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received: 2020-11-06                 DOI 10.19233/ASHS.2021.14
GRASSLANDS IN SLOVENIAN KARST AND ISTRIA AS 
CULTURAL HERITAGE
Blanka RAVNJAK
University Botanic Gardens Ljubljana, Biotechnical faculty, Ižanska cesta 15, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
e-mail: blanka.ravnjak@bf.uni-lj.si
Jože BAVCON
University Botanic Gardens Ljubljana, Biotechnical faculty, Ižanska cesta 15, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
e-mail: joze.bavcon@bf.uni-lj.si
ABSTRACT
Grasslands have always been an important part of the cultural landscape. They were created by people, as 
they needed fodder for their livestock. But this led to the development of the grassland ecosystem, with its nu-
merous plant species adapted to this particular environment. With sustainable management, farmers preserved 
the biodiversity of grasslands. The changes in grassland management have resulted in decreasing biodiversity 
in grasslands. Where the biodiversity in grasslands is still relatively high, we would need to reintroduce the 
traditional management to preserve the grasslands. At the same time, grasslands would become part of the 
tourism offer and a source of agricultural products of higher quality.
Keywords: grasslands, biodiversity, ecotourism, cultural heritage, Karst, Istria
I PRATI DEL CARSO SLOVENO E DELL‘ISTRIA COME PATRIMONIO CULTURALE
SINTESI
I prati sono sempre stati una parte importante del paesaggio culturale. Sono stati creati con l‘aiuto dell‘uomo 
poiché aveva bisogno di cibo per il bestiame. Ma questo ha anche stabilito un ecosistema del prato, con molte 
specie vegetali adattate a questo particolare ambiente. Attraverso una gestione sostenibile, i contadini hanno 
preservato la biodiversità dei prati. Il nuovo modo di gestire i prati ha fatto sparire la biodiversità dei prati. 
Laddove la biodiversità dei prati è ancora piuttosto elevata, sarebbe necessario reintrodurre il metodo di gestione 
tradizionale che preserverebbe i prati. Allo stesso tempo, diventerebbero una parte dell‘offerta turistica e costi-
tuirebbero una fonte di prodotti agricoli di qualità superiore.
Parole chiavi: prati, biodiversità, ecoturismo, patrimonio culturale, Carso, Istria
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TRADITIONAL GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT
Not so many years ago, perhaps a century or 
even less, farmers were forced to know and follow 
the laws of nature, as their survival depended on 
this knowledge. Today, we like to talk about sus-
tainable management and how we can implement 
it. However, in the past, only sustainable man-
agement of natural resources by farmers ensures 
sufficient quantities of food for people and feed 
for livestock. Farmers treated natural resources 
with respect and did not exploit them indefinitely. 
The land that was treated with respect, prudence, 
and love included grasslands. Grasslands were, 
in fact, the main source of feed for livestock, but 
also natural colourful gardens – places for relaxa-
tion, sources of flowers, and sources of healing 
plants. Many customs associated with grasslands 
have developed, enriching Slovenia’s cultural 
heritage. Grasslands and steeper meadows were 
areas that were torn from the forest in past 
centuries. However, with centuries of excessive 
forest exploitation in Karst and Istria, bora and 
associated additional drying and erosion of fertile 
soil became a problem. Aristocracy, in particular, 
started reforesting Karst and shrinking open ar-
eas (Komisija, 1884; Panjek, 2015; Perko, 2016). 
Almost 200 years after the start of reforestation 
(Panjek, 2015; Perko, 2016), the same problem 
developed in Karst as in the interior of Slovenia. 
The areas are becoming overgrown. Specifically, 
the natural succession always has a tendency 
towards forest growth, so the annual mowing and 
repeated deforestation of forest margins every 
few years were necessary for the preservation of 
grasslands (Bavcon, 2013; Bavcon et al., 2019). 
The shrubs on forest margins were cut down for 
firewood. They used everything to their advantage 
and discarded nothing (Bavcon, 2013; Bavcon & 
Ravnjak, 2018; Petkovšek, 2019; Jereb, 2019). 
