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1. The raptor fauna of Sweden
The Swedish raptor fauna consists of 18 regularly 
breeding species of diurnal raptors (Falconiformes) 
and 11 species of owls (Strigiformes). 18 additional 
raptor species (the term raptors includes both diurnal 
raptors and owls in this paper) have been recorded in 
Sweden, but do not breed in the country. The most 
common birds of prey are Sparrowhawk Accipiter 
nisus, Buzzard Buteo buteo and Goshawk A. gentilis, 
whereas the commonest owl species are Tengmalm’s 
Owl Aegolius funereus, Pygmy Owl Glaucidium 
passerinum and Tawny Owl Strix aluco (Ottosson et 
al. 2012; see Table 1 for population estimates).
2. Main players
Monitoring for raptors in Sweden is conducted by 
several actors, ranging from government agencies 
to volunteer-based interest groups. Environmental 
monitoring on a national level is coordinated by the 
Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA) 
and is used to assess the status of the environment, 
more specifically 16 environmental quality 
objectives. The national monitoring is divided into 
10 programme areas, with three sub-programmes 
containing raptor monitoring. The White-tailed Eagle 
Haliaeetus albicilla population along the Baltic Sea 
coast is included in the sub-programme Marine top 
A preliminary overview of monitoring for raptors in Sweden
Predhodni pregled monitoringa populacij ptic roparic na Švedskem
Peter Hellström1,2 & Björn Helander2
1 Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, SE–106 91 Stockholm, Sweden, e–mail: peter.hellstrom@zoologi.su.se
2 Swedish Museum of Natural History, Department of Contaminant Research, P.O. Box 50007, SE–104 05 Stockholm, 
 Sweden.
Swedish diurnal raptor and owl monitoring is to a large extent based on species 
specific projects with long-standing traditions, migration counts at specific 
migration hot-spots, and a nation-wide bird survey. The best-known and long-
lived projects are the Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus and White-tailed Eagle 
Haliaeetus albicilla projects, which continue to make important contributions 
to the knowledge about effects of environmental pollutants in wild birds. For 
many diurnal birds of prey, trend estimation is based on the long time series 
(1973–) of migration counts at Falsterbo in southernmost Sweden, whereas 
possibilities to detect population trends in most owl species are still relatively 
low. New protocols, however, are being developed to better incorporate night 
active-birds such as owls in the Swedish Bird Survey. Much raptor monitoring 
data is being collected by volunteers. Sweden has several valuable networks for 
bird monitoring in general, although special efforts could be directed towards 
better coordination and publication of the on-going raptor work within a 
common framework. Potential threats (e.g. forestry, wind power development, 
train collisions, declining prey populations, pollutants) and their effects on 
raptor populations should preferably also be included in monitoring protocols 
to a higher extent than at present.
Key words: diurnal raptors, owls, monitoring, Sweden, Falsterbo, Swedish Bird 
Survey, Swedish Society for Nature Conservation, environmental pollutants
Ključne besede: ujede, sove, monitoring, Švedska, Falsterbo, Švedski popis 
ptic, Švedsko društvo za varstvo narave, okoljska onesnažila
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P. Hellström & B. Helander: A preliminary overview of monitoring for raptors in Sweden
predators in the “coasts and seas” programme area. The 
two other sub-programmes that include raptors are 
Falsterbo bird migration counts and the Swedish Bird 
Survey, both in the “landscape” programme area. The 
Swedish Red List is compiled by the Swedish Species 
Information Centre (ArtDatabanken) and serves as the 
basis for specific action plans that involve monitoring 
funded by SEPA.
The Swedish Society for Nature Conservation 
(SSNC) has played an important role by initiating 
long-term projects for White-tailed Eagle (Helander 
1975 & 1983) and Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus 
(Lindberg 1975). The Swedish Ornithological 
Society (SOF) regularly organizes nation-wide surveys 
of selected species. Some organizations have a species-
specific focus, such as “Kungsörn Sverige” (Golden 
Eagle Sweden; Birkö 2011). Kungsörn Sverige is 
a new national interest group that coordinates the 
regional (county-wide) Golden Eagle monitoring 
groups, and communicates with organizations and 
administrators. In addition, a symposium is held 
yearly with contributions from the Nordic countries. 
