Zbornik 21. mednarodne multikonference INFORMACIJSKA DRUŽBA - IS 2018 Zvezek B Proceedings of the 21st International Multiconference INFORMATION SOCIETY - IS 2018 Volume B Kognitivna znanost Cognitive Science Uredila / Edited by Toma Strle, Olga Markič http://is.ijs.si 8.–12. oktober 2018 / 8–12 October 2018 Ljubljana, Slovenia Zbornik 21. mednarodne multikonference INFORMACIJSKA DRUŽBA – IS 2018 Zvezek B Proceedings of the 21st International Multiconference INFORMATION SOCIETY – IS 2018 Volume B Kognitivna znanost Cognitive Science Uredila / Edited by Toma Strle, Olga Markič http://is.ijs.si 8.–12. oktober 2018 / 8–12 October 2018 Ljubljana, Slovenia Urednika: Toma Strle Univerza v Ljubljani Pedagoška fakulteta Center za kognitivno znanost Olga Markič Univerza v Ljubljani Filozofska fakulteta Založnik: Institut »Jožef Stefan«, Ljubljana Priprava zbornika: Mitja Lasič, Vesna Lasič, Lana Zemljak Oblikovanje naslovnice: Vesna Lasič Dostop do e-publikacije: http://library.ijs.si/Stacks/Proceedings/InformationSociety Ljubljana, oktober 2018 Informacijska družba ISSN 2630-371X Kataložni zapis o publikaciji (CIP) pripravili v Narodni in univerzitetni knjižnici v Ljubljani COBISS.SI-ID=7980634 ISBN 978-961-264-136-8 (pdf) PREDGOVOR MULTIKONFERENCI INFORMACIJSKA DRUŽBA 2018 Multikonferenca Informacijska družba (http://is.ijs.si) je z enaindvajseto zaporedno prireditvijo osrednji srednjeevropski dogodek na področju informacijske družbe, računalništva in informatike. Letošnja prireditev se ponovno odvija na več lokacijah, osrednji dogodki pa so na Institutu »Jožef Stefan«. Informacijska družba, znanje in umetna inteligenca so še naprej nosilni koncepti človeške civilizacije. Se bo neverjetna rast nadaljevala in nas ponesla v novo civilizacijsko obdobje ali pa se bo rast upočasnila in začela stagnirati? Bosta IKT in zlasti umetna inteligenca omogočila nadaljnji razcvet civilizacije ali pa bodo demografske, družbene, medčloveške in okoljske težave povzročile zadušitev rasti? Čedalje več pokazateljev kaže v oba ekstrema – da prehajamo v naslednje civilizacijsko obdobje, hkrati pa so notranji in zunanji konflikti sodobne družbe čedalje težje obvladljivi. Letos smo v multikonferenco povezali 11 odličnih neodvisnih konferenc. Predstavljenih bo 215 predstavitev, povzetkov in referatov v okviru samostojnih konferenc in delavnic. Prireditev bodo spremljale okrogle mize in razprave ter posebni dogodki, kot je svečana podelitev nagrad. Izbrani prispevki bodo izšli tudi v posebni številki revije Informatica, ki se ponaša z 42-letno tradicijo odlične znanstvene revije. Multikonferenco Informacijska družba 2018 sestavljajo naslednje samostojne konference:  Slovenska konferenca o umetni inteligenci  Kognitivna znanost  Odkrivanje znanja in podatkovna skladišča – SiKDD  Mednarodna konferenca o visokozmogljivi optimizaciji v industriji, HPOI  Delavnica AS-IT-IC  Soočanje z demografskimi izzivi  Sodelovanje, programska oprema in storitve v informacijski družbi  Delavnica za elektronsko in mobilno zdravje ter pametna mesta  Vzgoja in izobraževanje v informacijski družbi  5. študentska računalniška konferenca  Mednarodna konferenca o prenosu tehnologij (ITTC) Soorganizatorji in podporniki konference so različne raziskovalne institucije in združenja, med njimi tudi ACM Slovenija, Slovensko društvo za umetno inteligenco (SLAIS), Slovensko društvo za kognitivne znanosti (DKZ) in druga slovenska nacionalna akademija, Inženirska akademija Slovenije (IAS). V imenu organizatorjev konference se zahvaljujemo združenjem in institucijam, še posebej pa udeležencem za njihove dragocene prispevke in priložnost, da z nami delijo svoje izkušnje o informacijski družbi. Zahvaljujemo se tudi recenzentom za njihovo pomoč pri recenziranju. V letu 2018 bomo šestič podelili nagrado za življenjske dosežke v čast Donalda Michieja in Alana Turinga. Nagrado Michie-Turing za izjemen življenjski prispevek k razvoju in promociji informacijske družbe bo prejel prof. dr. Saša Divjak. Priznanje za dosežek leta bo pripadlo doc. dr. Marinki Žitnik. Že sedmič podeljujemo nagradi »informacijska limona« in »informacijska jagoda« za najbolj (ne)uspešne poteze v zvezi z informacijsko družbo. Limono letos prejme padanje državnih sredstev za raziskovalno dejavnost, jagodo pa Yaskawina tovarna robotov v Kočevju. Čestitke nagrajencem! Mojca Ciglarič, predsednik programskega odbora Matjaž Gams, predsednik organizacijskega odbora i FOREWORD - INFORMATION SOCIETY 2018 In its 21st year, the Information Society Multiconference (http://is.ijs.si) remains one of the leading conferences in Central Europe devoted to information society, computer science and informatics. In 2018, it is organized at various locations, with the main events taking place at the Jožef Stefan Institute. Information society, knowledge and artificial intelligence continue to represent the central pillars of human civilization. Will the pace of progress of information society, knowledge and artificial intelligence continue, thus enabling unseen progress of human civilization, or will the progress stall and even stagnate? Will ICT and AI continue to foster human progress, or will the growth of human, demographic, social and environmental problems stall global progress? Both extremes seem to be playing out to a certain degree – we seem to be transitioning into the next civilization period, while the internal and external conflicts of the contemporary society seem to be on the rise. The Multiconference runs in parallel sessions with 215 presentations of scientific papers at eleven conferences, many round tables, workshops and award ceremonies. Selected papers will be published in the Informatica journal, which boasts of its 42-year tradition of excellent research publishing. The Information Society 2018 Multiconference consists of the following conferences:  Slovenian Conference on Artificial Intelligence  Cognitive Science  Data Mining and Data Warehouses - SiKDD  International Conference on High-Performance Optimization in Industry, HPOI  AS-IT-IC Workshop  Facing demographic challenges  Collaboration, Software and Services in Information Society  Workshop Electronic and Mobile Health and Smart Cities  Education in Information Society  5th Student Computer Science Research Conference  International Technology Transfer Conference (ITTC) The Multiconference is co-organized and supported by several major research institutions and societies, among them ACM Slovenia, i.e. the Slovenian chapter of the ACM, Slovenian Artificial Intelligence Society (SLAIS), Slovenian Society for Cognitive Sciences (DKZ) and the second national engineering academy, the Slovenian Engineering Academy (IAS). On behalf of the conference organizers, we thank all the societies and institutions, and particularly all the participants for their valuable contribution and their interest in this event, and the reviewers for their thorough reviews. For the sixth year, the award for life-long outstanding contributions will be presented in memory of Donald Michie and Alan Turing. The Michie-Turing award will be given to Prof. Saša Divjak for his life-long outstanding contribution to the development and promotion of information society in our country. In addition, an award for current achievements will be given to Assist. Prof. Marinka Žitnik. The information lemon goes to decreased national funding of research. The information strawberry is awarded to the Yaskawa robot factory in Kočevje. Congratulations! Mojca Ciglarič, Programme Committee Chair Matjaž Gams, Organizing Committee Chair ii KONFERENČNI ODBORI CONFERENCE COMMITTEES International Programme Committee Organizing Committee Vladimir Bajic, South Africa Matjaž Gams, chair Heiner Benking, Germany Mitja Luštrek Se Woo Cheon, South Korea Lana Zemljak Howie Firth, UK Vesna Koricki Olga Fomichova, Russia Mitja Lasič Vladimir Fomichov, Russia Blaž Mahnič Vesna Hljuz Dobric, Croatia Jani Bizjak Alfred Inselberg, Israel Tine Kolenik Jay Liebowitz, USA Huan Liu, Singapore Henz Martin, Germany Marcin Paprzycki, USA Karl Pribram, USA Claude Sammut, Australia Jiri Wiedermann, Czech Republic Xindong Wu, USA Yiming Ye, USA Ning Zhong, USA Wray Buntine, Australia Bezalel Gavish, USA Gal A. Kaminka, Israel Mike Bain, Australia Michela Milano, Italy Derong Liu, USA Toby Walsh, Australia Programme Committee Franc Solina, co-chair Matjaž Gams Vladislav Rajkovič Viljan Mahnič, co-chair Marko Grobelnik Grega Repovš Cene Bavec, co-chair Nikola Guid Ivan Rozman Tomaž Kalin, co-chair Marjan Heričko Niko Schlamberger Jozsef Györkös, co-chair Borka Jerman Blažič Džonova Stanko Strmčnik Tadej Bajd Gorazd Kandus Jurij Šilc Jaroslav Berce Urban Kordeš Jurij Tasič Mojca Bernik Marjan Krisper Denis Trček Marko Bohanec Andrej Kuščer Andrej Ule Ivan Bratko Jadran Lenarčič Tanja Urbančič Andrej Brodnik Borut Likar Boštjan Vilfan Dušan Caf Mitja Luštrek Baldomir Zajc Saša Divjak Janez Malačič Blaž Zupan Tomaž Erjavec Olga Markič Boris Žemva Bogdan Filipič Dunja Mladenič Leon Žlajpah Andrej Gams Franc Novak iii iv KAZALO / TABLE OF CONTENTS Kognitivna znanost / Cognitive Science ........................................................................................................ 1 PREDGOVOR / FOREWORD ....................................................................................................................... 3 PROGRAMSKI ODBORI / PROGRAMME COMMITTEES ........................................................................... 4 Razumevanje odraslih partnerskih odnosov v luči spolne zlorabe v otroštvu / Jerebic Sara ....................... 5 Do healthy participants make advantageous decisions? Evidence from the Iowa Gambling Task / Vukčević Marković Maša .......................................................................................................................... 9 Palaeolithic toolmaking and the evolution of cognition and language / Gabrić Petar, Banda Marko, Karavanić Ivor .........................................................................................................................................12 Psihonevrobiološka razvojna perspektiva razumevanja nasilja / Simonič Barbara ...................................17 Emergence of Visual Consciousness in ADHD Children / Zupanič Katja, Y. Fakhreddine Rawan, Nadásdy Zoltán ......................................................................................................................................21 European Legal Regulation of Self-learning Systems / Zapušek Tjaša .....................................................23 Legal Practitioners’ Views on Neuroscientific Evidence in Court Proceedings / Siserman-Gray Cristina .29 From AI to our future I: AI and the Drake equation / Gams Matjaž ...........................................................33 The Quest for Understanding: Helping People with PIMD to Communicate with their Caregivers / Cigale Matej, Luštrek Mitja, Gams Matjaž, Krämer Torsten, Engelhardt Meike, Zentel Peter ..........................37 Kognitivna raven kot del relacijske družinske terapije pri predelovanju spolnega nasilja / Repič Slavič Tanja .......................................................................................................................................................41 Medgeneracijski prenos nasilja / Gostečnik Christian ................................................................................46 The other side of neurotechnologies / Elersič Kristian ...............................................................................49 Braincrafting: why playing video games is good for you / Fatur Katarina ..................................................52 In search of the authentic self: explaining phenomenology of authenticity / Urbančič Maša .....................56 Exploring Features of Cognitive Science as Natural Epistemology / Kolenik Tine ....................................60 Učinki telesne poze na prag termične bolečine za vroče / Novaković Dušanka, Puh Urška, Vidmar Gaj, Moharić Metka, Bresjanac Mara .............................................................................................................64 The effect of distractors in lateralized change detection working memory task / Slana Ozimič Anka .......67 "Zmota luči v hladilniku in značilnosti opazovanja fenomenov z obrobja zavesti" / Kordeš Urban, Lipič Viktorija ...................................................................................................................................................71 Zemljevid prepričanj – od propozicije do doživljanja / Klauser Florian, Kordeš Urban ..............................75 Indeks avtorjev / Author index ......................................................................................................................79 v vi Zbornik 21. mednarodne multikonference INFORMACIJSKA DRUŽBA – IS 2018 Zvezek B Proceedings of the 21st International Multiconference INFORMATION SOCIETY – IS 2018 Volume B Kognitivna znanost Cognitive Science Uredila / Edited by Toma Strle, Olga Markič http://is.ijs.si 11. oktober 2018 / 11 October 2018 Ljubljana, Slovenia 1 2 PREDGOVOR / FOREWORD Na letošnji konferenci Kognitivna znanost sodelujejo avtorji/ice z različnih disciplinarnih področij, ki predstavljajo tako empirične rezultate svojih raziskav kot tudi teoretska raziskovanja. Ena izmed osrednjih tem letošnje konference je “Družbene, filozofske in etične implikacije raziskovanja v kognitivni znanosti”, avtorji pa se dotikajo tudi drugih področji kognitivne znanosti. Upamo, da bo letošnja disciplinarno in metodološko bogata kognitivna konferenca odprla prostor za izmenjavo zanimivih misli in idej ter povezala znanstvenike/ice različnih disciplin, ki se ukvarjajo z vprašanji kognitivnih procesov. Olga Markič Toma Strle * Authors at this year’s Cognitive Science conference come from numerous disciplines and present their empirical as well as theoretical work. One of this year’s main topics is “Social, philosophical and ethical implications of cognitive science” but authors also present research form other areas in cognitive science. We hope that this year’s cognitive conference, being extremely diverse in disciplines and methodologies, will become a welcoming space for exchanging intriguing ideas and thoughts as well as for bringing together scientists from all the different areas exploring the questions of cognitive processes. Olga Markič Toma Strle 3 PROGRAMSKI ODBOR / PROGRAMME COMMITTEE Olga Markič, Univerza v Ljubljani, Filozofska fakulteta Toma Strle, Univerza v Ljubljani, Pedagoška fakulteta, Center za kognitivno znanost Urban Kordeš, Univerza v Ljubljani, Pedagoška fakulteta, Center za kognitivno znanost Matjaž Gams, Odsek za inteligentne sisteme, Institut »Jožef Stefan«, Ljubljana 4 Razumevanje odraslih partnerskih odnosov v luči spolne zlorabe v otroštvu asist. dr. Sara Jerebic, spec. ZDT Teološka fakulteta Katedra za zakonsko in družinsko terapijo ter psihologijo in sociologijo religije Poljanska cesta 4, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija Tel: +386 1 4345810; fax: +386 1 4345854 Družinski inštitut Bližina Vodnikova ulica 11, 3000 Celje, Slovenija Tel: +386 3 4925580 e-mail: sara.jerebic@teof.uni-lj.si; sara.jerebic@blizina.si POVZETEK1 vidne takoj ali pa se pojavijo tekom odraščanja, pogosto pa se Spolna zloraba v otroštvu je travmatična izkušnja s številnimi manifestirajo v intimnih odraslih partnerskih odnosih. daljnosežnimi posledicami. Dokler travma ni razrešena, se 2. POSLEDICE SPOLNE ZLORABE V pojavlja v mislih, čustvih in vedenju. Pojavi se takrat, ko je prebujen spomin iz preteklosti, kar se pogosto zgodi v odraslih PARTNERSKIH ODNOSIH partnerskih odnosih. Raziskave kažejo, da so težave v partnerskih Raziskave kažejo, da so psihološke posledice in težave v odnosih bolj pogoste pri tistih, ki so doživeli spolno zlorabo, kot medosebnih odnosih bolj pogoste pri tistih, ki so doživeli spolno pri tistih, ki spolne zlorabe niso doživeli. Pari med drugim zlorabo, kot pa pri tistih, ki zlorabe niso doživeli [4]. Moški in poročajo o oslabljenem zaupanju, oteženem čustvenem izražanju ženske, ki so doživeli spolno zlorabo v otroštvu, v primerjavi s in težavah na področju spolnosti. Partnerski odnos se tako znajde tistimi, ki je niso doživeli, poročajo o več medosebnih težavah na na preizkušnji, oba v paru pa se spoprijemata z različnimi področju zaupanja, kontrole, odgovornosti, asertivnosti in občutku stiskami, katerih pogosto ne pripisujeta pretekli travmi. odtujenosti od svojega partnerja [5], kar se kaže kot Prepoznavanje, razumevanje z elementi dvojnega zavedanja in nezadovoljstvo v zakonskem odnosu [6]. Številne raziskave so predelava posledic, so bistvenega pomena za kakovostni pokazale, da travma prizadene intimnost s partnerji [7, 8], npr. partnerskih odnos. S prispevkom želimo poglobiti razumevanje oslabi sposobnost zaupanja in oteži čustveno izražanja, izraža pa delovanja odraslih partnerskih odnosov kot posledice spolne se tudi v obliki težav na področju spolnosti [9, 10, 11]. zlorabe v otroštvu in na podlagi klinične prakse opozoriti na Najpogosteje so težave v tuji literaturi opisane kot zasvojenost s možne oblike strokovne terapevtske pomoči pri predelavi posledic spolnostjo, spolne disfunkcije, ki posameznike zaznamujejo na spolne zlorabe v otroštvu v partnerskih odnosih. področju spolne želje, vzburjenja in orgazma [12, 13], pogoste pa so tudi bolečinske motnje [13]. Partnerski odnos se zaradi Ključne besede posledic znajde na preizkušnji, oba v paru pa se spoprijemata z Spolna zloraba v otroštvu, intimni partnerski odnos, zakonska različnimi stiskami, katerih pogosto ne pripisujeta pretekli spolni terapija. zlorabi. Da bi lahko razmejila preteklost od sedanjosti [14] in kakovostno zaživela v partnerskem odnosu, jima je lahko v pomoč 1. SPOLNA ZLORABA V OTROŠTVU relacijska zakonska terapija. Spolna zloraba v otroštvu je travmatični dogodek, kjer je otrok uporabljen kot spolni objekt za zadovoljevanje potreb ali želja 3. RELACIJSKA ZAKONSKA TERAPIJA odrasle osebe, mladostnika ali starejšega otroka oz. storilca, ki Relacijska zakonska terapija [15, 16, 17, 18] temelji na premisi, namerno išče in spodbuja zlorabo z grožnjo, silo, ustrahovanjem da zakonca drug v drugem lahko prebudita najhujše nočne more, ali manipulacijo [1]. V navedeno definicijo sodijo vrste vedenj s ki sta jih že kot otroka doživljala ob pomembnih drugih, in sicer z telesnim stikom ali brez telesnega stika, vključno z navezovanjem nezavednim namenom razrešitve [16]. V paru tako prisilno, stikov za zlorabo, spolno sugestivnim jezikom, pornografijo, ponavljata sistemske, medosebne in notranjepsihične zaznave, vojerizmom, ekshibicionizmom, ljubkovanjem, masturbacijo in kjer ponovno nezavedno ustvarita konfliktne situacije, travme, penetracijo. Otrok je lahko zlorabljen s strani nekoga v družini ali vedenje, mišljenje in čutenje [15]. Tako se spolna zloraba z vso izven nje, ki zlorabi svoj položaj moči in zaupanja [2], kar svojo razdiralnostjo ponavlja v intimnih partnerskih odnosih in pomeni, da se zloraba zgodi znotraj odnosa. V literaturi je išče razrešitev. Za boljše razumevanje v nadaljevanju navedena kot relacijska travma, ki je bolj psihopatogena kot kateri predstavljamo vpogled v del kvalitativne raziskave, v kateri smo koli drugi socialni ali fizični stres [3]. Številne posledice so lahko ugotavljali značilnosti intimnega partnerskega odnosa pri parih, ki so doživeli travmo spolne zlorabe v otroštvu in so bili vključeni v proces relacijske zakonske terapije [19]. 1 Prispevek je nastal v okviru raziskovalnega projekta J5-9349, ki ga financira ARRS. 5 4. METODOLOGIJA 5.1.3 Spolnost kot dolžnost 4.1 Metoda in udeleženci Ž:»Spolnost sem jemala, ali pa jo še kot dolžnost, ki jo je potrebno opravljati v zakonu, v smislu brez spolnosti ni zakona.« Ž: »Tako V raziskavo je bilo vključenih pet parov oz. deset udeležencev, sem mislila, nisem vedela, da imam pravico reči ne, in je bilo od katerih je vsaj eden izmed partnerjev doživel travmo spolne veliko spolnosti, ki si je nisem želela.« zlorabe v otroštvu, obenem pa je ob vključitvi v partnersko Spolnost kot dolžnost je doživljalo vseh pet žensk v paru in dva terapijo njun odnos trajal vsaj leto dni. Raziskavo smo izvedli z moška. Nekateri so o doživljanju spolnosti kot dolžnosti poročali metodo osnovane teorije, ki je omogočila sistematično zbiranje, retrospektivno, tj. pred prihodom na terapijo, drugi pa so spolnost analizo in razvoj teorije na podlagi zbranih in analiziranih kot dolžnost doživljali med terapevtskim procesom. Navedeno podatkov [20]. doživljanje lahko povežemo s samo spolno zlorabo. Storilec je 4.2 Potek raziskave otroka izkoristil za zadovoljevanje svojih potreb in otrok je moral Zbiranje podatkov je potekalo skozi terapevtski proces relacijske biti storilcu na razpolago za zadovoljevanje njegovih potreb. zakonske terapije, ki je trajala 6 mesecev (2 terapevtska cikla po Storilec je svoje hotenje (moraš, dolžan si mi) prenesel na otroka, 12 srečanj) oz. 24 srečanj, in sicer enkrat tedensko po 50 minut. ki se je čutil dolžnega. V partnerskih odnosih se občutek dolžnosti Pred vključitvijo v terapijo smo pridobili soglasje za udeležbo v prebudi ob partnerju, ki si spolnosti želi, posameznik pa doživlja, raziskavi z dovoljenjem za snemanje. Posnete terapije smo da mu mora biti na razpolago in da je dolžan z njim imeti spolni transkribirali in analizirali, vključili pa smo tudi svoja lastna odnos in tako zadovoljiti potrebe partnerja. opažanja, odzive in zapise supervizijskih srečanj. Raziskava je 5.1.4 Doživljanje telesa v spolnosti potekala na Družinskem inštitutu Bližina. V nadaljevanju Ž: »… še vedno me peče, šla sem po antibiotike ... nič, nožnica me predstavljamo rezultate dela raziskave, ki se nanašajo na področje še vedno peče.« težav v spolnosti in nekatere posege terapevtke v procesu M: »… vsakič, ko ji samo povem, da čutim vzburjenje, ona pove, relacijske zakonske terapije, ki poleg varnega terapevtskega da takoj čuti bolečino, ta pekoč občutek, samo da omenim ali odnosa omogočajo spremembe [19]. najmanjši dotik, ki bi lahko imel to konotacijo, da bo šlo za neko 5. REZULTATI približevanje ali predigra ali spolnost ...« 5.1 Medosebne težave na področju spolnosti Pari so telo doživljali različno, od prisotne fizične bolečine, ki se V obdelavi zbranih podatkov je bilo ugotovljenih šest kategorij, ki je pri eni udeleženki konstantno pojavljala, kadar je njen mož čutil predstavljajo težave na področju spolnosti: umanjkanje spolnih vzburjenost. Zaradi pekoče bolečine je pri ginekologinji večkrat odnosov, odsotnost želje po spolnosti, spolnost kot dolžnost, iskala pomoč, vendar pa fizičnega vzroka niso odkrili, prav tako doživljanje telesa v spolnosti, nezadovoljstvo v spolnosti, ji tudi antibiotična zdravila niso pomagala odpraviti pekoče doživljanje občutij v spolnosti [19]. bolečine. Tudi druga udeleženka je poročala o bolečini med samim spolnim odnosom. Dve udeleženki sta svoje telo doživljali 5.1.1 Umanjkanje spolnih odnosov kot breme, ki bi ga bilo potrebno »odstraniti«, ena udeleženka in M2: »Je bilo že bolš, sedaj pa je »slaba volja« med nama ...« Ž3: eden udeleženec med spolnim odnosom telesa nista čutila oz. je »Spolnih odnosov z možem zaenkrat še nimava, kar me straši, saj prišlo do disociacije le-tega. Trije udeleženci nad svojim telesom to traja že pol leta.« niso imeli kontrole. Pri enem ni bilo mogoče kontrolirati odziva Vsi pari so na neki točki v terapiji poročali o umanjkanju spolnih telesa, ko je prihajalo do neželenih izlivov, pri dvema pa je bilo odnosov. Nekateri so poročali o umanjkanju spolnih odnosov že izrazito samozadovoljevanje. Samozadovoljevanje se je kazalo pred pričetkom terapevtskega procesa, pri drugih je do kot odraz tesnobe in napetosti, kar je vodilo v občutja krivde. umanjkanja spolnih odnosov prišlo že v prvem delu terapevtskega 5.1.5 Nezadovoljstvo v spolnosti cikla. Za pare je umanjkanje spolnih odnosov predstavljalo težavo. Spraševali so se, kaj je narobe z njimi, da nimajo spolnih M: »Odnos je žal zelo neusklajen, saj je tako fizičnega kot odnosov. Namreč, ko se spolna zloraba prebudi v partnerskem spolnega kontakta premalo … in tudi takrat ko je, je to po njeni odnosu, pomeni, da je oseba pričela doživljati potlačena čutenja, odločitvi.” ki so vezana na samo spolno zlorabo v otroštvu. Preko različnih Ž: »Spolnost je v bedu.« sprožilcev, kot je lahko pri spolnih odnosih dotik, vonj ali okus Vsi moški udeleženci so doživljali nezadovoljstvo, ki se je kazalo [14], so se udeleženci z umanjkanjem spolnosti nezavedno v obliki prepirov, razočaranja, nesproščenosti, nepredanosti in zaščitili pred gnusom, strahom, sramom, jezo in krivdo, ki je nezmožnosti vplivanja na to, kdaj bosta imela spolni odnos. povezana s samo zlorabo. Ženske udeleženke so poročale o prepirih, nesproščenosti in razočaranju. Glede na to, da so pari doživljali spominske 5.1.2 Odsotnost želje po spolnosti prebliske, disociacije, bolečinske motnje, strahove, tesnobna Ž: »Jaz nimam želje po spolnih odnosih, on pa razume, kot da ga razpoloženja, odpor in nezaupanje, je nezadovoljstvo v spolnosti ne maram.« normalni odgovor na nenormalno izkušnjo v otroštvu oz. O odsotnosti želje po spolnosti so poročale samo ženske, vendar normalna posledica prebujene zlorabe v partnerskem odnosu. pa je odsotnost želje pri enem v paru povzročila neprijetna občutja 5.1.6 Doživljanje občutij v spolnosti pri obeh, kar je povedala ena izmed udeleženk (podčrtano) in kar se je za pomembno izkazalo tudi med samim procesom terapije. Ž: »Me pa velikokrat prešine misel, da tega ne smem početi, da ne Ena izmed udeleženk je npr. povedala, da ji odleže, če gre z smem uživati v spolnem odnosu, ker bom kaznovana.« M: »... Ma otrokom spat, saj nima nobene želje po spolnosti. me jezi, ja! Najprej ja, potem ne ... daj, odloči se že enkrat!« V raziskavi se je izkazalo, da so pari doživljali različna občutja, od negotovosti do krivde, strahu, sramu, jeze, žalosti, gnusa, odpora, 2 moški stiske in zmedenosti. Občutja so bila močno prisotna tudi v terapevtskem procesu, pri katerem je bila osnovna terapevtska 3 ženska intervencija regulacija le-teh. Ženske udeleženke so doživljale 6 močna občutja krivde. Pri treh udeleženkah se je občutje občutek varnosti in kontrolo nad tem, kar se jim dogaja, so najprej prebudilo po spolnem odnosu, v enem primeru je bilo povezano s potrebovali vzpostaviti kontrolo nad telesom in čutenji, s katerimi kaznijo, pri dveh udeleženkah pa s tem, ko zavrneta spolni odnos. so postopoma prihajali v stik. Terapevtka je tudi kasneje, ne samo Eden izmed udeležencev moškega spola je prav tako vedno po na začetnih srečanjih, zagotavljala varnost s terapevtskim spolnem odnosu doživljal občutke krivde. Pri krivdi gre za odnosom, v katerem je parom ovrednotila njihovo doživljanje in s samoobtoževanje, ki je posledica spolne zlorabe. Krivijo se, ker sočutnimi odzivi nudila občutek sprejetosti. niso preprečili ali ustavili zlorabe, pogosto sebe krivijo, da je do spolne zlorabe sploh prišlo. To se kaže tudi v izjavi ene izmed 5.2.2 Priznanje, da se je zloraba res zgodila udeleženk, ki sta jo zlorabljala dva storilca: »... Ne vem ... nekaj je Pomemben element v terapiji je bilo razkritje zlorabe. Osebe, ki že moglo biti na meni ... mogoče moje oči ...« Moški udeleženci so so doživele spolno zlorabo, težko zaupajo, ne samo partnerju, tudi doživljali žalost, jezo in tudi gnus. Eden izmed udeležencev je terapevtu. Najbolj jih ovira sram, ki ohranja negativno podobo o pojasnil, da zelo pogosto med samim spolnim odnosom doživi sebi. Ko govorimo o razkritju spolne zlorabe, to ne pomeni, da gnus, ki ga popolnoma zablokira. Navedeno lahko pojasnimo s mora oseba grafično opisovati spolno zlorabo, temveč da sistemsko razsežnostjo travme, ko se na moža prenesejo občutja, spregovori o svojem doživljanju. Prvi korak je bil, da je lahko ki jih žena nosi globoko v sebi. Ob spolni zlorabi se kot otrok ni naglas priznala, da se je zloraba res zgodila. Ne gre samo za smela oz. mogla jeziti, zaradi izdajstva je bila žalostna, doživljala besede oz. kognitivno komponento, temveč tudi za afektivni je tudi občutja gnusa. Občutja, ki jih je povzročil storilec in so vidik. Ko spregovorijo o čustvenem doživljanju, jim ni več ostala »zaklenjena v telesu«, so se preko mehanizma projekcijske potrebno skrivati sramu, kar jih razbremeni. Navedeno tudi identifikacije prenesla na moža oz. partnerja, ki prične čutiti in pripomore, da »težkih vsebin« ne odrežejo, temveč se prično doživljati vsa občutja na svojem telesu. Navedene posledice soočati tudi s posledicami, kot so npr. spominski prebliski. Do predstavljajo stiske, ki jih doživljajo pari v partnerskih odnosih. navedenega lahko pride, kadar je v odnosu dovolj varnosti, ki pa Klinična praksa kaže, da posledic pogosto ne povezujejo s jo mora najprej zagotoviti terapevtka. Takrat potem lahko oba v preteklo zlorabo, neredki pa se tudi ne zavedajo, da so določene paru sprocesirata žalost, jezo, sram, strah in gnus. izkušnje iz njihovega otroštva po svoji naravi pravzaprav bile 5.2.3 Psihoedukacija spolna zloraba. Da bi lahko resnično zaživeli kakovostni Del terapevtskega procesa je bila psihoedukacija, v kateri je partnerski odnos so potrebni prepoznavanje, razumevanje z terapevtka pojasnila samo naravo travme spolne zlorabe, vpliv, ki elementi dvojnega zavedanja in predelava posledic, kar omogoča ga je imela na osebo, ki jo je doživela, in posledice, ki jih doživlja zakonska oz. partnerska terapija. spolno zlorabljena oseba ter tudi njen partner. Pari, ki so doživeli 5.2 Proces relacijske zakonske terapije spolno zlorabo v otroštvu so doživljali veliko simptomov, kot so V samem procesu relacijske zakonske terapije smo s posegi nočne more, strahovi, hude stiske in so se spraševali, če so sploh terapevtke zasledovali spremembe, ki so tudi cilj terapevtskega še normalni. Terapevtka je normalizirala njihovo doživljanje v procesa in sicer spremembe na vedenjski, kognitivni in čutenjski povezavi s preteklo spolno zlorabo. Pomembno je bilo, da oba v ravni kot tudi spremembe na intrapsihičnem, medosebnem in paru razumeta, kar se je dogajalo, saj je partnerja, ki je doživel sistemskem delovanju. zlorabo sram, da tako čuti in doživlja. Terapevtka je parom omogočala občutek kontrole, da so lahko sami izbirali teme in se 5.2.1 Zagotavljanje varnosti pogovarjali o tem, kar so želeli. Če je npr. klientka dejala, da o Na začetku terapevtskega procesa je bila prva naloga terapevtke spolnosti še ne želi govoriti, jo terapevtka nikoli ni silila, temveč zagotavljanje varnosti. Tedenska struktura je parom zagotavljala jo je zanimalo, kaj bi čutila, če bi govorila. Pogosto je bil sram predvidljivost, ki je v svojem domačem okolju niso bili vajeni, in tisti, ki ji je onemogočal spregovoriti o stiski. Pomembno je, da jim je s tem omogočala spremembo. Obenem smo v terapevtskem razumeta oba, da v primeru raznovrstnih težkih simptomov ne gre procesu naslavljali njihova doživljanja glede vključevanja v za patologijo osebe, ki je bila spolno zlorabljena v otroštvu, raziskavo in načinom, da se srečanja snemajo. Ob tem smo parom temveč za normalne odzive na nenormalne, travmatične dogodke. obrazložili, da so v svoji odločitvi popolnoma svobodni in v Gre za del pomoči vzpostavljanja kontrole nad situacijo, ko vidi, kolikor bi se odločili, da ne želijo več sodelovati v raziskavi, kaj se dogaja, in ve, da gre samo za simptom, da ni z njo nekaj njihova odločitev ne bo vplivala na kakovost terapevtske narobe, da razume najprej na kognitivnem nivoju, kaj se dogaja. obravnave ter da že podpisano soglasje lahko tudi med terapevtskim procesom kadarkoli iz kakršnihkoli razlogov 5.2.4 Postavljanje meja prekličejo. S tem smo parom ob zagotavljanju varnosti omogočili Ena izmed pomembnih tem je bila spoštovanje do lastnega telesa. tudi možnost kontrole. Namreč ob samem dogodku zlorabe je bil Kadar je terapevtka čutila, da si ženska ne želi spolnih odnosov, otrok popolnoma brez kontrole, saj je bil odrasli tisti, ki je vse kljub temu pa se vanje spušča, ji je dala dovoljenje, da ji tega ni nadziral, so med terapevtskim procesom dobili možnost, da le- več potrebno početi. Ženske so v terapiji povedale, da jim je tega lahko kontrolirajo, tudi s temami, ki so jih na srečanja slednje zelo pomagalo, da so lahko pričele poslušati svoje telo, prinašali. Terapevtka jim je vedno zagotavljala, da v kolikor o obenem pa je navedeno razbremenilo tudi njihove partnerje. nečem ne želijo govoriti, jim to ni potrebno oz. lahko povedo 5.2.5 Razmejevanje preteklosti od sedanjosti samo toliko, kolikor se jim zdi varno povedati, obenem pa vedno Pomemben poseg terapevtke je bilo tudi razmejevanje preteklosti lahko ustavijo, vprašajo oz. izrazijo svoje želje glede samega od sedanjosti oz. dvojno zavedanje. Oba zakonca oz. partnerja v procesa terapije. Na koncu vsakega srečanja je bila narejena paru sta pogosto doživljala hude čustvene stiske, ki sta jih refleksija v smislu, kako bo oditi po posamičnem srečanju. Pari so pripisovala drug drugemu. Preteklost se je preko čustev in telesa imeli tako možnost spregovoriti o svojem čustvenem doživljanju prebujala v sedanjosti, drug ob drugem. Navedena dinamika je in izraziti svoje misli v samem terapevtskem procesu. Glede same bila pogosta v spolnih odnosih, pri katerih je žena svojega moža varnosti smo v terapevtskem procesu tudi preverjali, kako je s pričela doživljati kot storilca. Ko je žena zavračala spolne odnose, trenutno varnostjo izven terapevtskega procesa (doma, v širši se je mož počutil zavrnjenega. Terapevtka jima je pomagala družini, v službenem okolju). Da bi lahko v polnosti pridobili razumeti, da žena ne zavrača moža, temveč čutenja, kot so sram, 7 gnus v povezavi s ponižanjem in razvrednotenjem, kar se prenaša longitudinal study . 