In Karst, they dug up and removed rocks in the 
winter, and built dry stone walls between plots 
threw them onto mounds or rock outcrops, thus 
clearing land for grasslands, fields and commons 
(Panjek, 2015; Perko, 2016). They also cleared 
and repaired cart tracks leading to these areas, 
and cut hedges along these tracks every few years. 
Grasslands were cleared in April and beginning of 
May. First, they raked the leaves that had accumu-
lated since autumn, gathered branches and rocks. 
During rest days, when grasslands were adorned 
with colourful flowers, farmers visited them with 
their whole families and picked flowers. First 
they picked the first spring flowers, such as lilies 
of the valley and daffodils, followed by daisies, 
meadow claries, knapweeds and others in the 
summer. They used them to decorate chapels and 
churches, and many bouquets were also brought 
to school by children (Petkovšek, 2019; Jereb, 
2019). In summer months, grasslandss were the 
source of medicinal herbs. They were generally 
picked by children, accompanied by mothers and 
grandmothers. They were intended for domestic 
use and for sale (Petkovšek, 2019). Later, in late 
summer, locals also picked cyclamen plants and 
took them to larger cities to be sold (Bavcon, 
2009; Guštin, 2018). 
Late mowing and occasional grazing were es-
sential for the preservation of grasslands. Mowing 
began only when most of the grassland flowers 
had bloomed and produced seeds, thus renewing 
the seed bank of plant species in the soil each 
year. Thus, they only mowed grasslands when 
grasses dropped their seeds, as they used to say 
(Rustja, 1929; Turk, 1924; 1925). Mowing repre-
sented quite a venture for a farmstead, in terms of 
both labour organisation and food. At such times, 
many people came together for mowing and rak-
ing. At the same time, mowing was associated with 
a feeling of great satisfaction because of the work 
done (Prešern, 1933; Jordan, 1945; Mencinger, 
1963; Petek, 2004; Čemažar, 2009). Mowing in 
hilly areas was different and much more difficult 
that mowing in lowlands (Kuret, 1989a). People 
from different areas of the Littoral Region came 
to help with mowing in Karst. Some of those who 
had already done everything at home went to 
from place to place to help with mowing, earn-
ing some additional money, as mowing was well 
paid. Only experienced mowers went to Karst, 
as mowing was more difficult because of plants 
adapted to drought. The scythe blade in Karst 
was different to that in the interior of Slovenia. 
It was narrower and set at a higher angle, as this 
allowed mowers to more efficiently cut grass. In 
the interior of Slovenia, the blade was thinner and 
set at a lower angle, resulting in greater width of 
the blade (Bavcon Sr., 2018). In Karst, the grass 
was sharper and thinner, and it was hard to cut 
with a scythe. That is why grasslands were always 
mowed early in the morning when the grass was 
still dewy (Bavcon Sr., 2018; Petek, 2004). Mow-
ers gathered at the landowner’s while it was still 
dark. When the moon was full, they headed to 
the most remote meadow or grassland soon after 
two or three o’clock in the morning (Bavcon Sr., 
2018; Guštin, 2018; Kuret, 1989a, 1989b; Petek, 
2004). When they arrived to the meadow, dawn 
was usually breaking, and the mowers had to be 
organised. Mowing was started by the landowner 
or the best mower. Mowed grass was only mixed 
or strewn by rakers with rakes and pitchforks 
only when the sun was shining and the dew on 
the freshly cut grass dried off (Makarovič, 1978). 
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Image 2: Mower under Križna gora (Podkraj) (Photo: J. Bavcon). 
Slika 2: Kosec pod Križno goro (Podkraj) (Foto: J. Bavcon).
Image 1: Cart track in Čičarija (Photo: J. Bavcon). 
Slika 1: Kolovoz v Čičariji (Foto: J. Bavcon). 
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Image 4: Traditional hay drying (Komenski Kras) (Photo: J. Bavcon). 
Slika 4: Tradicionalno sušenje sena (Komenski Kras) (Foto: J. Bavcon).
Image 3: Traditional hay drying in Dutovlje (Komen) (Photo: J. Bavcon).
Slika 3: Tradicionalno sušenje sena v Dutovljah (Komen) (Foto: J. Bavcon).
