Alignment: Highly autonomous AI systems should be 5) Race Avoidance: Teams developing AI systems should designed so that their goals and behaviors can be assured to align actively cooperate to avoid corner-cutting on safety standards. with human values throughout their operation. The danger in the mind of the proposers is that under time Anca Dragan says that AI systems will optimize their systems to pressure, things might get out of control, be it superintelligence, their own criteria if we are not careful to program them in the general AI or and other potentially very strong technology. way that they will align their machine intelligence and values to Therefore, avoiding creating new not fully controlled AI systems human intelligence and values. under pressure should be of great concern. Italian Francesca Rossi similarly says that the AI systems should behave in a way that is aligned with human values. She points out that this principle is even more important when a human and an 3.2 Ethics and Values AI system cooperate. They can be a team only if they understand 6) Safety: AI systems should be safe and secure throughout their each other and have aligned values. operational lifetime, and verifiably so where applicable and It is like in sports. Some individuals as if “read each other feasible. minds” and that is the most effective combination. In the case of This is an extension of the principle no. 5. Dealing with principle 10 it is about sharing at least basic viewpoints. Note hazardous systems or materials or technologies is not only that the catch is in the AI system, fully or partially autonomous. dangerous, but also highly regulated. However, software research For a washing machine, it is not relevant if the human and the has not been treated as potentially hazardous and that holds for machine have their values aligned, because there is no freedom of AI as well. But AI has an incredible potential and some choice or action. But the autonomous system will by definition regulations or at least caution, even only self-caution is welcome. work on its own and the same values should be somehow shared. The author of this paper does not believe that the case of 7) Failure Transparency: If an AI system causes harm, it should autonomous car is relevant for value alignment. AI researchers be possible to ascertain why. often point out that an autonomous car should take care to hit a In most AI systems, even most non-transparent, it is possible to pole instead of a human or an old lady instead of a young child. deduct what caused a particular event – at least to a point. If the Or drive into river instead of hitting a human (and drowning the designers of the system take care of the failure transparency, i.e. owner). These examples all seem unreal, non-practical. explanation what went wrong in a particular case, that would not Autonomous cars are ten times safer than normal drivers. So 11 what if the car does not feel remorse when hitting a human if this 15) Shared Prosperity: The economic prosperity created by AI is 10-times rarer than when human driving? There are many should be shared broadly, to benefit all of humanity. drunk and asocial or terroristic-oriented humans that do not care Yoshua Bengio considers that one of the greatest dangers is that or even want to hit humans with a car. people either deal with AI in an irresponsible way or maliciously. 11) Human Values: AI systems should be designed and operated The superintelligence might serve one owner or a group of so as to be compatible with ideals of human dignity, rights, owners to serve for their personal gain, which is nearly by freedoms, and cultural diversity. definition against the interests of the majority. He, like many This ideal is a wish, kind of social, promoting positive values into others, sees a more egalitarian society, throughout the world, as the AI systems. We humans would like that the AI systems will a recipe to reduce those dangers. In a society where there’s a lot share positive human values with us. The rationale behind this of violence, a lot of inequality, the risk of misusing AI or having seemingly naïve position is steel strong: when superintelligence people use it irresponsibly in general is much greater. Making AI will emerge, it should indeed better be positive to all other entities beneficial for all is very central to the safety question.” in the world, in particular to us, humans. The worst case is when Again, one should be careful. A total Unitarian society is one global intelligence emerges, with negative and harmful probably bad for the civilization progress and as discovered attitude towards humans, already combatting or quarreling with recently by the author of this paper, might even lead to the fall of humans [2]. If we tend to design positive systems, it is far more the human civilization. likely that the superintelligence will also be of that kind. 16) Human Control: Humans should choose how and whether to 12) Personal Privacy: People should have the right to access, delegate decisions to AI systems, to accomplish human-chosen manage and control the data they generate, given AI systems’ objectives. power to analyze and utilize that data. This is one of safe and generally agreed principles. Control Guruduth Banavar insists that individuals should have the right should not be freely given to autonomous AI systems. Several AI to manage access to the data they generate. Already, the ICT researchers argue that when superintelligence emerges, it will (information, communication technologies) systems know far too soon be uncontrollable due to its superior intelligence. Others much of us and torture us with ingenious ways of forced argue that one can always pull-off the plug and some companies commercials we cannot avoid. The AI systems will be much more like Google have already designed such safety buttons to prevent efficient in getting insights of individuals and institutions, AI get loose. personality traits, emotional make-up, lots of the things we learn 17) Non-subversion: The power conferred by control of highly when we meet each other. No doubt the web world is populated advanced AI systems should respect and improve, rather than with systems getting from us individual information we do not like subvert, the social and civic processes on which the health of to share and those systems often declined services if we do not society depends. cooperate. Privacy loss is even now, without AI, insufficiently Another principle pinpointing the undesired progress of AI and regulated and enforced. superintelligence. 13) Liberty and Privacy: The application of AI to personal data 18) AI Arms Race: An arms race in lethal autonomous weapons must not unreasonably curtail people’s real or perceived liberty. should be avoided. As mentioned, our liberty on the internet is already hampered and Stefano Ermon warns that lethal autonomous weapons could be there is only limited AI functionality. There are even attempts to extremely dangerous. He thinks that the technology has a huge privatize the internet, which would make things far worse than potential, and even just with the capabilities we have today it’s today. The elites and the multinational corporations are forcing not hard to imagine how it could be used in very harmful ways. AI their money laundering schemata through their local interests not should not do harm to other humans. AI designers should not taking care that globally the web community and the human develop weapons or to start wars or create more deadly machines society suffer already. than what we already have. To give a short example: when watching TV, there are lots of Toby Walsh is one of the initiators of the movement to ban lethal boring, loud and disturbing commercials. However, watching TV autonomous weapons. He is warried that the AI arms race is programs with time delay and skip or fast forward commercials, happening amongst militaries around the world already and finds one can to a large extend eliminate them. But when using web it very destabilizing. “It’s going to upset the current world order services and mobile phones, several applications are free of when people get their hands on these sorts of technologies. It’s charge only if they can pop up their commercials. A devil’s deal! actually stupid AI that they’re going to be fielding in this arms 14) Shared Benefit: AI technologies should benefit and empower race to begin with and that’s actually quite worrying – that it’s as many people as possible. technologies that aren’t going to be able to distinguish between Another social nice thought, not strongly related just to AI. combatants and civilians, and aren’t able to act in accordance However, the actual applications and the relation to the with international humanitarian law, and will be used by despots superintelligence are a bit unclear. Yes, superintelligence should and terrorists and hacked to behave in ways that are completely be positively oriented towards the humanity, towards each human undesirable. And that’s something that’s happening today. You and in particular towards to the human civilization. But nice have to see the recent segment on 60 Minutes to see the terrifying wishes can result in negative effects. Raising kids with letting swarms of robot UAVs that the American military is now them do what they want turns out negative for the childen and the experimenting with.” parents. Forcing superintelligence to be “smiling” all the time Prof. Toby Walsh is one of the prominent AI researchers and was might cause some disturbance. On the other hand, elites already most active in 2017 IJCAI conference in Melbourne, Australia. control the world to their own benefit and if they get hands on the The movement to ban lethal autonomous weapons has spread AI to serve them, that is another undesired situation. In summary: worldwide and got support of the cognitive science society and a positive principle with many scenarios possible. the AI society in Slovenia. The discussion is going on in the U.N. 12 If the information is correct, laser blinding of human soldiers is 22) Recursive Self-Improvement: AI systems designed to already prohibited. recursively self-improve or self-replicate in a manner that could On the other hand, the progress on AI and autonomous weapons lead to rapidly increasing quality or quantity must be subject to is intensively going on in several armies, including autonomous strict safety and control measures. ships, planes, tanks, drones and similar. This is the core event Elon Musk sees as the superintelligence emergence. Already, many AI systems apply similar techniques, but this one is related to the general superintelligence at an 3.3 Longer-term Issues initial stage, rapidly improving itself like the AI programs playing some game. 19) Capability Caution: There being no consensus, we should 3) Common Good: Superintelligence should only be developed avoid strong assumptions regarding upper limits on future AI in the service of widely shared ethical ideals, and for the benefit capabilities. of all humanity rather than one state or organization. Roman Yampolskiy, an author of another superintelligence book Similar to many principles, this one tries to promote positive [6] says that in many areas of computer science, such as values not only into the AI society, the superintelligence entities, complexity or cryptography, the default assumption is that we but also into the human society. The last one is far-fetched for deal with the worst case scenario. In a similar way, AI sure and such discussions in the technical AI community should researchers, developers and the society should assume that AI be avoided. will become maximally capable and prepare accordingly. No harm if we are wrong. 4. CONCLUSION There is one issue that puzzles many AI researchers. There are famous intellectuals like Elon Musk, Bill Gates and Stephen While the paper practically copies the principles and the related Hawkins and including politicians like Putin that claim that the information presented through the Future of life institute, it is AI race to superintelligence is either on or is gaining great important to spread the word around. The paper will hopefully potentials already. Other like Toby Walsh or Facebook owner spur discussion and awareness about these issues also in our Zuckerman or Google chief developers or Kurzweil on the other country. The added discussions are here primarily to foster more hand claim that the dangers of superintelligence are nothing but attention. a hype. Hard to depict which arguments prevail. The principles are not to be accepted as axioms or governmental Dan Weld agrees with the principle no. 19, however, it concerns laws, but rather as guidelines in which direction should we him because it’s a distraction from what are likely to be “much humans develop AI to avoid the dangers of the negative effects of bigger, more important, more near term, potentially devastating the rising power of artificial intelligence. While AI often frightens problems”. He is much more worried about job loss and the need general public, this author finds it a necessity to prevent for some kind of guaranteed health-care, education and basic degradation of human civilization. However, the potential dangers income than about Skynet; much more worried about some are real, not fictitious, primarily to a simple fact that any major terrorist taking an AI system to kill people than about an AI power can be easily misused to cause harm to humans. By raising system suddenly waking up and deciding that it should do that on awareness, we increase the chances to ripe only the positive its own.” On the short term he is surely right. aspects of the future mighty AI. 20) Importance: Advanced AI could represent a profound change in the history of life on Earth, and should be planned for and 5. REFERENCES managed with commensurate care and resources. Kay Firth-Butterfield believes that AI will create profound [1] Asilomar principles. 2017, change even before it is ‘advanced’ and thus we need to plan and (https://futureoflife.org/2017/01/17/principled-ai-discussion- manage growth of the technology. “As humans we are not good asilomar/). at long-term planning because our civil systems don’t encourage [2] Bostrom, N. 2014. Superintelligence – Paths, Dangers, it, however, this is an area in which we must develop our abilities Strategies. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. to ensure a responsible and beneficial partnership between man [3] Future of life institute, https://futureoflife.org/ and machine.” 21) Risks: Risks posed by AI systems, especially catastrophic or [4] Gams, M. 2001. Weak intelligence : through the principle existential risks, must be subject to planning and mitigation and paradox of multiple knowledge. Nova Science. efforts commensurate with their expected impact. [5] Kurzweil, R. 2006. The Singularity Is Near: When Humans Humans seem to be rather erratic in terms of development and Transcend Biology, Sep 26, Penguin Books. use of novel systems. Not many systematic cate or regulation is [6] Yampolskiy, R.V. 2016. Artificial Superintelligence. CRC thought in advance. However, for the potentially very powerful Press. technologies such as creating black holes of superintelligence, much should be thought and regulated in advance. 13 INFLUENCE OF SELF OBSERVATION IN THE PROCESS OF TWO-DIMENSIONAL CREATION IN VISUAL ARTS Urška Golob Stari trg 15, 1000 Ljubljana Slovenia +386 31341984 E-mail: ursgolob@gmail.com ABSTRACT 2. PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH This research was constructing against the grain and delimiting This paper presents a phenomenological case study of a fine artist itself from a prior hypothesis. The data of subjective experience and her process of self-observation in analog and digital media was collected with the modified Descriptive Experience Sampling interaction. In the process of self-observation, the methodological Method [6], by using a prototype of a mobile application that questions emerged of how to explore the unconscious layers of prompted the artist at random times to record her experience. subject’s experiential nature, which also represent their source of After gathered samples, the experiences were "deepened" with the inspiration without demolishing the creative practice. The results elicitation interview [14]. The purpose of this procedure was to have shown an adverse effect of self-observation on the creative get the most "pristine" structures of experience [8], the basic practice of an artist that draws attention to some problems of the entities and patterns that form the individual's experience of the empirical investigation in the field of art. In conclusion, description, regardless of the meaning that she attributed to the contemporary scientific research needs to reconsider the issue of experience [7]. deepening self-awareness and the establishment of a state of mindfulness within investigations on the practice of art. Keywords 3. OUTLINING THE EXPERIENTAL Self-observation, phenomenology, experience, artistic process, LANDSCAPE mind wandering, awareness, creativity The process of observation revealed a distinct dynamic between various experiential states and the experiencing self-perception. The dynamics of experiential process transpired between three 1. OBSERVING THE SELF experiential states: sensory, emotional and mind wandering. In correlation with the dynamics of experiential states, it was OBSERVATION PROCESS perceived that the experiential components that describe the This paper introduces a phenomenological case study of an perception of oneself, vary accordingly. The categories of self- academic painter which, through the first-person perspective, perception were indirect descriptions of experience: experiential observes inner experience in interaction with analog and digital space, sense of agency, and narrative perspective [3]. media during the creative process. The self-observation process gradually deepened self-awareness, influenced and changed the With experiential space the artist defines where her attention is course of her painting process. located during the creative process; it is either situated on the object of creation or it converts to thought processing. Based on Based on the survey, there was no significant content found that the artist’s descriptions, the “spaces” of attention were: up there, explore the experiential role and the impact of self-observation of here and now, and in between. different levels of consciousness [11]. Related questions can be found in a broader context [5, 18] or in conjunction with other Up there indicates the experience, which the artist describes as artistic disciplines [9] but there are only a few examples where present in her “head”. This is a “mental” phenomenon [22], which research question is carried out and tested in collaboration with has no connection with the physical perception of this part of the visual artists. Studies tend to focus on the object/subject of body. observation and ignore the methodological impact on the creative Here and now describes the experience where the artist process. experiences herself present in space and time in which she Therefore, within the research process, which lasted from the operates. inspirational phase to the initial phase of painting, a In between describes the experience where the artist is unable to methodological question was raised: Whether or how self- define where the attention is, making the artist unaware of the observation and deepening the awareness are really compatible experience in a specific moment. with the creative process? The sense of agency contains reports of how the artist experiences The purpose of the contribution is therefore to illustrate the artist's her own causality [10, 12] working and happening. In the process, experience within the self-observation process, its problematic the artist experiences herself as the “agent” or things just happen points and the consequences that have arisen, in connection with to her and she is only an observer of events. the process of revealing her unconscious content. According to self-perception, the artist switches the position, or the perspective of description from first-person narration to 14 second- or third-person narration, which implies that she is trying However, due to the momentary and very elusive nature of to distance herself from occurrences and sensations that are sensory experience, it is very difficult to track and observe this happening in and outside of her. experience. Mind wandering - defined as thought processing, was either task- oriented or task-unrelated [15, 13] in the creative process. Its sub- 4. THE PROBLEMATIC POINTS OF categories were reflective mind wandering and non-reflective mind wandering, which means the artist can have a different OBSERVATION metacognitive awareness of the current contents of thought [17]; The problematic points of specific categories had the power to an artist can either actively wander with her thoughts or only influence the result of the observation process. Deepened observe her mind wandering. awareness caused a reorganization of the dynamic processes, through which the amount of reflective mind wandering raised and consequentially also confirmed lowering the sensory 3.1 The relations and the dynamic between perception [21] and higher amount of unpleasant emotional the categories perceptions was detected. Due to increased mind wandering, the experience of the artist in the place here and now decreased and In the creative process, the relations and the dynamics between the categories were established automatically. According to the predominantly stayed in the area up there. Observation of mind artist's reports, the experiences that were happening in the wandering also encountered some problems due to its perception area here and now were always in correlation with the evasiveness, e.g., the problem of “fixating” the moment on a specific experiential moment, the elimination of the time sub-category working. In this state, there was a certain coherence between the categories (emotional, sensory) which were confined component, and the transition between different forms of mind to first-person narration. These reports were more explicit in wandering takes place automatically, without awareness of the comparison with the experience, which transpires in the place up artist. there. The artist's experience of this »place« was always described from second- or third-person perspective. 5. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE There was another space between the up there and working in the DIRECTION here and now, that is the in-between category. This category represents the state of transition between the other two categories The results of the study show that the self-observation and and connects with a second- or third-person point of view (the lowering mind wandering process, in this case, led to a creative category: second or third person). block, namely to a negative influence on the artist's work, which is contradictive to some previous studies reports [13, 4]. This calls The dynamic runs among all experiential categories for consideration that the future studies should take the »relationally«, meaning that the change of a specific category predispositions of the artist's practice and the phases of their affects the entire experiential process and thus the creative process creative process into account. Artists, as well as their creative as well. processes, are different in sensitivity and difficulty of observation. Additionally, a caution with using contemplative techniques are needed because non-dual awareness does not always work in the 3.2 Problematic points of observation favor of the individual, in fact, some studies show quite the The specific properties of experiential categories, which were opposite [2, 20]. The research supports the knowledge, that the revealed as the problematic points of observation, had the ability balance between the conscious and unconscious states is needed to influence the experience of the exploration process itself and for the creative process [16]. were presented along with every description of each experiential category. The uniqueness and the complexity of the emotional experience 6. REFERENCES primarily manifested in its multifaceted structure or in the parallel [1] Bowman, M., Debray, S. K., and Peterson, L. 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TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences no. 6 (8). 16 Analysis of EEG visual evoked potential (VEP) acquisition delays ∗ Leo Gombač Peter Rogelj University of Primorska University of Primorska FAMNIT FAMNIT Glagoljaška 8, 6000 KOPER Glagoljaška 8, 6000 KOPER leo.gombac@gmail.com peter.rogelj@upr.si ABSTRACT are one of the primary tools for cognitive neuroscience re- EEG visual evoked potentials (VEP) are event related po- search [3] and, lately, for brain computer interfaces (BCI) tentials (ERP), i.e., measured brain response, for visual events. [9]. There are two types of VEP used, i.e., transient VEP In order to analyze ERPs, EEG acquired data must be su- (TVEP) corresponding to response to individual stimulus, pplemented with information indicating the time of stimu- and steady-state VEP (SSVEP) corresponding to repetitive lation events. This information may be detected by sensors stimulations. Analysis of the first one needs to be perfor- or from event generation devices. Visual stimulation is most med in the temporal domain and is sensitive to synchroni- often carried out using computer monitors. The time of sti- zation between the stimulus and EEG recording. Standard mulation events is traditionally detected using monitor mo- computer monitors are most often used for stimulus display unted lightness sensors. However lately, it is often obtained and rarely other (typically flashtube) devices are used in- from visual stimulation software. In this work we tested the stead. Delays and jitter may have drastic influence on the hypothesis that software event markers could be considered analysis results. As the delay may be measured and compen- as an alternative to lightness sensor markers. We built a soft- sated, there is no evident workaround for the jitter. In me- ware application that acquires EEG data with both types of dical/neuroscience setups, the synchronization is typically markers to measure the VEP acquisition delays and test the performed by automatic EEG labeling using display moun- hypothesis. The results obtained on standard computer mo- ted lightness sensors, for an examples of such a study see nitors show large discrepancy between information obtained [8]. This kind of synchronization is rare in the BCI setups from both marker types, not only the delay, which could due to increased equipment cost. Today, many setups rely eventually be compensated, but also the presence of jitter on expected low delay of computers and their peripherals that may have a drastic influence on the analysis results. [6, 7], and label the events in EEG data by visual event Even in the case of lightness sensors their careful positioning generating software. is required to correctly measure temporal characteristics of ERP responses. In this work we analyze the delays in setups that display sti- muli on computer monitors. We have implemented a VEP recording system with dedicated software for visual stimula- Keywords tion and simultaneous recording of EEG signals supplemen- Electroencephalography (EEG), event related potentials (ERP), ted with different marker signals indicating system delays. visual evoked potentials (VEP), delay, jitter 1. INTRODUCTION 2. ACQUISITION OF EVENT-LABELED Event related potentials (ERP) are measured brain respon- VEP DATA ses that result from specific sensory, cognitive, or motor To measure delays in VEP acquisition we built a system for events[5]. Visual evoked potentials are a specific kind of VEP stimulation and recording capable of storing two addi- ERPs that are limited to visual events. For a detailed expla- tional marker signals to accurately label visual stimulation nation of evoked potentials, their physiological background event timing. The first is a software marker signal that indi- and required acquisition system components see [1]. VEPs cates when the software renders an image. In such moments the software marker’s value is set to a value defined for the ∗The corresponding author specific image in a predefined visual stimulation plan, else its value is zero. The second marker signal is a digital one, and indicates when images actually appear on the monitor. Is is acquired using two lightness sensors connected to an addi- tional digital input channel of an EEG device. Each sensor influences one of the bits of in the digital signal value. Our system consists of several hardware and software com- ponents. The hardware setup is shown in figure 1. The system uses EEG implementation from g.tec medical engi- neering consisting of two EEG amplifiers g.USBamp, toge- 17 ther enabling 32 EEG channels, and g.TRIGbox with two lightness sensors. Table 1: Statistical parameters of delay for two mo- nitors (A and B) and four sensor placements (1-4). We implemented our own software on a Linux operating sy- All results are given in number of samples at 512 Hz stem using g.USBamp C-API with special care for mini- data acquisition. mizing software delays during stimulation and data acqui- τ τ σ ∆ max τ τ sition. Both tasks, stimulation and data acquisition were A1 22.28 48 6.53 3 implemented in a single software component. All the data A2 22.95 44 5.80 6 including the visual stimulation plan and all the images were A3 22.49 44 6.18 12 preloaded, avoiding all unnecessary processing during the A4 22.80 45 5.94 9 data acquisition. A single handler function served for acces- B1 27.20 54 10.54 3 sing data from both EEG amplifiers including 32 channel B2 27.47 52 10.34 3 EEG data and digital data from the lightness sensors, as B3 26.27 60 10.20 5 well as the software marker signal set by a visual stimula- B4 27.53 52 9.95 9 tion function. For displaying the images OpenCV function čv::imshow”was used. All the acquired data was written to a single binary file for each EEG recording session. After is more than the monitor refresh period (16.7 ms for a 60 Hz the acquisition the recorded data was analyzed in Matlab. monitor refresh rate). In case of monitor B, this difference is closer to our expectations, up to 9 samples or 17.6 ms in 3. RESULTS case B4, exactly one monitor refresh cycle. A more detailed analysis shows that delay difference gets clustered into as The experiment was performed using a HP Computer with many clusters as there are vertical segments of the monitor an i7 processor, SSD disk and 16GB RAM, running a Linux display being divided by the lightness sensors. Each of the operating system. Two different monitors were used, HP clusters was up to 6 samples wide for monitor A and up 1702 (A) and HP Z24i D7P53A4 (B), and for each of them to 3 samples wide for monitor B. The position of clusters four different lightness sensor placements labeled 1–4 were roughly corresponds to the vertical portion of the monitor tested, altogether yielding eight cases, labeled from A1 to screen between the markers, and in most obvious cases A4 B4. Sensor placements are illustrated in figure 2. and B4 equals 8 to 9 samples; approximately one monitor refresh period. An example of delay difference distribution In each of the recordings two images were periodically cycled, is shown in figure 5. where the first one was all black and the other one was all white. Each image was shown for 200 milliseconds and the Detailed analysis of monitor A shows another phenomenon: cycle repeated 500 times, such that 1000 image renderings different delay distributions for events E1 (white to black took place in total in each of the recording cases. The si- transition) and E2 (black to white transition), where E2 is gnals were recorded using 512 Hz sample rate and analyzed on average 3ms faster than E1. Distributions for individual according to delay between the markers. The software mar- events are shown in 4(middle, bottom). This is phenomenon ker signal has a non-zero value only for samples when the was less obvious for monitor B, where E1 is on average 1ms image display function was called, i.e., value 1 for the tran- faster than E2. sition from white to black (event E1), and value 2 for the transition from black to white (event E2). The sensor mar- ker signal was coded as two bits of a digital signal, i.e., bit 4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 1 for the top/left sensor and bit 2 for the bottom/right one, Our initial hypothesis was that software markers could be yielding values from 0 (black screen) to 3 (white screen). For considered as an alternative to lightness sensor markers. Our the illustration of the marker signals see figure 3. results disprove such a hypothesis, because the delay be- tween image rendering in software and actual image appea- For each event, i.e., spike in the software marker signal, the rance on the computer monitor is not constant. The jitter consequent changes in the digital sensor signal were found cannot be compensated and this puts in question all setups and delays τ computed. The statistical distribution of delays that rely on software timing of events, not only for TVEP was estimated for each of the cases and evaluated according but also SSVEP analysis. Our results do not tell much about to average delay (τ ), maximal delay (τ ), delay standard the source of the delay. Usually, the monitor refresh rate is max deviation (σ ), and maximal difference between response expected to be the only factor responsible for the delay, as τ time of both sensors (∆ ). The results are listed in table suggested by some of the EEG experiment setup guides [4]. τ 1. Delay distribution for case A1 is shown in figure 4(top). In our results this cannot be the case, as 60 Hz refresh rate We can see that delay is not constant and jitter is present. would reflect into at most 17 ms delay and not up to 47 ms The standard deviation of delay is roughly 6 samples or 12ms measured in our tests. We hypothesize that delay also comes for monitor A and 10 samples or 20ms for monitor B. The from software processing, graphic card rendering, monitor difference between maximal and minimal delay can be up rendering and pixel response times. Due to using certified to 60 ms, which shows that our initial idea of compensating medical-grade EEG equipment, we can only expect that the delay with calibration is not feasible. delay of the lightness sensors and EEG amplifiers is small enough not to be considered. We have only tested LCD mo- Despite the sensors were in case A1 located as close together nitors and not CRT ones. As it has been reported that LCD as possible, the maximal difference between their response monitors significantly increase the P100 latency compared was 3 samples or 6 ms. By positioning sensors further apart, to CRT monitors [2] one could speculate that this could be the difference increases to up to 12 samples or 23.4 ms, which due to potentially higher delay of LCD monitors. 