Highly coordinated and structured initiatives 
such as Kungsörn Sverige are valuable for effective 
management and conservation, and might be a good 
example to follow.
Volunteers make important contributions to 
raptor monitoring in various ways, e.g. by reporting 
observations to the Species Gateway (http://www.
artportalen.se), a web-based reporting system 
operated by the Swedish Species Information Centre. 
It should be acknowledged that virtually all large-
scale monitoring programmes for raptors in Sweden 
involve important contributions made by a large 
number of volunteers. Further, about 160 people in 
Sweden have ringing licenses covering raptors (see 
Table 1).
3. National coverage
Sweden lacks a national network for raptor monitoring. 
Therefore, monitoring for raptors is shared between 
the national monitoring programme, action plans and 
species-specific projects. Traditionally, monitoring 
in Sweden has focused on rare species and there is 
therefore less information available from breeding 
areas on more common species.
The Swedish Bird Survey, national representative 
of the Pan-European Common Bird Monitoring 
Scheme, coordinated by Department of Ecology at 
Lund University, is a volunteer-based system with 
standard routes that cover most of Sweden. Data 
collected by the Swedish Bird Survey is used e.g. to 
calculate EU Bird Indices, with results published in 
yearly monitoring reports (e.g. Lindström & Green 
2013) and scientific papers (e.g. Jiguet et al. 2013, 
Lindström et al. 2013). The number of observed 
raptors on the standard routes is low, so assessment 
of raptor population trends is complemented by 
migration counts from Falsterbo bird observatory. 
The migratory bird counts at Falsterbo started in the 
1940s, and have been carried out with standardized 
methodology since 1973 (Kjellén & Roos 2000).
Overall, quantitative information on population 
trends and status is much better for diurnal raptors 
than for owls. For 18 regularly breeding diurnal raptor 
species, data quality is generally good if all available 
sources are taken into account (Ottvall et al. 2009). 
But for several owl species, virtually no data are 
available for trend estimation.
4. Key species and key issues
Key projects that survey the majority of the 
geographical distribution with national coordination 
by SEPA and the county administration boards 
concern White-tailed Eagle (Helander et al. 2003), 
Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos (Birkö 2011), and 
Peregrine Falcon (Lindberg 2009). Montagu’s 
Harrier Circus pygargus (Rodebrand 1996), Osprey 
Pandion haliaetus (e.g. Odsjö & Sondell 2001) and 
Gyrfalcon F. rusticolus (Falkdalen et al. 2011) are 
monitored within the framework of one or several 
projects in either restricted areas or without national 
coordination. The first four mentioned species 
currently have an action plan, where conservation 
actions and monitoring are important components 
(Helander 2009, Hjernquist 2011, Lindberg 
2011, Rodebrand 2011). An action plan is not a legal 
document and only serves as a recommendation for 
conservation and monitoring administrators. As per 
2013, all action plans including raptors (except for 
Montagu’s Harrier) have been down-prioritized by 
SEPA, and the county administrations therefore have 
limited possibilities to work with the existing raptor 
action plans.
Much attention has been paid to effects 
of environmental pollutants on reproduction 
and population recovery in White-tailed Eagle 
(Helander et al. 2002 & 2008) and Peregrine Falcon 
(Lindberg 1983 & 2009). The time series of White-
tailed Eagle brood size and proportion of successful 
breeding attempts are the only bird series in Sweden’s 
Official Statistics (Naturvårdsverket 2013), which 
demonstrates the importance of this species as an 
environmental sentinel. Among owls, substantial 
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effort has been devoted to restocking of the Eagle Owl 
Bubo bubo population with captive breeding.
