management
VOLUME 12 ■ NUMBER 3 ■ FALL 2017 ■ ISSN 1854-4231
management
issn 1854-4231
www.mng.fm-kp.si
Stefan Bojnec, University of Primorska, Slovenia, stefan.bojnec@fm-kp.si
executive editor
Klemen Kavcic, University of Primorska, Slovenia, klemen.kavcic@fm-kp.si
associate editors
Imre Ferto, Corvinus University of Budapest,
Hungary, imre.ferto@uni-corvinus.hu Josu Takala, University ofVaasa, Finland, josu. takala@uwasa.fi
managing and production editor Alen Jezovnik, University of Primorska,
Slovenia, alen.jezovnik@fm-kp.si editorial board
Josef C. Brada, Arizona State University,
usa josef.brada@asu.edu Birgit Burbock, FH Joanneum, Austria,
birgit.burboeck@fh-joanneum.at Andrzej CieSlik, University of Warsaw,
Poland, cieslik@wne.uw.edu.pl Liesbeth Dries, University of Wageningen, The Netherlands, liesbeth.dries@wur.nl Henryk Gurgul, agh University of Science and Technology, Poland, henryk.gurgul@gmail.com Timotej Jagric, University of Maribor,
Slovenia, timotej.jagric@uni-mb.si Ladislav Kabat, Pan-European University,
Slovakia, dekan.fep@paneurouni. com Pekka Kess, University of Oulu, Finland,
pekka.kess@oulu.fi Masaaki Kuboniwa, Hitotsubashi
University, Japan, kuboniwa@ier.hit-u.ac.jp Mirna Leko-Simic, Josip Juraj Strossmayer
University of Osijek, Croatia, lekom@efos.hr Claude Meier, University of Applied Sciences in Business Administration, Switzerland, claude. meier@fhhwz. ch Zbigniew Pastuszak, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Poland, z.pastuszak@umcs.lublin.pl Katarzyna Piorkowska, Wroclaw University of Economics, Poland, katarzyna.piorkowska@ue.wroc.pl Najla Podrug, University of Zagreb, Croatia,
npodrug@efzg.hr Cezar Scarlat, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania, cezarscarlat@yahoo.com
Hazbo Skoko, Charles Sturt University,
Australia, hskoko@csu.edu.au Marinko Skare, Juraj Dobrila University of
Pula, Croatia, mskare@efpu.hr Janez Sustersic, International School of Social and Business Studies, Slovenia, janez.sustersic@issbs.si Milan Vodopivec, University of Primorska,
Slovenia, milan.vodopivec@fm-kp.si aims and scope
The journal Management integrates practitioners', behavioural and legal aspects of management. It is dedicated to publishing articles on activities and issues within organisations, their structure and resources. It advocates the freedom of thought and creativity and promotes the ethics in decision-making and moral responsibility.
indexing and abstracting Management is indexed/listed in doaj, Erih Plus, EconPapers, and ebsco. submissions
The manuscripts should be submitted as e-mail attachment to the editorial office at mng@fm-kp.si. Detailed guide for authors and publishing ethics statement are available at www.mng.fm-kp.si. editorial office up Faculty of Management Cankarjeva 5, 6101 Koper, Slovenia mng@fm-kp.si ■ www.mng.fm-kp.si published by
University of Primorska Press Titov trg 4, 6000 Koper, Slovenia zalozba@upr.si ■ www.hippocampus.si

Revija Management je namenjena mednarodni znanstveni javnosti; izhaja v anglešcini s povzetki v slovenšcini. Izid revije je financno podprla Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije iz sredstev državnega proracuna iz naslova razpisa za sofinanciranje izdajanja domacih znanstvenih periodicnih publikacij.
management
VOLUME 12 (2017) NUMBER 2	ISSN 1854-423I
195 (Re)inventing Business Networks and Organisations: A Brief Introduction Mislav Ante Omazic
199 Valorisation of Cultural Heritage in Sustainable Tourism
Kristina Afric Rakitovac and Nataša Uroševic
217 A Validity Study of the mwep Scale in Hong Kong Tsun-Lok Kwong and Pik-Ching Wan
235 The Relationship between Managerial Satisfaction and Job Turnover Intention: The Mediating Role of Job Satisfaction
Ruveyda Ozturk Basol and Harun Demirkaya
249 Gamification and the Quality of Informal Post-Experiential Learning Viktoria Lambert
273 Assessment of Relationship between Young Researchers and Mentors and Implications for Knowledge Transfer Ana Arzenšek and Katarina Košmrlj
293 Abstracts in Slovene
https://doi.org/l0.26493/l854-423l.l2(3)
(Re)inventing Business Networks and Organisations: A Brief Introduction
mislav ante omazic
Guest Editor
University of Zagreb, Croatia momazici@efzg. hr
https://d0i.0rg/10.26493/1854-4231.12.195-198
Management is striving to address and present key issues in international research, first of all from the area of business, economics, governance and management. Largely, this thematic issue is following the mic 2016 International Conference Managing Global Changes in Pula, Croatia.
The Southeast European economies exhibit common characteristics, but differ greatly at the same time. That is why certain perspectives are applicable although coming outside of the context. The selected papers are written around important but different factors that are affecting modern organisation. Business networks between countries, which once formed one market, have not managed to reinvent themselves. Organizations are instruments, created for the attainment of goals as set up according to organizational vision, based on interest of influential stakeholders. Working toward goals inherently creates change - in activities, structures and resources of the organizations. In this special issue, we use the opportunity to look for answers, which will provide understanding on how organizations in Southeast European countries can improve exchange relationship and successfully reinvent business networks. The performance of the organizations is determined by exchange relationship among organizations in their environments. Further, we seek to understand how organizations may respond and reinvent business environments or how they exert influence upon it. We look for ways to understand management and its mechanisms in their creation of favourable conditions for the creation of knowledge and networks.
In this issue authors from different countries, such as a Croatia, Hong Kong, Turkey Hungary and Slovenia, discuss different themes which are closely related to the (re)invention of business networks
management 12 (3): 195-198
Mislav Ante Omazic
and organisations by providing research findings which offer theoretical and practical implications for key factors in this scientific field.
The first contribution to the issues is entitled 'Valorisation of Cultural Heritage in Sustainable Tourism,' and it is written by two authors, Kristina Afric Rakitovac and Natasa Urosevic. Modern world is faced with serious shortage of different resources and that is one of many reasons why sustainability became important topic in academic circles. This article reflects upon the models of development of cultural tourism in the city of Pula, Croatia, through cross-border international partnerships. Confronting global trends with local commitment to sustainable development, authors set the hypothesis that heritage tourism, based on the strategic valorisation of unique cultural resources, could strengthen the identity and economy of the local community, create new jobs, increase the quality of life of local residents and the pleasure of visitors, improve the image and attract investors. Authors also provided analysis of different comparable European examples of good practice indicating possible models of sustainable management and valorisation of specific categories of heritage, which could at the same time, enhance the process of urban regeneration and social revitalization. In this article, authors proposed some concrete activities in order to foster development of urban areas and prosperity of their citizens through sustainable tourism.
The second article entitled 'A Validity Study of the mwep Scale in Hong Kong,' written by authors Tsun-Lok Kwong and Pik-Ching Wan, focuses on the validity of the Multidimensional Work Ethic Profile (mwep) in the Hong Kong setting. Although, as written, this paper is written within certain context some of its findings are universally applicable. In the modern organisation, issues connected to ethics are neither luxury nor option, it became organizational priority. In this article factor, analysis reveals that similarity exists between factor loadings in original mwep model and author's model with Hong Kong samples. However, the mwep items in the current study does not map exactly into the seven dimensions proposed by Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth in their original work. The leisure and the morality/ethics dimensions match with the original scale respectively with good and poor reliabilities, but the hard work and wasted time dimensions have intertwined and appeared to be inseparable.
The subsequent paper entitled 'The Relationship between Managerial Satisfaction and Job Turnover Intention: The Mediating Role of Job Satisfaction,' by Ruveyda Ôzturk Basol and Harun Demirkaya,
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(Re)inventing Business Networks and Organisations
is focused on specific theme within human resource management area. Service sector in Turkey is faced with the huge challenge and that is that growth occurs faster than the other, comparable, sectors. The rapid growth of the number of shopping malls has necessitated the measurement of the attitudes of the employees in this sector. This study demonstrated that the gender, marital status and age were not the significant variables regarding job satisfaction, managerial satisfaction and job turnover intention; however, education status and income status were found to be significant variables on job satisfaction and job turnover intention. In addition, job satisfaction fully mediated the relationship between managerial satisfaction and job turnover intention.
The fourth article is focused on issues connected to knowledge transfer. Viktoria Lambert, author of the paper entitled 'Gamifica-tion and the Quality of Informal Post-Experiential Learning,' aims to investigate the enablement of gamified learning tools determined by certain attributes of her research. As corporate learning moves out of the traditional space into the hands of learners, the responsibilities of those who provide guidance in this process are changing. The overall prevalence of learning tools creates a need for competent learning leaders who make decisions about the development of the workforce. A questionnaire survey had been conducted on a selected sample of high-level learning leaders from different countries to examine if there are significant correlations between the usage of gamified learning tools and corporate learning leaders' minds, their competences and the organizational culture profiles of companies. Results had been analysed with the spss statistical software package and indicated that relationships between these variables cannot be categorically proven, so no predictions can be made about the future of gamified learning based on these attributes. It is the highest time to conduct an extensive research to examine relationships between the quality of informal learning and learning tools in the ict domain.
Finally, Ana Arzensek and Katarina Kosmrlj wrote paper entitled 'Assessment of Relationship between Young Researchers and Mentors and Implications for Knowledge Transfer,' where they observed knowledge transfer and mentorship process in the academic environment. In their paper authors tried to address key factors that are shaping relationships among Slovenian postgraduate students with a 'Young researcher' status and their mentors. They assumed that relationship determines assessment and among other things, they discovered usefulness of the training and knowledge transfer. The
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relevant issues between mentors and mentorees were explored both, quantitatively with a relevant survey and qualitatively with focus groups method. Among other things authors concluded that mentors who encourage the transfer of knowledge are exceptional in their ability to communicate and are teamwork-oriented; they foster active involvement of the candidate in the research group.
We are quite confident that articles in this thematic issue of Management will help our readers to improve their understanding of the science content we covered and challenge them to dig deeper since quest for understand complex matter never ends. We firmly believe that by reading these papers you will recognize many helpful ideas that are going to be valuable impulse for your further research and behaviour.
196
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Valorisation of Cultural Heritage in Sustainable Tourism
kristina afric rakitovac
Juraj Dobrila University ofPula, Croatia kafric@unipu.hr
natasa urosevic
Juraj Dobrila University ofPula, Croatia natasa. urosevic@unipu. hr
The paper reflects upon the models of development of cultural tourism in the city of Pula, Croatia, through cross-border international partnerships. Confronting global trends with local commitment to sustainable development, the authors set the hypothesis that heritage tourism, based on the strategic valorisation of unique cultural resources, could strengthen the identity and economy of the local community, create new jobs, increase the quality of life of local residents and the pleasure of visitors, improve the image and attract investors. The analysis of European examples of good practice indicated possible models of sustainable management and valorisation of specific categories of heritage, which could at the same time enhance the process of urban regeneration and social revitalization. The conducted research research indicated advantages of transnational cooperation in improving capacities for the sustainable use of the city's most valuable assets: the oldest historic city core on the eastern coast of the Adriatic, the Roman monuments including the Amphitheatre, the nearby Brioni islands and the legacy of the former Austria's main naval port with its powerful fortification system. Key words: sustainable tourism, cultural heritage, cultural
economy, cross-border international partnerships, Croatia https://doi.org/10.26493/1854-4231.12.199-215
Introduction
Turbulent global context, characterized by economic, social, environmental and political crisis, requires consideration of new models of management and sustainable use of limited, valuable local resources. Current strategic policy frameworks define priorities too in order to build national and regional competitive advantage by sustainable and innovative mobilisation of unique local resources. In this context, cultural heritage presents a capital of irreplaceable cultural, social, environmental and economic value. Bearing in mind all
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the key development dimensions of cultural heritage, the authors assumed that sustainable tourism, as 'tourism that respects both local people and the traveller, cultural heritage and the environment' could offer the proper models for sustainable management of cultural heritage.
The authors have tried to find the optimal model of cultural heritage management, which would allow sustainable local development in the turbulent global context, using the authentic characteristics of destinations and the unique elements of urban identity to differentiate them from competitors. The proposed hypothesis is that cultural tourism, which 'cares for the culture it consumes while culturing the consumer' (Richards 2007, 1), as a sustainable alternative to mass tourism, could strengthen the identity and economy of the local community, create new jobs, increase the quality of life of local residents and the pleasure of visitors, improve the image and attract investors. Combination of cultural and tourism development policies could act as a catalyst, promoting the local destination as the most desirable and attractive place to live, work, visit and invest in. Investing in cultural heritage can significantly improve the quality of life of local residents and their guests, regenerate neglected urban areas and increase the value of real estates.
The focus of this paper is on the city of Pula, Croatia. As a city of three thousand years of historical continuity, with its urban identity formed in the key periods of the Roman, Venetian and Austro-Hungarian rule, Pula is today recognizable for the abundance of cultural heritage sites (with Arena as the iconic symbol of the city), industrial and former military heritage, developed cultural industries and festivals, and the nearby Brijuni Islands, a unique cultural landscape and national park.
Military function defined the city's identity for 150 years. Pula was selected for the main Austrian (Austro-Hungarian) naval port in 1850 and then began a period of the most intensive modernization and urbanization, including the major public and infrastructure investments, which gave the city its specific Central European urban identity. At the same time, the nearby Brijuni Islands turned to the most exclusive tourist resort on the Adriatic. Contemporary local residents inherited from this period the most important urban facilities, as well as the well preserved fortification system, which is still waiting for a proper valorisation. Commemoration of the World War I was an opportunity to valorise a common European heritage, by transforming the military architecture into creative spaces for civil initiatives, cultural and scientific cooperation and intercultural
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dialogue. In this paper the authors tried to explore possibilities of valorisation of transnational, multicultural heritage of Pula through cross-border international partnerships in the framework of European projects and programmes. The authors have analysed the most effective European models of good practice, as well as advantages of transnational cooperation in improving capacities for the sustainable use of the city's more valuable assets through heritage tourism.
Valorisation of Cultural Heritage through
Sustainable Tourism
The world in the 21st century is faced with different and severe problems caused by irresponsible use of resources resulting in many environmental, social, economic, cultural, political and other problems with potential long-term and unexpected effects. The dominant linear economic model, i.e. model of depletion of resources through the extraction, production, consumption and disposal is not sustainable any more. There is a need for a transition towards a more conscious and responsible way of satisfying needs based on the model of circular economy, i.e. a model of efficient use of resources.
In the last thirty years the concept of sustainable development is pointed out as a potential driver of that transition. The most citied definition of the concept, although often criticised for its potential ambiguity, is from the report Our Common Future (unwced 1987). It was defined as 'development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs.' In the same time, it is not 'a fixed state of harmony, but rather a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development, and institutional change are made consistent with future as well as present needs' (unwced 1987, 17). The complexity of the concept of sustainable development derives from the fact that its implementation requires changes of behaviour in all segment of human activities, i.e. a fundamental revision and change of the values, thinking and behaviour. It requires the transition from the concept of Homo economics, i.e. a rational creature, selfish and oriented towards the maximisation of utility towards the concept of Homo sustinens, i.e. a human being that lives in harmony with sus-tainability requirements (Siebenhuner 2000).
Tourism, due to its size and interconnectedness with many parts of the society and the economy, can be a powerful driver towards that change. According to unwto (2016) in 2015 tourism has realized nearly 10% of the global gdp, 6% of global trade, and 11% of total
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global employment (direct, indirect and induced) reaching a total of 1,184 million travellers.
As Mihalic (2014, 461) notes, the debate for a more responsible tourism development has begun in the early 1970s when George Young argued that the impacts of tourism are both a blessing and a blight and Claude Kaspar, called for a new dimension of the tourism debate which he termed environmental ecology. Later, Jost Kripen-dorf (1999) challenged the sense of mass tourism in his book The Holiday Makers begging the search for alternative forms of tourism development. In 2005, the unwto (2013,17) has defined sustainable tourism as 'tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment and host communities.' The concept requires the informed participation of all relevant stakeholders (business, tourists, investors, employees, governments and local community) and consistent political leadership to ensure wide participation and consensus building. But, as Goodwin (2011) notes, sustainable development lacks measurable indicators in order to determine whether or not is being really managed towards sustainabil-ity. The concept appears to be operative, but in its implementation it seems to be too abstract, the principles are not applied, the concept is inoperative, the objectives are not achieved, responsibility is not taken.
As Goodwin states, at the core of responsible tourism is the ethic of responsibility, the willingness and capacity to respond, to exercise responsibility. There are three aspects of the concept of responsibility that are particularly relevant to tourism: accountability, i.e. the liability to be called to account for actions and omissions; capability to act or capacity, i.e. capability assumes capacity - responsibility is attributed or accepted because the individual or group had both the opportunity and capacity to act, they have 'responsibility and the capacity to respond or to be responsive, i.e. individuals and organizations are expected to respond and make a difference. The author points out the behaviour - base view involving different stakeholders to dialogue and create more sustainable solutions. Responsible tourism refers to the willingness to take responsibility to respond, to act to contribute to sustainability.
Mihalic (2014), after a detailed sustainable - responsible tourism discourse, has proposed a process towards responsustable tourism through the Triple A Model (figure 1) as a tool that helps to understand the process of how a responsible tourism destination or firm actually implements the sustainability agenda. It can be applied
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figure 1
The Triple-A Model for responsustable tourism (adapted from Mihalic 2014)
Phase penetration
Environmental/socio-cultural/economic
in tourism destination of any level. Different relevant stakeholders have a responsibility to seek to reduce the negative and enhance the positive environmental, socio-cultural and economic impacts of tourism.
The focus of this paper is on valorisation of cultural heritage through sustainable tourism. Namely, the concept of sustainable tourism usually embraces three aspects of sustainability: economic sustainability, i.e. valuation of natural, social and human capital in the accounting processes at the firm, regional or national level as well as internalisation of negative externalities; social sustainability, i.e. creation of conditions of growth of social capital through social cohesion, social justice, respect of cultural identity, honesty, ethics, etc. and environmental sustainability, i.e. responsible use of natural resources and environmental protection.
As Urosevic and Afric Rakitovac note (2016, 375), in the un Agenda 21 from 1992, culture was defined as an important segment of social sustainability. But in the last ten years it is being considered also as s fourth pillar of sustainable development, i.e. as a new, innovative and proactive aspect of sustainable development. The significance of cultural dimension of sustainable development derives also from the fact that cultural factors influence human relations, consumer behaviour, environmental assessment and interaction with it. So, sustainable tourism cannot be culturally neutral, i.e. it has to promote understanding and respecting of cultural particularities, identities, diversity of tourists and stakeholders in the tourism destination.
Cultural heritage usually consists of resources inherited from the past in all forms and aspects - tangible, intangible and digital, including monuments, sites, landscapes, skills, practices, knowledge
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and expressions of human creativity, as well as collections conserved and managed by public and private bodies such as museums, libraries and achieves (European Union 2012).
Cultural heritage, as an integral part of the cultural and creative sector, could have a significant role in the local economy through the development of entrepreneurship in culture, opening of new, diversified jobs, revalorisation of traditional crafts and arts, innovative working methods, etc. Sustainable management of cultural heritage through tourism is a strategic challenge of the 21st century. The expansion of cultural tourism over recent decades has played a crucial role in the promotion and protection of tangible and intangible heritage as well as the development of arts, crafts and creative activities. Aiming to explore and advance new partnership models between tourism and culture, the first unwto/unesco World Conference on Tourism and Culture was held in Seem Reap, Cambodia in February, 2015. The Conference participants endorsed the Siem Reap Declaration on Tourism and Culture, which underlines that successful outcomes require engaging culture and tourism stakeholders, especially within all levels of government and public administrations, to address cross-cutting responsibilities in areas such as governance, community engagement, innovation and corporate social responsibility. At the local level, each tourism destination should decide how to valorise its cultural heritage through sustainable tourism. It could be realised through smart specialisation strategies.
Sustainable Cultural Heritage Management:
A Challenge for Tourism Destinations
Tourism destinations should awake the importance of cultural heritage and create and implement models of their sustainable revitalisation and management. Sustainable management of cultural heritage is a challenge for the contemporary civilisation in which the key stakeholders are oriented towards maximization of profits regardless the long-term consequences on the quality of life, impact on the environment, preservation of cultural heritage and cultural landscapes. In such, very dynamic conditions, cultural heritage is often threatened, e.g. vanishing of local languages, customs, tradition, devastation of material cultural heritage, etc. Respecting values of cultural heritage and cultural diversities contributes to proper valorisation of heritage and helps the implementation of sustainable tourism at the local level.