18 monitor EEG cap computer EEG ampli ers sensors trigger box video signal Figure 1: Hardware components of the VEP stimulation and recording system. (1) (2) (3) (4) Figure 2: Lightness sensor placements. Two sensors were placed in four different configurations (1–4) in order to test the influence of sensor placement on the delay between their signals. From the results of the delay difference between the ligh- tness sensor signals we can conclude that positioning of the lightness sensors is important for TVEP analysis. Lightness sensors should be vertically positioned as close as possible to the center of the screen or the part with expected observer attention. If such positioning is not possible, the error can- not be corrected by changing the delay for the time propor- tional to the vertical screen displacement, because there are 4 digital always two possible alternatives, with the delay difference of software one monitor refresh period. The standard deviation of the 3 clusters depends on the monitor. For monitor B it is esti- mated to equal one sample or 2 ms. This defines the highest possible accuracy of ERP studies. 2 value Monitor selection turns out to be important. It influences 1 the level of delay jitter, responsible for VEP analysis error in the case of software markers, and variation of sensor de- lay that limits the accuracy when using lightness sensors. 0 In our case each of the monitors outperformed the other in one of the aspects. This suggests that with careful selec- 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 tion even better monitors could be found. We could only sample nr. speculate how to get lower jitter, but evidently one of pa- rameters influencing the lightness sensor marker accuracy is Figure 3: A section of marker signals. Spikes in the the monitor refresh rate. Higher is better. As the required software signal correspond to moments when func- monitor properties are similar to the ones sought by gamers, tion for image display is called. Digital signal from this may be a good starting point for the selection. lightness sensors is binary coded, each sensor con- tributing a single bit. To conclude, the results of our work show that software mar- kers are subjected to high visual stimulation delay and jitter when standard computer monitors are used. Consequen- tly, such VEP recording system implementations should be avoided whenever possible, and used with extreme caution. Furthermore, even the lightness sensor markers should be used with a certain amount of care when stimulation is performed using computer monitors, especially to vertically 19 align sensors with the expected center of attention. 5. REFERENCES [1] A. Akay. Electrophysiology - From Plants to Heart, chapter Evoked Potentials, pages 83–108. InTech, 2012. [2] R. Karanjia, D. G. Brunet, and W. Martin. Optimization of visual evoked potential (vep) recording systems. Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences, 36(1):89–92, 2009. [3] L. Landa, Z. Krpoun, M. Kolarova, and T. Kasparek. Event-related potentials and their applications. Activitas Nervosa Superior, 56(1-2):17–23, 2014. [4] J. K. Lindeløv. Timing in experiments. Neuroscience, stats, and coding blog, 2017. [5] S. J. Luck. An introduction to the event-related potential technique mit press. Cambridge, Ma, pages 45–64, 2005. [6] L. Rovati, G. Salvatori, L. Bulf, and S. Fonda. Optical and electrical recording of neural activity evoked by graded contrast visual stimulus. Biomedical engineering online, 6(1):28, 2007. [7] G. Stothart, S. Quadflieg, and A. Milton. A fast and implicit measure of semantic categorisation using steady state visual evoked potentials. Neuropsychologia, 2017. [8] M. Waisbourd, R. H. Gensure, A. Aminlari, S. B. Shah, N. Khanna, N. Sood, J. Molineaux, A. Gonzalez, J. S. Myers, and L. J. Katz. Short-duration transient visual evoked potentials and color reflectivity discretization analysis in glaucoma patients and suspects. International journal of ophthalmology, 10(2):254, 2017. [9] Y. Wang, X. Gao, B. Hong, C. Jia, and S. Gao. Brain-computer interfaces based on visual evoked potentials. IEEE Engineering in medicine and biology magazine, 27(5), 2008. Figure 4: Delay distributions for case A1; for both events (top), event E1 (middle), and event E2 (bot- tom) Figure 5: Distribution of delay difference between both lightness sensors for the B3 case. The distance between the clusters correspond the monitor refresh period. 20 O fenomenologiji prepričanj, od Husserla do enaktivizma Florian Klauser Klauser Univerza v Ljubljani Univerza v Ljubljani Pedagoška fakulteta Pedagoška fakulteta Kardeljeva pl. 16, Ljubljana, Slovenija Kardeljeva pl. 16, Ljubljana, Slovenija +38615892200 +38615892200 florian.klauser@pef.uni-lj.si florian.klauser@pef.uni-lj.si POVZETEK Prepričanja nastopajo vedno pod tem imenom. Avtorji uporabljajo Predstavljeni so nekateri koncepti in ideje v fenomenološki mnogo pojmov, ki jih je možno razumeti kot podvrste prepričanj tradiciji, ki osvetlijo prvoosebni pogled na prepričanja. ali kot prepričanjem sorodni fenomeni, kot na primer znanje Husserlova ideja horizonta uvede prvoosebno obliko implicitnih (resnično, utemeljeno prepričanje), pričakovanje (prepričanje o prepričanj in zaznavnih procesov, ki so-določajo vsak naš doživeti tem, kaj bo v prihodnosti), pomen (prepričanje, kaj/kako neka trenutek. Pri horizontu je omenjena tudi pomembna vloga telesa stvar je) in učenje (»pridobivanje« novih veščin, znanj, prepričanj, kot kontekst za horizontna prepričanja. Utelešeno perspektivo pomenov). poudari tudi Merleau-Ponty, ki argumentira, da telo daje našemu svetu pomen. Merleau-Ponty uvede tudi pojem intencionalnega loka, na podlagi katerega Dreyfus predstavi možnost učenja (ustvarjanja novih pomenov) brez reprezentacij. Na Merleau- 2. HORIZONT Pontyju sloneč enaktivizem, kot ga uvedejo Varela, Thompson in Husserl horizont opiše v mnogo kontekstih, eden izmed njih je Rosch, pomembnost utelešenja ponotranji. Na koncu je kontekst doživljanja določenega predmeta. To izkustvo obdaja predstavljen še sodobni koncept opomenjanja avtorjev Di Paolo, »temno zavesten horizont nedoločene resničnosti« (Husserl, 1913: De Jaegher in Rosch, katerega glavna značilnost je, da je telo to, 49) – obzorje možnih izkustev v prikazujočem se nam svetu v kar določa norme na podlagi katerih naš svet pridobi pomen. danem trenutku. Ključne besede »Svojo pozornost lahko pustim potovati od ravno videne pisalne mize, na katero sem bil pozoren, preko ne-videne dele sobe za fenomenologija, prepričanja, udejanjanje, enaktivizem, mojim hrbtom k verandi, na vrt, k otrokom in uti itd., k vsem opomenjanje objektom, za katere trenutno 'vem', kot tam in drugod v moji neposredno so-zavedani okolici bivajočim […]« (ibid.) 1. UVOD Horizont je torej vso znanje ( Wissen), ki spremlja dano izkustvo Prepričanje je po navadi definirano kot naravnanost »ko nekaj predmeta. Husserl še v isti povedi to znanje opredeli kot implicitno: »[…]– vzamemo za resnično«, pri čemer je ta »nekaj« izrazljivo kot znanje, ki nima nič od pojmovnega mišljenja in se šele z na propozicija. Prepričanja se tako opisujejo v obliki »S je prepričan, klonjenostjo pozornosti in tudi takrat le delno in po da P« (kjer je S subjekt, P pa propozicija), na primer: »S je navadi zelo nepopolno preobrazi v jasno opazovanje.« prepričan, da ima naše osončje 8 planetov«. Velik del filozofske Druga oblika horizonta se pojavi pri Husserlovi analizi časovne tradicije, od reprezentacionalizma preko dispozicionalizma in zavesti. Gallagher in Zahavi (2007) povzemata Husserlovo interpretacionalizma do funkcionalizma, razumejo prepričanja kot argumentacijo, da doživljanje ni sestavljeno iz serije diskretnih shranjena nekje v umu (reprezentirana), od koder inspirirajo naše izkustev, ki si sledijo eno za drugim. Za izkustvo časovne vedênje. Iz vedênja pa lahko retroaktivno sklepamo na prisotnost zveznosti se moramo v vsakem trenutku zavedati tudi trenutka prepričanj. (Schwitzgebel, 2015) pred njim in slutiti trenutek, ki mu sledi. A to zavedanje ne more biti enostavno spominjanje ali predstavljanje, ne more biti Prispevek na kratko predstavi fenomenološko tradicijo, ki se ne enostavno reprezentacija nekega preteklega ali bodočega trenutka naslanja na reprezentacije in ne ugotavlja, kateri organizmi se dovolj prepričljivo vedejo, da v tem trenutku. Gallagher in Zahavi (2007) navajata primer jim lahko pripišemo prepričanja. doživljanja melodije. Ne slišim ene posamezne note, ki potem iz Fenomenologija se osredotoči na prvoosebno perspektivo tega, ko nekaj vzamemo za resnično. Velik delež bo posvečen konceptu zavesti popolnoma izgine, na kar se pojavi izkustvo druge note, temveč »zavest ohrani občutek prve note, ko slišim drugo, horizonta Edmunda Husserla (1913), ki je le delček njegove slišanje, ki je obogateno s pričakovanjem naslednje note.« obsežnejše teorije prepričanj. Horizontu bo dodan še poudarek na (Gallagher in Zahavi, 2007: 75) To še jasneje ponazorita s vlogi telesa Maurica Merleau-Pontyja (1996) in njegov koncept primerom slišanja zaporedja treh not C, D in E. Ko se zavemo intencionalnega loka, ki ga Hubert Dreyfus (2002) uporabi za predstavitev možnosti učenja brez reprezentacij. note E, se hkrati tudi zavedamo predhodnih not D in C, a ne na enak način kot se zavedamo note E. Noti D in C sta pretekli, in Utelešena perspektiva in odmik od reprezentacij sta ključnega doživeti kot toneči v preteklost. V vsakem trenutku imamo torej pomena za enaktivizem oziroma teorijo udejanjenja, avtorjev horizont tako preteklega trenutka, kot tudi pričakovanje Francisco J. Varela, Evan T. Thompson in Eleanor Rosch (1991). prihajajočega. Znotraj enaktivizma je predstavljen koncept opomenjanja avtorjev Jeffrey Yoshimi (2009) horizont predstavi kot predznanje Ezequiel Di Paolo, Marieke Rohde in Hanne De Jaegher (2010), katerega glavna značilnost je, da je telo to, kar določa norme na ( Vorwissen) in pričakovanja povezana z doživljanjem danega podlagi katerih naš svet predmeta: pridobi pomen. 21 »Ko gredo stvari kot pričakovano, naše trenutno izkustvo 'izpolni' gibanja telesa (ki je neodvisna spremenljivka)«. (Yoshimi, 2009: ( erfüllen) naša predhodna pričakovanja, in ti dve izkustvi 124) prestaneta pasivno sintezo identifikacije. […] Ko stvari ne gredo kot pričakovano, naše izkustvo 'razočara' ( enttäuschen) naša Tudi od telesnega gibanja neodvisne okoliščine določajo predhodna pričakovanja ( horizontna prepričanja. Če vidim žogo, ki z neko hitrostjo leti Erwartungen) […] in posledično se proti vratom, imam s tem dogodkom povezana pričakovanja, na zgodi le delna sinteza (še naprej se doživlja kot isti objekt, a razumljen je drugače).« (Yoshimi, 2009: 124) primer kakšen zvok bo naredil trk žoge ob vrata in to, da se bo žoga od vrat odbila. Povsem presenečen bi bil, če bi se namesto Yoshimi (2009) izpostavi pet pomembnih lastnosti horizonta. tega žoga razbila kot steklo. 1. Horizontna pričakovanja so tiha, implicitna in ne vključujejo aktivnega mišljenja, premlevanja ali govorjenja. Ko dvignem roko, da bi potrkal na vrata, si po navadi ne mislim »pričakujem, 3. UTELEŠENA PERSPEKTIVA da bodo vrata naredila leseni zvok«. Horizontna prepričanja so Husserl že malo namiguje na to, da igra telo oziroma naša prej podobna »značajskemu odnosu med možnimi dejanji, utelešena perspektiva posebno vlogo v horizontu. Obsežne zaznavami in stopnjami izpolnjevanja ali razočaranja.« (Yoshimi, fenomenološke analize doživljanja telesa se loti Maurice Merleau- 2009: 124) Na primeru trkanja vrat bi to pomenilo, da enostavno Ponty (1996), ki opiše telo iz dveh zornih kotov, kot objekt nisem presenečen, če vrata res naredijo lesen zvok, ko na njih doživljanja in kot perspektiva doživljanja. V kontekstu analize potrkam, med tem ko me začudi, če ga ne. telesa kot objekta doživljanja omeni dva pojma: telesna slika in telesna shema. Telesna slika je »sestavljena iz sistema izkustev, 2. Horiznotna pričakovanja niso diskretne enote in se ne nanašajo naravnanosti in prepričanj, kjer je objekt teh intencionalnih stanj na enostavno ubesedljive možne dogodke, temveč ustrezajo lastno telo.« (Gallagher in Zahavi, 2007: 146) Merleau-Ponty zveznemu razponu možnosti. Zbirajo se v manevrske prostore (1996) telo opredeli kot zaznano drugače kot so zaznani siceršnji (Spielräume), v katerih je znotraj danih omejitev možen širok objekti. Drugi objekti se lahko oddaljijo in izginejo iz moje diapazon pričakovanj (Yoshimi, 2009). Ko, na primer, sežem proti zaznave, med tem ko telo tega ne more, je trajno. Pri tem kamnu, sem odprt za razno razna s kamnom povezana izkustva. Merleau-Ponty (1996) doda, da telo za nas ni prisotno kot objekt v Ne pričakujem točno določene teže, le približek; ne pričakujem svetu, temveč kot naša perspektiva na svet (o tem več kasneje). točno določene oblike in barve kamna na hrbtni strani, mnogo različnih oblik in barv ali barvnih kombinacij sive, črne, bele, Telesno shemo Gallagher in Zahavi povzameta kot »naše pred- rjave… lahko zadostijo moja pričakovanja. Presenečen bi bil le, reflektivno in ne-objektivizirajoče zavedanje telesa.« (Gallagher če bi se moje izkustvo nahajalo povsem izven mojega obsega in Zahavi, 2007: 146) Ta karakterizacija so-doživljanja telesa v pričakovanj, če bi bil na primer lahek kot pero, ali kot kos lesa; ali horizontu ne uvede nobenih novih idej ali razumevanj v sklopu že če bi bil na hrbtni strani povsem raven in živo-modre barve. prej razdelanega pojmovanja horizonta. Lahko je enostavno del njega, kot je so-doživljanje sobe, ko sem osredotočen na pisalno 3. Horizont je dinamičen, neprestano se posodablja na podlagi mizo; ali kot so v horizontu pričakovanja na podlagi tipa »telo« ali našega toka doživljanja (Yoshimi, 2009). Če, na primer, primem »moje telo«. A Merlea-Ponty (1996) tudi tu doživljanje telesa kamen in namesto hladnega, grobega in težkega občutka v roki, ki predstavi kot doživeto drugače od drugih objektov. Na primeru sem ga pričakoval, začutim manj hladen, gladek in lahek občutek, pika komarja, ki ga ne rabimo iskati po lastnem telesu, temveč ga kot da bi bil to le kos plastike, se bodo moja horizontna enostavno najdemo, izrazi: »Kar se tiče telesnega prostora, očitno pričakovanja v zvez s tem predmetom ustrezno posodobila in ne obstaja védenje za kraj , ki ga je možno zreducirati na neke vrste bom nenehno presenečen ob držanju tega predmeta. Če ga so-obstoj s tem krajem, […] čeprav ga ni možno izraziti z opisom posledično vržem, pričakujem, da leti kot plastika, ne kot ali nemo referenco geste.« (Merleau-Ponty, 1996: 121) kamnina. Prostorskost telesa torej ne doživljamo enako kot prostorskosti 4. Horizontna pričakovanja so sveta. Zavedanje, kje v prostoru je stikalo za luč, je približno, osnovana na informacijah o tipu stvari, ki jo doživljamo (Yoshimi, 2009). Ko doživljam določen motorično se lahko osredotočimo nanj, in ga najdemo. Lastno kamen, so moja pričakovanja o tem kamnu osnovana na tem, kar peto pa najdemo brez iskanja, enostavno vemo, kje je. vem o kamnih na sploh – o tipu »kamen«. Husserl da primer psa: Drugi zorni kot, na katerega je namigovala že telesna slika, »Ko vidimo psa, nemudoma pričakujemo njegove dodatne načine obravnava telo kot izhodiščno točko naše zaznave, kot našo obnašanja: njegov tipičen način jedenja, igranja, tekanja, skakanja perspektivo na svet. Merleau-Ponty poudari pomembnost in tako naprej. Ni tako, da dejansko vidimo njegove zobe; a vemo utelešene perspektive pri zaznavi že pri naslovu enega od poglavij v naprej kako bodo njegovi zobje izgledali – ne v njihovi v knjigi Fenomenologija zaznave: »teorija telesa je že teorija individualni določenosti, temveč glede na tip, v kolikor smo že zaznave« (Merleau-Ponty, 1996: 235). Vsak pogled je pogled od imeli pretekle redne izkušnje s 'podobnimi' živalmi, s 'psi', da nekod, pri čemer je ta medij in lokus zaznave telo. Kadarkoli se imajo stvari, kot so 'zobe', tega tipa« (Dreyfus 1984: 19; citirajoč mi kaže nek predmet, se mi kaže iz perspektive mojega telesa, iz Husserl 1973: 331) lastne perspektive (Merleau-Ponty, 1996; Gallagher in Zahavi, 2007). Telo torej (so)določa naš zaznavni svet in horizont, ki ga 5. Horizontna pričakovanja so vpeta v kontekst možnih okoliščin, obdaja. A pomembnost telesa gre še globlje. Telo in njegove a predvsem so določena s telesom in gibanjem. Yoshimi poda gibalne zmožnosti imajo moč ustvarjanja pomena ( Sinngebung), primer z vrati: na podlagi njih za nas svet pridobi pomen (Merleau-Ponty, 1996). »Kaj pričakujem v zvezi z vrati, ko z njimi stopim v interakcijo, je odvisno od tega, kako se gibljem: če se premaknem desno, pričakujem da se videz vrat spremeni na določen način; če se 4. UČENJE BREZ REPREZENTACIJ premaknem levo, pričakujem da se spremeni na drugačen način. A kako natančneje svet pridobi pomen? Se to zgodi hipoma ali je Husserl včasih opiše 'predzačrtane' ali 'predizračunane' proces dolgotrajnejši? Je ta postopek res popolnoma brez ( vorgezeichnet) videze kot odvisne spremenljivke v odnosu do reprezentacij? Hubert Dreyfus (2002a) poda razlago učenja, ki se 22 odmakne od (propozicionalnih) mentalnih reprezentacij. Pri tem odsev (ali reprezentacija) strukture uma. Tema pozicijama se naslanja predvsem na Merleau-Pontyjev koncept postavijo naproti vmesno pot. Namesto pojmovanja kognicije kot intencionalnega loka ( intentional arc), ki ga Merleau-Ponty raziskovalca zunanjega sveta ali kot projektorja notranjega sveta (1996) označi kot to, kar poveže naše čute, inteligenco, gibalne predlagajo kognicijo kot utelešeno dejavnost oziroma udejanjenje zmožnosti ipd. v kognitivno ali zaznavno življenje z našo ( enaction; Varela, Thompson In Rosch, 1991). preteklostjo, prihodnostjo, fizično, ideološko in moralno situacijo. S pojmom utelešeno želijo poudariti, da je zaznavanje sveta Dreyfus pri intencionalnem loku poudari predvsem, da »ko agent pogojeno s »telesom in njegovimi zaznavno-gibalnimi pridobiva veščine, se te veščine 'shranijo', ne kot reprezentacije v zmožnostmi, […] Te zmožnosti pa so zakoreninjene v širšem umu, temveč kot nagnjenost k odzivu na zahteve situacij v svetu.« biološkem, psihološkem in kulturnem kontekstu« (Varela, (Dreyfus, 2002: 367) Thompson in Rosch, 1991: 173; cf. Merleau-Pontyjev Dreyfus (2002) svojo razlago ilustrira na primerih odraslega, ki intencionalni lok). Z dejavnostjo pa poudarjajo neločljivo pridobi neko veščino preko navodil, natančneje na primerih povezanost zaznave in gibanja. Iz ponavljajočih se zaznavno- učenja vožnje avtomobila (motorična veščina) in učenja igranja gibalnih vzorcev vzniknejo kognitivne strukture, ki spet šaha (intelektualna veščina). Učenje razdeli na pet stopenj, od omogočajo zaznavo in gibanje. Z udejanjenjem se torej začetnika na prvi stopnji do eksperta na peti stopnji, skozi katere osredotočimo na to: se za učenca vzpostavi intencionalni lok. Prvi stopnja (novinec) še »kako zaznavajoči usmerja svoja dejanja v dani situaciji. Ker pa vključuje reprezentacije, pri primeru vožnje avtomobila: »prestavi se situacija nenehno spreminja z dejavnostjo zaznavajočega, v drugo prestavo, ko merilnik hitrosti kaže deset milj na uro.« referenčna točka za razumevanje zaznave ni več vnaprej dan, od (Dreyfus, 2002: 368) Vozniki začetniki vozijo in reagirajo počasi, zaznavajočega neodvisen svet, temveč zaznavno-gibalna struktura saj se morajo neprestano spominjati (si priklicati reprezentacije) zaznavajočega.« (Varela, Thompson in Rosch, 1991: 173) tovrstnih pravil. V nadaljnjih stopnjah Dreyfus (2002) predstavi počasen odmik od naslanjanja na propozicionalne reprezentacije. Udejanjenje poudari utelešenost kot horizont in kontekst za Navede primer, ko napredni začetnik poleg gledanja na merilnik ustvarjanje pomena sveta, kot je to izpostavil že Merleau-Ponty hitrosti uporabi tudi zvoke motorja (ki jih ni mogoče dobro opisati (1996), na katerega se precej naslanjajo tudi Varela, Thompson In z besedami) v pravilih za menjavo prestav. Pri tretji stopnji se Rosch (1991). Ta pogled so ponotranjili tudi sodobnejši učenje že naveže na čustva in oddalji od racionalnega premisleka. zagovorniki enaktivizma, kot na primer Di Paolo, Rohde in De Spretno vedênje povzroča dober občutek, nespretno slab; učenec Jaegher (2010) s konceptom opomenjanja ( sense-making). ne skuša delovati racionalno pravilno, temveč tako, da bo imel Izhajajo iz argumenta, da interakcija med organizmom in okoljem dober občutek. Pri četrti stopnji se izkušnje že asimilirajo na ne- za organizem (s ciljem samoohranitve oziroma ohranitve telesa, teoretičen način: intuitivno vedênje zamenja premišljene odzive, ohranitve »mene«) nosi pomembnost ( importance), kar za »učenec enostavno vidi, kaj je treba doseči« (Dreyfus, 2002: 371). organizem ustvari normativno perspektivno na svet (nekatere To se popolnoma ponotranji pri zadnji stopnji, ko ekspert deluje interakcije ali možnosti interakcije so bolj pomembne od drugih) z popolnoma intuitivno in brez premišljevanja. »Kar mora biti osrednjim vprašanjem »kaj to pomeni (zame)?«. Tako opredelijo storjeno je preprosto storjeno.« (Dreyfus, 2002: 372) definicijsko lastnost kognitivnega sistema kot ustvarjanje in cenjenje pomena – opomenjanje (Di Paolo, Rohde in De Jaegher, Naučeno torej spreminja, kako doživljamo svet. Dreyfus (2002) z 2010). Merleau-Pontyjevo argumentacijo intencionalnega loka poudari, da naše izkušnje niso reprezentirane v umu in nato dodane Di Paolo, Rohde in De Jaegher (2010) pri tem poudarijo, da trenutnemu izkustvu, ali kot piše Dreyfus: »kar učenec pridobi organizem ni samo pasiven prejemnik informacij iz okolja, ki si skozi izkušnje ni reprezentirano v umu, temveč je prezentirano jih prevede v notranje reprezentacije, jih ovrednoti in učencu kot bolj in bolj razločna situacija« (Dreyfus, 2002: 373). nepomembne zavrže: »kognitivni sistemi nimajo v navadi Skozi učenje prevzamemo (ali ustvarimo) nova prepričanja, kdaj dostopati do okolja, da bi si gradili točno sliko o njem« (Di Paolo, eksplicitna propozicionalna (v obliki navodil in napotkov) in kdaj Rohde in De Jaegher, 2010: 39). Pomen ni lastnost okolja, ki jo eksplicitna nepropozicionalna (kot na primer zvok motorja) in jih organizem odkrije in/ali pridobi. Pomen je rezultat trajajočega ponotranjimo do te mere, da naš svet navdahnejo z novim dialoga med dinamiko okolja in utelešeno dejavnostjo organizma. pomenom (v smislu bolj razločnih situacij, ki zahtevajo bolj To razliko osvetli citat Heinza von Foersterja: prefinjene odzive). »[…] 'tam zunaj' ni svetlobe in ni barve, so le elektromagnetni valovi; 'tam zunaj' ni zvoka in ni glasbe, so le periodične variacije v zračnem tlaku; 'tam zunaj' ni vročine in ni mraza, so le gibajoče 5. ENAKTIVIZEM se molekule z več ali manj kinetične energije, […]« (von Foerster, Bolj dosleden odmik od reprezentacij naredijo Varela, Thompson 2003: 214) in Rosch (1991) na primeru zaznave barv. Avtorji so kritični do ideje, da: » […] barvne površine najdemo v vnaprej danem svetu, ki je 6. ZAKLJUČEK neodvisen od naših zaznavnih in kognitivnih kapacitet. A kako naj Fenomenologija torej naredi odmik od reprezentacij in opredelimo, kaj šteje za površino? Kako naj opredelimo njene behaviorizma. Husserlova ideja naravne naravnanosti opisuje naše robove, meje, teksturo in orientacijo, če ne v odnosu do nekega prav vsakdanje prepričanje, da so objekti, ki jih doživljamo, zaznavajočega, za katerega so ta razmejevanja relevantna?« enostavno tam zunaj, od nas neodvisno obstoječi. Husserlov (Varela, Thompson In Rosch, 1991: 166-167) koncept horizonta skriva prepričanja na obrobju našega Z metaforo vprašanja o kuri in jajcu ta objektivistični pogled, da doživljanja, kot védenje, kaj vse še zaobjema širši kontekst ima zunanji svet vnaprej dane lastnosti, ki jih um odkriva in situacije, ki jo ta trenutek doživljamo (primer pisalne mize, sobe reprezentira, imenujejo »pozicija kure«. Na drugo stran postavijo in otrok na vrtu). Horizont so prav tako pričakovanja povezana s »pozicijo jajca«; idealizem – pogled, da um projicira svet, ki je le predmetom, ki ga doživljamo (kakšen zgleda iz drugih zornih 23 kotov, kakšne so njegove lastnosti, ki jih še ne moremo izkusiti). [2] Dreyfus, H. (1984). Husserl, intentionality, and cognitive To prelije tudi v doživljanje časa, kjer se v doživljanju vsakega science. Cambridge: MIT Press. trenutka skriva tudi paslika prejšnjega in pričakovanje bodočega. [3] Dreyfus, H. (2002). Intelligence Without Representation– Merleau-Ponty's critique of mental representation the relevance of phenomenology to scientific explanation. Kot posebno obliko horizonta smo se dotaknili Merleau-Pontyjeve Phenomenology and the cognitive sciences, 1(4), 367-383. analize telesa kot tega, kar oblikuje našo zaznavo (in posledično prepričanja). Pri tem smo izpostavili vlogo telesa pri ustvarjanju [4] Gallagher, S., in Zahavi, D. (2007). The phenomenological mind: An introduction to philosophy of mind and cognitive pomena v svetu – prepričanj, kakšen svet je. Naprej smo si pogledali Dreyfusovo idejo učenja brez reprezentacij, ki je science. Routledge. osnovana na Merleau-Pontyjevem konceptu intencionalnega loka. [5] Husserl, E. (1913). Jahrbuch für Philosophie und Po Dreyfusu se učenje začne z reprezentacijami in eksplicitnimi phänomenologische Forschung. Verlag von Max Niemeyer, prepričanji, ki se z vajo ponotranjijo in integrirajo v intencionalni Halle a.d.S. lok oziroma kognitivno strukturo. Z združitvijo dosedanjih [6] Merleau-Ponty, M. (1996). Phenomenology of perception. konceptov v idejo udejanjenja avtorjev Varela, Thompson In Motilal Banarsidass Publisher. Rosch, pa smo lahko odpravili reprezentacije v celoti, saj bi z udejanjenjem prepričanj lahko argumentirali, da tudi eksplicitna, [7] Schwitzgebel, E. (2015). Belief. The Stanford Encyclopedia propozicionalna prepričanja niso reprezentirana, temveč of Philosophy (Summer 2015 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ur.), udejanjena v dani situaciji. URL= Nazadnje smo se pomaknili globlje na področje enaktivizma, kjer [8] Varela, F. J., Thompson, E. in Rosch, E. 1991. The embodied smo spoznali koncept opomenjanja. Ko opomenjamo, udejanjamo svet, udejanjamo 'to, kako je', 'to, kar vzamemo za resničn mind: cognitive science and human o'. S tako razlago lahko pojmujemo prepričanja v najširšem možnem experience. Cambridge, MA, MIT Press. smislu kot življenjski svet, ki ga udejanjamo. Če zdaj skušamo [9] Von Foerster, H. (2003). On constructing a reality. V: H. von razlikovati med prepričanji in sorodnimi fenomeni, najdemo le Foerster, Understanding understanding (pp. 211-228). New zabrisane meje, ki jih moramo ponovno začrtati. York: Springer. [10] Yoshimi, J. (2009). Husserl’s theory of belief and the 7. VIRI Heideggerean critique. Husserl studies, 25(2), 121-140. [1] Di Paolo, E., Rohde, M., in De Jaegher, H. (2010). Horizons for the enactive mind: Values, social interaction, and play. V Enaction: Towards a new paradigm for cognitive science. 