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A. in Spatz Widom, C. 2004. Childhood abuse odnos nudi toliko varnosti, da jima ni potrebno več ohranjati and neglect and adult intimate relationships: a prospective obrambnih drž, kot so obtoževanje in umikanje, temveč lahko study. Child Abuse & Neglect 28, 11, 1133-1151. delita najbolj ranljiva čutenja. Šele, ko sta v polnosti ranljiva drug z drugim, sta sposobna razviti sočutje drug do drugega, do male [10] Leonard, L. M. in Follette, V. M. 2002. Sexual functioning in deklice in malega dečka, ki sta še vedno globoko v njima, women reporting a history of child sexual abuse: review of povezana s težkimi občutji in moledujeta za pozornost, sprejetost the empirical literature and clinical implications. Annual in ljubezen. Review of Sex Research 13, 1, 346-388. 6. ZAKLJUČEK [11] Najman, J. M., Dunne, M. P., Purdie, D. M., Boyle, F. M. in Coxeter, P. D. 2005. 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Evidence from the Iowa Gambling Task Maša Vukčević Marković Psychosocial Innovation Network, Belgrade and Belgrade University, Faculty of Philosophy, Laboratory for Research of Individual Differences Gospodar Jevremova 48 11000 Belgrade, Serbia +381637234658 masa@psychosocialinnovation.net ABSTRACT making even though they do not necessarily need to be aware of Somatic Marker Hypothesis (SMH) suggests that decision which decisions are good and which ones are bad [5, 9, 10]. making in uncertainty relays on somatic markers – emotional reactions reflected in bodily states which lead person towards 1.1 IOWA GAMBLING TASK advantageous decision making. Authors of SMH created a task Authors of Somatic Marker Hypothesis created a task aiming to aiming to access decision making in uncertainty – Iowa access advantageous versus disadvantageous decision making – Gambling Task (IGT), suggesting that since healthy participants Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) [4]. In the IGT, participants are tend to develop advantageous decision-making strategy, they presented with four deck of cards. After selecting a card, will have good IGT performance. Recent studies however, participants either win or lose different amounts of play money. question good IGT performance among healthy participants thus Unknown to the participants, selecting cards from two of the imposing question on their advantageous decision-making decks – C and D will result in eventual gain (‘advantageous’, or strategies. The aim of this study was to explore IGT ‘good’ decks), whereas selecting cards from the other two decks performance among healthy participants. Participants (N=268) - A and B will result in eventual loss (‘disadvantageous’, or filled standard version of IGT, consisting of 100 trials in which ‘bed’ decks). The task has 100 trials, so that, according to participants select cards from four decks: A and B, that bring authors’ idea, participants still could not understand reword- higher rewards and penalties (good decks) and C and D that punishment scheme. Authors suggested and demonstrated in bring small rewards and penalties (bad decks). At the beginning several studies that healthy individuals will select more cards of the IGT, participants get 2000$ of play money, with from the good than the bad decks, thus showing tendency instruction to try to gain as much money as possible. Results towards advantageous decision making [4, 17]. Task validation show that participants tend to lose rather then gain money, with was demonstrated in numerous studies which indicated that almost half of participants showing impaired IGT performance. impaired IGT performance have persons with problems in In addition, results indicate that frequency of punishment, rather advantageous decision making in everyday life [7, 12, 14, 15, than overall goodness or decks is factor relevant for specific 18], as well as patients with lesions in the brain region relevant deck selection. Study results question wheatear healthy for the judgment and decision-making in real-life settings [4, 6, participants apply advantageous decision-making strategies 9]. when performing IGT, indicating that future studies are needed Recent studies, however, question whether healthy persons do in order to explore factors contributing to advantageous decision prefer good over a bed decks and indicate that healthy controls making in uncertainty. tend to select bed decks equally or even more frequently than good ones [2, 8, 11, 16]. Moreover, when selection of each deck Keywords specifically was analyzed, it was shown that bed deck B is equally or even more frequently selected then good decks C and Iowa Gambling Task, IGT, Somatic Marker Hypothesis, D [8, 11], while bed deck A represent the least selected deck Decision Making. [11, 13, 19]. Possible explanation can be found in differences among frequency of punishment within good and bed decks, 1. INTRODUCTION resulting in decks A and C being frequent punishment decks, Numerous studies exploring decision making in uncertainty rely while decks B and D represent non-frequent punishment decks, on Somatic Marker Hypothesis (SMH) [3, 5, 9]. This hypothesis which was not taken into consideration in the early IGT studies. suggests that normal decision-making in humans is led by Studies that included both criteria into analysis of IGT somatic markers - bodily states which represent emotional performance, indicated that frequency of punishments, rather reactions to different stimuli or to possible courses of action. than overall goodness of deck seems to be leading participants Authors of SMH suggest that somatic markers, activated in towards selection of specific decks [8, 11, 13, 19]. Thus, recent situation of uncertainty can effectively reflect the goodness or studies indicated that it is not certain whether healthy controls badness of the possible outcome, leading a person towards show homogeneous tendency towards advantageous decision advantageous decision making. Importantly, authors suggest that making and whether overall goodness of decks, or rather somatic markers represent a “gut feeling”, which can operate frequency of its punishments will be relevant factor for deck both consciously and unconsciously. SMH, thus suggests that selections. somatic markers can lead people to advantageous decision 9 1.2 PRESENT STUDY Table 2. Percentage of participants who selected more cards In this study 268 (81.7% females, average age 20 years) from different decks participants, completed standard version of Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). % of % of participants participants 2. RESULTS On average, participants scored 1475$ on IGT, ranging from - with more with more 4525 to 6075, indicating that participants tend to rather lose then cards from cards from gain money on IGT, i.e. that participants, on average, do not show advantageous decision-making strategy. Table 1 presents good decks bed decks descriptive measures of each deck selection separately. 54.5% 45.5% Table 1. Descriptive statistic of each deck selection, in proportion % of participants Deck M SD Min Max zSk zKu with more cards 76.5% 39.9% 36.6% A .17 .098 0 .75 8.18 from non-frequent ** 16.66* punishments decks B .29 .142 0 .72 1.20 .60 % of participants C .23 .156 0 .1 15.21* 27 with more cards 23.5% 14.6% 9% from frequent D .31 .175 0 .1 9.73** 9.51 punishments decks M – mean; SD – standard deviation; Min - minimum; Max – maximum; zSk – standardized Skewness; zKu – standardized Kurtosis; ns - p > .05; * - p <.05; ** - p <.01. 3. DISCUSSION Results show that participants the most frequently selected cards Study results indicate that, contrary to IGT authors’ from deck D and deck B subsequently, somewhat less frequently expectations, participants tend to lose rather than win money on they selected cards from deck C, while they selected cards from IGT and that almost half of participants have impaired deck A the least frequently among all decks. Table 2. presents performance, i.e. more choices from bed then from good decks. percentage of participants who selected cards from good versus This result is in line with studies questioning whether healthy bed decks at more than 50% of trials, as well as percentage of controls prefer good over a bad deck and whether they show participants who selected cards from non-frequent punishments overall advantageous decision-making strategy [2, 8, 11, 16, 17]. decks B, D versus frequent punishments decks A and C at more Results also show that majority of participants prefer non- than 50% of trials. Results indicate that somewhat less than half frequent punishment decks B and D in comparation to frequent of participants have impaired performance [4], i.e. they selected punishment decks A and C. These results indicated importance more cards from bed then good decks, while more than three of frequency of punishment in deck selection. They are also in quarters of participants selected more cards form non-frequent line with results of a previous studies that considered both punishments decks B and D, in comparation to frequent- frequency of punishments and overall goodness of decks, punishments decks A and C. There is no significant difference in indicating that participants tend to the most frequently select number of participants who selected more cards from good then cards from deck D (good, non-frequent punishments deck), then bed decks [χ2(1) = 2.149; p = .143], while significant difference B (bed, non-frequent punishments deck), then deck C (good, was found in the number of participants who selected more frequent punishments deck), while they the least frequently cards from non-frequent punishment decks B and D in select cards from deck A (bed, frequent punishments deck) [1, 8, comparation to selection of cards from frequent punishment 11]. decks A and C [χ2(1) = 75.239; p < .001]. Results of this study indicated that healthy controls do not show homogenous IGT performance, nor advantageous decision- making strategy. In addition, results indicated than frequency of punishments rather than overall goodness of deck is relevant for deck selection, showing that immediate reword/punishment seems to be more important than long term consequences in decision making. These results do not question Somatic Marker Hypothesis, just call for additional studies that will improve understanding of factors that contribute to good IGT performance, and overall advantageous decision making in situations of uncertainty. 10 4. REFERENCES [12] Hanson, K., Luciana, M., and Sullwold, K. 2008. Reward- [1] Alarcón, D., Amián, J. G., and Sánchez-medina, J. A. 2015. related decision-making deficits and elevated impulsivity Enhancing emotion-based learning in decision-making among MDMA and other drug users. Drug Alcohol Depen, under uncertainty. 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Brain Cognition, 60(1), 94–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2005.09.011 11 Palaeolithic toolmaking and the evolution of cognition and language Petar Gabrić Marko Banda Ivor Karavanić Department of Linguistics Department of Archaeology Department of Archaeology Faculty of Humanities and Social Faculty of Humanities and Social Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Sciences Sciences University of Zagreb University of Zagreb University of Zagreb pgabric@ffzg.hr mabanda@ffzg.hr ikaravan@ffzg.hr ABSTRACT Research in this area has been in large part focused on inferring This paper reviews in short the current research on the hypothesis “modern” and “symbolic behavior” from archaeological data, of coevolution between Palaeolithic stone tool manufacture on such as ochre and ornament use, figurative art production, one side, and cognition and specifically language on the other. Of subsistence strategies etc. (e.g. d’Errico et al. 2003). The research particular interest are behavioral and neuroimaging studies. was led by the premise that such behaviors indicate the existence of a package of “higher” cognitive abilities. However, these Keywords discussions have been heavily criticized from a methodological language evolution, cognitive evolution, Palaeolithic, stone tools, point of view (e.g. Botha 2009, 2012), and they currently struggle Oldowan, Acheulean, Levallois, cultural transmission to find support in cognitive science (e.g. Garofoli 2014). 1. INTRODUCTION1 2. PALAEOLITHIC STONE TOOLS In the past two decades great interest has emerged for Recently, vast literature has appeared supporting the coevolution interdisciplinary discussion on the evolution of cognition and of cognition and language on one side, and the manufacture of specifically language (e.g. Janković and Šojer 2015). Recent work Palaeolithic stone tools on the other (see e.g. Stout and Hecht strongly emphasizes the role of cumulative culture, i.e. products, 2015 for a review). Archaeology has recognized several skills and knowledge created over generations of human lifetimes, phylogenetic phases of stone tool manufacture, and research in in the evolution of specific hominin cognitive abilities, including this topic has tried to correlate these phases with evolutionary language (e.g. Lotem et al. 2017). developments in cognition, most notably visuospatial processing, executive functioning, social cognition and language. Moreover, it remains a controversial issue whether evolutionary changes in hominin cognition should be viewed as structural 2.1 Lomekwian and/or functional novelties, or as exaptations of preexisting The earliest known hominin stone tools dated to ~3.3 mya come primate structures and/or functions (e.g. Stout and Chaminade from Lomekwi, Kenya, and consist of various rocks used for 2007: 1092). Nevertheless, ample literature now acknowledges pounding, stone anvils and cores from which flakes were struck that exaptation played a major role in hominin cognitive evolution using a hammerstone (Harmand et al. 2015). The site predates the (e.g. Kolodny and Edelman 2018), but also e.g. in the evolution of earliest known Homo specimens dated to ~2.8 mya (Villmoare et hominin musculature underlying bipedalism, tool use and speech al. 2015). Cognitive implications of the Lomekwi findings, (Diogo 2018). For language specifically, it has been e.g. argued regarding among others bimanual coordination and lateralization that both child first language and adult second language more generally, are discussed in Lewis and Harmand (2016). acquisition are served by general-purpose learning systems of declarative and procedural memory (Hamrick et al. 2018), and 2.2 Oldowan that linguistic semantic processing is highly dependent on Oldowan represents the next stage of hominin stone technology, modality-specific processing mechanisms of the sensorimotor ranging from ~2.6 (Semaw 2000) to ~1.42 mya (Toth and Schick system and not only on amodal or “abstract” semantic operations 2018: 7). It is generally considered to be characterized by flaked (e.g. Pulvermüller 2013). pebble tools, namely choppers and chopping tools, used for pounding or bone splitting. The knapping of these pebbles Still, empirical research in the evolution of cognition and produced smaller flakes which could have been utilized for meat language remains relatively scarce, mostly due to serious butchering (Toth 1987). Oldowan is most commonly associated methodological limitations (see §3). One approach has been to with H. habilis, but it is not excluded that australopithecines find behavioral correlates of specific cognitive functions in the engaged with Oldowan tools (Karavanić and Janković 2009: 107). Palaeolithic record, the archaeological period beginning with the Compared to Lomekwian Oldowan is described as entailing appearance of first known hominin stone tools ~3.3 mya greater abundance of flakes and smaller tool dimensions (Hovers (Harmand et al. 2015) and finishing with the end of the last glacial 2015). Toth and Schick (2018) argue that Oldowan findings are period (Karavanić and Janković 2009). suggestive of the incorporation of stone tools as a critical adaptive component which presumably led to more complex subsistence 1 Abbreviations: ESA=Early Stone Age (~Oldowan and strategies, social behavior and communication. Acheulean); IPS=intraparietal sulcus; SMA=supplementary motor area; SMG=supramarginal gyrus; vPrCG=ventral precentral gyrus; vPMC=ventral premotor cortex 12 2.3 Acheulean both teaching conditions improved performance compared to The oldest Acheulean finds are dated to ~1.7 mya (Diez-Martín et imitation/emulation and that the effects were most pronounced in al. 2015) and lasted in some parts of the world up to ~100 kya. the verbal teaching condition. Additionally, Cataldo et al. (2018) Acheulean is most commonly associated with H. erectus and found in their study of flaking that subjects instructed with Middle Pleistocene hominins, such as H. heidelbergensis (Torre gesture-free verbal teaching underperform relative to subjects 2016). The most commonly recognized Acheulean tool is the instructed by gestural or “full-language” teaching. Cataldo and handaxe and its iterations, a bifacially flaked stone tool usually of colleagues thus conclude that while gestural communication was amygdaloidal form (Torre 2016). Furthermore, Acheulean likely under selective pressures in the Oldowan populations, this assemblages also contain various flake tools. H. ergaster/erectus is not necessarily the case for (spoken) language. was the first hominin species to expand out of Africa settling vast As to post-Oldowan techniques, Putt et al. (2014) compared the areas of Asia and Europe. However, this expansion did not efficiency of imitation/emulation and verbal teaching in the necessarily entail the spread of Acheulean, because the earliest acquisition of Acheulean handaxe manufacture. They reported no known hominin sites in Europe exhibit a stone industry with an significant differences e.g. in shape and symmetry of the tools Oldowan tradition (Karavanić and Janković 2009: 120). ~500 kya, between the groups, but the non-verbal group produced more many European stone industries start to resemble the later efficient flakes as seen in higher ratios of platform width to Acheulean with its well-formed handaxes (Karavanić and platform thickness and size to mass compared to the verbal group. Janković 2009: 124). It has been argued that Acheulean tool Putt and colleagues concluded that (spoken) language wasn’t production is more cognitively demanding relative to Oldowan necessary for the transmission of handaxe manufacture and that its due to its supposed higher hierarchical and sequential complexity implementation in the earliest learning stages might hinder (e.g. Torre 2016: 8ff.). progress. Ohnuma et al. (1997) compared the efficiency of Due to space limitations and the fact that empirical studies almost “verbal” and “non-verbal demonstration” in the acquisition of exclusively focused on Oldowan and Acheulean, later hominin Levallois flaking. There were no significant differences between technologies will not be discussed here (but see §3). Additionally, the two conditions in the acquisition rates and mean times, and further insights into the cognitive implications of Palaeolithic flaking success from which Ohnuma and colleagues concluded tools have come from the recent discoveries of primate tool- that (spoken) language was not necessary for Levallois flaking. related behaviors (see Haslam et al. 2017 for a review). Nonetheless, Levallois has been linked to increased demands in sequential and hierarchical planning as well as self-monitoring 3. EMPIRICAL STUDIES (e.g. Schlanger 1996: 246ff.). Empirical studies concerned with the coevolution of cognition and It should, however, be noted that there exist considerable stone tool manufacture include (1) behavioral studies methodological variations in the observed studies as in the investigating the effects of different cultural transmission neuroimaging studies, e.g. in the selection, homogeneity and conditions on the acquisition of stone tool manufacture, and (2) preparatory modification of raw material, learning duration and neuroimaging studies of stone toolmaking or its observation. rates, presence of an experienced teacher, number of subjects etc. More detailed and critical analyses of the studies in question are, unfortunately, beyond the limitations of this paper. 3.2 Neuroimaging studies Some methodological constraints include (1) difficulties in Neuroimaging studies have been mainly trying to determine the neuroimaging of stone tool manufacture, e.g. due to the static cortical structures which would have been under selective nature of the conventional methods such as fMRI, or the possibly pressures, and then tying these structures to specific cognitive more harmful effects of FDG-PET on subjects due to longer and functions. Hecht et al. (2014) conducted a longitudinal DTI study more demanding activities (Stout and Chaminade 2007: 1096), (2) with participants who in a two-year program acquired basic small numbers of subjects and/or shorter learning periods due to Oldowan flaking, Acheulean handaxe manufacture and Levallois the need of collecting large amounts of raw material for tool flaking. They recorded fractional anisotropy changes in branches production and the known infrastructural limitations of of the superior longitudinal fasciculus leading into the left SMG neuroscientific research on the number or the mere existence of and vPrCG, and right pars triangularis (part of Broca’s area). They subjects, and (3) recruiting modern humans to study cognitive thus concluded that the acquisition of Palaeolithic stone tool abilities of extinct hominin species (e.g. Putt et al. 2017: 1). manufacture entails structural remodeling of inferior frontoparietal areas. Stout et al. (2008) further report from their 3.1 Cultural transmission studies PET study of Oldowan flaking and Acheulean handaxe To our knowledge only five such studies have been conducted manufacture by expert subjects that Oldowan and Acheulean while interpreting the results has been challenging. All have manufacture shared increased activation compared to the control included subjects in the earliest learning stages. Regarding condition in specific bilateral parietal clusters in the superior Oldowan, Morgan et al. (2015) compared transmission efficiency parietal lobule, IPS and SMG, and additionally in BA 17 and 18 in during flaking acquisition across five communication conditions. the occipital lobe. Stout et al. (2011) conducted an fMRI study in They found i.a. that the transmission improved with gestural and which subjects with different degrees of experience in Palaeolithic verbal teaching relative to imitation/eumlation as seen e.g. in flake toolmaking viewed 20-second clips of Oldowan flaking and quality and the number of viable flakes produced. Furthermore, Acheulean handaxe making. Compared to the control condition they found that verbal teaching improves performance relative to increased activation during observation of ESA toolmaking was gestural teaching. Morgan and colleagues argued that ESA yet again documented in the occipital and inferior parietal areas, technologies possibly generated selection for increasingly and the precentral gyri, and was further found in the inferior complex transmission modes. These results were in some measure temporal cortices and the right Broca’s area (BA 44 and 45). replicated by Lombao et al. (2017) who compared the efficiency These results suggest that early Palaeolithic toolmaking relies of imitation/emulation, and gestural and verbal teaching in the largely on motor and visuospatial processing, but two studies have acquisition of the alternating flaking method. They reported that 13 also recorded increased activity in the prefrontal cortex suggesting 4. CONCLUSION the involvement of hierarchical and sequential action processing. Behavioral studies tentatively demonstrate that language was not a Oldowan toolmaking has been described as involving mainly the prerequisite for early stone tool transmission. However, they frontoparietal sensorimotor areas, most notably the vPrCG, SMA suggest that non-linguistic gestures might have been under and IPS, and the cerebellum while it is not associated with selective pressure as early as Oldowan. Neuroimaging studies prefrontal activity (Stout 2000, 2007). Studies have concluded that show that Acheulean compared to Oldowan activates prefrontal Oldowan toolmaking relies mostly on motor and visuospatial areas suggesting that Acheulean possibly requires significantly processing with no apparent role of e.g. executive functioning, more executive control. While the prefrontal activity is mostly suggestive of more “ape-like” cognitive abilities (Putt et al. 2017: limited to BA 44 and 45 (Broca’s area), the nature of the 4). It is here notable that the parietal cortex has witnessed a coevolution of toolmaking and language remains largely significant enlargement during hominin evolution and it is unsettled. Future research should include later hominin suggested that the most pronounced changes occurred around the technologies and seek to determine the particular cognitive IPS as evidenced by an inferior displacement of the lower parietal functions associated with Acheulean- and Mousterian-related areas (Bruner 2010). 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(2015). lateralization patterns in language and Acheulean stone tool “Experimental evidence for the co-evolution of hominin tool- production: a functional transcranial doppler ultrasound making teaching and language”. Nat Commun, 6, 6029. study”. PLoS ONE, 8(8), e72693. 15 [42] Villmoare, B., Kimbel, W.H., Seyoum, C., Campisano, C.J., DiMaggio, E.N., Rowan, J., Braun, D.R., Arrowsmith, J.R., Reed, K.E. (2015). “Early Homo at 2.8 Ma from Ledi- Geraru, Afar, Ethiopia”. Science, 347(6228), 1352–5. 16 Psihonevrobiološka razvojna perspektiva razumevanja nasilja izr. prof. dr. Barbara Simonič Teološka fakulteta Katedra za zakonsko in družinsko terapijo ter psihologijo in sociologijo religije Poljanska c. 4, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija Tel: +386 1 4345810; fax: +386 1 4345854 e-mail: barbara.simonic@teof.uni-lj.si POVZETEK1 2. PROBLEMI DEFINICIJ AGRESIVNOSTI Kompleksnost nasilja se kaže v različnih pojavnih oblikah, vzročnosti, vzorcih, posledicah in kontekstih. Zaradi te kompleksnosti se IN NASILJA pojavljajo tudi težave pri preventivi in celoviti obravnavi nasilja. V Nasilje oz. agresivno vedenje se običajno smatra za nezaželeno, prispevku so prikazane nekatere dileme pri definiciji in razumevanju čeprav so pri tem nekatere izjeme glede na to, kakšno vedenje se v nasilja, s poudarkom na psihonevrobiološki perspektivi razvoja pa je določeni situaciji pojavlja. V določenih okvirih se namreč agresivno prikazana ena izmed možnosti razumevanja agresivnega vedenja oz. vedenje lahko smatra kot zaželeno (npr. samoobramba). Zaradi teh nasilja, ki lahko služi kot izhodišče za dolgoročno preprečevanje različnih okoliščin in vzrokov (motivacija, učinki, dejanja, psihološki, nasilja. socialni in politični pomen), v katerih se agresivno vedenje pojavlja, imamo o nasilju različne definicije. Ta različnost ustvarja tudi Ključne besede neenotnost pri razumevanju tega, kako se nasilje razume, kateri vzorci agresivnost, nasilje, splošni model agresivnosti, psihonevrobiologija, vedenja so prepoznani kot nasilni, kako so povezani faktorji tveganja razvoj, regulacija afekta ter tudi katere intervencije in politike so primerne pri preprečevanju nasilja. Pomanjkanje soglasja je ovira za usklajevanje raziskovanja, načrtovanja in oblikovanja učinkovitih ukrepov za preprečevanje in 1. UVOD obravnavo različnih oblik nasilja, posledice tega pa se odražajo v Agresivnost (nasilje)2 je kompleksen pojav, ki ga srečamo v različnih splošnem blagostanju družbe. Skoraj vsakdo lahko prepozna, ali je v pojavnih oblikah in v različnih dimenzijah družbene in osebne določeni situaciji neko dejanje ali situacija nasilna. Težje pa je v stvarnosti. Eden od razlogov, zakaj v določenih primerih ostaja ta splošnem določiti, kaj je nasilno in kaj ni [4]. S tega stališča je kljub pojav prezrt, je pomanjkanje jasne definicije, ki ni strogo znanstvena, občutku jasnosti, kaj nasilje je, to vseeno dvoumen pojav, kar se ampak je velikokrat tudi stvar presoje, ki je pogojena tudi s kulturo, pokaže pri poskusu splošnega označevanja in kategorizacije njegovih vrednotami in družbenimi normami trenutnega obstoja [1], vse to pa pojavov, logike pojavljanja in stopnjevanja, iskanju vzročnih razlag in predstavlja tudi težavo pri načrtovanju ukrepov preventive nasilja. njegovega vrednotenja, pri tem pa lahko nevarno zaidemo na področje Najbolj osnovne definicije nasilje opredeljujejo kot vedenje, ki je zagovarjanja pravičnosti nasilja [5]. namerno usmerjeno k povzročitvi škode in ki dejansko povzroči fizično ali psihično škodo. Svetovna zdravstvena organizacija [2] Kljub temu, da obstaja splošno soglasje o tem, da nasilje deluje opredeljuje nasilje kot namerno uporabo fizične sile ali moči, ki uničujoče in da za sabo vedno pušča žrtve, pa vseeno ostajajo vrzeli obstaja v obliki grožnje ali pa v dejanjih zoper samega sebe, drugo nedoločenosti, saj splošne definicije ne povedo, kdo ali kaj je bilo osebo ali proti skupini ali skupnosti, za posledico pa ima visoko poškodovano in kako resna je ta poškodba (npr. ali je lahko neko verjetnost, da povzroči telesno poškodbo, smrt, psihično škodo, zastoj agresivno vedenje zaradi težke psihiatrične diagnoze smatrano kot v rasti (razvoju) ali prikrajšanje (odvzem za razvoj potrebnih stvari). nasilje?). Učinkov nasilja, glede na kontekst, ni mogoče vedno jasno Zaradi škode, ki jo povzroča nasilje, je seveda primarnega pomena označiti kot pozitivne ali negativne [6]. Zdi se, da vsak poskus razmišljati o preventivi nasilja, pri čemer pa je primarnega pomena dokončnega določanja, kaj je nasilje, vedno nekomu dela krivico (ali razumevanje vzročnosti agresivnega vedenja, česar pa definicije osebi, ki je agresivna, ali pa žrtvi). Kar pa lahko z gotovostjo rečemo večinoma ne opredeljujejo. Pri tem so lahko v pomoč številni pogledi, pri vseh poskusih definicije nasilja pa je, da se pri vseh pojavlja teorije in modeli, ki na različne, a sorodne načine razlagajo etiologijo osnovno načelo prekoračitve meja – določiti, kaj pa so meje, pa se v nasilja [3]. dobi, ko se pojavlja opuščanje in relativizacija moralnih, spolnih, izobraževalnih, pravnih standardov, zdi spet zelo težka naloga [5]. 