The focus of cultural heritage management, in the context of sustainable development, has been redirected from individual heritage
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objects towards the natural and socio-economic environment in which the heritage is situated. Therefore, cultural heritage management in the function of sustainable development requires understanding of specific characteristic of economic development of the observed community, demographic trends, social changes and challenge the community is faced with. As an inclusive model of cultural heritage management, it is necessary to involve in the management process, in a direct and indirect way, various stakeholders: cultural institutions, entrepreneurs, tourism boards, government (at local, regional and national level), ngos, local inhabitants, tourists, etc. Besides, it is important to consider traditional knowledge, values and habits. Due to the complex interdependences and interactions of the stated stakeholders, the design and implementation of a sustainable model of cultural heritage management is a constant challenge (unesco 2013, 15).
Cultural heritage management can be defined as the systematic care taken to maintain the values of cultural heritage assets for the enjoyment of present and future generations. The main goal of cultural heritage management is conservation of a representative sample of the tangible and intangible heritage for future generations, but also proper presentation and interpretation of its specific cultural value to present generations, using popular methods to transmit the message about the value of heritage through general educational or awareness building (McKercher and du Cros 43-65, 2009). Recognition of the uniqueness and universal significance of cultural heritage sites could transform them very quickly into attractive tourist destination, allowing effectively greater levels of engagement with the past, collective memories, identity and its meanings outside of purely national and sometimes nationalistic context (Robinson and Picard 2006, 19).
In the context of sustainable development, the fundamental paradigm of heritage management has been changed. As shown by the table 1, cultural heritage shouldn't be set aside for conservation, but it should be protected for its social and economic objectives. Various stakeholders should be involved. Cultural heritage shouldn't be observed as a separate, isolated, 'island,' but as a part of a wider system: not only in the context of national wealth, but also as an asset that belong to the local and world heritage. The management process should be proactive, considering long-term implications. It should involve experts with different skills and respect the knowledge of the local community.
The keystone of sustainable tourism is the participation of the lo-
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table 1 A New Paradigm for Cultural Heritage Management
Topic	As it was: Cultural heritage were ...	As it is becoming: Protected areas are ...
Objectives	Set aside for conservation, established mainly for its attractiveness, managed mainly for visitors and tourists.	Protected also with social and economic objectives, managed with local people more in mind.
Governance	Run by central government.	Run by partners and involve an array of stakeholders.
Local people	Planned and managed without considering local opinions.	Run with, for and in some cases by local people.
Wider contacts	Managed separately, as 'islands.'	Planned as a part of national, regional and international systems, developed as 'networks.'
Perceptions	Viewed primarily as a national asset, viewed only as a national concern.	Viewed also as a community asset, viewed also as an international concern.
Management techniques	Managed strictly within a short timescale, managed in a technocratic way.	Managed adaptively in a long-term perspective, managed with political considerations.
Finance	Paid for by taxpayer.	Paid for from many sources.
Management skills	Managed by scientists and expert specialised in cultural issues, expert led.	Managed by multi-skilled individuals, drawing on local knowledge.
notes Adapted from Phillips (2013).
cal community in the decision-making process. It requires the organisation of awareness campaigns and educational and information programs must first be organized by and for the community, to enable them to formulate their sense of identity. Namely, the heritage of a place is often misinterpreted and neglected by its own residents, who do not help in its maintenance or in its marketing, because there is a lack of previous knowledge and connection with this heritage; consequently, they are not able to enjoy it nor to appreciate it. In order to make this awareness-raising activity sustainable, it must be structured on a long-term, education-for-life basis, allowing a sustainable community to live in harmony and dignity and become more sensitive not just about the heritage value of their own place, but also toward the world around them (De Camargo 2007, 239-55).
It is a challenge to include different stakeholders in a participatory process, i.e. a process directed towards creation of new ways of collaborations in cultural management or empowerment of already existing ways of collaboration. Advising, educating and including stakeholders is a challenging and request time and efforts. There-
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fore, often the obtained outcomes go beyond the invested. Phillis (2013) states practical experiences in different countries which show insufficient involvements of stakeholders in the heritage management process. That can be caused by different reasons: specific characteristics of the management system, unequal power of different stakeholders, political and socio-cultural factors in its surroundings (poverty, social injustice, deeply rooted cultural values, etc.) and insufficient inclusion of marginalised people (women, youth, minorities, people with disabilities, etc.). The participatory process often require readiness for difficult compromises and negotiations and is time demanding.
As Boccardi (2007) notes, cultural heritage management in function of sustainable development can be understood two-fold:
•	as a care for heritage preservation, as an aim per se, and as a part of environmental/cultural resources that should be preserved and protected also for future generations (intrinsic value);
•	through the potential contribution that heritage, as an important part of the wider social system, can have for the environmental, social and economic dimension of sustainable development (instrumental value).
The selection of the proper approach depend on the specificities of the heritage, i.e. it is possible that in some cases the first criteria will be dominant (e.g. for heritage included on the World Heritage List). Socio-economic impacts are important, but they are not always necessary. In practice, it is desirable the combination of both approaches. Cultural heritage management coherent with the sustainable tourism concept is a demanding and challenging process. Cautious valorisation and revitalisation of cultural heritage contribute to its protection, stimulates economic development, strengthen social capital and environmental protection.
Valorisation of the Common European Heritage through Transnational Networks
In this paper, the authors use the concept of European heritage, since it offers an innovative perspective on local, regional, national, as well as Europe's transnational history and multicultural heritage (Ashworth and Howard 1999). According to some recent eu policy documents, 'Europe's cultural heritage is our common wealth - inheritance from previous generations of Europeans and our legacy for those to come. It is an irreplaceable repository of knowledge and a valuable resource for economic growth, employment and social co-
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hesion. It is a source of inspiration for thinkers and artists, and a driver for our cultural and creative industries. Our cultural heritage and the way we preserve and valorise it is a major factor in defining Europe's place in the world and its attractiveness as a place to live, work and visit' (European Commission 2014).
Current challenges facing the European Union, such as the economic and migrant crisis, the rise of extremism, radicalization and populist nationalism and as well as serious violations of the values of freedom, tolerance and democracy on which our common European identity is based call for urgent and coordinated responses. According to the European Cultural Heritage Strategy (in the making), 'cultural heritage, in all its components, is a key factor for the re-focusing of our societies on the basis of dialogue between cultures, respect for identities and diversity, and a feeling of belonging to a community of values. Cultural heritage is also a powerful factor in social and economic development through the activities it generates and the policies which underpin it. It constitutes an invaluable resource in the fields of education, employment, tourism and sustainable development' (Council of Europe 2016).
Recent European projects, such as Cultural Heritage Counts for Europe aimed to raise greater awareness on the multiple benefits of cultural heritage and present policy recommendations for tapping into European heritage's full potential.
The European Cultural Heritage Strategy for the 21st century promotes good governance based on participatory management involving national, regional and local levels, but also transnational cooperation in valorising our common heritage. Awareness-raising, capacity-building, interdisciplinary research and training are therefore essential. One of the main goals of the Strategy is to use cultural heritage to transmit the core values of the Council of Europe: democracy, respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, openness and dialogue, the equal dignity of all persons, mutual respect and sensitivity to diversity, as well as to promote heritage as a meeting place and vehicle for intercultural dialogue, peace and tolerance (Council of Europe 2016, 5-10).
European Models of Good Practice
Since the authors were interested in the European dimension of the historic urban landscape of Pula, the most effective European models of good practice in sustainable valorisation of a common transnational heritage were analyzed.
European Heritage Label includes sites which have been carefully
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selected for their symbolic value, the role they have played in the European history and activities that bring the European Union and its citizens closer together. The programme was created by the European Commission to celebrate and symbolise European ideals, values, history and integration. It was conceived to promote mutual understanding, European dimension of a common heritage and to communicate eu values. European Heritage sites bring to life the European narrative and the history behind it, including educational activities, especially for young people.
The other very successful European best practice model is the Council of Europe's Cultural Routes programme, aimed at developing awareness about the European culture through travelling, designing the tourism networks connected to the European cultural geography, and promoting the most important sites and crossroads of the European civilization as interesting places for tourists. The main idea of the project founders was to provide greater visibility and respect for common European identity, and to preserve and promote European cultural heritage in terms of improving life and social, economic and cultural development (Council of Europe 2015). There are already very successful examples of transnational cultural routes, such as Forte Cultura Route of Central European Fortified Heritage (Central Europe Programme 2014) or the cross-border Walk of Peace along the onetime Isonzo Front. There are also very valuable initiatives aimed at developing transnational partnerships in the see Region, such as The Roman Emperors Route or Return of Argonauts, or transnational unesco nominations (such as nomination of mediaeval tombstones - stecci - as a common multinational and world heritage of B and H, Croatia, Montenegro and Serbia).
The conducted research indicated also the benefits of the (transnational) World Heritage listing for sustainable heritage tourism. There is a recent initiative for transnational nomination of the Venetian Fortresses on the Adriatic, built between 15th and 17th centuries, to the World Heritage List. The site extends for more than 1.000 km from the Pre Alps of Lombardy to the Eastern coast of the Adriatic, in the area between the western outpost (Bergamo, Italy) and the Bay of Kotor (Montenegro), including fortifications in Sibenik, Zadar and Korcula in Croatia. There were also recent suggestions of icomos experts to nominate Pula as the former main Austrian naval port with its powerful fortification system to the unesco World heritage list, in the framework of the serial transnational nomination of Austro-Hungarian fortifications, because of its outstanding universal value as a part of a common European heritage and a representative
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and commemorative symbol of the common multicultural past in this transnational borderland zone. Experts agree that this unique heritage complex, in the broader Central European context meets three or more criteria for candidacy.
The comparative analysis of European examples of good practice indicated possible models of sustainable management and valorisation of these specific categories of heritage (former military, fortified heritage), which could at the same time enhance the process of urban regeneration and social revitalization. As a good practice example, the authors propose the Seaplane Harbour Museum in Tallinn, where the reconstruction of former seaplane hangars marked the start of transformation of a neglected former military zone in the harbour in the new cultural quarter and the most visited tourist attraction in Estonia. Another example of good practice is the Suomen-linna fortress in Helsinki, a former fortified military base, transformed into a tourist attraction protected by unesco and a very popular recreation zone for local people. One of the largest maritime fortress in the world today is revitalized as a unique cultural district. With its 850 permanent inhabitants and 350 people working there, it is not simply a big museum but a living community. The authors believe that this model of transformation and participatory management of the protected fortified heritage, which successfully narrates the multicultural history of Finland and its neighbours through a high quality cultural and tourism offer, is very useful and applicable in the former military zones in Pula and Croatia.
There are also numerous good practice examples of creative cities from Central European countries, but also from the whole see region (Hristova et al. 2015), which use their former military and industrial heritage to support culture, creativity and innovation and to build creative districts as innovation centres for sustainable urban growth. Specific regional European programmes and transnational partnerships, such as the interreg Central Europe programme, offered new opportunities for cooperation in innovation, transport, culture and infrastructure for sustainable growth. Cultural heritage and creative resources are among the main priorities this programme, aimed to foster transnational cooperation in sustainable management of cultural heritage as well as in development of cultural and creative industries, using culture as a driver for innovation and creativity (Central Europe Programme 2014).
Valuable local cultural resources could be explored also in the framework of the cross-border projects aimed at involving the local community in participatory sustainable heritage management, such
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as the recent project adrifort, which in the framework of the ipa Adriatic Cross Border Cooperation Programme included also the city and the University of Pula, with the aim of creating a new model of transformation of military heritage in the areas promoting civil initiatives, peace and intercultural dialogue.
Developing Heritage Tourism in Pula
Croatia is a Mediterranean country with a long tradition as a host country. In 2014 it has realized 13.1 million tourists and 66.5 million overnights (Ministarstvo Turizma 2016). According to the World Economic Forum (wef) Tourism and Travel Competitiveness Index 2015, Croatian tourism is ranked at the 33rd place out of 141 (wef 2015). Compared to wef Global Competitiveness Index, where Croatian economy is placed at the 77th place out of 144, tourism, as much better positioned, is considered as one of the most competitive sectors of Croatian economy. According to Schrittwieser (2014, 3) Croatia will be recognized as an innovation and creative hub and will be one of the leading south-east European knowledge-based countries embracing creativity and innovation at all levels of society. The following cross-sectoral inter-multi- and trans-disciplinary topics have been identified: ket, ict, Tourism, Creative and cultural industry, Green growth and Social challenges.
The focus of this paper is on the city of Pula and on its main resources for sustainable heritage tourism. The analysis of the monograph Puna je Pula (Pula is Crowded) by the Istrian scientist and polyhistor Mate Balota (2015) shows that the key developmental periods, which formed Pula's urban identity, were the periods of Roman and Austro-Hungarian rule, and the period after World War ii, when the industrial and military city turned into a regional cultural and tourist centre. As Balota noted: 'Life in the Gulf of Pula flourished only in large frames and with a large background. So, the rise and fall of the Pula city emerges as a result of the use and misuse of the Pula Bay . . . The Pula bay is too big to be maintained and used by the city. Until the Austria selected Pula for the main naval port, the Pula's harbour was mostly empty for 20 centuries. It took much more power and much stronger interests from local and regional not only to protect the city, but also to valorise and develop all its potential [...]' (Balota 2005, 9-10).
Pula is today a city with a uniquely Central European, coastal atmosphere, but it nevertheless owes most of its urban identity to a few key monuments from the classical period, when the Roman colony was founded, in the mid-1st century bc: the Roman Amphitheatre,
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the Temple of Augustus in the Roman Forum, the Arch of the Sergii. The heritage of the classical antiquity is what makes Pula a typical Mediterranean city. Not as much is known about the impressive heritage of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. After being selected as the main Austrian naval port in 1850, in only 50 years Pula was transformed from a deserted village with 900 inhabitants into a multicultural European metropolis, and its population increased as much as 50 times! The well preserved fortification system from this period, unique in Europe, is still awaiting proper valorisation.
The city still insufficiently uses the potential of its rich multicultural history and preserved heritage and the fact that it is located in a characteristic borderland zone where different cultures and identities have continually met and negotiated through history. A rich cultural and historical heritage as a base for attracting tourists and investors requires appropriate approaches to restoration, revitaliza-tion and protection. While the protection of ancient monuments has been systematically regulated under programmes of the Ministry of Culture, the architecture of the Austro-Hungarian and later periods is still waiting proper heritage management programmes. The most challenging situation is certainly in the neglected historic urban core, which as a dynamic public space with 3,000 years of historic continuity has the largest development potential. Therefore, the right policies of urban revitalization and regeneration of the historic centre, to restore life and vitality to neglected urban tissue, will be of great importance in the future.
The proposed swot analysis presented in table 2 confirms huge development potentials of cultural tourism in the city of Pula. To develop competitive products on the base of a distinctive urban identity, it is necessary to identify the unique characteristics of the destination as well as the elements of a common European heritage. This means that planning priorities have to be investing in the main cultural resources, such as the historic urban core, valorisation of the former military zone and the fortification system for different cultural, tourism and scientific purposes, extending the season through integration of attractions in events and cultural routes and design of new integrated cross-border projects through transnational partnerships.
Conclusion
Presented research indicates great development potential of cultural tourism in the city of Pula. The authors showed that cultural heritage could also act as a catalyst of sustainable development, bringing en-
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table 2 Swot Analysis: Cultural Tourism Development Potential of Pula
Strengths
The richness and diversity of cultural heritage, 'eventful' and creative city, multicultural history, advantageous geographical position, proximity to emissive markets, local distinctiveness, cultural identity of the city, belonging to Mediterranean and the central European cultural circle, the beauty of nature and the sea, pleasant climate, human capital, strong alternative scene and civil society.
Weaknesses
Poor management of resources, neglected old city centre, lack of programs of urban regeneration, traffic and infrastructure problems, devastated former military zones, industry in the city centre, unused port, insufficient awareness of the heritage potential, insufficient intersectoral cooperation, lack of cultural managers, extreme seasonal-ity, inadequate communication strategies, lack of facilities for entertainment, unrecognized and undeveloped cultural tourism product, undefined image of the city in the global market, lack of investments, communication problems between stakeholders, inadequate coordination and networking of programmes and institutions.
Opportunities
International and cross-border cooperation, financing from eu funds, networking of cultural project and programmes, clustering in cultural and creative quarters, use of new ict, unesco world heritage listing, development of cultural tourism, creating new jobs, investing in scientific research, capacity building and awareness-raising about the value and multiple benefits of investing in heritage.
Threats
Global recession, sharp competition of European heritage cities, further devastation of the natural and cultural, attraction basis, environmental and infrastructure problems, changes in the global market, budget cuts for culture.
vironmental, economic, social and cultural benefits to the local community. If sustainable development allows local communities to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, the great challenge for heritage management stakeholders becomes how to integrate cultural heritage and tourism management needs in a process that will result in a product that is appealing to visitors, while at the same time conserving cultural and heritage values. Sustainable cultural tourism can be seen as one of the best ways to address society and its sustainable development, as an opportunity for society to become aware of itself, not only paving the way for economic development, but also for rethinking itself, while turning heritage management and tourism into an arena for debate and civic participation.
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In this paper the authors tried to explore possibilities of valorisation of transnational, multicultural heritage of Pula through cross-border regional partnerships. The conducted research indicated advantages of transnational cooperation, using suggested European models of good practice in improving capacities for the sustainable use of the city's most valuable assets: the oldest historic city core on the eastern coast of the Adriatic and specific cultural resources such as the Roman monuments including Amphitheatre, the Brijuni Islands National Park and the legacy of the former Austria's main naval port with its powerful fortification system.
References
Ashworth, G., and P. Howard. 1999. European Heritage, Planning and Management. Bristol: Intellect.
Balota, M. 2005. Puna je Pula. Pula: Amforapress.
Boccardi, G. 2007. 'World Heritage and Sustainability: Concern for Social, Economic and Environmental Aspects within the Policies and Processes of the World Heritage Convention.' msc dissertation, ucl Bartlett School of the Built Environment, London.
Council of Europe. 2015. Cultural Routes Management: From Theory to Practice. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
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Century.' http://www.coe.int/t7dg4/cultureheritage/CDCPP/Plenary/ 5meeting/CDCPP-2016-10-Final%20project_Strategy%2021_EN.pdf
De Camargo, P. 2007. 'Using Tourist Resources As Tools for Teaching and Creating Awareness of Heritage in a Local Community.' In Cultural Tourism: Global and Local Perspectives, edited by G. Richards, 239-56. New York: Haworth Hospitality Press.
Central Europe Programme. 2014. Project Stories from the Central Europe Programme: Cultural Heritage and Creative Resources. Vienna: Central Europe Programme.
European Commission. 2014. 'Towards an Integrated Approach to Cultural Heritage for Europe.' com (2014)477 final. European Commission, Brussels.
European Union. 2012. 'How Can Cultural and Creative Industries Contribute to Economic Transformation through Smart Specialisation?' http://s3platform.jrc.ec.europa.eu/documents/20182/84453/120420 _CCI_Policy_Handbook_(FINAL).pdf
Goodwin, H. 2011. Taking Responsibility for Tourism. Oxford: Goodfwel-low.
Hristova, S., M. Dragicevic Sesic, and N. Duxbury. 2015. Culture and Sus-tainability in European Cities: Imagining Europolis. London: Rout-ledge.
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Krippendorf, J. 1999. The Holiday Makers: Understanding the Impact of
Leisure and Travel. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. McKercher, B., and H. du Cros. 2009. Cultural Tourism: The Partnership Between Tourism and Cultural Heritage Management. London: Rout-ledge.
Mihalic, T. 2014. 'Sustainable-Responsible Tourism Discourse - Towards "Responsustable" Tourism.' Journal of Cleaner Production 111 (b): 461-70.
Ministarstvo Turizma. 2016. 'Turisticki promet u prosincu 2015. godine.'
http://www.mint.hr/UserDocsImages/015_160407_XII.pdf Phillips, A. 2003. 'Turning Ideas on Their Head: The New Paradigm for
Protected areas.' The George Wright Forum 20 (2): 8-32. Richards, G., ed. 2007. Cultural Tourism: Global and Local Perspectives.