24 The Use of Genetic Algorithms in Researching Non- Veridical Perception Tine Kolenik Middle European interdisciplinary master programme in Cognitive Science University of Ljubljana +386 41 829 632 tine.kolenik@student.uni-lj.si ABSTRACT theoretical disputes which have plagued the Western Synthetic approach to (cognitive) science – researching philosophical tradition for decades if not centuries” [6, p. 6] through “understanding by building”. One such theoretical (cognitive) phenomena with computer and robot models – has been called upon by various field authorities, such as Froese, dispute is whether perception (or cognition, for that matter) is Ziemke and Harvey, to tackle the problem of opposing theories veridical or not. The idea of non-veridical perception in cognitive that have pestered Western philosophy for centuries, especially science can be most notably traced to the paradigms of those of epistemic nature. One synthetic methodology can offer constructivism [7] and enactivism [8][9], while most recent comparison of such theories under the mechanism of natural successful attempts at putting it in the forefront of research can be selection – genetic algorithm. Specifically, genetic algorithms can attributed to the field of predictive coding [10]. The main be deployed to research non-veridical perception, the viewpoint commonality between these paradigms is the claim that we do not held by various paradigms (e.g., constructivism) that the world we perceive and cannot know the world as it really is. Consequently, experience is not a representation of the world out there. One such they deal with the connection and discrepancy between the external world and the subject’s internal world, dynamics, theory that boasts empirical proof is the interface theory of perception. However, genetic algorithms, although bearing an experience and knowledge. Genetic algorithms can therefore serve ecologically viable modeling platform in the form of natural as a way to determine what kind of perception performs viably selection, can be, due to yet undiscovered biological realities, under the pressures of natural selection. largely manipulated with arbitrarily set parameters and methods to get biased results. What’s more, GA-based research on non- 2. GENETIC ALGORITHMS – A VIABLE veridical perception does not seem to include full computational, METHODOLOGY? algorithmic and implementational materials. This begs a carefully Conceptually, GAs encompass all of the most general attributes of set protocol for such research. the Darwinistically-inclined natural selection and gene recombination with mutation. In practice, an individual organism Keywords is represented by one chromosome that is made of several genes, genetic algorithms, non-veridical perception, methodology, i.e. a string of bits, integers, characters, etc. A very basic Pythonic natural selection, constructivism function that produces such an individual can be seen in the Image 1 below, as well as one potential output with arbitrarily set 1. INTRODUCTION arguments in the Image 2. The use of genetic algorithms (GAs) as a methodology in cognitive science has always been tentative. Being generally used as an optimization technique [1], GAs seem to rely too much on (Image 1) most often than not arbitrarily and trivially set parameters [2] to be sufficiently rooted in biology, while at the same time mostly being useful when having fixed expectations in a limited set of (Image 2: A randomly produced »chromosome« (list) with »genes« phenomena. The rise and pervasiveness of artificial neural (integers) that constitutes an individual.) networks as a methodology for researching cognitive phenomena is partially a consequence of such limitations of GAs. The latter, By running such a function a number of times, a population is however, innately possess the mechanism of natural selection, produced. The environmental pressures on the organisms is which can be exploited in researching what phenomena, under hidden in the fitness function. The fitness function represents a this specific mechanism, pass the test of adaptation and survival, way to determine which organism fares best in the environment or especially when comparing different paradigms and theories. This milieu. Image 3 follows the examples from the Images 1 and 2 notably holds true for phenomena which can hardly be researched and shows a possible implicit milieu (hidden in an ideal analytically, i.e. through observation and experimentation, and individual) and the fitness function: therefore have to be subjected to synthetic approaches, i.e. by making computer and robot models [3]. Such phenomena have a certain epistemic impenetrability, which is why numerous established researchers [4][5] have already given research in AI “the rather privileged position of being able to help resolve 25 therefore almost ineliminatable. Research conduct protocol has to be set before specifying parameters. Ideally, parameters have to be set in advance through rigorous research of biological (Image 3: The fitness function calculates the difference between an counterparts. In the case of GAs, research on quantitive aspects of individual organism and the fitness required for them to survive. In such evolutionary mechanisms and their manifestation in nature is a case, the bigger the fitness score, the better the organism.) needed. The protocol should deny researchers tweaking and subsequent running of GA-based models as well as ensure transparent reporting, similar to analytic research reporting – (Image 4: An implicit possible milieu, an ideal organism, with fitness computational, algorithmic and implementational material should score 40.) always be fully disclosed. Synthetic research that deals with non- Through genetic crossover and mutation, the population strives to veridical perception seems to lack such transparency, which adapt to the milieu by coming closer and closer to it (or rather, its obstructs further research through repetition fitness score). This can happen by taking a certain percentage of [13][14][15][16][17]. the best-performing organisms, pairing them together and creating Questioning viability of using GAs for researching cognitive an offspring that takes the first half of the chromosome from one phenomena therefore seems to be warranted. Given their parent and the second half of the chromosome from the second stochasticity, the settings should be ecological as much as parent. The probability of a mutation of a random gene is also possible. Where undiscovered biological properties are concerned, specified. For diversity, a certain probability of an »unfit« it remains unclear how to proceed in order to remain as unbiased organism creeping into the selection can also be specified. Image as possible. 5 and 6 showcase a part of this process. In researching non-veridical perception, additional difficulties arise – one has to be even more careful when delineating a paradigm and reality, as aligning with a constructivist paradigm while claiming certainties in the outside world that we can (Image 5: Genetic crossover. The offspring has higher fitness than its discover (e.g., Darwinistic evolutionary processes and their parents in relation to the milieu in Image 4.) connection to cognition, especially when taken in a vaccuum) can be problematic. Remaining on the level of formalized mechanisms seems to be the proper way to explore non-veridical perception with GAs. (Image 6: A function declaration for the population evolution. It specifies the described probabilities. Argument »survive« specifies the probability 3. NON-VERIDICAL PERCEPTION of exact copies in the next generation.) “Let us consider what happens in instrumental flight. The pilot is A shared woe of computer modelling in cognitive science is the isolated from the outside world; all he can do is manipulate the inescapable problem of how to computationally represent some instruments of the plane according to a certain path of change in non-trivial real-life phenomena without making the model trivial their readings. When the pilot comes out of the plane, however, through reduction. This woe is even bigger when the inevitable his wife and friends embrace him with Joy and tell him: ‘What a reduction is coupled with overtly reductionist paradigms. In the wonderful landing you made; we were afraid, because of the case of GAs, the main problem lies in paralleling real-world heavy fog.’ But the pilot answers in surprise: ‘Flight? Landing? evolution to formal mechanisms of natural selection to a degree What do you mean? I did not fly or land; I only manipulated where no distinction is left – where a paradigm becomes the certain internal relations of the plane in order to obtain a reality, which is something that has happened under symbolic and particular sequence of readings in a set of instruments.’” connectionist paradigms of cognitive science [6]. Such [18, p. 42] overreaching inductive practices should therefore be taken with caution. The pilot in the quote is an analogy for an organism with non- veridical perception. The instruments are the world he However, GAs also face pragmatic obstacles which are more experiences, perceives and acts in. It could be said they are his likely to be solved through good practices. The most problematic mental states in a non-dualistic manner. These instruments are are GA's parameters of the evolutionary aspect, which are a completely different from the world outside of the plane, yet they critical part of GAs when used in researching cognitive still bear a certain (albeit unknown) correspondence to it. They phenomena. This especially holds true for crossover and mutation. Even before setting the probability (1 minus argument »survive« ensure that the pilot (the organism) can operate and survive in the for crossover and »mutate« for mutation in Image 6), methods for world. This is what is mostly meant by non-veridical perception, especially in paradigms that advocate for it [7][8]9][10][18]. To crossover and mutation have to be set. This mostly encapsulates sum up: The experience we have of the world we are perceiving is the numerous ways of a child organism to inherit its genes and the not its faithful, isomorphic representation. way the latter are subsequently mutated. Optimal results can be quickly gained by fine-tuning these two parameters even in more Despite this, the prevalent view of perception, especially human non-trivial problems. When researching phenomena related to perception, seems to be the opposite [19][20]. The belief is that biological realities, parameters have to be set to represent them. In the function of perception is “that of generating a fully spatial complex and dynamic systems like cognitive phenomena, the facts virtual-reality replica of the external world in an internal themselves are still largely undiscovered [11][12]. This is why representation” [21, p. 1]. Similarly, traditional Bayesianists GAs are primarily used for applied optimization – the fine-tuning advocate that perceptual estimates faithfully representing the truth of given parameters makes sense for such usage. Research bias is are of greater utility than those that do not [22]. 26 The two irreconcilable paradigms seem to fall into the previously strategy, while Hoffman’s Robby only needed 500 generations mentioned category of theoretical disputes of Western philosophy [17]. as labeled by Froese. Each of them come from a different The various papers by Hoffman do feature some information on epistemic viewpoint, which would make a scientific comparison the GA used. There is some description of DNA encoding, namely of the two an example of empirical epistemology. Aside from that it encodes the possible perceptual states, the number of water empirical phenomenology [23], artificial intelligence methods quantities and the colors; it also gives the number of genes for seem to be the only way to do such research. GAs provide a way these encodings. The encoding of perceptual states is described. to study the performance of organisms with either veridical or There is some information on crossover, i.e. that each pairing non-veridical perception and compare their faring under the produces two children with randomly spliced parent genes, and pressures of natural selection. One of the few if not the only each offspring has a version of it. Information on mutation is research that studies non-veridical perception with GAs is Hoffman et al.’s vague, only written as “A small amount of mutation is applied” work [13][14][15][16][17] on Hoffman’s [13, p. 26]. The population number is always set at 200, but there interface theory of perception (ITP). is no stated reason behind it (other than it may be a common GA population number in computer science). 4. GENETIC ALGORITHMS IN THE As discussed before, a special attention should be paid to the INTERFACE THEORY OF PERCEPTION stochastic parameters, which can be arbitrarily set; to the ways ITP does not only propose that non-veridical perception is the genes crossover and mutate; and to the definitions of fitness more sensible of the two competing paradigms, but also tries to evaluation and DNA encoding. This is important as by fine- empirically answer two fundamental questions: 1) Do our tuning, changing the methods of recombination and mutation, and perceptual apparatus have the necessary components to actually adapting fitness and encoding, different outcomes are produced. describe the objective truth and if so, do they do it?, and 2) If the perceptual apparatus for whatever reasons do not describe the objective world as it really is, what advantage does that kind of 5. CONCLUSION system have? Its main point is this: “The perceptions of an Viability of GAs as a biologically-rooted cognitive science organism are a user interface between that organism and the research methodology seems to be a two-edged sword. On the one objective world” [14, p. 7]. Hoffman et al. [13] use an analogy of hand, their groundedness in mechanisms of evolution offers a a computer to describe non-veridical perception: “A desktop great modelling platform that, at least formally, possesses a interface makes it easy to use the computer. To delete or copy number of ecological structures (e.g., genetic recombination and files, for instance, one simply needs to drag icons around on the mutation). On the other hand, given its stochasticity, a number of desktop. But a desktop interface does not make it easy to know features ingrained in these structures depend on arbitrarily set the true structure of a computer — its transistors, circuits, numbers (e.g., various probabilities) and calibrations (e.g., the voltages, magnetic fields, firmware and software. Indeed, it’s in methods of doing crossover). Biological systems, be they related part by hiding this complex structure that the desktop makes it to evolution or cognitive phenomena, are still largely unexplored, easier to use the computer” [Ibid, p. 28]. This analogy is very which pushes the translation from biology to computer models similar to Maturana’s analogy of the pilot and his flight. Hoffman beyond the usual reduction and into the realm of bias. This is et al.’s user interface seems to have the exact same function as the especially true when researching non-veridical perception, given plane’s set of instruments. The most interesting part of the theory its epistemologically strenuous nature. However, aside from is therefore the empirical work, which seems to be a thoroughly empirical phenomenology, synthetic research seems to be the only novel achievement and therefore worth and needing of an way of scientifically verifying various theories regarding non- overview. veridicality of perception, which is echoed by notable field figures such as Froese, Ziemke and Harvey. ITP by Hoffman seems to be This, however, presents an obstacle. Hoffman as the principal doing just that, as it is an empirically tested theory. Unfortunately, author of the theory has produced a number of papers where the it does not fully address the issue of arbitrariness in GAs and their GAs used for empirical work are referenced and conceptually relation to biology in general and particularly the phenomenon at described, but it seems that there is no complete report of hand, neither does it offer full data on the GA conceived for computational, algorithmic and implementational data available proving the theory. In turn, this stifles scrutiny, replication and for possible scrutiny, replication and further research. The GA further research. This is why a protocol should be established used is based off of Mitchell’s GA [24] that features Robby the when using GAs to research cognitive phenomena, especially non- Robot who has to learn how to effectively pick up soda cans in a veridical perception. grid space. 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In Object categorization: computer and human vision 28 What is it like to be a bat/man: consciousness and performance studies Marinko Leš Doctoral student (University of Zagreb) Bartolići 49, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia +385981778454 marinkoles@gmail.com ABSTRACT do know a lot about the brain, but link between mind and brain still In this paper, I would like to underline some possibilities of lies in mystery. engaging consciousness studies in theorizing acting as conscious Catherine Malabou, the French philosopher, agrees that “discovery process. It is a proposal of dialogue between the disciplines of of the synapses and its functions was as revolutionary as the theatre and neuroscience in order to re-think the understanding of discovery of DNA" [9, p. 8] as it puts Jean-Pierre Changeux in the nature of actor's work. 1979, but almost disappointed, Malabou asks what have we done knowing all that, and what should we do with our brain. Keywords Maybe it is true that our intelligence is wrongly designed for consciousness, acting performance, qualia, subjectivity understanding consciousness, as McGinn puts it. [10, p. xi] 1. INTRODUCTION Susan Blackmore asks how do we know that the way someone sees “What is it like to be a bat?” yellow paint would be the same for other. We don't. And that's what we mean by consciousness, a very private experience. "No one else In the history of consciousness studies, this one is the most famous can know what it is like. No one else can get it from you." [1, p. 9] questions. First posed in 1950 and became famous in 1974 in American philosopher Thomas Nagel's paper in The Philosophical Nagel calls it subjective character of experience and every Review. [11] subjective phenomenon is essentially connected with a single point of view. [11, p. 436,437] Nagel said: “Consciousness is what makes the mind-body problem really intractable.” but on the other hand “without consciousness 2. CONSCIOUSNESS PROBLEM mind-body problem would be much less interesting.” [11, p. Neuroscientists did not get far either when it comes to 435,436] "The most important and characteristic feature of consciousness problem. Joseph LeDoux says that neuroscientists conscious mental phenomena is very poorly understood." [11, p. traditionally have avoided confronting that problem. But times 436] have changed, discussions on subject are on rise, maybe Mystery stays alive even some twenty years later, when Daniel overemphasized, and the major question for LeDoux is not how Dennett, also an American philosopher says: “With consciousness does consciousness come out of the brain, but rather how does our we are still in a terrible muddle. Consciousness stands alone today brain make us who we are. [8, p. 10] as a topic that often leaves even the most sophisticated thinkers For Antonio Damasio the problem of consciousness is a tongue-tied and confused.” [6, p. 22] combination of two related problems; the problem of understanding An Australian philosopher, David Chalmers said: “There is nothing how the brain engenders the mental patterns, “the images of an we know about more directly than consciousness, but it is far from object”1, and the problem of how, in parallel with first one, the brain clear how to reconcile it with everything else we know.” [4, p. 3] engenders a sense of self in the act of knowing. [5, p. 23] Colin McGinn, the British philosopher: "You can look into your So, again, consciousness is a private moment, but it does not mind until you burst, and you will not discover neurons and exclude the other and awareness of other. These two phenomenons synapses and all the rest; and you can stare at someone's brain from are not mutually exclusive, but incessantly present and interfering, dawn till dusk and you will not perceive the consciousness that is and we never make mistakes in assessing who is who. Or? so apparent to the person whose brain you are so rudely eye- In the discussion on subjectivity we can introduce the term qualia. balling." [10, p. 47] Although it is a philosophical term, everyone has it, that is, We can go on with the problem, but by now it is evident that the everyone has that private experience of what something is like. phenomenon of consciousness is the hardest one, though it does not Blackmore gives an example: “the feel of the wind on your cheeks have to be protected from science. Rather comforting, as McGinn as you ride your bike” [1, p. 25] or as Damasio defines: “qualia are suggests, it has something (or everything) with brains. So, let us the simple sensory qualities to be found in the blueness of the sky make this starting point - brain. We can agree that consciousness is or the tone of sound produced by cello…” [5, p. 23] He believes locked in brain, but again, the very same McGinn raises the these qualities will be eventually explained neuro-biologically. question can the mind be fully explained by the brain. Hardly; we 1 By object Damasio means "entities as diverse as a person, a place, sensory modalities, e.g., a sound image, a tactile image, the image a melody …" and by image "a mental pattern in any of the of a state of well-being". [5, p. 22] 29 On the other hand, Dennett does not believe in qualia at all. [6] between networks involved in different aspects of mental life. [8, p. 258] 3. BAT/MAN PROBLEM In terms subjectivity, let us go back with Nagel’s question “How is Rhonda Blair, American scholar who is particularly looking at it like to be a bat?”. Nagel chooses bats because they are so different applications of cognitive science to the acting process suggests that than humans; "their brain are designed to correlate the outgoing in considering how brain structure and function are materially impulses with subsequent echoes, and the information thus related to the nature of consciousness and self, we can move toward acquired enables bats to make precise discriminations of distance, a more concrete sense how the actor works. [3, p. 170] size, shape, motion, and texture comparable to those we make by Referring to Marco De Marinis'es term of an embodied vision. But bat sonar, though clearly a form of perception, is not theatrology2, Gabriele Sofia sees the concept of consciousness as a similar in its operation to any sense that we possess, and there is no circular process between the human body and the environment. She reason to suppose that it is subjectively like anything we can proposes the hypothesis that consciousness is not a product of the experience or imagine". [11, p. 438] Our own experience provides brain but emerges from the relationship between one's own body the basic material for our imagination, whose range is therefore and the environment. "Each time we perceive the world, we are limited. As Nagel illustrates, "it will not help to try to imagine that actually acting upon it, that is we are modifying the object that we one has webbing on one’s arms, which enables one to fly around at intend to perceive. … then there is no pre-determined world that dusk and dawn catching insects in one’s mouth; that one has very can be perceived as it is." [12, p. 51] poor vision, and perceives the surrounding world by a system of reflected high-frequency sound signals; and that one spends the day If we agree on subjectivity or private experience as "the hard hanging upside down by one’s feet in an attic" [11, p. 439]. Such problem"3 how is it possible to integrate the study of one's own behaviour tells us only what it would be like to behave as a bat experience in the analysis of a performative event, asks De Marinis. behaves. But that is not the question. Nagel wants to know what it In order to do that Sofia suggests that one would first have to is like for a bat to be a bat. analyse the sensorimotor mechanisms that subtend such an experience, which is primarily the performative experience of the These (bat’s) experiences also have a specific subjective character spectator. [12, p. 55] Consequently, spectator should not be left out that it is, by all means, beyond our ability to conceive. After all, from analyses of performative event, nor acting process as well. Nagel admits that he didn’t have to go with this exotic bat case; the problem exists between two persons as well. 5. CONCLUSION So, what does actor do? How he embodies someone else’s realities Considering all above, in order to re-think and re-define some and subjectivities. He does wear bat’s costume to look like bat. He petrified "knowledges" of acting processes there is a vast unfilled also can hang upside down all day in the attic, but inside him he spots that should be engaged in theatre and performance studies and experiences his own subjectivities. If in any case his performance it deserves further research. "Terrible muddle" [6] in defining stays within act as if, then the performance misses terms such as consciousness is not any smaller in defining acting process. Can we truth, real, natural… Actor does not describe. He experiences. He discuss on acting phenomenon not knowing how consciousness must be open for new, surprising solutions. works? 4. ACTING AND NEUROSCIENCE 6. REFERENCES Neuroscientist Antonio Damasio describes string of associations [1] Blackmore, S. (2003) Consciousness. An Introduction, New arising in the body first as emotion (as physiological state of the York: Oxford University Press. body) which is translated into feeling (as emotional state). Those [2] Blair, R. (2008) The Actor, Image, and Action. Acting and strings create brain. Damasio uses term “somatic markers” [5] to Cognitive Neuroscience, London and New York: Routledge. describe how body-state become linked with our conscious responses to or interpretation of them. These markers become our [3] Blair, R. (2006) Image and action. Cognitive neuroscience repertory of emotional responses in guiding our choices of and actor-training, In B. McConachie, Hart, F.E., Eds. reactions to new situations. This hypothesis presents an intellect not Performance and Cognition, London and New York: Routledge, 167-185. as separate, but as aspects of a single organic process. Actor in the costume of a bat reacts within his own somatic marker, [4] Chalmers, D. (1997) The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory, USA: Oxford University Press. not with somatic marker of a bat or some other person. If he trusts his own reactions, those surprising, new solutions, mentioned [5] Damasio, A. (1994) Descartes' Error. Emotion, Reason, and above, can occur. If he let his own arousal of emotion, performance the Human Brain, New York: Avon Books. will be truthful. Or, at least, he will allow himself to respond with [6] Dennett, D.C. (1988) Quining qualia. In A.J. Marcel and E. varying degrees of habit of spontaneity. Bisiach (eds.) Consciousness in Contemporary Science. In similar directions in defining mind, consciousness and cognition Oxford, Oxford University Press, 42-77. point Joseph LeDoux, who distinguishes between consciousness [7] Dennett, D.C. (1992) Consciousness Explained, New York, and cognition. "Consciousness can be thought of as the product of Boston, London: Back Bay Books. underlying cognitive processes" [8, p. 191] while mind is: "an integrated system that include, in the broadest possible terms, [8] LeDoux, J. (2003) Synaptic self. How Our Brains Become synaptic networks devoted to cognitive, emotional, and Who We Are, New York: Penguin Books. motivational functions. More important, it involves interactions 2 The suggestion was made on the occasion of the Third 3 See Chalmers, D.J. (1995) "Facing up to the Problem of International Conference "Dialogues between Theatre and Consciousness", Journal of Consciousness Studies 2(3) Neuroscience" in Rome 30 [9] Malabou, C. (2008) What Sould We Do with Our Brain? , trans. S. Rand, New York: Fordham University Press. [10] McGinn, C. (1999) The Mysterious Flame. Consciousness Minds In A Material World, New York: Basic Books. [11] Nagel, T. (1974) "What Is It Like to Be a Bat?", The Philosophical Review, Vol. 83, No. 4. (Oct., 1974), pp. 435- 450. DOI= http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp [12] Sofia, G. (2016.) "Towards an Embodied Theatrology?", in Falletti, C., Sofia, G., Jacono, V. (ed.) Theatre and Cognitive Neuroscience, London: Bloomsbury, 49-59. 