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Mowing continued to about 11 AM and was fol-
lowed by lunch. After their lunch, mowers rested 
in the shade until 4 PM. If there was anything left 
unmown, they continued mowing after their rest 
or joined the rakers, who were strewing the rows 
and turning the hay. If the weather was unstable, 
they raked the hay together into small piles (note: 
zagrabek in parts of the Littoral and Upper Car-
niola regions or ograbek in Brkini). From these 
piles, they formed heaps of hay – lonec or lounec 
(in Istria, Brda) – to prevent rain or dew wetting 
the hay (Makarovič, 1978). In Karst, they used 
ox-drawn carts to transport the hay to the farm, 
where they stored it above the barn. In Karst, they 
usually stored hay just above the barn or even 
inside the house, because the barn and the house 
could be linked together in the same building, or 
separate.
During hot days, hay on Karst meadows would 
dry in just one day. Thus, there was significantly 
less work with drying and turning hay than in the 
interior of Slovenia, where hay was usually gath-
ered on the second, but generally only on the third 
day. Another reason is also the composition of 
the vegetation, which is more adapted to drought 
and contains less water in Karst. In the interior of 
Slovenia, plants were less mature and also more 
succulent. In Karst, among the margins and shrubs, 
where there was less grass, they used sickles for 
mowing (Guštin, 2017). As some have explained, 
the Slovenian name for meadows (senožet) is de-
rived from the Slovenian expression for mowing 
hay (seno žeti) (Čemažar, 2009). Even some places 
derived their names from such activities: Senožeče, 
Travnik, Otave (Savnik et al., 1968; Majdič, 1994). 
The little hay they mowed was then brought home 
in large baskets (žbrinca – large, very loosely 
woven and open baskets) by ox-drawn carts. The 
farmers who did not have oxen left their baskets 
next to the track. Later, someone would pick up 
all these baskets and transport them to the village 
(Guštin, 2018). In the past, hay was actually a 
commodity. It was transported from Dragonja Val-
ley to Seča, where it was loaded onto ships and 
transported to Trieste.
Starting in 1980s, the traditional hay harvest-
ing was slowly supplemented by ensilage, and 
then by an even simpler process of baling in mid-
1990s, thus contributing to reduced biodiversity 
of grasslands. Seeds of plant species have always 
been present in traditionally mowed and dried 
hay, but are no longer present in today’s plastic 
bales. Because all dried grass is cut too early, does 
not mature in hermetically sealed plastic bales, 
and the seeds do not fall on the grassland. The 
traditional way of dry baling and single mow-
ing of grasslands, where seeds can return to the 
soil’s seed bank, has been preserved in very few 
places. When hay was transported from meadows 
to barns, seeds were distributed on other surfaces, 
too. In addition to the traditional way of mowing, 
the grasslands in the wider Karst region were also 
preserved by sheep grazing. During winter, until 
March, sheep were grazing even on wheat fields, 
thereby strengthening wheat plants. In winter, they 
transported sheep to warmer areas towards the sea, 
along the Gulf of Trieste and to Istria (Smerdel, 
1989, 1995). With the beginnings of reforestation 
of Karst, from 1822 onwards, sheep breeding in 
Karst was restricted for the first time (Fleischmann, 
1850a-h; Komisija, 1891; Panjek, 2015; Perko, 
2016; Praprotnik & Bavcon, 2016). However, cur-
rently the only method for preserving the cultural 
landscape and grasslands is often grazing, particu-
larly in Karst, Istria and on steeper areas of the 
interior of Slovenia (Škornik et al., 2010; Poldini 
et al., 2014; Pornaro et al., 2014a, 2014b; Bavcon, 
2013; Bavcon et al., 2019).