New York: Haworth. Robinson, M., and D. Picard, D. 2006. Tourism, Culture and Sustainable
Development. Paris: unesco. Schrittwieser, W. 2016. 'Analysis of Smart Specialization Strategies in selected Mediterranean Coastal Regions and Countries.' https:// creativemedit.files.wordpress.com/2014/10/analysis-of-smart -specialization-strategies-in-selected-mediterranean-coastal -regions-and-countries.pdf Siebenhuner, B. 2000. 'Homo Sustinens: Towards a New Conception of Humans for the Science of Sustainability.' Ecological Economics 32
(1): 15-25.
unesco. 2013. Managing Cultural World Heritage. Paris: unesco. unwced. 1987. 'Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future.' http://www.un-documents.net /our-common-future.pdf unwto. 2013. Sustainable Tourism for Development. Madrid: World Tourism Organisation. http://cf.cdn.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf /devcoengfinal.pdf -. 2016. unwto Annual Report 2015. Madrid: World Tourism Organisation. http://cf.cdn.unwto.org/sites/all/files/pdf/annual_report _2015_lr.pdf
Urosevic, N., and K. Afric Rakitovac. 2016. 'Measuring the Multidimensional Role of Culture in Sustainable Development.' Paper presented at the conference European Union Future Perspectives: Innovation, Entrepreneurship and Economic Policy, Pula, 21-3 May. wef. 2016. The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2016. Geneva: World Economic Forum.

This paper is published under the terms of the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (cc by-nc-nd 4.0) License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.Q/).
number 3 • fall 2017
A Validity Study of the mwep Scale in Hong Kong
tsun-lok kwong
University of Management and Technology, United States kwonge@alumni.cuhk.net
pik-ching wan
Teesside University, United Kingdom wanpansy@outlook.com
This article examines the validity of the Multidimensional Work Ethic Profile, mwep, in the Hong Kong setting. Purposive quota sampling is adopted to solicit data from a total of 140 respondents with equal gender distribution across seven age groups in Hong Kong. Factor analysis reveals that similarity exists between factor loadings in original mwep model of Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth (2002) and the model in the current study with Hong Kong samples. However, the mwep items in the current study does not map exactly into the seven dimensions proposed by Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth. The leisure and the morality/ethics dimensions match with the original scale respectively with good and poor reliabilities, but the hard work and wasted time dimensions have intertwined and appeared to be inseparable.
Key words: mwep, work ethic, multidimensional, Hong Kong, validity
https://doi.org/10.26493/1854-4231.12.217-234
Introduction
Organizations nowadays place great concerns on the work ethic of their potential employees (Flynn 1994). Work ethic is a construct of moral belief that stresses the importance of working hard and the commitment of appropriate work-related values and attitudes (Li and Madsen 2009; Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth 2002). Employees possessing strong work ethic would demonstrate good values not only through hard work but also autonomy, fairness, wisdom, time management, refrainment from immediate gratification and an appreciation of the intrinsic value of work (Cherrington 1980; Du-bin 1963; Furnham 1984; Ho and Lloyd 1984; Weber 1958; Wollack et al. 1971). In contrast, the dwindling of work ethic would lead to decreased organizational commitment (Brief and Aldag 1980; Chus-mir and Koberg 1988; Morrow and Goetz 1988; Morrow and McElory
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1987; Randall and Cote 1991), lower job involvement (Bass and Barrett 1972; Ho et al. 2012; Lodahl and Kejner 1965), reduced job satisfaction (Abboushi 1990; Aldag and Brief 1975; Ali 1987; Blood 1969; Bokemeir and Lacy 1987; Cherrington 1980; Chusmir and Koberg 1988; Fisher and Gitelson 1983; Jones 1984; Stone 1975; Meglino, Ravlin, and Adkins 1989; Morrow and McElory 1987; Saks, Mu-drack, and Ashforth 1996), poorer job performance (Yandle 1992), and higher levels of absenteeism and turnover (Klebnikov 1993; Shimko 1992). A proper measurement tool for work ethic is necessary if organizations would like to assess the ethical levels of their employees. The mwep scale, designed in the West to measure work ethic, has been tested in many places but Hong Kong. Therefore, the suitability of the mwep scale for measurement in Hong Kong has become an interesting topic for exploration in this study.
Work Ethic
Work ethic describes the set of beliefs, values, and attitudes that an individual assumes during work (Meriac, Woehr, and Banister 2010). It is a reflection of how an individual dedicates and commits to his/her work, and how he/she willingly exercises effort over and above the threshold requirements and expectations of the job (Kwong 2016; McMurray and Scott 2013). The 'work ethic' term was originally devised by post-reformation scholars who promoted individualism among society and discredited the welfare state (Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth 2002). The scholars believed that individuals should be liable for their own well-beings in life and it is through hard work that any one individual could better his or her standard of living.
As the concept developed, the interpretation of 'work ethic' gradually evolved into a more concrete construct - the 'Protestant Ethic' of Max Weber (1958). The Protestant Ethic considered the ability to work and secure returns as fulfilling God's will and the labour desired by God (McMurray and Scott 2013; Weber 1958). The ethic of work resembled a kind of calling from the above and that individuals should work systematically and continuously to maximize the benefits of their labour and thus to glorify the name of God (Kwong 2016; Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth 2002). Weber's construct therefore theorized on the basis of religious faith and duty, and it stressed personal beliefs and principles in the dimensions on centrality of work, self-reliance, hard work, leisure avoidance, morality, delay of gratification, and time utilization.
Today, the work ethic concept does not confine itself to any single
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culture or religion (Geren 2011). Occupational work ethic stretches across wide range of aspects and is a broad compilation of personal, family, religious, and ethnic beliefs and values (Petty and Hill 2005). According to Anca (2012), work ethic nowadays focuses on the essence of 'skills, discipline, challenge, autonomy, quality of work produced,' and positive work ethic aims at increasing employees' productivity through the achievement of optimal efficiency, mentality and status. The work ethic concept is a secular theory applicable to all religions and nations (Furnham 1990a; Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth 2002).
Measuring Work Ethic
According to Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth (2002), there are at least seven measurement instruments specifically designed to evaluate work ethic. These include the Protestant Ethic scale (Goldstein and Eichorn 1961), Pro-Protestant Ethic and non-Protestant Ethic scale (Blood 1969), Spirit of Capitalism (Hammond and Williams 1976), Protestant Work Ethic scale (Mirels and Garrett 1971), Work and Leisure Ethic scales (Bucholz 1978), Eclectic Protestant Ethic scale (Ray 1982), and the Australian Work Ethic scale (Ho and Lloyd 1984). The measurement of work ethic varies greatly among previous researches because work ethic can be measured as a multidimensional construct as well as a single-dimensional construct. Among these seven named instruments, the Protestant Work Ethic (pwe) scale is the more commonly used work ethic measurement tool that has been applied in many work ethic studies and researches in the past (Dunn 2013; Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth 2002).
Furnham (1990b) conducted a factor analysis based on the seven aforementioned work ethic questionnaires and identified five interpretable factors: asceticism, belief in hard work, leisure, religious and moral beliefs and independences. Tang (1993), basing on the pwe scale, developed four factors - hard work, internal motive, asceticism and attitude toward leisure - with a Taiwanese sample. Using again the pwe scale, Mchoskey (1994) conducted a factor analysis and identified four factors: success, asceticism, hard work and anti-leisure. However, though the factors identified in different researches mostly resembled one another, some important aspects such as an individual's attitudes toward morality, self-reliance, or delay of gratification were absent. These four-factor or five-factor scales are considered to be multidimensional, yet their effectiveness and application remained to be limited.
Although protestant work ethic has been developed into many
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scales, there is still a lack of common measurement system to measure the work ethic globally. Many believe that work ethic is not necessarily tied to any set of religious beliefs, and so, the development of a universal work ethic scale has become a popular topic for scholars.
Multidimensional Work Ethic Profile
Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth (2002) criticized the different protestant work ethic scales for their inclination to the religious morals, and they proposed the adoption of a universal work ethic scale, Multidimensional Work Ethic Profile (mwep). Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth's exploratory factor analysis resulted in seven dimensions alike the original thesis of Weber (1958) and the interpretable factors of Furnham (1990b), namely belief in hard work, the role of leisure, waste time, religious and moral beliefs, self-reliance, asceticism and delay of gratification. The scale was later applied internationally in England, Spain, Korea, Iran, Turkey, Chinese Mainland, and South African.
The mwep has been translated into different languages as it is applied in different countries. However, Woehr, Arciniega, and Lim (2007) challenged that Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth (2002) did not provide enough evidence to prove the appropriateness of the mwep as a universal measurement tool across cultures. To bring the mwep to a cross-cultural setting, they investigated the measurement invariance and mean differences of work ethic dimensions with the same set of seven work ethic dimensions in English, Spanish and Korean versions. Results showed that the mwep scales were equivalent across the three samples.
Chanzanagh and Akbarnejad (2011) measured the validity of mwep in Iran's Islamic culture. Their research showed that the scale in Persian version have a close proximity to mwep in both original English and newly developed Spanish and Korean versions (Woher, Arciniega, and Lim 2007) and work ethic dimensions in these cultures can also be applied to Persian version. However, Ozatalay and Chanzanagh (2013) developed and tested a mwep in Turkish language and indicated that not all the work ethic dimensions proposed by Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth (2002) can actually be measured by Turkish version of mwep.
Slabbert and Ukpere (2011) developed the Mandarin and Xhosa versions to compare the work-ethic differences of the Chinese and South African workforces to study the difference in behaviour towards work between the two countries. A total of 315 workers participated the studies, 153 from two factories in China and 162 from
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three factories in South African. They found that Chinese samples scored higher than South African samples in all dimensions except leisure. South Africans concern more on having free time than the Chinese. Higher work ethic level might be one of the reasons why China, then an extremely poor country in the 1970s, can grow rapidly and become the third biggest national economy within a short period of time.
Based on review of literatures related to work ethic, work ethic scales, and the Multidimensional Work Ethic Profile around the world, this study positioned itself to investigate the application of the mwep in Hong Kong setting and to test the validity of the mwep against Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth's original scale.
Method
sampling
This study used purposive sampling technique to collect the necessary data from the different members of population. Heterogeneous quota sampling was adopted to select sample with diverse characteristics. Data of 10 male respondents and 10 female respondents across seven age groups -17-22, 23-28, 29-33, 34-40, 41-45, 46-50, and over 50 - was collected. These age groups took reference from the Levin-son's Stages of Adult Development (Dean 2007), which proposed that different stages of life mark important behavioural and psychological transitions of people. A total of 140 individuals had provided their response to this study. The mean age of the sample was 37.1 and the standard deviation was 11.9.
instrument
The mwep scale was distributed to the sample in the form of self-report questionnaires. The scale contains 65 items measuring seven conceptually different dimensions of work ethic (Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth 2002):
1.	hard work (belief in the intrinsic value of hard work),
2.	self-reliance (belief in independence from other people),
3.	leisure (belief in the value of free time),
4.	work centrality (belief in the importance of work in life),
5.	morality/ethics (belief in righteousness),
6.	delay of gratification and wasted time (willingness to postpone
pleasure).
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table 1 kmo and Bartlett's Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy
0.760
Bartlett's test of sphericity	Approx. chi-square
Degrees of freedom Significance
5025.569 2080 0.000
Each of the seven dimensions was assessed with 10 items except 'the delay of gratification' and 'wasted time' dimensions which were assessed with 7 and 8 items respectively. All items are responded on a Likert scale between 1 and 5, where 1 representing 'strongly disagree' and 5 representing 'strongly agree.' The completion of questionnaire was fully voluntary, and no financial incentives were given to the respondents.
Results
validity of the mwep scale
The primary objective of this paper is to test the validity of the mwep against the Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth's original scale. As summarized in table 1, results of kmo = 0.760, greater than 0.5 as suggested by Tabachnick and Fidell (2007) and Hair et al. (2006), showed that the number of respondents is sufficient for factor analysis to be performed. Bartlett's Sphericity is 5025.569 with a significance level of p = 0.000, and this reflected that each factor is correlated with each other at high root and the significant amount is accurately done.
Based on the favourable results from the kmo and Bartlett's test, the validity of the mwep is tested with factor analysis using two different rotation methods.
factor analysis of the mwep items using varimax
rotation
An initial factor analysis pre-setting 7 factors, principal components method and Varimax rotation is used to examine how the 65 items on the mwep are loaded around the factors. Varimax rotation typically maximizes the variance of the squared loadings in each factor such that each factor only ends up with fewer variables with high loadings (Mulaik 2010). As summarized in table 2, the result of Scree's test showed that the 7 factors could explain up to 48.3 percent of the variance in observations.
Table 3 summarized the loading of the 65 mwep items after factor analysis with Varimax rotation. Items in the middle column are factored according to Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth's original mwep
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table 2 Total Variance Explained (Principal Component, Varimax) (1) Initial eigenvalues	Extraction sums of	Rotation sums of
squared loadings	squared loadings
	(2)	(3)	(4)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(2)	(3)	(4)
1	14.119	21.721	21.721	14.119	21.721	21.721	10.654	16.390	16.390
2	5-499	8.460	30.181	5.499	8.460	30.181	5.288	8.136	24.526
3	3.379	5.198	35.379	3.379	5.198	35.379	3.909	6.014	30.540
4	2.276	3.501	38.880	2.276	3.501	38.880	3.781	5.817	36.358
5	2.130	3.277	42.157	2.130	3.277	42.157	3.149	4.844	41.202
6	2.020	3.108	45.265	2.020	3.108	45.265	2.416	3.717	44.919
7	1.968	3.027	48.292	1.968	3.027	48.292	2.192	3-373	48.292
notes Column headings are as follows: (1) component, (2) total, (3) percentage of variance, (4) cumulative percentage.
table 3 Item's Loading after Factor Analysis (Principal Component, Varimax)
Factor/Dimensions	Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth (2002)	Current study (Varimax)
Hard Work	17, 20, 22, 24, 35, 38, 45, 47, 53, 60	45, 36, 20, 24, 22, 9, 23, 64, 12, 21, 47, 44, 56, 4,38, 13, 39, 46, 53, 35, 52, 30, 1, 60, 59, 6, 17, 50
Wasted Time	1, 9, 12, 23, 36, 39, 56, 65	
Leisure	5, 8, 14, 18, 27, 31, 43, 49, 58, 63	14, 58, 31, 43, 8, 5, 49, 18, 63
Morality/Ethics	7, 15, 16, 25,37, 48, 51, 54, 57, 61	57, 61, 16, 48, 29, 51, 54, 37, 15, 27
Self-Reliance	6, 21, 26, 28, 32, 34, 44, 50, 55, 59	34, 32, 55, 28, 26, 33, 65
Centrality of Work	2, 4, 10, 13, 30, 33, 40, 41, 52, 64	40, 10, 41, 2
Delay of Gratification	3, 11, 19, 29, 42, 46, 62	11, 25, 7, 3, 19,
n/a		62, 42
scale. Items in the right column are results of the current study and are arranged in a descending order of their factor loadings, where items with greater loadings will appear before those with smaller loadings.
The way the items are loaded proved that there are some similarities between Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth's study and the current study in a Hong Kong setting. The items italicised in table 3 are the matching items between Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth's study and the current study with Hong Kong respondents. 9 out of 10 items in the leisure dimension, 8 out of 10 items in the morality/ethics dimen-
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table 4 Total Variance Explained (Principal Component, Equamax) (1) Initial eigenvalues	Extraction sums of	Rotation sums of
squared loadings	squared loadings
	(2)	(3)	(4)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(2)	(3)	(4)
1	14.119	21.721	21.721	14.119	21.721	21.721	5.356	8.240	8.240
2	5-499	8.460	30.181	5.499	8.460	30.181	5.185	7.977	16.217
3	3.379	5.198	35.379	3.379	5.198	35.379	4.397	6.765	22.982
4	2.276	3.501	38.880	2.276	3.501	38.880	4.304	6.621	29.603
5	2.130	3.277	42.157	2.130	3.277	42.157	4.286	6.594	36.198
6	2.020	3.108	45.265	2.020	3.108	45.265	4.282	6.588	42.786
7	1.968	3.027	48.292	1.968	3.027	48.292	3-579	5.506	48.292
notes Column headings are as follows: (1) component, (2) total, (3) percentage of variance, (4) cumulative percentage.
sion, 5 out of 10 items in the self-reliance dimension, and 4 out of 10 items in the centrality of work dimension in Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth's original model concur with the corresponding dimensions in this current study.
Careful cross examination of the dimensions reveals some interesting findings. The items in bold reflect the unexpected but similar distribution of the mwep items between the original model and the current model that are diagonally loaded into adjacent dimensions. All the 10 items in the hard work dimension, 7 out of 8 items in wasted time dimension, and some of the items in the centrality of work and self-reliance dimensions in Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth's original model have been merged into one single dimension with 28 items in the current study. The delay of gratification dimension in the original model has also been statistically separated into two dimensions in this study.
factor analysis of the mwep items
using equamax rotation
The Varimax rotation used in the initial factor analysis has resulted in large percentage of variance distributed in the first factor. A subsequent factor analysis pre-setting 7 factors, principal components method and Equamax rotation - a different orthogonal rotation approach - is used to examine how differently the 65 mwep items are loaded. Equamax rotation attempts to adjust the number of rotated factors with highly loaded and more uniformly distributed sets of variables (Mulaik 2010). As summarized in table 4, the result of Scree's test showed that the variables are now rotated and distributed more uniformly among the 7 factors.
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table 5 Item's Loading after Factor Analysis (Principal Component, Equamax)
Factor/Dimensions	Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth (2002)	Current study (Equamax)
Wasted Time	1, 9, 12, 23, 36, 39, 56, 65	12,36, 47, 23, 44, 56,39, 51, 64, 50, 52, 30
Leisure	5, 8, 14, 18, 27, 31, 43, 49, 58, 63	14, 58, 31, 43, 8, 5, 49, 18, 63, 27
Delay of Gratification	3, 11, 19, 29, 42, 46, 62	46, 29, 19, 11, 24, 38, 41, 40, 21, 35
Morality/Ethics	7, 15, 16, 25, 37, 48, 51, 54, 57, 61	16, 7, 48, 25, 54, 57, 15, 3, 37,
Centrality of Work	2, 4, 10, 13, 30, 33, 40, 41, 52, 64	13, 4, 9, 2, 45, 20, 22, 1, 10
Self-reliance	6, 21, 26, 28, 32, 34, 44, 50, 55, 59,	34, 32, 28, 26, 55, 59, 6, 33
Hard Work	17, 20, 22, 24, 35, 38, 45, 47, 53, 60	62, 60, 61, 53, 65, 42, 17
Table 5 summarized the loading of the 65 mwep items after factor analysis with Equamax rotation. Items on the middle column are again factored according to Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth's original mwep scale. Items on the right column are results of the current study and are arranged in a descending order of their factor loadings, with items having greater loadings appearing before those with smaller loadings.
An examination of the variables loading in the seven dimensions again shows similarities between Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth's (2002) study and the current Hong Kong study when data are rotated with Equamax method. All the 10 items in the leisure dimension in the current study map exactly to the Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth's study (2002). 8 out of 10 items in the morality/ethics dimension and 7 out of 10 items in the self-reliance dimension in Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth's original model concur with the two corresponding dimensions in this current study. For the remaining four dimensions, the items in the current study are partially mapped to the corresponding dimensions in Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth's original model.
reliability of the mwep scale
Based on the way the mwep items are loaded with factor analyses using Varimax and Equamax rotation, the Cronbach's coefficient alphas are calculated to examine the reliability of the dimensions, and the reliability estimates for each dimension are summarized in table
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table 6 Reliability Estimates for Each Dimension by Sample (Principal
Component, Varimax)
Factor/Dimensions	Items number	Reliability
Leisure	9	0.852
Self-Reliance	7	0.733
Hard Work/Wasted Time	28	0.932
Centrality of Work	4	0.479
Delay of Gratification (i)	5	0.615
Delay of Gratification (ii)	2	0.343
Morality/Ethics	10	0.285
mwep	65	0.917
table 7 Reliability Estimates for Each Dimension by Sample (Principal		
Component, Equamax)		
Factor/Dimensions	Items number	Reliability
Leisure	10	0.845
Self-Reliance	8	0.781
Hard Work	7	0.584
Wasted Time	12	0.879
Centrality of Work	9	0.767
Delay of Gratification	10	0.797
Morality/Ethics	9	0.254
mwep	65	0.917
6 and 7. The reliability results indicate that the mwep is overall reliable with Cronbach's coefficient alpha of 0.917. The 'leisure' (0.852 in Varimax; 0.845 in Equamax) and 'self-reliance' (0.733 in Varimax; 0.781 in Equamax) dimensions are consistently reliable regardless of the rotation method adopted in the factor analysis. The 'morality/ethics' (0.285 in Varimax; 0.254 in Equamax dimension is, on the other hand, consistently showing low reliability under both rotation methods.