31 Consciousness – one, two or many? Maja Malec Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana Aškerčeva 2 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia maja.malec@ff.uni-lj.si ABSTRACT modern uses of the word both meanings are preserved in everyday Introductory papers on consciousness, whether within philosophy, talk as well as in theoretical writings. psychology, or neuroscience, do not forget to point out that it is at For quite some time philosophers equated consciousness with once the most familiar and mysterious phenomenon. Indeed, we mind, and the same is true of the early psychologists. For know it intimately, but it is extremely difficult to describe and example, William James identified consciousness with the stream explain it. It does not help matters that the words “consciousness” of thought [4]. But in the previous century researchers confirmed and “conscious” can mean different things and that this richness is that not all mental states are conscious and that actually a lot of also preserved in the scientific talk. This complex and processing in perception, memory, action and learning is multifaceted phenomenon – some even argue that we are dealing unconscious, automatic. One such flashy example is subliminal with many distinct phenomena – is a subject of interdisciplinary perception. John Kihlstrom named such states “cognitive research, and it often seems that researchers talk past each other. unconscious” [5]. This is most obvious in the interaction of empirical researchers and philosophers. In this paper, I will introduce some of the It also became clear that we are still conscious or aware of certain relevant notions of consciousness, explain to what aspect of mental states although we do not deliberately focus on them and consciousness refers the “hard problem” philosophers speak of attend to their features (what the seventeenth century philosophers and what importance it has for the research of consciousness in had in mind with consciousness as “inner perception” and what is general. today referred to as an introspective consciousness). For example, I can have a slight headache and do not pay much attention to it, Keywords but it is still present and it has a certain feel to it. There is concepts of consciousness, mystery of consciousness, hard something it is like for me to feel this particular pain, which is problem of consciousness different from how intense toothache feels like, or how it feels like to see a clear blue sky. Philosophers refer to this kind of 1. INTRODUCTION consciousness as phenomenal, qualitative and/or subjective In introductory papers and book introductions on consciousness, consciousness. Another important aspect of consciousness that writers like to point out its mysteriousness. For example, Dennett interests philosophers is its intentionality, namely its directedness in Consciousness Explained states: “Human consciousness is just to something. about the last surviving mystery. … [It] stands alone today as a Scientists are also interested in many aspects of consciousness. topic that often leaves even the most sophisticated thinkers Beside the aforementioned study of the relation of conscious to tongue-tied and confused.” [1; p. 21–22] Similarly, Susan unconscious processing in perception, memory, action and Schneider and Max Velmans in the “Introduction” to The learning, they are interested in determining the function of Blackwell Companion to Consciousness point out: “…anything consciousness, the neural correlates of consciousness, how that we are aware of at a given moment forms part of our information is disseminated within the human brain, what consciousness, making conscious experience at once the most conscious experiences are and so on. For clinicians it is very familiar and most mysterious aspect of our lives.” [2; p. 1] important to be able to tell whether patients are conscious, and But what is this consciousness that is at once so familiar and they start with the understanding of consciousness as the ability to mysterious to us? The term “consciousness” is quite multifaceted respond appropriately to external stimulation, but the possibility and can mean different and quite diverse things. In everyday life of unconscious processing complicates things. Cognitive we hear that an ill friend regained consciousness, that certain psychologists opt for a more comprehensive definition of activists try to raise the political consciousness of the working consciousness as the awareness of oneself and one’s surroundings, class or warn about the dangers of consciousness-enhancing and the ability to respond to and to interact with the environment. drugs. We enjoy reading a book in which the main character is at Recently, scientists have also conducted research on emotional one point very conscious of the sound of the howling wind and consciousness. Moreover, they are not only interested in human very familiar with conscious efforts to give up some harmful consciousness, but also in animal consciousness and habit. consciousness of artificial intelligence. The original meaning of the word “consciousness” was To sum up, the terms “consciousness” and “conscious” are used in knowledge or awareness, either private or shared, but in the many different ways in everyday, but also in scientific, talk. The seventeenth century philosophers and other enlightened writers phenomenon itself is very complex, with many aspects, or maybe started to use the word specifically to refer to our inner awareness there are even many distinct, though closely related, phenomena of our own mental states, such as thoughts, perceptions, that are grouped under one label. The study of consciousness is sensations, feelings. As John Locke put it, “[c]onsciousness is the interdisciplinary, every discipline having its own special interests, perception of what passes in a man’s own mind.” [3; p. 98] In our terminology and investigative methods. Not surprisingly, this 32 often results in scientists not understanding each other and although it can also be argued that these three notions slightly actually talking past each other. This is particularly common in differ. discussions between philosophers and other researchers, which Similarly, there are many concepts of state consciousness. A mainly stems from the different approach to consciousness. conscious mental state can be simply a state one is aware of being While psychologists, neuroscientists, biologists and computer in [7]. In parallel with phenomenal consciousness, there are scientists build on observations, on the collection and phenomenal states and closely related, often equated, qualitative classification of data, and on the execution and interpretation of and subjective states. These kind of states, primarily called experiments, philosophers try to determine the overall picture, qualitative states, have special qualitative or experiential how all the empirical findings fit together, the research properties, named “qualia” or “raw sensory feels.” In general, assumptions and paradigms along with its strength and what we try to capture here is how a given experience feels from plausibility, how the findings connect with previous ideas and the inside. For example, the visual experience of a ripe tomato is research programs and where they could lead in the future, and distinctly red, freshly roasted coffee beans have a distinct smell, what potential obstacles there are. The difference is especially and an intense toothache hurts in a particular way. The defining obvious in their distinct approach to the mystery of consciousness characteristic of phenomenal states, when being considered as and to the related hard problem of consciousness. distinct from the qualitative ones, is interconnectedness, how they all connect and form a continuous experience of a self, situated 2. THE MANY CONCEPTS OF within a world of objects, ordered in time, space and tied with CONSCIOUSNESS causality. And in the case of subjective states, beside their experiential feels, their subjectivity is also emphasized, the fact When an expression has multiple meanings, it is important that we that it is quite plausible that this experience can be fully always clearly specify which meaning we have in mind when we comprehended only from the first-person perspective. use it. If all researchers working on consciousness followed this rule, a lot of problems and difficulties would melt away. Some philosophers, for instance Wilkes [11], argue, at least in part due to conceptual multiplicity, that the idea of consciousness First, we can talk about all organisms – human beings, animals, is wrongheaded and should be eliminated. However, I agree with robots – being conscious, or we can ascribe consciousness to Van Gulick [12; p. 166] that the complex nature of conscious particular mental states or processes. This is a distinction between mentality can only be explained by a pluralistic diversity of creature consciousness and state consciousness [6]. concepts that capture all its many aspects. The plurality of Within the creature consciousness we can further distinguish concepts is, therefore, not a flaw, but a virtue as long as one between intransitive and transitive consciousness [7]. A creature clearly states which sense one has in mind and does not conflate is transitively conscious when it is conscious of something, either one concept with another. by seeing, hearing, touching it, or by having a thought about it being present. Philosophers also speak of intentionality: being 3. THE MYSTERY OF CONSCIOUSNESS directed at an object, namely at the object of which the creature is AND THE NATURALISTIC WORLD VIEW conscious of. But more basic1 is the intransitive notion where Concerning the mystery of consciousness, what puzzled and still consciousness is treated as a non-relation property of a creature. puzzles the researchers is precisely its phenomenal aspect, the feel Under this rubric fall many senses mentioned in the previous of conscious experiences. It is generally quite hard, often section. In the most generic sense a creature is conscious or impossible, to describe a particular experience in a way that really sentient if it is able to sense and respond to its environment. In a conveys what it is like to someone who had never experienced it. more demanding way, the ability as such does not suffice is not For instance, how are we to explain to a blind person what the enough, and the creature must be actually exercising the ability. In experience of seeing a crimson red patch feels like? The this sense, a creature is conscious only if it is awake and alert, i.e. ineffability of conscious experience is closely associated with its responsive to sensory stimulation. Accordingly, a creature asleep, subjectivity. It is argued that its particular feel can only be anesthetized or in a coma is not conscious in this sense. In appreciated from within, i.e. from the first-person perspective. another, more demanding sense, a creature is conscious if it is Moreover, it often seems totally arbitrary that an experience of a aware not only of its surroundings, but also of its awareness. particular thing feels like it does. Why should freshly ground Consciousness is interpreted as a form of self-consciousness, coffee beans produce in us the smell that they do? Alternatively, where the requirement can be interpreted in various ways. The why should they produce any smell at all? And how do we know conceptual self-awareness might be required or just implicit self- that the same stimuli produce the same experience in everyone? awareness. Under this rubric falls Locke’s previously mentioned What if the phenomenal character of experience has nothing to do notion. Yet another concept is the aforementioned phenomenal with what it represents and is just the intrinsic, i.e. non-relational, consciousness. A creature is conscious in this sense if there is property that experience possesses independently of everything? “something that it is like” to be that creature, as Nagel phrased it More generally, the special character of consciousness, its distinct somewhat awkwardly [10]. What is meant by this is simply that nature makes it difficult to explain it in naturalistic terms, namely, there is some subjective way that the world appears to a creature, to plausibly explain its link to the brain without resorting to for example, to a bat or a person or a cat. The main characteristic miracles and ad hoc solutions. The link undoubtedly exists – of this kind of consciousness is its perspectival subjectivity. Some changes in the brain can affect consciousness and certain brain authors also call it qualitative or subjective consciousness, damage can erase it permanently. The task is therefore to scientifically explain the link and the way in which consciousness arises from brain processes, and substantial progress has been 1 Some philosophers argue though that the transitive concept is the made by adopting the functional and computational explanation of basic one, but they are in minority [8], [9]. mental states and processes as well as of the conscious ones. Scientists only try to determine what causal role they play and in 33 what way a particular information processing is implemented in but then offer an explanation of another aspect of consciousness, the brain. such as reportability or introspective accessibility of information [17; p. 26]. Chalmers claims that these aspects of consciousness Cognitive scientists therefore try to determine what consciousness does, what its function is. In order to achieve this, they can are psychological in nature as they play a causal or explanatory compare conscious and unconscious types of information role of behavior exhibited by conscious creatures. To avoid conflation, he proposes to reserve the term “consciousness” for processing and look for differences which would suggest what the the phenomenal aspect and to call the other aspects “awareness.” role of consciousness is. One possibility are priming experiments, Awareness is thus “a state wherein we have access to some especially semantic ones (e.g. [13]), another is the study of disorders, especially caused by brain damage, which affect information, and can use that information in the control of behavior”2 [17; p.28], and can be therefore explained in functional consciousness. Extensively studied disorders are blindshight [14] terms. and unilateral spatial neglect [15]. These are just two of many avenues of research being pursued, According to Chalmers, this terminology change is only a matter of convenience which does not make any real difference. which are proving quite successful. However, some philosophers However, the use of different words makes it easier to accept that complain that this does not contribute at all to a better understanding of phenomenal consciousness. we are not dealing with multiple aspects of one phenomenon, but with multiple phenomena. Indeed, Chalmers wrongly concludes 4. THE HARD PROBLEM OF from the grammatical difference that there is also an ontological CONSCIOUSNESS AND ITS RELEVANCE difference. He views consciousness and awareness as two different phenomena, and considers the existing relation between FOR THE STUDY OF CONSCIOUSNESS the two. He concludes that consciousness is always accompanied The explanation of cognitive abilities and functions in terms of by awareness, but awareness does not need to be always computational or neural mechanisms that can perform them does accompanied by consciousness. By positing two different not help us to understand why conscious experiences accompany phenomena, he can argue that due to its distinct nature the performance of these mechanisms. The difficult question here consciousness in principle cannot be explained in the same way as is rather why and how conscious experience arises from a physical awareness. However, he leaves out another plausible alternative, basis. To put the issue succinctly: it is not about what namely that we simply have two kinds of neural processing, consciousness does, but how consciousness feels. which differ in such a way that one is also accompanied by the One philosopher who doubts that cognitive science, equipped with phenomenal feel, while the other is not, and that this difference its computational and neural explanations, can explain can be functionally, or in some other scientifically acceptable phenomenal consciousness is David Chalmers [16, 17]. He termed way, explained. There is no reason to suppose that what he calls this problem the hard problem and all the other problems awareness and consciousness are two independent processes. The concerning consciousness as the easy problems [16]. According to fact that awareness can be present without consciousness shows him, the latter are relatively easy because they seem directly that awareness is a fundamental process, but consciousness could susceptible to the standard methods of cognitive science, which is be just an extra characteristic of certain awareness processes, but not the case with phenomenal consciousness because it resists the not an independent process itself. But in this case, one cannot argue that solving “easy” problems will not help with the “hard” explanation in these terms and it is not clear how to approach it. Chalmers does not deny that phenomenal consciousness could problem as Chalmers does. have some function. It is even reasonable to assume that it does. 5. CONCLUSION But there is more to it than just the performance of functions and this “more” is the crux of the matter. To make his idea clearer, To conclude, researches need to be careful and clearly state which aspect of consciousness they are investigating and not to Chalmers enumerates some examples of easy problems, like unjustifiably claim that their findings also apply to other aspects providing explanation of the reportability of mental states, the of consciousness. Chalmers’ claim that phenomenal ability of a system to access its own internal states, the integration consciousness cannot be explained in functional terms should be of information by a cognitive system etc. [16; p. 4] taken seriously, and the used methods should be carefully These issues are obviously not easy, scientists work hard on scrutinized. On the other hand, one should not despair. His solving them, therefore many object to his division. To be fair, argument is not definitive and there is a good chance that the Chalmers himself points out that he does not underestimate their functionalist explanation is possible. And even if it were not, it is importance as well as difficulty and that he uses terms in a a fair assumption that a better understanding of information- comparative sense. He just wants to emphasize a principled processing aspects of consciousness will help us to ascertain the difference between the two kinds of problems, the first can be limits of this kind of account and to look for new avenues of approached with the usual methods of cognitive science, but not research. the problem of phenomenal consciousness since what needs to be explained is not a function, but a subjective phenomenal quality 6. REFERENCES that accompanies information processing. The problem is that we [1] Dennett, D. C. (1991). Consciousness Explained. New York: do not know what method to use. However, appearances matter, Little, Brown and Company. and it would have probably been better had he named the two problems differently, thus avoiding offending inadvertently scientists who work on the first kind of problems. We have already encountered the complaint that researchers are 2 In this, Chalmers’ follows closely Block’s distinction between not careful in distinguishing different senses of “consciousness,” phenomenal (P-) and access consciousness (A-). According to thus creating confusion. Chalmers rightly complains that often him, “a state is A researchers start by stating the “hard problem” of consciousness, -conscious if it poised for direct control of thought and action.” [16; p. 168] 34 [2] Schneider, S., and Velmans, M. (2007). “Introduction.” In Companion to Consciousness, Oxford: Oxford University Schneider, S., and Velmans, M. (eds.), The Blackwell Press. Companion to Consciousness. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. [13] Kiran, S. & Lebel, K. R. 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(eds.), The Oxford 35 TEK ČASA Olga Markič Filozofska fakulteta, UL Aškerčeva 2 1000 Ljubljana olga.markic@ff.uni-lj.si POVZETEK predpostavki »v naravi ne šteje nič drugega kakor duša oziroma um Kakšna je povezava med zunanjim, »fizikalnim«, objektivnim duše«. Kaj pa, če te predpostavke ne sprejmemo in izhajamo iz časom in notranjim, subjektivnim časom zavesti? V prispevku bom naturalističnega stališča? V prispevku bom najprej prikazala najprej prikazala značilnosti doživljanja časa, nato bom predstavila značilnosti doživljanja časa, nato bom predstavila A-in B-teorijo časa in ontološke različice, ki so zaznamovale diskusije o filozofiji A-in B-teorijo časa in ontološke različice, ki so zaznamovale diskusije o filozofiji časa. Zaključila bom z optimističnim časa. Zaključila bom z optimističnim pogledom na raziskovanje, ki pogledom na raziskovanje, ki se odpira znotraj kognitivne znanosti. se odpira znotraj kognitivne znanosti. Ključne besede 2. DOŽIVLJANJE ČASA čas, doživljanje časa, A Ernst Pöppel (1978) [4] je navedel naslednje značilnosti kot -zaporedje, B-zaporedje, tek časa temeljne značilnosti doživljanja časa: 1. UVOD 1. trajanje »Kaj je torej čas? Če me nihče ne vpraša, vem; če pa ga hočem na vprašanje razložiti, ne vem.« [1: XI/14] Slavni citat iz 2. ne-simultanost Avguštinovih Izpovedi nas opozori, da se kljub temu, da smo vpeti 3. red v različne časovne okvirje, v katerih preživljamo svoj vsakdan, 4. preteklost in sedanjosti znajdemo v zadregi, ko bi morali o času povedati kaj več. Avguštin je nato nadaljeval. »Vendar si upam z gotovostjo trditi, da bi ne bilo 5. sprememba, vključujoč tek časa preteklega časa, če bi nič ne prehajalo, da ne bi bilo prihodnjega Vsaka od teh značilnosti se na prvi pogled morda zdi očitna, a časa, če ne bi nič prihajalo, in ne sedanjega časa, če ne bi bilo nič dejansko odpira nadaljnja vprašanja. Na primer, ko rečemo, da je pričujoče.« [1: XI/14] prvi interval daljši od drugega, kaj je dejansko opisano kot kratko ali dolgo trajanje. Spomnimo se Avguštinovega citata - ne more Uganka, s katero se spoprijemajo umetniki – pesniki, pisatelji, glasbeniki, filmarji, gledališčniki, znanstveniki – biti preteklost, saj je ta nehala biti in kar ne biva, ne more imeti fiziki, biologi, lastnosti v sedanjosti. Avguštin je našel odgovor glede na to, kaj psihologi, kognitivni znanstveniki, antropologi in filozofi se merimo, ko merimo trajanje dogodka ali intervala časa, v razpleta na zelo različne načine, odvisno od zornega kota in raziskovalnega vprašanja, na katerega se raziskovalec osredotoča. pomnjenju. Iz tega je sklepal, da preteklost in prihodnost obstajata zgolj v duševnosti. Lahko se strinjamo, da je zaznava časovnega Kakšna je povezava med zunanjim, »fizikalnim«, objektivnim časom in notranjim, subjektivnim časom zavesti? trajanja pomembno povezana s spominom, a iz tega mnogi ne bi izpeljali tako radikalnega sklepa kot Avguštin. Zdi se združljivo, da Aristotel je povezal čas s fizičnim gibanjem »število gibanja glede merimo interval, ki je neodvisen od naše duševnosti, toda to na prej in pozneje« [2: 219b2]. Tako pojmovanje časa je omogočilo počnemo s pomočjo nekega psihološkega procesa. [4]. O posebni merjenje, na primer kroženje nebesnih teles, nihanje različnih nihal. vrsti trajanja je govoril William James, ko je izraz »varljiva Kot ugotavlja Marko Uršič [3] se Aristotelovo opredelitev časa sedanjost« (angl. specious present) opredelil kot kratko trajanje, ki običajno razume kot filozofsko definicijo fizikalnega in/ali ga občutimo neposredno in neprekinjeno. To stalno zavedanje kozmološkega, »zunanjega« časa v nasprotju z »notranjim«, določenega trajanja varljive sedanjosti, ki gre od nekaj sekund do fenomenološkim časom zavesti, duše, o katerem govori Avguštin: minute in kjer je vsebina zaznana tako, da ima en del prej in en del »Kolikor je doslej jasno in očitno, je to, da niti prihodnost ne biva kasneje, je po njegovem prava intuicija časa. Kot ugotavlja niti preteklost. Potemtakem pravzaprav ne moremo reči: trije časi LePoidevin, je Jamesova opredelitev dvoumna, saj jo je mogoče so pretekli, sedanji in prihodnji. Natančneje bi se reklo takole: trije razumeti kot: časi so – sedanjost glede na preteklost, sedanjost glede na sedanjost 1. razpon v kratkoročnem spominu, in sedanjost glede na prihodnost. Zakaj le v duši bivajo časi kot te vrste trojstvo, drugje jih ne vidim: sedanjost glede preteklosti je 2. trajanje, ki je zaznano, ne kot trajanje ampak kot trenutno, spomin, sedanjost glede sedanjosti je vpogled, sedanjost glede 3. trajanje, ki je neposredno zaznano – ne skozi posredovanje prihodnosti je pričakovanje.« [1: XI/20]. Vendar Uršič dodaja [3], številnih drugih, morda vmesnih trenutnih zaznav, da sam Aristotel ni postavil ostre ločnice med zunanjim in 4. trajanje, ki je zaznano kot sedanje in kot razširjeno v času. notranjim časom, saj na vprašanje »Ali bi čas bival, če ne bi bilo duše?« odgovarja: »Če v naravi ne šteje nič drugega kakor duša Po njegovem mnenju je najbolj verjetno četrto razumevanje. oziroma um duše, potem ni mogoče, da bi čas bival, ko ne bi bilo Sedanjost izkustva je »varljiva«, saj naj bi se nanašala na interval duše«[2: 223a23-25]. Tak pogled je blizu Uršičevemu in ne na netrajajoč trenutek, kar naj bi bilo v nasprotju z objektivno panteističnemu stališču in morda lahko ponudi rešitev zagonetke, a sedanjostjo. Čeprav ni uporabil istega izraza, pa je na podoben sloni na za mnoge sodobne znanstvenike in filozofe vprašljivi način o fenomenologiji časa razmišljal tudi Edmund Husserl, ki je, 36 kot ugotavljata Andersen in Grush, poznal Jamesovo delo, B-zaporedje pa je statično. Ker se »zdaj« stalno premika, se predvsem pa so skupni predhodniki, ki so vplivali na oba [5]. V spreminjajo tudi A-časi. Na primer, zmaga slovenske reprezentance razpravi Predavanja k fenomenologiji notranjega zavedanja časa se vse bolj odmika v preteklost. Kot ugotavlja Danilo Šuster: »V pravi takole: »Ko na primer zveni neka melodija, posamezni ton ne dinamičnem A-zaporedju dogodki in stvari nastajajo in minevajo. izgine popolnoma, ko preneha dražljaj [npr. zvok ob nihanju Gre za spremembo, ki so ji stvari in dogodki podvrženi zgolj s tem, strune] oziroma z njim povzročeno živčno vzburjenje. Ko zazveni da so »v času«. Včasih tek časa označujejo prav kot tezo o nov ton [v melodiji], tedaj prejšnji ne izgine brez sledi, sicer ne bi premikajočem se »zdaj-u«, tek časa je v nenehnem spreminjanju A- mogli opaziti medsebojnih razmerij med toni, ampak bi imeli vsak časa, ki ga zaseda določena stvar ali dogodek v A-zaporedju.«[8] hip le en sam ton in eventualno v času med dvema tonoma pavzo, Po drugi strani pa dogodki v B-zaporedju svojega položaja v času nikoli pa ne bi imeli predstave /Vorstellung/ neke melodije« ne spreminjajo, »so« v nekakšnem brezčasnem smislu. Odnosov [citirano po 3: 289] V obeh primerih gre za to, da zaznavamo nekaj med dogodki tu ne opredeljujemo glede na preteklost, sedanjost in razširjenega kot sedanjost. prihodnost, gre za relacije, ki bi jih lahko primerjali z relacijami v Ta kratek prikaz seveda ne more izčrpati stališč in vprašanj, ki so prostoru. Na primer, na metrskem traku je oznaka »20 cm« pred jih odprli Avguštin, James in Husserl, v tem prispevku pa služi oznako »30 cm« in za oznako »10 cm«. B-zaporedje tako uvaja pojmovanje časa, ki je blizu prostorskemu pojmovanju in s tem predvsem kot ilustracija, kako pomembno je razlikovati med »zaznavati sedanjost« in »zaznavati nekaj kot sedanjost«. [4] Prav razumevanju časa v sodobnih fizikalnih teorijah [3]. (Več o razlikah in podobnostih v pojmovanju časa to je bistvena razlika, kljub sicer mnogim podrobnostim, med tem in prostora v kako zaznavamo predmete v prostorskih relacijah, na primer, blizu naslednjem razdelku). in daleč. Kajti ko zaznavamo preteklost, je ne zaznavamo kot preteklost, ampak kot sedanjost (preko spomina). Če sprejmemo Jamsov pristop z »varljivo sedanjostjo« ali Husserlovo tripartitni pogled o izkustvu časa, pa nam to spoznanje samo po sebi še ne more razložiti tega, da se naše doživljanje »kot sedanjosti« (as-of the present) stalno spreminja. Kot ugotavlja LePoidevin [4] sprememba v našem izkustvu ni isto kot izkustvo spremembe. Prav tek ali morda navidezen tek časa pa je tista značilnost, ki bi jo radi vsaj nekoliko podrobneje raziskali, predvsem z vidika ujemanja metafizičnih teorij zaznavanja časa, sodobnih fizikalnih teorij in prvoosebnega doživljanja časa. 3. METAFIZIČNE TEORIJE 3.1 A-zaporedje in B-zaporedje Kako razumeti stavek »čas beži«, s katerim pogosto opišemo naše doživljanje časa. Tako takrat, ko se oziroma nazaj, na vse, kar smo preživeli in kar se odmika v preteklost, kot takrat, ko gledamo v prihodnost, ki se nam hitro bliža. Toda ali čas res »teče«? Angleški filozof z začetka prejšnjega stoletja John Ellis McTaggart [6, 7] je dokazoval, da nas pojmi, s katerimi opisujemo naše izkustvo časa, na primer tek časa, vodijo v protislovje. Ubral je podoben način dokazovanja (reductio ad absurdum) kot Zenon, ko je dokazoval, da nas na prvi pogled nevprašljiva resnica (npr. obstoj mnoštva), vodi v protislovje. Iz tega je nato sklepal, da je potrebno tako trditev zavrniti. McTaggert dokazuje, da je podobno z obstojem Slika 1: A- in B zaporedje časa in da nas sprejemanje te trditve vodi v protislovje. McTaggert je dokazoval, da so A-določila, t.j. biti pretekel, biti Pri dokazovanju, da je čas nerealen in zgolj velika iluzija, ki jo je sedanji in biti prihodnji, protislovna, saj ni mogoče, da bi bil isti proizvedel človeški razum, je uporabil dva različna načina za dogodek lahko obenem pretekli, sedanji in prihodnji, oziroma, da opisovanje časovne določenosti dogodka. Pri prvem, imenujemo ga bi imel isti dogodek (Zmaga slovenske reprezentance na evropskem A-zaporedje, dogodke časovno razvrščamo glede na njihov odnos prvenstvu v košarki) vsa tri določila. Šuster v svojem članku do »zdaj« kot pretekle (včeraj, prejšnji teden, lani), sedanje (danes, opozarja, da enostaven ugovor realista glede časa, »da nič ne more letos) in prihodnje (jutri, naslednji teden, drugo leto). V primeru B- hkrati posedovati nezdružljivih lastnosti, noben dogodek ni takrat, zaporedja pa ni odlikovanega »zdaj«, gre preprosto za urejeno ko je sedanji tudi pretekel. Dogodki imajo te lastnosti zaporedoma, zaporedje trenutkov ((t1, t2 , t3, t4 , t5 ,...). Tako lahko rečemo, da najprej so prihodnji, potem sedanji in nazadnje pretekli. Gre za se je dogodek v času t2 je zgodil pred dogodkom v t3 in po zaporedje v času, v tem pa ni nobenega protislovja.« [8], ne omaje dogodku t1, ne moremo pa reči, da je dogodek v t2 pretekli dogodek antirealista. Kot smo videli, za McTaggarta časovni odnosi med ali prihodnji dogodek. Na primer, ko rečem (i) »Slovenska dogodki niso prvobitni, ampak jih analizira s pomočjo A- košarkarska reprezentanca je včeraj osvojila naslov evropskih zaporedja. Toda, trditev, da dogodek poseduje A-določila zapored, prvakov« ali »Slovenska košarkarska reprezentanca je 17. 9. 