The key threats currently addressed and discussed 
by monitoring in Sweden (not in any particular 
order of importance) are effects of pollutants, lead 
poisoning, forestry practices, wind power, wild bird 
crime, electrocution and power line collisions, vehicle 
collisions, human disturbance and changes in prey 
abundance (e.g. Helander et al. 2009a & 2009b, 
Ottvall et al. 2009, Rydell et al. 2011). Many of 
these topics are of such general importance that any 
networking activity within EURAPMON would 
benefit Swedish perspectives. Recently, location of 
wind farms has been viewed as a major problem in 
Sweden, and we currently lack sufficient planning for 
raptors (and other birds) in relation to location of 
Table 1: List of raptor species breeding in Sweden; eight bird of prey and five owl species are listed in the Swedish national 
red list. Population estimates (point estimates with range) are from ottoSSon et al. (2012). The numbers of active ringers 
and ringed nestlings are also compiled for each species in the 2000–2010 period (for White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla 
and Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus, the ringing license is issued to the project leader, but ca. 10 ringers contribute as 
helpers).
Tabela 1: Seznam ptic roparic gnezde~ih na Švedskem; osem vrst ujed in pet sovjih vrst je uvr{~enih v {vedski Rde~i 
seznam. Ocene njihovih populacij (to~kovne ocene z intervali) so prikazane po ottoSSon et al. (2012). Za obdobje 2000–2010 
je zbrano tudi {tevilo aktivnih obro~kovalcev in obro~kanih mladi~ev (za belorepca Haliaeetus albicilla in sokola selca Falco 
peregrinus je bilo dovoljenje za obro~kanje izdano vodji projekta, kakih 10 obro~kovalcev je bilo pomo~nikov).
Species / Vrsta
Red List 
category/
Kategorija
v Rdečem 
seznamu
Action plan/  
Akcijski načrt
Estimated no.  
of breeding pairs/  
Ocenjeno št.  
gnezdečih parov
Active ringers/ 
Št. aktivnih 
obročkovalcev 
2000–2010
No. of ringed 
nestlings / Št. 
obročkanih 
mladičev 
2000–2010
Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus VU 6,625 (5,180–8,070) 19 155
Black Kite Milvus migrans 10 (3–20)
Red Kite Milvus milvus 2,054 (1,933–2,181) 4 173
White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla NT 2009–2013 533 (533–600) 1–10 3,191
Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus 1,498 (1,317–1,676) 34 1,003
Hen Harrier Circus cyaneus NT 859 (690–1,025) 1 4
Montagu’s Harrier Circus pygargus EN 2011–2015 59 (45–74) 6 39
Goshawk Accipiter gentilis 7,600 (4,500–10,700) 36 1,281
Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus 43,700 (21,750–65,800) 20 1,022
Buzzard Buteo buteo 31,100 (17,160–45,060) 43 1,827
Rough-legged Buzzard Buteo lagopus NT 3,000 (1,700–5,200) 17 187
Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos NT 2011–2015 682 (585–805) 27 1,191
Osprey Pandion haliaetus 4,060 (3,380–4,700) 40 3,522
Kestrel Falco tinnunculus 6,431 (4,495–8,367) 74 26,939
Merlin Falco columbarius 6,180 (4,567–7,893) 7 101
Hobby Falco subbuteo 2,335 (1,695–2,975) 13 71
Gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus VU In prep? 114 (80–136) 7 278
Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus VU 2011–2014 282 (232–332) 1–10 1,928
Barn Owl Tyto alba CR 10 (5–17) 2 28
Eagle Owl Bubo bubo NT 474 (393–557) 53 1,350
Snowy Owl Bubo scandiacus CR 0 (0–0) 0 0
Hawk Owl Surnia ulula 2,273 (1,125–13,510) 9 88
Pygmy Owl Glaucidium passerinum 19,340 (9,640–29,550) 23 880
Tawny Owl Strix aluco 17,750 (14,950–20,670) 84 10,422
Ural Owl Strix uralensis 2,680 (2,025–3,415) 24 3,385
Great Grey Owl Strix nebulosa NT 402 (201–603) 16 759
Long-eared Owl Asio otus 8,625 (2,605–14,565) 26 128
Short-eared Owl Asio flammeus NT 1,655 (755–4,702) 9 20
Tengmalm’s Owl Aegolius funereus 32,125 (16,760–91,470) 42 2,305
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wind farms. Nest site protection is also a high-priority 
issue.