Discussion
Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth (2002) have contributed to the field of work ethic research through the introduction of the Multidimensional Work Ethic Profile (mwep), which attempts to become a contemporary, universally applicable scale for the measurement of work ethic across different religions and culture. The mwep has been developed with the foundations of Weber's concept of work ethic, and has managed to devise seven theoretically isolatable dimensions within the work ethic construct. As Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth
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table 8 Matched Items in the Leisure Dimension and the Reliability Tests of All Loaded Items in the Leisure Dimension by Studies
Studies
Matched items Reliability of all number loaded items
Chanzanagh and Akbarnejad 2011 Ozatalay and Chanzanagh 2013 Current study (Varimax rotation) Current study (Equamax rotation)
8 9 9 10
0.799 0.788 0.852 0.845
(2002) aspired, the introduction of the mwep should act as a springboard for future studies in work ethic and behaviours as well as the examination of the relationship between work ethic and behaviours.
Meanwhile, researchers around the world have been testing the validity of the mwep, and also translating the mwep into different languages to overcome the fundamental language barrier of the mwep worded in English. The primary objective of the current study examines the validity of the mwep in Hong Kong where the Western cultures collide with the Eastern cultures.
The findings in this study have shown similar differential relations among the seven factors as in Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth's original framework. The leisure dimension matches more reliably with the factor loading in the original scale. The morality/ethics dimension observes many matched items, but has sustained the lowest reliability among all the dimensions. The hard work and wasted time dimensions have appeared to be intertwined and difficult to be isolated in our factor analysis.
the well-established dimension: leisure
The leisure dimension is perhaps the least disputable dimension in the mwep. Table 8 summarizes the findings relating to the leisure dimension in two previous studies in Turkish and Islamic settings and the findings in the current study. Comparing with two previous studies, the findings in the current study is consistent in showing the leisure dimension as a reliable and conceptually identifiable dimension in the whole work ethic construct. The number of items matching with Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth's original framework rests at 8 or above out of 10 items. The reliability ranges from 0.788 to 0.852 which is also very high.
One possible reason for such observation could be because the leisure dimension is negatively correlated with the other dimensions in Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth's model (2002). The leisure dimen-
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sion is therefore sufficiently different from the other dimensions in the scale, making it more readily distinguishable by the respondents and by the statistical analyses performed. Another reason could well be due to the wordings of the mwep in which 8 out of 10 items of the leisure dimension include the word 'leisure' in the description, and the connotation of 'leisure' - which resembles a preference for non-work activities - forms a huge contrast to the concept of work ethic or hard work. This results in an easy isolation of the leisure items, and thus the dimension, from the other dimensions.
the unreliable dimension: morality/ethics The morality/ethics dimension has a significantly lower reliability (below 0.3) than the other dimensions in the current study. This lower level of reliability is consistent regardless of the method of rotation adopted. Table 9 summarizes the findings relating to the morality/ethics dimension in two previous studies in Turkish and Islamic settings and the findings in the current study. Several inconsistencies are noted in the number of matched items and also in the level of reliability observed. For example, in Ozatalay and Chanzanagh's study (2013), only 4 out of 12 items were loaded to the morality/ethics dimension have matched with Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth's original framework. The higher reliability observed simply reflects the internal consistency among the 4 matched items and the other 8 non-matched items.
The reliabilities of the morality/ethics dimension obtained in the current study are not only significantly lower than the reliabilities of other dimensions, they are also significantly lower than the reliabilities of the morality/ethics dimension in the previous studies in different countries. Therefore, some cultural factors may have played a role in the difference in the number of matched items and the reliabilities observed. In other words, there may be different interpretations of what constitutes a just and moral belief among people of different nationality and culture. As a result, the respondents have different levels of agreement or disagreement to the moral/ethical statements in the mwep, and this leads to the variations in reliability estimates.
Indeed, a similar observation of lower reliability was noted in study 4 of Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth's study (2002) with the Air Force sample. The rationalization then was that the items in the morality/ethics dimension are fairly clear-cut and transparent, and the respondents may not respond honestly given their association to the disciplined unit. This explanation may also be applicable in the
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table 9 Matched Items in the Morality/Ethics Dimension and the Reliability Tests of All Loaded Items in the Morality/Ethics Dimension by Studies
Studies	Matched items	Reliability of all
	number	loaded items
Chanzanagh and Akbarnejad 2011	10	0.636
Ozatalay and Chanzanagh 2013	4	0.731
Current study (Varimax rotation)	10	0.285
Current study (Equamax rotation)	9	0.254
current study where respondents come from a broad age group and different walks of life, and therefore they responded to the morality/ethics items differently owing to the different roles, experience, associations, and affiliations that they have. The mean score of the morality/ethics dimension (4.31 out of 5) in the current study also reflects that the respondents are likely to be compelled to socially desirable manners and have responded to the mwep questionnaires in a less truthful manner.
the indivisible dimensions: hard work and wasted time
In the current study, the hard work and wasted time dimensions have conjoined with one another in the factor analysis under Varimax rotation. As summarized in table 3, 10 items in the hard work dimension and 7 items in wasted time dimension, with other discrete items in Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth's original model have merged into a single dimension with 28 items in the current study.
Cultural factors again could have played a part in this convergence of dimensions, but a more probable explanation is that, in the Hong Kong people's perception, to work hard is much similar to using their time actively and productively. People in Hong Kong work for long hours, nearly 50 hours per week - 10 hours per day in a 5-day work week (Kwong 2016), are subconsciously conditioned to associate long and non-wasteful use of working hours with hard work. When workers work for long hours and avoid time wastage throughout their work, they believe they have work hard, whether or not the work will lead to success or achievement of goals. This understanding could be quite different from the original definitions in Miller, Woehr, and Hudspeth's model. Therefore, the items in the two dimensions may have appeared to be fairly indivisible to the Hong Kong respondents.
In the current study, since the Varimax rotation has resulted in a heavily loaded single factor, the Equamax rotation has been used to perform a subsequent factor analysis to spread the items more
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evenly across the seven dimensions. It is thus with the aid of the Equamax rotation method that the hard work and wasted time dimensions are finally separated.
However, one must be cautioned that the divisible seven dimensions are merely the result of the Equamax rotation which has adjusted, or 'shuffled,' the variable items more uniformly across the specified number of dimensions. In reality, the respondents in Hong Kong still perceive the hard work and wasted time dimensions in a fairly indistinguishable manner.
Limitations and Future Research
There are several limitations to be recognized in the current research. First, this study utilizes the purposive sampling technique which is a non-probability sampling approach. The information collected is therefore subjected to generalizability and external validity challenges (Saunders et al. 2009). Readers should be careful when trying to generalize the findings of this research to the whole Hong Kong population. Despite so, the researchers have placed substantial effort in ensuring that heterogeneous groups of respondents are adopted to maximize the variations in the sample. Second, the small sample size of 140 is fairly small compared to the population of over 7 million in Hong Kong. This again raises concerns on the external validity of the reported findings. Thirdly, the use of questionnaire as a method of data collection may constitute to biasness. For any self-report study, the participants may exaggerate or under-report certain responses in the questionnaires due to various biasness such as positive skew, central tendency, social desirability, primacy and recency, and others. This may create another construct validity concern.
Finally, the use of questionnaire surveyed at a particular point of time has limited the information collected to a specific static instance of time. Information collected may differ at a different instance but there is no way to account for those differences when only static field study is conducted.
Future research can attempt to use a larger sample with stratified random sampling, which is a type of probability sampling. This can provide more accurate and solid verifications to the findings in the current study, and strengthen the generalizability of the results. Additionally, linguistics research can also be conducted to revisit the choice of words and expressions in the mwep items to enhance the validity and reliability of the scale for measurement of the 7 dimensions of work ethic.
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This paper is published under the terms of the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (cc by-nc-nd 4.0) License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
222	management•volume 12
The Relationship between Managerial Satisfaction and Job Turnover Intention: The Mediating Role of Job Satisfaction
ruveyda ozturk basol
Kirklareli University, Turkey ruveyda. ozturk@klu. edu. tr
harun demirkaya
Kocaeli University, Turkey harundemirkaya@hotmail.com
The growth of service sector in Turkey occurs faster than the other sectors and the number of shopping malls increases correspondingly. The rapid growth of the number of shopping malls has necessitated the measurement of the attitudes of the employees in this sector. This study demonstrated that the gender, marital status and age were not the significant variables on job satisfaction, managerial satisfaction and job turnover intention; however, education status and income status were found to be significant variables on job satisfaction and job turnover intention. In addition, job satisfaction fully mediated the relationship between managerial satisfaction and job turnover intention.
Key words: job satisfaction, managerial satisfaction,
job turnover intention, smartpls https://doi.org/10.264g3/1854-4231.12.235-248
Introduction
The fact that the individuals of Y generation currently participate much more in work life makes the managers feel much responsibility on some particular areas. Some of the researches claim that the individuals quit their managers, not their jobs (Duffy et al. 2006; Sta-jkovic and Luthans 1998; McNatt and Judge 2008). On the other hand, it is possible to say that the number of shopping malls in Turkey is increasing significantly. In the year 1996, the number of shopping malls was 11, however in 2006 the number has reached up over 200 (Asilturk 2010), and in 2016, this number was reported to be 361 (see http://www.ayd.org.tr/TR/DataBank.aspx). In other words, the increase in the number of shopping malls in Turkey is 35 times more
management 12 (3): 235-248
Ruveyda Ôzturk Basol and Harun Demirkaya
than the latest 20 years. Thus, this enormous increase has necessitated the measurement of the perceptions about work/job attitudes of the individuals working in shopping malls.
Upon a research (dated 9 June 2016) on master and phD theses (see https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/tarama.jsp) and journals (see http://uvt.ulakbim.gov.tr) in social sciences field in Turkey, it is resulted that only three phD theses, four master theses and six articles include 'shopping mall/center' title. Among these studies, it is seen that only one of them focused on the job satisfaction of employees working in shopping malls. Consequently, it can be stated that there seems to be only one study measuring the job perceptions of shopping mall employees in the Turkish academic literature.
The present study has three different goals. The first one is to determine if the demographic characteristics of shopping mall employees are significant on job satisfaction, managerial satisfaction and job turnover intention. The second one is to test if there is a significant relation between the variables i.e., job satisfaction, managerial satisfaction and job turnover intention. The third one is to investigate whether the job satisfaction of shopping mall employees mediate the relationship between managerial satisfaction and job turnover intention.
Literature Review
job satisfaction
Job satisfaction, as the most-used definition, is 'a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences' (Locke 1976). In other words, it is the individual's pleasure and happiness gained by work life (Keser 2011). The conventional job satisfaction models put forward that pay, nature of work, operating conditions, coworkers and supervision are the determiners in job satisfaction (Keser 2006). In addition, more modern approaches set forth that promotion, fringe benefits, contingent rewards and communication are also the subscales of job satisfaction (Spector 1985; 1997; Friday and Friday 2003).
Regarding the aforementioned job satisfaction factors, employees who are sufficiently satisfied with these determiners are evaluated as individuals that enjoy their jobs, behave positively and are successful in work life and private life, by being more committed to permanent improvement and quality (Dulgeroglu and Taskin 2015); on the contrary, the unsatisfied employees in the context are considered as the ones who have negative feelings, intend to quit job, remain in-
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table 1 Previous Researches in Turkey for Shopping Malls
Type of research	Title of research.
PhD thesis	Impacts of shopping centres on consumption culture and
	Turkey sample.
PhD thesis	Quality perception in service marketing: As an example of
	Malatyapark.
PhD thesis	Effect of in store atmosphere in malls on consumption emo-
	tions and buying behaviour.
Master thesis	The importance of the shopping center management for the
	preferences of the shopping center by the consumers.
Master thesis	Investigation of reasons for preference shopping centres and
	outlets and practice case.
Master thesis	The role of credit card misuse in the relationship between
	compulsive buying tendency and post purchase regret: A
	study on the shopping mall consumers.
Master thesis	The image of shopping centres, and an application on shop-
	ping centres in Ankara.
Research article	The relationship of job satisfaction and life satisfaction be-
	tween the demographic features: Research on employees of
	the shopping center in Sakarya.
Research article	Youth and shopping malls: A case study about youth prefer-
	ence in mall use.
Research article	Determination of female consumers' shopping mall choices
	and a pilot research.
Research article	A comparison of shopping malls and street stores as regard to
	choice of store location: A research in city of Ankara.
Research article	A research on the impact of shopping malls to the city life and
	downtown retail shops in Salihli.
Research article	A comparative investigation on shopping mall perception of
	consumers the case of 'lake area.'
notes Adapted from Council of Higher Education (2016) and Social Science Database Turkey (2016).
different to job and have desperate thoughts for the future of their jobs (Tett and Meyer 1993).
managerial satisfaction
The relation between employees and managers is a crucial factor in the happiness and satisfaction of the employees at work. Also, it is important that the managers can be able to communicate with their employees. If managers find it hard to communicate or make a dialog with their employees, it may be difficult for them to understand their employees, so, employees can also feel difficulty to understand their managers mutually. When managers reach their
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employees and behave equally and fairly towards them, these attitudes and behaviours can increase the job satisfaction of the employees (Keser 2011). In the literature, it is examined that positive managerial attitudes increase employees' job satisfaction (Ellinger and Bostrom 1999; Noelker et al. 2009; Basol 2016).
hi Higher managerial satisfaction increases job satisfaction of employees.
job turnover intention
In the literature, concerning the concept of job turnover, which is the most important result of employees' dissatisfaction, many studies have shown that 'dissatisfied employees are more likely to quit their jobs or be absent than satisfied employees' (Brown and Peterson 1993; Crampton and Wagner 1994; Hanisch, Hulin, and Roznowski 1998; Karatuna and Basol 2017). The satisfaction level of employees is a crucial factor on quitting their job. High job satisfaction does not keep turnover low, however, it is likely to help. Besides, if there is remarkable job dissatisfaction, it is possible to be high turnover (Luthans 2011). It is known that the intention of leaving job is low for the employees who are highly satisfied at work (Truckenbrodt 2000; Lambert, Hogan, and Barton 2001). In addition, the organization's intention to keep the satisfied employees on their current jobs is much higher in comparison to the dissatisfied employees (Silah 2005). At the same time, in the workplaces where the employees' satisfaction is low, it might be stated that job switching and job turnover intention are high. When the relation between managerial satisfaction and job turnover intention is examined, it is resulted that there is a significant and strong relation between these two factors (Kha-tri, Budhwar, and Fern 1999; Rhoades and Eisenberger 2002; Maertz et al. 2007; Alkahtani 2015). Thus, we put forward the following hypotheses.
h2 Higher job satisfaction decreases job turnover intention of employees.
H3 Higher managerial satisfaction decreases job turnover intention of employees.
H4 Job satisfaction is the mediator of the relation between managerial satisfaction and job turnover intention.
Method
sample
Among 361 shopping malls in Turkey, only 3 of them locate in Kirk-lareli, Turkey (see http://www.ayd.org.tr/TR/DataBank.aspx). The
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table 2 Demographic Characteristics of Shopping Mall Employees
Demographics		Frequency	Ratio
Gender	Female	78	48.4
	Male	83	51.6
Educational Status	Primary school	36	22.4
	High school	56	34.8
	ba	59	36.6
	ma or PhD	10	6.2
Marital Status	Married	67	41.6
	Single	94	58.4
Age	20-30	96	59.6
	31-40	65	40.4
Net monthly income	0-1.300 tl	42	26.1
	1.301 TL-2.600 tl	88	54.7
	2.601 tl or more	31	19.2
Total		161	100
notes Minimum wage in Turkey is 1.300 tl = 390 Euro = 436 Dollar.
sample of the survey was selected from shopping mall employees from Kirklareli city. In order to decide the target population, several meetings were made with shopping mall managers and it was detected that there were 406 employees in these shopping malls. It was determined that 198 samples would represent the target population (see http://www.surveysystem.com/sscalc.htm).
In table 2, the demographic characteristics of the participants are shown. Accordingly, 48.4% of the participants were female and 51.6% were male. Concerning the educational status, 22.4% of the participants graduated from primary school, 34.8% graduated from high school, 36.6% had ba level and 6.2% had ma or phd level. 41.6% of the participants were married and 58.4% were single. The 59.6% of the participants were between 20-30 years old and 40.4% were between 31-40 years old. Regarding the net monthly income of the participants, 26.1% of them had a minimum wage, 54.7% of them had a wage between 1.301 TL-2.600 tl, and 19.2% of them had a wage over 2.601 tl.
survey form of the research
The survey consists of two parts. The first part includes 5 questions, seeking for information on the demographic characteristics (gender, educational status, marital status, age and net monthly income) of the participants. In the second part, the job satisfaction, managerial satisfaction and job turnover intentions of the participants were measured.
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•	Job Satisfaction Scale: In order to measure the job satisfaction of the participants, Likert scale (1: I totally disagree; 5: I totally agree), developed by Brayfield and Rothe (1951) and including 5 items such as 'I like my job,' was used.
•	Managerial Satisfaction Scale: In order to measure the managerial satisfaction of the participants, Likert scale (1: I totally disagree; 5: I totally agree), developed by Spector (1985) and including 4 items such as 'My manager is fair towards me,' was used.
•	Job Turnover Intention Scale: In order to measure the job turnover intention of the participants, Likert scale (1: I totally disagree; 5: I totally agree), developed by Cammann, Jenkins, and Klesh (1979) and including 3 items such as 'I often think of quitting my job,' was used.
In order to determine the analyses for the variables, Kolmogorov-Smirnov normal distribution test was conducted; it was resulted that job satisfaction (Z = 2.118, p = 0.00), managerial satisfaction (Z = 2.346, p = 0.00) and job turnover intention (Z = 2.889, P = 0.00) variables were not distributed normally. Therefore, in order to test the differences mw-u and kw-h tests were computed. To test the relations between study variables, Spearman correlation test was used. In order to examine the hypothesis regarding the mediation effect, bootstrapping technique in smartPLS 2.0 was performed.
Findings
effects of demographic characteristics
As previously stated, the first aim of the research was to determine if the demographic characteristics (gender, marital status, age groups, educational status and income status) of shopping mall employees are significant on job satisfaction, managerial satisfaction and job turnover intention. Thus, in this part the findings related to demographic characteristics are displayed.
Table 3 shows the results of the comparison of the variables for gender. The findings display that gender is not a statistically significant variable for shopping mall employees on job satisfaction (Z = -0.623, p = 0.533), managerial satisfaction (Z = -0.401, p = 0.688) and job turnover intention (Z = -0.028, p = 0.978).
Table 4 demonstrates the results of the comparison of the variables for marital status. The findings show that marital status is not a statistically significant variable for shopping mall employees on
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table 3 Mann Whitney-U Test Results for Job Satisfaction, Managerial Satisfaction and job Turnover Intention between Female and Male
Factors	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)
Job satisfaction	Female	3.60	0.94	mw-u	-0.623	0.533
	Male	3.71	0.86			
Managerial satisfaction	Female	3.67	0.78	mw-u	-0.401	0.688
	Male	3.67	0.87			
Job turnover intention	Female	2.38	1.10	mw-u	-0.028	0.978
	Male	2.40	1.12			
notes Column headings are as follows: (1) gender, (2) mean, (3) standard deviation, (4) test type, (5) test value, (6) p.
table 4 Mann Whitney-U Test Results for job Satisfaction, Managerial Satisfaction and Job Turnover Intention between Married and Single
Factors	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)
Job satisfaction	Married	3.62	0.93	mw-u	-0.125	0.900
	Single	3.68	0.88			
Managerial satisfaction	Married	3.69	0.89	mw-u	-0.317	0.751
	Single	3.66	0.79			
Job turnover intention	Married	2.39	1.13	mw-u	-0.009	0.993
	Single	2.39	1.09			
notes Column headings are as follows: (1) marital status, (2) mean, (3) standard deviation, (4) test type, (5) test value, (6) p.
table 5 Mann Whitney-U test Results for job Satisfaction, Managerial Satisfaction and Job Turnover Intention between Age Groups
Factors		(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)
Job satisfaction	20	-30	3.63	0.87	mw-u	-0.999	0.318
	31-	-40	3.70	0.94			
Managerial satisfaction	20	-30	3.55	0.86	mw-u	-2.484	0.113
	31-	-40	3.76	0.75			
Job turnover intention	20	30	2.46	1.14	mw-u	-0.810	0.418
	31-	-40	2.28	1.05			
notes Column headings are as follows: (1) age groups, (2) mean, (3) standard deviation, (4) test type, (5) test value, (6) p.
job satisfaction (Z = -0.125, p = 0.900), managerial satisfaction (Z = -0.317, p = 0.751) and job turnover intention (Z = -0.009, p = 0.993).