2017 v času, predpostavlja obstoj časa, kar pa vodi v blodni krog. osvojila naslov evropskih prvakov«, sem isti dogodek opisala na McTaggartov dokaz je sprožil diskusijo, katere prikaz bi presegel dva različna načina . V prvem stavku je časovna določenost okvir tega prispevka [3, 8, 9, 10], njegova razdelitev na A in B dogodka - »včeraj« odvisna od premikajočega se »zdaj«, v drugem zaporedje pa je zaznamovala razprave o filozofiji časa [11, 12]. pa je odvisna od »objektivnega« datuma. Zaporedji A in B urejata dogodke enako glede na časovno razdaljo in trajanje dogodkov, vendar je med njima pomembna razlika. A-zaporedje je dinamično, 37 3.2 Ontološke različice objektivnim, fizikalnim časom tak prepad, da ga ne moremo premostiti? A-zaporedje in B-zaporedje torej opisujeta isto zaporedje fizičnih dogodkov, vendar lahko A-zaporedju pripišemo A-določila, kot biti 4. SKLEPNE MISLI sedanji, n sekund pretekli ali n sekund prihodnji. V A-zaporedju Razprava med A-teoretiki in B-teoretiki ter med zagovorniki ima tako vsak čas edinstveno A-določilo, ki ga umešča v edinstveno različnih ontoloških stališč se nadaljuje. Oba tabora se lahko mesto znotraj zaporedja. Na ta način lahko čase uredimo v skladu sklicujeta na prednosti, a morata hkrati odgovoriti na vprašanja, ki z njihovimi A-določili. Vsak čas v A-zaporedju ima absolutno jih sproža njihov pristop. V prispevku sem na kratko predstavila pozicijo. Časi v B-zaporedju so prav tako urejeni, toda njihova osnovna stališča. A-teoretiki se pri iskanju podpore za svoje stališče urejenost je določena z relacijami prej kot in kasneje kot, časi so pogosto sklicujejo na izkustvo in doživljanje časa. A kot pravi torej urejeni glede na medsebojne relacije. Kot ugotavlja Simon Prosser, je zelo čudno, da bi lahko filozofsko razpravo odločilo Prosser [13], lahko vpeljemo še razlikovanje med A-teorijo in B- zgolj gledanje oziroma doživljanje [13: 23]. Kaj pa, če razlogi in teorijo: po A-teoriji je realnost najbolje opisana z izrazi A - argumenti, ki jih navajajo kritiki A-teorije, držijo? Če je na podlagi zaporedja, B-teorija pa z izrazi B-zaporedja. V skladu z A-teorijo znanstvenih izsledkov in filozofskih argumentov najbolje podprta obstaja samo en čas, ki je dejansko (realno) prisoten. To je B-teorija in eternalistično stališče? V tem primeru je naloga tako prvobitno, objektivno dejstvo, ki je od nas neodvisno. Toda, kateri filozofov kot kognitivnih znanstvenikov, da pokažejo, zakaj čas je prisoten, se s tekom časa nenehno spreminja. V nasprotju s doživljamo tek časa, zakaj se zdi naša časovna zavest v opreki z tem pa pri B-teoriji ni A-določil, nič nima objektivnega, A- izsledki fizike. Prosser meni, da obstajajo vidiki duševnega zaporednega mesta. Vsi časi imajo enak status. V skladu z B-teorijo življenja, »kako je biti za nas« (fenomenalna zavest, Nagel, tako ni teka časa, ni »gibanja« sedanjosti vzdolž časovne črte. [13: Chalmers), tako da se sprejemamo kot zavestni o teku časa. »Vsak, 3] ki trdi, da mu izkustvo pripoveduje, da čas teče, sprejema, da je Kot smo videli, B teoretiki čas vzporejajo z dimenzijami prostora. nekaj v karakterju naših duševnih življenj, kar nam to odkriva, Tako kot ni posebnih prostorskih lastnosti (npr. biti severno), karkoli je že lahko to »nekaj« [13: 26]. Sama menim, da je trenutno ampak so zgolj prostorske relacije (biti severno od), tudi ni najbolj zanimivo področje raziskav, ki skuša povezati prvoosebno posebnih A-lastnosti. A-teoretiki pa vidijo bistvene razlike med izkustvo z raziskavami v nevroznanosti. V zadnjem času smo priča prostorom in časom, saj tudi če sprejmemo, da ni pravih raziskavam, ki kažejo, kako bi lahko sodelovanje med prostorskih lastnosti, obstajajo prave A-lastnosti. Za razliko od fenomenološkimi pristopi (npr. Husserlovim opisom časovne prostora za čas dejansko lahko rečemo, da mineva. Obstaja pa še en zavesti, retencije in protencije) in računskimi modeli nevronskih pomemben vidik, zaradi katerega se po mnenju A-teoretikov mrež osvetljevalo in dopolnjevalo oba, na videz nasprotna si razlikujeta prostor in čas. Nekateri zagovarjajo stališče, da obstaja pristopa. [16, 17, 18] zgolj sedanjost (presentism) – nujno je vedno resnično, da obstajajo zgolj sedanji objekti. [14] Preteklost je bila, a ni več, prihodnost bo 5. ZAHVALA prišla, a je še ni. This work has been supported by the Croatian Science Foundation under the project number IP-2014-09-6963. 6. LITERATURA [1] Avguštin, A. 1984. Izpovedi (prev. Anton Sovrè). Celje: , Mohorjeva družba. [2] Aristotel, 2004. Fizika (I-IV) (prev. Valentin Kalan). Ljubljana: Slovenska matica. [3] Uršič, M. 2002. Štirje časi Filozofski pogovori in samogovori: Pomlad. Ljubljana: Cankarjeva založba. [4] Le Poidevin, R. 2015. “The Experience and Perception of Time”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2015 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = Slika 2: Tri metafizične teorije časa [15] . navzgor in konvencionalno predstavljajo smer prihodnosti. Predstavljajo dinamični vidik časovnega nastajanja in teka časa. [5] Andersen, H., Grush, R. 2009. “A Brief History of Srednji diagram predstavlja stališče, po katerem je prihodnost Time Consciousness: Historical Precursors to James razvejana struktura alternativnih možnosti (model drevesa, and Husserl”. Journal of the History of Philosophy, 47 growing block view). Ta pogled se v veliki meri ujema z našim (2). pp. 277-307. vsakdanjim pogledom, da obstaja nesimetrija med preteklostjo in [6] McTaggart J. M. E. 1908. “The Unreality of Time”, prihodnostjo, ki je v prvem stališču ni. Tretje stališče, ki ga Mind 17(1908), 457-74. implicira B-teorija, pa je stališče večnosti (eternalism, the block [7] McTaggart J. M. E. 1927. The Nature of Existence. universe). Glavna problema tega pristopa sta, kako razložiti Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. intuicijo o nesimetriji med preteklostjo in prihodnostjo ter [8] Šuster, D. 1998. “McTaggartov "dokaz"”. Analiza, vprašanje zanikanja teka časa, ki se zdi v nasprotju z našim 1998, let. 2, št. 2/3, 40 izkustvom. Pa vendar se tako Parmenidovsko stališče zdi najbolje -58. [9] Mellor D. H. 1998. Real Time II. London and New podprto s sodobno fizikalno teorijo, predvsem Einsteinovo relativnostno teorijo. Ali je med izkustvom, doživljanjem časa in York: Routledge. [10] Uršič, M. 2002 . ”A remark on the “unreality of time”” . 38 Acta Analytica 25, Vol. XV (2000), pp.161-172. . Theory of Time. New Haven and London: Yale [16] Varela, F. (1999), “Present-time Consciousness”, University Press. Journal of Consciousness Studies 6(2–3): 111–140. [12] Poidevin, R. & MacBeath, M. (ur.). 1993. The [17] Van Gelder, T. (1996), “Wooden Iron? Husserlian Philosophy of Time. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Phenomenology Meets Cognitive Science”, Electronic [13] Prosser, S. 2016. Experiencing Time. Oxford: Oxford Journal of Analytic Philosophy, 4. University press . [18] Grush, R. 2005, “Brain time and phenomenological [14] Markosian, N.2016. »"Time«, The Stanford time”, in Brook and Atkins (eds), Cognition and the Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2016 Edition), Brain: The Philosophy and Neuroscience Movement, Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. . [15] Savitt, S. 2017. “Being and Becoming in Modern Physics”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2017 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = 39 Cognitive modulation of pain: how do cognition/mind influence pain processing? Duška Meh Dejan Georgiev Kaja Meh Faculty of Medicine Faculty of Arts Faculty of Arts Linhartova 51, 1000 Ljubljana Askerceva 2, 1000 Ljubljana Askerceva 2, 1000 Ljubljana +386 40 201 615 +386 40 743 226 +386 31 278 571 meh.duska@gmail.com dejan.georgiev@gmail.com kaja.meh@gmail.com ABSTRACT where brain processes are being considered in the analyses of Pain is somatic perception with a strong cognitive component and human cognition [2]. arises from physiologic (e.g. nociception), psychic (e.g. sadness) or Components of pain processes are sensory, perceptual and social/environmental factors (e.g. neglect). This multidimensional cognitive. Sensory processes take place peripherally and are phenomenon helps with precise preservation of the homeostasis, measurable with physical instruments and metrics. Perceptual and stabile internal environment, and presents a precondition for cognitive processes are processed within the organism, without survival. The information from and about the human's inner and necessary reliance on physical metrics or instruments with outer world are accessible consciously and/or subconsciously. The predetermined protocols, and could be followed with more final control is usually attributed to the brain. This fascinating organ sophisticated devices [3-5]. is seen as a mysterious instrument that displays a remarkable intelligence and ability to adapt. This possibly understandable and The disciplines concerned with pain as a health problem are sophisticated mechanism governs cognition and thought with medicine, psychology, pharmacology and bio-technical disciplines. neural and psychological underpinnings. The treatment and management of pain requires more health care resources than the treatment of diabetes, heart diseases The studies of how cognition is realized in the brain enables and cancer combined [6]. The mechanisms of pain management researchers and professionals to explain the most complex thought are based on the ways in which physical sciences process relatively processes. Psychical and physical modifications of mental simple or highly variable electrical impulses evoke sensation and processes operate at different stages of processing and can to some manage them with the sophisticatedly evolved complex extent be observed or at least empirically probed. The scientific alternations of perception. The final goal of investigations is a investigation by means of the methods of the natural and social steady development of universal trans-disciplinary tools for the sciences confirms the cognitive influence on perception of somatic effective and explanatory mechanism-based management. sense (pain). 3. FROM SENSATION TO COGNITION General Terms AND VICE VERSA Management, Measurement, Documentation, Human Factors, Physiological, psychical and environmental processes are usually Theory. explained as linear functions. Universal solutions for the Keywords explanation of those intertwined operations demand sophisticated instruments [5]. Contemporary knowledge is organised in a Cognition, Pain, Perception, Psychophysics, Psychocognition multidisciplinary way, but gaps are most effectively bridgeable 1. INTRODUCTION through a trans-disciplinary approach [7-9]. Conscious organisation and processing of thought is scientifically approached Somatosensation and its most ubiquitously appreciated and by cognitive psychology, an integrative interaction of brain and attention-seeking mode – pain – is challenging. The contemporary mind [2]. knowledge and science of pain, especially the humanistic kind, demands and allows the creative and unlimited brainstorming on all Pain processing is in medicine and related disciplines levels. The rules and doctrines have to be generally valued and acknowledged biologically (physiologically), although the person/individual oriented at the same time. The principles for generally accepted definition mention psychical factors too [10]. elimination of confusion and the emphasis of the importance of Their influence is better explained in Price’s definition [11]. cognitive determinants of somatic sensation (pain) are proposed. Recognition and evaluation of cognitive contents and processes remain undervalued and disregarded. The number of sensory 2. PAIN informations per sec is 109 bit, and 102 bit of them arrives to brain Pain is a multidimensional and multifunctional phenomenon. As a centres [12], where they elicit perceptions of senses (including highly subjective perception, it is characterized by complex and pain). Perceptual experience is elicited by sensation, initiation of often non-linear relationship between nociceptive input and pain physiological processes by sensory stimuli (i.e. prick) and the perception. The study and management of this unpleasant process of accepting the environment. Perception, the process of symptom, syndrome or disease per se is demanding. The scientific attaining awareness of sensory information, happens and professional approaches range from the study of the peripheral simultaneously with sensation. We cognitively (consciously, structures, processes and mechanisms [1] to the last considerations mentally) interpret the sensory stimulus and understand sensory information (i.e. we are aware of it) [13]. 40 Sensory processes in the appropriate centres integrate and interpret  dissociation and reappraisal either distance the person from the arrived informations and turn them into appropriate responses the pain or make the pain more tolerable, [14; 15]. Neuromatrix serves as a treasure of basic patterns that  nonjudgement include the experience, without unnecessary could be changed and modified [16]. Recognition of received evaluation of characteristics as “good” or “bad”, information is a function that categorises percept sense and serves  acceptance actively allows experience to solely be an as a diagnostic tool, which identifies factors that influence and experience, without a need for it to be different, burdens health status.  absorption implies intense, hypervigilant intentional or Modern scientific fields in neurology are devoted to investigation unintentional focusing on pain and  of neural mechanisms underlying the complex cognitive processes. rumination signifies unintentional preoccupation with pain. It is well known that a variety of cognitive processes influences 4.2 Cognitive content pain perception and biases nociceptive processing in the human Cognitive content involved in pain recognition and management brain [17-19] and the modulation of sensory information is an include self-efficacy, catastrophizing, beliefs about pain, emerging field in pain (somatosensitivity) research [17; 18]. expectations: Cognition, referring to the mental process by which external or  self-efficacy – the belief that one can manage pain, internal input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored,  catastrophizing – focusing on negative aspects and recovered, and used, has different and for physical metrics consequences of pain and ruminating about negative beliefs, inaccessible underpinnings. Such an intellectual query demands  belief that pain represents a threat, and allows exclusively highly sophisticated approaches. It involves  expectations and a variety of functions such as perception, attention, memory coding,  predictions. retention, and recall, decision making, reasoning, problem-solving, imaging, planning and executing actions [20; 21]. 5. INVESTIGATION OF COGNITIVE The sensory, perceptual and cognitive information are additionally PROCESSES AND CONTENT profoundly interconnected with unique individual psychical Classical psychophysics relates physical stimulus energy to factors, e.g. emotional, which modulate anticipated experience psychological sensation. The ideal psychophysical process is the [22]. Descending and afferent pathways, e.g., reciprocally function of a single variable and the perceived sensation is influence the nociceptive input or elicited pain response. Cognitive appreciated as the function of the intensity of the physical stimulus. psychology is thus the foundation on which all other social sciences Other factors that affect sensation are mostly neglected or stand, in the same way that physics is the foundation for the other considered as a nuisance or as context variables that should be physical sciences; neurological mechanisms are physiological [23], eliminated to isolate the true psychophysical relation [5]. preserved in the neuromatrix [16]. The explanation of many comprehensive issues, which emphasise Cognition and consciousness as well as the complex structure and multidimensional phenomena such as sensations (i.e. pain), should functionality of the brain is intensively investigated and drives be grounded on the important cognitive determinants. researchers toward exploring the mysteries of human thought. They Psychocognition (integration psychophysics) integrates separate are beyond the realms of human scientific understanding and functions, such as sensation of two or more variables, into a unitary reasoning [24]. The approach should exhibit universal solutions for perception. Variables may be sensory, perceptual, and cognitive. similar queries. The neurodynamical processes are the basis of Because of many-variable forms, integration psychophysics can perception, cognition, and behavioural decision making, and is work entirely within the organism. The principles that govern the recorded with neurophysiological instruments [25; 26]. conceptions of psychophysics, are realistic, physical and Psychophysical evaluation of sensory processes is accessible with necessarily rely on the physical metrics. Psychocognitive, on the psychophysical tests [27-29]. For the comprehensive understanding other hand, typically lie at a stage beyond sensory processing, of human perception, new protocols are suggested [30; 31]. within the mental realm [2]. 4. COGNITIVE MODULATION The contemporary neurophysiologic (electrophysiologic) and (PLASTICITY) OF PAIN neuroimaging studies of neural mechanisms underlying more complex cognitive modulation indicate that modulations of pain are Pain sensation, perception and biased nociceptive processing are likely to share the general mechanisms and substrates of sensory influenced by two aspects of cognitions: variety of cognitive processing. The pain modulatory systems complement, interact and processes [17] and cognitive content [32]. Cognitive processes overlap with general cognitive (mental) control systems [2; 16]. characterize how individuals think about pain, whereas cognitive content establishes what individuals think or believe about their Neurology has many common points with neurophysiology and pain. psychology shares many methods and instruments with psychophysics. Cognitive psychology integrates mechanisms and 4.1 Cognitive processes principles. Cognitive processes involved in pain recognition and management are distraction, enhancement, suppression, dissociation, 6. COGNITIVE APPROACH TO nonjudgment, acceptance, reappraisal, absorption and rumination CHRONIC DISEASES [33]: Chronic diseases are long-lasting and frequently exhausting  distraction divides and diverts attention away from pain, to conditions and can be often overloaded with an additional, for now more pleasant perception, incurable, health problem: pain. This unpleasant phenomenon  enhancement diverts attention to positive thoughts [34], arises as a symptom or sign, as an entity per se or complication  suppression diverts thoughts by conscious suppression and [35]. Patient-oriented health care of patients with somatosensory captures a form of cognitive avoidance, disturbances, including pain, seems to increase costs related to improvement of common chronic conditions. But the determination 41 of a connective link/program leads to the development of [9] Klein, J.T., 2008. Evaluation of interdisciplinary and increasingly sophisticated scientific methods for understanding the transdisciplinary research: a literature review. American workings of the brain and the very nature of consciousness. The journal of preventive medicine 35, S116-123. advanced techniques for monitoring the brain and psychical [10] Merskey, H. and Bogduk, N., 2012. Classification of processes require the development of novel methods of theoretical Chronic Pain. 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In Svetlobna terapija v 43 Modeling the Model: the World Beyond the Immediate Sensorium Prof. dr. sc. Sibila Petlevski ADU, University of Zagreb Trg maršala Tita 5, 10000 Zagreb sibila.petlevski@gmail.com ABSTRACT memory retrieval, consciousness and dreaming state? Maybe we The paper explored the hypothesis that there might be a certain should combine useful insights from different model-paradigms, type of probabilistically acquired embodied calculus that but how? By optimizing the practice of already established models that proved their efficacy in experimental work, or from “above” meditates our sensory perception. Our intention is to reflect upon some problems connected to modeling consciousness while from the explanatory unification paradigm and its claims about weighing sensory and social perception against each other in the explanations contributing to our understanding of the world by theater of action where Bayesian brain “plays us” while playing embedding phenomena into general nomic patterns that we with itself. recognize in the world? To what extent our methodological choices connected to the controversy about the concept of the unification of knowledge help/limit our insights into the Keywords phenomena that we explain [4][5]. Are we (still) satisfied with consciousness, modeling, Bayesian probability bayesian calculation of epistemological «virtues» of unification [6]? Can we compare explanatory relevance [7] and constitutive 1. INTRODUCTION relevance [8]? Is Elsasser's proposal to overcome reduction by the This paper is organized around the hypothesis that there might be formalization of complexity through the undifferentiated a certain type of probabilistically acquired embodied calculus that heterogeneity of logical classes [9] still relevant? Are we “in the gird” of some sort of a “fearful symmetry”2 meditates our sensory perception. That would imply that what we because we are unable cognitively perceive and what we like to call “our reality” is to get outside of the complex “reality” of the model? already a model. We can literally “see” the model (without being aware of it) in such moments when “non-stimulus-driven inputs 2. A REALITY MODEL allow early neurons to respond even to stimuli which are inferred Suppose it is impossible for us to be “outside” the texture of the but not directly presented to the retina” [1, p. 1]. Our intention dynamics and the dynamics of the texture in which we partake, here is to reflect upon some problems connected to modeling consciousness while weighing sensory and social perception against each other in the theatre of action where Bayesian brain 2 “Fearful symmetry” is a widely quoted, differently interpreted and for “plays us” while playing with itself. In the first part of the paper, different reasons, and in different contexts used and misused syntagma, which reflects upon some recent approaches to modeling borrowed from the poetic/philosophical system of William Blake. The consciousness, we pose a plethora of questions important for the religious interpretation of the poem containing this syntagma should not chosen topic: - Should we favor mathematical abstraction and its be taken for granted. Mentioning «fearful symmetry» we refer to the “beauty” and use topological insights1, or combine complex first and the last symmetrically positioned quatren of the poem «The Tyger» composed of six stanzas. Contrary to the most of the already reality models with Bayesian ones, or give more emphasis on the established interpretations of Blake's philosophical views, we strongly development of bio-inspired models? How effective is the argument in favor of his methodological naturalism and we recognize topological hypothesis in resolving still unresolved problems the anticipatory value of Blake's functionalist insights into concerning our psychological activities, such as mind-wandering, developmental potentials of the human brain as a sophisticated pattern- seeking instrument. The poem was published in 1795 in the Songs of Experience collection, as a counterpoint to the poem «The Lamb» 1 See, for example Tozzi’s paper “A Symmetric Approach Elucidates published in the previous collection titled the Songs of Innocence. Multisensory Information Integration” in which he argues that the Blake was an admirer of Swedenborg’s methodological naturalism but Borsuk-Ulam theorem is a general principle underlying nervous his position of Swedenborg’s theological though oscillated from the multisensory integration claiming that topological tools not only shed satire in The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, across the phase of interest new light on questions concerning the functional architecture of mind in Swedenborg’s science and philosophy, to the phase of his criticism of and the nature of mental states, but also provide an empirically The New Jerusalem Church. Blake also knew (an illustrated) the work assessable methodology [2, p.1-14]. Another example could be recent of Darwin’s grandfather – Erasmus Darwin – who formulated one of the research focusing on the link between neural network structure and its first formal theories on evolution in Zoonomia, or, The Laws of emergent function where the scientists attempt to describe such a link Organic Life (1794-1796). Blake’s disillusionment with Swedenborgian by “taking the direction of synaptic transmission into account, church already happened in the years when he wrote The Book of constructing graphs of a network that reflect the direction of Experience, but this paper is not the right place to discuss in detail information flow, and analyzing these directed graphs using algebraic Blake’s peculiar blend of spiritual naturalism, non-theism, simultaneous topology” [3, p. 1-16]. deism and anti-deism, and radical revolutionary ideas. 44 but what we can is to assume virtual outsiders’ perspectives in solve the problem of patterning of living organisms, starting in the order to assess the degree of the “reality” of the model that we co- 50s from Turing’s “tiger stripe” theory, a brilliant idea that two create by taking part in its dynamics. Suppose that the potential kinds of reacting chemicals with different diffusibilities – two for perspective-assuming is already present in the first focusing of morphogens that work together as an “activator" and “inhibitor” – attention of a child in the pre-speech phase of its cognitive could form a steady-state spatial pattern. Take into consideration development, then it will be true – as Graziano & Kastner the example of the cellular slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum hypothetize – that awareness is best described as a perceptual as an organism interesting both for biologists and for physicists. model, not merely a cognitive or semantic proposition about This unicellular species was chosen as a model organism for ourselves that we can verbalize, but instead, a rich informational biomedical research because it could be used for a model system model that includes, among other computed properties, a spatial for the study of cellular morphogenesis and the study of pattern structure [10, p. 99]. Graziano & Kastner believe that their formation. The synchronization mechanism of oscillatory explanation of consciousness as a construct of the social production of cyclic adenosine 3'5'-monophosphate in perceptual machinery is contrary to the hypothesis that Dictyostelium might be a universal feature that can explain consciousness is an emergent property of the brain caused by synchronization in other organisms4. In their recent research, neuronal complexity, and they have some serious concerns about Tozzi and Peters hypothesize that brain functions are embedded in the “rival” theory: first, they think that such as emergent property an imperceptible fourth spatial dimension and propose a method may lack adaptive value3, and second, they don’t see how the to empirically assess its presence. In order to achieve that, they complexity theory could give answers to vital questions on how use a concept from topology, the 4D space of a "hypersphere's consciousness emerges, and from what specific neuronal process. torus" to understanding brain functions. The torus is undetectable We are prone to think that a peculiar sort of dynamism of reality- by observers living in a 3D world and they compare it with a as-a-reality-model in which we partake, is a type of functional video game with biplanes in aerial combat: when a biplane flies complexity that goes beyond both perceptually experiential and off one edge of gaming display, it does not crash but rather it cognitively perceptual human scale. It is our intuition that the comes back from the opposite edge of the screen. Tozzi and Peters complexity of human reality as a reality-model should be (at least) think that “our thoughts exhibit similar behavior, i.e. the unique the function of component complexity and system complexity. ability to connect past, present and future events in a single, Here under system complexity we refer to the complexity coherent picture as if we were allowed to watch the three screens resulting from the relationship between the functional processes of past-present-future ‘glued’ together in a mental kaleidoscope.” like communication, concurrence and multi-instance which have [13, p. 189]. their internal “component complexity”. However, imagine for a The idea that we cannot perceive un-modeled reality is highly moment the situation where what we experience as our realty disturbing in a philosophical sense, and the very thought that we turns to be a bio-emergent topological complexity. Biological development “takes advantage” of certain (physical or chemical) do not “exist” outside of the “reality” (co)modeled for us and by us, makes us cognitively biased in favor of the interpretation of manifestations of mathematical possibilities usable for the the superiority of the top-down, “perceptually cognitive” insight dynamical development of a certain form; it adopts these into what makes the conceptual stasis of a particular quale. In the possibilities and turns them to its own purpose. The opposite type text titled “Why cognitive penetration of our perceptual of “getting an inspiration from” is not so rare in biology. In this experience is the most plausible account?” Newen & Vetter claim context, for example, various models have been developed to that our perceptual experience is influenced by higher cognitive phenomena like beliefs, desires, concepts, templates, but they are not sure to what extent and how exactly. They claim that the weak 3 It seems that emergent property of the brain caused by neuronal impenetrability claim cannot account for (1) extensive structural complexity may have adaptive value after all. See an adaptive network feedback organization of the brain, (2) temporally very early model of synchronization proposed by Assenza et al. [11]. The role of feedback loops and (3) functional top-down processes modulating synchronization in nature, society and technology is valuable. However, real world systems change their interaction patterns in time. Assenza et early visual processes by category-specific information. They al. analyzes synchronization features in networks in which structural admit that the strong impenetrability claim could incorporate and dynamical features co-evolve: “The feedback of the node dynamics these data by widening the ‘‘perceptual module” such that it on the interaction pattern is ruled by the competition of two includes rich but still internal processing in a very large mechanisms: homophily (reinforcing those interactions with other perceptual module. They argue that this latter view leads to an correlated units in the graph) and homeostasis (preserving the value of implausible version of a module. the input strength received by each unit). The competition between these two adaptive principles leads to the emergence of key structural Contrary to them, in the second part of this paper, we argue that properties observed in real world networks, such as modular and scale– topological models – concretely the concept of 4D space of a free structures, together with a striking enhancement of local "hypersphere's torus" proposed and experimentally used by Tozzi synchronization in systems with no global order” [Ibid, p. 1]. In such systems – “on one hand, local synchronization and consensus coexist with a lack of global order while, on the other hand, modularity and 4 See “Modeling the model organism Dictyostelium discoideum” by scale-free interaction patterns are core features of their backbone” [Ibid, Nagano: “Since the Belousov-Zhabotinskii reaction pattern, a well- p: 4]. Assenza’s research team claims that their adaptive network model known non-linear phenomenon in chemistry, was observed during reproduces respectively at the mesoscopic and microscopic level, two aggregation of Dictyostelium amoebae, Dictyostelium has been one of universal properties of real networks. In addition to this, the two the major subjects of non-linear dynamics studies. Macroscopic theory, structural properties occur when the system displays a large degree of such as continuous cell density approximation, has been a common local synchronization in the absence of global dynamical order” [Ibid, approach to studying pattern formation since the pioneering work of p. 4]. This research team claims that in such way their findings are in Turing. Recently, promising microscopic approaches, such as the agreement with either dynamical or structural features observed in real cellular dynamics method, have emerged. They have shown that neural and social systems. Dictyostelium is useful as a model system in biology”. [12, p. 541-50] 45 & Peters for better understanding brain functions – could offer a memory construction of the “world beyond the immediate very large ‘‘perceptual module” such that it includes rich but still sensorium” [20], as well as on a range of Bayesian models. internal processing. Because of our limited, three-dimensional perception, Tozzi & Peters’ type of realism may not be readily 3. CONCLUSION accepted, but these authors offer a method to empirically assess The overall theme of this paper is connected to some neither- the presence of the model of an imperceptible fourth spatial illusionary-nor-real “circumstances” in the dynamics of dimension of brain functionality. A four-dimensional brain, or a “perceptual experience” and “perceptual cognition”. In the three-dimensional brain that operates in four dimensions? – it concluding part we attempt to provide some argumentation for our does not really matter as long as the model of “topological brain” belief that the degree of the modeled neither-illusionary-nor-real could elucidate syntactic and semantic processing. Newen & “circumstances” in the dynamism of that model opens the Vetter offered a couple of other arguments against cognitive possibility to interpret one dynamic fuzzy set “level” impenetrability hypothesis, and in that context they mentioned interconnected to another dynamic fuzzy set “level” as more or visual illusions (those that remain stable even if we are fully less convincing and, at the same time, more or less illusionary on informed about the illusionary status of our experience) as the a scale that we use to interpret a degree of human reality. most striking evidence in favor of cognitive impenetrability. They However, at the very end of this paper, the important question agreed that such illusion allow us to discover construction about what could be the best model for modeling a model – principles of perception which remain active in everyday remains unanswered. perception as well. They also agreed that construction principles revealed by stable illusions exist and that they remain active, but they disagreed that these construction principles can never be 4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS influenced by higher cognitive processes. They expressed one This work has been supported by the Croatian Science Foundation worry: “Why should we accept the generalization of exceptional under the project number IP-2014-09-6963. cases of visual illusions to any case of everyday perceptual experience?” [14, p. 28] We find their argument based on the 5. REFERENCES supposed exceptionality of visual illusion cases superficial and [1] Petro, L. S., Vizioli, L. and Muckli, L. 2014. 