5. Strengths and weaknesses
Two obvious strengths among Swedish raptor 
monitoring are the Peregrine Falcon and White-tailed 
Eagle projects that were initiated by the SSNC in 
the early 1970s, and remain unparalleled in Swedish 
nature conservation both in terms of longevity and 
success. Both projects are network projects with a 
large number of participants, primarily operating on 
a volunteer basis. The existing networks are indeed 
necessary to maintain the status and quality of these 
projects.
Further, the migration counts at Falsterbo are 
the longest available time-series for several species 
(Kjellén & Roos 2000, Kjellén 2012). Although 
annual numbers and proportion of migrants that 
funnel over the Falsterbo area vary between species, 
population changes can be assessed for ca. 14 raptor 
species. In addition to population trends, migration 
phenology and reproductive output is studied. 
However, the geographical origin of migrating birds 
is not known and the counts reflect a mixture of birds 
from different breeding sites and countries, thereby 
limiting the usefulness of migration counts for active 
management.
The Swedish Bird Survey has extensive spatial 
coverage, but the number of observations of raptors 
per route and year is low (e.g. Lindström & Green 
2013), which results in low statistical power for 
trend analyses. However, the recent addition of night 
routes (Green 2010) will be an important tool for 
monitoring of common owl species (Pygmy Owl, 
Tawny Owl, Ural Owl S. uralensis, Long-eared Owl 
Asio otus and Tengmalm’s owl).
There are thus some considerable gaps in Swedish 
raptor monitoring (Ottvall et al. 2009). The number 
of ornithologists decreases towards north, which 
coincides with an increase in habitat heterogeneity. 
Therefore, data on common raptors in northern 
Sweden is only locally available. On a national 
level, little is known regarding population trends 
in owls (Ottvall et al. 2009), which partly can be 
explained by the scattered distribution and cyclic 
breeding pattern of e.g. Snowy Owl B. scandiacus, 
Short-eared Owl A. flammeus, Hawk Owl Surnia 
ulula and Great Grey Owl S. nebulosa. But there is 
little information available on population trends also 
for well-known species with a southerly distribution 
(Tawny Owl), and for forest species (Ural owl and 
Tengmalm’s owl). For migratory raptors, there is a lack 
of information on carry-over effects from wintering 
habitats and stop-over sites on e.g. body condition. 
The EURAPMON network could be important for 
mapping winter distribution and abundance of short-
distance migrants, as well as collaborative efforts on 
long-distance migration.
A large proportion of bird monitoring in Sweden 
is based on surveillance monitoring, which provides 
weak inference about species that breed in low 
densities (Nichols & Williams 2006), such as 
most raptors. The current monitoring system should 
preferably be combined with a more scientific and 
hypothesis-driven approach towards explaining 
changes in population numbers. For instance, many 
diurnal raptor and owl populations are limited by 
food abundance and/or nest sites, and it should be 
possible to design and combine the existing (e.g. 
small mammal monitoring) survey protocols that link 
populations to these limiting factors.
Sweden will benefit from an increased collaborative 
effort within EURAPMON, both for and with 
raptors. Since Sweden lacks a comprehensive 
network for raptor monitoring, we could benefit 
from best-practice sharing on how to set up a large-
scale monitoring system (see e.g. Saurola 2008, 
Wernham et al. 2008), where it is made clear to 
policy makers why raptor monitoring is a high-
priority topic, and in the next step prioritize areas 
for monitoring. Increased understanding of pathways 
of environmental pollutants (e.g. brominated flame 
retardants, DDE, PCB) will further strengthen the 
use of raptors as environmental sentinels (Lindberg 
et al. 2004, Helander et al. 2008). Efforts to co-
ordinate raptor surveys in northern Fennoscandia are 
essential for new information on several owl species, 
Golden Eagle, Gyrfalcon and Rough-legged Buzzard 
B. lagopus. A coordinated monitoring of Ospreys, a 
species for which Sweden has a high responsibility, 
would be valuable. There are several independent 
Osprey projects that could benefit from co-operation 
and international sharing with Finland in particular 
(Saurola 1997). Further, reporting of data, results 
and trends could be improved, as a large quantity 
of monitoring work (done e.g. by local projects and 
ringers) is rarely published in print.