In the table 5, the results of the comparison of the variables for age groups are displayed. The findings show that age is not a statistically significant variable for shopping mall employees on job satisfaction (Z = -0.999, p = 0.318), managerial satisfaction (Z = -2.484, p = 0.113) and job turnover intention (Z = -0.810, p = 0.418).
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table 6 Kruskal Wallis-H Test Results for Job Satisfaction, Managerial Satisfaction and Job Turnover Intention among Educational Status
Factors	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)
Job	Primary	3.23	0.90	kw-h	14.006	0.003	4 > 1
satisfaction	High school	3.68	0.97				3 > 1
	ba	3.81	0.73				
	ma or phd	4.18	0.92				
Managerial	Primary	3.30	0.98	kw-h	15.747	0.001	4 > 1
satisfaction	High school	3.69	0.75				3 > 1
	ba	3.77	0.76				2 > 1
	ma or phd	4-37	0.44				
Job turnover	Primary	2.57	1.17	kw-h	5.896	0.117	-
intention	High school	2.47	1.06				
	ba	2.33	1.11				
	ma or phd	1.63	0.86				
notes Column headings are as follows: (1) educational status, (2) mean, (3) standard deviation, (4) test type, (5) test value, (6) p, (7) reason.
table 7 Kruskal Wallis-H Test Results for Job Satisfaction, Managerial Satisfaction and Job Turnover Intention among Income Status
Factors	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)
Job	0-1.300	3.13	0.87	kw-h	24.956	0.000	3>1
satisfaction	1.301-2.600	3.77	0.74				2 > 1
	>2.601	4.01	1.05				
Managerial	0-1.300	3.15	0.85	kw-h	27.302	0.000	3>1
satisfaction	1.301-2.600	3.78	0.69				2 > 1
	>2.601	4.06	0.85				
Job turnover	0-1.300	2.88	1.12	kw-h	19.011	0.000	3>2
intention	1.301-2.600	2.37	1.02				3 > 1
	>2.601	1.77	1.02				2 > 1
notes Column headings are as follows: (1) income status (Turkish Lira), (2) mean, (3) standard deviation, (4) test type, (5) test value, (6) p, (7) reason.
Table 6 shows the results of the comparison of the variables for educational status. The findings show that educational status affects job satisfaction (x2 = 14.006, p = 0.003) and managerial satisfaction (x2 = 15.747, p = 0.001), however, it does not affect job turnover intention (x2 = 5.896, p = 0.117).
In the table 7, the results of the comparison of the variables for income are shown. The findings show that income status affects job satisfaction (x2 = 24.956, p = 0.000), managerial satisfaction (x2 = 27.302, p = 0.000) and job turnover intention (x2 = 19.011, p = 0.000).
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table 8 The Correlations among Variables
Factors		(1)	(2) (3)
(1) Job satisfaction		(0.952)	
(2) Managerial satisfaction		0.564**	(0.940)
(3) Job turnover intention		-0.567**	-0.445** (0.940)
notes *p <0.05.**	p < 0.01.		
table 9 Reliability Indicators			
Factors	Items	Indicator Reliability	Internal Cons. Reliab.
		Outer Loadings	Composite Reliability
Job turnover	jti	0.9079	0.9577
	jt 2	0.9759	
	jt 3	0.9759	
Job satisfaction	jsi	0.9385	0.9637
	js 2	0.8616	
	js 3	0.9430	
	js 4	0.9390	
	js 5	0.9022	
Managerial	ms1	0.9121	0.9679
satisfaction	ms2	0.9331	
	ms3	0.9261	
	ms4	0.9162	
correlations and mediation analysis results
Concerning the second aim of the research, it was to test if there is a significant relation among job satisfaction, managerial satisfaction and job turnover intention, and the third aim was to question whether the job satisfaction of shopping mall employees is the mediator on the relation between managerial satisfaction and job turnover intention. In this part, the results related to correlations and mediation analysis are explained.
Between job satisfaction and managerial satisfaction, a positive and significant relation (r = 0.564, p = 0.000) was determined, thus, hypothesis 1 was confirmed. Between job satisfaction and job turnover intention, a negative and significant relation (r = -0.567, p = 0.000) was determined. So, hypothesis 2 was confirmed. Concerning another correlation, a negative and significant relation (r = -0.445, p = 0.000) between managerial satisfaction and job turnover intention was determined. Thus, hypothesis 3 was confirmed.
In order to perform the mediation analysis, the factors must be reliable and valid. For reliabilities, indicator and internal consistency
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table 10 Validity Indicators
Factors	Conv. val.	Discriminant validity		
	ave	(1)	(2)	(3)
(1) Job turnover	0.8499	0.9219		
(2) Job satisfaction	0.8416	0.5663	0.9173	
(3) Managerial satisfaction	0.9097	-0.3859	-0.5534	0.9537
figure 1 The Mediating Role of Job Satisfaction on the Relationship between Managerial Satisfaction and Job Turnover
reliability must be checked. Table 9 shows the reliability (results) of the indicators. For indicator reliability, outer loadings were examined and it was determined that each of the loading values was higher than 0.70 (Hulland 1999) and for internal consistency reliability, composite reliability values were examined and each of the factor values was higher than 0.70 (Bagozzi and Yi 1988). Following the analyses, it was determined that the factors were reliable.
For validity of the factors, convergent and discriminant validity results were checked (table 10). For convergent validity, ave results were examined and each of them was seen to be higher than 0.50 (Bagozzi and Yi 1988); for discriminant validity, square root of ave was calculated. Consequently, it was seen that the calculated values were higher than latent variable correlations (Fornell and Lar-cker 1981). Following the analyses, it was determined that the factors were valid.
In figure 1, following the analysis made with smartPLS (5.000 bootstrapping), it was determined that there was a significant and negative relation between managerial satisfaction and job turnover (0.388, t = 4.517). However, when the mediation of job satisfaction was integrated in this relation, it became possible to state that the relation between managerial satisfaction and job turnover became insignificant (-0.107, t = 1.052). The obtained result showed that job satisfaction fully mediated the relation between managerial satisfaction and job turnover. So, hypothesis 4 was confirmed.
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As previously emphasized in the literature, the view that the individuals leave their managers not their jobs is not supported as a result of the research made with the shopping mall employees in our sample. The reason why the shopping mall employees leave their jobs is not the managerial satisfaction, but the job satisfaction (0.566, t = 8.350). The results showed that the higher job satisfaction decreases job turnover intention (-0.493, t = 6.002).
Discussion
The results of the research have shown that the relationship between managerial satisfaction and job satisfaction was similar with the results of the previous researches in the literature (Ellinger and Bostrom 1999; Ellinger, Ellinger and Keller 2003; Lok and Crawford 2004; Elloy 2006; Noelker et al. 2009; Keser 2011). The increase in the perceived positive attitudes of the managers affects the job satisfaction of the employees in the positive way. On the other hand, the relationship between job satisfaction and job turnover intention had similar results as in the previous researches in the literature (Crampton and Wagner 1994; Hanisch, Hulin, and Roznowski 1998; Truckenbrodt 2000; Lambert, Hogan, and Barton 2001; Luthans 2011). When the job satisfaction of the employees increases, their job turnover intention gets low. Lastly, it was also determined that the relationship between managerial satisfaction and job turnover intention was similar with the results of the previous researches in the literature (Khatri, Budhwar, and Fern 1999; Rhoades and Eisen-berger 2002; Maertz et al. 2007; Alkahtani 2015). The increase in the perceived positive attitudes of the managers decreases the job turnover intention of the employees.
The most interesting result of the research was about the reason why the shopping mall employees leave their jobs. Accordingly, it is concluded that those with high levels of managerial satisfaction and job satisfaction were less likely to leave their jobs. Besides, managerial dissatisfaction was found to be related to a decrease in the perceptions of job satisfaction, which further would be related to job turnover intentions.
Limitations and Future Research
Within the context of the research, Spector's job satisfaction scale was planned to be used, however, as the scale form was quite long, it was not allowed to be used by the shopping mall managers. As a consequence, a shorter version of job satisfaction scale (Brayfield and Rothe 1951) was preferred.
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Although managerial satisfaction was determined as a processor reason for job turnover intention, further studies should examine the effect of other factors such as pay, promotion, nature of work, operating conditions on job turnover intention by using of a more detailed job satisfaction scale.
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238	management•volume 12
Gamification and the Quality of Informal Post-Experiential Learning
viktoria lambert
Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Hungary victoria@lambert-mail.com
As corporate learning moves out of the classroom into the hands of learners, the responsibilities of those who provide guidance in this process are changing. The overall prevalence of learning tools creates a need for competent learning leaders who make decisions about the development of the workforce. With special focus on the least used gamified learning tool, the aim of the study was to investigate the enablement of gamified learning tools determined by certain attributes of this research. A questionnaire survey had been conducted on a selected sample of 100 high-level learning leaders from 28 countries to examine if there are significant correlations between the usage of gamified learning tools and corporate learning leaders' minds, their competences and the organizational culture profiles of companies. Results had been analysed with the spss statistical software package and indicated that relationships between these variables cannot be categorically proven, so no predictions can be made about the future of gam-ified learning based on these attributes. It is the highest time to conduct an extensive research to examine relationships between the quality of informal learning and learning tools in the ict domain.
Key words: learning leader, clo, informal learning, learning tools,
gamified learning https://doi.org/10.26493/1854-4231.12.249-271
Introduction
The usage of information and communication technologies (ict) gained its stable and indispensable place in the fast moving reality of many companies, having positive impacts on economic growth, productivity and efficiency. As learning moves out of the classroom into the ict labyrinth and in the hands of learners, the responsibilities of those who give guidance about how we should behave in this labyrinth are changing. The new tools of social communication have brought an era where we have to rethink learning, knowledge sharing and collaboration in a fundamentally different way than ever before. The newest achievements of information technology
management 12 (3): 249-271
Viktoria Lambert
do not let us sustain concentration longer (Carr 2010), the information overload is urging us to continually browse and scan contents. Rapid movements of markets and constant rollouts of new strategies require quick, easy access to learning so there is a need to develop competent leaders and employees who can adapt to this pace of change. Not as quick and easy as it may sound, new strategies must first be implemented and this requires transformational learning (Floyd and Lane 2000). New strategy implementation often includes the complexity of changing the organization structure, culture, competencies, and leadership styles. The rigid curriculum and formal learning are replaced by cross-functional content that can satisfy curiosity and thus, informal learning can occur. This new type of learning is more and more loosely-structured, adapting itself in time, space and in tools to the 'here and now' needs of learners. As technology becomes an increasingly important part of learning, the modern learning leader is tasked with sourcing and leveraging new learning tools, including gamified learning that has been rapidly gaining ground as a tool of practicing managers, specialized consultants and providing promising research area of management and organization scholars. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to investigate the learning leader and the organizational culture profile of the company as mediums for the usage of a selected learning tool: gamified learning.
The purpose of this paper is to explore if there are significant correlations between the usage of gamified learning tools and corporate learning leaders' minds, their competences and the perceived organizational culture profiles of their companies.
Survey data collected from a selected sample of learning leaders has been used to examine possible impact. These learning leaders are the Chief Officer, Head, svp, vp, Director or Expert of Learning, Learning and Development, Training and Development, etc., all referred to as learning leader or Chief Learning Officer (clo) throughout this research while acknowledging the diversity of job titles and responsibilities. In the course of the primary research, eight clos provided their feedback throughout a test-surveying phase, and seven expert opinions had been integrated in my main research survey. Seeking a global analysis, I managed to gather survey respondents from 28 different countries. The selection of sectors and organizations with more developed corporate learning practices had been initiated by the fifth edition of the Corporate Universities & Corporate Le@rning Summit Series, the one of its kind conference of corporate learning professionals with the highest attendance in
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Europe. The target audience of this event series was especially responsive and interested in the research focus and the development of the clo's role, so I finally received 100 completed surveys. Several surveys, however, were not taken into consideration due to missing data, so the final sample consisted of 82 learning leaders.
The contribution of the paper is that it extends previous research findings about gamified learning while testing the correlations between this learning tool's usage and unique characteristics as corporate learning leaders' minds, their competences and the organizational culture profiles of their companies. Amongst learning tools currently in use, gamified learning is the least used and we still do not know if it is a fad or learning leaders will facilitate its predominance. In this research, relationships between these variables cannot be categorically proven so based on these no predictions can be made about the longevity of gamified learning. Therefore, this exploratory paper investigates gamified learning from the practical side, based on a semi-structured interview conducted with a gamifi-cation expert.
The paper consists five parts. After the introduction, the theoretical background had been examined and research propositions had been developed. Next, the research methodology is presented, including sample description and research instrument, data analysis results and main research findings. After conducting an extended survey with a unique sample of learning leaders and analysing the results, I could not found statistically significant relationships between the variables of learning leader minds, their competences, the organizational culture profile and the usage of gamified learning, so the real drivers of its implementation need to be found elsewhere. This study suggests that there is much to be learned from gamifiers themselves who are responsible for the elements, mechanics and design of their gamified learning implementations, so I conducted an in-person interview with a game design expert. The interview was guided by the scope of this research and main research findings are provided in the fourth part. Finally, research results are discussed from both theoretical and practical standpoint, research limitations are outlined, and directions of future research are suggested.
Informal Post-Experiential Learning Enabled by ict Tools
and Qualities of Learning Leaders
In a previous study about informal post-experiential learning, we were investigating in which forms emerging learning tools can occur and how they are situated within the learning ecosystem, as well
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as what kind validation mechanisms are effective based on the possible use in practice. Drawing on our theoretical and empirical research, prior expert advisor feedbacks, and the content analysis of presentations delivered at the aforementioned Corporate Universities & Corporate Le@rning Summit Series, we attempted to develop a framework for the emerging tools in corporate learning ecosystems. This alternative framework of emerging learning tools in the post-experiential informal learning process described social learning as the engine of Communities of Practice (CoPs), and gamified tools as amplifiers of the learning ecosystem (Szeghegyi, Szoboszlai, and Velencei 2014).
In post-experiential learning, the emphasis needs to be put also on how to become competent in the application of tools. According to Polányi's original idea published in the frequently cited book Personal Knowledge (Polányi 1962), competence implies the ability of expertise within a certain domain and the ability to not only submit to the rules but also by reflection influence the rules of the domain or the tradition. Competence is thus not a property but a relation between individual actors and a social system of rules. It is remarkable how much even kids can learn and with how little guidance if their self-motivation, self-discipline and self-organization are encouraged and enabled.
Efficient and independent learning means that one is able to learn persistently, to plan his own learning path - individually and in groups as well - and that includes effective time management and information management. It is essential to continuously explore possibilities for improving competencies with regard to digitalization as well. Digital innovation is of vital importance in course dynamic, course layout and curriculum development. It is necessary to identify areas in which digital innovation can influence the development of subject specific competences: information systems competences, project work competences, business competences and specialized ict field competences. In the battle against formal learning that many of the students increasingly find dull, there is a need for informal as well where the learning content and the knowledge as such learn 'on the go.' This is a knowledge refresher process whilst not the subject, but the people are becoming more educated. In this process, the passionate learner can increase his knowledge, frame up new contents, develop and strengthen their self-efficacy by mastery experiences and by modelling observational learning, verbal persuasion and judgments of their own physiological states (Wood et al. 1989). In corporate learning environments, an emerging role
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has been rapidly gaining attention as the primary facilitator and en-abler of this process.
When elevating learning leaders to a C-level title (as in the mid-1990s Jack Welch gave Steve Kerr first the title of the Chief Learning Officer (clo) at General Electric), the question arised: does that mean that a completely new profession had been created? The review of the literature resulted in a broad set of dimensions that represented various characteristics, overlaps with roles of other CxOs and far too large potentially uncovered areas. Interviews conducted with ten high-level American clos collected information straight from the source and identified five questions of interest: where today's clos come from and how do they fit in the organizational chart with reporting relationships and salaries; ceo's charge to the clo; the clo mission; clo priorities and key initiatives; and clo performance measures. Based on the responses of the most credible source of information, the only path of clo survival is to be strategic and focus on Stage1: Employee Development, Stage2: Imminent Business Needs, Stage3: Unknown Business Development (model of Learning Strategy Evolution). Based on further results of the study, the idealized clo profile has the following key elements: a high comfort level with senior managers and boards, a record of success running an organizational unit as well as literacy with learning processes and technologies. The two critical points of variance in clo profiles are: (1) whether the person put in the clo role is a company 'insider' or someone brought in from the outside (maybe from academia or a consulting firm), and (2) whether the person's background and experience is in the educational arena or he/she is an operating line manager (Baldwin and Danielson 2000). Today's clos have to implement new technologies, partnerships and business strategies to transform the way their organizations transfer knowledge and skills to employees. That includes establishing strategic alignments with business leaders across the organization, delivering development opportunities via social, mobile and other platforms so that employees feel empowered to get the information and education they need. There had been various research attempts to investigate critical attributes of clos, including current and future trends related to the position and the competencies important to clo success (L'Allier 2005) or clo's critical characteristics for success where talent management, succession planning and organizational development experience could be found on the top of the list (Buongiorno et al. 2005). The role and the responsibilities of the most senior learning leader have broadened since 2005, when astd and
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the University of Pennsylvania collaborated on a survey to find out more on the learning leader population and the new breed of learning executive. Focusing on a selected sample of 92 mostly us-based clos, the article profiled the positions, career histories and educational backgrounds and reported on the competences these heads of learning believed to be critical for success. One of the greatest challenges that emerged was quantifying the value of learning at work. These earlier (and with the fast pace of change in a way obsolete) survey findings show about the organization's most senior learning executives that they are busy with aligning learning requirements with business goals and providing learning opportunities in the most efficient manner, while aiming to develop their key competences of leadership and the ability to articulate the value of learning in business terms (Sugrue 2006). We are moving beyond commoditized learning curating knowledge that is unique to how a given company makes money and drives growth. In the learning enterprise (Gratton 2014) clos' responsibilities expand, they are often working directly with ceos and become from Service Providers not merely Strategic Business Partners, but Value Creators (Gratton 2004; Elkeles and Phillips 2007). According to Rob Lauber, acting clo at McDonald's Corp., who has held clo roles in major global organizations for the past 15 years, and experienced transformations first-hand, the role has shifted over the years, from Leader of a Training Portfolio to Enabler of Learning. The clo has to give up control of the learning process, and focus more on creating opportunities for learners to get the information they need when they need it, even if that means shutting the door on classrooms (Gale 2015). Additional theoretical background for the learning leader competencies of this study had been provided by the University of Pennsylvania's Executive Doctoral Program, penncLO (see www.gse.upenn.edu), the one of its kind among top-tier universities, integrating academics with the realities of the workplace. This establishment is considered as a key component to cultivating future clos. Besides the pennclo Course Blocks, the astd Competency Study: Training and Development Redefined (Arneson et al. 2013) had been investigated. This latest contribution to the astd Competency Model legacy offered a broad inventory of topics that clos need to recognize to be successful in the rapidly changing business environment, as well as key specific actions these professionals must take to succeed.
With the development of science and technology complementing each other, it is observed that education has emerged from a conservative, isolative and traditional structure and it has gained a new
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identity. Worldwide educational structures and processes are rapidly affected by each other (James et al. 2010) and require leaders with a global mind-set of the future, thinking globally but acting locally and nationally, furthermore, to be individuals with enhanced creativity skills, respect for themselves as well as for others, and global ethical values who can make personal and professional synthesis in one or more disciplines (Gardner 2007). Gardner (2008) conducted mind oriented research in his several books and publications and called his theoretical approach 'Five Minds of the Future.' This taxonomy entails the disciplined mind (to learn at least one profession, as well as the major thinking behind it), the synthesizing mind (to organize the massive amounts of information and communicate effectively to others), the creative mind (to revel in unasked questions - and uncover new phenomena and insightful answers), the respectful mind (to appreciate the differences between human beings and understand and work with all persons) and the ethical mind (to fulfil one's responsibilities as both a worker and a citizen).
Advancements in science and technology are becoming radical game changers to this approach, altering strategies that allow people to maintain moral and ethical standards, do 'good work' (Gardner, Csikszentmihalyi, and Damon 2001). Consequently, concepts such as worldwide teacher competency standards, interdisciplinary curricula, knowledge economy, sharp minds (Farr 2014) are evolving, preparing the emergence of new mind interpretations i.e. a conceptual model for affective development had been examined and applied to the use of games and simulations. Games are identified as offering the optimum environment for development of the ethical mind as they offer the opportunity to explore ethical problems and see the consequences and experience the emotional impact of the solutions (Smith 2008).