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Hindawi Publishing Corporation The Scientific World 47 Psihološki in fiziološki odzivi ob robotski vadbi v različnih pogojih navidezne resničnosti Jasna Pinoza Anja Podlesek Gregor Geršak Center IRIS Filozofska fakulteta Univerze v Fakulteta za elektrotehniko Univerze v +386 31 274 734 Ljubljani, Oddelek za psihologijo Ljubljani jasna.pinoza@gmail.com + 386 1 42 13 590 +386 142 64 633 anja.podlesek@ff.uni-lj.si gregor.gersak@fe.uni-lj.si POVZETEK between heart rate and accuracy of driving the car. The motivation Naš namen je bil ugotoviti, v kolikšni meri lahko prek fizioloških for persisting and the sense of presence in the game were highly odzivov sklepamo na stopnjo motiviranosti in prisotnosti influenced by the cognitive effort. Accuracy of driving was udeleženca za igranje računalniške igre, ki bi bila uporabna pri influenced by both, cognitive and physical effort. When creating rehabilitaciji zgornjih okončin. Z znanjem o povezanosti an efficient computer game for rehabilitation it is very important fizioloških odzivov in psiholoških stanj bi rehabilitacijo lahko to plan appropriate physical exercise and cognitive tasks. prilagajali tako, da bi bolnik pri njej vztrajal čim dlje. Fiziološki odzivi, ki smo jih merili, so bili srčni utrip, temperatura in Keywords prevodnost kože, zbrali pa smo tudi subjektivne ocene rehabilitation, physiological responses, motivation, presence, zanimivosti, težavnosti igre, vživetosti vanjo ter želje po computer game nadaljevanju igranja. Srčni utrip se je med različnimi pogoji pomembno razlikoval. Najvišji je bil ob kognitivno in fizično zahtevnejših pogojih ter težjih nalogah, najnižji pa ob manj 1. UVOD zahtevnih. Prevodnost kože je bila prav tako občutljiva na različne Bolniki lahko s pomočjo interaktivnih in intenzivnih vaj z robotom izboljšajo svoje gibalne sposobnosti. Treba pa je pogoje, vendar se je bila manj zanesljiva mera. Temperatura kože upoštevati, da v rehabilitaciji uporabniki niso vajeni takšne je bila na razlike med pogoji zelo malo občutljiva. Rezultati kažejo interakcije, imajo pa tudi slabše gibalne sposobnosti. Zato je za nizke korelacije med prevodnostjo kože in motiviranostjo za nadaljevanje igre ter med srčnim utripom in natančnostjo uspešno rehabilitacijo pomembno, da robot s svojim vedenjem vožnje avtomobila. Na motiviranost za vztrajanje pri igri in čim bolj ustreza osebnosti in čustvenemu stanju človeka [3]. občutek pris Mnogo raziskav za namene rehabilitacije preučuje povezanost otnosti je pomembno vplival kognitivni napor, na natančnost vožnje pa poleg kognitivnega tudi fizični napor. fizioloških sprememb s čustvenimi stanji. Med najbolj pogostimi Lahko zaključimo, da je pri izdelavi učinkovite računalniške igre za merami sta srčni utrip in prevodnost kože, sledita pa mu rehabilitacijo poleg ustreznega načrtovanja fizične vaje ključna temperatura kože in dihanje. Raziskave v [4] in [5] so naredile obsežen pregled povezav čustev s fiziološkimi odzivi. Za tudi izbira primerne vsebine kognitivnih nalog. anksioznost so npr. značilni povišan srčni utrip, nivo (SCL) in odziv (SCR) prevodnosti kože ter znižana temperatura na prstu. Ključne besede rehabilitacija, fiziološki odzivi, motivacija, prisotnost, Za zabavo so bili v različnih raziskavah značilni zvišanje, znižanje računalniška igra ali pa nobena sprememba v srčnem utripu, zvišana ali znižana električna prevodnost kože (SCL in SCR) in zvišana temperatura ABSTRACT na prstu [4]. Raziskave preučujejo tudi povezanost fizioloških Our aim was to determine to what extent can the knowledge of the odzivov s prisotnostjo oz. občutkom, da je del neke resničnosti psychological responses help infer the level of motivation and the (npr. navidezne resničnosti med gledanjem filmov, branjem knjig presence of a participant playing a computer game, which would itd.). Rezultati npr. kažejo, da med odzivanjem v resničnem in be useful for rehabilitation of the upper limbs. Relying on the navideznem okolju najbolje diferencira srčni utrip, ki v correlation between physiological and psychological states we can navideznem okolju visoko naraste, medtem ko je temperatura adjust rehabilitation so that the patient persists in doing the kože na spremembe okolja manj občutljiva, prevodnost kože pa ni exercise as long as possible. The physiological responses we have kazala konsistentnih učinkov okolja [7]. measured were heart rate, skin temperature and conductivity. Navidezna resničnost, vpeljana z igranjem računalniške igre, ki je From the psychological responses we have assessed the point of interaktivna in posameznika stimulira prek več različnih čutnih interest and the difficulty of the game, participant involvement in kanalov, je lahko pomemben dejavnik motivacije v motorični the game and desire for its continuation. Heart rate was rehabilitaciji [8]. Npr. ko bolniki postopoma nadgrajujejo svoje significantly different under different conditions. It was the sposobnosti, je pomembno, da so gibalne naloge vse bolj highest under cognitively and physically more demanding zapletene oz. da zahtevajo vse več koordinacije različnih gibov. conditions and when performing more difficult tasks and the Tudi kognitivne naloge naj bi bile prilagojene stopnji kognitivnih lowest at less demanding ones. Skin conductivity was also sposobnosti, s čimer se izognemo dolgčasu in približamo zanosu. sensitive to different conditions, but this was a less reliable Dobro je tudi, da so igre zabavne, pri čemer pomagajo različni measuring tool. Skin temperature had a very low sensitivity to zvoki, vizualni učinki, in da vsebujejo rdečo nit (zgodbo), saj so changing conditions. I found low correlations between skin bolniki tako bolj motivirani za igro [1]. conductivity and motivation to continue playing the game and 48 Rehabilitacija negibljive okončine je lahko zelo naporna in če v vprašalnik, v katerem nas je zanimalo, kako zanimiva in težka je njej ne vidimo vsaj malo smisla, toliko prej odnehamo. Vztrajanje bila igra, kako so se vživeli vanjo in ali bi jo igrali še enkrat. v rehabilitacijski dejavnosti pa je ključnega pomena za izboljšanje Za analizo podatkov smo uporabili dvosmerno ANOVO za gibalnih sposobnosti. Osebo lahko morda spodbudimo k odvisne vzorce ali neparametrično Friedmanovo ANOVO z vztrajanju, če ponavljajoči se rehabilitacijski aktivnosti (gibanju Wilcoxonovim post hoc testom. Za primerjavo nalog smo okončine) dodamo kognitivno nalogo, tako da posameznik med uporabili enosmerno ANOVO za odvisne vzorce s Sidakovim fizično vadbo osredotoča pozornost na nekaj drugega, s čimer se post hoc testom. Povezanost med psihološkimi in fiziološkimi prekinja zaznana monotonost vadbe in zmanjša dolgčas. odzivi smo opredelili s Pearsonovim koeficientom korelacije. Za Uspešnost virtualnega okolja pa temelji tudi na tem, kako dobro ugotavljanje razlik v fiziologiji smo od vseh fizioloških odzivov v lahko pri uporabniku vzbudi prisotnost – občutek, da je del tega eksperimentalnih pogojih in kognitivnih nalogah odšteli odzive, okolja, ne pa resničnega, kjer je tudi njegovo telo [9]. Posameznik izmerjene v stanju mirovanja. misli, čuti in se obnaša tako, kot da je v drugem svetu, in da so resnični tudi dogodki, ki se dogajajo. 3. REZULTATI Namen naše raziskave je bil preveriti, kako se pri udeležencu z dodajanjem različnih kognitivnih nalog k osnovni nalogi 3.1 Primerjava različnih eksperimentalnih rehabilitacijske vadbe, tj. premikanju okončine, spremeni motiviranost za vadbo, prisotnost in subjektivna ocena težavnosti pogojev izvajanja vadbe. Poleg tega je bil namen tudi preveriti, kako se motiviranost za vadbo, prisotnost in subjektivna ocena težavnosti 3.1.1 Fiziološki odzivi v vseh štirih izvajanja vadbe razlikujejo pri različnih vrstah kognitivnih nalog. eksperimentalnih pogojih Merili smo tri fiziološke odzive – srčni utrip, prevodnost in Udeležencem smo, medtem ko so reševali kognitivne naloge in temperaturo kože – ki so v raziskavah najpogosteje uporabljene vozili avtomobil, merili različne fiziološke odzive. Rezultati so fiziološke mere za preučevanje psiholoških stanj. Raziskave prikazani v Tabeli 1. večinoma raziskujejo povezanost fizioloških odzivov in čustvenih Tabela 1. Opisna statistika fizioloških mer (v primerjavi s stanj, vendar smo raje vključili koncepte motivacije (zanimivost, stanjem mirovanja) v štirih pogojih (N = 39) odločitev za ponovno igro), prisotnosti (vživetost) in težavnosti, ki dajo več informacij o tem, ali bi udeleženec še vztrajal ob M SD M SD določeni dejavnosti ali ne. Srčni utrip 4,42 7,88 6,13 7,66 SCL Pogoj 1 0,44 1,45 Pogoj 2 0,64 1,63 SCR (K– F–) 10,85 10,33 (K+ F–) 6,98 7,80 2. METODA Temp. k. 0,55 1,47 0,31 1,35 Raziskavo smo izvedli s 43 udeleženci (24 moškimi in 19 Srčni utrip 8,53 7,10 5,32 6,25 ženskami), starimi povprečno 25,2 let (SD = 4,4; min = 18, max = SCL Pogoj 3 0,51 1,53 Pogoj 4 0,49 1,28 35). Kot pripomočke smo uporabili enostavno obliko navidezne SCR (K+ F+) 8,80 7,61 (K– F+) 10,15 8,20 resničnosti, to je štiri variante dvodimenzionalne računalniške Temp. k. 0,06 1,60 0,55 1,57 igre, v kateri so morali udeleženci čimbolj natančno voziti avto po cesti. Uporabili smo tudi vprašalnike za merjenje subjektivne Pogoji so se med seboj statistično pomembno razlikovali v srčnem zanimivosti igre, težavnosti igre, vživetosti v igro in željo po utripu, χ2 nadaljevanju igre. Za merjenje fizioloških odzivov (3) = 24,29, p < ,001, v prevodnosti kože (SCR), χ2(3) = smo uporabili merilnike srčnega utripa, prevodnosti in temperature kože 8,32, p = ,040, in temperaturi kože, χ2(3) = 13,09, p = ,004. , vgrajene v robotsko ročko Tabela 1 prikazuje rezultate Wilcoxonovega post hoc testa za . preverjanje enakosti fizioloških odzivov med posameznima dvema Deli igre so se razlikovali po prisotnosti/odsotnosti kognitivnih pogojema (meja statistične pomembnosti je p = ,050 / 6 = ,008). nalog (tj., kognitivni obremenitvi) in visokem/nizkem uporu robotske ročke (tj., fizični obremenitvi). Uporabili smo 2 x 2 Tabela 2. Primerjava fizioloških odzivov v štirih pogojih eksperimentalni načrt. V pogoju 1 kognitivnih nalog ni bilo (K−) (rezultati Wilcoxonovega post hoc testa in Cohenov d) in upor robotske roke (F−) je bil tako majhen, da osebi ni oteževal 1-2 1-3 1-4 2-3 2-4 3-4 manevriranja avtomobila v računalniški igri. V pogoju 2 so bile prisotne kognitivne naloge (K+), fizično obremenitev pa je prav srč ni Z –1,91 –4,54 –0,78 –3,73 –0,29 –3,99 utrip p ,056 < ,001 ,435 < ,001 ,769 < ,001 tako predstavljal le majhen upor robotske roke (F−). Pogoj 3 je d –0,61 –1,50 –0,34 –0,88 0,30 1,24 vseboval kognitivne naloge (K+), upora robotske roke ni bilo, SCR Z –2,97 –1,31 –0,41 –1,81 –2,76 –1,66 dodana pa je bila sila vztrajnosti (F+), zaradi katere je bilo težje manevrirati vožnjo avtomobila v računalniški igri. Pogoj 4 je bil p ,003 ,190 ,679 ,070 ,006 ,097 brez kognitivnih nalog (K−) in brez upora robotske roke, z d 1,28 0,69 0,23 –0,65 –1,12 –0,48 dodano silo vztrajnosti (F+). Z –2,19 –2,57 –0,84 –0,54 –1,83 –2,70 Udeleženci so s premikanjem robotske ročke usmerjali vožnjo Temp. p ,028 ,010 ,933 ,586 ,068 ,007 avtomobila. V križišču so se morali odločiti za eno od poti, in d 0,20 0,20 0,00 0,21 –0,16 –0,39 sicer glede na rešitev kognitivne naloge. Odločati so se morali med dvema odgovoroma in zaviti v smer, kjer je bil predvajan Pogoj 3 se je od vseh ostalih pogojev statistično pomembno pravilni odgovor. V nalogah so iskali sopomenke (npr. parfum je razlikoval v srčnem utripu; pri vseh treh parnih primerjavah je šlo „vonj“ ali „dišava“, reševali račune (npr. 7 * 9 – 22 = „30“ ali za velik učinek pogoja. Srčni utrip je bil torej najvišji v primeru, „41“) in zrcalili slike. Kognitivne naloge so morali udeleženci ko so udeleženci reševali kognitivne naloge, fizična obremenitev reševati čimbolj pravilno, hkrati pa čim bolj natančno voziti po pa je bila višja (K+ F+), najnižji pa nasprotno ob najnižjih zaviti cesti. Po vsaki odigrani igri so udeleženci izpolnili obremenitvah (K– F–). Pri parnem primerjanju ostalih pogojev 49 sicer nismo našli statistično pomembnih razlik, ne smemo pa pokazale na srednje do velike razlike. Udeleženci so npr. zanemariti majhne in srednjih velikosti učinka v teh primerjavah. težavnost pogojev s kognitivnimi nalogami ocenili kot izrazito Tudi parne primerjave prevodnosti kože (SCR) v različnih višjo kot pa težavnost pogoja, kjer so samo vozili avtomobil. To pogojih je pokazala na majhne, srednje ali velike velikosti učinka, pomeni, da ima prisotnost oz. odsotnost naloge pomembno vlogo vendar sta statistično pomembnost dosegli zgolj razliki med pri dojemanju igre kot težje oz. lažje. Enako lahko rečemo za pogojema 1 in 2 ter pogojema 2 in 4. Vendar pa je bila za razliko ostale tri vrste ocen, le da je bil učinek manjši kot pri težavnosti. od srčnega utripa prevodnost kože (SCR) najvišja ob kognitivno Če primerjamo še drugi pogoj brez kognitivnih nalog, torej pogoj in fizično najlažjem pogoju, nižja pa v pogojih z višjimi 4, s pogojem 3, kjer kognitivne naloge so (pri obeh pa je enaka obremenitvami (pogoja 2 in 3). V lažjih pogojih je temperatura fizična obremenitev), prav tako pridemo do podobnega zaključka, kože udeležencem bolj naraščala kot pa v pogojih z višjimi torej o pomembnem vplivu kognitivnih nalog, le da je velikost obremenitvami. Vseeno pa med pogoji ni bilo statistično učinka tu manjša (od majhna do srednje velika). Vpliv fizične pomembnih razlik, razen med 3 in 4, ki sta se razlikovala po obremenitve ni tako pomemben kot vpliv naloge, saj primerjava prisotnosti/odsotnosti kognitivnih nalog. Razlikovala sta se tudi v pogojev z različnimi fizičnimi obremenitvami (npr. 1 in 4 ter 2 in majhni velikosti učinka. Vpliv fizične obremenitve je bil majhen 3) ne pokaže niti na majhen učinek. oz. ga sploh ni bilo, če primerjamo pogoj 1 s pogojem 4 (ki sta bila oba brez kognitivnih nalog, z različno fizično obremenitvijo). 3.1.3 Povezanost fizioloških parametrov, subjektivnih ocen in natančnosti vožnje pri različnih 3.1.2 Subjektivne ocene v vseh štirih pogojih eksperimentalnih pogojih V veliko primerih so bile korelacije zelo nizke, nekaj pa je bilo Tabela 3. Opisna statistika ocen zanimivosti (Z), vživetosti (V), šibkih in srednje visokih. Npr. v pogoju 2 (K+ F−) je bila nadaljevanja igre (N) in težavnosti (T) v pogojih (N = 43) opaznejša korelacija med odklonom od poti in željo po nadaljevanju pogoja, r = ,34, p = ,024, enako tudi med odklonom M SD M SD od poti in zanimivostjo pogoja, r = ,32, p = ,036. To pomeni, da Z 7,37 2,21 8,56 1,3 slabše kot so udeleženci izvajali gibalno vajo, bolj jim je bil pogoj V Pogoj 1 7,23 2,48 Pogoj 2 8,30 1,37 zanimiv in bolj so si želeli, da bi nadaljevali z igranjem N (K– F–) 6,65 2,64 (K+ F–) 7,74 1,94 računalniške igre v pogoju, kjer so bile prisotne kognitivne naloge T 4,44 2,51 7,00 2,04 in manjša fizična obremenitev. Prevodnost kože (SCL) v pogoju 1 Z 8,21 1,61 7,67 2,09 (K− F−) je srednje visoko korelirala s subjektivno oceno V Pogoj 3 8,40 1,68 Pogoj 4 7,51 1,98 zanimivosti pogoja, r = ,44, p = ,005, in željo po nadaljevanju N (K+ F+) 7,58 2,17 (K– F+) 6,63 2,34 igre, r = ,48, p = ,002. Tudi v pogoju 2 je bila povezana z oceno T 7,12 2,00 5,86 2,14 zanimivosti, r = ,42, p = ,007. Povezave kažejo na to, da prevodnost kože (SCL) v določeni meri odraža motiviranost Pogoji se statistično pomembno razlikujejo v zanimivosti, χ2(3) = udeleženca pri igranju igre. Prav tako je bilo najti korelacije med 33,31, p < ,001, vživetosti, χ2(3) = 13,63, p = ,003, želji za srčnim utripom in natančnostjo vožnje – v pogoju 1, r = –,57, p < nadaljevanje igranja, χ2(3) = 23,34, p < ,000 in težavnosti, χ2(3) = ,001, in pogoju 2, r = –,45, p = ,004. Srčni utrip se je torej 50,00, p < ,001. Pregled Tabele 4 nam razkrije, da so med pogoji povečal v primeru, ko so bili udeleženci manj natančni pri brez kognitivnih nalog in pogoji s kognitivnimi nalogami (1–2, 2– opravljanju svoje naloge in s tem verjetno tudi bolj anksiozni. 4, 1–3, 3–4) v večini primerov statistično pomembne razlike. Lahko zaključimo, da slabše kot so udeleženci izvajali gibalno Meja statistične pomembnosti je p = ,050 / 6 = ,008. Razlike se vajo, bolj jim je bil pogoj zanimiv in bolj so si želeli, da bi pojavljajo pri primerjanju pogoja vožnje brez nalog (pogoja 1 in nadaljevali z igranjem računalniške igre v pogoju, kjer so bile 4) s pogojem vožnje z nalogami (pogoja 2 in 3) v primeru, ko je prisotne kognitivne naloge in manjša fizična obremenitev. bila fizična obremenitev pri obeh tako enaka kot različna. 3.2 Primerjava tipov kognitivnih nalog, Tabela 4. Primerjava subjektivnih ocen med pogoji (rezultati Wilcoxonovega post hoc testa in Cohenov d) predvajanih v pogoju z nizko fizično 1-2 1-3 1-4 2-3 2-4 3-4 obremenitvijo Z –4,44 –3,32 –1,73 –2,20 –3,36 –2,34 Z p < ,001 ,001 ,084 ,028 ,001 0,02 3.2.1 Pravilnost odgovorov pri različnih tipih nalog d –0,66 –0,43 –0,14 –0,24 0,51 0,29 Udeleženci so statistično pomembno bolje reševali naloge sopomenk v primerjavi z ostalima dvema nalogama, sploh v Z –3,06 –3,25 –1,08 –0,86 –2,35 –2,45 primerjavi z računi. Pravilnost odgovorov je povezana s V p ,002 ,001 ,278 0,388 ,019 0,01 težavnostjo naloge, zato sklepamo, da so bile sopomenke najlažja, d –0,49 –0,51 –0,09 0,07 0,43 0,48 slike malo težja in računi najtežja naloga. Z –3,91 –2,86 –0,41 –0,93 –3,44 –2,85 N p < ,001 ,004 ,685 ,351 ,001 ,001 3.2.2 Fiziološki odzivi pri posameznih tipih nalog d –0,47 –0,38 0,01 –0,08 0,52 0,42 (relativno glede na stanje mirovanja) Z –4,66 –4,61 –3,79 –0,09 –2,98 –3,25 Srčni utrip se je pri različnih vrstah kognitivnih nalog statistično T p < ,001 < ,001 < ,001 ,931 ,003 ,001 pomembno razlikoval, F(1,78, 71,38) = 4,10, p = ,024. Najvišji je d 1,12 1,18 –0,61 0,06 –0,55 –0,61 bil pri računih, nižji je bil pri zrcaljenju slik in najnižji pri sopomenkah. Rezultati za prevodnost in temperaturo kože ne Velikosti učinka v primerjavi pogojev 1 in 2 preko ocen kažejo statistično pomembnih razlik med nalogami. zanimivosti, vživetosti, želje po nadaljevanju igre in težavnosti so 50 3.2.3 Subjektivne ocene vseh tipov nalog V nadaljnjih raziskavah predlagamo dovrševanje računalniške Račune so udeleženci zaznali kot statistično pomembno manj igre, bogatejše dražljaje ter preizkus še drugih kognitivnih nalog. zanimive od ostalih dveh nalog, hkrati pa tudi težje. Vendarle pa Razmisliti bi bilo tudi treba, kako večkrat zapored zanesljivo in zanimivost računov ni bila tako nizko ocenjena (povprečje točk je veljavno meriti motiviranost in prisotnost med meritvami. Za bilo nad 7 od 10 možnih), zato jo lahko obravnavamo kot merjenje fizioloških odzivov predlagamo uporabo srčnega utripa, zanimivo nalogo), prav tako sopomenke in slike. Naloge so bile v ki se je izkazal kot najbolj občutljiv na različne kognitivne naloge povprečju ocenjene visoko (nad 7 točk od 10 možnih) tudi glede in pogoje, korelira pa tudi z motivacijo in prisotnostjo. vživetosti in želje po nadaljevanju igre. Predlagamo tudi merjenje EKG-ja na gibalno manj aktivnih delih telesa in daljši časovni interval izvajanja posameznih nalog, da bi 3.2.4 Povezanost fizioloških parametrov, subjektivnih se spremembe temperature lahko bolj veljavno odrazile. ocen, natančnosti vožnje in pravilnosti odgovorov pri Pomembno je, da v nadaljnjih raziskavah sodelujejo bolniki, ki potrebujejo rehabilitacijo. Ti bi verjetno bili bolj motivirani za različnih tipih kognitivnih nalog (natančno) opravljanje gibalnih vaj kot pa zdravi. Preverjali smo, ali obstaja povezava med fiziološkimi odzivi in na drugi strani zanimivostjo nalog, vživetostjo vanje, željo po nadaljevanju igre z določeno nalogo ter zaznano težavnostjo ZAHVALA nalog. V večini nismo našli pomembnih povezav. Omeniti pa Avtorji se zahvaljujejo prof. dr. Matjažu Mihlju, dr. Janezu moramo dve korelaciji – med srčnim utripom in vživetostjo v Podobniku, Juretu Pašiču in Blažu Jakopinu iz Laboratorija za reševanje nalog zrcaljenja slik, r = ,35, p = ,024, in srčnim robotiko Fakultete za elektrotehniko Univerze v Ljubljani za utripom ter željo po nadaljevanju reševanja že omenjenih nalog, r uporabo robota, tehnično podporo in analizo surovih podatkov. = ,35, p = ,025. Z drugimi besedami, bolj kot so bili udeleženci motivirani in prisotni v igri, višji je bil srčni utrip. Tudi v primeru koreliranja fizioloških mer z natančnostjo pri vožnji in številom REFERENCE pravilnih odgovorov glede na nalogo večina korelacij ni bila [1] Alankus, G., Lazar, A., May, M. in Kelleher, C. 2010. pomembno visokih, razen korelacija med odklonom in srčnim Towards customizable games for stroke rehabilitation. V utripom v primeru sopomenk, r = –,54, p < ,001, in računov, r = – Proceedings of ACM CHI Conference on Human Factors in ,40, p = ,010. Korelaciji pomenita, da je udeležencem ob slabši Computing Systems (str. 2113–2122). New York, ACM New vožnji bolj narastel srčni utrip. Najti je moč tudi srednje visoke York. doi: 10.1145/1753326.1753649 korelacije med odklonom in vživetostjo v naloge sopomenk, r = [2] Cervantes Blásquez, J. C., Rodas Font, G. in Capdevila Ortís, ,46, p = ,002, računov, r = ,45, p = ,002, in slik, r = ,34, p = ,047. L. 2009. Heart-rate variability and precompetitive anxiety in swimmers. Psicothema, 21(4), 531–536. 4. RAZPRAVA [3] Dautenhahn, K. in Werry, I. 2000. Issues of robot–human V večini primerov pomembnih korelacij med različnimi merami interaction dynamics in the rehabilitation of children with fizioloških odzivov in motivacijo ter prisotnostjo ni. Izjema je autism. V J. A. Meyer, A. Berthoz, D. Floreano, H. L. prevodnost kože (SCL), ki je v dveh pogojih v manjši meri Roitblat in S. W. Wilson (ur.), From Animals to Animats 6 pozitivno korelirala z motiviranostjo udeleženca pri igranju igre. (str. 519–528). MIT Press Cambridge, MA, USA. Kar nekaj raziskovalcev je našlo povezavo npr. med doživljanjem zabave in povišanjem prevodnosti kože (pregled v [4]), kar se [4] Kreibig, S. D. 2010. Autonomic nervous system activity in sklada z našimi ugotovitvami, vendar pa jih je nekaj poročalo tudi emotion: A review. Biological Psychology, 84, 394–421. o znižanju prevodnosti kože. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.03.010 Več skladnosti z literaturo najdemo v analizi srčnega utripa. Ta je [5] Lisetti, C. L. in Nasoz, F. 2014. Using noninvasive wearable v dveh pogojih in dveh nalogah srednje visoko koreliral z computers to recognize human emotions from physiological natančnostjo vožnje (ob večjih odklonih vožnje od sredine poti je signals. EURASIP Journal on Applied Signal Processing, 11, narastel). Udeleženci so bili ob slabši vožnji bolj vzburjeni. Z 1672–1687. doi: 10.1155/S1110865704406192 zvišanjem srčnega utripa se povezuje dvig vzburjenosti organizma [4]. Srčni utrip je srednje visoko koreliral tudi z vživetostjo in [6] McFarlanc, R. A. 1985. Relationship of skin temperature željo po nadaljnjem reševanju nalog zrcaljenja slik. Višji srčni changes to the emotions accompanying music. Applied utrip torej, kot kaže, ni povezan samo z anksioznostjo, ampak tudi Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 10(3), 255–267. doi: z motivacijo in prisotnostjo v nalogi. Prav tako je višji utrip 10.1007/BF00999346 odražal višji kognitivni in fizični napor, nižji pa manj zahtevne [7] Meehan, M., Insko, B., Whitton, M. in Brooks, F. P. b. d. pogoje. Udeleženci so imeli ob najtežji nalogi (računih) najvišji Physiological measures of presence in virtual environments. srčni utrip in ob najlažji (sopomenkah) najnižjega. Sneto z naslova Bolj kot natančnosti vožnje so udeleženci morda pozornost http://physiologicalcomputing.net/chi2002/chi_papers/Meeh posvečali nalogam, saj so subjektivne ocene nalog srednje visoko an_PhysiologicalPresence.pdf korelirale z vživetostjo pri kognitivnih nalogah. Slabše kot so [8] Rahman, S. A. in Shaheen, A. A. 2011. Virtual reality use in udeleženci kontrolirali robotsko roko za krmiljenje avtomobila, večji je bil njihov občutek, da so del navidezne resničnosti (igre). motor rehabilitation of neurological disorders: A systematic Predvidevamo, da so se bolj vživeli v kognitivne naloge in s tem review. Middle–East Journal of Scientific Research, 7(1), zanemarili vožnjo po sredini ceste. Vživetost v igro je 63–70. doi: 10.1186/1743–0003–1–10 sicer pokazatelj dobro pripravljene virtualne resničnosti in vztrajanja v [9] Sanchez–Vives, M. V. in Slater, M. 2005. From presence to rehabilitaciji [8], vendar pa ne smemo pozabiti, da je cilj consciousness through virtual reality. Nature Reviews rehabilitacije dvigniti gibalne sposobnosti na višji nivo. Neuroscience, 6, 332–339. doi :10.1038/nrn1 51 but the only one possible. Responding to the German Semantic Implication of leader’s call, the Europeans prepared for refugee admission: they provided meals, rendered medical care Traditional Values in to diseased, brought warm clothes and food, vacated trains and buses for them… until the una Conscience of Modern voidable culture clash happened. Regardless of what this crisis Teenagers1 results in, the Europeans have faced a problem of “what’s next?” What “old” and “new” inhabitants of Irina Shchukinа the Old World may count upon? Is the commandment Ludmila Dzurnáková Oleg Shchukin Law Department, Haniska Middle School 290, Gymnasium # 227, Saint Petersburg, Love thy neighbor… still valid for contemporary UL, Slovenia Košice, Slovakia Russia efficient population? yatik@mail.ru Sestraivana@hotmail.com Legolas_2001@mail.ru The purpose of our research has been to detect evidence of desemantization of the commandment ABSTRACT Love thy neighbor as thyself in Slavic languages and The article presents comparative analysis results the native language speakers’ perception. pertaining to ingrained functionality demonstrated by The semantic-and-style method used for Russian, Slovenian, and Slovak teenagers in processing the questionnaire data includes statistical explanation of the commandment Love Thy Neighbor and comparative analyses. As Thyself. In the present article, the authors do not The desemantization (Latin prefix de- means detect any desemantization elements to the traditional removal; Greek sћmantikos means having significance) Christian virtue and ask the question What is going to is the process of losing the word meaning. happen to Europe, Russia, and world tomorrow? They One of the monotheistic world’s traditional also hope that next generations aim at friendship and values expressed by the phraseological unit Love thy mutual understanding, and are ready to learn of each neighbor as thyself (Leviticus, 19:18) its semantics is other, understand, and accept. derived as a sum of component meanings. As it is known, a personality is formed mostly PREFACE by his/her family; moreover, a young person between Let us define a discourse as the aggregate of ages of 10 and 13 -- when it comes time to have an actualized connections to reality and consider the independent opinion -- becomes a translator of values process taking place inside its axiological component. acknowledged by parents and closer family members As it is known, concepts of reality and values and formed in school. The growing person “follows themselves are ephemeral. The things that were sacred carefully everything that is disapproved or approved. for majority yesterday seem to be trivial today. To …actions on demand are approved, but in case the European civilization, the Christian commandments others dislike them, the person is made to correct his have remained the most durable for a long time despite actions by observing the others” [5]. the test of time, e.g. “the refugee crisis” that caused Neurophysiologic research results indicate that confusion within the EC. the human brain completes its development by age of The decision by Angela Merkel, a member of 20-22, and only then, it is possible to speak of e.g. CDPG, to invite a million of refugees to the country responsibility for the said words [3]. Answers to our did it shatter Europeans’ confidence in consistency of questionnaire correlate to opinion by certain part of traditional virtues? Certainly, the German Chancellor population of Russia, Slovenia, and Slovakia. These was pushed towards that act by necessity to solve countries are Christian. Slovenia and Slovakia are economic, social, and political issues faced by the populated with Catholics mostly, and Russia with country. However, “invasion” instead of disciplined Orthodox Christians, although most of the population emigration in German tradition allows assuming that is still unchurched. However, churched citizens may be this decision was determined not only by the course of considered virtually Christians in orthodox way. history that declared Germans guilty. Getting to the The research was conducted for children and worldview structure [6], one can see that this decision, teenagers of 10-13 years old from three cities: Saint most probably, has originated from the worldview Petersburg, Russia; Košice, Slovakia; and Ljubljana, religious level (society consciousness), the level that is Slovenia. In total, 150 persons joined the study: 87 in responsible for emotions and assessment of moral Russia, 33 in Slovenia, and 30 in Slovakia. condition and actions of individuals or environment. The following questions were asked: Are you Thence there is a wish to act in accordance with familiar with the commandment Love thy neighbor as Christian nurture i.e. to help the destitute in defending thyself? How do you understand the word “love”? the suffered, etc. Undoubtedly, such action the Whom can you call your neighbor? And more? In your political leader to Europe -- which first passed a way opinion, can we call all the people on the planet the of “God-deprivation” [2] that «does not exclude neighbors? Why do you think so? Whom would you religious commitment; on the contrary, thanks to her, like to exclude from “neighbors”? What can make a attitude towards gods for the first time becomes a person be your neighbor? What in your consciousness religious experience» [2] -- seemed not only normal prevents you from accepting a person as your neighbor? Who can help a person to overcome prejudice against another? 