There are fewer and fewer colourful grass-
lands rich in biodiversity as the method of their 
management has changed (Ivajnšič et al., 2013; 
Bavcon et al., 2019). The key problem is too early 
mowing, which prevents the natural seed bank 
in the soil from replenishing. Too early mow-
ing results in a loss of biodiversity and causes 
a green desert. Furthermore, grasslands are also 
endangered by fertilisation, which does increase 
the amount of green feed for livestock, but leads 
to disappearance of more sensitive plant species 
that do not tolerate excessive amounts of nutri-
ents. Grasslands surfaces are also shrinking due 
to overgrowing. Edges of grasslands are no longer 
being cleared, and grassland vegetation is slowly 
transitioning into forest vegetation, once again 
resulting in a slow disappearance of grassland 
plant species. Overgrowing of grasslands is, in 
fact, slower in area of Istria and Karst. The primary 
reason for this are hot and dry summer (Kaligarič, 
1997a, 1997b; Kaligarič & Ivanjšič, 2014; Bav-
con, 2013; Bavcon et al., 2019). The disappear-
ance of colourful grasslands is not only a nature 
conservation issue but also a cultural landscape 
problem. The mosaic structure of former farms, 
customs related to grasslands and quality agri-
cultural products (meat, milk, medicinal herbs), 
which were also associated with sustainable 
grassland management, are disappearing. There-
fore, it is important to recognise and understand 
grasslands as very diverse ecosystems, which 
can not only improve the quality of our life with 
their beautiful appearance, but can also become 
a source of quality agricultural products and a 
wonderful tourist destination (Bavcon & Ravnjak, 
2019; Bavcon et al., 2019). 
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GRASSLANDS BIODIVERSITY OVERVIEW
The grasslands of the Karst, Slovenian Istria and 
Čičarija are the ones that have the highest number 
of species. In February and March, these grass-
lands are painted white by the common snowdrop 
(Galanthus nivalis L.). The species always spreads 
from forest margins, which indicates that these 
areas were covered by forests in the past (Bavcon, 
2014a, 2016; Bavcon et al., 2019). In Slovenian 
heritage, the common snowdrop is considered a 
herald of spring. As soon as the first flowers appear 
in nature, the first bouquets of snowdrops also 
make it to local markets. On grasslands, they are 
soon joined by the genus of crocuses (Crocus L.). In 
karst, meadows mown once per year, primarily on 
shallower soil, are dominated by striped crocus (C. 
reticulatus Steven ex Adam in Weber fil. & Mohr), 
while sinkholes, where it is colder, are dominated 
by the intensely purple spring crocus (C. vernus 
(L.) Hill subsp. vernus) (Bavcon, 2012). In Goriško 
and parts of Komen Karst, there are many white 
populations within blue ones. Primroses (Primula 
vulgaris Hudson) also appear on sunny south-facing 
slopes in the spring. Compared to snowdrops and 
crocuses, it forms smaller populations, but there 
are still specimens growing in groups. In addition, 
cowslip primrose (P. veris L.) appears in grass-
lands occasionally, the roots of which were once 
harvested as a remedy for colds (Bavcon, 2013; 
Bohinc, 1985; Jagodič, 2004; Kromar, 1992; Gale-
Toplak, 2002; Willfort, 1976). Even today, it is one 
of the main ingredients of cough syrups. Where 
once there were light thermophilic forests of manna 
ash, downy oak and European hop-hornbeam and 
grasslands were formed by human encroachment, 
we can observe remnants of undergrowth veg-
etation, represented by H. multifidus Vis. subsp. 
istriacus (Schiffner) Merxm. & Podl. Grasslands 
represent secondary habitats for the latter species. 
It primarily grows on Karst commons and Karst 
mown meadows. It grows in large bunches among 
dry grass, specifically where grasslands are grazed 
or mown only occasionally. Where mowing is 
more often, plants are smaller but consequently 
more compact. Hellebore has also been a very 
popular species for spring bouquets (Bavcon et al., 
2012). In spring, mountain pasqueflower (Pulsatilla 
Image 5: Overgrowing grasslands in Čičarija (Photo: J. Bavcon). 
Slika 5: Zaraščajoči se travniki v Čičariji (Foto: J. Bavcon).