The formal, traditional methods are no longer sufficient to remain competitive in the knowledge economy, and organizational cultures, thus corporate learning environments play a vital role in this transformation process. Schein formally defined culture as 'a pattern of shared basic assumptions learned by a group as it solves its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, which has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems' (Schein 1996). Organizational culture is comprised of three different levels at which the cultural phenomenon is visible to the observer (Schein 2010). The three levels of culture are (1) artefacts, (2) espoused beliefs and values, and (3) basic underly-
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ing assumptions. Understanding the learning process by which basic underlying assumptions evolve is critical to a better understanding of an organization's culture (Schein 2010). The exploration of the relationship between organizational culture values and individual personality types had been conducted by O'Reilly and the Organizational Culture Profile (ocp) instrument was created to assess a person's fit with a particular culture or industry (O'Reilly, Chatman, and Caldwell 1991). The authors suggested that employees who were not a good fit with an organization, because of either job tasks or organizational culture, were likely to quit because of reduced job satisfaction and commitment to the organization as compared to employees who were a good fit. In their study of 224 graduate students in the mba program, they reported an average reliability coefficient of 0.73 for the instrument. Two other studies confirmed the reliability of the instrument. First, Chatman reported a reliability coefficient of 0.88 for 171 entry-level auditors in eight us public accounting firms (Chatman 1991). Second, Vandenberghe reported a reliability coefficient of 0.86 for 565 individuals belonging to 19 hospitals in healthcare organizations (Vandenberghe 1999). However, the ocp lacks elements commonly found in other industries such as hospitality (Enz 1988; Woods 1989).
The most influential scholars of organizational culture (Cameron and Ettington, 1988; O'Reilly and Chatman 1996; Schein 1996) have adopted a sociological perspective regarding how members within an organization viewed values, underlying assumptions, and expectations and how they interpreted the surrounding environment. The ocp provided a framework that has a high degree of congruence with the sociological perspective of organizational culture and thus, was used in this study as an additional possible influencer of the learning tools in use.
This research is designed to explore whether the selected attributes play a critical role in determining the usage of the selected gamified learning tool, therefore the theoretical background of gam-ification and relevant findings about gamified learning as a post-experiential learning tool had been reviewed as well.
Gamification has been broadly defined as using game mechanics in non-game contexts to impact motivation (Deterding et al. 2011; Kapp 2012; Nicholson 2012). For this study, the aspect of learning was added to the definition. In other words, gamification is about motivating individuals to participate in a learning event through the addition of game elements, not full-fledged games (Nicholson 2012). Games can potentially present learning opportunities using strate-
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gies that allow contextualized learning. Games offer a means of applying and practicing skills by presenting content in a manner that makes sense to the environment (Van Eck 2006). This type of learning becomes meaningful and beneficial to the learner, unlike inert knowledge gained through decontextualized methods like classroom worksheets (Rieber 1996). Extracting design elements from games and embedding them into learning environments as a means of gam-ifying instruction has potential for increasing learner motivation and student learning (Van Eck 2007). Using goals, rules, interaction, time, reward, feedback, challenge, storytelling, curves of interest, aesthetics, and the ability to fail with minimal consequence can result in learning environments where there is increased motivation, retention and application of learning (Garris, Ahlers, and Driskell, 2002; Kapp 2012). However, the goal of gamification is to improve instruction, not replace it, so if content is not already effective then adding gamification will yield little result (Landers 2014). Gamification is about using game attributes to draw individuals into the fun, leaving them excited about experiencing learning (Arnold 2014) and it is used to enhance learning programs (Dale 2014; Uskov and Sekar 2014), make tutorials more engaging (Deterding 2012; Li, Grossman, and Fitzmaurice 2012; Rauch 2013) and can be an extra layer of properly developed knowledge management while initiating, sustaining and supporting desired behaviours and adherence to values (Shap-kova, Dorfler, and MacBryde 2017). However, organizations are still sceptical about gamification as a means to engage and motivate target audiences and they struggle to understand the trend and its longer-term implications (Burke 2012). It is an increasingly popular approach, which has been shown to be powerful in many areas so the question arises what are the key drivers of its viability and longevity in corporate learning environments.
Today we are starting to see the fuzzy outlines of an emerging corporate role that will make a significant impact not only on the informal post-experiential corporate learning processes but also on the age-old notion of life-long learning, largely depending on the critical factors in application of learning tools. In this research process, I attempt to investigate the learning tool usage with special focus on gamified learning. The research had been conducted on a selected sample of high-level corporate learning leaders. Consequently, the following research propositions were declared:
rpi There is a significant relationship between the extent of gamified learning usage and corporate learning leaders' minds.
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rp2 There is a significant relationship between the extent of gam-ified learning usage and corporate learning leaders' competences.
rp3 There is a significant relationship between the extent ofgam-ified learning usage and the organizational culture profiles of the learning leaders' companies.
research methodology
This study is focused on post-experiential education, where corporate learning leaders are the guides of a journey from 'knowledge' to 'knowing,' and bridging the gap between the 'know how' (concepts brought from the university) and 'know when' (on-the-job context in a corporation) (Szoboszlai, Velencei, and Baracskai 2014). To be successful in the learning enterprise, today's clos need to become technology champions, support user-generated content, advanced search tools, community-based learning, mobile learning, video learning, learning record storage and curation. Most of these technologies need to be mainstreamed with the clo model and therefore, further research is needed relating to understanding the relationships between clo attributes and the application of learning tools within the organization.
To investigate the leader who is responsible for the professional education of the workforce, a quantitative survey approach was selected. Based on previous research, the literature review and semi-structured interviews with learning leaders, survey questions have been formulated. To support the content and structure of the survey instrument, pre-pilot expert validation was conducted. The questions were targeted for learning leaders including chief learning officers, training directors, and other learning leader types of various industries as this study wanted to examine who is behind the organizational learning initiatives and can have an impact. The overall purpose of the survey was to investigate perceptions and characteristics of certain learning leader profiles, and link this to the impact of the corporate learning programs they lead.
The research sample was very carefully selected. It comprised of senior-level individuals from the corporate university or corporate learning department of the organization. The survey had been conducted in August 2015 and it had been fully completed by 82 learning leaders (65, 2% male; 34, 8% female) from various industries and 28 different countries. As per the sample characteristics, I emphasized that only the learning function's senior leader can be the respondent, and I set the limit of a minimum of 100 employees in the
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learning population and a minimum of 5 years of corporate learning experience for at least 80% of the respondent learning leaders. The study required one individual respondent per organization. The sampling procedure started at the annual Corporate Universities & Corporate Le@rning Summit Series 2015 and subsequently, the web-based questionnaire was conducted using an easy to access internet tool.
The research instrument consisted of a questionnaire survey and as a start, validity analysis was conducted to check the validity of the research instrument. Content validity was attained by adapting items from the literature and previous research. In order to assess whether to expect an acceptable level of understanding, pre-pilot expert validation and test surveying had been conducted among a group of eight learning professionals representing a 'typical' survey respondent from various domains. The learning professionals held titles such as Chief Learning Officer, Director of Learning, Head of Learning and Development, Vice President of Training, Head of Corporate University. Further refinements were made because of the feedback. The full survey included seven sets of questions, with special emphasis on those areas related to main research propositions of this study, and further dominant areas of my research activities. The creation of the survey had been guided by the methodology described in Paul A. Scipione's book, titled Practical Marketing Research (Sci-pione 1992). The survey and the subsequent interview had been also extended with further questions that were not closely related to the main research propositions and, due to length constraints, could not be examined in this paper.
In the data collection phase of the research, I provided an online, self-guided survey platform and used the five-level Likert scale items to scale the responses (Likert 1932). The use of Likert-scales showed the degree to which there is agreement or disagreement with statements to reflect clear positions on an issue and represent a desirable goal, a transition from ordinal scales to interval scales (Torg-erson 1967). The verbal interpretation of the scale used in the questionnaire is given below: 1 = Not at All, 2 = Very Little, 3 = Somewhat, 4 = Quite a Bit, 5 = A Great Deal.
Given the subject of this study, my research activities were triggered by the learning tools in use within the corporate learning environment, focusing on the survey question that asked learning leaders to rate from 1 to 5 on a five point ascending scale these tools according to their extent of current usage within their organizations. The 100 completed questionnaire forms had been exposed to fur-
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ther inspections to filter them for possible non-sampling errors (data tabulating, coding, etc.) resulting in 82 surveys that could be evaluated. The responses had been coded and analysed in the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (spss v. 19) software. I used descriptive statistics to simplify and present the quantitative descriptions of the data in a manageable form. While evaluating the results, I investigated frequency counts for different variables. To evaluate if there was a statistical evidence for linear relationship, I measured the strength and directions of relationships between variables and the chosen level of statistical significance was 5% (p = 0.05). Following descriptive data analysis, significance (2-tailed) value correlation analysis was conducted to show if there is a statistically significant correlation between the variables.
Prior to narrowing down the scope to the gamified learning tools, my study aimed to explore the extent to which learning leaders are using the previously identified tools within their organization. Based on the responses of learning leaders, their sense making during further validations of the survey question, the notion of learning tools currently in use had been narrowed down to mobile learning, social learning, simulations and gamified learning.
As shown in table 1 by the means (there is no significant difference between the standard deviations), the volume of the social learning tool and simulation users is the highest while gamified learning is the least applied tool within these companies. This is also underlined by the skewness that quantifies how symmetrical the distribution is. The first three graphs have close to symmetrical distribution and therefore a skewness close to zero, while gamification has a higher positive skew (0.512), an asymmetrical distribution with a long tail to the right. The cumulative percentages for 'Not at All' and 'Very Little' responses are also the highest in case of gamified learning.
learning tool usage in surveyed organizations
The survey also investigated Gardner's five minds applied to minds of learning leaders. Initial analysis was conducted to examine the correlation between the applied learning tools and learning leaders' minds. As the results in table 2 show, only the tools of mobile learning, social learning and gamified learning were representing significant correlations at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) with learning leader minds and only with the disciplined mind and the creative mind. The clos with dominantly disciplined minds showed the strongest correlations with mobile learning and with gamified learning tools. The clos with dominantly creative minds had the highest correla-
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table 1 Tools Used by Learning Leaders within Their Organization
Item	Mobile	Social	Simulations	Gamified
	learning	learning		learning
N	82	82	82	82
Mean	2.94	3.27	3.24	2.56
Standard deviation	1.221	1.134	1.213	1.268
Skewness	0.035	-0.029	-0.017	0.512
Not at All*	14.6	4.9	7.3	23.2
Very Little*	35-4	26.8	28.0	53-7
notes * Cumulative percentage.				
table 2 Correlations between Learning Leader Minds and Applied Learning Tools				
Learning tool		Correlations with Correlations with		
		disciplined mind		creative mind
Mobile Learning			0.348	0.268
Social Learning			0.120	0.365
Gamified Learning			0.236	0.291
tions at the 0.05 level in relationship with social learning, followed by gamified learning and mobile learning respectively. This may indicate the importance of learning leaders' mind in supporting these learning tools. The rest of clo mind types did not correlate strongly with the learning tools, implying that these variables may not influence the ability of implementing these learning tools by the learning leader.
In the following part of the paper, the scope had been narrowed down to gamified learning exclusively, as this was the tool this study wanted to investigate more.
In the most extensive question of the survey, learning leaders were asked to rate from 1 to 5 on a five point ascending scale these competence attributes according to what extent these describe them and their activities in practice. The research wanted to explore if there are any significant correlations between learning leader competences and the application of gamified learning tools. Based on the results shown in table 3, only the competence attributes below show significant correlations, only at the 0.05 level (2-tailed), and concluded that the extent to which learning leaders apply gamified learning tools within their organizations can not be explained by these competence attributes.
Thus, the rpi and rp2 cannot be proven, there is no significant relationship between the extent of gamified learning usage and corporate learning leaders' minds or competences. The sample had
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table 3 Learning Leader Competence Correlation with Gamified Learning		
Competence attributes	Correlation	
Monitoring innovative technologies		0.327
Curriculum design		0.323
Establishing and maintaining higher education partnerships		0.306
Developing performance-based assessments		0.278
Reviewing all learning modules		0.270
Managing learning technologies		0.269
Choosing and blending e-tools from the technology tool box		0.263
Ensuring security and privacy		0.254
Leading and managing organizational change		0.244
Evaluating work-based performance and learning		0.241
Developing fluency in methodology of measurement and analysis		0.240
Implications of diversity for work-based learning		0.226
table 4 Organizational Culture Profile Correlation with Gamified Learning		
Organizational culture profile	Correlation	
People-oriented		0.309
Team-oriented		0.306
Innovative and risk-taking		0.255
been examined also for statistically significant differences concerning gender as well as age, and no statistically significant differences have been found.
In the course of this investigation, I found important also to examine the company's organizational culture profile (O'Reilly, Chatman, and Caldwell 1991) perceived by clos - as one of the important in-fluencers of the learning environment they need to manage -, and verify if there are any significant correlations with the application of gamified learning tools. This study wanted to explore if there are any significant relationships between these variables. As shown in table 4, results revealed that only the organizational culture profiles below show significant correlations, only at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). The extent to which learning leaders use gamified learning tools within their organizations has weak relationships with the dominant organizational culture profile, so the RP3 could not be validated either.
In this study, I presented a research about the usage of different learning tools applied by learning leaders in corporate learning environments with special attention to gamified learning that has been rapidly growing since its recent entrance into the arena of learning tools. After conducting an extended survey with a unique sample of
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learning leaders and analysing the results, I could not found statistically significant relationships between the variables of learning leader minds, learning leader competences, the organizational culture profile and the usage of gamified learning. Therefore, the real drivers of gamified learning tool's implementation need to be found elsewhere. It seemed apparent that there is much to be learned from asking practitioner gamifiers themselves, and collect information from those who are actually responsible for the elements, mechanics and design of their gamified learning implementations.
homo ludens in the corporate learning environment
The role of the play element of culture and society (Huizinga 1955) is gaining more and more importance in today's corporate learning. After a half century, we call it gamification, which is the application of game-design elements and game principles in non-game contexts (Deterding 2011). It applies behaviour-motivating techniques from traditional and social games to non-game environments. The Human Resources function of any business can leverage gamification techniques to incentivize and reward employees for completing important, but often mundane tasks and the most common ways of doing so are employer branding, recruitment and workforce development.
An award-winning example for the first two hr functions, a game called Multipoly, allows candidates to virtually test their readiness for the job at the firm by working in teams to solve real world business problems. This game presents users with tasks based on the competencies the firm is developing for current employees. The game includes online simulation models, the structure and procedures are specified by the customer (the employer firm) in a 3D environment. Users are following a work routine: going to meetings, accomplishing tasks, and facing unexpected situations and ethical decisions. The system also measures the players based on preset variables (Zielinski 2015) and the results speak for themselves. Candidates who have played the Multipoly game were better prepared for the live face-to-face interviews, as the game pre-educated them about the firm and its vision, services and skills needed for success. Comparing the experience of playing Multipoly with visiting the company's career page, a job candidate might have spent 5-10 minutes on a career page versus spending up to one and half hours playing Multipoly prior to the job interview. Since the game's launch, the employer firm has reported 190% growth in job candidates with 78% of users reporting they are interested to learn more about working with them (Meister 2015). Besides its outstanding talent acqui-
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sition results, this solution has given high value for the employer company because it simulated the corporate culture for candidates and introduced the firm in a highly interactive way (Shukla-Pandey 2014).
The developer of Multipoly, Games for Business Ltd. deals with gamification development projects since 2013 (developing different gamified platforms since 2006), supporting recruitment and training processes within the hr activities of large enterprises, focusing primarily on the expectations of employees from younger generations. Besides their employer branding and recruitment profiles, the current research aims to focus more on their platform primarily for the learning leaders and their learner target audience, as described earlier. Based on our basic understanding of the platform, we conducted a semi-structured interview with gamification expert Balazs Vendler, the founder of Games for Business (personal communication, 10 November 2015). The Enterprise Game Platform allows employees to acquire corporate information and improve their knowledge voluntarily, in an entertaining environment. This modular platform includes numerous mini games that transform existing corporate content into fun, motivating learning scenarios, and improve the engagement and commitment of employees. The flexibility of the system allows various new games to be added to the collection at any time and a broad range of benefits to meet different requirements, depending on learning leaders and their learning environments within the organization. Balance between standardization and localization, ease of implementation and customization are provided. Furthermore, efficient players can experience improved learning and absorption, analysers can track activity and measure, learning leaders can optimize costs thanks to reduced classroom hours as well as expenses, and employees 'on the go' can have access to an optimized interface on any device.
In what extent off-the-shelf vs. tailor-made? Our interview revealed that there are different types of client behaviours and needs. The first type of client gets a feel of the game through a demo, is completely satisfied and wants to buy the full version. The second type has a problem to solve, so the process entails ca. 60% software development and 40% tailor-made solutions. The third type has a strategic goal, so there is 10% software development and the emphasis is placed on 90% alignment to the client's needs. The Multipoly platform included 20% software development and 80% iteration to the firm's goals. The involvement of the corporate it is typically not influencing the process, apart from basic questions about the server
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environment and the integration into the internal system. According to the founder, the next development goal is to find out what does it take to make the 10% software part 'self-service' and decrease that 10% continuously.
The length depends on the goal of the game. Global (and glocal) companies today need employees hired, onboarded and productive as quickly as possible. Further, when the business changes, the skillsets for their existing employees need to adapt even faster. This constant state of transformation is forcing learning leaders to think more strategically about how, when and where training is delivered. Game mechanics are being applied differently to different types of learning goals to drive different types of behaviours. If the goal is onboarding and sharing the most information about the company and its culture, the game's main purpose is to motivate to attract and motivate to play as much as possible. However, if the goal is developing the existing workforce, the game has to prolong the learning process, limit the time employees can spend with the game per day and motivate them to play every day. It should not take too much time per day so daily limits can be set according to the desired learning curve.
How to make more sense of gamified learning's data internally and externally? The agile orientation of the system's data storage design process is important to ensure that the system meets current requirements and presents valuable and actionable outputs. The game's admin system is logging everything and typically, the cumulative results can be seen, however, all different kind of data can be made transparent. If the processes and the points are the same, the system is comparable and universal. In the same platform, any game can be parameterized to different things and broken down to different modules. Various types of games can have matching dashboards thanks to the compatible parameters. The goal is to look beyond the points and qualify data, identify behavioural patterns and recommend new strategies for managing and optimizing the content. As previous research has documented, cloud-computing technology makes a significant impact on input-output data quality dimensions of collaborative processes. This technology strongly increases accessibility, completeness, comprehensiveness, consistency, and decreases limitation of data amount, reliability, and security. In this previous study, external collaboration with universities had to be formalized and enable knowledge transfer relationship. Implementing the cloud computing technology enabled a more efficient and efficient execution of external cooperation and collaboration processes
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(Petkovics et al. 2014) and we can observe the emerging trend that there are more than 50 providers offering cloud-based gamification products, including the biggest players in the gamification arena: Badgeville, BunchBall, and Gamify.
Thus, these additional aspects around ease of integrity, length of play and data usage might indicate that the future implementation of gamified learning tools could be influenced by more platform-related factors and not learning leader- or learning environment-related ones. There is a need to investigate those elements, which have the significant influence on the viability of gamified learning in corporate learning environments.
Conclusion
The overall objective of this paper is to shed a new light on the viability and longevity of gamification and investigate if gamified learning is a fad, or learning leaders will facilitate its predominance. To accomplish this objective, a questionnaire survey was conducted on a selected sample of learning leaders who have impact on the quality of informal learning. Results from 82 completed surveys had been analysed, testing the correlations between the gamified learning usage and corporate learning leaders' minds, their competences and the organizational culture profiles of their companies. Three research propositions had been evaluated to determine if there are any relationships between these variables and none of them showed any statistically significant correlations. Consequently, this study showed no significant relationships between these attributes, so based on these factors no predictions can be made about the future of gam-ified learning and the real drivers of its implementation need to be found elsewhere.
An examination of the literature was undertaken to review studies that report about the concept of learning leaders' minds and their competences, the organizational cultural profile of the companies as well as gamification and gamified learning. A review of more than 30 papers describing relevant findings has identified a clear lack of investigations between gamified learning and the learning leader, as well as the organizational culture. This research is designed to explore whether the selected attributes play a critical role in determining the usage of gamified learning tools. Therefore, these study tests possible relationships between the practical implementation of gam-ified learning in the given company and its learning leader's mind, competences and organizational culture profile.
My research provides a source for academics and companies
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since it investigates connections between gamified learning and the learning leader as well as the organizational culture profile. Three research propositions have been supported by empirical data, which indicated that relationships between these variables cannot be proven, in other words, the trend of gamified learning and its longer-term implications cannot be answered categorically by these attributes.