1 Doseženi rezultati so delno nastali v okviru projekta št. J5-9349, ki ga je pojasnjena. V prispevku tako uporabljamo izraza 'nasilje' in 'agresivno financirala Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije iz vedenje' kot sinonima, ki sta odraz zunanje manifestacije državnega proračuna. 'agresivnosti', ki pa označuje bolj notranje stanje oz. notranjo napetost 2 V pričujočem prispevku so izmenično uporabljeni različni izrazi, ki so v posamezniku in se nujno ne manifestira v zunanjem 'agresivnem velikokrat (po navedbah različnih avtorjev), razumljeni kot sinonimi: vedenju' oz. 'nasilju'. 'nasilje', 'agresivnost', 'agresivno vedenje'. V definicijah se pojma 'nasilje' in 'agresivnost' praviloma istočasno pojavljata in nista vedno razmejena ali 17 3. MODELI AGRESIVNOSTI IN zniževanje možnosti agresivnosti in agresivnega vedenja, saj vplivajo AGRESIVNEGA VEDENJA na kognicije, afekte in stopnjo telesnega vznemirjenja. V splošnem je tako, da več kot je dejavnikov tveganja za agresivnost, večja je Zaradi omenjene problematike se kot izhodišče razumevanja in možnost agresivnosti in agresivnega vedenja [10]. načrtovanja ukrepov za preprečevanja nasilja zdi bolj smiselno izhajati iz celostnih perspektiv razumevanja, kakršne predstavljajo V drugi fazi se torej odvija vpliv vnosov (osebnih in situacijskih različni modeli in ki vključujejo različne vzročne dejavnike tveganja dejavnikov) na poti, ki vodijo v procese ocenjevanja in odločanja za nasilje. Svetovna zdravstvena organizacija je npr. za razumevanje (agresivne ali neagresivne rezultate). Osebni in situacijski dejavniki kompleksnosti narave nasilja izoblikovala t.i. ekološki model (angl. lahko spremenijo afektivno stanje osebe, kognicije in stopnjo ecological) model, ki je dinamičen in odprt nenehnim dopolnitvam, telesnega vzburjenja. Vsi ti trije dejavniki oblikujejo trenutno notranje saj upošteva interakcijo in spreminjanje različnih dejavnikov, ki stanje osebe in so med seboj prepleteni. Npr. afektivno stanje lahko vplivajo na povečanje tveganja za izvajanje nasilja, in dejavnikov, ki vpliva na spoznavne procese in stopnjo fizične vznemirjenosti [11]. rizično vplivajo na to, da je nekdo žrtev nasilja. Ti dejavniki so Jeza npr. lahko spodbudi nasilno razmišljanje in poveča telesno razvrščeni na štiri ravni. Prva raven obravnava zgodovinske biološke vznemirjenost. Prav tako lahko spoznavni procesi in vznemirjenje in osebne dejavnike, ki vplivajo na ravnanje oseb in povečujejo vplivajo na afektivno stanje (npr. če interpretiramo situacijo kot možnost, da oseba postane bodisi nasilnež bodisi žrtev nasilja. Druga nasilno, se lahko poveča jeza, kar vodi v višjo stopnjo telesnega raven se omejuje na obravnavo bližnjih odnosov (npr. odnosi v vznemirjenja) [8]. družini, s prijatelji, intimnimi partnerji in ljudmi istega stanu) in raziskuje, kako ti odnosi povečujejo možnost, da oseba postane bodisi nasilnež bodisi žrtev nasilja. Tretja raven se osredotoča na organizirane skupnosti, v katerih potekajo družbene interakcije (npr. šole, delovna mesta, soseske) in išče značilnosti, ki povečujejo tveganje za izbruh nasilja. Četrta raven pa proučuje širše družbene dejavnike, ki oblikujejo klimo, ki nasilje bodisi spodbuja bodisi ga zavira [2]. Ekološki model razjasnjuje vzroke nasilja kakor tudi njihovo kompleksno vzajemno delovanje, zato predlaga, kaj je treba na različnih ravneh simultano storiti, da bi se nasilje preprečilo. Temu podoben je splošni model agresivnosti (angl. General Aggression Model – GAM), ki predstavlja celovit in integrativen model za razumevanje agresivnosti in agresivnega vedenja, nudi pa tudi razmislek o ključnih vidikih intervencij, ki bi lahko vodile k preprečevanju nasilnih in uničujočih odzivov [7]. Splošni model agresivnosti predpostavlja, da na človekovo agresivnost močno vplivajo zaznavne strukture, ki zaznamujejo veliko socialno-kognitivnih fenomenov, kot so percepcija, odločanje in vedenje. Nekatere teh najpomembnejših struktur vključujejo tudi prepričanja, sheme dojemanja, sheme pričakovanj in vedenjske skripte. Gre za strukture, ki se razvijajo preko izkušenj in lahko vplivajo na dojemanja na različnih nivojih, od preprostega dojemanja predmetov do kompleksnega dojemanja socialnih dogodkov [8]. Slika 1: Splošni model agresivnosti: bližnji in oddaljeni vzroki in procesi [12] . Splošni model agresivnosti (slika 1) v razlaganju agresivnosti združuje dve skupini procesov: 1. bližnji procesi (angl. proximate Skupaj te poti ustvarijo notranje stanje, ki poveča verjetnost izida processes) so tisti, ki so neposredno povezani z agresivnim vedenjem agresivnega vedenja [13]. To je tretja faza, kjer govorimo o rezultatih v danem trenutku; 2. oddaljeni procesi (angl. distal processes) pa so (procesi vrednotenja oz. ocene, ki so lahko tudi avtomatski, procesi tisti, ki vplivajo na bližnje procese preko globljih tendenc in struktur odločitve in agresivno ali neagresivno vedenje). V tej fazi torej oseba (gre za aspekt, kako biološki in okoljski dejavniki sodelujejo in ovrednoti situacijo in se odloči, kako se bo odzvala. Aktivnost, za vplivajo na osebnost osebe) [9]. V teh procesih pa splošni model katero se odloči, vpliva na socialne stike, ki povratno vplivajo na agresivnosti izpostavlja tri glavne faze oz. elemente interakcij med osebne in situacijske dejavnike, kar vodi v nov začetek cikla oz. osebo in situacijo, ki se pojavljajo kot 1. vnosi (angl. inputs), 2. poti epizode agresivnosti. Vsako ponavljanje epizode agresivnosti (ali (angl. routes) in rezultati (angl. outcomes) [8]. Prva faza so vnosi, kjer neagresivnosti) služi kot učni proces, ki lahko vpliva na razvoj gre za dejavnike dveh vrst. Prvi so povezani z osebo ( osebni dejavniki, agresivnih zaznavnih struktur (in tako osebnosti) skozi čas [8]. kot so spol, prepričanja, osebne lastnosti, vrednote, dolgoročni cilji, razpoloženje...) in predstavljajo stanje, v katerem se poveča možnost za agresivnost. Drugi dejavniki so povezani s situacijo ( situacijski 4. PSIHONEVROBIOLOGIJA RAZVOJA dejavniki, kot so provokacija, socialni stres, socialno zavračanje, KOT DEJAVNIK AGRESIVNOSTI frustracija, alkoholiziranost, nasilnost medijev, bolečina ali neudobje, V zgoraj omenjenih dimenzijah agresivnosti in nasilja, ki jih visoka temperatura, hrup, prisotnost orožja, ogrožajoči ali strah opredeljujejo različni modeli in definicije, se zdi, da so nekateri vzbujajoči dražljaji...), v kateri se poveča možnost za agresivne dejavniki tveganja za nasilno vedenje bolj dostopni posameznikovi reakcije [9]. Posamezni dejavniki ali kombinacija osebnih in kontroli, drugi pa manj. Predvsem zaskrbljujoči so slednji, saj le na te situacijskih dejavnikov predstavlja izhodišče za povečevanje ali posameznik težko neposredno vpliva, bodisi ker so vkoreninjeni v 18 splošne sheme prepričanja na družbeni ravni, ali pa ker predstavljajo na sam razvojni proces in tudi strukturo osebnosti posameznika [19]. nezavedne sfere njegove osebnosti. Glede na splošni model Travmatični odnosi in čustveno zanemarjanje negativno vplivajo na agresivnosti gre pri tem za oddaljene procese, kamor se uvrščajo strukturo in funkcijo desne hemisfere, subkortične strukture in biološki dejavniki (npr. ADHD, hormonsko neravnovesje, frontalni korteks [18]. Desna možganska hemisfera in subkortične hipersenzitivnost itd.) in okoljski dejavniki (npr. kulturne norme, ki strukture so temeljnega pomena v čustvenem procesiranju, podpirajo nasilje, nefunkcionalne družine in starševstvo, težki prefrontalni korteks pa igra pomembno vlogo pri regulaciji afekta življenjski pogoji, nasilne soseske in vrstniške skupine, nasilni mediji [20]. Tako ni čudno, da ti ljudje tudi kot odrasli trpijo posledice, ki itd.), ki vplivajo na osebnost posameznika [14]. Predvsem pri uničujoče delujejo v njihovem življenju in v življenjih njihovih okoljskih dejavnikih, kjer so vključeni odnosi z bližnjimi in bližnjih. V poznejših življenjskih obdobjih so otroci z varno predstavljajo okolje, v katerem se posameznik razvija, se zdi smiselno navezanostjo v večji meri sposobni razviti in vzdrževati dobre bližnje iskati tudi možnosti interveniranja, ki bi dolgoročno pripomoglo k odnose, zlasti s starši, vrstniki in partnerji kot ne-varno navezani preprečevanju kasnejšega agresivnega vedenja. otroci. Pri varno navezanih se v otroštvu, najstništvu in v odraslosti razvijejo različne bolj zaželene osebnostne lastnosti, pri njih je večja Zgodnje izkušnje s starši vplivajo na razvoj organske podlage naše verjetnost prisotnosti konstruktivnih oblik čustvovanja in čustvene osebnosti, in sicer se zapišejo v možgane, ki so dogovorni za samoregulacije, izražajo bolj pozitivno samospoštovanje [21]. procesiranje zavednih in nezavednih informacij skozi življenje. Med Različne motnje v odraslosti imajo svoje korenine v otroštvu, npr. nosečnostjo in v prvih dveh letih življenja so vzpostavljeni temelji motnje hranjenja, zloraba substanc, preveč impulzivno vedenje, čustvenega delovanja in čustvenih virov odraslega človeka. Takrat se pomanjkanje empatije, depresivnost, tesnobnost, agresivnost itd., kar oblikujejo »socialni možgani«, del možganov, ki se uči, kako je vse posledica tega, da zaradi slabe razvitosti čustvene regulacije obvladovati občutke v odnosu z drugimi ljudmi in v različnih posamezniki niso sposobni primernega upravljanja s svojimi občutki situacijah. Primarni odnos otroka, zlasti z materjo (ali drugim [16]. V povezavi s tem je pomembno poudariti, da so posamezniki, ki primarnim skrbnikom), tako zagotavlja osnovo za to, kako se bodo niso sposobni primerne regulacije afektov, kot je jeza in druga vzpostavili procesi regulacije afekta v otrokovih možganih. To bo tudi afektivna stanja, bolj nagnjena k agresivnemu vedenju, da bi s tem določilo posameznikovo večjo ali manjšo sposobnost za vstop v spremenili, odstranili ali se izognili neprijetnim čustvenim stanjem čustvena in socialna razmerja in situacije pozneje v življenju. Odnos (vzniku agresivnega občutja) [22]. Gre za stanje t.i. afektivne med otrokom in odraslim tako zagotavlja prostor za razvoj otroka [15]. disregulacije, o kateri govorimo, ko oseba ni sposobna primerno občutiti čustev, ko jo čustva prevzamejo ali ko ostanejo nerazrešena Ob rojstvu je otrok še »nedokončan«. Čeprav ima vse anatomske dele, [23]. pa je kot »surov material« z genetskim načrtom in edinstveno paleto možnosti, ki se morajo na določen način še razvijati skozi izkušnje, zlasti socialne [16]. Izkušnje v zgodnjem življenju so lahko še posebej Z vidika psihonevrobiološke perspektive razvoja kakovost odnosov s pomembne pri organiziranju načina razvijanja osnovnih regulativnih starši v zgodnjem otroštvu vpliva na razvoj možganskih področij, ki struktur v možganih. Vsakodnevne izkušnje tako oblikujejo strukturo so odgovorna za različne vrste regulativnih strategij. Šibko razvit možganov, ker aktivirajo določene poti v možganih, krepijo obstoječe prefrontalni korteks je značilen pri številnih psihopatoloških in povezave in ustvarjajo nove. Psihonevrobiološka perspektiva razvoja negativnih vedenjskih strategijah. Brez močnega prefrontalnega poudarja, da je zgodnje otroštvo obdobje, ko je določena osnovna korteksa mehanizmi samokontrole, pomirjanja sebe in občutka »arhitektura« v možganih [17]. povezanosti z drugimi, ne dozorijo [16]. V nezmožnosti uravnavanja močnih čustev zaradi nerazvitih procesov regulacije je tako mogoče Zgodnje socialno okolje (odnosi z primarnimi skrbniki) tako prepoznati vir nasilja [24]. Do tega pride zato, ker nedozoreli neposredno vplivajo na končno vzpostavljenost krogotokov v orbitofrontalni sistem ni sposoben regulirati impulzov (tudi možganih otroka, ki so odgovorni za prihodnje družbeno in čustveno agresivnih) iz nižjih limbičnih struktur, kar povečuje možnost življenje. Odnosi navezanosti neposredno oblikujejo zorenje otrokove agresivnega vedenja, ki predstavlja neprimerno regulacijo afektivnih desne hemisfere, posebej sisteme prefrontalnega dela desne hemisfere, stanj, ki vzniknejo v določeni situaciji (jeza, sram, strah...) [18]. ki so odgovorni za regulacijo čustev, vključno s pozitivnimi čustvi (npr. veselje in zanimanje), pa tudi negativnih čustev, kot sta strah in 5. SKLEP agresija [18]. Vzorci varne navezanosti vodijo tako v organiziranost Sposobnost regulacije čustev (tudi regulacija agresivnih impulzov) od primernega regulatornega sistema v prefrontalnih območjih desne otroštva naprej služi kot zaščitni faktor pred agresivnim vedenjem hemisfere, učinkovito delovanje v tem delu možganov pa je posameznika. Čeprav se ta sposobnost lahko razvija in dopolnjuje še osrednjega pomena za otrokovo naraščajočo sposobnost kasneje, se v prvih dveh letih življenja oblikujejo osnovni vzorci za samoregulacije, sposobnosti fleksibilnega uravnavanja stresnih soočanje z negativnimi in težavnimi čustvenimi situacijami. Človeška čustvenih stanj zaradi interakcij z drugimi ljudmi in samoregulacije v bitja so odprti sistemi, ki jih oblikujejo drugi ljudje. Človeški avtonomnih kontekstih. Gre za način, kako varni odnosi navezanosti psihološki in duševni sistemi se razvijajo v odnosu z drugimi ljudmi - (epizode nežnosti, uglašenosti, sinhronije) spodbujajo razvoj desne in to se najbolj intenzivno dogaja v otroštvu. Lahko rečemo, da je možganske hemisfere, pospešujejo učinkovito regulacijo afekta in človeški otrok najbolj družbeno vplivano bitje (ali biološki sistem) na gradijo temelje otrokovega psihičnega zdravja. Skrbnikova zemlji [16]. Biološki in socialni dejavniki so v človekovem razvoju senzitivnost je tako zunanji organizator otrokove biološke podlage zelo prepleteni in povezani, še posebej v obdobju zgodnjega razvoja. vedenjske regulacije. Na podlagi tega se v določenem trenutku razvije Seveda imajo genetika in okoljski dejavniki vpliv na dojenčke, vendar tudi samoregulacija otroka, ko se v relacijskem okolju dogradijo so socialni dejavniki, zlasti senzitivna nega in skrb skrbnika tisti, ki notranji regulatorni mehanizmi [18]. vplivajo in dejansko spremenijo biološke elemente (kot sta kemija možganov in možgansko tkivo). Zelo pomembno je, da ne V primeru slabih relacijskih okvirov razvoja lahko govorimo o zanemarjamo razmerja med biologijo, izkušnjami in vedenjem, saj je relacijski travmi, ki v nevrobiološkem delovanju otroka pušča povsem to lahko škodljivo in uničujoče za našo celotno družbo [24]. Zato je v drugačne vzorce, saj negativno vpliva na od izkušenj odvisne razvojne povezavi s tem bistveno razmisliti in razviti ustrezne programe za procese v delovanju možganov. To pušča dolgoročen negativen vpliv zgodnje ukrepanje, ki bi lahko delovali tudi kot zaščitni dejavnik proti 19 tveganju agresivnega vedenja in nasilja. Tovrstno ukrepanje, ki bi [14] Anderson, C. A. in Carnagey, N. L. (2004). Violent evil and the spodbujalo zdrave odnose med primarnimi skrbniki in otrokom General Aggression Model. V: A. G. Miller (ur.), The Social (preprečevanje relacijske travme in spodbujanje učinkovitega in Psychology of Good and Evil (str. 168-192). New York: Guilford senzitivnega starševstva), se mora začeti še pred otrokovim rojstvom Press. in ga je treba podaljšati skozi perinatalno in postnatalno obdobje. [15] Simonič, B. in Poljanec, A. (2014). Building Motherhood in the Programi za učinkovito starševstvo (na katerem koli področju - Young Mothers' Group. Child Care in Practice, 20(3), 270-285. pediatrija, psihiatrija, psihologija, socialno delo, izobraževanje, pastoralna oskrba ...) lahko ustvarijo razvojni kontekst za [16] Gerhard, S. (2004). Why Love matters. London: Routledge. preoblikovanje ne-varne navezanosti v varno in na ta način spodbudijo [17] Siegel, D. J. (2012). The Developing Mind. New York: Norton. od izkušenj odvisno nevrobiološko zorenje desne hemisfere, ki je ključnega pomena pri primerni regulaciji različnih motivacijskih [18] Schore, A. N. (2003). Early relational trauma, disorganized (afektivnih) stanj, vključno z agresivnimi [18]. Dejstva, ki jih je attachment, and the development of a predisposition to violence. razkrila (nevro)znanost v preteklih desetletjih, so jasna in jih ni V: M. F. Solomon in D. J. Siegel (ur.), Healing trauma (str. 112- mogoče zanikati: obstaja velika priložnost za nekaj, kar bi 113). New York: W. W. Norton & Company. posamezniku omogočilo optimalen začetek, da bo bil kar najbolje [19] Repič Slavič, T. in Gostečnik, C. (2017). Relational Family čustveno opremljen za soočanje z izzivi življenja. 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Indian Journal of Health and Wellbeing, 8(7), 729-733. 20 Emergence of Visual Consciousness in ADHD Children Katja Zupanič Rawan Y. Fakhreddine Zoltán Nádasdy University of Ljubljana University of Texas at Austin Eötvös Loránd University Maribor Austin, Texas Budapest katja.zupanich@gmail.com rawan-f10@utexas.edu zoltan@utexas.edu ABSTRACT neural correlates of consciousness. While some were occupied with The nature of consciousness has excited the imagination of the search of a common center of the brain responsible for scientists and researches for years. In the past, some were of the conscious awareness, others search for multiple regions or systems opinion that a single part of the brain is important fort he emergence that play an important role in the production of consciousness. of consciousness, while some disagreed, one of the first being the William James was one of the first advocates of this position. He psychologist William James, who claimed that what is important claimed that consciousness is a result of the common effort of the for its emergence is the function of the brain as a whole and that whole brain (Principles of Psychology, 1890/1950, as cited in [3]). parallel function of different parts is key. In our study we focus However, an increasing quantity of empirical evidence shows that mainly on the research of visual consciousness. We want to find out some parts of the brain are much more important than others when whether there is a difference in the emergence of visual it comes to the production and expression of conscious awareness. consciousness between healthy participant (children ages 6-16) and These are mainly the thalamocortical system and the reticular children diagnosed with ADHD. We attempt to measure the system of the brain stem [3]. emergence of visual consciousness using an experimental paradigm designed by dr. Zoltán Nádasdy and his team. In the search for brain regions involved in the creation of consciousness there is a structure that has gathered a lot of attention Keywords – the thalamus. The thalamus is a structure in the midbrain found at visual consciousness, ADHD, visual attention, visual integration the top of the brain stem. In the mid-1800 the idea already appeared that the thalamus is the sensory center of the brain. 1. INTRODUCTION Neuroanatomical examinations of patients showed that thalamic The nature of consciousness has puzzled mankind since the regions in an otherwise unaffected brain caused major sensory beginning of time. What is consciousness, how can our physical dysfunction. These neuroanatomical findings showed that the brain interpret subjective experience, what are qualia? The question thalamus plays a key role in the processing of sensory information also presents itself as in where in the brain does consciousness lie. [4]. Later neuroanatomical studies of the thalamus and its All these are questions that scientists have been posing for years connections to other parts of the brain highlighted its function in and still today. sensory processing and integration. It is important to note that it was discovered that all sensory information travels through the What is consciousness, where is consciousness formed, which thalamus before reaching the corresponding parts of the cortex [3]. neural correlates are responsible for consciousness, all these are questions that scientists and philosophers are occupied with today Francis Crick [1] contributed much to the literature on and were occupied with in the past. The search for rigorously consciousness by suggesting that the TRN (thalamic reticular defined neural correlates has been going on for decades.Some nucleus) and the dorsal thalamus play a key role in consciousness recent studies these days identify the thalamus as a central structure by means of controlling and expressing an internal attentional implicated in conscious awareness [4]. The thalamus works as a searchlight as first suggested by Treisman and colleagues (1991, as relay station or a passageway of sensory information into certain cited in [1]). Crick suggested the TRN produces rapid firing in parts of the cerebral cortex [4], which means that all information thalamic relay neurons to control the brain’s attentional searchlight, we are consciously aware of (except olfactory) meets the thalamus acting on Malsburg synapses to create conjunctions of neurons, at some point. expressed by cell assemblies, which Crick believes to be the neural expression of the attentional searchlight. The study we present in the paper, tests visual awareness using an By researching attentional capacity of the brain at tasks comprising experimental paradigm developed by dr. Nádasdy and colleagues. different types of search, researchers noted that the brain searches The task comprised visual integration of image fragments presented consecutively, focusing on one object at a time, before moving on on a computer screen. The project connects the neuroscientific and to the next [1]. psychological aspects of visual consciousness. In his attempt to explain how the thalamocortical system controls We assume a critical point in time when visual consciousness (of attention, Crick suggested the following mechanism: when sensory recognition of an image as a whole or non-whole) emerges and we signals pass through the TRN on their way to the cortex, this causes posit that this time of emergence is delayed with certain excitation. Crick suggested that the TRN and dorsal thalamus work developmental or neurological (neuropsychological) disorders, together to increase activity at the most active thalamocortical namely in ADHD children. pathways and at the same time reduce activity in less active parts 2. THEORETICAL BASIS of the thalamocortical network. He described this mechanism as “… the heating up of the warmer parts of the thalamus and the As the body of neurological knowledge has dramatically grown in cooling down of the colder parts” [1] (page 4587). the past few decades, so too has grown the interest in and search for 21 3. HYPOTHESIS 4.3 Procedure Our hypothesis is that there is a certain amount of information The test is composed of 100 trials, presented in series on a computer needed to be able to put together image fragments with confidence screen. In every trial, 4 similar images were shown on the screen, (confidence here not referring to the reported level of confidence divided by black borders slightly covering the images (in the shape by subjects). Hence, the decision point to reach a certain level of of a cross). Every trial included eight phases where the borders confidence for a given image is consistent across healthy subjects. between images diminish in 7 steps from thick to very narrow. This point can be standardized for a selected set of pictures and the Lastly, in the 8th phase, it is revealed whether the four fragments test can be validated. Having the image set standardized, the test join into a whole or remain different. should be sensitive to disorders implicated in consciousness, By pressing the “S” key it is meant that the subject believed that the attention, mental focus, and visual integration processes such as presented fragments are part of a continuous picture, pressing “R”, functions compromised in ADHD. We also wish to find out the person believed that the images are part of four different whether our test is appropriate for the detection of such disorders. pictures and pressing “N”, the subject was unsure about the The main research goal is to test the hypothesis and based on this continuity of the presented image fragments. construct a theoretical framework describing the differences at the An exit command was also added to the program in case any emergence of visual consciousness in healthy children and children participant wanted to stop before finishing the task. In this case, the with ADHD. participant had the option of pressing the “escape” key on the 4. THE EXPERIMENT keyboard, which would save their data and immediately leave the program. 4.1 Method Participants sit down in front of a computer screen on which four 4.4 Expected Results very similar pictures appear, divided by black lines. The participant decides whether the images compose one joint picture or whether We call the moment during the task when subjects suddenly see and they are different. They record their decision by pressing a key on decide that the picture fragments are merging an “aha” experience. the computer keyboard. At every keystroke the lines between the We define this moment as the emergence of visual consciousness. images thin until the entire picture is revealed and it becomes clear The moment when different subjects reach this level of visual whether the images form a whole. The pictures include themes from consciousness, we predict, should depend on how effectively they everyday life (houses, cars, landscape, furniture etc.), various kinds process and analyze image fragments. Children diagnosed with of animals and abstract pictures, like pictures of the universe, ADHD may not be able to integrate the fragments of visual microscopic cells etc. information as effectively as children with normal cognitive control do. Hence, with this task we aim to quantify the execution of visual consciousness. In our study, visual consciousness is experimentally tested using a between-subjects design. The independent variable is the 5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS manipulation of trials. During solving time, the task has seven We would like to thank Osnovna šola Kidričevo and Zavod levels equivalent to every phase of testing. The dependent variable Mavrični bojevnik for their help and support recruiting our is the judgment of participants about the continuity of the images participants, and of course all of the children and parents who were presented in every phase (by pressing a computer key). willing to work with us. 4.2 Progress 6. REFERENCES So far 48 children have taken part in the study. The control group [1] F. Crick. Function of the thalamic reticular complex: the consists of 20 students of the Kidričevo elementary school, (10 searchlight hypothesis. Proceedings of the National Academy female, 10 male), aged between 8 and 9 years. The participants of Sciences, 81(14):4586-4590, 1984. were primary school children that took part in the research study [2] F. Crick, C. Koch. Towards a neurobiological theory of voluntarily with parental or legal guardian consents. There are 28 consciousness. Seminar in the Neurosciences, 2: 263-275, children (27 male, 1 female) in the target group, 8 children age 6- 1990. 8, 15 age 11-14 and 5 age 10-12. [3] G. Edelman. Consciousness: The remembered present. The criterion for inclusion was an age of above 5 years and under Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 929(1): 111- 15 years. The final sample of the group of all participants was 122, 2006. planned to encompass at least 50 children (25 tested children in the control group and 25 tested children with a psychiatric ADHD [4] E. G. Jones. The Thalamus. Plenum Press. New York, NY diagnosis). 1985 22 European Legal Regulation of Self-learning Systems Tjaša Zapušek University of Copenhagen Faculty of Law - LL.M. Njalsgade 76, København, Denmark tjasa.zapusek@gmail.com ABSTRACT nature. [Deangelis 2014] On 20 February 1947, Alan Turing had a Modern technology often gives us an impression of a better life, yet lecture at the London Mathematical Society, where he enlightened simultaneously raises new risks that have not been present ever the academic public with the statement that “what we want is a before. This paper will present differences between three different machine that learns from experience”.[Press 2017, 1] Alan Turing ‘decision-making processes’ that occur as a consequence of three concluded his lecture with these words: “Putting the same point different types of systems, namely, AI can be equipped with a differently, the machine must be allowed to have contact with deterministic algorithm, a supervised, or an unsupervised learning human beings in order that it may adapt itself to their standards.” algorithm. Through this systematization, concerns regarding [Turing 1947, 14] foreseeability and certainty of the system’s actions will be In these few decades, since Alan Turing first introduced machine examined. The scope of the thesis is limited to foreseeability learning and algorithms, the latter have become a big and a regarding harm caused by physical machines or products, equipped ubiquitous part of our lives. They are used for data processing, with advanced algorithms. This paradox raises questions regarding calculations and automated reasoning. [Deangelis 2014] the role of scientists in situations when they are facing uncertain risks, and legal scholars when regulating advanced technology. “To make a computer do anything, you have to write a computer program. To write a computer program, you have to tell the Keywords computer step by step, exactly what you want it to do. The self-learning systems, algorithms, strict liability, development risk computer then ‘executes’ the program, following each step defence, product liability, product safety, machine learning mechanically, to accomplish the end goal. When you are telling the computer what to do, you also get to choose how it’s going to do it. 1. INTRODUCTION That’s where computer algorithms come in. The algorithm is the Presence of artificial intelligence (AI) in our everyday life will call basic technique used to get the job done”. [Deangelis 2014, 1] into question the efficiency of existing legal rules. Yet before we Pursuant to Deangelis, the point where this explanation could be focus on regulating liability concerning the harm caused by a slightly adjusted is where the text indicates that ‘you have to tell machine equipped with advanced algorithms we should focus on the computer step by step what you want it to do’. [Deangelis 2014] the question ‘is risk assessment is even possible, can we even Instead of following pre-defined and programmed instructions, predict (with existing scientific knowledge) potential consequences some computer algorithms are designed in a way that enable a of these machines?’ computer to learn on their own, in fact they facilitate machine learning which may result in a creation of unique corrections When policy makers and judicial authorities are confronted with an between obtained data that sometimes ‘produce’ unforeseeable uncertain situation they turn to experts for definite answers and outcomes [Deangelis 2014] Legal concerns that have been conclusive evidences, even though uncertainty and absence of emphasized in this thesis can be summarized with the statement by foreseeability clearly precludes definitiveness and conclusiveness. Dr. Panos Parpas, who is a lecturer at Imperial College London, The following research questions were developed in order to define that reservations of academics and people around the world are not the research problem and further, to address the gaps in existing directed towards the algorithms per se, but towards the structure of legislation. a society and its ability/inability to cope with algorithms (data use). [Hickman 2013] At the moment, we are witnessing an awkward (i) What is the nature of algorithmic uncertainty? marriage between algorithms and data. [Deangelis 2014] Together (ii) How does the European legislation address the concept of with technological progress there will be mistakes, but it should be uncertainty and un-foreseeability? taken into account that machines are just a tool and tools should not be blamed. [Deangelis 2014] Learning as such can present either 2. ALGORITHMS acquiring or enhancing existing knowledge. As stated by Herbert The algorithmic breakthrough is often connected with Alan Turing, Simon, machine learning refers to adaptive changes in a particular whose one of the most ground-breaking achievements was breaking system that enable the system to perform the same task (or tasks the German Enigma code during the Second World War. [Roberts which have been drawn from the same population) more precisely 2016] In 1952, he published a set of mathematical equations and effectively next time. [Sathya 2013] The text below will through which he wanted to explain the pattern we see in nature, introduce different types of algorithms and their main features. such as zebra stripes and leopard spots. [Serna 2017] These Through this systematization, concerns regarding certainty and algorithms are still in use when describing patterns that emerge in foreseeability of their actions and consequences will be presented. 23 2.1. Deterministic algorithms 2017] A machine that is in the process of unsupervised learning This algorithm is constructed to prevent a machine from making finds input data and classifies it (according to its own criteria) in autonomous decisions, creating new patterns, and consequently different categories. [Ploj 2013] We use unsupervised learning creating unpredictable outcomes. [Zapušek 2017] Robots equipped algorithms to identify hidden patterns and unlabelled input data, with deterministic algorithms follow predefined paths. [Sathya 2013] since they are capable of mining new data and [Hildebrandt 2016] The major significance that distinguishes the creating novel, unexpected patterns. [Ploj 2013] The system is first group of algorithms from the others is that the final action, blinded when it goes into an operation. [Van Loon 2018] It carries machine’s response or steps have already been predicted by a out its own immense and faultless logical operations that serve as human being. [Hildebrandt 2016] In the case of a deterministic guidance, but still due to the lack of exact input and output data (the algorithm, we will always find someone liable for a robot’s actions system has no reference data at all) the transparency of the process – as it will be presented in the text bellow, existing legal rules and steps is not clear. [Van Loon 2018] Despite the lack of concerning the liability of the producer will suffice. transparency this algorithm has the powerful ability to interpret limitless amount of data, through its binary logic. [Van Loon 2018] 2.2. Supervised learning algorithms 3. UNCERTAINTY More advanced forms of algorithms can enable machine learning and supervised learning algorithm is one of them. [Hildebrandt Uncertainty, as a concept, has been around for a long time, Its roots 2016] In the case of supervised learning algorithms, a machine is stretch back to Plato and Socrates, who exposed their doubt whether fed with a so-called training set by human supervisors, which scientific knowledge, no matter how elaborated and consists of particular data and predefined patterns that provide comprehensive, reflects reality. [Tannert 2007] Kant and Prauss some sort of a background on what counts as a desired and extended the idea about uncertainties with the statement that the satisfactory solution or outcome. [Ploj 2013] Hence, in the case of more detail we have about the mysteries of nature, the more we supervised learning, the machine already knows the output of the become aware of limitations of our knowledge about what things algorithm, before it even starts learning. [Van Loon 2018] Since the as such are, how do they work, etc. [Kant 2013] Limitations to our outcome is already known, all that a system needs to do is to understanding are the main reason for our inability to foresee future execute steps and processes that are needed to get from input to the events and their effects. [Tannert 2007] When policy makers and desired output. In a situation, when algorithms produce completely judicial authorities are confronted with an uncertain situation they different and unexpected results, training data serves as a guidance turn to experts for defined answers and conclusive evidences, even to steer the algorithm back towards the right path. [Van Loon 2018] though uncertainty clearly precludes definitiveness and For this reason, a supervised model can also be called error back- conclusiveness. [Fox 2009] The paradox causes questions propagation algorithm. [Van Loon 2018] Such error correction- regarding the role of scientist and scholars in situations when they learning algorithms have been thought to train the network based are facing uncertain risks when regulating advanced/modern on the input and output samples and to find error signals, which technology. In the analysis of cases of EU risk regulations it has denote the difference of the desired output and output calculated. been observed that the uncertainty paradox leads to non-effective [Van Loon 2018] and unintelligible policy-making processes. [Fox 2007] As emphasized by Mourik [Mourik 2004], without sufficiently 2.3. Unsupervised learning algorithms designed infrastructure, not only will questions concerning This one is, compared to a supervised learning algorithm, not (yet) responsibility eventually emerge, the non-sufficient regulation may as widespread and frequently. [Brummette 2017] Although the also lead to a state called ‘organized irresponsibility’. [Fox 2009] unsupervised learning algorithm has not been used on a wider scale Ulrich Beck uses this term when society is ill-prepared and is yet, its capabilities and methodology represent the future of consequently unable to effectively respond to the “inevitable machine learning. [Van Loon 2018] A good illustration of this type surprises, negative consequences and/or long-term impacts of machine learning would be imagining a child who has just started associated with uncertain risks”. [Fox 2009, 1] The idea behind discovering the world. [Brummette 2017] After his first interaction ‘risk society’ suggests that a world has become more hazardous, yet with a four-legged animal, he might hear someone call out the word this is not entirely true. [Giddens 1999] [Beck 2009] The society “dog”. [Brummette 2017] After a while, when the child sees other has become increasingly preoccupied with the future and safety that four-legged animals, such as a cow, a cat, or a horse, he thinks they generate the notion of risk. [Giddens 1999] With the term ‘risk’ we are all dogs. [Brummette 2017] “This is because the natural are describing potential events with particular consequences which classification methods installed in a human brain informed him that are evaluated as negative. [Fox 2009] The economist Knight the trait ‘four legs’ is associated with a specific animal type. As the emphasizes that risk and uncertainty are not synonyms per se. He child grows and sees more four-legged animals, additional detailed views a risk as calculable, hence controllable island in the ocean of classifications emerge. Dogs, cows, and horses are all discovered uncertainty. [Van Asselt 2006] Risk will usually be applied to the to have distinct traits and become a subset of four-legged animals situations where all potential future outcomes can be specified, in the child’s mind.” [Brummette 2017, 1] The idea of comparing uncertainty as a bare term can be applied in the situations where all machine learning process with a child’s brain was also presented potential future outcomes cannot be defined or specified before by Alan Turing in his paper ‘Computing machinery and their occurrence. [Faber 1992] It is natural that whenever we make intelligence’. [Turing 1950] He compared a child’s brain with a a decision that contains unpredictable factors, we need to weight notebook. According to him there are “rather little mechanisms, not only potential outcomes, but also their benefits and risks. The and lots of blank sheets”. [Turing 1950, 19] Hence, heading back scale of potential consequences of decisions that are carried out on to scientific conclusions about the unsupervised machine learning a national, European or even international level have a much greater technique, which makes correlations between obtained data without influence on people in comparison with individual decisions. previously hypothesizing them. [Zapušek 2017] [Hildebrandt Uncertainty as such has no ethical quality, it is inherent to an 2016] Without the provision of a training set, consisting of data and individual situation. [Tannert 2007] But, if there are concerns predefined patterns, the machine cannot familiarize itself with regarding dangerousness of a situation, uncertainty itself may information and what counts as a desirable solution. [Zapušek trigger ethically adjusted behavior, the main purpose of which is 24 the avoidance of danger and diminution of existing risks – which regulation on the European level follows the same pattern. The EC might be the case when the society is confronted with products, Directive on Liability for Defective Products (hereinafter: Liability equipped with self-learning algorithms that lead product’s actions. Directive) [Council Defective Products], adopted in 1985 ensures [Tannert 2007] “When it comes to decisions that affect people’s that producers take responsibility for their products vis-a-vis lives and health [...] carrying out research to diminish uncertainty consumers. It was one of the first pieces of European legislation and, consequentially, risks can become an ethical duty.” [Tannert that explicitly focused on the consumers’ protection and which 2007, 892] introduced the concept of strict liability, where producers are held liable regardless of whether the defect is their fault. In its article 4. FORESEEABILITY IN TORT LAW 7(e) the producer can escape liability for harm caused by the Cosmologists suggest that the Universe is comprised largely of defective product by showing that the state of scientific and ‘dark matter’, for ninety per cent of matter in the Universe does not technical knowledge at the time when they put the product into glow, but is dark. [Baker 2010] Even though we cannot directly see circulation was not such as to enable the discovery of the existence dark matter, we can detect its mass through its gravitational pull on of the defect. [Council Defective Products] The Liability Directive other astronomical objects in the Universe. [Baker 2010] This introduced a new common scheme of strict liability that in invisible stuff is powerful enough to bind all things together. comparison with the law of negligence does not require a According to professor David Owen, foreseeability is the “dark producer’s negligent behaviour. [Alaimo 2014] In negligent cases matter” of tort which connects its components, and “gives moral the claimant has to prove that the defendant knew/ought to have content to the law of negligence, controlling how each element fits known about the present risk. [Van Dam 2013] However, the new together and, ultimately, whether one person is bound to pay scheme presented by the Liability Directive sets the requirement in another for harm” [Owen 2009, 1277]. From a legal perspective its Article 4 regarding proof of the existence of a product’s defect, the test of foreseeability can be described with a sentence “whether harm, and a causal link between these two. [Council Defective one can see a systematic relationship between the type of accident Products] The creators of the Liability Directive wrote the that the plaintiff suffered and...the defendant’s (by provisions that allow national legislations to limit and dilute strict someone/something defendant is responsible for) wrongdoing.” liability. [Alaimo 2014] One of these provisions is also the [De Villiers 2015, 344] Considering the aspect of foreseeability a “development risk defence” which is still considered one of the defendant may escape liability if scientists could not predict (ex most controversial parts of this Directive. [Elliott 2011] The latter ante) a systematic relationship between wrongdoing and harm. [De is very similar to the ‘state of art’ defence that has been developed Villiers 2015] For many years, in civil law systems of most in negligence cases. [Arbour 2014] This so-called development risk European countries, tort liability was based on a broadly defined defence is enshrined in previously mentioned Article 7(e) of the general clause of fault liability. [Werro 2004] However, in the 19th Liability Directive under which the producer can escape liability century, Europe was confronted with an increase in technical and for harm caused due to lack of knowledge. According to Stapleton, industrial risks. [Werro 2004] For this reason, the majority of the above mentioned Article does not refer to risks of a product, European legal systems established liability rules which provide rather it is directed at the discoverability of the defect itself. some form of strict liability. [Werro 2004] A distinction between [Stapleton 1994] Consumer associations’ opinions believed that it fault liability and strict liability lies in their conceptual levels. “The is crucial to protect consumers from unknown and unforeseeable distinctive factor is whether or not liability rests on the judgment risks, and that the adoption of the mentioned defence (and that the defendant should have behaved otherwise than he did”. consequently the exclusion of liability for such risks) would create [Werro 2004, 7] In order to decide whether a defendant acted with a gap [Petitpierre 1974] in a general protection of consumers. fault, we need to determine all relevant standards of conduct and [Alaimo 2014] The majority of these associations claimed that the then establish that a defendant did not meet these standards. [Werro development risk defence weakens the principle of strict liability, 2004] The determination regarding the standard of care is based on and due to un-foreseeability it puts an unreasonable burden on objective criteria. [Werro 2004] Legal systems of other European consumers. [Alaimo 2014] Producer associations’ hold the opposite countries on the other hand focus primarily on the so-called ‘what position and argue that the exclusion of such a defence would could reasonably be expected of the defendant’ standard. [Werro significantly discourage scientific and technical research and 2004] Therefore, we may conclude that the limitation of negligence prevent marketing of new high tech products. [Alaimo 2014] The liability to so-called foreseeable harm prevents us to hold a idea behind the protection of producers against development risks defendant liable for not taking precautions with respect to harm is that despite taking into account all available scientific and which was not reasonably foreseeable. Fault liability can be technical knowledge it is impossible for the producer of the product explained in one sentence as a liability for reasonably foreseeable to foresee the risk in question. [Van Dam 2013] To sum up, and avoidable harm. [Werro 2004] Compared to fault liability, producers cannot be considered negligent if they have (within strict liability is “concerned with the precautionary consequences reasonable limits) analyzed and gathered all available scientific and of harm not attributable to a lack of precaution on the part of the technical knowledge. [Alaimo 2014] Making a final decision defendant, or with what may be referred to as ‘accidental harm’.” concerning liability and compensation after the occurrence of harm [Werro 2004, 9] Besides liability for reasonably foreseeable and is important, yet not enough. In order to provide comprehensive avoidable harm, it can also extend to unforeseeable and regulation of modern technologies, filling the liability gaps will unavoidable harm. [Werro 2004] [Viney 1998] Even though the simply not be enough. Deciding on liability questions must be concept of reasonably foreseeable and avoidable harm is primarily carried out simultaneously with controlling such risks before they used in negligence cases, it would be incorrect if we claimed that cause harm. However, the prohibition of the development risk probability and foreseeability issues are irrelevant to strict liability. defence, meaning the extension of a producer’s liability to development risks would almost certainly cause more harm than 5. DEVELOPMENT RISK DEFENCE benefit [Alaimo 2014], because: (1) complete liability regarding an Existing legislation of the majority of European member states unforeseeable event would most probably lead producers to regulates strict liability in the way that excludes liability for harm irrational decisions in research and development, as well as if the latter lies beyond certain limits of foreseeability. Legal innovation. [Alaimo 2014] The adoption of the development risk 25 defence suggests that too much liability might chill innovation; will be held responsible for the harm caused by modern technology, [Arbour 2014] (2) holding producers completely liable could especially if we have the capacity (knowledge) to identify the risks become an incentive for excessive litigation because plaintiffs will and through thorough research predict potential consequences of get compensation as soon as they prove the existence of a defect their operation. According to Arbour “(...) it may not be in a and a causal link between the cause and harm; [Alaimo 2014] (3) it producer’s best interest to know too much (...) as too much will cause financial problems, since it will be difficult to provide knowledge could lead to the exclusion of the DRD (development enough finances to compensate victims.[Alaimo 2014] risk defence), and, consequently, expose producers to liability.” The Liability Directive complements European product safety [Arbour 2014, 932] However, the pile of iron and cables will (in the majority of cases – except ‘vis major’) not be the main reason legislation and this is known as the ‘New Approach’ to product for unforeseeable consequences, the major issue is the operation of safety. The latter focuses on the prevention of accidents by setting the machine, its program and its self-learning capabilities. This is common safety rules which allow single market for goods to reduce why the provisions and the regulatory scope of not only the Safety administrative burden and to function as smoothly as possible. [Report 2018] In theory, as stated in Section 36 of the preamble of Directive, but also the Liability Directive needs to pay attention to software and algorithms – How does it work, which factors are the Safety Directive, [Council Product Safety] “this Directive (the relevant for the final outcome, and is the power to monitor these Safety Directive) should not affect victims’ rights within the factors in our hands? meaning on Council Directive 85/374/EEC of 25 July 1985... concerning liability for defective products (the Liability 6. EU RULES ON PRODUCT SAFETY Directive).” [Council Defective Products] However, in legal For a long time, product safety as a sector has been regulated at a practice the provisions and the scope of matters regulated by the national level as a part of public law (in Germany Safety Directive affect consumer’s liability. A requirement for ‘Gerätesicherheitsgesetz’ [GESETZ]). [Cafaggi 2009] “These deeper research results in greater awareness, not only of producers norms provided a set of rules for the producers regarding product and programmers, but also consumers. It can be claimed that safety, supplemented by technical standards for specific products removal of a development risk defence could lead producers set by hybrid state-private bodies”. [Cafaggi 2009, 245] However, towards stricter internal policies on safety. [Alaimo 2014] the European Commission quickly realized that differences However, keeping the development risk defence as it is – as a safe between technical regulations and standards among member states legal bubble that allows producers to escape liability for of the European Union presented an obstacle for trade. [Cafaggi unforeseeable and unpredictable consequences is a risky option as 2009] For this reason, in order to improve free movement of goods, well. In Rosselli’s recommendations for the European Commission the European Community started to follow the concept of ‘full it has been emphasised that researchers need to focus on the harmonization’ of technical requirements concerning a specific analysis of mutual impact between the development risk defence type of product. [Cafaggi 2009] Despite the effort, the European and general product safety legislation, which has not yet been Commission soon realized that this approach will not be successful carried out. [Alaimo 2014] In Europe, we must achieve greater due to the inflexibility of the European legislation. The latter was coherence between the Liability Directive and the Safety Directive not able to keep pace with fast technological progress and this led (and their transpositions in national legislation). In order to provide to the abolishment of the idea about full harmonization. [Cafaggi a comprehensive and an efficient legal response to modern 2009] However, the European Commission found a solution technologies it is necessary to place involve independent scientists through the judgment of the European Court of Justice in the and researchers to evaluate product safety. [Alaimo 2014] The ‘Cassis the Dijon’ case where the Commission developed a well- latter would help producers and the society avoid the so-called known principle of mutual recognition that resulted in a ‘New ‘junk-science’ getting a place in the courtroom. [Arbour 2014] Approach’ [ECJ 120/78], which should soon become the main Even though the boundaries of the development risk defence have concept for product safety regulations. [Cafaggi 2009] The latter is been set by the judiciary, the courtroom is not an appropriate place based on the so-called hybrid regulation, meaning that for scientific guesswork, Justice Posner concluded in the case main/essential requirements regarding product safety, which are in Rosen vs Ciba-Geigy Corp. [Rosen 1996] the public interest, are harmonized in EU directives, yet Requirements in the Safety Directive regarding detailed and special/unique requirements on the other hand are listed in technical thorough evaluation referring to potential consequences (evaluators standards (harmonized standards), developed by private European must foresee the unforeseeable and pass this knowledge to the standards organizations (such as CEN, CENELEC, ETSI) and are producers or manufacturers) are very important for further officially mandated by the Commission. [39] The benefit of evaluation regarding the liability for harm caused by a machine or keeping manufactured products in conformity with harmonized a product. Pursuant to the Report of European Commission “2018 standards is the presumption that products are in line with the is not 1985 (when The Liability Directive was adopted). The EU corresponding essential requirements. In other words, conformity and its rules on product safety have evolved, as have the economy with technical standards will relieve the producer of the burden of and technologies. Many products available today have proof that products meet all the requirements concerning product characteristics that were considered science fiction in the 1980s. safety. [Cafaggi 2009] On this point it is important to mention that The challenges we are facing now and even more acutely in the only the essential safety requirements are mandatory and future — to name but a few — relate to digitalization, the Internet consequently legally binding in comparison with harmonized of Things, artificial intelligence and cybersecurity.“ [Report 2018, standards, the application of which remains optional. [Cafaggi 1] Absence of detailed safety requirements will leave a lot of 2009] Compared to harmonized standards, which are set by private potential knowledge about the operation of products undiscovered, organizations, most national non-harmonized regulations (national and in such situations Article 7(e) of the Liability Directive will sector) rely on technical standards set by a mixture of industry protect producers and allow them to exculpate its liability if state (private body) and state representatives. [Cafaggi 2009] Even of scientific and technical knowledge at the time when he put the though a process of standardization is left to private bodies states product on the market was not such as to enable the existence of the want to have influence in the standardization process. [Cafaggi defect to be discovered. We want to avoid a situation when no one 2009] Despite the fact that the process of standardization is 26 organized in private forms they present a guideline for regarding safety in industry; (3) provide a system to restrict the administrative decisions, take into account interests of the general potentially harmful impact of development risks; and (4) provide public, want to satisfy common safety expectations and concretize sufficient compensation for victims.” [Cafaggi 2009] What seems due diligence in civil legislation. [Cafaggi 2009] However, to be the main problem regarding machines, equipped with governmental influence and surveillance regarding product programs that due to their algorithms enable self-learning, risk standardization is very important from European point of view. The assessment of such programs is not required by the Safety need derives from ‘the obligation to reduce restrictions or measures Directive, even though a machine (equipped with such a program) having equivalent effect on free movement of goods. [Cafaggi may cause harmful consequences as a result of to the program. 2009] Governments are sending their state representatives to Without sufficient and regular evaluation of product’s safety more standardization boards in order to provide further suggestions consequences that will occur in the future will, from a legal concerning alternative approaches to certain product areas for perspective, be recognized as unforeseeable and this will prevent standardization. [Cafaggi 2009] Private standards (product safety) the judicial branch to provide satisfaction for harm suffered by de facto observe double rules; first, they denote the required level victim. of safety, and second they denote the required level of care. 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L.G.D.J., 163. 