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montana Rchb.) appears in masse in some places 
in Karst and Slovenian Istria, usually together with 
Tommasini’s cinquefoil (Potentilla tommasiniana 
F.W.Schultz), white cinquefoil (Potentilla alba L.), 
globe daisy (Globularia punctata Lapeyr.) and grass 
lily (Ornithogalum comosum L., O. umbellatum 
L.). Pasqueflower often grow on shallow soil and 
overgrowing commons. Pasqueflower mark Karst 
grasslands twice: when they bloom and when they 
bear fruit, when fluffy infructescences developed 
at the top of their stems (Bavcon, 2013). In some 
areas in Karst and Istria, globe daisy is so common 
that it turns the area completely blue. In some 
places, the colour of the flowers in the population 
transitions from blue to white. There are a few of 
such places in Podgorje Karst, where globe daisy 
is also common on pastures (Bavcon, 2014b). In 
some places, we can find common grape hyacinths 
(Muscari botryoides (L.) Mill.) among globe daisies 
(Bavcon, 2013; Bavcon, 2014b). In May, Karst and 
Istria don the white of poet’s daffodils (Narcissus 
poeticus subsp. radiiflorus). There, their diversity is 
greater than in some significantly denser and more 
numerous populations elsewhere in Slovenia. In 
Karst, they first appear at the edges of bushes, from 
where populations spread to grasslands (Bavcon, 
2013; Praprotnik et al., 2018). Poet’s daffodil is 
also a popular horticultural species, introduced 
into home gardens from nature in many places. It 
is also one of the species popular in bouquets sold 
on markets. 
At the end of May, the whiteness of daffodils 
is in some places in Karst and Istria replaced by 
iris flowers blue as the sea. First, the vivid purple 
flowers of grass leaved iris (I. graminea L.) appear 
among leaves that resemble grass. A subspecies 
of Siberian iris (I. sibirica L. subsp. erirrhiza Po-
spichal) also grows in some sinkholes in Slovenian 
Istria, as this is its traditional habitat (Wraber, 1990; 
Bavcon, 2013). In some places, it tends to grow 
in large populations. Its basic species, Siberian 
iris, grows in wetter lowland grasslands (I. sibirica 
L.) (Bavcon et al., 2019). At the same time, the 
green of grasslands is livened up by intense purple 
flowers of peonies. Only common peony (Paeonia 
officinalis L.) thrives in large numbers, while the 
wild peony (P. mascula (L.) Mill.) is very rare. Com-
mon people prefers edges of sinkholes, where it 
sometimes grows in larger groups. White asphodel 
(Asphodelus albus Willd.), whose white spike in-
florescences rise above the grassy green, blooms 
at the same time as peonies. It is followed at the 
start of June by dittany (Dictamnus albus L.), which 
presents two appearances. On mown grasslands, it 
is lower, more compact, and generally spread out. 
On overgrowing grasslands, it develops into large 
plants with significantly larger inflorescences. Its 
pink flowers arranged in spike inflorescences are 
appealing pasture for bees (Bavcon, 2013; Ravnjak 
& Bavcon, 2020). Lilies of the valley (Convallaria 
majalis L.) predominate in some places with dry 
and acidic soil in May. Since olden day, flowers 
used to decorate churches and sold on the market 
were the most abundant in May. At the transition 
into summer, Karst grasslands once again take on 
a purple colour with the bloom of meadow clary 
(Salvia pratensis L.) (Bavcon & Ravnjak, 2015a), 
with white-yellow flowers of mountain daisy (Leu-
canthemum adustum (Koch) Gremli, L. platylepis 
Borbas). Clary prefers dry grasslands with a lime-
stone base (Hegi, 1908–1931). Occasionally on 
Karst grasslands, we can also find purple mullein 
(Verbascum phoenicum L.), which, unlike other 
members of the genus of mullein, as the name 
suggests, blooms purple. Other species have yel-
low flowers, with the most common ones being 
Austrian mullein (V. austriacum Schott ex Roem. 
& Schult.), Alpine mullein (V. alpinum Turra) and 
dense-flowered mullein (V. densiflorum Bertol.). 