This research has several limitations. The use of gamification in learning involves a number of aspects, including game elements, educational context, learning outcomes, learner profile and the gam-ified environment. Gamification is receiving attention, particularly for its potential to motivate learners. Accordingly, it is desirable to involve motivational impacts of gamification in educational contexts that can influence decisions of what categories of information to be included demonstrating the motivational effects of gamification on learners themselves. Not only are individuals motivated in multiple ways, but also their motivation varies according to the situation or context of the task.
Furthermore, the research sample could be more extensive in order to get more generalized results. At present, the population that could be surveyed is rather small and had been investigated in high quality, thanks to the carefully selected sample. The emergence of the clo role shall result in extension of the current study, and involve more clos in the surveying part of subsequent research. As further research directions, similar studies could be conducted on a larger sample of companies to be able to make valid conclusions regarding possible differences among companies of different size, region and industry. It might be worthwhile to investigate the corporate learning strategies of those industries that have specific status from the perspective of employee education (i.e. the healthcare industry where the content is driven by subject matter experts, there are continuous regulatory requirement updates and the majority of learning can be a compliance activity). An important field of further studies might be also the analysis of learner populations. It is recommended that a voice be given to the learning program's participants, their content consumption habits and learning patterns be examined in more detail, and ensure more fact-based targeting of the gamified learning program.
The literature dealing with impacts of learning leaders in corporate learning environment is still rare to find and the empirical studies of the link between learning leaders' key characteristics and implementation of gamified learning are even more challenging to find.
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Therefore, this study is a good starting point for future research about how learning leaders influence the gamified learning tools' longevity. Results of the research should also be used as a base for development of case studies that investigate how in particular, successful companies use different tools of the ict domain and what are the key influencers. These research findings can encourage companies to examine in more detail their current learning tool practices, and motivate them to introduce new approaches that can be used to apply gamified learning in a tailor-made way, and validate its impact.
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This paper is published under the terms of the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (cc by-nc-nd 4.0) License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
number 275 • fall 2017
Assessment of Relationship between Young Researchers and Mentors and Implications for Knowledge Transfer
ana arzenšek
University of Primorska, Slovenia ana.arzensek@fm-kp.si
katarina košmrlj
University of Primorska, Slovenia katarina. kosmrlj@fm-kp.si
Key factors in relationships among Slovenian postgraduate students with a Young researcher status and their mentors are addressed. It was assumed that relationship determines assessment of the usefulness of the training and of knowledge transfer by Young researchers. The problem was explored quantitatively with a survey and qualitatively with focus groups method. Results show that Young researchers are on average satisfied with their mentors and were given good guidance both in contents and methodology. Differences can be observed regarding inclusion in research projects, where mentors of Young researchers in economy scored lower. With factor analysis it was shown that factor 'mentorship' is significantly correlated with the assessment of the programme. Analysis of focus groups indicated diverse experiences in mentoring both groups reported about. It was concluded that mentors who encourage the transfer of knowledge are exceptional in their ability to communicate and are teamwork-oriented; they foster active involvement of the candidate in the research group.
Key words: higher education, knowledge transfer, mentors,
relationship, young researchers https://doi.org/10.26493/1854-4231.12.273-292
Introduction
In this section mentoring in postgraduate education in Slovenia is presented. More specifically, descriptions of the Young researcher (yr) programme and mentoring in the yr programme are provided together with research aims and research questions.
mentoring in postgraduate education
Anderson and Shannon (1988, 40) define mentoring as 'a nurturing process in which a more skilled or experienced person, serving as a
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role model, teaches, sponsors, encourages, counsels and befriends a less skilled or less experienced person for the purpose of promoting the latter's professional and/or personal development.' According to the definition, mentor's role extends beyond giving advice to the students regarding their theses to his role in building professional and personal skills.
Besides providing both explicit and tacit knowledge about their fields and giving clear and timely feedback (Paré 2011), mentors may encourage students to finish their programmes and stay in the field. Constructive relationships between mentors and doctoral students have been implicated in positive outcomes for the students (Curtin, Malley, and Stewart 2014; Paglis, Stephen, and Bauer 2006). Research indicates that the mentor-doctoral student interpersonal relationship is associated with good progress of the work and its completion (Devos et al. 2015), and with positive psychosocial outcomes, such as student satisfaction, sense of competence (Mainhard et al. 2009), identification with the field, confidence about being able to make a contribution (Curtin, Malley, and Stewart 2014) and with production of more publications (Titus and Ballou 2014).
Denicolo (2004) reports on positive characteristics of mentors as seen by doctoral students. Predominantly reported characteristics of mentors are reliability, confidence in the student, encouragement, broad-mindedness and openness to share knowledge. Among soft skills are good listening skills, open communication that allows debate and argumentation, providing continuous feedback and support, enthusiasm as well as personal warmth and understanding. Seagram, Gould, and Pyke (1998) showed that important positive attributes of high quality mentors as perceived by doctoral students were mentor's professionalism, being pleasing and expressing supportive behaviour.
yr(e) training programme
In Slovenia, the YR training programme has been developed in order to promote scientific development, to reduce the age profile of research groups and to strengthen links to knowledge transfer into practice. The programme is based on doctoral students (yrs), who participate in research work during their postgraduate studies on basic research or applied research projects. Candidates for the training have to apply to the mentors and are chosen by the mentor. Among yr candidates those with best academic profile and personal characteristics fitting to the yr work position are selected. Mentors to yrs have to meet various academic criteria and have to be suc-
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cessful in the Call for mentors for yrs within Slovenian Research Agency (2017). Criteria for candidates' successful application are academic excellence and promising research plan (Arzensek, Kosm-rlj, and Sirca 2014). More than 6.000 yrs have participated in the programme. Since then the yr training programme has become an important scientific policy instrument. Since its' implementation in 1985, Slovenian Research Agency dedicates a significant amount of its budget to finance the training. On average, 30,000.00 eur are provided annually per yr. The programme is financed up to three and a half years according to Bologna scheme in doctoral education.
In spite of its success in promotion of doctoral studies, the gap between university, industry, and governments remained broad. In order to achieve faster transition of discoveries from university to the end-users (in the form of patents, licences, good practices, joint ventures and spin-off companies), the Slovenian government additionally developed a Young researchers in economy (yre) training programme (Arzensek, Kosmrlj, and Sirca 2014). The yre training programme aims at strengthening research and development ability as well as improving links and knowledge transfer between the academic, research and economic spheres. Since 2007, more than 240 yres have been included in the programme (Slovenian Research Agency 2017). As a consequence, faster knowledge transfer from universities to industry and vice versa was possible.
While yrs are normally employed in a higher education institution/ research institute and they normally do a research study under the mentorship of one or two faculty members, yres have one mentor from university and another one from the company they are employed in. The programme for yres includes a second mentor, called mentor in company. Their main task is to support the yre's research according to the needs of the employing company. Mentors in company are usually not academics, but practitioners, though they are often highly educated and are experienced in the economic sector. Both kinds of mentors not only support and guide yr(e)s, but also play an important role in the assessment of the quality of the final manuscript submitted (Mainhard et al. 2009).
mentoring in yr(e) training programme
The Slovenian Doctoral Students and Young Researchers' Association (ydra, see http://www.mladaekonomija.si) has been collecting yr's and other doctoral students' experience and comments about mentoring practices and modes of conduct in training of yrs in different institutions. In spite of many negative cases of mentoring that
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were reported by their members, their aim is to provide positive practices of mentoring experience. According to ydra, an ideal mentor of a doctoral student 'shows correct regard for the mentee, is accessible, and prepared to invest enough time for the yr or doctoral student. A mentor includes mentees into his research team work and allows them to make contacts and ingrates them into the international research community. A mentor is a specialist in the field of operation of yrs or at least he enables professional work on the highest level through collaboration with other researchers on national or international level.' (see http://www.mladaakademija.si/mentor-leta/). According to ydra, a mentor also strives to transfer as much knowledge and experience as possible in order to stimulate the future career of yr.
research aims
In spite of much overlap in the literature regarding mentor's characteristics and importance of interpersonal relationships in the progress of preparing a doctoral dissertation, little is known about the expectations of yr(e)s, especially as yr(e)s are many times among the most talented doctoral students and might have specific expectations and needs in comparison to other doctoral students. Especially the role of yres is a complex and demanding one as they have to go through doctoral education and at the same time they have to spend certain amount of time working on the research project in the company. So it was important for us to explore needs and experiences of yr(e)s in their relationship with their mentor(s), as it can bring some implications for higher education policies. Furthermore, mentors of yr(e)s might also have different expectations and modes of operation in comparison to other doctoral students' mentors. It is important to explore the perspectives of both relational parties in order to enhance our understanding. The mentor's role in the yr(e)'s progression is thus a complex one and needs further investigation.
The predominant aim in the present study was to search for specific experience and relationships between mentors of yrs and yres in the yr(e) programmes. As there are two kinds of yrs included in the yr programme, namely yrs and yres, both groups took part in the research. On this basis, two hypotheses were developed:
hi The relationship with the mentor is important for the assessment of the usefulness of the yr(e) training.
h2 The relationship with the mentor is important for yr(e) knowledge transfer.
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As categories under observation (relationship with the mentor/ mentee, usefulness of yr(e) training, knowledge transfer) can be perceived in several different ways by participants and because the survey did not allow space for exploration of personal characteristics of both mentors and yr(e)s, we additionally organised focus groups in order to clarify different experiences of mentor-mentee dynamics within yr(e) training programme. Four research questions were developed to investigate within 3 separate focus groups:
1.What	is important for participants in their relationship with YR(E)s/mentor(s)?
2.	What was their own relationship with their YR(E)s/mentor(s)?
3.	What obstacles did they experience in their relationship with YR(E)s/mentor(s) (if any)?
4.	Do they have any suggestions for relationship improvement?
Methods
In this section structure of the sample is presented. Furthermore, descriptions of the instruments and procedures are provided.
sample Survey Sample
The population consisted of all yrs and yres who have either already finished the training or are still included in the programme. Altogether, 3763 e-mail addresses were contacted. Of these, 404 were inexistent (invalid) and another 20 were unavailable (either on holiday, business trip, maternity leave or on medical leave). From the addresses reached, 695 viewed the questionnaire and 478 complete questionnaires were returned (14.2% response rate). The sample was consisted of 77% of yrs and 23% yres. Only 3 (0.6%) people that completed the questionnaire interrupted the training, 58% completed the training successfully and 41% were still included in the yr programme at the time of the interview. Less than 7% of the sample was included in masters study programmes, and the majority of 93% in doctoral study programmes. The majority of the sample (73%) studied in natural or technical sciences, about a fifth (21%) in social sciences and humanities, and 6% in medicine, healthcare, social services and other services.
Focus Groups Sample
Three separate focus groups were carried out with altogether 17 participants. The composition of each focus group was homogeneous in
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table 1 Characteristics of Participants in Focus Groups
Characteristic		Number
Role in the programme	yr	7
	yre	4
	Mentor	6
Training status*	In progress	8
	Finished	9
Training discipline**	Social sciences	7
	Natural sciences	4
	Engineering	6
Occupational status	Higher education institution	5
	Public research institute	4
	Economy	7
	No occupation	1
notes *For mentors status of their yr(e) mentees. **Training disciplines were merged according to Frascati classification (natural sciences and medicine to natural sciences; engineering, technical sciences and agriculture to engineering; social sciences and humanities to social sciences). n = 17.
terms of participant status (separately for yrs, yres and mentors of yrs and yres). At the same time, the composition was as heterogeneous as possible in terms of variety of participants' scientific disciplines and place of residence (in Slovenia, this is often linked to institution they are employed/study at). Table 1 shows the composition of focus groups. Additional criterion was having at least two years of experience with the yr programme (for yrs and yres) and at least one already finished mentorship in yr programme (for mentors).
Each participant was given a short survey with demographic data and with questions regarding their experience with yr training.
instruments
The research problem was dealt quantitatively with survey and qualitatively with focus group method. With the latter we wanted to clear up some aspects of the problem that had not been resolved in the survey or the answers had been only partial.
Survey
The questionnaire was comprised of 30 questions: 10 for independent and 20 for dependent variables. The variables were deducted from analysis of key concepts to the research subject. The concepts were defined through theory and previous research analysis. Each
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question for dependent variables was composed of a few items -statements to assess agreement, satisfaction or validity on a 6-grade Likert-type scale. The questionnaire was pilot-tested on a purposive sample of 15 relevant individuals from the researchers' social network. Some of the questions were modified based on comments from the testing.
Focus Groups
Focus groups are a research technique for data gathering through group interaction. The main theme is provided by researchers. Their research interest provides a focus for group discussion. Group interaction provides opportunities for tacit views gathering, as they are being manifested through group dynamics (Morgan 1997, 6). According to Morgan (1997) focus groups require fewer resources in comparison to individual interviews (time, money).
This type of research does not allow generalisation of its results to other populations and time frames. Furthermore, prediction of trends is limited as well (Churchill and Iacobucci 2005, 77; Edmunds 1999, 2). It allows, however, in-depth insights into habits, thinking modes and rationale for behaviour of groups under research.
procedures
Survey
The survey was held on-line (LimeSurvey). An invitation with a brief presentation of the research, the scope of the survey and the link to the questionnaire was sent to email addresses given by the Slovenian Research Agency and the Slovenian Agency for Technological Development (now spirit Slovenia). The call was repeated after three weeks in order to achieve a satisfactory number of respondents. Data was checked after the closing of the survey and incomplete units were omitted from the analyses. Data was analysed using spss software.
In the first phase, variables were analysed using descriptive statistic methods, groups values were compared using independent i-test (significance threshold 5%). Factor analysis was used to assess the validity of the questionnaire, as well as to determine the variables to compute new variables depicting dimensions for testing the hypotheses. The hypotheses were tested with linear regression.
Focus Groups
Two researchers were involved in focus groups implementation. One of them was in charge of leading the focus groups and the other
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transcribed the contents verbatim. According to Patton (2002), a focus group protocol was designed in order to assure higher reliability. A list of themes to be addressed in focus groups accompanied the progress (e.g. mentor-YRE relationship attributes, obstacles in the relationship between yr(e) and mentor, etc.). At the beginning, the interviewer started with a short introduction to the study and with its ethical considerations. Participants were asked to introduce themselves and to provide a short explanation of reasons for being included into yr(e) programme. Open-ended questions were posed (e.g. 'What are the most important attributes of mentors?') and participants explained their views through an open discussion. Sub questions were posed in order to guarantee balanced contributions of all participants and to ensure ambiguities were cleared up.
Results
Analysis of answers in the survey showed that a mentor has influence on yr training evaluation and on yrs' motivation for knowledge transfer. Focus groups additionally confirmed that mentors' role was one of key characteristics in the training of yr(e)s. Herewith, detailed results of quantitative as well as of qualitative part of research are provided.
survey results
This section presents the results of the analyses of survey data concerning YR(E)-mentor relationship and the influence of this relationship on knowledge transfer. Two questions were dedicated to the relationship topic: the first included items about different aspects of the relation with the mentor in the academic institution and the other about relation with the mentor in economy (i.e. mentor in the employing company). To test the first hypothesis, items regarding assessment of the training were analysed. To test the second hypothesis, the number of projects (scientific, research or with end-users) was considered as an indicator of knowledge transfer.
Relationship with the Mentor
Table 2 shows respondents' opinion on different aspects of cooperation with the mentor in the academic institution. All mean values are above median value, so overall assessment is fairly good. Both groups, yrs and yres assess cooperation with the mentor as very good with mean value around 5 on the 6-grade scale (1 denotes total disagreement, 6 denotes total agreement). Mentors were, on average, accessible to yrs and yres and provided satisfactory support in
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both contents and methodology. Mentors were also accessible and promptly responsive.
Respondents were somewhat undecided about the mentor giving them more attention than non yr(e) doctoral students. This shows mentor's neutral position (on average), which is good in terms of equality, but on the other hand one of the yr(e) programme's purposes is for the trainees to get more attention from their mentor in order to become more (academically) competent. On the other hand, yrs report that mentors expect more from them in comparison to other phd students.
Some differences between the yrs and yres can be observed also regarding inclusion in projects - either scientific research projects or projects with economy. On average, yrs report higher agreement about their mentor's actively including them into research projects than yres (table 2). This can be explained with the nature and environment of the training of yrs and yres. While the latter usually work in a company on a specific project to be reported in their thesis, the first tend to be included in their mentors' research groups and as such work on more than one project along with the research for their thesis.
As table 3 shows, yres were on average satisfied with the cooperation with the company mentor, however, mean values are a bit lower than with the items regarding the cooperation with the academic mentor. An almost complete agreement can be observed regarding equal treatment of the yre compared to other employees. As opposed to the academic mentors, company mentors got a better score regarding inclusion in projects. Both results can be argued as comprehensive inclusion of the yre in the working team in the employing company, which subsequently leads to knowledge transfer. There are no differences in the overall assessment of the mentor between different fields of study.
Relationship with the Mentor's Influence on Training Usefulness The variables measuring the relationship with the mentor were included in factor analysis regarding the assessment of the programme. In total, 33 items from the questionnaire were included in the model with good overall reliability (Cronbach a 0.86 on standardized values), and high kmo (0.82) proves the data are fit for analysis. The model with 5 factors accounts for 47.5% of variance, while the factor of academic mentor-YR(E) relationship explains 16.4% of variance in the assessment of the training (Cronbach a 0.92 on standardized values). Variables influenced with the factor were used
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table 2 yr(e) Opinion on Different Aspects of Cooperation with the Academic Mentor
Item		ye			yee			Total		
	n	m	sd	n	m	sd		n	m	sd
Excellent cooperation	369	4.78	i.46	107	5.o2	i.39		476	4.84	i.45
Mentor always there	369	4.81	i.45	107	5.o7	i.25		476	4.87	i.4i
Mentor - more attention to yr(e) than other students	338	3-44	i.74	84	3.i4	i.74		422	3.38	i.74
Mentor - fast feedback	367	4.83	i.49	107	5.o2	i.27		474	4.88	i.46
Mentor - helps on the contents*	347	4.22	i.75	92	4.65	i.57		439	4.31	i.72
Mentor - helps on methodology*	361	4.16	i.69	105	4.7i	i.4i		466	4.28	i.65
Mentor - no se cooperation*	360	2.67	i.81	101	3.o9	i.94		461	2.76	i.84
Mentor - expects more from yr(e) *	334	3.25	i.74	93	2.85	i.57		427	3.17	i.72
Active inclusion into se projects*	365	4.41	i.74	100	3.o3	i.95		465	4.11	i.87
Thesis - no help from mentor	357	2.61	i.733	99	2.24	i.58		456	2.53	i.7i
Mentor - active inclusion into projects in economy*	304	4.01	i.84	93	3.28	i.95		397	3.84	i.89
No collaboration	363	1.56	1.22	107	i.73	i.38		470	1.60	i.26
notes n - sample size; m - mean value; sd - standard deviation of the Mean. *			Items with statistically significant difference in mean value between ye							
and yee.										
table 3 yres' Assessment of Cooperation with the Mentor in Company					table 4	Influence of Relation with the				
Item		n	m	sd		Mentor on Training Usefulness				
Excellent cooperation		103	4.69	i.57	Group		n	b coeff.		R2
Mentor always there		103	4.62	i.57	ye		295	0.24	+ 0.04	0.14
Mentor - fast feedback		102	4.69	i.56	yee		67	0.16	+ 0.08	0.05
Mentor - helpful		102	4-34	i.67	Total		362	0.23	+ 0.03	0.11
Mentor - treated yee equally compared to other employees		93	4-73	i.54						
Mentor - active inclusion into projects		100	4.00	i.94						
No collaboration		104	2.10	i.74						
Assessment of Relationship between Young Researchers and Mentors
to compute a new variable, average score of relationship with the mentor (mentor). The assessment of the training's usefulness was computed as average score of three variables, based on component analysis of variables regarding different aspects of knowledge transfer explaining a total of 57.5% of the variance. The overall reliability of the model was sufficient (Cronbach a 0.74 on standardized values) and data were fit for analysis based on kmo 0.74. This component explains 14.9% of variance in knowledge transfer (Cronbach a 0.72 on standardized values).
By using linear regression analysis, we tested the influence of the relationship with the mentor on the assessment of the usefulness of the training. The base model was posed as:
'training_usefulness' = a + b • 'mentor' + e.
Results show that the influence is statistically significant; the model is valid with p < 0.01. The relationship with the mentor has a higher impact in the yr group as demonstrated in table 4. For each additional grade of mentor relationship assessment, a 0.24 higher grade in training usefulness of yrs is expected on average (on the 6-grade scale), not including other influencing factors. The model includes only assessment of the relationship with the academic mentor, which can explain the lower impact in the yre group, where each additional grade in mentor relationship is expected to increase the training usefulness of yres for 0.16 grades on average (on the 6-grade scale), not including other influencing factors.