1 "Materials of the research were published in Journal of Literature and Art Studies, ISSN 2159-5836, USA. Issue 2, Vol. 3, 2017, City of Industry, pp. 798-809". 52 FUNCTIONING OF PHRASEOLOGICAL disparagement, only Slovaks distinguish the special UNIT LOVE THY NEIGHBOR AS THYSELF IN group of classmates. Slovenians speak of friends only. SLOVENIAN AND SLOVAK LANGUAGES The question Can we call all the people on the The question Are you familiar with the planet the neighbors? was answered Yes by 18% commandment “Love thy neighbor as thyself”? was Slovenian respondents, No – by 54%; all kind ones – answered No by a single Slovenian kid, which amounts by 3%. No answer was received from 26%. Slovak to 3% of 33 respondents. All Slovak schoolchildren are respondents slightly differ from their Slovenian familiar with the commandment. The question How do colleagues. Their answers are: yes, because we belong you understand the word “love”? was answered to the same family, 33%; no, it’s hard / no, because variably and the most frequent answers by Slovenians some of them are evil people / no, because they have are: as the word “dear” and the person I love, 27% their own families / no, because not all of them are my each; there were also answers: become his/her friend relatives or friends, 60%. 7% respondents have given and the one who I consider mine or respect, 18% each. no answer. As we can see, the most complicated There were interesting isolated answers that cannot be component of the phraseological unit in question is not accounted for this study: the one who supports you, the desemantized. It has absolutely the same meaning as in one whom I think highly of. Slovaks’ answers were religious texts, without any semantic addition. Despite vaguer, but still more definite: love, answered 27% solitary rejection of other ethnic groups, Slovak schoolchildren; verb to love was used by another 40%. respondents are more susceptible -- than Slovenians -- The above amounts to 67% of all answers. Answers to the idea of calling all people the neighbors. God, Jesus loves us, love God amount to 17%. One The latter question and the following ones interesting isolated answer is: to help each other. were introduced to clarify presence or absence of The Russian verb любить / возлюбить phraseological unit spiritual value desemantization and (obsolete) / the same as полюбить [7] (to love) as well called for thinking over the idea contained in the as corresponding Slovenian ljubiti / rad imeti and commandment. Slovak milovat’ all have the same meanings: 1. Deep The question Why do you think so? was affection, strong gut feeling; 2. Deep disposition answered by Slovenian schoolchildren as follows: towards someone/something, self-sacrificing and kindness connects us, 18%; for we all are the same, sincere devotion; 3. Permanent strong addiction, 18%; because some of the people are not good ones, enthusiasm for something; etc. Collins English 27%; because I don’t know them, 18%; because we Dictionary gives similar definitions: to love: 1. to have cannot trust everybody, 10%. Of isolated answers, one a great attachment to and affection for; 2. to have is interesting: all people are valuable. Slovak children passionate desire, longing, and feelings for; 3. to like or answered: for we are all the same, 26%; because some desire (to do something) very much; etc. of the people are not good ones, 10%; because I cannot Orthodox and Catholic theologists define love embrace the whole planet / they are not my family / I as something high-spirited and self-sacrificing. “The don’t know, 10% each; no answer, 50%. love that Christ brought into our world has another new The question Who would you like to exclude from and more spiritual meaning: it is the love as Jesus “neighbors”? was answered by Slovenian understood it, sacrificing one’s life for neighbors” [8]. schoolchildren in typical ways: thieves and villains, As we can see, understanding of the term by 27%; those who are against me because I don’t know Slovenian and Slovak schoolchildren is very close to them / strangers / those who sins / those who doesn’t that describe in dictionaries. All shades of meaning that like me / nobody, 3% each; there were also unexpected respondents mentioned in their answers may be found answers: relatives and friends, 18% each; no answer , in First Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians, 9%. Here are some single answers: Japanese, they are Chapter 13 [9]. far away; Chinese. Slovak children have a different To the question Who can you call your approach to the world: nobody, 23%. Single answers neighbor? Slovenians named their family members and include: terrorists; some of the classmates; Gypsies. In relatives (64% respondents), friends and those who are their answers, Slovenian kids apparently tend to close to me (27% respondents); everyone (18%). substitute concept of neighbor by nearby. Here we can Slovak schoolchildren rather repeated the same again observe negative attitude to other ethnic groups: answers: family was chosen by large majority (73%); “bad ones” are Japanese and Chinese for Slovenians, and classmates (23%). Some Slovaks mentioned God and Gypsies – for Slovaks. Such answers are solitary. as their neighbor (13%), that Slovenians failed to do. Slovenians’ answers to the question What Since the respondents mentioned several neighbors, should happen to make a person your neighbor? total sum is over 100%; friends were mentioned in 10% include: it is necessary to become friends, 36%; to do answers. good, to trust, 9%; to know him/her better, 36%; we To the question And more? Slovenians have to confide in each other, 6%. Here are some answered: acquaintances and friends, 27%; relatives, single answers: wonder; he should feel affection to me. 18%; God, 18%; no answer, 31%. Slovak students Slovak students are sure that: he has to be added to neighbors: family, 27%; classmates, 33%; tender/happy, 7%; he has to protect me / help me / play friends, 20%. 13% pollees consider God their neighbor. with me / take care of me / be close to me / to love me Among isolate answers, we can mention: those who I and to be a Christian, 13%. Kind, 43%; well- can trust / to whom I have deep friendly feelings / all mannered, 10%; sweet, 17%; having a nice heart, 7%. classmates except for the Gypsies. Although some Here are some single answers: merciful; with God in Slovaks’ classmates are Gypsies who are treated his heart. Note the “ought to” focus shift from the negatively, probably due to some adults’ subject to the object: someone else ought to, not me. 53 Slovenians’ answers to the question What in Yes answer does not always reflect the real situation. In your consciousness prevents you from accepting a some cases, the pollees know the commandment itself, person as your neighbor? include: nothing, 27%; but they never bothered about it. hostility, 18%; deception, 9%. There are some Of Russian high-school students, 87 persons interesting isolated answers: temper; his malignity; that participated in the study: 59 fourth-graders and 28 we cannot understand his malice; we see the world fifth-graders. 57.5% Russian schoolchildren are not differently; ill acts; he is misbehaving; no answer , familiar with the commandment “Love thy neighbor as 18%. Slovak kids answered somewhat differently: I thyself”, and 42.5% are familiar, accordingly. don’t know, 10%; they are bad and proud, 17%. There For this reason we have divided the pollees’ are a lot of solitary answers, among those: he is a answers into YES-group (those who are familiar with friend of someone I don’t like / his behavior / he is the commandment) and NO-group (those who are not) Gypsy / if he hates each another / he cheats / he has no to make assessment if the results demonstrated by good heart / they are lazy / he’s bad: he doesn’t love secular-educated children differ from those by children me / he is unjust, greedy, criticizes other people. These brought up as a Christian. are sincere answers by little persons who are sure that First question, How do you understand the relationship concord is spoiled by external reasons word “love”? In YES-group, the verb “love” was the only. Surely, this is result of children’s perception of most widely used and variably presented in 43% the world where the child is the center of his/her answers; respect; 17%; to accept the person, his/her family, society, and the Earth. But how soon this naïve point of view, etc., 14%; to be friends, 34%; family egocentrism will disappear from minds of adult people, relations, treat as yourself, good fellowship, equal parents, politicians? attitude to all people, 18% total. Single answers: The question Who can help a person to commence listening. overcome prejudice against another ? Slovenian In NO-group, the answers were as follows: respondents answered: relatives, 27%; God / friends, answers including the name “love” amount to 52%; to family, truth / has to know Him, 18% each. Among catch fancy, friendship, 6% each. Single answers solitary answers: all together. Slovak respondents include: understand, get to know. Table 1: Answers to answered: angels, 17%; Mary, 10%; God, 60%; Jesus, question How do you understand the word “love”? by 37%; senior priest, 7%; family, 10%; neighbor, 10%. YES-group and NO-group Interesting isolated answers: has to know Him; truth. Answers to the question Whom can you call Answers by Slovenian and Slovak students your neighbor? by YES-group: family/ relatives, 63%. demonstrate no desemantization of the entire Friends, 37%; people of Russia / all of the people phraseological unit or its components. When discussing around / all people / all people are alike, 6%. Answers the commandment’s essence, there is substitution of given by NO-group: relatives, 71%; friends, 17%; action subject for object. The Scripture says that your those who are spiritually close to me, 7%. neighbor is not only the one who cares about you Answering first and second questions both, (Luke 10; 25-37), but also the one whom you should NO-group disregarded friendship. As opposed to those care about. The students’ answers show that the former who are familiar with the commandment and indicate is more important than the latter. Schoolchildren are friends and friendship (37%), the pollees who sure that to make humankind to feel like a monolithic answered No to the first question indicate friends only society it is necessary for people to get closer, be in 17% answers. In other cases results of two groups friends, know each other better, do good to each other; show little difference. but the other should also protect, help, play (that means The question And more? was answered as “to be a friend”), care, be close, and love. Many pollees follows: friends was again the most popular answer in are not prevented from acceptance another for his/her YES-group with 37%, and in NO-group it amounts to neighbor at all, but it has to be a Christian. Some 25%. The answers make clear that the students isolate answers indicate seedlings of nationalism. intuitively correctly divide neighbors into outer circle and inner circle. Relatives and acquaintances received FUNCTIONING OF PHRASEOLOGICAL 14% each. 5% answers mention animals and 8% UNIT “LOVE THY NEIGHBOR AS THYSELF” pollees give no answer to this question. In NO-group IN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE leading answers are: relatives, 31%; nobody, 25%; Without a doubt, the “God-deprivation” process classmates, 20%; everybody, 13%. Some of isolated goes on with variable success. Science and modern answers include: teachers, coaches; those who are technologies on the move greatly facilitate it. For attached to me; God; those who are not against us; example, our study has demonstrated that in Russian those who understands us. mega-metropolis, despite the introduction of Pay attention here to 13% answers containing mandatory school course “Basic principles of religious word everybody in anticipation for the next question. culture and secular ethics”, over than half of the Answering to the question Can we call all the respondents are not familiar with the commandment in people on the planet the neighbors? : agreed to include question, whereas in the provincial Slovak town all all the people, 20%; no, 70%; yes, but not all of them, students know the commandment. In more educated 3%; yes and no, 7%. The answer “yes and no” was Slovenia [11], where we questioned students from the accompanied with the following comments. capital city and provincials both, there was received In YES-group, practically all the answers only one negative answer to the question Are you complement one another: all of us are alike, 51%; we familiar with the commandment? ; but answers by other all trace origin from the same entity, 27%; all of us are respondents (3 students of 6th grade) make clear that people, 10%; we all live on the same planet, 8%. 54 Isolated answers are also aligned: we have to help one CONCLUSION another; we are a chain of acquaintances and The conducted research allows for the everybody knows everybody; we can change the bad following results: people; because we all live on the same planet. In NO-  Neither of the polled groups has demonstrated group, the answers comprise: we are not acquainted, desemantization of main idea of biblical 45%; some people are ruthless/wicked, 14%; these commandment “Love thy neighbor as thyself”; answers pretty stay within traditional child-rearing  Slovenian, Slovak, and Russian schoolchildren practices. Interesting is the solitary answer: understand words “love” and “neighbor” in full mercenaries, killers, collectors that witnesses that the compliance with basic ideas of Catholic and kid is involved in modern society information realm Orthodox churches and secular society brought up and these widely discussed topics could not help but within European civilization; sticking in the kid's mind. All of us are different, 5%;  Secular education with addition of course in scum of society / I don’t like them, 4% each. “Basic principles of religious culture and secular Neighbor category should exclude: nobody, ethics” allows thinking over essential questions of 23%; the categories excluded most frequently are scum life without emasculating moral bearings. of society, 20%; strangers, 10%; enemies, 10%. 5% We can be sure that next generations aim at answers contain ambiguous information: everybody friendship, mutual understanding, are ready to learn of except for… traitors / those who don’t understand me / each other, understand, and accept. Let us give them who treats be badly / everybody whom I don’t love, 7% that chance! each.. Most of the pollees understand that to make a REFERENCES person your neighbor it needs: to make friends with [1] Jung, Carl Gustav. Conflicts in the Child's Soul (in him/her (26%); to get to know another and to win Russian translation). Moscow, Kanon, 1997. 335 pp. confidence, 10% each; consensus / to get through hard [2] Heidegger, Martin. Time and Being ( in Russian times together / intercommunication, 8% each; translation). Moscow, Academic Project, 1993. 460 pp. confidence and to prove that I’m worthy of friendship, [3] Swaab, Dick. We are our Brains ( in Russian 7% each. However, there are some answers that shift translation). Saint Petersburg, Ivan Limbakh’s the responsibility for getting closer entirely to other Publishing Company, 2014. 544 pp. shoulders: to change the other’s temper/behavior, 5%; [4] Л.Выготский. Мышление и речь. (Vygotsky, Lev. he has to do something for me, 5%; he has to be liked Thinking and Speech). Moscow, Khranitel, 2008. 668p. by me / he has to become my own one / the person has [5] Казанская В.Г. Суицидальное поведение подро- to change, 7% each. Of singular answers worth стка: своевременная помощь. (Kazanskaja, V. mentioning: good deeds; equality; to make friends with Teenager Suicidal Behavior: Timely Succor). Moscow, me. Note that Russian schoolchildren’s have given 2015. 224 pp. more answers where responsibility for actions is [6] Shchukina I. K vprašanju o nacionalni sliki sveta// undertaken by respondent than Slovenians and Slovaks, Zbornik 12. mednarodne multikonference yet it is obvious that here again subject to object “informacijska družba” – IS 2009. Ljubljana, Slovenia, relationship leave much to be desired. 2009. P. 386-389; Shchukina I. Acceptance of another person is also hindered [7] Ожегов С.И., Шведова Н.Ю. Токовый словарь by: uncertainty on positive attitude, 19%; nothing, 7%; русского языка (Ozhegov, S.I., Shvedova, N.Yu. The the same percentage he’s bad, 7%; stranger / mistrust / Explanatory Dictionary of Russian Language). wariness, 7% each; lack of friendship, 5%. Answers to Moscow, Yaz’, 1992; Slovenski pravopis. ISJ ZRC this question reflect doubts and reflections over this SAZU (Ur. J.Toporiščič in dr.) Ljubljana, 2001; Krátky issue or it may be brought up by discussion during a slovník slovenského jazyka, Veda, vydavateľstvo social science lesson. Children again, like Slovenians SAV, Bratislava:, 2003. and Slovaks, lodge claims to another person: he’s bad / [8] http://social-orthodox.info/pages/1_1_lubov_k_ I don’t know him / I don’t trust him, etc., but there are blizhnemu.htm. Retrieved: 15.08.2016. also signs of thinking: thus, uncertainty of positive [9] First Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians, attitude was mentioned by 19% respondents. Note that Chapter 13. singular answer: wider public. It is hard to remain [10] See in details: http://www.pravoslavie.ru/75365. Christian-way tolerant in the atmosphere of total html. Retrieved: 1 08.2016; http://social-orthodox.info mistrust. /pages/1_1.htm. Retrieved: 14.08.16. The question Who/what can help a person to [11] Shchukina I. The Image of an Addressee in overcome prejudice against another? shifted kids’ Translational Discourse (Exemplified by the Texts minds to constructive stand. 29% answers indicate Translated From Slovenian Language) // Journal of friendship, but responsibility is pinned entirely to the Literature and Art Studies, ISSN 2159-5836, USA. person-actor, 22%. 16% still bank on neighbor. 5% Issue 12, Vol. 3, 2013, City of Industry. pp. 798-809. answers each describe fairly grown-up thinking: confidence, understanding, and psychology. Yet 3% answers reflect fatality in Russian way: nobody. 55 Problematičnost integracije nevroznanosti v pravne kontekste Toma Strle Pedagoška fakulteta Kardeljeva ploščad 16 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija +386 1 5892 200 toma.strle@pef.uni-lj.si POVZETEK zadnjem desetletju in pol v močnem porastu. Na to kažejo mnoge V prispevku bom najprej predstavil porast vključevanja sodobne analize uporabe nevrobioloških dokazov na sodiščih. nevroznanosti v pravo (npr. uporabe nevroznanstvenih dokazov Analiza Farahanyjeve (2016) razkriva močan porast uporabe na sodišči) in na nekaterih primerih prikazal zaupanje, ki ga nevrobioloških dokazov na ameriških sodiščih med letoma 2005 vzbujajo nevroznanstveni dokazi, razlage in opisi. Zagovarjal bom in 2012. Farahanyjeva na primer ugotavlja, da je leta 2012 (250), stališče, da moramo biti pri združevanju objektivistične in v primerjavi z letom 2007, več kot dvakrat več pravnih mnenj redukcionistično usmerjene nevroznanosti ter prava, ki temelji na navajalo nevrobiološke dokaze kot strategijo zagovora vrednotah in odločitvah odločevalcev in javnosti, previdni. kriminalnih dejanj z namenom pokazati, da so možgani tisti, ki so Namreč, nevroznanost v svojem raziskovanju pojavov, ki so obtoženega (vsaj delno) “prisilili” v dejanje X (Farahany, 2016) relevantni za pravo (npr. osebnosti, volicije, samo-kontrole, in tako le ta ni oz. je manj odgovoren za svoje kriminalno dejanje odločanja, ipd.), in s svojim redukcionistično-mehanicističnim (glej npr. Church, 2012; Catley, 2016 za specifične primere). pogledom na človeško naravo spreminja naše intuicije in Ne le, da odvetniki obtoženih kriminalnih dejanj uporabljajo prepričanja o pojavih, ki jih raziskuje ter s tem vpliva prav na nevroznanstvene dokaze v obliki slik raznih jasnih možganskih same naštete in sorodne pojave. To drži še posebej v kontekstu poškodb, ki jih poskušajo (tudi na podlagi pričevanj naraščajočega trenda integracije nevroznanosti v javno domeno, nevroznanstvenikov) uporabiti na primer za zmanjšanje trajanja kot je pravo, ki nadalje spreminja naše intuicije in prepričanja o kazni, ampak vedno bolj uporabljajo tudi funkcionalne dokaze preučevanih pojavih in tako potencialno spreminja mišljenje ter (npr. pridobljene s FMR ali EEG tehnikami slikanja možganov). delovanje ljudi. Pogled nevroznanosti na človeško naravo in Le ti naj bi na primer kazali, da obsojeni z dozdevno integracija le tega v pravne kontekste tako vodita do krožnosti “abnormalno” delujočimi možgani pač naj ne bili ali pa naj bi bili nevroprava, kjer nevroznanost in nevropravo pravzaprav vplivata vsaj manj odgovorni za svoja dejanja. na same (prihodnje) izsledke nevroznanosti. To pa pomeni, da nevroznanosti ne moremo jemati kot objektivne znanosti o Nadalje, nevroznanstveni dokazi niso uporabljeni le kot strategija človeški duševnosti in vedenju, na podlagi katere bo pravo zagovora obsojenih na najhujše zločine (kot je npr. umor ali končno lahko sklepalo pravilne in nepristrane odločitve. posilstvo), ampak se vedno boj uporabljajo kot orodje za zagovor zločincev obsojenih ropov, prevar in preprodaje mamil. Ključne besede Farahanyjeva (2016) v svoji analizi ugotavlja, da je slednjih primerov približno 60 %. Čeprav je njena analiza omejena na Moralna odgovornost, nevropravo, prepričanja, samo-kontrola, ZDA, porast uporabe nevroznanstvenih dokazov na sodiščih ni svobodovoljna dejavnost. omejena le nanje ali na države z anglosaksonskim oz. običajnim pravom (angl.: Common law), ki temelji na precedenčnih primerih 1. TREND INTEGRACIJE in ki, vsaj v ZDA, v pravne odločitve bistveno vključuje porote, NEVROZNANOSTI V PRAVNE ampak je takšno porast zaslediti v mnogih evropskih in ne- evropskih državah (glej npr. Catley, 2016). KONTEKSTE: OD NEVROZNANSTVENIH Porast vključevanja nevroznanosti v pravo pa je vidna tudi izven DOKAZOV DO ZAUPANJA V neposredne uporabe nevroznanstvenih dokazov in izsledkov na NEVROZNANOST sodiščih. Vedno več pravnih odločevalcev (tako znanstvenikov Uporaba dokazov in izsledkov nevroznanosti v kontekstu prava z kot pravnih ekspertov) se vključuje v diskusije in raziskovanje namenom boljših in bolj “objektivnih” pravnih odločitev – npr. nevroloških osnov sodnih odločitev in pristranosti, ki jih odločitev o zmanjšanju ali vrsti kazni obsojenih ali odločitev o spremljajo (na primer v diskusije o in raziskovanje mehanizmov bolj splošnih zadevah, ki se tičejo kazenske odgovornosti1 – je v presojanja in odločanja porot, sodnikov, prič, odločitev o pogojnih izpustih, ipd.). Prav tako so v porastu raziskave in diskusije o možnostih uporabe FMR ali EEG tehnik za detekcijo laži (v Indiji so bile slednje na primer že uporabljene; glej 1 Nevroznanstveni dokazi in izsledki so bili na primer že Church, 2012), o možnostih ustvarjanja direktnih možganskih uporabljeni kot osnova za pravne odločitve, ki se nanašajo na bolj intervencijskih terapij za zločince, ipd. Na skrajnem spektru splošne zadeve, povezane z moralno odgovornostjo. V primeru Graham versus Florida leta 2012 je vrhovno sodišče ZDA tudi na podlagi nevroznanstvenih dokazov presodilo, da bo kategorično možnosti pogojnega izpusta v primerih, ko ne gre za umor (iz prepovedalo obsodbo mladoletnih oseb na dosmrtno kazen brez Morse, 2015). 56 uporabe nevroznanosti v pravu je zaslediti trend diskusij in alternativno perspektivo, iz katere lahko človeško vedenje raziskav o t. i. nevro-osnovani predikciji (angl.: neuro-based razumemo tudi kot posledico fizičnih vzrokov. … [U]porabe prediction), katere namen je na podlagi podatkov o možganih nevroznanosti … bodo ponudile veliko opomnikov, da je naša storilcev kaznivih dejanj vnaprej predvideti potencialno možnost duševnost v svojem izvoru in bistvu fizični mehanizem. S tem, ko kriminalnih dejanj (za nedavno raziskavo glej Aharoni et al., nevroznanost ljudi postavlja v in kot del mehaničnega 2013), tudi npr. v kontekstu odločitev o vrsti kazni, pogojnem univerzuma, prevprašuje mnoge predpostavke o moralnosti in izpustu, varščini, ipd. (Jones et al., 2013a). V tem kontekstu si ni pojmu osebe. … Sicer ne trdimo, ‘Ni imel izbire, saj so ga prisilili težko zamisliti nekakšne distopične prihodnosti, kjer bi bila zakoni fizike’. A vendar bo deterministični pogled, glede na to, da nevroznanost uporabljena kot orodje za kaznovanje “zločina nevroznanost osebnosti, odločanja in nadzora impulzov začenja misli”, kot to lepo opiše Orwell v svojem distopičnem romanu ponujati bolj podrobne razlage fizičnih procesov, ki vodijo do 1984. neodgovornega ali kriminalnega vedenja, vseeno najverjetneje močneje prevzel naše intuicije” Ne nazadnje se zdi, da nevroznanstveni dokazi in razlage v (str. 585–586). prejemnikih vzbujajo nekakšno posebno zaupanje, ki je po mojem In čeprav je nevroznanstvena skupnost relativno skeptična do mnenju delno odgovorno za hiter porast vključevanja trenutne uporabe nevroznanosti na sodiščih in do trenutnega nevroznanosti v pravne kontekste. Takšno posebno zaupanje je dosega nevroznanosti (vendar ne prihodnjega; glej npr. Jones et lepo vidno v nekaterih sodnih obravnavah in odločitvah al., 2014), v splošnem sprejema prepričanje, da bo nevroznanost v porotnikov. Leta 2005 je bil Grady Nelson obtožen brutalnega bližnji prihodnosti pojasnila “dejansko” delovanje človeške umora svoje žene. Njegov odvetnik je zagovarjal zmanjšanje duševnosti na bolj ali manj mehanicističen in redukcionističen kazni na podlagi QEEG podatkov, ki naj bi kazali na relevantne način ter da bo priskrbela najboljšo (če že ne popolno) razlago abnormalnosti v delovanju njegovih možganov, ki naj bi bile – ne človeškega vedenja (glej na primer Gazzaniga, 2008; Greene in pa on sam2 – odgovorne za njegovo kriminalno dejanje (primer je Cohen, 2004; Jones et al., 2013a; 2013b; 2014, za takšen vzet iz Jones et al., 2013b). Pomenljivo sta v sodnem procesu dva implicitno ali eksplicitno izražen pogled; vendar glej Bennett in od šestih porotnikov (vse skupaj jih je bilo v sodnem postopku Hacker 2003; Morse 2006; 2015; Strle 2013 za kritiko). udeleženih dvanajst), ki so glasovali proti smrtni kazni, naknadno Ker pa je bilo že veliko zapisanega na temo kritike poročala, da sta spremenila svoje prvotno mnenje zaradi QEEG objektivističnih in/ali redukcionističnih razlag in metodoloških dokazov (sprva sta bila za smrtno kazen; iz Jones et al., 2013b).3 usmeritev nevroznanosti, se bom v preostanku prispevka zadržal Vedno boljše in natančnejše razumevanje delovanja možganov, pri stvari, ki je izpuščena iz večine diskusij nevroprava in širše. hiter razvoj ne-invazivnih tehnik slikanja možganov in vedno Trdil bom, da vedno bolj popularen in sprejet objektivističen in večje zaupanje v objektivistično nevroznanost in njen redukcionističen pogled nevroznanosti na človeka (in na pojave, redukcionistično-mehanicistični pogled na človeško duševnost kot so oseba, odločanje, samo-kontrola, odgovornost, ipd.), ki skratka kaže, da bo nevroznanost v bližnji prihodnosti ima, če sploh, zelo malo vpliva na lastno mišljenje in vedenje, najverjetneje postala bistven sestavni del prava in njegovih praks, pravzaprav spreminja naša dejanja (na slednje nakazujejo tudi njene razlage duševnosti in vedenja pa čedalje bolj sprejete kot raziskave, ki jih bom predstavil v nadaljevanju), prepričanja in tiste prave, objektivne, najboljše, itd. – znotraj in izven prava. intuicije o naštetih pojavih in tako vpliva na same pojave, ki naj bi 2. POGLED NEVROZNANOSTI NA jih nevroznanost raziskovala objektivno, ločeno od naših prepričanj, teorij in intuicij o teh pojavih: nenavadna krožnost ČLOVEŠKO NARAVO IN KROŽNOSTI nevroznanosti, ki je izpuščena iz večine diskusij o vključevanju le NEVROPRAVA te v pravne kontekste. Vse do sedaj povedano pa nakazuje, da nevroznanost ni le na poti Slednje drži posebej, če vzamemo v zakup porast vedno bolj k temu, da postane neločljivo povezana s pravom, ampak počasi sistematične integracije nevroznanosti in njenih predstav o spreminja – in bo najverjetneje v prihodnje še močneje – naše duševnosti v javno domeno kot je pravo, ki še nadalje utrjuje in intuicije, poglede in prepričanja na to, kaj pomeni biti oseba, kaj krepi nevroznanstven pogled na človeško naravo ter s tem nadalje je in kako poteka odločanje, naš pogled na svobodovoljno spreminja same pojave, ki jih nevroznanost raziskuje dozdevno dejavnost in odgovornost – koncepti, ki so za pravo bistvenega objektivno, ločeno od naših prepričanj, teorij in intuicij o teh pomena. Kot to lepo izrazi Farah (2012): “Nevroznanost ponuja pojavih. Naj sedaj na kratko predstavim nekaj študij, ki kažejo, kako spreminjanje človeških prepričanj o zadevah, povezanih s 2 Seveda je v kontekstu nevroprava pomembno, a povsem nereflektirano vprašanje, kdo sploh naj bi bil Grady Nelson, oz., človeško dejavnostjo (angl.: agency), kot je na primer samo- kdo sploh je ta »jaz« oz. dejavnik (angl.: kontrola, v smer deterministične, mehanicistične in/ali agent), ki naj bi bila redukcionistične koncepcije le teh, vpliva na samo mišljenje, entiteta, odgovorna za (svoja?) dejanja. S tem pa področje delovanje in možganske procese, povezane s temi pojavi. nevroprava – predvsem tisti del, ki ni kritičen do nevroznanosti – bolj ali manj sprejema predpostavko, da so možgani Seminalna raziskava Vohsa in Schoolerja (2008) na primer pravzaprav tisti bistven (če že ne edini) dejavnik, ki »upravlja« razkriva, da zmanjšanje prepričanj v svobodo volje zmanjšuje dejanja človeka in nad katerimi le ta pravzaprav nima prav moralnost dejanj: vodi v povečanje dejanskega goljufanja veliko zavestnega nadzora in tako ni, vsaj ne v veliki meri, udeležencev. Podobne študije nadalje kažejo, da je zmanjšanje odgovoren za (lastna?) dejanja. prepričanj v svodobo volje povezano z zmanjšanjem pripravljenosti pomagati sočloveku in s povečano agresivnostjo 3 Številne študije prav tako kažejo, da nevroznanstveni dokazi in (Baumeister, Masicampo in DeWall 2009); s povečano opisi dejanj na primer zmanjšujejo pripisovanje svobode volje nagnjenostjo k impulzivnosti in asocialnosti (Rigoni et al., 2012), in moralne odgovornosti (glej npr. Gurley in Marcus, 2008; kar avtorji interpretirajo kot zmanjšanje samo-kontrole; Rigoni et Nahmias, Coates in Kvaran, 2007). 