28 Legal Practitioners’ Views on Neuroscientific Evidence in Court Proceedings Cristina Siserman-Gray Faculty of Law, University of Vienna Juridicum, Schottenbastei 10-16 1010, Vienna, Austria +436802300653 cristinasiserman@gmail.com ABSTRACT with significantly reduced sentence length and increased number This paper presents the results of an empirical study conducted of mitigating factors listed” [2]. Though this correlation has seen on a number of legal practitioners in Austria, Romania and corroborated by the US president’s Council on Bioethics, which Slovenia to measure the relevance of the neuroscientific claimed that “judges and juries have recognized the persuasive evidence when determining the legal responsibility of a allure of brain scans” [3] and Munro’s 2014 study, which defendant during court proceedings. The legal practitioners were concluded that the public is more likely to trust diagnosis when presented five case scenarios in which they were asked to brain imaging evidence is presented [4], our study will step analyze the admissibility of neuroscientific evidence. The results beyond these conclusions to understand how neuroscientific revealed certain important challenges when interpreting evidence affects legal practitioners in legal proceedings. neuroscientific evidence for use in legal proceedings. This study summarizes those challenges and further concludes that the 3. DESIGN OF THE EXPERIMENT application of neuroscientific data is not a straightforward 3.1 Participants matter. As such, it also argues that neuroscientific experts must The participants selected for this study were legal practitioners play a greater role in court proceedings in order to provide better (judges, lawyers and attorneys) or graduates of legal studies who guidance to judges and other legal practitioners. were already working in the legal profession. The participants’ views were assessed via an online questionnaire that was Keywords completed by 91 participants (N=91). Legal practitioners, neuroscience, law, courtroom, criminal responsibility etc. The participants were categorized in three main groups, a group from Slovenia (=Slovenian group comprising 41 practitioners with an average of 28.2 years old); a second group from 1. INTRODUCTION Romania (=Romanian group comprising 22 practitioners with an Neuroimaging scans have been used in a variety of cases in average age of 34.1 years old); and a third group (=Mixed group order to establish a defendant’s mental state. In civil cases, comprising 28 legal practitioners with an average age of 28.6 neuroimaging has been requested in personal injury, disability years old) representing legal practitioners residing in Austria, belief and contract cases, while in criminal cases it has been but coming from other countries in Europe and North America. mainly invoked in order to negate the mens rea of a crime and to avoid convictions. For instance, statistics show that in some 3.2 Instruments countries such as the USA over 1500 judicial opinions issued during 2005-2012 discuss the use of neuroscience by criminal The legal practitioners were asked to analyze five case scenarios defendants [1]. However, despite the wide use of scans in courts, that were designed in such a way as to determine a) the types of there is concern among scientists and legal practitioners neuroscientific evidence that would be acceptable in courts and regarding the practical consequences of neuroscientific b) how the legal practitioners’ assessment of the individual’s developments. The aim of this empirical study seeks to responsibility (i.e. guiltiness, type and length of punishment) understand how European legal practitioners relate to “neurolaw would be influenced by this type of evidence. The case scenarios cases” and the degree to which they admit neuroscientific were also designed to assess how legal practitioners view “new evidence in court in order to determine the moral and legal science”, such as advancements in neuroscience. responsibility of an individual. Before briefly introducing each case scenario and the results, a few remarks are required to fully understand why each case was 2. PREVIOUS RESEARCH formulated as it was. Sloboghin identified five categories of To our knowledge this is one of the first studies of its kind to neuroscientific evidence based on the cases presented in assess the views of legal practitioners regarding neuroscientific American courts [5], which we adopted as the basis for our evidence and the impact of those views on their decisions when scenarios. The 5 types of evidence are: (a) evidence of assessing the responsibility of an individual. While a number of abnormality; (b) cause-of-an-effect evidence; (c) effect-of-a- studies have concluded that neuroscientific evidence affects cause evidence; (d) individualized neuro-psychological findings legal practitioners, few have attempted to qualify that effect. compared against known performance baselines; (e) Therefore, in order to test the degree to which legal practitioners individualized neuroscience findings compared against known use neuroscientific evidence in the assessment of responsibility, legal baselines. we based our study on a hypothesis tested by Aspinwall et al. in 2012 who argued that there is a “correlation between the inclusion of the biological explanation of neurological disorder 29 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION which, of course, is not necessarily true. In their view, the In the following we will discuss the questionnaire results of each evidence submitted does not indicate the probability with which scenario, as well as the main problems that were raised by the people with strokes would also commit rape, which is the central respondents. Each case scenario presents an offence and the type question that a judge would want to have answered and which of neuroscientific evidence that the defendant invoked in order was not done in a satisfactory manner here. to either excuse his/her behavior or diminish his/her legal Consequently, legal practitioners noted that neuroscientific responsibility. The legal practitioners were asked to perform studies presented in courts can rarely be presumed to be fully three tasks in order to determine: (i) whether the individual in conclusive, despite the fact that some researchers often invoke the scenario should be held responsible for the act; (ii) the kind assumptions of cause and effect. In their view, the notion of of punishment or treatment that should be applied to an “cause” presents differences in meaning between the social individual; and (iii) the length of punishment (if any). We will sciences and the criminal law. It might be that because of this additionally highlight some of the challenges identified by the reason the two fields frequently clash. According to many legal legal practitioners when analyzing the type of neuroscientific practitioners, among which Denno, as well, scientists do not evidence presented in each case scenarios. often use terms such as “cause-and-effect”, but instead use concepts such as “laws of change”, “paradigms”, “models and 4.1 Difficulties demonstrating causality theories”, “hypothesis testing” and “falsification” [6]. According As reported by legal practitioners, demonstrating causality is to them, these various “jargons” make their work more among the most important problems that arise in practice when complicated. using neuroscientific evidence. The problem of causality was specifically included in one of this first case scenarios, in which 4.2 The effect of methodological weaknesses the legal practitioners were presented with a “cause-of-an- There is an awareness among legal practitioners that many effect” evidence, and asked to determine whether the evidence scientific studies have methodological weaknesses, which have showing a link between the damage to the frontal lobe and an unknown degree of impact on the overall results. Because of abnormal sexual behavior is acceptable. They were presented the these methodological weaknesses, many Courts have showed following scenario: certain resistance in considering certain statistical data in their “Mr. Jones, aged 35, was arrested for having raped three young women. decision-making. Therefore, when deciding to accept In the pre-trial investigation, a scan of Mr. Jones' brain using PET probabilistic results as evidence, legal practitioners generally (positron emission tomography) revealed serious damage to his frontal discard causal links that are assessed as not being fully lobe, apparently as a result of a stroke. The medical expert showed that during the stroke, the frontal lobe (which is involved in judgment, impulse convincible, regardless of the type of evidence, neuroscientific control and sexual behavior) has been irreversibly damaged and this or otherwise. explains Mr. Jones’ abnormal sexual behavior”. This was the solution reached by a majority of legal In principle, a “cause-of-an-effect” evidence could be highly practitioners when presented the following scenario which exculpatory in order to decide on a volitional impairment. contained a type of evidence that can be categorized as an However, the results indicated that our participants did not individualized neuro-psychological finding: generally agree in this case. In fact, some Slovenian legal practitioners reported that this type of evidence is not very Mr. Johnson, aged 27, was brought in front of the court for having sold useful for them as a basis to decide the legal responsibility of an methamphetamines. The defense lawyers informed the judges that the defendant found out 8 years before that he had an unusually large individual. Though this argument was expressed by only some pituitary tumor, which caused irreversible brain tumors. The medical Slovenian respondents, it could generally explain the answers of expert showed that pituitary tumors may affect thyroid production, causing the Slovenian Group, which agreed by a large majority (80.2%) mood disorder and damage to the frontal, temporal and thalamic regions, which may cause problems in decision-making, mental flexibility and that the accused in this case should be held responsible for rape. overall intellectual capacity. The medical expert supported the defense The same view was expressed in a proportion of 64.3% by the who claimed that because of the tumor, the defendant was more Mixed Group. susceptible to be influenced and manipulated by the drugs dealers and that is why he accepted to sell the drugs”. Interestingly, the Romanian judges were of a different opinion, In general, individualized neuro-psychological findings with only 41% of them agreeing that the accused should be held compared against known performance baselines (such as those responsible. The Romanian legal practitioners believed that the in this scenario) are accepted in courts because they provide evidence was acceptable to diminish the responsibility of the insight into the particular defendant’s biological functioning. defendant, but not sufficient to remove it completely. The Despite this fact, a great majority of respondents across all three Romanian legal practitioners did not challenge the evidence per groups (average of 87.9%) rejected the evidence presented and se in as much detail as the Slovenians did, but the Romanian agreed that the accused should be held responsible for selling legal practitioners that did agree that the accused should be held drugs. An argument invoked by the legal practitioners for this responsible also reported that they were not convinced beyond conclusion was that it is generally very difficult for scientists to any reasonable doubt about the causal link between the stroke come up with convincing and compelling data relevant for all and the abnormal sexual behavior. necessary demographic groups in order to make a useful Additionally, some Slovenian legal practitioners noted comparison with the defendant. That is because findings from disparities in the way scientific conclusions could be interpreted. neurological testing can vary significantly based on a series of In their view, the conclusion presented in this case, which variables, including gender, age, and education, among others. argues for a causal link between a stroke and abnormal behavior, In the view of the legal practitioners, interpreting specific results could also be interpreted as accepting that a high proportion of can be very difficult without this baseline information. people that commit rape had a frontal lobe stroke at some point, 30 Another concern noted by legal practitioners was that even if statistically weak and believe that more carefully performed these baseline measurements would be obtained, a correct studies are needed before they can use this type of evidence in determination about relative impulsivity of the defendant at one the courtroom. point in time does not prove anything about the impulsivity of Nonetheless, the legal practitioners also argued this type of data the defendant at the time the crime occurred (in our case when must be put in context. In their view, without knowing the the accused decided to sell the drugs). Consequently, our general base rate for violence in people with normal levels of respondents confirmed conclusions reached in other studies, testosterone, crime prevalence in groups of people with high such as that of Sloboghin who noted “that science cannot levels of testosterone is not of much help to legal practitioners. currently answer the normative question of how far below the average a defendant would have to register on a particular 4.4 Too much focus on incrimination rather performance task to be considered legally impaired” [5]. than exoneration 4.3 Limits regarding potential simultaneous Connected to the conclusion above, an interesting view of many effects and interrelationships legal practitioners was the acknowledgement that current neuroscience evidence is mostly focused on culpability issues Another challenge of neuroscientific evidence noted by legal (whether an individual is morally and legally responsible for practitioners was that they were seldom presented studies that their acts) rather than providing a basis for exoneration. Because examined all the possible variables. By ignoring potential of that, in deciding on the relevance of such evidence, legal simultaneous effects and interrelationships that may exist among practitioners and experts are aware that they have to pay the numerous other biological, social, and economic factors, attention both to the precise nature of the evidence in question they concluded that very few of these studies were complete, and the specific legal doctrine to be addressed. Though some leaving room for interpretation. Therefore, a majority of judges may argue that neuroscience evidence alone could be sufficient in our study continue to believe that most biological and to remove the responsibility of an individual, in reality, in most environmental studies of crime remain isolated in their cases, it is not. This was what the legal practitioners decided in particular disciplines, which often makes them unacceptable as the case of the following case scenario: evidence in the court. “Ms. Black, aged 47, accountant, was filed for conducting fraudulent This was one of the main conclusions reached based on the insurance practices for a period of 8 years. She was diagnosed 10 years results obtain for the following case scenario: before with anoxic encephalopathy caused by a myocardial infarction. A SPECT (single-photon emission computed tomography) was performed, “Mr. Green, aged 47 is brought in front of the criminal court for assault which indicated a reduction in blood flow in the temporal and frontal and injuries on a pedestrian. He assaulted the pedestrian on the reason lobes (which are associated with executive functioning and memory). The that he almost generated an accident while walking on the lane destined medical expert showed that her fraudulent behavior could be explained by only for bikers. Mr. Green’s lawyer pleaded that the defendant is a her impairment”. peaceful person never having been involved in fights and that his violent behavior was the result of the defendant’s level of testosterone which For this scenario, the majority of the legal practitioners changed its normal level because of the ingestion of some steroids that Mr. considered that the SPECT evidence that was included to Green took during sport training. The medical expert showed that the demonstrate a reduction in blood flow in the temporal and saliva samples collected from the defendant exhibited abnormal level of testosterone and this generated his aggressive behavior. He also added frontal lobe should not be received as an exculpatory evidence. that there is no unanimity within the scientific community regarding the Their main argument was that neuro-abnormalities have minimal positive correlation between testosterone level and aggression in general, relevance for cause in this case, particularly when having to but that in his opinion, in this particular case, the correlation is evident”. explain a causal link over an extended period of time (a stroke This case scenario contains “effect-of-a-cause” evidence, which that occurred 10 years before the trial). The causal link between basically compares the prevalence of criminal behavior among the stroke and the multiple fraudulent acts was impossible to individuals presenting a neurological impairment to those that establish. Therefore, the majority discarded this evidence, with do not have such an impairment. More precisely, the evidence 95.2% of the Slovenian, 81.9% of the Romanian respondents refers to research that indicates a higher prevalence rate of and 85.7% agreeing that the defendant should be held violence among people with high level of testosterone. When responsible for fraudulent practices. asked to evaluate whether the defendant should be held As noted by the legal practitioners, a reason why they believed responsible for assault and injuries on a pedestrian, the great prison punishment was appropriate was due of the concern that, majority (94.5%) of respondents from all three groups agreed in this case, improperly used neuroscience evidence could be that he should be held responsible. Compared to the previous used to mitigate punishment and thereby present a greater risk of two case scenarios, this one contained less divergent views. re-offense. It seems thus that judges, when confronted with the As mentioned by the respondents in the comments sections, and public pressure to ensure to that there is no risk of re-offense confirmed by other studies, evidence of clear association (like in the scenario presented above), may be more inclined to between androgen levels and aggression in human males is admit the neuroscientific evidence in order to evaluate one’s risk currently inconclusive. Legal practitioners took note of studies of re-offending. The “double-edge sword” nature of that noted that behavioral “traits of dominance and aggression in neuroscience evidence is important and was not noted by the the human male have been associated with higher levels of respondents prior to this case scenario. Therefore, based on testosterone” [6]. However, they were also aware that, as Archer these results, it is important to be aware of the possibility that concluded, “direct associations between androgen levels, neuroscientific evidence could be misused in the future to primarily testosterone, and criminality show somewhat evaluate or predict an individual’s potential level of conflicting results, possibly because of the different types of dangerousness. hormone measures used” [7]. As such, it seems that legal practitioners view research on some of these factors as 31 4.5 Cultural differences in weighing the for assigning responsibility, by minimizing arbitrary strength of the evidence incrimination or full exonerations based only on the premise that “my brain made me do it”. Finally, it is important to note that we believe that some of discrepancies included in our results are attributable to cultural We are also hopeful that the conclusions obtained in this study differences. In fact, these cultural differences seemed are sufficient to provide at least a more accurate picture of how particularly important in relation to the severity of punishment. various legal practitioners witness, from their positions, the new This is seen most clearly in the following scenario: developments in neuroscience. However, based on the results obtained in this study it is difficult to predict whether “Mr. Smith, aged 37, is a teacher and he is being tried for having made sexual advances on his young stepdaughter. He was found to have a tumor neuroscientific evidence will play a more important role in in the right frontal lobe of his brain. His medical results showed that when courtrooms in Europe in the future. There are many optimistic the tumor was removed, his pedophilic behavior stopped. When the tumor voices that see a future for neuroscientific tools, as they may recurred, the behavior also resumed”. provide a more objective assessment of an individual’s When asked whether the defendant should be held responsible responsibility, particularly when compared to legal rules, which for the sexual advances committed on his stepdaughter, a are generally insufficient and represent only a translation of the majority of the Slovenian and the Mixed groups, with 83% and social beliefs in legal terms. Of course, some concerned voices 60.7%, respectively, agreed that the accused should be held support the view that neuroscientific techniques are still not responsible for sexual advances. However, the majority of ready to provide sufficient accuracy, and hence they are not Romanians (59%) disagreed, believing that in this case, the fully reliable in the court. In our view, caution is certainly individual should not be held responsible for sexual advances. warranted in regard to neuroscientific evidence. However, with We believe that the difference in the way this defendant was further education and better understanding of neuroscientific evaluated by the three groups has to do with the type of evidence by judges and other legal practitioners, we are certain neuroscientific evidence presented to the participants in the that it holds great potential for the future. study. In this case, the legal practitioners were asked to evaluate evidence of a brain abnormality. The Slovenian and Mixed 6. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Group argued that since hypothetical cases like these are very Our thanks to University of Ljubljana where an important part of rare in practice, very few defendants can present such a the study was performed, particularly to Prof. Dr. Olga Markic straightforward connection between neurology and behavior. As and Assist. Dr. Toma Strle who coordinated this project. such, the majority of the respondents from those two groups believed that the behavior of the defendant could not be excused 7. REFERENCES because this neurological abnormality provides an insufficient [1] Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical basis for making the necessary link to the unlawful behavior. Issues. 2015. Gray Matters: Topics at the Intersection of That was not the case for the Romanian Group, who in a Neuroscience, Ethics and Society, Vol. 2, Washington proportion of 59.1% believed that the accused should not be DC. held responsible for sexual advances. In this situation, Romanian [2] Aspinwall, L., Brown, T., and Tabery, J. 2012. The legal practitioners admitted the neuroscientific evidence on the Double-Edge Sword: Does Biomechanism Increase or presumption that the medical conclusions were correct. Decrease Judges’ Sentencing of Psychopaths? Science. 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Law, In Philosophical Foundations of Law and Neuroscientific evidence can provide a more nuanced Neuroscience, New York, Oxford University Press, 69-84. understanding of neurological impairments in a way designed to humanize the legal system rather than creating motives for [7] Archer, J. 1991. The influence of testosterone on human discriminating against individuals. This more nuanced aggression, British Journal of Psychology. 82. 1-28. DOI= understanding can additionally provide a more graded approach https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1991.tb02379.x. 32 FROM AI TO OUR FUTURE I AI and the Drake equation Matjaž Gams Jozef Stefan Institute Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia matjaz.gams@ijs.si ABSTRACT prehiteti ljudi na vseh področjih? V tem prispevku je najprej This paper deals with a question, can we predict the future of the predstavljena največja svetovna konferenca s področja umetne human civilization based on the analysis of the current AI inteligence, sledi pa še analiza Drakove enačbe z novimi research, and computational models of the Drake equation. The računskimi pristopi. Na osnovi teh analiz skušamo oceniti, kaj perspective of human civilization is analyzed through two items: nas čaka v bližnji prihodnosti, tj. skušamo napovedati prihodnji report from the AI mega-conference, and the Drake razvoj človeške civilizacije. equation/Fermi paradox. The mega-AI conference in Stockholm Letos poleti je bila v Stockholmu največja svetovna konferenca represents the state of the art in the AI field, demonstrating that IJCAI, združena z evropsko ECAI [4]. Skupno je bilo preko major world powers are fast increasing AI funding. The 6.000 udeležencev. Približno polovica vseh prispevkov je bila computational models such as recompilations of the Drake kitajskih, pol manj je bilo evropejskih in ameriških. Velesile se equation are gaining attention as one of the means to estimate zavedajo, da je področje umetne inteligence eno izmed ključnih, the longevity of the human civilization. kjer se odloča, kdo bo dominiral svetu. Tako Putin kot Trump in POVZETEK Ši Džinping intenzivno povečujejo sredstva za umetno inteligenco, Evropa jih bo v nekaj letih nekajkrat povečala. To je prvi prispevek od dveh, ki opisujeta isti koncept: ali lahko napovemo bodočnost človeštva na osnovi analize sedanjih Dnevno naredi umetna inteligenca neverjetnih 10 bilijonov raziskav umetne inteligence (AI), računskih modelov na osnovi odločitev. Dosežkov umetne inteligence samo v lanskem letu je Drakove enačbe in novi socialni črni scenarij, ki bi lahko bilo toliko, da jih lahko omenimo le minimalni delež. Recimo na zaustavil razvoj človeštva. področju varnosti marsikje po svetu uporabljajo sistem, ki vsak dan izdela nov urnik obhodov varnostnikov po letališčih, po V tem prispevku je analizirana bodočnost človeške civilizacije pristaniščih in podobno. Kjer so bili uporabljeni, so izmerili skozi dve temi: poročilo z največje svetovne AI konference in bistveno večjo učinkovitost. V skrbi za okolje so raziskovalci analiza Drakove enačbe oz. Fermijevega paradoksa. Mega pod vodstvom prof. Tambeja (tam je bil tudi naš doktorand dr. konferenca letos v Stockholmu je predstavila trenutne raziskave Kaluža) tovrstne programe podarili šestdesetim rezervatom po AI v svetu in pokazala, da svetovne velesile izredno povečujejo svetu, da se bodo uspešneje upirali krivolovcem. Leta 2015 so financiranje AI področja. Po drugi strani pa narašča število programi globokih nevronskih mrež začeli premagovati ljudi pri analiz in objav s področja bodočnosti človeštva. Računski prepoznavanju vidnih nalog in danes nas prekašajo na mnogo modeli med drugim dajejo ocene trajanja človeške civilizacije. področjih, npr. pri prepoznavanju malignih tkiv. Pri nekaterih nalogah, recimo pri ostrenju slike (dež, megla, sneg itd.) so Keywords / ključne besede programi osemkrat boljši kot ljudje. Seveda se takoj pojavi Progress of human civilization, Drake equation, Fermi paradox, strah, ampak če čakate nekaj tednov na diagnozo, ali imate raka artificial intelligence ali ne, v Ameriki pa to naredi umetna inteligenca v nekaj minutah bolje kot katerikoli zdravnik – kaj pravite, ali bi jo Razvoj človeške civilizacije, Drakova enačba, Fermijev uvedli tudi pri nas? Pri nekaterih sistemih kot zamenjavi paradoks, umetna inteligenca organov so programi že desetletja v uporabi in so rešila na tisoče življenj. Nekateri so novejši, recimo letos so vpeljali prvi 1. UVOD inteligentni program, ki ugotavlja diabetes iz pregleda oči, prav tako prvi program za ugotavljanje abnormalnosti prsnega koša pri slikanju. Neverjeten razvoj je najbolj znan pri avtonomni Večina projektov v odseku E9 na Institutu »Jožef Stefan« se vožnji – danes imajo povprečni avtomobili kar nekaj ukvarja z izboljšavami življenja in zdravja ljudi, recimo s skrbjo avtonomnih inteligentnih funkcij, modernejši kot Tesla pa vozijo za starejše preko inteligentnega pomočnika na pametni uri, ali praktično sami in jih samo še nadziramo v nenavadnih pa za srčne bolnike. Del raziskav pa je bolj visoko letečih. Nekaj situacijah. Nesreč je približno stokrat manj, čeprav tistih nekaj časa že razmišljamo, kako zgraditi inteligentne asistente iz mediji toliko bolj napihnejo. biblije, korana, slovenske ustave. Asistenti ne bi znali samo odgovarjati na vprašanja s primernim besedilom, ampak bi bili In smo pri »moralnem stroju« - vprašanju, koga naj povozi sposobni tudi tolmačiti določen del vsebine, semantike, vrednot. avtonomno vozilo, če npr. izbira med otrokom ali starejšim: Bi tako ustvarili kopijo npr. krščanskega boga? Ti programi bi http://moralmachine.mit.edu/. V Nemčiji je prepovedano bili sposobni demonstrirati svoje avtonomno razmišljanje na upoštevati leta (prepovedana starostna diskriminacija), v testih osnovi podanih besedil, torej bi bili v nekem smislu »živi«. Za pa se izkaže, da precej ljudi raje ponudi možnost preživetja dosego tega pa morajo imeti tudi, ali predvsem kognitivne otrokom. Najpomembnejše je število, torej naj bi avto zavil med lastnosti. dva namesto med tri ljudi. Dobršen del anketirancev pa raje izbere brezdomca kot otroka itd. Preko spleta so zbrali že okoli Če so trenutne raziskave oz. analize na tem nivoju, ali so v svetu petdeset milijonov odločitev in izkaže se, da imajo določene raziskave že blizu superinteligence [1,2,3], ki bi morebiti znala države podobne sisteme preferenc, koga povoziti in koga ne. 33 Tako so ugotovili značilne vzorce vrednosti pri zahodnih Slika 1: AI strategija EU temelji na treh elementih: državah, spet druge v vzhodni Evropi itd. Anglofilske države kot znanost/tehnologija, socio-ekonomske spremembe in socialno Anglija, Amerika, Avstralija in Nova Zelandija so svoj skupek s okolje. podobnimi vrednotami, čeprav so geografsko precej narazen. Ta grupiranja torej pokažejo, katere države imajo podoben sistem vrednot in kako se razlikujejo od drugih. Na Sliki 1 je prikazana strateška usmeritev EU glede umetne inteligence. Med drugim bo EU podprla gradnjo nove odprte V praksi je taka situacija izredno redka, saj imajo ljudje možnost platforme za AI, malce podobno kot Muskov OpenAI (Slika 2). odskočiti, avto se zaleti v oviro in zaradi varnostnega pasu Na sliki 2 je prikazana usmeritev bodočega financiranja: najprej potniki skoraj gotovo preživijo, medtem ko pešec kakšne 70% povečanja in nato 100% in nato še 100%. posebne zaščite nima. Študija, ena izmed mnogih, pa predvsem pove nekaj o nas samih – kakšni smo kot ljudje in kako cenimo Ameriški DoD je ustanovil Joint AI Center (JAIC), ki bo življenje drugih. Sistemi umetne inteligence zato ne rešujejo financiral 600 AI projektov v vrednosti $1.7 milijarde. samo pereča inženirska in socialna vprašanja, ampak tudi iz nas delajo boljše ljudi. Marsikdo med nami je prepričan, da je ravno umetna inteligenca tista ključna znanstvena veda, ki bo dvignila človeštvo v novo civilizacijsko ero [11]. 2. IJCAI 2018 – KAKO ZGRADITI UM Julija 2018 v Stockholmu so se združili ICML, AAMAS, ICCBR in SoCS z IJCAI and ECAI v prvo mega-konferenco. Namen dogodka je bil ponovno integrirati področje in se namesto s čedalje bolj specifičnimi problemi ukvarjati z ključnimi splošnimi. Opis v tej sekciji je namenjen skupni IJCAI-ECCAI konferenci [4]. Okoli 7000 udeležencev je 14 dni sodelovalo v mega- konferenci. IJCAI-ECCAI konferenca je doživela ponoven rekord s 3470 poslanimi prispevki: 37 % več kot v letu 2017. Slika 2: Tudi EU bo signifikantno povečala financiranje AI. Leta 2017 [5] je bilo 37% vseh prispevkov kitajskih, leta 2018 pa 46%. Ameriških in evropskih prispevkov je bilo vsakih po Najpomembnejša strateška usmeritev mega-konference IJCAI je 20%. bila, kako zgraditi um. Ker umetnega uma odraslih očitno še ne Spremembe niso prišle same po sebi, ampak so rezultat znamo zgraditi, so raziskave usmerjene predvsem v študije uma ključnega vlaganja kitajskega državnega vodstva v znanost in otrok od rojstva dalje. Čeprav se je vpliv AI na vsakodnevno zlasti v umetno inteligenco. Odgovor Amerike in Evrope je že življenje ljudi izjemno povečal, saj AI vsakodnevno naredi 100 tu. bilijonov odločitev, so koncepti kot razumevanje, semantika, um, kognicija, čustva, »duša«, kvalia itd. ostali nedosegljivi za AI, podobno kot rešitev Turingoveg testa. Vseeno je razvoj izredno hiter. Nekatere nove aplikacije so vizualno fascinantne – recimo konja znajo nevronske mreže prebarvati v zebro in se na zaslonu premika konj v obliki zebre. Iz seznama obrazov slavnih osebnosti znajo ti programi zgraditi nove obraze neobstoječih ljudi. Sistemi govorijo praktično kot ljudje in tudi razpoznavajo govor na tem nivoju, veliko vidnih nalog pa opravljajo precej bolje kot ljudje. Google je začel uporabljati globoke nevronske mreže za prepoznavanje vprašanj in občasno je na čudna vprašanja generiral vizije, tudi preroške vizije črne prihodnosti človeštva. Vraževerni so začeli govoriti o prebujanju prave inteligence, a so razvijalci Googla pojasnili, da so nevronske mreže prav čudna vprašanja povezala s prav čudnimi odgovori. Obstaja plitva, tj. sedanja uporabna in raziskovalna AI, globoka AI, tj. globoke nevronske mreže, za katero velja mnenje raziskovalcev umetne inteligence, da je v resnici plitva, prava AI in lažna AI. Lažna AI je, ko vskočijo ljudje, tipično v neko komunikacijo med virtualnim asistentom in človekom, in tega ne povedo. Prava AI pa je AI, sposobna rešiti Turingov test, tista, 34 ki da nam ljudem vtis resnične inteligence. V Turingovem testu preračunal verjetnosti in ugotovil, da bi že morali vzpostaviti ljudje še vedno hitro prepoznajo računalnike, čeprav se stik z drugimi civilizacijami. Sedaj vemo precej več: število pretvarjajo, da so ljudje, ker jim manjka prava AI. planetov v znanem vesolju je reda velikosti 10 na 22, pregledali smo ogromno več vesolja in nismo našli nobenih znakov S čedalje več raziskavami postaja tudi čedalje bolj jasno, kje se civilizacije! Pri tem je minilo 68 let od Fermijevega vzklika in AI razlikuje od prave AI. Recimo pri učenju se otrok (Slika 3) 64 let od njegove smrti. Umrl je istega leta kot Alan Turing, nauči enega koncepta, npr. kako sestaviti kocke, nato pa ga računalniški Einstein in oče umetne inteligence (in se je rodil praktično takoj ali z minimalnim učenjem prenese na druge avtor tega prispevka). domene, recimo sestavljanje figuric. Pri tem se uči univerzalno, medtem ko mora AI uporabljati specialne programe za Eno izmed najbolj poznanih ocen števila civilizacij je postavil posamezne naloge, jih ne uspe posplošiti in ne zna prilagoditi Drake s svojo enačbo leta 1961 [6]. Ocena števila razvitih algoritmov podobnim nalogam. zunajzemeljskih civilizacij v naši Galaksiji je (x je znak za množenje) N = R* x fs x fp x ne x fl x fi x fc x L, kjer velja: R* je razmerje zvezdnih skupin v naši Galaksiji, tj. hitrost nastajanja novih zvezd, število reda velikosti 1. fs je delež Soncu podobnih zvezd z lastnimi planeti. fp je delež zvezd z lastnimi planeti. ne je povprečno število planetov, ki omogočajo življenje v razmerju z zvezdo, ki ima planete. fl je delež planetov, kjer se domnevno lahko razvije življenje. fi je delež planetov, kjer se dejansko razvije življenje. fc je delež tistih, ki bi želeli ali se bili sposobni sporazumevati. L je pričakovana življenjska doba take civilizacije. V bistvu ta enačba temelji na oceni števila planetov; pomnoženi z verjetnostjo, da so na planetu ugodni pogoji za razvoj življenja; pomnoženi z verjetnostjo nastanka življenja; Figure 3: Otroci se učijo bistveno drugače kot sistemi AI. Zakaj pomnoženo z verjetnostjo tehnološko napredne civilizacije; se ne bi zgledovali po njih? skalirano s časom trajanja civilizacije, saj nas zanima število civilizacij sedaj. V tej enačbi se trajanje naše galaksije pokrajša, Drug pomemben poskus v smeri prave AI je t.i. splošna AI, ki ko se pojavi pri R kot produkt in pri L kot imenovalec (glej skuša razvijati široko uporabne algoritme namesto ozko enačbo). specializiranih. Tako npr. naj bi obstajal en algoritem za igranje vseh iger, ki bi znal izvajati vse algoritme za različne igre, in Ker je izračun odvisen od privzetih vrednosti in ker imajo prenašal znanje med njimi. Večinsko mnenje med strokovnjaki različni strokovnjaki razne ocene, Wikipedija predlaga tri umetne inteligence je, da bomo to vrsto inteligence razvili čez možnosti za konkretne številke: kakšnih 10 let. Splošno mnenje je, da nam ne manjka denarja ali • Ena civilizacija v naši galaksiji – komunikacija oz. procesorskih zmogljivosti – iščemo nove, drzne ideje, kako zaznavanje drugih civilizacij s sedanjimi sredstvi ni razviti splošno, pravo in super-inteligenco. Bolj ali manj je tudi mogoče. konsenz, da bo AI pomagala reševati nakopičene socialne težave • 100 civilizacij naši galaksiji, v povprečju oddaljenih (Slika 1). Konferenca je ostala strogo znanstvena, vendar je med 5000 svetlobnih let med dvema civilizacijama, ki znanstveniki določena zaskrbljenost zaradi čedalje pogostejših lahko med seboj komunicirata. napadov na znanost in prodiranje ideologij med znanstvenike. • Štiri milijone civilizacij, komunikacija preprosta. 