Based on these results, the first hypothesis can be confirmed. The impact is statistically significant and accounts, in total, for about a quarter of a grade. However, it needs to be pointed out that the regression model explains only a small part of variance in training usefulness assessment, 14% in the yr group and 5% in the yre group. This means that other factors influence the usefulness of the training, among which some are random, and some can be denoted from the theory: employment at the time of surveying, specialization in the study field, fulfilling of expectations, intrinsic motivation and other.
Relationship with the Mentor's Influence on Knowledge Transfer
The influence of the relationship with the mentor on knowledge transfer was tested in a similar way as the influence on usefulness of the programme. Since knowledge transfer was directly measured with number of projects completed or in progress, we computed a
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bivariate linear regression model at first. This did not prove the second hypothesis suggesting that the relationship with the mentor is important for yr(e) knowledge transfer, for the model was not statistically significant.
The number of projects variable has a very asymmetrical distribution, with a significant right skew (with values ranging from 1 to 88). Thus we computed a new categorical variable with value 0 denoting no activity in projects and value 1 denoting activity in at least one project. With this new variable, we computed a logistic regression model. The result was better, but the model still did not prove to be significant at a low enough p-value.
Thus, we have to conclude that our second hypothesis cannot be confirmed by using data from survey. One of the reasons for such a result is in the measurement of knowledge transfer, which should have been more elaborated. On the other hand, academic mentors' task is to support the yrs and yres in preparation of their doctoral thesis and the knowledge transfer aspect is only an additional benefit. However, it should be considered to activate and empower the academic mentors on the knowledge transfer aspect of training in order for the programme to become more efficient.
focus groups results
Mentors' Role in the Training
In spite of the fact that phd candidate was considered as free in terms of thesis definition and preparation, participants concluded mentoring process was one of key characteristics in successful completion of a thesis. Participants also emphasised role of personality in the process of thesis preparation and completion. Diverse experience regarding mentor-YR(E) relationship was described and it was meaningfully divided into three homogeneous categories, namely: (1) favourable mentor characteristics, (2) mentor-YR(E) relationship and (3) obstacles in mentor-YR(E) relationship. Detailed descriptions of each category with examples of quotes are provided, where abbreviations yr, yre and mnt (mentors) stand for each of three focus groups and letters a-g denote individual participants within each focus group.
Favourable Mentor Characteristics
A list of desirable mentor characteristics was, interestingly, diverse. Different groups provided different views on what were considered important characteristics of mentors, probably because of different
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motivations for entering the programme and different positions in yr(e) training.
To sum up, key mentor characteristics that lead to effective yr training were: understanding, accessible, providing support and capable to motivate, as well as having broad knowledge and broad-mindedness, integrity (being aware of one's boundaries and respect of intellectual property), good organisation skills.
That he doesn't force his ideas, doesn't force you, so that you come to results by yourself. [yre_b]
To know his limits [...] when he doesn't know something [...] while being a yr, you are not his clone [...] to realise his boundaries. 'I don't know this' stance. To pick up the phone and asks others. That he doesn't consider himself as god only by being a mentor. That he's fair and doesn't steal results. [yr_g]
I have a good experience, he had everything well organised. He had everything elaborated. [yr_e]
Best mentors are those with social touch. Maybe they're not best researchers [...]. [yr_d]
Mentor-YR(E) Relationship
Relationship dimension was very much exposed during focus groups. In spite of difficulties to differentiate this category from (personal) characteristics of both mentor and yr(e), this category was constructed in order to show importance of mentor-YR(E) relationship development and to explore dynamics in the relationship. How/either yr(e)s were integrated into research group, how knowledge was transferred to the candidate, how did they resolve conflicts, etc.? The most prevalent themes in mentor-YR(E) relationship were leadership, teamwork, collegiality, trust building, common goals, reciprocity in knowledge sharing and to motivate with praise and approval.
That I was part of a team. That I was asked what do I think and if the suggestion was a good one it was accepted. And even if it wasn't accepted, I was given feedback. [yr_f]
Providing opportunities [...] with this, a candidate can take advantages of his potentials. To give him knowledge, open the doors, to orient him correctly and provide themes of proper width. To be able to find focus candidate can follow. To be part of the research sphere, from collaboration in projects' implementation, to projects' administration. Through project administration
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they can learn a lot, and project application [...] the whole idea is expressed there. [mnt_d]
To lift you up when you're down. [yre_d]
When you're working on something but you don't know how to go on. When he comes by and says 'try this' and you say 'aha.' [yre_a]
[...] trust. [yr_d]
Support is very important. To open the doors for them, to warn them, to give them freedom in research - as mentors, we're not omniscient. Providing focus and to narrow the theme. [mnt_b]
There's no easy way. To cover his back - to a certain degree. [mnt_a]
Obstacles in Mentor-YR(E) Relationship
Participants reported about various obstacles in the process of mentoring. Three kinds of obstacles were identified, namely (1) programme obstacles, (2) higher education obstacles and problems with employment of young doctors of science and (3) interpersonal obstacles. We report only about the latter, as they are being connected to study aims. Among interpersonal obstacles, personal factors dominated. Participants also reported about negative attitudes toward research and clashes of interests.
Many times they want to obstruct research in companies. Do not let him be alone. [mnt_a]
When I received an invitation for business course, my director said 'What's the point, do you intent to found a company, we don't support it.' Again clash of interests. [yre_b]
They didn't work on their phD before. In the beginning, one has to fall down, to realise and reset one's mind-set that a PhD is not an extended version of a diploma. [mnt_e]
Proposals for Improvement
During discussions about obstacles and problems as well as about positive experience in the relationships between mentors and yr(e)s, participants provided some ideas for training improvement and for more effective mentorship. As examples below show, company-based mentors and (co-)mentors from academia should have more frequent communication; common goals should be developed regarding research project and thesis writing.
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All three mentors should have common meetings. In order to see how many different views and interests there are. You always have in your head: what do other mentors say about this? [yre_c]
Trial period was suggested, in which mentors and/or yr(e)s could know each other better and in some cases resign from their formal role in case one or more parties find the other party as not competent or not motivated enough.
The main purpose is to teach a yr the process of doing research. He has to go through this process on his own, from research idea, through results and defending it, soft skills, presenting one's work. In economy there's nothing without these skills. [yre_b]
We started one month earlier, voluntarily, so that at least we knew where the paper is when the printer runs out of it and where the toilets are. [yr_g]
A comprehensive evaluation of the yr training should be made on a national level, with an emphasis on relationships between all stakeholders and with cases of successful practices.
Discussion
Present research indicated that the relationship with the mentor is important for the assessment of the usefulness of the yr(e) training. The relationship with the mentor has a higher impact in the yr group. With this, hypothesis 1 was confirmed. This is in line with several other studies that suggest that constructive relationships between mentors and doctoral students lead to positive outcomes for the students, such as academic excellence and psychological wellbe-ing (Devos et al. 2015; Curtin, Malley, and Stewart 2014; Titus and Ballou 2014; Mainhard et al. 2009; Paglis, Stephen, and Bauer 2006).
Additionally, analysis of focus groups showed anomalies in mentor-yr(e) relationship on one hand and cases of good practise on the other. These anomalies derive from different positions when entering the programme (by yr(e)s, by mentors as well as on an institutional level).
Prevailing positive characteristics of good mentors in yr(e) training, as reported by yr(e)s and mentors were very much in line with previous research findings (Bell-Ellison and Dedrick 2008; Lechuga 2011; 2014). Primarily they sought for active support in involving the yr(e)s into all phases of research projects and research group.
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Among soft skills, good communication skills and teamwork orientation as well as mentor's support were recognised as prevalent attributes of high quality mentors. In this way, yr(e)s are not only provided with discipline and research-specific knowledge and skills, but also develop soft skills, such as teamwork, communication, especially argumentation. With this, they gain in confidence and are able to identify with career of a researcher. While being included in projects of various end-users they also develop several employability skills, which might be useful in their future careers as the situation in the Slovenian labour market (and also in majority of other European and other oecd countries; see Müller 2014) is not bright for young doctors of science. It is advised that mentor is evaluated for above mentioned skills by yr(e) and this evaluation becomes an integral part of his future applications to the Call for mentors for yr(e)s.
Prevailing positive characteristics of promising yr(e)s were also recognised. Some mentors discussed about cases of yr(e)s not being independent or motivated enough for the research work. In worst cases, mentors reported about yr(e)s with scarce knowledge of methodology and other research-specific skills. We can conclude that while yr(e)s reported a lot about technical and soft skills of mentors, mentors were primarily concerned about personal characteristics and about technical skills of their mentees. It is advised that mentors evaluate personal characteristics and technical skills of yr(e) candidates in more detail. Additional tests could be developed and applied in the selection process in order to measure candidates' personality and research skills and to minimise the costs for less fortunate selection of yr.
This study provides insights into personal dimensions of the relationships in the yr(e) training as perceived directly by participants who have been involved in the programme. The study adds to the field of mentoring in higher education in a way, that relational parties have to be aware of the tensions, and then tensions have to be interpreted and redirected in a way that contributes to more productive relationships (Goodman 2006).
In second hypothesis we proposed the relationship with the mentor is important for yr(e) knowledge transfer. Knowledge transfer was perceived as two-way integration of research sphere and endusers, mainly the economy, but also as a progress of science and interdisciplinary research. This is why knowledge transfer was directly measured with number of projects completed or in progress. As the results show, this was not sufficient measurement of knowledge transfer, for the model was not statistically significant. Thus, we
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have to conclude that second hypothesis was not confirmed by using survey data. Focus groups on the other hand showed that all three groups recognised knowledge transfer as one of prevailing motives behind yr(e) programme. Knowledge transfer is possible in mentor-yr(e) tandem where both parties share common goals and motivation.
In the future, more positive cases of relationships between mentors and yr(e)s should be seen in public. With this, role-models of a high quality mentoring process might be recognised. As a result, more competent and self-confident professionals are expected, who will contribute to better results in science and in society at large.
Research Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research
The Slovenian yr(e) training programme is unique in the world, so literature on high quality relationship between mentors and yr(e)s is scarce. In search of characteristics of high quality relationships between mentors and yr(e)s we therefore made a literature overview of relationships between mentors and doctoral students in general even though differences between 'regular' doctoral students and yr(e)s might exist especially due the fact that for a yr(e) position, mostly only the best future doctoral students are selected.
Secondly, the relatively low response rate (slightly more than 14%) has to be addressed. It is assumed this was because a long and time consuming questionnaire was used in the research. Additionally, Slovenian researchers are exposed to many surveys on a weekly basis so it is difficult to take part in all of them. From a methodological standpoint, also use of self-report measures might be problema-tized as it might lead to either underreporting or over-reporting of behaviour under observation.
The relationship between yr and faculty mentors has been identified as a key determinant in the process and successful completion of phd thesis (Holley and Caldwell 2012). However, other important factors, such as programme specifics and its shortcomings, institutional support and barriers, financial support, motivation of both mentors and yr for professional development etc. have not been addressed. The methodological approach also did not allow us to make conclusions about possible differences among disciplines or individual institutions. These factors should be addressed in forthcoming research.
Since hypothesis 2 was not confirmed due to insufficient data about knowledge transfer, we conclude measurement of knowl-
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edge transfer should have been more elaborated. Different kinds of knowledge transfer should have been involved in the survey, such as teaching at the university or elsewhere, community work, other kinds of collaboration with companies (informal projects), etc. Additionally, academic mentors' task is to support the yrs and yres in preparation of their doctoral thesis and the (economy, sr) project-based knowledge transfer aspect is only an additional benefit. However, it should be considered to activate and empower the academic mentors on this kind knowledge transfer aspect of training in order for the programme to become more efficient.
The number of focus groups that were conducted in present research was rather small. Literature (Greenbaum 1998) advises 5-8 participants should take part in each focus group in order for answers to reiterate and to achieve a good fit with reality. On the other hand, three focus groups were conducted in our case, but answers started to overlap anyway. This shows that regardless of smaller sample size it was still possible to achieve enough diversity in answers.
According to literature (Greenbaum 1998, 181, 231) another formal criterion is that participants should not know each other in the beginning of focus groups in order to be independent. This was not achieved in two out of three focus groups in the present research, where two participants knew each other. Unfortunately limited access to participants and their limited interest to be part of the study did not allow realisation if this condition. Also not all disciplines were (equally) covered in focus groups so it is possible that some important aspects of mentor-YR relationship were not covered in the research.
Furthermore, adopted methodological approach also did not allow exploration of differences between completers and non-completers. For example, Devos et al. (2016) found that doctoral students who completed their thesis are different from non-completers in a level of anxiety and perception of moving forward with the process of thesis preparation. Furthermore, completers differentiated from non-completers in a degree, to which they perceived their research as meaningful. In the future research, it would make sense to compare ex yr(e)s who successfully completed the programme and those who were not successful and to explore mentors' role in the process of (non-)completion of the yr(e) programme.
Studies show significant, although complex, relationships of mentoring styles and phd students' outcomes (Devos et al. 2015). The question is how much involvement, autonomy and support should
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mentors offer in order to reach best results? So in the future, we will focus on exploring mentoring styles and their relationship on (non-) completion of postgraduate studies.
In literature review (Devos et al. 2016; Arzensek, Kosmrlj and Sirca 2014; Bair and Haworth 2004) psychological dimensions of doctoral experience show new and promising direction in the study of doctoral students' persistence and attrition. By focussing on internal factors such as motivation, self-efficacy and candidate personality, we will be able to complement existing research and provide better insights about relationship between mentors and yr(e) in the future.
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This paper is published under the terms of the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (cc by-nc-nd 4.0) License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.Q/).
278	management•volume 12
Abstracts in Slovene
Vrednotenje kulturnega kapitala v trajnostnem turizmu
Kristina Afric Rakitovac in Nataša Uroševic
Prispevek na modelih razvoja kulturnega turizma v mestu Pulj na Hrvaškem obravnava cezmejna mednarodna partnerstva. S primerjavo svetovnih trendov z lokalno zavezanostjo trajnostnemu razvoju smo postavili hipotezo, da bi kulturni turizem na podlagi strateškega vrednotenja edinstvenih kulturnih virov lahko okrepil identiteto in gospodarstvo lokalne skupnosti, ustvaril nova delovna mesta, povečal kakovost življenja lokalnih prebivalcev in užitek obiskovalcev, izboljšal podobo mesta in privabil vlagatelje. Analiza evropskih primerov dobre prakse je pokazala možne modele trajnostnega upravljanja in vrednotenja določenih kategorij dediščine, ki bi lahko hkrati okrepili proces regeneracije mest in družbene revitalizacije. Naše raziskave so pokazale prednosti transnacionalnega sodelovanja pri izboljšanju zmogljivosti za trajnostno rabo najdragocenejših sredstev mesta: najstarejšega zgodovinskega mestnega jedra na vzhodni obali Jadrana, rimskih spomenikov, vkljucno z amfiteatrom, bližnjih otokov Brioni in zapušcine nekdanjega avstrijskega glavnega pomorskega pristanišca z njenim mocnim sistemom utrjevanja. Ključne besede: trajnostni
turizem, kulturna dedišcina, kulturna ekonomija, cezmejna mednarodna partnerstva, Hrvaška Management 11 (4): 199-215
Študija veljavnosti lestvice mwep v Hongkongu
Tsun-Lok Kwong in Pik-Ching Wan
Clanek obravnava utemeljenost veljavnosti vecdimenzionalnega delovnega eticnega profila mwep v Hongkongu. Vzorcenje kvot je prilagojeno pridobljenim podatkom skupine 140 hongkonških anketirancev z enakim razmerjem med spoloma v sedmih starostnih skupinah. Analiza faktorjev kaže, da obstaja podobnost med faktorjem obremenitev in originalnim modelom mwep, ki so ga ustvarili Miller, Woehr in Hudspeth (2002), ter modelom, uporabljenim v trenutni študiji s hon-gkongškimi vzorci. Vendar pa podatki mwep v pricujoci študiji niso na-tancni v sedmih dimenzijah, ki jih predlagajo Miller, Woehr in Hudspeth. Razsežnosti prostega casa in morale/etike se ujemajo z izvirno lestvico oziroma z dobrimi in s slabimi zanesljivostmi, vendar so se dimenzije trdega dela in porabe casa prepletle in izkazale za neraz-družljive.
Ključne besede: mwep, delovna etika, multidimenzionalnost, Hongkong, veljavnost Management 11 (4): 217-234
number 3 • fall 2017
Abstracts in Slovene
Razmerje med zadovoljstvom vodstva in načrtovanim prometom: posredna vloga zadovoljstva
Rüveyda Oztürk Basol and Harun Demirkaya
Rast storitvenega sektorja v Turčiji je hitrejša od rasti katerega koli drugega in število nakupovalnih centrov se hitro povečuje. Hitra rast števila nakupovalnih centrov je povečala nujnost ocenjevanja stališč zaposlenih v tem sektorju. Pricujoca študija je pokazala, da spol, zakonski stan in starost niso pomembne spremenljivke, ki bi vplivale na zadovoljstvo pri delu, zadovoljstvo vodstva in namen zaposlovanja; ugotovljeno je bilo, da sta pomembna dejavnika pri zadovoljstvu pri delu in namenu delovnega mesta izobrazba in prihodek. Poleg tega je zadovoljstvo pri delu v celoti povezalo razmerje med zadovoljstvom vodstva in nacrtovanim prometom.
Ključne besede: zadovoljstvo pri delu, zadovoljstvo vodstva, namen zaposlovanja, SmartPLS Management 11 (4): 235-248
Uporaba elementov iger in kvaliteta neformalnega poskusnega učenja
Viktoria Lambert
Tako kot se korporacijsko ucenje iz ucilnic seli k ucencem, se spreminja odgovornost tistih, ki nudijo vodenje v teh procesih. Splošna razširjenost ucnih orodij ustvarja potrebo po usposobljenih ucnih voditeljih, ki odlocajo o razvoju delovne sile. S posebnim poudarkom na najmanj uporabljeneim orodju, ki uci z uporabo elementov igric, je namen študije raziskati možnosti teh orodij. Opravljena je bila anketna raziskava na izbranem vzorcu stotih ucnih voditeljev visokega nivoja iz 28 držav, s katero smo želeli preuciti, ali obstajajo pomembne korelacije med uporabo orodij, ki vsebujejo elemente igric, in umom podjetniških ucnih vodij, njihovimi kompetencami in organizacijsko kulturo podjetij. Rezultati so bili analizirani s statisticnim programskim paketom SPSS in so pokazali, da razmerij med temi spremenljivkami ni mogoce kategoricno dokazati, zato ni mogoce predvidevati prihodnosti ucenja z elementi igric. Najprimernejše okolje za izvedbo obsežnih raziskav, ki preucujejo odnos med kakovostjo in kvaliteto neformalnega ucenja in ucnih orodij, je podrocje ikt.
Ključne besede: vodilni ucitelj, clo, neformalno ucenje, orodja za ucenje, ucenje preko elementov igric Management 11 (4): 249-271
MANAGEMENT • VOLUME i2
Abstracts in Slovene
Ocena razmerja med mladimi raziskovalci in mentorji ter vpliv na prenos znanja
AnaArzenšek in Katarina Košmrlj
V clanku se ukvarjamo s kljucnimi dejavniki odnosa med podiplomskimi študenti s statusom mladega raziskovalca in njihovimi mentorji v slovenskem visokošolskem prostoru. Predpostavili smo, da odnos doloca oceno uporabnosti usposabljanja in prenosa znanja pri mladih raziskovalcih. Problem smo raziskovali kvantitativno, z anketo, in kvalitativno, z uporabo metode fokusnih skupin. Rezultati so pokazali, da so mladi raziskovalci v povprecju zadovoljni s svojimi mentorji, od katerih so bili deležni vodenja tako v vsebinskem kot metodološkem smislu. Med mentorji z razlicnih podrocij obstajajo nekatere razlike, denimo glede vkljucevanja kandidatov v raziskovalne projekte, kjer so bili mentorji mladim raziskovalcem iz gospodarstva ocenjeni nižje. S faktorsko analizo smo pokazali, da je faktor »mentoriranje« pomembno povezan z oceno programa usposabljanja. Analiza foku-snih skupin je pokazala na raznolike izkušnje z mentorstvom, ki so jih zaznali mentorji na eni in mladi raziskovalci na drugi strani. Zaklju-cimo, da imajo mentorji, ki spodbujajo prenos znanja, izjemno razvito sposobnost komuniciranja, so timsko naravnani in spodbujajo aktivno udeležbo kandidata v raziskovalni skupini. Ključne besede: visoko šolstvo, prenos znanja, mentorji, odnosi, mladi raziskovalci Management 11 (4): 273-292
number 3 • fall 2017