57 al. (2011) pa so celo pokazali, da zmanjšanje prepričanj v V tem smislu ne moremo trditi, da so objektivistične in svobodo volje vpliva na možganske procese (zmanjšuje potencial redukcionistične razlage človeške narave, ki jih podaja pripravljenosti), ki so povezani s pripravo voljnih motoričnih nevroznanost, ustrezne ali zadostne, tako v kontekstu prava in dejanj. Implikacije takšnih in podobnih študij lepo izrazijo Rigoni izven. et al. (2011): “Če povzamemo, … to nakazuje, da ima morda abstraktni sistem prepričanj veliko bolj fundamentalen učinek kot 3. ZAKLJUČEK bi pričakovala večina ljudi” (str. 617). Če povzamem. Tem bolj nevroznanost sprejema in spodbuja Podobno kažejo raziskave t. i. učinka izčrpanosti ega (angl..: mehanicistično-redukcionističen pogled na človeško naravo in ego- bolj in bolj je le ta sprejet s strani javnost in pravnih odločevalcev depletion effect), ki so močno relevantne za nevropravo, saj poskušajo razumeti mehanizme samo – in tako nevroznanost postaja vedno bolj sistematično integrirana -kontrole. Učinek izčrpanosti v pravne prakse in sisteme ––, čedalje bolj mišljenje, možganski ega naj bi kazal, da je moč volje (angl.: willpower) oziroma zmožnost samo procesi in dejanja ljudi odražajo takšno koncepcijo človeške -kontrole omejena (glej na primer Baumeister, narave. S tem pa, ko bo (bi) opisani proces krožno napredoval in 2002) na primer na način, da uporaba samo-kontrole za opravljanje mentalnih nalog vodi v slabše reševanje nadaljnjih se razvijal, se bo (bi) vedno bolj zdelo, da ima nevroznanost prav mentalnih nalog oz. zmanjšuje nadaljnjo zmožnost samo v trditvi, da imamo v “resnici” zelo malo (če sploh) vpliva na -kontrole. Po drugi strani novejše raziskave jasno kažejo, da lastno mišljenje in dejanja (manj, kot bi ga lahko imeli, če bi imeli sta učinek izčrpanosti ega in drugačna prepričanja o človeški naravi) in da smo tako veliko tako samo-kontrola močno odvisni od manj (manj kot v “resnici”, če bi imeli drugačna prepričanja o implicitnih in eksplicitnih prepričanj ljudi o njiju. Savani in Job človeški naravi) ali pa sploh ne(?) odgovorni za lastna kriminalna (2017) sta na primer pokazala, da je učinek izčrpanosti ega močno odvisen od kulturnih prepričanj ljudi o uporabi in naravi samo ali običajna dejanja. - kontrole. V svoji raziskavi sta pokazala, da Indijci – ki so v Če se strinjamo z opisanimi krožnostmi nevroznanosti in nasprotju z Američani v splošnem prepričani, da naprezanje volje nevroprava, nevroznanosti ne moremo (več) jemati kot tiste prave vodi v povečanje (mentalne) energije (to je bil prvi rezultat njune objektivne znanosti o človeški duševnosti in vedenju, ki bo pravu študije) – izkazujejo ravno nasproten učinek od učinka izčrpanosti končno prinesla tako dolgo iskani nespremenljivi “temeljni kamen ega. Namreč, uporaba samo-kontrole Indijcev je, v nasprotju z modrosti”, na podlagi katerega bo končno lahko sklepala pravilne Američani, izboljšala njihovo nadaljnje reševanje nalog, ki so in nepristrane odločitve. Pri združevanju objektivistične in prav tako zahtevale mentalni napor (takšen učinek so izkazali tudi redukcionistično usmerjene nevroznanosti ter prava, ki temelji na Američani, ki so imeli podobna prepričanja o naravi samo- vrednotah in odločitvah pravnih odločevalcev in javnosti, moramo kontrole kot Indijci). biti tako bolj previdni, kot trenutno nakazuje prikazani trend integracije nevroznanosti v pravne kontekste. Omenjene raziskave skratka kažejo, da pojavi, kot so samo- kontrola, volicija, odločanje, svobodovoljna dejavnost, itd., ki so bistveni sestavni del prava, nikakor niso zgolj biološke narave (oz. 4. REFERENCE jih ni možno razložiti zgolj z biološkimi in/ali nevrološkimi [1] Aharoni, Eyal, Gina M. Vincent, Carla L. Harenski, Vince D. mehanizmi), ampak so pojavi, ki so neločljivo povezani in odvisni Calhoun, Walter Sinnott-Armstrong, Michael S. Gazzaniga, od naših konceptualizacij, opisov in prepričanj o njih. So nadalje and Kent A. 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Nathan DeWall. ki ga, predvsem preko porasta integracije 2009. “Prosocial Benefits of Feeling Free: Disbelief in Free nevroznanosti v javno domeno, kot je pravo, vedno bolj sprejema Will Increases Aggression and Reduces Helpfulness.” tudi javnost – pravzaprav spreminja pojave, ki jih preučuje in tako Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 35 (2): 260–68. potencialno vpliva na lastne (prihodnje) empirične izsledke. doi:10.1177/0146167208327217. Če misel izrazimo v jeziku Hackinga (1995), omenjeni pojavi, ki [4] Bennett, Max, and Peter M.S. Hacker. 2003. Philosophical jih preučuje nevroznanost, izsledke o njih pa vedno bolj zvesto foundations of neuroscience. 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Konec koncev, … molekule ne berejo učbenikov kemije, med tem ko ljudje berejo knjige o psihologiji, [7] Church, Dominique J. 2012. “Neuroscience in the Courtroom: An International Concern.” ki vplivajo na njihovo samo-razumevanje” (Brinkmann 2005, str. William & Mary 775) in treba je dodati, da tako tudi na njihove razmisleke in Law Review 53(5): 1825–54. moralna dejanja. http://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmlr/vol53/iss5/8. 58 [8] Farah, Martha J. 2012. “Neuroethics: the ethical, legal and [21] Rigoni, Davide, Simone Kühn, Giuseppe Sartori, and Marcel societal impact of neuroscience.” Annual Review of Brass. 2011. “Inducing Disbelief in Free Will Alters Brain Psychology 63: 571–91. Correlates of Preconscious Motor Preparation.” doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100438. Psychological Science 22 (5): 613–18. [9] Farahany, Nita A. 2016. “Neuroscience and Behavioral doi:10.1177/0956797611405680. 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Raichle. 2013b. “Neuroscientists in court.” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 14: 730–6. doi:10.1038/nrn3585. [16] Jones, Owen D., Richard J. Bonnie, B.J. Casey, Andre Davis, David L. Faigman, Morris Hoffman, Read Montague, et al. 2014. “Law and Neuroscience: Recommendations Submitted to the President’s Bioethics Commission.” Journal of Law and the Biosciences 1 (2): 224–36. doi:10.1093/jlb/lsu012. [17] Morse, Stephen J. 2006. “Brain Overclaim Syndrome and Criminal Responsibility: A Diagnostic Note.” Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 3: 397–412. http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1027 &context=neuroethics_pubs. [18] Morse, Stephen J. 2015. “Criminal Law and Common Sense: An Essay on the Perils and Promise of Neuroscience.” Marquette Law Review 99: 39–72. http://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/faculty_scholarship/1609. [19] Nahmias, Eddy, D. Justin Coates, and Trevor Kvaran. 2007. “Free will, moral responsibility, and mechanism: Experiments on folk intuitions.” Midwest Studies in Philosophy 31(1): 214–42. doi:10.1111/j.1475- 4975.2007.00158.x. [20] Rigoni, Davide, Simone Kühn, Gennaro Gaudino, Giuseppe Sartori, and Marcel Brass. 2012. “Reducing Self-Control by Weakening Belief in Free Will.” Consciousness and Cognition 21 (3): 1482–90. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2012.04.004. 59 Zavest in samozavedanje: iluzija ali realnost Andrej Ule Oddelek za filozofijo Filozofska fakulteta, UL, Aškerčeva 2, 1000 Ljubljana andrej.ule@guest.arnes.si POVZETEK sem“, torej da moje mišljenje impli cira priznanje mojega obstoja Razpravljam o pojmovanju zavesti in samozavedanja (jaza) v [2]. Descartes in nato Locke sta temeljna avtorja glede miselnega samospoznanja v novoveški tradiciji. Za De zahodni filozofiji in v kognitivni znanosti. Ugotavljam spor med scartesa je bilo preprosto evidentno nujno, da se zavedamo lastnega obstoja, če le realizmom in antirealizmom glede zavesti in jaza, ki se je okrepil v kognitivni filozofiji in razvijam tezo o realnosti zavesti in jaza: kaj mislimo, tudi Locke je menil, da imamo nezmotljivo evidenco človeška zavest in jaz realna le tedaj, če o lastnem obstoju, čim se česarkoli zavedamo ali o čem ljudje participirajo na »objektivnem duhu« razmišljamo. To je povezano z njegovo tezo o tem, da p skupnih situacij, kjer se razvijajo ustrezna reprosto skupna pričakovanja. neposredno zaznavamo lasten obstoj, tako kot neposredno zaznavamo čutne kvalitete zunanjih stvari ali lastna duševna stanja. Po tem pojmovanju je vsak jaz, ki se “kaže” človeku v Ključne besede njegovem samospoznanju, trden in samoidentičen čisto miselni zavest, samozavedanje, zavest kot realnost, zavest kot iluzija, subjekt in notranji opaovalec njegovih fizičnih in duševnih stanj. skupna pričakovanja Strog kritik cogita, teze o nedvomnem zaznavanju lastnega sebe in o jazu kot subjektu doživljanja in mišljenja je David Hume. Za Huma sebstvo ni nič drugega kot sveženj medsebojno zvezanih Razprave o zavesti v psihologiji, filozofiji in kognitivni znanosti različnih doživljajev oz. vtisov (zaznav in spominov na minule se skoraj vedno zapletejo v težko razrešljiv vozel nasprotujočih, celo paradoksnih trditev in domnev o tem, ali in kako je možno zaznave), vendar brez kakega “lastnika” te zbirke, tj. brez kakega trdnega in samoidentičnega jaza [3]. Zanimivo je, da je tudi Kant samozavedanje, ali to implicira obstoj samozavednega sebstva, ki obstaja kot posebno duševno ali mentalno bitje itd. Zavedanje sprejel ta ergument, kajti tudi za Kanta nimamo nobene evidentne in nezmotljive zvesti o samem sebi in o svojem jazu. Svoje ideje o samega sebe je nujna sestavina samospoznanja, to pa je že od antičnih časov temelj vse modrosti, saj nam že Delfsko svetišče čistem jazu kot nujnem pogoju vsakega spoznanja je Kant dobil narekuje “Spoznaj samega sebe”. V evropski filozofiji je bilo to na podlagi zahtevnega sklepanja, ti. transcendentalne dedukcije o včasih povezano z vprašanjem obstoja (nesmrtne) duhovne duše, nujnih pogojih možnosti izkustva. Po tej “dedukciji” misel “jaz mislim” nujno spremlja vsako misel, pravzaprav vsako doživljanje ki transcendira človeško snovno (telesno) bivanje. Vendar tudi potem, ko so zaradi kritike religije v razsvetljenjstvu takšne posamične empirične zavesti, vendar ta kantovski kogito ni nobena miselna substanca, kot je bil za Descartesa, temveč zgolj domneve vsaj v znanostih in v velikem delu filozofije postale nerelevantne, ostaja vprašanje, ali in kako obstaja kako “formalni” spremljevalec vseh vtisov in duševnih dogodkov, ki samoovedeno sebstvo š omogoča sintezo raznovrstnih predstav v enotnost empiričnega e vedno odprto. V neevropski filozofiji, predvsem v indijski filozofiji je to vprašanje zlasti pereče v spoznanja (izkustva) [4]. budizmu in hinduizmu, posebno v sankhiji, jogi in vedanti. Očitno gre za vprašanje odnosa med človekovo zmožnostjo za Zanimivo, da tovrstno spraševanje nikoli ni bilo kaj dosti pereče v samozavedanje in posedovanjem predstave o samem sebi kot kitajski filozofiji, še celo v kitajskem budizmu, npr. chanu ne. Zdi psihofizičnem akterju v snovnem in kulturnem svetu. Kasnejša se, kot da Kitajci lahko “shajajo” tudi brez domnev o samo- filozofija, tako bolj idealistično spekulativna “nemška klasična ovedeni zavesti ali sebstvu, saj ne poznajo niti prave ustreznice za filozofija” kot bolj empiristično naranana, fenomenološko ali “sebstvo” (self) ali “jaz”, še najbližje temu bi bili izrazi eksistencialno ali analitično naravnana filozofija se je vsaka na “ziran”(samo po sebi), “hsin” (srce, um) ali tudi “zihsing” (lastna svoj način lotevala tega problema. Na to so se navezovale narava), vendar običajno nastopajo v povsem drugačnih miselnih nenehne raprave o naravi samozavedanja, npr. o tem, ali imamo povezavah kot v zahodni ali indijski tradiciji. neposredno ali intuitivno zavest o samih sebi, ki se je ne da zvesti na nič drugega, ali pa je nasprotno, vtis o tovrstni zavesti le V zahodni filozofiji je vsaj od Aristotela dalje znana teza o božanskem umu (duhu), ki po svoji naravi “misli samega sebe” (in nekakšna koristna iluzija, ki nam pomaga smiselno delovati v zgolj sebe), medtem ko je bilo v Antiki človekovo samozavedanje svetu kot enotni akterj in “igralci” v naših življenjskih igrah. (za bolj vprašljivo. Platon je v dialogu Harmides celo podvomil o kratek pregled teh razprav gl. [5] ali [6]). tem, da lahko z miselno dojamemo samega sebe, vsaj če to Na podlagi teh razprav lahko sklepamo, da nam vsakdanje dojamemo kot vedenje o svojem vedenju [1]. Avguštin je kot doživljanje samega sebe ponuja neko obliko samozavedanja, ki jo krščanski mislec, ki je visoko cenil samospraševanje posameznika, običajno miselno artikuliramo v prvo-osebnih mislih ali izjavah, razvijal tezo o človeškem umu kot najvišji plati človeške duše, ki kot je npr. »Sem tako in tako«, »Sem to in to«, »Sem ta in ta« itd. je sposoben samospoznanja na podlagi tega, da se zaveda samega Vprašanje pa je, kaj to pomeni. Ena možnost je, da takšne misli in sebe. Ta um je nematerialen in lahko biva sam zase, brez telesa. izjave morda merijo na neko zaznavanju podobno zavest o Auguštin je tudi predhodnik Descartesovega cogita „Mislim, torej lastnem sebstvu, torej na sebstvo kot realni predmet doživljanja 60 (izkustva). Druga možnost je, da samozavedanje primarno ne že večkrat govoril in pisal (npr. [11], [12]). Te perspektive ne vsebuje nobenega nanašanja na samega sebe kot predmet zavesti, smemo izenačiti z zavestjo o svojem jazu, tudi ne z temveč je predrefleksivna zavest, ki se sicer lahko, ne pa nujno samozavedanjem ali kakim posebnim osebnim stališčem izrazi v prvo-osebnih miselnih in govornih gestah. Tretja možnost posameznika do svojega okolja, pač pa gre za to, da je specifični je, da samozavedanje predstavlja posebno obliko občutka položaj, v katerem se nahaja kognicijski sistem, nekako pomenljiv posedovanja, namreč občutke posedovanja določenih fizičnih ali za ta sistem in mu ta položaj nudi izhodišče za njegovo duševnih stanj kot »svojih lastnih«. predelovanje informacij in njegovo delovanje v svojem okolju. V vseh treh možnostih gre za nepojmovno, nepropozicionalno, Moja druga domneva je, da so tega sposobni tudi višje razviti vendar nezmotno in nedvomno nanašanje posameznika na samega živalski organizmi, v načelu pa tudi dovolj kompleksni umetni sebe. V vseh primerih gre za teze o realnosti zavesti. Tem kognicijski sistemi, npr. sistemi umetne inteligence. Vendar pa se možnostim stoji nasproti pravo morje nasprotnih tolmačenj strinjam z Nagelom, da način, kako se nek sistem znajde v svoji nanašanj posameznika na samega sebe, ki vsaka na svoj način doživljajski perspektivi, ni docela opisljiv in dojemljiv s stališča zavračajo realni obstoj zavesti in jaza. Humovo zavračanje cogita brez tovrstne perspektive, npr. s povsem tretje-osebne perspektive je npr. klasični primer tovrstnega tolmačenja samonanašanja, prav naravoslovja. tako »klasična« sta npr. Parfittova teorija o sebstvu kot domnevno Obenem privzemam še tretjo domnevo, namreč da je možnost enotnem mentalnem središču zavedanja in delovanja, pri čemer zavzemanja kake doživljajske perspektive temeljna sestavina ima to domnevanje neko evolucijsko in družbeno podprto koristno vlogo v človekovem življenju, čeprav je dejansko iluzija narave same, pravim ji »dimenzija subjektivacije«. S tem mislim na nečelno možnost zavzemanja neke doživljajske perspektive za [7] in Wittgensteinova teza o prvo-osebnem zavedanju samega sebe kot o gramatični iluziji, ki je sicer nujna v jezikovnih igrah, vsako realno bitje, ki deluje relativno samostojno in se ohranja ob pomoči svoje avtopoetske organizacije in svojih interakcij z ki jih poznamo ljudje [8]. V sodobni kognitivni filozofiji je znan okoljem. Dennettov poskus vsaj okvirnega pristopa k zavestnemu doživljanjau, tudi izrecno prvo-osebnemu doživljanju s Moja četrta domneva je, da čim so ta bitja dovolj razvita, da so tretjeosebnega stališča, namreč s pomočjo množice občutljiva na razliko med svojim obstojem in neobstojem, se pri mikrodogodkov v človeških možganih, ki ustvarjajo vtis o enotni njih že lahko razvije doživljajska perspektiva. Človeška zavest se zavesti posameznika [9]. Za Dennetta je zavest je torej neke vrste mi s tega vidika kaže kot aktualizacija visoko razvitega potenciala virtualni uporabniški vmesnik za človeško (evolucijsko in za to, da se njegova občutljivost na svoj položaj (in način bivanja kulturno) smiselno rabo svojih možganov. Dennett zlasti vneto v njem) upodobi oz. izrazi v pomenljivih občutjih, mislih, zavrača predstavo o ti. kartezijanskem teatru, po kateri naj bi v hotenjih in dejanjih [13]. možganih obstajalo neko središče, od koder »motrijo« to, kar se Važna se mi zdi še ena stvar, namreč prepletenost člov dogaja v telesu in izven njega. ekove zavesti in zlasti človekovega samozavedanja z intersubjektivno Podobno kot Dennett razmišljajo še nekateri drugi kognitivni pomenljivim svetom med-človeškosti, namreč vpletenost ljudi v teoretiki, ki bi jim lahko rekli »antirealisti glede zavesti« (npr. S. skupno deljene živkljenjske situacije. Šele tu namreč človeška Blackmore, T. Metzinger in M. Siderits). Po njihovem mnenju sta zavest lahko izrabi in aktualizira svoje potenciale. človekova zavest in še zlasti zavest o lastnem jazu neke vrste življenjsko koristni iluziji, ki nam jo posredujejo naši možgani V nekaterih svojih prispevkih sem govoril o tem, da smo ljudje zato, da čim uspešnejše preživimo v kompleksnem človeškem sposobni razumeti »objektivnega duha situacije«, pri čemer pod objektivnim duhom situacije razumem celoto skupnih pričakovanj svetu. Susan Blackmore meni, da je ugotovitev o iluzornosti jaza sicer edina razumna, čeprav jo »zelo težko pripustimo v svoje glede vseh tistih vsebin govora, mišljenja in delovanja, ki so osebno življenje, saj s seboj prinese korenito drugačen pristop na morda relevantne za kompetentno ravnanje v dani situaciji [14]. naše doživljanje in od nas zahteva sprijaznenje z dejstvom, da ni Moja peta domneva je, da v skupni situaciji tudi vsak sodelujoči nikogar, ki bi ta izkustva imel« [5, str. 97–98]. posameznik razvije posebno skupnostno in situacijsko obarvano Strinjam se z ugotovitvijo, da je takšno predstavo o zavesti in doživljajsko perspektivo, ki ni več le njegova, temveč se razširi v samozavedanju težko sprejeti, nisem pa prepričan, da je edina skupno doživljajsko perspektivo vseh sodelujočih v dani situaciji. razumna, še zlasti, ker obstaja cela vrsta alternativnih pogledov, ki Tedaj ne govorimo več le o sodelujočih jazih in o intersubjektivnosti, temveč o »nas« oz. o »mi«. V teh situacijah so vsaj na pogled enako »razumni«, zlasti tu merim na ti. nevrofenomenologijo, tj. poskus sinteze med fenomenološko ljudje drug drugemu potrjujemo realnost lastnega doživljanja, mišljenja in stremlj metodo (prvo-osebnim pristopom) in nevroznanostjo (tretje- enja. osebnim pristopom). Za nevrofenomenologe zavest je realnost, ne Moja šesta in končna domneva je, da se človeški jaz oz. sebstvo iluzija, čeprav je ta realnost sintetični učinek delovanja nevronov lahko razvije in ohrani le tedaj, če posameznik prostovoljno in (predvsem v možganih, a ne le teh) [10]. odgovorno sprejema ustrezne anticipacije in zadolžitve, ki izhajajo iz različnih skupnih situacij in iz splošnejših oblik Sam ponujam nekoliko drugačno gledanje na zavest in samozavedanje, a se omejujem le na kratek oris, ker za kaj več tu objektivnega duha (družbene institucije, narodi, kulture, države, danes morda tudi internetno globalizirane socialne mreže). ni prostora. Podajam ga v obliki nekaj temeljnih domnev, iz Sklepam, da šele v tem primeru človekova zavest in človeški jaz katerih izhajam v svojih razmišljanjih o zavesti. vsaj v splošnem predstavljata neko mentalno realnost in ne le Moja prva domneva je, da vsako, še tako elementarno zavestno funkcionalno koristno iluzijo. Mentalna realnost pomeni dvoje: doživljanje in delovanje, predpostavlja, da dani organizem ali nedvomna prezentnost samega doživljaja za posameznika in splošneje, kognicijski sistem, zavzame svoj določen »zorni kot«, s takšna stopnja ustreznosti vsebine doživljaja objektivni katerega zaznava svoje okolje, ga »razumeva« in v njemu deluje. (intersubjektivni in transubjektivni) realnosti, da se posameznik v Temu pravim »zavzemanje doživljajske perspektive« in sem o tem svojem vsakdanjem in budnem ravnanju lahko zanese nanjo. 61 Mentalna realnost zavesti in jaza torej pomeni nedvomno [6] Smith, J. Self-Consciousness. Stanford Encyclopedia of prezentnost doživljanja neke predmetne danosti za posameznika Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/self- oz. nedvomno prezentnost doživljanja samega sebe pri consciousness posamezniku ter relativno zanesljivo nanašanje na vsebino [7] Parfitt, D. 1984. Reasons and Persons. Clarendon Press, zavedanja in na vsebino tega, kar si predstavlja sam o sebi v Oxford. objektivni realnosti. Dejal sem, da gre pri zavesti (in jazu) »v splošnem« za neko mentalno realnost, kar pomeni, da so možni [8] Wittgenstein, L. 2014. Filozofske raziskave. Krtina, tudi posebni primeri, kjer temu, kar se nam javlja kot zavest in Ljubljana. našim vtisom o samem sebi, ne gre ravno za zaupati. Takšni [9] Dennett, D. C. 2012. Pojasnjena zavest. Krtina, Ljubljana. primeri so npr. sanje, drogiranost, razne ektaze itd. Tu tudi ne bi dalje razpravljal o še globljem vprašanju, koliko je morda naše [10] Markič, O. 2010. Kognitivna znanost. Filozofska vprašanja. zavedanje objektivne realnosti in naše samozavedanje Aristej, Maribor. iluziorno v kakem višjem, recimo »duhovnem« smislu, kar nam sugerirajo [11] Ule, A. 2001. Logos spoznanja. ZPS, Ljubljana. določene filozofije in religije. [12] Ule, A. 2008. Consciousness as process and experiential dimension. V Circles of Analysis, A. Ule. LIT, Wien, Berlin, LITERATURA 159–175. [1] Platon. 2004. Harmid. V Platon, Zbrana dela 1. Mohorjeva [13] Ule, A. 2011a. O kvantnomehanskih modelih zavesti. družba, Ljubljana, 662–684. Poligrafi: modeli sveta, 63–64, 67–98. [2] Descartes, R. 1973. Meditacije. SM, Ljubljana. [14] Ule, A. 2011b. The concept of spirit: A critical re- [3] Hume, D. 2004. O osebni identiteti. Analiza 1–2, 8, 125– conceptualization of a metaphysical category. V Suvremena 134. znanost I vjera, Z. Primorac, ur. Sveučilište u Mostaru, Filozofska fakulteta, Mostar-Ljubljana, 85–112. [4] Kant, I. 1999. Prolegomena. DZS, Ljubljana. [15] Ule, A. 2015. Consciousness, mind, and spirit: Three levels [5] Blackmore, S. 2013. Zavest. Zelo kratek uvod. Krtina, of human cognition. Interdisciplinary Description of Ljubljana. Complex Systems, 13/4, 488–500. 62 Indeks avtorjev / Author index Bregant Tina ................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 Dzurnáková Ludmila .................................................................................................................................................................... 52 Gams Matjaž ................................................................................................................................................................................ 10 Georgiev Dejan ............................................................................................................................................................................ 40 Geršak Gregor .............................................................................................................................................................................. 48 Golob Urška ................................................................................................................................................................................. 14 Gombač Leo ................................................................................................................................................................................. 17 Klauser Florian ............................................................................................................................................................................. 21 Kolenik Tine ................................................................................................................................................................................. 25 Leš Marinko ................................................................................................................................................................................. 29 Malec Maja ................................................................................................................................................................................... 32 Markič Olga ................................................................................................................................................................................. 36 Meh Duška ................................................................................................................................................................................... 40 Meh Kaja ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 40 Petlevski Sibila ............................................................................................................................................................................. 44 Pinoza Jasna ................................................................................................................................................................................. 48 Podlesek Anja ............................................................................................................................................................................... 48 Rogelj Peter .................................................................................................................................................................................. 17 Shchukin Oleg .............................................................................................................................................................................. 52 Shchukina Irina ............................................................................................................................................................................ 52 Strle Toma .................................................................................................................................................................................... 56 Tacol Lovro .................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 Ule Andrej .................................................................................................................................................................................... 60 63 64 Konferenca / Conference Uredili / Edited by Kognitivna znanost / Cognitive Science Olga Markič, Toma Strle, Tine Kolenik, Urban Kordeš, Matjaž Gams Document Outline A - Naslovnica-SPREDNJA - B B - Naslovnica - notranja - B C- Kolofon - B D-E - IS2017 - skupni zacetni del Blank Page F - Kazalo - B G - Naslovnica podkonference - B H - Predgovor - B I - Programski odbor - B J - PDF - B 1. Bregant, Tina - Povezave med telesnimi merami, gibalnimi spretnostmi in kognitivnimi sposobnostmi v zgodnjem otroštvu 2. Gams, Matjaž - ASILOMAR AI PRINCIPLES 3. Golob, Urška - INFLUENCE OF SELF-OBSERVATION IN THE PROCESS OF TWO DIMENSIONAL CREATION IN VISUAL ARTS1 27.9.2017 pop1 4. Gombač, Leo & Rogelj, Peter - Analysis of EEG visual evoked potential (VEP) acquisition delays 5. Klauser, Florian - O fenomenologiji prepričanj, od Husserla do enaktivizma 6. Kolenik, Tine - The Use of Genetic Algorithms in Researching Non-Veridical Perception 7. Leš, Marinko - What is it like to be a batman - consciousness and performance studies 8. Malec, Maja - Consciousness - one, two or many 9. Markič, Olga - Tek časa 10. Meh, Georgiev, Meh - Cognitive modulation of pain - how do cognition-mind influence pain processing 11. Petlevski - Modeling the Model 12. Pinoza, Jasna - Psihološki in fiziološki odzivi ob robotski vadbi v različnih pogojih navidezne resničnosti 13. Shchukina, Irina - Semantic Implication of Traditional Values in Conscience of Modern Teenagers 14. Strle, Toma - Problematičnost integracije nevroznanosti v pravne kontekste 15. Ule, Andrej - Zavest in samozavedanje iluzija ali realnost K - Index - B L - Naslovnica-ZADNJA - B Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page