3. FERMIJEV PARADOKS - ČRNI Zvezd in planetov je glede na naše znanje ogromno: galaksij je okoli 10 na 11 do 12 in podobno število je zvezd v galaksiji, SCENARIJ ČLOVEŠTVA torej je skupno število zvezd okoli 10 na 23 do 24. Trenutna ocena planetov je okoli 10 na 22. Če je med temi planeti le na Katere nevarnosti prežijo človeštvu? Skoraj zagotovo so vsakem milijardnem civilizacija, to pomeni 10 na 13 civilizacij, največje in najbližje nevarnosti povezane s hitrim vzponom to je deset tisoč milijard. V naši galaksiji je okoli 10 na 11, tj. človeške civilizacije. Prav tako med najbolj perečimi ni sto milijard planetov, kar po podobnem merilu prinese sto nekaterih, ki se pogosto pojavljajo v medijih, npr. globalnega civilizacij s povprečno razdaljo med njimi pet tisoč svetlobnih segrevanja. Čeprav se planet Zemlja segreva in čeprav je let. Na taki razdalji je možno prepoznati močne energijske najverjetnejši krivec za to človek, je ta nevarnost obvladljiva, če signale. se le uspemo dogovoriti. Bolj problematične so neobvladljive, nerazumljene in potuhnjene nevarnosti. V kakšnem iz naslednjih Verjetnost, da je življenje edino na Zemlji, je praktično nič, pa prispevkov bomo predstavili izvirno teorijo, temelječo na če pregledate Googla, Wikipedijo ali sami malce preračunate. socialnem propadu, tu pa bodo na kratko opisane analize Samo – sosednjih naprednih civilizacij gotovo ni, ker bi jih že Drakove enačbe. opazili! Prav daljnih civilizacij trenutno najverjetneje ne moremo prepoznati, niti srednje oddaljenih, če se nočejo Veliki fizik Enrico Fermi je že leta 1950 med atomskimi razkriti. raziskavami v Los Alamosu vprašal: »Pa kje so?«, ko je 35 Precej vprašanj ostaja odprtih, vendar nekaj lahko vseeno teleskopi. Čedalje bolj napredne analize in ocene števila sklepamo: Če so civilizacije prav redko posejane po vesolju, civilizacij v vesolju nakazujejo, da je civilizacij malo. potem so lahko trajale dalj časa, pa se niso opazile med seboj. Če pa so gosteje posejane, tj. če se življenje seli s planeta na Obstajata dve teoriji: po eni je civilizacij dejansko malo in smo planet v obliki trosov ali medzvezdnih poletov, morajo propasti ena redkih civilizacij v tem delu vesolja, vendar hkrati ni relativno kmalu, drugače bi jih že opazili. Kaj je to »kmalu«, ne posebne nevarnosti, da bomo kmalu propadli. Po drugi teoriji je vemo, od reda velikosti 100 do 10.000 let. V primeru redke bilo pred nami že ogromno civilizacij relativno blizu nas, vendar poseljenosti imamo opravka s pojavom, da življenje nastane so vse po vrsti propadle. Ta usoda čaka tudi nas, najverjetneje, samo od sebe v primernih pogojih, kar smo v laboratorijih že če se ne bomo pravočasno zavedli problema in potegnili pogosto postorili, vendar življenje ne uspe poseliti bližnjih primernih potez. planetov. Dovolj daleč narazen pa lahko civilizacije obstajajo Zlasti v primeru druge možnosti se je potrebno zavedati, da je dalj časa, tudi stotine milijonov let, a se ne uspejo zaznati zaradi čim hitrejše potovanje vsaj na bližnje lune in planete nujnost ogromnih razdalj. preživetja, kot večkrat poudarja Elon Musk. Naslednje vprašanje je, zakaj ni starejša in napredna civilizacija LITERATURA poselila vsega vesolja. V grobem ostajajo tri možnosti: [1] Bostrom, N. 2014. Superintelligence – Paths, Dangers, - Potovanje na daljše razdalje je preveč zahtevno, ker ni Strategies. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. mogoče potovati hitreje kot s hitrostjo svetlobe - Trajanje civilizacije je omejeno / Nekaj žre civilizacije [7] [2] Yampolskiy, R.V. 2016. Artificial Superintelligence. CRC - Napredne civilizacije pustijo razvijajoče se, kot npr. našo, Press. in se nočejo vpletati. [3] http://www.tromba.si/matjaz-gams-scenariji- superinteligence-in-cloveske-civilizacije/ Trije raziskovalci s Future of Humanity Institute (FHI) [8], Superinteligenca Oxfordska univerza, med njimi Anders Sandberg, (s katerim je avtor prispevka intenzivno debatiral med konferenčnim izletom [4] IJCAI 2018 conference (https://www.ijcai-18.org/). na kitajski zid) so objavili drugačno razlago Fermijevega [5] Gams, M. 2017. Editor-in-chiefʼs introduction to the paradoksa [9]. Za vsak parameter v enačbi so vstavili special issue on "Superinteligence", AI and overview of verjetnostni interval in izračunali končno verjetnostno IJCAI 2017. Informatica : an international journal of distribucijo. V članku avtorji trdijo, da je verjetnost, da smo computing and informatics, ISSN 0350-5596, vol. 41, no. 4, edina civilizacija v galaksiji 53 do 99,6%, da smo edini v str. 383-386 vesolju pa 39 do 58 %. Torej drugih civilizacij ne zaznamo zato, [6] https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drakova_enačba, ker so tako redke. Dokaj verjetno smo edini v galaksiji in morda https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drake_equation, tudi v vesolju. Wikipedija Drake equation Pomemben zaključek njihove raziskave je, da ni posebne [7] http://beta.finance-on.net/files/2016-04-10/Matjaz- nevarnosti, da bo naša civilizacija kmalu propadla. Izračun Gams.pdf temelji na verjetnostni porazdelitvi in predvsem pri verjetnosti Nekaj »žre« civilizacije življenja da nizko oceno – kot da življenje le redko uspe, oz. le na prav posebnih planetih. Tak posebni primer naj bi bil naš [8] Future of Life Institute, https://futureoflife.org/ planet, ki ima luno, ki je nastal s trkom s planetom velikosti [9] http://www.jodrellbank.manchester.ac.uk/media/eps/jodrell Marsa itd. Tako trdi tudi Gribbin [10]. -bank-centre-for-astrophysics/news-and-events/2017/uksrn- slides/Anders-Sandberg---Dissolving-Fermi-Paradox- Naši izračuni še potekajo. Prve ugotovitve bodo predstavljene na UKSRN.pdf konferenci Slovenian Conference On Artificial Intelligence v Analiza Drakove enačbe okviru multikonference Informacijska družba. [10] Gribbin, J. 2011. Alone in the Universe: Why Our Planet Is Unique, ISBN-13: 978-1118147979, ISBN- 4. ZAKLJUČEK 10: 1118147979, John Wiley and sons. [11] Kurzweil, R. 2006. The Singularity Is Near: When Humans Transcend Biology, Sep 26, Penguin Books. Umetna inteligenca se razvija in se ukvarja z vprašanji reproduciranja osnovnih kognitivnih sposobnosti, ki se [12] Gams, M. 2001. Weak intelligence: through the principle pojavljajo pri otrocih. Na ta način pričakujejo, da bodo dosegli and paradox of multiple knowledge. Nova Science. izboljšavo sedanjih formalnih metod AI, ki nimajo praktično nobenih najbolj pomembnih človeških lastnosti. Hkrati AI čedalje bolj vpliva na vsakodnevno življenje v pozitivnem smislu – očitno je eden izmed ključnih generatorjev napredka [11]. V zadnjih desetletjih smo odkrili, da ima praktično vsaka zvezda najverjetneje nekaj planetov, torej je planetov ogromno. To je napovedoval že princip mnogoterega znanja [12], ki je tudi napovedal precejšnje število civilizacij. Hkrati pa ne opazimo nobene napredne civilizacije v delu vesolja, ki ga zaznajo naši 36 The Quest for Understanding: Helping People with PIMD to Communicate with their Caregivers. Matej Cigale Mitja Luštrek Matjaž Gams Jožef Stefan Institute Jožef Stefan Institute Jožef Stefan Institute Jamova cesta 39 Jamova cesta 39 Jamova cesta 39 Ljubljana, Slovenija Ljubljana, Slovenija Ljubljana, Slovenija matej.cigale@ijs.si mitja.lustrek@ijs.si matjaz.gams@ijs.si Torsten Krämer Meike Engelhardt Peter Zentel Pädagogische Hochschule Pädagogische Hochschule Pädagogik und Didaktik im Heidelberg Heidelberg Förderschwerpunkt Institut für Sonderpädagogik Institut für Sonderpädagogik Geistige Entwicklung Keplerstraße 87D Keplerstraße 87D Keplerstraße 87 Heidelberg, Germany Heidelberg, Germany Heidelberg, Germany kraemer@ph-heidelberg.de engelhardt@ph- zentel@ph-heidelberg.de heidelberg.de ABSTRACT make further attempts more distinct. The problem arises from the People with Profound Intellectual and Multiple Disabilities (PIMD) fact that the communication attempts of the people with PIMD are stand for a broad and very heterogeneous spectrum of people that indistinct, mostly unique to each individual, and hard to distinguish are characterised by some common aspects like a severe intellectual or interpret for people who are not close to them. The differences disability usually in combination with a lack of conventional and stem from different abilities of each person, different reception of symbolic communication abilities, coupled with the need for high the gestures from their caregivers and other external factors. levels of support due to comorbidities or other possible disabilities At present, only close caregivers are able to interpret the desires of (i.e., motor or sensorial impairments). Supporting these individuals people with PIMD in the right way, nevertheless often combined is extremely challenging, as their communication signals are with feelings of insecurity. This makes it difficult to easily expand atypical and idiosyncratic. Therefore, a plethora of these the circle of communication partners. The INSENSION project behaviours are not or not easily readable for the caregivers. Without faces this issue by aiming to use the advances in computer vision, background information on a specific person with PIMD, it is hard specifically new ways to extract posture and facial expressions for a caregiver, even a trained professional, to interpret the desires from video to codify them. In the second stage of the processing, and mental state of the person they are interacting with, which leads the context of the expression will be extracted, i.e. what is the state to a stressful interaction for both. With advances in computer vision of the environment around the person. This way, the expression can (CV), speech recognition technology (SRT) and artificial be coupled with the interaction and the intent of the communication intelligence (AI), we are making the first steps in codifying these can be interpreted. This would hopefully provide improvements for behaviours and attempting to mechanically extract the meaning of both sides: for the people in contact with people with PIMD to have the communication. The INSENSION project aims to use these a window into their internal states and see their attempts and, of advancements to catalogue the actions of persons with PIMD and course, for the people with PIMD themselves. However due to their the environment and thus provide feedback to caregivers and enable disabilities, the communication attempts of people with PIMD individuals to control their surroundings. A similar system could be seem simpler and their internal working models are often assumed used to analyse the behaviour of healthy individuals so that the to be limited to temporally and spatially neighbouring desires that generalised and personalised expressions of body language could makes the interpretation context smaller. be codified and compared across cultures and individuals. This research has broader implications as a similar, but more complex, system could be used to interpret communications of Keywords individuals so that their behaviour could be objectively determined communication, gesture recognition, PILD, AI enabling a more rigid research into the communication of people and their internal state. 1. INTRODUCTION The rest of the paper is organised as follows: In Section 2 we look People with PIMD experience a lot of trouble when they are at the state of the people with PIMD and their communication attempting to communicate to the outside world. Generally, a attempts. In Section 3 we take a brief look at the underlying profound intellectual disability, which complicates the learning of technical advancements that can facilitate the extraction of posture new skills for them, is combined with other sensory or physical and facial expressions and the vocalisations of the person. In impairments, which lead to an unusual communication in Section 4 we present the annotations that will be the input for the comparison to people without disabilities. Machine Learning (ML) system. In Section 5 we discuss the On this occasion, the task of their caregivers (parents, therapists, implications of this system and present some caveats to the system. etc.) is to interpret their communication attempts and teach them to In section 6 we look at broader implications of the system as it 37 could be used on a more general population to systematically codify or Simplified Signalling that draws the inspiration form natural the interactions as well as further fields of inquiry that could be gestures that are taught to the people with PIMD so that their developed based on this system. communication is in line with general public [6]. There is also research in using Brain Computer Interface for communication [7] that uses Electroencephalography (EEG) to map the activity of the 2. PEOPLE WITH PIMD brains to interpret the desires. The system requires adaptation based People with PIMD, as the name implies, have multiple disabilities, on the individual and training of the individual. which makes it even harder for them to participate in the large number of non-barrier-free parts of our society. Generally, PIMD means a profound intellectual disability combined with other 3. ANALYSING THE HUMAN sensory (blindness, deafness) or physical impairments (lack of mobility, problems with fine hand movements, etc.). These factors Enabling computers to interpret the desires of its users and their severely influence the person’s ability to live without any care, state of mind is a longstanding goal of computer science. The most support or therapy of others [1]. Individuals with PIMD have an developed systems focus on speech recognition[8], [9], but other above average risk to get additional diseases, and frequently require systems are also explored. Eye tracking [10] is becoming more and regular medication that also implies administrative aid. Individuals more robust, moving from specialised hardware to simple web are assumed to attempt to communicate but are often not able to do cameras [11]. so successfully, because of the inherent and external limitations [2]. More advanced systems enable facial features extraction [12], and A common denominator in the population we are dealing with is from this psychological state of the individual can be extrapolated the limited ability to communicate coherently with their caregivers [13]. These systems work extremely well on typical individuals in or the other way around. They usually communicate on a pre- good conditions, for example in good lighting and direct camera symbolic level and their understanding of speech is severely position [14]. In more dynamic conditions, such as unstable lighting limited. Some individuals have the ability to form joined attention these results are less certain but still reach acceptable levels of with their communication partner [3] but this is not universal. accuracy. Additional information, such as voice inflection or While they are capable of learning, the acquisition of new skills contact sensor provides additional information and greater takes significantly more time and requires frequent repetition. accuracy. Research has been conducted in extracting stress of People with PIMD tend to exhibit not or not easily readable students using only the smartphone, carried by the person[15]. behaviours in order to communicate their (dis-)pleasure or to get Another advancement in computer vision is the possibility of attention. Examples of these are pushing unwanted objects away, mapping the body parts of one or more persons from video [16]. loud vocalisations or banging to gain attention. In general, the This enables extracting of the limb and torso position, the position communication attempts of people with PIMD are relying on of fingers and facial markers. This enables researchers to qualify caregivers who have been trained to understand their the position of a person and increases the robustness and ease of communications by interpreting their whole body behaviour or analysing behaviours of humans. An example of this can be seen in specific personal expressions [4]. Figure 1. Communication attempts are very multifaceted based on the The position of a person is only part of the puzzle of finding out specific individual. Some persons are capable of vocalising simple what the person wants. In order to determine the context of the words, such as saying “Hi”, but do not consistently use them in a interaction there is another piece of the puzzle. The environment of correct manner or they grab towards toys and individuals they want the person must be taken into account. There are several systems to interact with. Making eye contact is possible for some that can take a video and return the objects present in the scene. individuals, which can be an orientation towards desired objects as One of the fastest open source solutions is YOLO [17]. Other communication attempt. Others do not have any coherent commercial systems also exist, such as Google or Amazon Object vocalisations, lack motor skills and require help holding items [3], recognition API [18]. [5]. Further complicating their behaviour or the interpretation of is stereotypy. These are actions that do not contain communication attempts but can be considered “ticks” that do not carry meaning. There is a correlation between stereotypical behaviours and low level of social interaction and stimulation. This behaviour can escalate over time to aggressive behaviour and sometimes even self-injuring. The level of these problematic behaviours seems to be correlated with communication problems [5] and would presumably point to this being an expression of frustration. These behaviours can range from hand wringing, to hitting legs, head or nearby objects, from purposeful breath holding to screaming etc. Several attempts were made to bridge the gap of communication of people with PIMD. Some individuals have access to switches that produce specific sounds enabling an easier communication for less experienced communication partners [4], [6]. These switches can take several forms form simple push buttons to systems that attach to the individual muscles. Other systems, such as Picture Exchange Communication where the individuals with PIMD are expected to Figure 1. An example of the image processed by provide a picture, usually on a card, for the desired communication OpenPose. The Fingers, arms and facial characteristics are extracted and returned as points. 38 4. THE EXPRESSIONS OF THE PEOPLE 5. OVERVIEW OF THE PROPOSED WITH PIMD SYSTEM In our research we are working with six people with PIMD in order Our system will take the information collected from the camera, to provide a robust data set that will be used to train the system and microphone and other sensors, extract the objects in the scene and extract the state of the individual and the communication they are the information about the communication attempts of the users and, trying to accomplish. Based on this we hope to extract some based on this, provide a guess on the presumable mood and rudimentary information, such as their psychological state communicated content. (pleasure, displeasure or neutral) and the mode of communication In the first round, communication classes will be extracted using they are exhibiting such as protest, demand or comment. Based on unsupervised learning that will return common actions performed this information and the context – the activity that was happening by the individual, as annotated or provided by the movement before, the objects that are available for interaction and the analysing system. This will return meaningful communication estimation of internal needs based on models such as hunger, thirst clusters. These will be simple like moving the hand from position etc. – the system will propose the action the caregiver should take. A (on head) to position B (pointing), interacting with the desk, The first step for this is collecting the data. In our case this video is vocalisation or a combination of these, such as pointing and manually annotated in order to provide information for the system. producing a distinct sound. We use several cameras, an infrared camera, a wristband to collect All these communication clusters can then be mapped onto the state physiological parameters and microphones that collect sounds. The and communication system. At this stage supervised learning will videos are collected in several interactions ranging from meal time, be used. Some actions will for instance indicate that the user is playing (Figure 2) and physical therapy and even some life-skills displeased - providing the information on the internal state of the training. individual. While others will indicate communication attempts such as demand for something. Together they can indicate to the caregivers what action they should take to provide care for their charges. The first problem we have to solve is to remove the behaviour that does not carry any communication information. In general, it is expected that action that happen regardless of the state of the individual will be filtered out. This could become problematic as some actions can have several meanings. As such the efficacy of this is considered ongoing research. In addition, the context, such as presence of strangers or objects in the vicinity, will be used to provide information on the desires and aversions of the individual, creating an internal database of likes and dislikes that can be taken into consideration. Figure 1. An image of video recording of a play session with a caregiver. 6. CONCLUSIONS The videos are annotated to indicate the position of the individuals As the system is not yet operational, there are several problems, that so that the system can be trained to return the desired information are still part of research. For instance, it is unknown which role such as arm position, facial expressions and actions such as rubbing stereotypy will play, or how accurately we can extract the parts of the body, interacting with objects or people, presence of information if the user is interacting with a specific object or person. The information that the user is interacting with one object may not be enough to infer the actual desire of the user. Once this, and other problems are resolved the system can be extended to general public. Enabling researchers and others to analyse the behaviour of the individuals and extract the communication desires and psychological state of the individual to further their understanding of the motivations and desires of people, providing standardised analysis of their movements and philological states. This will in turn enable greater rigidity of inquiry providing a faster and reproducible way of analysing behaviour of people. However, the system could be misused. Organisations and individuals could use the system to determine the state of the Figure 1. An image of video recording of a play session individual and use this to manipulate her or him for their gain. A with a caregiver. system that can extract the information could be used to associate some products and people with this feeling, thus steering the people people in the scene and any external disruptions, such as loud noises to the competition. Furthermore, body language could be important etc. In Figure 3 we can see an example of the resulting annotation. for determining not the information but relationships of people, creating an internal map that could result in an interaction map that 39 could be used to influence certain groups of people or simply to Disabil. , vol. 4, pp. 133–145, 2016. determine the connections between them and their reactions to [8] M. Benzeghiba et al. , “Automatic speech recognition and certain events. speech variability: A review,” Speech Commun. , vol. 49, no. 10–11, pp. 763–786, 2007. 7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS [9] M. Anusuya and S. Katti, “Speech recognition by Funding: This work was supported by the European Union’s machine: A review,” Int. J. Comput. Sci. Inf. Secur. , vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 181–205, 2009. Horizon 2020 research and innovation program [grant agreement No 780819 (INSENSION)]. [10] C. H. Morimoto and M. R. M. Mimica, “Eye gaze tracking techniques for interactive applications,” Comput. Vis. Image Underst. , vol. 98, no. 1, pp. 4–24, 2005. [11] J. San Agustin et al. , “Evaluation of a low-cost open- 8. REFERENCES source gaze tracker,” Proc. 2010 Symp. Eye-Tracking Res. Appl. - ETRA ’10, p. 77, 2010. [1] H. Nakken and C. Vlaskamp, “A Need for a Taxonomy for Profound Intellectual and Multiple Disabilities,” J. [12] W. S. Chu, F. De La Torre, and J. F. Cohn, “Selective Policy Pract. Intellect. 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Pers. with 40 Kognitivna raven kot del relacijske družinske terapije pri predelovanju spolnega nasilja Tanja Repič Slavič Teološka fakulteta, Poljanska 4, Ljubljana, katedra za Zakonsko in družinsko terapijo ter psihologijo in sociologijo religije Frančiškanski družinski inštitut, Prešernov trg 4, Ljubljana E-mail: tanja.repic@teof.uni-lj.si POVZETEK Take izkušnje imajo velik vpliv tudi na telesno zdravje [6, Posamezniki, ki so v otroštvu doživeli spolno nasilje ter se 7]. v odraslosti soočajo s posledicami, potrebujejo za Samo nasilje je za žrtev lahko tako travmatično, da če se le globinsko preoblikovanje vzorcev, odnosov in notranje ta ne zdravi, lahko posledice postanejo in ostanejo drže, strokovno pomoč. Brez dela na sebi se pogosto lahko doživljenjske [8]. Pomembno je poudariti, da otrok, ki je bil znajdejo nazaj v začaranih krogih nasilja, ali kot žrtve ali žrtev spolnega nasilja, v obdobju mladostnika ali odraslega kot storilci, in doživljajo neprijetne posledice nasilja, ki jih posameznika predstavlja veliko tveganje, da sam postane celo nezavedno prenašajo naprej na otroke. Predno pa je povzročitelj spolnega nasilja nad otroci [9]. Raziskave so posameznik sposoben iti v globino čustev in nezavednega pokazale, da je spolna zloraba v otroštvu zelo pogosta med spomina, je v relacijski družinski terapiji (RDT) s strani spolnimi prestopniki, saj ponavljajo priučeno vedenje, ki so terapevta nujno poskrbeti za varen prostor, ki ga med ga bili sami deležni, torej jih je v otroštvu tako zelo drugim omogoča prav vrednotenje travme na kognitivni travmatiziral in zaznamoval. Spolni prestopnik se kot otrok ravni, o čemer bomo pisali v prispevku. V tem kontekstu nauči pozitivnega odnosa do spolnega vedenja med bomo najprej predstavili nekatera teoretična izhodišča v otrokom in odraslim človekom [10]. Za žrtve posilstva povezavi z RDT in spolnim nasiljem, potem pa bomo bolj obstaja velika verjetnost, da bodo ponovno žrtve, za natančno osvetlili stopnje procesa RDT na kognitivni ravni. deklice, ki so bile telesno ali spolno zlorabljene, pa je velika verjetnost, da bodo ponovno zlorabljene, kot odrasle Ključne besede ali da bodo postale prostitutke [11]. Spolno nasilje, relacijska družinska teorija in terapija, kognitivna raven, razreševanje travme. 