Mullein flowers are characterised by cup-shaped 
capsules. In the past, they utilised this feature by 
dipping the entire inflorescence into oil, lit in on 
fire, and used it as a torch. The oil collected in 
the capsules and burned slowly. The appearance 
of Karst grasslands then quickly changes into the 
rippling softness of European feather grass (Stipa 
eriocaulis Borb.) and silver giant scabiose (Jurinea 
mollis (L.) Reichenb.), among which purple pads 
of various types of thyme (Thymus) form near the 
ground (Bavcon et al., 2019). Since days of old, 
locals have collected thyme as a medicinal herb 
for respiratory diseases, while the syrup made from 
thyme flowers is a pleasant summer refreshment. 
In the middle of June, wonderful colours appear 
on dry graslands in Karst field, which is greatly 
livened up by wild gladiolus (Gladiolus illyricus 
Koch.) (Kaligarič, 1997a, 1997b; Bavcon, 2013; 
2014b). Primarily on Karst field, great burnet (San-
guisorba officinalis L.) grows among wild gladiolus 
plants. In folk medicine, it was used to treat intes-
tinal diseases and diarrhoea (Ašič, 1987; Bohinc, 
1985; Kromar, 1992; Jagodič, 2004; Gale-Toplak, 
2002). Great yellow gentian (Gentiana lutea L. 
subsp. symphyandra Murbeck) was also used as 
a medicinal herb. They used its dried roots to 
prepare tea to treat stomach ailments (Ašič, 1987; 
Bohinc, 1985; Jagodič, 2004; Kromar, 1992; Gale-
Toplak, 2002; Willfort, 1976). Because its roots 
were so popular, it became an endangered species 
and is not on the list of protected plant species. 
A plant that was used as a medicinal herb only 
in the Littoral Region of Slovenia, and is just as 
common on grasslands, is Inula hirta L. According 
to folklore, the plant is said to cure all diseases, 
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Image 7: Jurinea mollis and Stipa eriocaulis in Čičarija (Photo: J. Bavcon).
Slika 7: Jurinea mollis in Stipa eriocaulis v Čičariji (Foto: J. Bavcon).
Image 6: Grasslands with Iris illyrica and Narcisus poeticus subsp. radiiflorus (Photo: J. Bavcon). 
Slika 6: Travniki z Iris illyrica and Narcisus poeticus subsp. radiiflorus (Foto: J. Bavcon).
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including snake bites (Fleischmann, 1848; Bavcon 
& Ravnjak, 2018; Ravnjak & Bavcon, 2020). More 
recent studies have shown that the plant does, in 
fact, contain numerous substances that improve 
immune responses. It was commonly known as 
astra montana (Bavcon, 2013). Locals gathered its 
yellow flowers to be used as medicine. Of course, 
we cannot have a dry grassland without umbellif-
ers. The most common species is mountain parsley 
(Peucedanum oreoselinum (L.) Moench), which is 
occasionally accompanied in Karst and Istria by 
Ferulago campestris (Besser) Grecescu (Bavcon et 
al., 2019). Branched St Bernard’s lily (Anthericum 
ramosum L.) blooms during the hottest part of the 
summer. Afterwards, Karst commons are turned 
blue by amethyst sea holly (Eryngium amethysti-
num L.). Because of its wonderful blue colour and 
interesting structure, it was often picked for bou-
quets (Bavcon, 2013). Karst grasslands once again 
take on a beautiful appearance when plants of the 
Allium genus bloom. The first to bloom is round-
headed leek (Allium sphaerocephalon L.), followed 
by broadleaf chives (A. senescens L.) and witch’s 
garlic (A. carinatum L.). When summer turns to au-
tumn, they are joined by A. ericetorum Thore (Bav-
con, 2013, 2014b; Bavcon et al., 2019). Among 
the last plants to adorn the rocky Karst grasslands 
are savories: mountain savory (Satureja montana), 
Liburnian savory (Satureja subspicata Bartl. ex Vis. 
subsp. liburnica Šilić), and their endemic hybrid, 
Karst savory (Satureja x karstiana Justin) (Bavcon, 
2013, 2014b; Bavcon & Ravnjak, 2015b). Savories 
were used in the past, and still are, as a spice, a 
medicinal herb with an antimicrobial and antibac-
terial effect, and as an aphrodisiac. Because of the 
latter property, it was used in love potions in the 
past. 