6. Priorities, capacity-building
There are several immediate possibilities for capacity-
building in Sweden. Expertise based on work with rare 
species could be applied to more common species. 
A relatively small group of ornithologists are active 
as ringers, and it should be possible to coordinate 
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ringing activities within a broader framework. Ringers 
collect information on clutch and brood size, breeding 
phenology, sex ratio and dispersal – valuable data 
that can be used to study demography and effects of 
climate change on bird populations. There is a lack 
of demographic data, particularly survival, for many 
species. Based on ringing reports since 2000 (Table 
1), it is evident that nestbox-breeders receive the most 
attention (Kestrel F. tinnunculus, Pygmy Owl, Tawny 
Owl, Ural Owl, Tengmalm’s Owl). Special attention 
within EURAPMON should be paid to standardize 
methods and measurements (body measures and 
moult patterns).
Sweden should also improve its reporting on 
raptors. The Species Gateway is used to some extent 
for this, but it is evident that many observations and 
nests are not reported at all. The Species Gateway 
could be improved in some aspects with respect 
to raptor surveys (although it is not well suited for 
more vulnerable species such as the eagles and large 
falcons), and discussions with other countries within 
EURAPMON on how to secure, report and publish 
data are of high value.
Co-ordination of several action programmes and 
more effective monitoring should be prioritized. 
Monitoring of some raptors could also be coordinated 
with the national monitoring programme for small 
mammals (Hörnfeldt 2013). Volunteers and interest 
groups have always been important for monitoring, 
and the contribution made by volunteers should 
not be underestimated. However, there is a need for 
recruitment of new volunteers, and discussions should 
be made within EURAPMON on how to raise interest 
in raptors among e.g. university students.
Acknowledgements: Thomas Wenninger, The 
Swedish Bird Ringing Centre (RC), extracted the 
ringing records from RC databases.
7. Povzetek
Švedski monitoring ujed in sov poteka večinoma 
v okviru projektov, ki se dolga leta že tradicionalno 
posvečajo določenim vrstam, štetju selivk na 
pomembnih selitvenih točkah in popisovanju ptic na 
nacionalni ravni. Najbolj poznana projekta z najdaljšo 
zgodovino na Švedskem zadevata sokola selca Falco 
peregrinus in belorepca Haliaeetus albicilla, ki še 
vedno pomembno prispevata k poznavanju učinkov 
okoljskih onesnažil na prostoživeče ptice. Ocenjevanje 
trendov mnogih ujed temelji na dolgoletnem (od leta 
1973) štetju selivk pri Falsterboju na skrajnem jugu 
Švedske, medtem ko so možnosti za ugotavljanje 
populacijskih trendov pri večini sovjih vrst razmeroma 
majhne. Sicer pa so prav zdaj v pripravi načrti za 
boljše vključevanje nočno aktivnih ptic, kot so sove, v 
okvir švedskega popisovanja ptic. Za mnoge podatke, 
pridobljene na osnovi monitoringa, se je treba zahvaliti 
prostovoljcem. Švedska ima več dragocenih omrežij 
za splošni monitoring, vendar pa bi bilo treba vložiti 
več naporov v boljšo koordinacijo in objavljanje zdaj 
potekajočega dela na področju ptic roparic v skupnem 
okviru. Sploh pa bi se morali v načrtih za monitoring v 
veliko večji meri kot danes posvečati tudi potencialnim 
grožnjam (npr. gozdarstvo, razvoj vetrne energije, 
trki z vlaki, vse manj plena za te ptice, onesnažila) in 
njihovim vplivom na populacije ptic roparic.
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Arrived / Prispelo: 27. 3. 2013
Accepted / Sprejeto: 1. 7. 2013