2. RELACIJSKA DRUŽINSKA TEORIJA IN SPOLNO NASILJE 1. SPOLNO NASILJE RDT poudarja, da zgodnje travme, kamor sodi tudi spolno nasilje, lahko povzročijo najpogosteje nezmožnost pri Spolno nasilje je vsako vedenje ali dejanje s spolno reguliranju agresivnih impulzov, strahu, sramu in gnusa [12]. Ti vsebino, ki si ga žrtev ne želi in pri njej vzbuja občutek, da afekti ostanejo zelo globoko ukoreninjeni v psihobiološki je njeno telo le inštrument za zadovoljitev potreb [1]. Pri strukturi otroka in še v odrasli dobi lahko silovito zaznamujejo spolnem nasilju gre za vsa spolna dejanja povezana s posameznika, ki je bil žrtev zlorabe, zlasti pa se prebudijo, ko spolnostjo, ki jih oseba čuti kot prisilo, ob njih doživlja pride v odraslem odnosu do intime. Zaznamuje pa tudi njegovo sram in gnus ter da so bile prekoračene telesne meje in okolico, ki se večkrat z velikim nerazumevanjem do njegove meje osebnega dostojanstva. Na drugi strani pa storilec to bolečine odvrača od njega, saj ne razume, zakaj se vedno znova stori z namenom spolnega vzburjenja [2, 3]. Nasilje se zapleta v odnose, kjer je spet zlorabljena [13, 2]. Gostečnik [12, pojavlja na različnih nivojih, še posebej boleče pa je, kadar 14] meni, da se med spolnim nasiljem vzpostavi izredno močna nastopa kot relacijska travma, kar pomeni da se izvaja s afektivna povezava med rabljem in žrtvijo. Zato lahko žrtev strani žrtvi bližnje osebe, npr. družinskega člana. Še zlasti zlorabe ravno na osnovi tega odnosa, ki je bil kruto vsiljen, v težki obliki nasilja, ki se izvajata v družini ali pa novih situacijah nezavedno išče zlorabo oziroma v zlorabi išče neučinkovito razrešujeta, sta fizično in spolno nasilje. podobne situacije, vzdušja in ljudi, ki jo bodo ponovno zlorabili. Žrtve nasilja so zaznamovane z dolgotrajnimi posledicami. Pri tem posameznik podoživlja afekte zlorabe, kot bi se zloraba Raziskave med najpogostejšimi posledicami omenjajo dogajala tukaj in sedaj, ne pa kot del preteklosti. Nezavedno posttravmatsko stresno motnjo, neprimerno regulacijo čutijo, da morajo ostati zvesti tem občutjem, saj bi sicer čutili afekta, depresijo, anksiozne motnje, zlorabo drog in obupno praznino, močno hrepenenje, ki celo organsko boli, alkohola, kompulzivno vedenjsko ponavljanje travmatičnih dokler ne pride do ponovitve začaranega kroga in pomiritve. To scenarijev, občutke sramu in krivde, destruktivnost do sebe praznino vsekakor lahko pomirijo tudi z raznimi oblikami in drugih, vedenjsko impulzivnost, agresivne izpade, zasvojenosti, z avtodestruktivnimi vedenji, kot so avtoagresijo, spremenjeno podobo o sebi in podobno [4, 5]. samopoškodovanje in motnje hranjenja, ... [15]. Zloraba pomeni odnos, in odpovedati se odnosu za zlorabljenega pomeni izgubiti 41 vse, zato pogosto vztrajajo v še tako bolečih odnosih, v upanju stopnje, ki pa se pri vsakem posamezniku odvijajo v na razrešitev [16]. drugačnem vrstnem redu. Prav tako ni značilno, da bi se neka stopnja zaključila in začela druga, ampak se lahko iste S področja pomoči pri reševanju posledic spolnega nasilja je stopnje večkrat ponovijo, vendar vsakič na drugačen način, sicer veliko različnih tehnik, svetovalnih metod in pristopov, kar na drugem nivoju. V tem oziru proces okrevanja spominja pa omogoča le razreševanje na bolj površinski ravni, saj ni na spiralo, kjer se ponovijo isti nivoji, a vsakič raven višje. dovolj možnosti za naslavljanje vseh dinamik in čustvenih stanj, Pomembno je vedeti, da ima vsak posameznik svojo pot ki jih pusti travma nasilja. Sodobna relacijska psihoterapevtska okrevanja. Ni boljših in hitrejših poti, so le različne poti, ki paradigma, kamor se uvršča tudi model relacijske družinske vodijo k istemu cilju. V relacijski družinski terapiji je terapije (RDT), poudarja prav to: nerazrešene psihične vsebine, zagotovo cilj, da se spolno nasilje razrešuje na kognitivni ki so zaznane tudi na nevrobiološki ravni, prihajajo na dan v ravni, na ravni čutenj in afektov ter na telesni ravni [2, 21]. različnih simptomatičnih in velikokrat nefunkcionalnih oblikah V nadaljevanju bomo predstavili kognitivno raven, ki je na vedenja. RTD preko mehanizmov projekcijsko introjekcijske nek način najbolj na površini, a brez nje do ostalih dveh identifikacije (transferja in kontratransferja) prodira v nezavedni naprej ni mogoče prodreti. spomin in tako z ozaveščanjem le tega pomaga regulirati posameznikova psihobiološka stanja in afekte, ki izhajajo iz teh stanj [12, 17]. Ker je razreševanje travme zelo kompleksen 4 KOGNITIVNA RAVEN PRI proces, saj potlačene psihosomatske vsebine prihajajo postopno na dan, je nujno v terapiji zagotoviti varen prostor. PREDELAVI SPOLNEGA NASILJA Klinične izkušnje [2] kažejo, da zlorabljeni začnejo predelovati spolno zlorabo najprej na kognitivni ravni . Ko 3. PROCES RELACIJSKE DRUŽINSKE govorimo o kognitivni ravni, imamo v mislih racionalno TERAPIJE PRI RAZREŠEVANJU dojemanje, miselne procese posameznika. V tem okviru se SPOLNEGA NASILJA prepletajo različne teme in stopnje procesa, ki pa se ne odvijajo pri vseh v istem vrstnem redu. Relacijska družinska terapija postavlja v središče a.) ODLOČITEV: Najprej se mora zlorabljeni odločiti, da terapevtskega dela odnos, ki omogoča spremembo osnovnih želi nekaj spremeniti. Do te odločitve jih največkrat relacijskih struktur. Velik pomen daje ozaveščanju pripeljejo posledice spolne zlorabe, ki jih doživljajo na potlačenih vsebin in zagotovitvi manjkajočih zgodnjih različnih področjih. V večini primerov nihče moči teh doživetij. Vendar pa ne gre zgolj za drugačna doživetja in posledic ne pripisuje spolni zlorabi ampak sebi, kot tistemu, popravljanje starih, nedokončanih procesov razvoja, temveč s katerim je nekaj zelo narobe, saj sicer ne bi doživljal za razumevanje temeljnega vzorca odnosov, ki ga živi toliko stisk in kriz. Slutijo pa, da tu in tam travmatičen posameznik, in za spremembo teh temeljnih vzorcev dogodek prispeva del bolečin, vendar nikakor v takem odnosov. Klient zagotovo potrebuje profesionalno pomoč, obsegu in s tako intenzivnostjo, kot se kasneje v procesu zlasti pri premagovanju in soočanju s strahom, terapije izkaže. samoobtoževanjem, krivdo, z jezo in drugimi močnimi čutenji ter afekti, ki jih pusti spolna zloraba [12, 18]. S b.) KOGNITIVNO DOJEMANJE POSLEDIC SPOLNEGA pomočjo novih izkušenj, ki se zgodijo v terapevtskem NASILJA: ko terapevt začne na srečanjih vrednotiti te odnosu, bo prihajalo pri klientu do sprememb. Te stiske in iskati izvor sedanjih doživljanj, ki se le prebujajo spremembe ne bodo povezane samo z vsakdanjim in prihajajo od drugod, začnejo zlorabljeni postopno življenjem, ampak tudi s spremembami v možganih [19], kognitivno dojemati resnične posledice spolne zlorabe, kar posledično vpliva tudi na hormonski sistem ter samo dinamiko, povezave s preteklostjo in sedanjostjo … preusmeritev privlačnosti, kar v praksi pomeni, da Čutenja, ki se jim ob tem pojavljajo, in telesne senzacije, ki zlorabljenemu niso nezavedno več privlačni ljudje, ob jih doživljajo, najprej le racionalno povezujejo z zlorabo, in katerih bo ponovno podoživljal vzdušje in afekte originalne normalno je, da občasno celo podvomijo in zanikajo, da bi travme [12, 17]. lahko zaradi te travme doživljali toliko groz. Rothschildova [16, 20] meni, da mora vsako terapijo, c.) GLASNO PRIZNANJE, DA SE JE SPOLNO NASILJE povezano s travmatičnimi doživetji, spremljati deset ZARES ZGODILO: velik korak naprej je, ko lahko temeljnih načel, ki so: posameznik glasno pred vsemi v skupini (če je terapija skupinska) ali le pred terapevtom (če je terapija 1. vzpostavitev varnosti za posameznika, tako na terapiji, inividualna) po nekaj srečanjih izgovori in prizna, da je bil kot izven nje; 2. razviti dober in učinkovit terapevtski spolno zlorabljen. Običajno na začetku besedne zveze odnos; 3. sposobnost in zmožnost ustavitve terapevtskega spolna zloraba sploh še ne zmorejo izreči, če pa že, jo procesa; 4. identificirati in graditi posameznikove notranje izrečejo zelo disociirano – brez čutenj, bolj racionalno, kot in zunanje vire; 5. graditi mehanizme za soočenje s travmo; da to ni nič tako zelo hudega. 6. vedno znižati pritisk; 7. prilagoditi se posameznikovim potrebam; 8. poznati širok spekter psihofizioloških teorij o Zaradi krutosti dogodka je povsem normalno, da se občasno travmi in PTSD; 9. upoštevati posameznikove svojske pri posameznikih pojavljajo dvomi, da si morda vse samo razlike in posebnosti ter 10. terapevt mora biti pripravljen domišljajo, da so kaj takega sanjali in da se jim to sploh ni opustiti določene ali vse terapevtske tehnike. res zgodilo. Vendar se v času terapije prej ali slej pokaže, da grozne sanje pustijo drugačen pečat in ne vplivajo tako V tem kontekstu temeljnih načel dela s travmo, se močno in tako intenzivno na človekovo doživljanje, prepletajo v samem procesu razreševanja različne teme in vsakdanje življenje. Prav tako se tudi izkaže, da so dvomi 42 le posledica bolečine in stisk ter da obstajajo tudi resnična V tem kontekstu lahko rečemo, da v prvih tednih ali dejstva, ki ovržejo dvom in potrdijo resničnost doživljanj. mesecih na terapijah čustva in afekte dojemajo kognitivno, Terapevt mora pri tem verjeti, da se bo v času terapije kar pomeni, da že vedo, da niso bili oni krivi, vendar se izkazalo in da je možno prepoznati, začutiti, kdaj bi bil nek krivde še ne morejo znebiti. Prav tako šele postopno lahko spomin implantiran ali izmišljen. priznajo, da se jim je zgodila krivica, vendar jeze na Č.) RAZKRITJE SPOLNEGA NASILJA TUDI DRUGIM: začetku sploh še ne zmorejo začutiti, če pa že, jo usmerjajo občutek olajšanja, da zlorabljeni ne nosi več sam svoje na »napačne« osebe in izražajo na neprimerne načine. S temne skrivnosti, nekatere vzpodbudi, da tvegajo povedati strani terapevta korak za korakom v začetnih fazah o spolni zlorabi tudi komu drugemu izven terapije – morda dojemajo, da je v takem dejanju s strani storilca čutiti enemu od družinskih članov (izkušnje kažejo, da najlažje ogromno sramu, gnusa, prezira, vendar večinoma ostajajo sestri ali bratu, šele potem mami, očetu redkokdo), ali še indiferentni, včasih prav depresivni in v svojem svetu – nekomu od prijateljev. Pomembno pri tem je, da žrtev ne da bi telesno začutili omenjena čutenja. Običajno ta zlorabe čuti, da je ta oseba vredna zaupanja in da bo čutenja začnejo doživljati veliko prej v vsakdanjem razumela zlorabo – da ne bo obsojala, minimalizirala življenju, ob osebah, ki niso bile originalen storilec, dogodka, opravičevala storilca … Dogaja se tudi ravno postopno celo ob terapevtu. V tem se jasno vidi transfer, obratno – da posamezniki, preden pridejo na terapijo, vsem prenos čutenj prek projekcijsko-introjekcijske identifikacije brez razmejitev razlagajo, kaj se jim je zgodilo, saj na ta na neko drugo osebo, kar se za začetek izkaže kot bolj način regulirajo bolečino in sproščajo napetost. V času varno, manj tvegano, kot če bi to čutili ob storilcu. Na to terapij pa kmalu vidijo, da so izbirali predvsem take osebe, kaže tudi najpogostejši odgovor na vprašanje, koliko so ki njihovih klicev na pomoč niso slišali. Tako začnejo jezni in besni na tistega, ki jih je spolno zlorabljal. Ob tem postopno postavljati meje in svoje zgodbe ne pripovedujejo večina samo skomigne z rameni, da jeze ne čutijo, čeprav bi več vsakemu, ki jih bolj ko ne iz vljudnosti vpraša, kako so, se jim zdelo prav, da bi jo čutili – razumsko torej vedo, da saj se s tem samo še bolj ranijo in razvrednotijo. bi »morali« čutiti jezo, gnus, bes, vendar čutenjsko tega še niso »sposobni« oziroma še ne smejo začutiti. Z drugimi d.) OZAVEŠČANJE TRAVME SPOLNEGA NASILJA IN besedami, ni še dovolj varno in je v terapiji potrebno prej DVOJNO PREPOZNAVANJE – SPOMINJANJE: naravna odkriti še druge plasti, obrambne mehanizme, afektivne pot procesa je, da začne v času terapij postopno prihajati na psihične konstrukte in simptome kompulzivne dan vedno več potlačenih čutenj, afektov, telesnih reakcij retravmatizacije, da lahko pridejo do samega jedra … Pri nekaterih se te vsebine prebujajo v odnosih z bolečine. drugimi ljudmi, pri drugih prek sanj, branja neke knjige, lahko prek močnih telesnih odzivov, gledanja kakega filma, e.) DOŽIVLJANJE KRIZ: spomini in čutenja, ki se začnejo vedenj, ki si jih ne znajo razložiti … Vse te reakcije mora intenzivno prebujati, drugačno gledanje na okolico, ljudi terapevt nenehno vrednotiti in skupaj z udeležencem okrog sebe, izvirno družino ter nove in nove teme, ki se še terapije prek povezav iskati, kam to spada, kje se je že tako odpirajo, sprožajo obdobja kriz. Posamezniki bodo v takih počutili, od kod to prihaja … Prve tedne ali celo mesece trenutkih povedali, da se jim zdi, da je sedaj še slabše, da je zlorabljeni te povezave razumejo le na kognitivni ravni – bilo lažje živeti prej, ko niso ničesar vedeli, da sedaj verjamejo, da je to res tako, lahko najdejo povezave, si to nenehno razmišljajo samo o zlorabah, da nimajo nobene ponavljajo, vendar jim to še ne prinaša nekega olajšanja, saj moči, da bi se ukvarjali s čim drugim, da se jim zdi, da se še niso zmogli tudi čustveno umiriti, telesno sprostiti. Pri bodo zapravili vse dobre priložnosti, ki se jim ponujajo, da tem je bistveno in nujno potrebno vztrajanje, nenehno niso sposobni videti drugega, razen svojih stisk in težav, da ponavljanje in utrjevanje teh povezav dvojnega nimajo energije, da bi si sploh kaj lepega zase privoščili, da prepoznavanja tega, kar se je zgodilo v preteklosti in se se jim zdi, da so nori, da bi se najraje zapili, za vedno sedaj samo prebuja, se ne dogaja več. Spolno zlorabljeni zaspali, pustili službo, študij … V takih krizah klinične vsa čutenja in afekte, ki so povezani s travmo spolne izkušnje kažejo, da najbolj pomaga, če imajo izven terapije zlorabe in se v neki sedanji situaciji samo prebujajo, ob sebi vsaj še eno osebo, na katero se lahko obrnejo, doživljajo na način, kot da se travma dogaja ravno sedaj včasih tudi to, da si jasno strukturirajo dan, predvsem [17, 22]. Njihovo telo, čustva, mimika, ton glasu, vedenje, takrat, ko jim je najtežje in bi samo spali, ter da obvezno vse se odzove na podoben način, kot da jih prav sedaj naredijo zase vsaj nekaj pozitivnega [23]. Prav tako nekdo spolno zlorablja. Ko se jim podobna občutja nekaterim pomaga, če lahko ubesedijo svoje stiske in krize pojavljajo v okolici, pogosto povedo, da jih drugi na list papirja in napišejo čisto vse, kar čutijo, brez označujejo kot »preobčutljive«, »zakomplicirane«, »cenzure«, samo da dajo ven iz sebe. Taki zapisi se »neuravnovešene«, »čudne« … Prav ponavljanje in izkažejo za zelo pozitivne tudi kasneje, ko pride morda utrjevanje teh povezav pa postopno začne spreminjati tudi novo obdobje krize in ko z branjem podoživljajo, kaj vse so čustvene in telesne odzive. V pomoč pri tem je lahko tudi že prestali, preživeli, premagali ... Mnogi povedo, da so se obrazec dvojnega prepoznavanja [2, 20], da se prek njega najbolj umirili, ko so težka čutenja uspeli umestiti v čas in tudi izven terapevtskih srečanj utrjujejo novi vzorci. Na prostor, jih ovrednotiti kot sestavni del procesa, ki ne traja začetku pa udeleženci na terapijah le kognitivno dojemajo večno in vedno mine. Četudi se obdobja kriz običajno še dejstva in se čustveno ter telesno stvari kaj bistveno še ne ponovijo, nikoli niso več tako intenzivna oziroma so bolj spreminjajo, kar pa je povsem razumljivo; če je namreč obvladljiva in manj časa trajajo. Ko so posamezniki nekdo živel dvajset, trideset ali več let z vzorci in razmišljali o premaganem obdobju krize, so videli, da so posledicami spolne zlorabe, se to čez noč nikakor ne more prav zaradi takih »zdravilnih« kriz lahko kasneje šli hitreje začeti spreminjati. in drugače naprej, kot bi šli sicer brez njih. Cilj pri razreševanju travme spolne zlorabe je iti samo naprej, 43 četudi včasih najprej korak nazaj, da lahko gre kasneje dva zlorabljenim ne pomaga le preživeti, ampak tudi živeti in koraka naprej! zaživeti človeka vredno življenje. f.) POVEZOVANJE ELEMENTOV KOMPLEKSNEGA DOŽIVLJANJA – SIBAM: vsako kompleksno doživljanje, " Doseženi rezultati so delno nastali v okviru projekta št. dogodek je iz različnih elementov. Levine [24] je za J5-9349, ki ga je financirala Javna agencija za razreševanje travme razvil SIBAM model (S = sensations, I raziskovalno dejavnost Republike = image, B = behaviour, A = affect, M = meaning), ki temelji na predpostavki, da celoten spomin nekega dogodka vključuje priklic petih elementov: slik, senzacij, vedenja, 6. REFERENCE afektov in pomena. Ko posameznik doživi travmatičen dogodek spolne zlorabe, ti elementi med seboj zaradi [1] Rozman, S. 2015. Pogum, kako preboleti travmo. hudega stresa niso povezani, ampak so disociirani, zato tudi Modrijan Založba. kasneje lahko doživlja prave napade panik in groz, pa niti [2] Repič Slavič, T. 2015. Nemi kriki spolne zlorabe in ne ve, kaj jih je povzročilo. Slik in vedenja nima, pomena novo upanje. [2. izd.]. Celje: Celjska Mohorjeva tudi ne, ima pa telesne senzacije in afekt. Pri izogibanju, družba: Društvo Mohorjeva družba. 2015. zamrznitvi in drugih odzivih so prisotne druge kombinacije izmed teh petih elementov. Na terapijah poleg dvojnega [3] Repič Slavič, T. 2016. Sexual abuse in childhood and prepoznavanja terapevt in udeleženec iščeta tudi povezave the unconscious repetition of pain in couple vseh petih elementov doživljanja in tako določene odseke relationships. V: Józef Stala, ur., Jadranka Garmaz, spomina sestavljata v celoto. Najprej proces poteka na ur. Strengthening families, 137-151. The series kognitivnem nivoju, potem pa tudi na čustvenem in Family studies, 5. Kraków: The Pontifical University telesnem. Potrebnih je veliko ponovitev in vztrajanja, da se of John Paul II. začnejo pojavljati novi vzorci vedenja, večji nadzor nad [4] Simonich, H. K., Wonderlich, S. A., Erickson, A. L., prej na videz neobvladljivimi čutenji in navsezadnje tudi Myers, T. C., Hoesel, J., Wagner S. in Engel, K. pozitivne spremembe. 2015. A statewide trauma-focused cognitive g.) VREDNOTENJE SPREMEMB IN NAPREDKA: ob behavioral therapy network: creating an integrated vseh teh doživljanjih, prebujanju bolečih spominov, community response system. Journal of vzponih in padcih pa je nujno potrebno veliko pozornosti Contemporary Psychotherapy 45, št. 4:265-274. posvetili tudi priznanjem in pohvalam osebi, ki je bila [5] Vaillancourt-Morel, M. P., Godbout, N., Sabourin, S., spolno zlorabljena in se trudi s pomočjo terapij v Briere, J., Lussier, Y. in Runtz, M. 2016. Adult vsakdanjem življenju nekaj spremeniti. Še zlasti, ko pridejo sexual outcomes of child sexual abuse vary according obdobja kriz in takrat običajno človek ne vidi ničesar to relationship status. Journal of Marital and Family pozitivnega, je bistveno in pomembno, da terapevt zna Therapy 42, št. 2:341-56 . podpreti ter ovrednotiti prehojeno pot, pohvaliti tisto, kar je [6] van der Kolk, B. A. 2002. Beyond the talking cure: posameznik že naredil, trud in vztrajanje, vložene napore in Somatic experience and subcortical imprints in the moči ter verjeti še naprej in še bolj, da bo šlo vse še na treatment of trauma. V: Francine Shapiro, ur. EMDR boljše in samo naprej. Na skupinskih terapijah se as an integrative psychotherapy approach: Experts of udeleženci podpirajo med seboj in na podlagi svojih diverse orientations explore the paradigm prism, 57- izkušenj povedo, kaj jim najbolj pomaga, jih najbolj 83. Washington: American Psychological napolni z energijo, usmeri naprej, daje moč, da vztrajajo. Association. Vsi pa povedo, da jim zelo veliko pomeni, da terapevt zaupa in verjame v njihov napredek, da pohvali in [7] Yule, W. 2001. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the ovrednoti spremembe ter da lahko pokaže in pove, da je general population and in children. Journal of ponosen na njihovo »garanje« – prehojeno pot. Prav te Clinical Psychiatry. 62. št. 17:23-8. spodbude so med drugim zelo ključne pri procesu okrevanja [8] Solomon, M. F. in Siegel, D. J. 2003. Healing in razreševanja travmatične izkušnje spolne zlorabe. trauma: Attachment, mind, body, and brain. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. [9] Maniglio, R. 2011. The role of child sexual abuse in 5. ZAKLJUČEK the etiology of substance-related disorders. Journal of Klinične izkušnje terapevtov kažejo, da ne moremo nikoli Addictive Diseases 30, št. 3:216-28. reči, da pridemo kdaj na konec poti razreševanja travme [10] Boonmann, C., Grisso, T., Guy, L. S., Colins, O. F., spolnega nasilja – kajti, ko je dosežen en cilj, se pokažejo Mulder, E. A., Vahl, P., Jansen, L. M. C., potrebe po novi rasti, po novem cilju, in proces postane Doreleijers, T. A. H. in Vermeiren, R. R. J. M. 2016. sestavni del življenja. Kljub vsem posledicam, ki Childhood traumatic experiences and mental health zaznamujejo posameznikovo življenje, lahko v problems in sexually offending and non-sexually terapevtskem odnosu posameznik tako napreduje, da ga offending juveniles. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment travma nezavedno ne usmerja več, ko pa pridejo sprožilci, Health, št. 10:45. ki sprožijo določne organske senzacije, bo prav kognitivna [11] Cvetek, R. 2009. Bolečina preteklosti: travma, raven tista, ki bo pomagala premostiti obdobja kriz in medosebni odnosi, družina, terapija. Celje: Celjska razmejiti, da se dogodek sedaj ne dogaja več, ampak se le Mohorjeva družba: Društvo Mohorjeva družba. prebujajo določeni segmenti. To kognitivno zavedanje 44 [12] Gostečnik, C. 2008. Relacijska paradigm in travma. Ljubljana: Brat Frančišek in Frančiškanski družinski center. [13] Henry, J., Sloane, M. in Black-Pond, C. 2007. Neurobiology and neurodevelopmental impact of childhood traumatic stress and prenatal alcohol exposure. [14] Gostečnik, C. 2017. Družinske terapije in klinična praksa. Ljubljana: Brat Frančišek in Frančiškanski družinski inštitut. [15] Knauer, S. 2002. Recovering from sexual abuse, addictions, and compulsive behaviors: "Numb" survivors. New York, NY: Haworth Press. [16] Rothschild, B. 2000. The body remembers: The psychophysiology of trauma and trauma treatment. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. [17] Gostečnik, C. 2017. Relational family therapy: the systemic, interpersonal, and intrapsychic experience. New York; London, Abingdon: Routledge. [18] Dorais, M. 2002. Don't tell: The sexual abuse of boys. Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press. [19] Schore, A. N. 2003. Early relational trauma, disorganized attachment, and the development of a predisposition to violence. V: D. J. Siegel in M. F. Solomon, ur. Healing trauma: Attachment, mind, body, and brain, 107-67. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. [20] Rothschild, B. 2006. Help for the helper: The psychophysiology of compassion fatigue and vicarious trauma. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. [21] Repič Slavič, T. in Gostečnik, C. 2017. Relational family therapy as an aid toward resolving the trauma of sexual abuse in childhood in the process of separation in the couple relationship. Journal of marital and family therapy 43, št. 3:422-434. [22] Scaer, R. 2005. The trauma spectrum: Hidden wounds and human resiliency. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. [23] Simonič, B. 2018. Nežnost in njen pomen v medosebnih odnosih in v pastorali. Bogoslovni vestnik.78, št. 1:209-218. [24] Levine, P. A. 1997. Waking the tiger: Healing trauma: The innate capacity to transform overwhelming experiences. Barkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books. 45 Medgeneracijski prenos nasilja Prof. dr. Christian Gostečnik Teološka fakulteta, katedra za Zakonsko in družinsko terapijo ter psihologijo in sociologijo religije Poljanska 4, Ljubljana Frančiškanski družinski inštitut Prešernov trg 4, Ljubljana christian.gostecnik@teof.uni-lj.si POVZETEK knjigi Upor telesa [20], ko piše, da se zloraba v otroštvu razrešuje Vsak emocionalni odziv na stresne situacije vedno vpliva na na dva načina: odrasli, ki je bil kot otrok spolno zlorabljen, svoja celotno psiho-organsko strukturo posameznika. Vsekakor pa le-to nepriznana čustva, psiho-organske vsebine prenese na svojega najbolj zaznamujejo nasilna, travmatična doživetja, ki se lahko otroka oziroma na druge ljudi okoli sebe, lahko pa posledice zaradi svojih destruktivnih vplivov, prenašajo iz generacije v plačuje telo zlorabljenega, in sicer s psihosomatiko ali kroničnimi generacijo. Nasilna, travmatična doživetja s senzacijami in afekti boleznimi [21]. Tako sekundarna travmatizacija kot tudi se namreč usidrajo v posameznikovo psihosomatsko, psiho- transgeneracijski prenos pripomoreta k pogostemu razvoju nizke organsko strukturo oziroma v njegov implicitni spomin in tam samopodobe otrok [4]. Prav to je raziskovalce še bolj motiviralo, nezavedno bivajo ter lahko dramatično vplivajo na naslednje da niso raziskovali le mehanizmov in učinkov prenosa travme, rodove. V tem prispevku bomo zato skušali prvenstveno pokazati, temveč tudi nezavedno in zavedno komunikacijo med starši in da težja ko je travma, nasilje, močneje posameznika sili k otroki. Ugotovili so, da se je komunikacija lahko razlikovala od zunanjemu izrazu ali ekspresiji in to še prav posebej tedaj, ko gre skoraj popolne tišine do odprtega razpravljanja in pripovedovanja za PTSD, katerih posledice pa lahko zato doživljajo tudi bodoče najbolj krutih zgodb in izkušenj. Otroci so v obeh primerih zatirali generacije. in potlačili svoja čustva in niso bili gotovi, kaj se je v resnici dogajalo z njihovimi starši. [2, 3, 15, 22, 23] Poleg so tudi Ključne besede ugotovili, da je prekomerna komunikacija in z njo povezano travmatična doživetja, implicitni spomin, prenos nasilja, PTSD, razlaganje vseh izkušenj pri otrocih povzročala manj depresije in relacijska družinska terapija anksioznosti, vendar več krivde. Krell [24] trdi, da je bilo za otroke še bolj strašljivo, če starši o svojih izkušnjah niso govorili, 1. UVOD saj so si otroci v svojih glavah s pomočjo fantazije ustvarili Mnogi v sodobnosti, kot npr. [1-5], v svojih raziskavah odkrivajo določene slike, ki so bile zelo patogene. Tako so otroci nezavedno transgeneracijski prenos travme v naslednje generacije in lahko uprizarjali in ponovno doživljali usodo staršev, in če jim je ob tem celo na otroke, ki se sploh še niso rodili, ko se je nasilje zgodilo primanjkovalo informacij in zgodb, je bilo to zanje lahko še hujše [6]. Nekateri avtorji [7, 8] pri tem ocenjujejo, da npr. približno in intenzivnejše [5]. Vsi ti prenosi čutenj in afektov, psiho- ena tretjina spolno zlorabljenih oseb naprej zlorablja, približno organskih vsebin pa se odvijajo prek mehanizmov projekcijsko- dve tretjini žrtev pa ne bo nikoli spolno zlorabljalo naprej, introjekcijske identifikacije in kompulzivnega ponavljanja. predvsem če bodo imele podporo in ljubezen v družini. Johnson [9] ugotavlja, da imajo tisti, ki so bili v preteklosti žrtve čustvene, 3. TRAVMA IN NJENA fizične ali spolne zlorabe, 6-krat večjo možnost, da bodo tudi sami SIMPTOMATOLOGIJA nadaljevali zlorabo, ki so jo izkusili na lastni koži. Druge Tipični znaki travme se odražajo (2, 3, 5, 15-17, 23, 25, 26] raziskave Collin-Vezina [10] ugotavlja, da je bila polovica mater, predvsem hipervzburjenju v AŽS, le-ta pa je rezultat katerih otroci so bili spolno zlorabljeni, tudi sama žrtev spolne travmatičnega doživljanja. Tu govorimo predvsem o hitrejšem zlorabe. In tudi če se dejanje nasilja ne prenaša naprej, to še ne bitju srca, srčni palpitaciji, hladno-vročih potenjih, hitrejšem, a pomeni, da bodo otroci staršev, ki so doživeli nasilje, varni pred bolj plitvem dihanju, hiperbudnosti ali pazljivosti, osebami, ki izvajajo nasilje. mravljinčavosti, strahu, jezi, avotdestrukciji itd. V kroničnih stanjih pa lahko ti simptomi vodijo v motnje spanja, depresijo, 2. RELACIJSKA DRUŽINSKA TERAPIJA izgubi apetita, anksioznosti, spolnim disfunkcijam, zamrznjenosti, Relacijska družinska teorija [11-14] govori o nepredelanih afektih, disociaciji in velikokrat lahko ima ta posameznik težave s psiho-organskih vsebinah, ki so pri nasilju predvsem strah, prezir, koncentracijo in posledično s spominom [2, 3, 15, 23, 27-29]. gnus, sram in jeza, ki se globoko vtisnejo v psiho-organsko Tako te žrtve lahko ponovno doživljajo travmatični dogodek v strukturo posameznika, le-te se prek mehanizma projekcijsko- senzornih oblikah ali »flashbackih« in se zato začno izogibati introjekcijske identifikacije vertikalno prenesejo s travmiranega vsemu, kar bi jih lahko spominjalo na travmo, ali pa doživljajo starša na otroka [2, 3, 15-17]. Četudi skuša ta starš otroka kronično hipervzburjenje v avtonomnem živčnem sistemu [16, 17, opozoriti na vse nevarnosti nasilja [18], sam pri sebi pa ne bo v 25, 30-33]. stiku z nepredelanimi afekti ter se zato tudi ne bo znal zavarovati in postaviti razmejitev, bo veliko večja verjetnost, da otrok Z drugimi besedami, na ta način lahko proces disociacije odcepi postane žrtev nasilja [11, 13, 14, 19]. Podobno pravi Millerjeva v tako narativne komponente doživetja kakor tudi sosledje dogajanja, vključno s fiziološkimi in psihološkimi skratka psiho- 46 organskimi reakcijami, kar pa pomeni, da ostaja implicitni disociirana in še dolgo potem, ko se je travma zgodila, še vedno oziroma organski spomin globoko vrisan v posameznikov čuti, da je »izven sebe«. To stanje pa se, kot rečeno, lahko organizem in le-ta se lahko prenese v naslednjo generacijo [4]. nadaljuje še dolge mesece in leta, včasih pa se zgodi, da se šele Govorimo torej o amneziji, ki je v različnih oblikah, poleg ostalih čez leta prebudi, in sicer v obliki otopelosti, zamrznjenosti, simptomov, lahko vsekakor najpogostejši pojav pri disociativni anksioznosti, »flashbackov«, depersonalizacije, delne ali popolne dinamiki, zato se to nezavedno, psiho-organsko prenaša na amnezije, doživljanja, kot da je žrtev izven telesa, nezmožnosti naslednje generacije. Posameznik lahko doživi anestezijo in ne kar koli čutiti, pa tudi v obliki nerazumljivih vedenjskih in čuti nobene bolečine, lahko vsa občutja in afekte odcepi, zopet emocionalnih reakcij, ki nimajo nobenega pravega razloga v drugi lahko izgubi zavest ali pa čuti, kakor da je izven telesa. konkretnih situacijah. Vse bolj pa raziskave ugotavljajo, da je Lahko pa vse to pozneje v najrazličnejših oblikah zaznavajo v disociacija tudi vedno zvesti spremljevalec PTS- in PTSD- naslednjih rodovih [5, 25, 34]. simptomov in s tem v zvezi paničnih napadov ter napadov 4. PONOVNI VZNIK TRAVME V anksioznosti [2, 3, 15-17, 23, 25, 39], kar ponuja izjemno možnost, da se travme preteklosti, zaradi svoje intenzitete, ki NASLEDNJIH GENERACIJAH formira PTSD simptomatologijo, ponovno prebudijo v Podoživljanje travmatičnih dogodkov pa vedno znova omogočajo naslednjih generacijah, in sicer v najrazličnejših oblikah in »flashbacki«, in sicer lahko v celoti ali pa samo v določenih delih; intenzitetah. le-ti se lahko pojavljajo v naslednjih generacijah in to brez očitnih 5. ZAKLJUČEK travm, ki bi jih ti posamezniki v naslednjih generacijah doživeli [2, 3, 15, 23]. Ti fenomeni so lahko izredno moteči, saj se Za sklep lahko rečemo, da vsako zavestno doživljanje posameznik, ki je doživel travmatični dogodek, ob teh posameznika sestavljeno iz več komponent. Celoten spomin »flashbackih« počuti tako, kot da se celoten travmatični dogodek nekega določenega travmatičnega dogodka zato vedno vključuje ponovno in v vsej intenziteti ponavlja, čeprav se je travma že integrirani priklic vseh elementov posameznikovega doživljanja, zdavnaj končala. Še veliko bolj pa so vznemirjajoči za ki ga sestavljajo: senzacije, slike, vedenje, afekti in pomen. Kadar posameznika v naslednji generaciji, ki nima nobenega spomina, situacija ni preveč stresna, vsekakor pa, kadar je prijetna, se ti da bi se mu karkoli tega zgodilo, občuti pa simptome travme. elementi medsebojno povežejo oziroma ostajajo nedotaknjeni v Drugače povedano, posameznik, ki ni doživel travme, loči, ki ne spominu. Tako se npr. posameznik lahko v vsem spominja lepih nujno pozna PTS in PTSD-travmatičnih spominov, saj so le-ti in vzhičenih trenutkov svojega življenja, spominja pa se tudi čisto odcepljeni že v samem originalu, se pa zato enostavno lahko navadnih dogodkov, npr. izleta, kosila, obiska itd. Pri tem se pojavljajo v vsakem času in se v obliki »flashbackov« vedno posameznik lahko spomni vseh pomembnejših dejanj oziroma lahko vrinejo v sedanjost [16, 25, 35]. Te »flashbacke« ponavadi vedenj, prikliče si sliko, še pozna vse bistvene senzacije, znani so spremlja tudi zelo močna anksioznost, ki je v originalu spremljala mu afekti, ki so jih ta doživetja ustvarila oziroma prebudila, ve pa tudi travmatično doživetje posameznika. Še posebej močno tudi za pomen – bil je npr. sproščen dan, poln lepega, svežega, moteči pa so ob tem še panični napadi, ki lahko žrtev tudi po sklenili so nova znanstva. dolgih letih, ko travme ni več, še vedno spremljajo in velikokrat Kadar pa je stres prevelik oziroma ko govorimo o nasilju in čisto ohromijo tudi naslednjo generacijo. travmah, se ti elementi med sabo cepijo oziroma disociirajo. Pri tem gre za poskus posameznika (njegovega organizma in tudi Seveda pa pri tem ni nujno, da vsaka, tudi zelo stresna situacija njegove psihe), da bi pobegnil, ko boj ali upor nista več mogoča povzroči disociacijo. Vendar, vedno kadar je stres ali travma v [16, 25, 36]. Vsekakor pa gre lahko tu tudi za zamrznitev, ki je še svoji intenziteti premočna, se aktivira dissociativni sistem, ki tretja oblika odziva na travmo. Tudi v tem primeru gre za zavaruje posameznika pred dekompenzacijo. Tedaj lahko disociacijo, in sicer največkrat v najgloblji obliki, saj se žrtev v govorimo o PTSD simptomatologiji, ki pa lahko vedno pomeni teh primerih zelo malo ali pa sploh ne spominja, kaj se je v resnici žarišče travmatičnih organskih spominov, ki se neverjetno zgodilo. V tem primeru lahko gre za zelo globoko stanje amnezije silovitostjo prenašajo v naslednje generacije. ali, kot rečemo, čistega odklopa, vendar pa v posamezniku kljub temu ostajajo elementi travme, in sicer v najrazličnejših afektih, " Doseženi rezultati so delno nastali v okviru projekta št. J5-9349, kot so strah, sram, jeza, ki se vedno lahko prebudijo ob podobnih situacijah, ki npr. samo bledo spominjajo na originalno travmo. 