GRASSLAND AS A SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT
In the description, we provided only a few im-
ages of Karst grasslands throughout the year and 
only a few of the most noticeable and recognis-
able plant species. Of course, species diversity is 
much greater and can include around 150 plant 
species on average. It is this rich species diversity 
that makes these grasslands special in the global 
sense and should be preserved as a natural and 
Image 8: Gentiana lutea at Vremščica (Photo: J. Bavcon).
Slika 8: Gentiana lutea na Vremščici (Foto: J. Bavcon).
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cultural treasure. Even though today’s grassland 
management is intensive and strives to produce 
the highest quantity of feed for livestock, it is 
necessary to switch again to extensive grassland 
management to ensure development of rural areas 
in the spirit of sustainable development. From the 
perspective of livestock farming, livestock grazing 
on grasslands rich in biodiversity is more resist-
ant to various diseases and parasites. Tannins in 
plants (more specifically proanthocyanidins) help 
improve animals’ digestion of proteins, reduce the 
possibility of attack by digestive parasites, and re-
duce the excretion of methane (Aerts et al., 1999; 
Waghorn et al., 2002). With varied plant food, ani-
mals ingest various minerals (Ca, Na, K, Mg) and 
vitamins, with vitamin E being the most important 
for livestock (Hopkins, 2004; Beever et al., 2000), 
affecting the quality of meat and milk. It was 
discovered that the quality of milk is significantly 
higher in animals grazing on grasslands with rich 
plant diversity. Such milk is richer in protein, fatty 
acids, minerals and antioxidants, and is as such 
also healthier for humans (Moloney, 2008). In fact, 
some secondary plant metabolites are essential 
for the production of some cheeses of the highest 
quality (Léveillé, 2018). Although farmers in the 
past did not have access to any modern analyses, 
farmers from Rakitovec told how the hay they 
brought from the higher areas smelled better and 
resulted in better milk (Anon., 2017, 2018).
In addition to traditional agricultural activities 
associated with meadows, farms could offer their 
extensively managed grasslands as part of their 
ecotourism offer. Colourful grasslands are the 
thing that attracts tourists to Slovenia (Bavcon, 
2013, 2014a, 2014b; Bavcon & Ravnjak 2019; 
Bavcon et al., 2019). Gerritsen (2008) states that 
these meadows in Slovenian Istria are as diverse as 
those in South Africa. 
With the help of botany experts, owners of 
colourful grasslands could allow guided botani-
cal excursions for a small number of participants, 
thus preventing possible damage to the grasslands. 
Whenever we led foreign groups to these areas, 
they could not help but marvel at the diversity of 
our grasslands (Bavcon & Ravnjak, 2019, 2018). 
An additional farm product could be hay residue 
obtained by late mowing, which could be offered 
Image 9: Grasslands with Apiaceae family in Senožeče (Photo: J. Bavcon).
Slika 9: Travniki s kobulnicami v Senožečah (Foto: J. Bavcon).
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Image 10: Back basket from Slovenian Istria in Rakitovec (Photo: J. Bavcon). 
Slika 10: Koš iz slovenske Istre v Rakitovcu (Foto: J. Bavcon).
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to tourists for sowing their lawns or for use in tra-
ditional medicine (for baths, to treat colds, muscle 
aches). Farmers in the Karst and Istria already knew 
all this, as they often told us in interviews how 
they put hay or hay residue in a bucket, steamed 
it with water, and then covered the patient and the 
bucket for inhalation (Anon., 2015, 2017).
Of course, grasslands with rich species diversity, 
there are also plant species that were part of Slove-
nian traditional medicine. With relevant knowledge 
and moderate harvesting that would not endanger 
their populations, they could also be a marketable 
product as part of herbalism. Beekeeping also goes 
hand in hand with the countryside, sustainable tour-
ism and Slovenian tradition. Species-rich grasslands 
that are mowed after most plant species bloom rep-
resent an important pasture for bees (Ravnjak & Bav-
con, 2020). Because of the early start of the growing 
season and favourable temperatures, the beekeep-
ing season in Karst and Slovenian Istria begins in 
early spring and lasts longer in autumn than in the 
central part of Slovenia. The only obstacle can be a 
strong bora during the period of abundant flowering, 
which prevents bees from flying, or, as elsewhere in 
Slovenia, periods of rainy weather. In Karst, some 
beekeepers are already producing special and lesser-
known types of honey, such as meadow clary honey, 
mahaleb cherry honey (Prunus mahaleb), prostrate 
Canary clover honey (Dorycnium germanicum) and 
savory honey (Satureja montana and S. subspicata 
subsp. liburnica). The hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis 
L.) in particular represents an important autumn 
bee pasture on Karst grasslands (ČD Sežana, 2011; 
Uredništvo, 2007). Part of sustainable grassland-
related tourism could be the revival of the traditional 
customs described in the introduction, related to 
mowing and hay storage (Mencinger, 1963; Kuret, 
1989a, 1989b; Bavcon et al., 2019). Such activities 
could be presented to tourists, who would also learn 
them. And once abandoned barns with haylofts 
would become a new form of accommodation. 
Colourful flowering grasslands are therefore 
not only botanically interesting but can also be a 
venue for sustainable tourism and a product of sus-
tainable agriculture. By preserving them, we will 
not only protect plant species, but we will also add 
value to our tourist offer and agricultural products, 
which can become a Slovenian trademark, and at 
the same time contribute to the biodiversity of the 
animal world. 
Image 11: Grasslands in Čičarija (Photo J. Bavcon).
Slika 11: Senožeti v Čičariji (Foto J. Bavcon).
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TRAVNIKI SLOVENSKEGA KRASA IN ISTRE KOT KULTURNA DEDIŠČINA
Blanka RAVNJAK
Botanični vrt Univerze v Ljubljani, Biotehniška Fakulteta, Ižanska cesta 15, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija
e-mail: blanka.ravnjak@bf.uni-lj.si
Jože BAVCON
Botanični vrt Univerze v Ljubljani, Biotehniška Fakulteta, Ižanska cesta 15, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija
e-mail: joze.bavcon@bf.uni-lj.si
POVZETEK
Kras in Istra imata še v današnjem času veliko odprtih travniških površin. Zaradi specifike podnebja in tal 
gre bolj ali manj za enokosne travnike. Pred dobrimi dvesto leti so se začeli sicer prvi poskusi pogozdovanja 
Krasa, čemur kmetje niso bili naklonjeni. Vendar je prav v današnjem času tudi na Krasu in v Istri ravno tako 
prisotno zaraščanje travniških površin, kar poleg intenzivnega kmetijstva predstavlja grožnjo njihovi vrstni 
pestrosti. Travniki so del kulturne krajine in gozd se tja znova naravno vrača. Skozi tisočletja so nastale 
zelo pisane travniške površine, ki so dobile značaj naravne krajine, čeprav so izvorno kulturna krajina. S 
popisi vrstne pestrosti in dolgoletnim monitoringom posameznih površin, ki jih beležimo s slikovnim gra-
divom, osebnimi intervjuji z lastniki, domačini, ki so nekoč tukaj delali, skušamo zabeležiti nekdanjo rabo 
travnikov, tradicionalni način obdelave teh površin in kako njihovo biodiverziteto ohraniti s kombinacijo 
tradicionalnega in sodobnega gospodarjenja. Podoba travnatih površin se čez leto spreminja in s tem se 
spreminja tudi zastopanost različnih rastlinskih vrst. Nekatere med njimi so pogostejše in se razširjajo v 
večjih populacijah, spet druge so redkejše, a vnašajo travnikom veliko površinsko pisanost. Poleg kmetijske 
izrabe so travniki s svojo biodiverziteto pomembni tako v etnobotaniki in hortikulturi kot ekoturizmu. Prav 
tako so lahko travniki z zelo bogato rastlinsko biodiverziteto vir visokokakovostnih produktov kmetijstva, 
ki poleg klasične izrabe lahko pomenijo novo dodano vrednost, ki jo je možno izkoristiti za ekoturizem z 
namenom, da bi to bogato kulturno krajino ohranili še prihodnjim rodovom.
Ključne besede: travniki, biodiverziteta, ekoturizem, kulturna dediščina, Kras, Istra
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