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It almost seems that of physical limitations, such as not being able to develop methods there prevails an opinion of that technology and science cannot be sophisticated enough that they would have no (or minimal) negative misused – over-optimism or maybe even ignorance. To clarify side-effects, and in a form of ethical limitations, since even if these further, this opinion comes from my student surroundings – new technologies were physically possible, the extent to which we University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical faculty. I haven’t done any should use these technologies is not fully explored. To fully analysis of other universities. Of course, this interdisciplinary topic consider such obstacles, I propose an outline of the ethical is not strictly a scientific one, but nonetheless it is important. framework that should be used when thinking of applying new, Therefore, I think that discussions of this kind should be included future or even old cognitive technologies. Furthermore, I pose some in the scientific community, especially when it comes to questions for further analysis of the intertwining of techno- scientific progress with social dynamics. biotechnology that directly addresses and modifies the human condition. On the other hand, beside lack of interest of my academic surroundings, there is also an emerging movement that is overly- Keywords optimistic about technology. It is called transhumanism. Max More, Neurotechnology, transhumanism, enhancement, cognition, ethics philosopher and futurist, defined it: ” … [as] both a reason-based philosophy and a cultural 1. INTRODUCTION movement that affirms the possibility and desirability of Neurotechnology, technology that has a fundamental impact on fundamentally improving the human condition by means how we understand the brain, cognitive processes and of science and technology. Transhumanists seek the consciousness, is rapidly developing. Some of the examples of continuation and acceleration of the evolution of neurotechnologies are: imaging technology such as magnetic intelligent life beyond its currently human form and resonance imaging (MRI), electroencephalogram (EEG) or human limitations by means of science and technology, positron emission tomography (PET), brain stimulations such as guided by life-promoting principles and values.” [1] transcranial magnetic stimulations (TMS) or transcranial direct A few of the common characteristics of the mentioned philosophy current stimulation (tDCS), implant technologies, pharmaceuticals, are: a) optimistic view of progress of science and technology, b) gene editing, cell therapy and brain-computer interfaces. In this aiming at the advancement of humans - to alleviate our biological article I will be focusing on technologies that aim to improve the constrains so that we could live longer and healthier, c) using cognitive processes - cognitive enhancers. There is not a specific science and technology as the main means of advancement and d) technology that suits this purpose only. It is rather a combination of claiming that enhancement will transform the whole meaning of different technologies that are believed to alter cognitive processes: being human. In other words, they state that technology will help gene editing, pharmaceuticals and brain stimulations. us as a humanity to overcome our current problems, it will help us to be more ethical, healthy, well in both economic and ecologic My whole stance is formed as a response to the overly-optimistic sense. Transhumanists also believe that by doing so we will view of technology – which is that technology can save many of transform ourselves into some future form where we will no longer our problems, if not all of them. At no point in this paper will I go be able to state we are the same as we were before as species – we into detailed discussion of any topic, but will rather open a broad will become post-human in a transhumanist sense. field of questions that are important to consider when analysing neurotechnology and human enhancement. In the first section of For this purpose I want to analyse and present some questions this paper, I will describe what I mean with the term “overly- related to the human bio-enhancement, specifically cognitive optimistic view of technology”. In the second section, I will enhancement. My aim is not to discredit latest scientific describe shorty what are the cognitive enhancers. Then I will development. New knowledge and new technologies are continue by presenting some of the physical limitations of the appreciated – but with them comes a responsibility of how and enhancers, namely the limitations for gene editing, pharmaceuticals when to use them. My aim is to stimulate an interdisciplinary and brain stimulations. Then I will set the ethical framework that discourse of the mentioned subject – human enhancement and will serve the purpose of considering or questioning any neurotechnologies. In other words, I want that we take a closer look intervention. Finally, I will try to think of the possible connections at the other, darker side of new neurotechnologies that aim at of the techno-scientific progress with society. enhancing humans, because the bright side is known to well. 2. OVERLY-OPTIMISTIC VIEW OF 3. COGNITIVE ENHANCERS TECHNOLOGY AND ENHANCEMENT Cognitive enhancers are technologies that enhance cognitive processes. Like doping in sports that enhances physical 49 performance, cognitive enhancers stimulate memory, perception, is that substances often have side effects such as nausea, vomiting concentration, motivation, learning, problem solving and or cramps. The second obstacle is that brain responds to the computation. [2 3] Most widely known are the so-called “smart chemicals in such a way that a too high or too low concentration of drugs” – cognitive enhancers in the form of pharmaceuticals substance might not produce optimal brain functioning effects.2 In (substances). Those are already used for medicinal and enhancing some individuals one dose may cause a positive effect while in the purposes. [3 4] Besides that, scientists are developing methods for others the effect would be negative. [3] The third obstacle is that a cognitive enhancement in the form of genetic engineering and brain drug may positively affect one brain function while simultaneously stimulations. In a broader sense, even traditional cognitive training negatively affect the other.3 Last but not least, it is important to add can be classified as one form of cognitive enhancers, but I will that we lack long term studies that would tell us how safe is the use rather focus on technological enhancement.1 of these drugs – in other words, what are the long-term side effects of such enhancers. [3 10 11] 4. PHYSICAL LIMITATIONS When describing neurotechnological interventions for 4.3. Brain Stimulation enhancement purposes, we have mentioned three types of Brain stimulation is a technology using electrical currents or modifications: a) genetic engineering, b) drug intake and c) brain magnetic field (which induces electric currents) to stimulate certain stimulation. In this section I will present some of the (possible) parts of brain tissue. Methods of brain simulation can be further limitations of mentioned technologies. divided into invasive and non-invasive ones. The invasive method requires application of currents directly to the brain’s surface or 4.1 Genetic Engineering brain’s core. In order to achieve this, we have to be invasive - the Genetic engineering started in 1973 and has very quickly spread skull has to be opened and sometimes even the brain must be cut. onto many fields of industry and research. In our case, genetic Using the non-invasive methods, the currents or magnetic fields are engineering would be used for manipulation of certain cognitive applied over the head’s surface. This is called non-invasive brain trait like attention, IQ, memory and so on. For example, we could stimulation (NBS), examples of which are transcranial magnetic genetically modify embryo’s DNA, or later in life insert some gene stimulation (TMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation products to tissues or organs (RNA or protein insertions), or “knock (tDCS). For our further discussion it is not of a great importance out”, that is, make inoperative, some genes (gene knockout with what kind of technique is used. DNA cutting proteins), or we could select one out of many embryos with the most preferable genome (prenatal diagnostic or embryo Opposition to the overly optimistic view towards this form of selection). But when it comes to genetics, we often misinterpret that cognitive enhancement may come from understanding brain’s there is a direct link between a gene and a trait. We have to bear in functioning. Key concept in this opposition is net zero-sum mind that only a few traits are monogenetic, meaning that there is framework proposed by Brem et al. (2014). [12] Authors state that only one gene that influences a certain trait. In most cases, there are this concept is grounded on the physical principle of conservation multiple genes that affect one trait. Besides that, in many cases one of energy in a closed system. Furthermore, they clarify that, in this gene also affects many traits. [6] Due to this phenomenon (complex notion, brain operates within the constraints of a finite amount of genetic traits) it is very hard to predict the total outcome of such energy and processing power. Not meaning that all the brains and genetic manipulation. This is nicely illustrated by the study when the same brain through the life span do have equal amount of energy researchers improved mouse’s memory and simultaneously and processing power, but that an x-amount of energy and increases its sensitivity to pain. [7 8 9] processing power is distributed throughout the brain at any given time. When demands shift, so does the distribution of energy and 4.2 Pharmaceuticals processing power. Most importantly, total sum of brain’s activity stays the same. In other words, brain operates in net zero-sum Enhanced cognition can be also achieved with numerous framework. If this prediction is correct, NBS would enhance some substances, even with dietary supplements, such as caffeine and brain function, but at the same time degrade other nicotine, but for our purpose I will describe pharmaceuticals (which (compensation/cost). Some evidence accounting for this hypothesis are classified as technological interventions). One of such comes from the phenomena of paradoxical functional facilitation. pharmaceuticals is methylphenidate, commercially known as [12 13] This phenomenon appears when damage to an intact area Ritalin. Ritalin is nowadays widely used not just for treating the of the brain normalizes a previously reduced level of functioning attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), but is popular as a (compensation for previous loss – re-establishing balance between cognitive enhancer among students/academics with the purpose of functional brain networks) or when a patient with damage performs achieving better study or academical results. [3 4] Other similar a certain task better than before or better than healthy control substances are: amphetamines, modafinil, atomoxetine, reboxetine, subjects (energy and processing power of damaged brain tissue was donepezil, galatamine, rivastigmine and memantine. When distributed to other brain parts that are now enhanced). Authors prescribing these drugs it is important to take into account obstacles conclude with raising bioethical concerns: “Is it acceptable to that may come with the use of these substances. One such obstacle 1A special kind of cognitive enhancers are moral enhancers that are 3 Example: when rigastimin improves learning on a motor task more strictly concerned with improving our moral behaviour. [5] and making associations between symbols and digits, but can at 2 This applies for future drugs too. This molecular dynamics is the same time impair verbal and visual episodic memory. [3 10] called U-shaped relationship between substance and receptor. [3] 50 improve certain brain functions at the cost of others and can we take life – long and healthy with no negativity), or a product of the responsibility for its impact on the individual and on society?” advertisement or political viewpoint. We ought to analyse all of the (p.14-15) They also state that “current neuroenhancment studies mentioned subfields before interfering with human nature with the emphasize positive outcome of specific functions and concentrate use of enhancers to the extent that would limit our capacity undo on individual improvements, while related topics such as risk and the damage. safety, as well as social and moral factors are neglected or restricted to specific inquiries.” (p.15) [12] 6. CONCLUSION 5. ETHICAL FRAMEWORK AND Development of new technologies opens up many questions – from physical limitations to ethical considerations. I have focused on INTERTWINING OF TECHNO- neurotechnologies, specifically cognitive enhancers. My general SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS WITH SOCIETY claim is that there is an overly-optimistic view of technology that In the previous section I have described some physical limitations states that technology can solve many, if not all, of our problems. that we may encounter when applying neuroenhancing Hence, we can enhance human beings to be better. Doubt arises, technologies. Now I want to state that even if we do develop better not only because of physical limitations of modifying technologies, technology, we still have to consider questions from a very broad such as in genetic engineering, drug intake and brain stimulation, spectrum of topics. but even more so because of ethical issues. Human condition is a very complex one and it has been, even if this does not seem so, Firstly, I want to propose an ethical framework consisting of three analysed too little for us to drastically modify our nature. In this points that we have to consider in a discussions about any human manner, we need an interdisciplinary and public discourse for interventions such as bio-enhancing technologies. (1) First is about discussions about mentioned topics – intertwining of modern personal freedom. (2) Second is about the line between long-term values, human condition, society and techno-scientific progress. sustainability and short-term solutions. And (3) third is about ecological integrity/sustainability. For example: 1) do enhancers 7. REFERENCES that aim to limit our immoral behaviours, limit our personal [1] Max More: True Transhumanism: A reply to Don Ihde, freedom? Or, do cognitive enhancers prescribed to children for Transhumanism and Its Critics (2010) p.138 enhancement of a specific trait, limit their freedom to [2] N.Bostrom and A. Sandberg, Cognitive Enhancement - choose/develop other characteristic that they would love to have? 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Genetic enhancement of learning and memory questions from philosophy of science (what is knowledge, what is in mice. Nature 401, 63–69 (1999) science, its place and role in modern and future society), philosophy [10] Wezenberg E. Modulation of memory and visuospatial of progress (genealogy of progress, what is progress), intertwining processes by biperiden and rivastigmine in elderly healthy of the techno-scientific progress and the economic system (how is subjects. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 2005;181:582–594. modern free market system influencing techno-scientific progress, [11] Chris Zarpentine: 'The Thorny and Ardeous Path of Moral business of science), intertwining of the market and the Progress': Moral Psychology and Moral Enhancemen. Neuroethics values/ideological system (how does the market with advertising (2013) 6:141-153 influence the values and how do these values afterwards influence [12] Brem et al. 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Brain. 1996; 119(Pt economic system (competition – to be better and to get a better job), 5):1775–1790. or is it a by-product of modern values (for example, value of ideal 51 Braincrafting: why playing video games is good for you Katarina Fatur katarina.fatur@gmail.com ABSTRACT and pleasurable outcomes, where an action’s value is based on In the article I present cognitive, emotional and social benefits the outcome of that action, and where the evaluation whether the of playing video games, suggest simple guidelines for ethical outcome is good or bad might shift when new scientific evaluation of gaming, and offer an overview of findings which discoveries are made. It appears that this ethical framework fits support the use of video games for cognitive enhancement and neuroscience research better than other normative ethical social collaboration. theories, simply because the subjective virtuous conduct of game-designers (virtue ethics) or a scientists’ firm belief that Keywords undertaking experiments is the right thing to do (deontological video games, cognitive enhancement, attention, complex ethics) is of little or no importance in comparison to unwanted, problem solving, brain plasticity, learning, consequentialism but nonetheless possibly detrimental effects a person might suffer as the consequence of her or his invaded and changed 1. INTRODUCTION brain. In the past, research has been mostly focused on the negative The last conclusion partly rests on the notion of ‘fairness’ – it is effects of video games, but in the last decade, a growing number not fair that a player would be harmed for the sole purpose of of studies has supported the view that playing video games may advancing science, or because the game designer made a mistake significantly enhance our cognitive abilities and agility. These despite the designer’s moral character being impeccable. contradicting facts fuel the discussion on whether playing video Fairness can be fostered by assuming equality of all involved games is harmful or not. Here I focus on the benefits of gaming parties and by clear and honest communication, where the and offer an overview of findings which support using video gaming industry candidly informs the player about possible games as tools for cognitive enhancement and social effects. Informing the player is also the prerequisite for the collaboration, while also outlining the ethical framework which player to give their consent to undergo a benevolent cognitive is to be followed in order to avoid negative aspects of gaming. manipulation when playing a game. At the same time, the player should provide feedback, so that the industry can align and 2. PROPOSED ETHICAL FRAMEWORK improve their practice. This also involves the issue of privacy TO EVALUATE VIDEO GAMES protection, especially in the case of collecting neurodata in Up until a few years ago, research has been mainly focused on neurogaming1. the potential adverse effects of video games, such as increased Simply put, for gaming to be ethical, it has to benefit the player aggression [1] [2], addiction to gaming [3] and increased obesity and it has to fulfill three criteria: it should result in positive, risk [4]. While I do not believe that gaming is inherently bad, I useful outcome for the gamer and/or society, it should respect can understand the reservation and caution. For better or worse, and protect gamer’s privacy, and the gamer must participate playing video games significantly changes our brain [5], which knowingly and willingly. Since new technologies pose difficult carries serious implications. With our growing understanding of ethical questions and could be easily used for ill intentions, it is the brain comes greater responsibility about how to apply this important to show, why is it worth to undergo the gaming knowledge in a benevolent manner. If we consider video games as a tool for self-improvement and cognitive enhancement, they should align with (neuro)ethical guidelines which govern any 1 In neurogaming, the player's heart rate, brain activity, facial other means for cognitive therapy. Ethics is a set of principles expressions, voice, skin conductance, eye movement, pupil which prescribe what is right or wrong in terms of rights, dilation, and similar indicators are measured in order to use obligations, or benefits for individuals and society. The subfield the input to dynamically adjust the gaming content and of neuroethics, which is focused particularly on the issues in provide a completely personalized, immersive gaming neuroscience, is less than 20 years old. The concept was first experience, which takes into account the player's emotional introduced in 2002, when William Safire defined it as “the and cognitive state [7]. In this way, the desired (or feared) examination of what is right and wrong, good and bad about the cognitive manipulation is perfectly suited to the player. Some treatment of, perfection of, or unwelcome invasion of and game engines allow the players to navigate the game merely worrisome manipulation of the human brain” [6]. Video games by directing their gaze or blinking. Future development also possibly constitute a case of ‘worrisome manipulation’ and open includes different techniques which will simulate certain a window for ‘unwelcome invasion’ of the brain, but at the same sensations, e.g. the player holding an object in their hand time they can also act as one of the most pleasurable and safe while there is no object there [7]. The ethical concerns are brain enhancement tools. Do benefits warrant the dangers? significant, but in this article I mainly focus on the benefits of To do good, we first have to determine what is good. The ethical gaming and mention neurogaming merely as an interesting framework to help us evaluate the ‘goodness’ of video games in new branch of the industry, and my purpose is to show, why it this article is an epicurean-like teleological/consequentialist is worthwhile that we acknowledge and tackle these ethical theory of ethics with a bit of pragmatism, where we pursue good issues to be able to benefit from our gaming experience as much as we can. 52 experience despite the risk, or even better, while avoiding the motor control was shown in 2016 [14]. Players who played risk. In the following sections I offer an overview of beneficial action games for 5 hours per week over 6 months were later re- uses of video games and discuss how they affect the brain. tested for their driving abilities and they exhibited better lane- keeping and visuomotor-control skills. Cognitive gains acquired 3. BENEFITS OF VIDEO GAMES in gaming are thus transferable to real-world visual ability. Video games have become increasingly diverse and complex, Another example of induced neural plasticity in the players’ (hyper)realistic, and socially engaging. It has been shown that visual system is the case of adult amblyopia (‘lazy eye’) playing certain types of video games may enhance perceptual, patients, whose fundamental visual functions improved from 16- motor, social, emotional and cognitive learning [8]. While 54% after playing action video games [15]. It was a small scale scientists still do not know exactly how different brain regions pilot study, but researchers are optimistic about the possibility to interact, or what is the role of each and every particular apply the principles to treating other cortical dysfunctions as neuroanatomical element, some hypotheses have been made in well. Additional benefits of playing action games in relation to studies researching the impact of gaming on brain plasticity. vision are improved visual attentional skills in dyslexic children Below I present the supporting studies in more detail. [16]. Without any direct reading training, the reading abilities of these children improved significantly after only 12 hours of 3.1 Learning playing action video games. At a neuroethics conference in 2013 C. Shawn Greene explained that the adult brain does not want to learn anything new, because 3.3 Multi-tasking learning entails costly brain tissue restructuring [9]. So, how do Each time we switch our attention from one task to another we games facilitate learning and foster neuroplasticity? An pay a small cognitive cost and playing action games helps to incentive for the brain to more readily learn something new is reduce this cost [9]. In our everyday life we often have to the possibility of a reward at the end [9]. A study by Shaowen multitask, and the cumulative time spent in task switching is Bao and his team has shown that when stimulation of the relevant. The positive effects that action games training has on dopaminergic system occurs at the same time as a particular tone the brain is lasting and can still be observed months after the last is played, over time a larger area of auditory cortex is allocated gaming session. This effect is also applicable in serious, to process that particular frequency of sound [10]. The brain complex real-life events such as surgery. When novice surgeons structurally changes itself in order to more accurately and played action games for prescribed period of time, the result was quickly process the input that will reward it with dopamine a significant improvement in their ability to perform surgery release. Games foster learning because they activate the reward [17]. Even more surprisingly, surgical skills could be better system. predicted by their screen time than by the number of surgeries performed, or even the amount of time spent practicing the Circumstances which bathe the brain in rewarding hormones are surgery. also excitement and exploratory behavior [11], which both abound in challenging, but ultimately safe virtual environment 3.4 Social and emotional support of your favorite game. Learning is further encouraged by the Multiplayer online games which engage thousands of people fact that you can safely fail – paired with novelty and flexibility from all over the globe are probably the most exciting, of the play, safe environment promotes creativity [12]. In rewarding and productive development in the realm of video addition, the immediate feedback evaluating the player’s game games. Immersive social contexts not only provide a playground (leveling-up, points, new abilities and tools), present a perfect to develop social skills, but also serve as a solid source of ground to acquire an ‘incremental theory’ of players’ ability, emotional support and resilience, which I present in more detail where the players believe that they can change and actively below. improve their skills by investing more time and effort [8]. How is this useful in real-life scenarios? The learned skills can be Massive multiplayer online games (MMOGs) encourage the transferred, as illustrated by the examples below. development of online communities, with associated attachments and social rituals [18]. These communities represent 3.2 Visual attention a suitable model for a variety of human societies [19], because Green explains that action games exhibit particular qualities, they exhibit a strong sense of social connection, identification which sharpen a gamer’s visual attention [9], such as: complex with other members of the group and a sense of distinguishing 3D environment, fast motion, transient visual stimuli, and heavy themselves from other groups, as well as a strong commitment perceptual load with several events occurring simultaneously, to the group [18], [19]. On the continuum from Gemeineschaft where not all events are important. 15 years ago Green and (communal society) to Gesellschaft (associational society) [20], Bavelier demonstrated that selective visual attention improves where the first originates from solidarity, social union and with playing action video games, with effects lasting for 6 spontaneous expressions of emotions in personal relationships, months after the last training [13]. In more complex multiplayer and the second is established on rational self-interest with less first person shooter games, there is also a heavy cognitive load: emphasis on kinship and personal relations, MMOG the player has to observe certain strategy and keep track of other communities show a greater degree of Gemeineschaft [18]. Such players’ actions. While primary visual focus is centrally on the social environment promotes cohesion among the members and screen, peripheral vision is fully engaged as well, since increases social proximity among them [18], which in turn important elements tend to pop up from the sides. creates a safe space for establishing personal relationships which offer similar support as real-life interaction [21]. Research on The causal relationship between playing action games and social support from MMOG relationships and associated levels improved players' ability to coordinate visual input with their of depression in players demonstrated that higher social 53 involvement in MMOG communities resulted in a greater level performance. Journal of Adolescence, 27(1), 5–22. DOI= of perceived social support, which consequentially led to lower http://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.1 levels of depression [21]. 0.002 On a different note, but still relevant, because studies have [3] Stockdale, L., & Coyne, S. M. (2018). Video game shown that emotional and physical pain share a lot of common addiction in emerging adulthood: Cross-sectional evidence properties [22], [23], playing video games might also have an of pathology in video game addicts as compared to analgesic effect. In patients undergoing treatment for severe matched healthy controls. Journal of Affective Disorders, burns, playing video games proved successful in their pain 225, 265–272. DOI= management [24]. When conducting a study in treatment of http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.08.045 combat-related burns where pharmacological therapy was [4] Turel, O., Romashkin, A., & Morrison, K. M. 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Over 50,000 players collaboratively interacted with future-of-gaming-it-may-be-all-in-your- protein models using user-friendly manipulation tools, and at the head/#7839776b7790 end of 2010 their results matched or outperformed algorithmically computed solutions. Foldit players achieved ‘an [8] Granic, I., Lobel, A., & Engels, R. C. M. E. (2014). The epic win’ in 2011, when they successfully deciphered the benefits of playing video games. The American structure of an enzyme which is critical for reproduction of the Psychologist, 69(1), 66–78. DOI= HIV/AIDS virus – a problem which had been previously http://doi.org/10.1037/a0034857 unsolved for 15 years [28]. Following in Foldit’s steps is Eterna, [9] Green, C. S. (2013, December 16). Neurogaming: What’s a similar online gaming tool, which asks players to solve puzzles Neuroscience and Ethics Got To Do With It? - Exploring in order to design molecular medicines in collaboration with Ethics. 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D. 55 In search of the authentic self: explaining phenomenology of authenticity Maša Urbančič Independent researcher Štefanova 13 (telo.si) 1000 Ljubljana masa.urbancic@gmail.com The aim here is to provide a model for specifically explaining the ABSTRACT phenomenological (i.e. lived) experience of authenticity, which I will call the authentic-like experience. The main argument will be There are moments in most people’s lives when they feel more or that feelings of authenticity are (usually positive) momentary less themselves. This experience is usually caught in people experiences, which are a result of a convergence between the sayings that they need to find themselves or just be who they current self (beliefs about oneself) and the ideal self (what one ‘really are’. The purpose of this paper is to provide an explanation wants to be, thinks she should be and what is important to her). for these feelings of authenticity. I first explore this concept and On this account, the authentic self comes about as a consequence consequently introduce necessary conditions for the of creation and not as a consequence of discovery. phenomenological experience of authenticity. This is followed by the examination of two problems that authenticity faces and two 2. AUTHENTICITY AND ITS PROBLEMS possible ways of explaining the experience of authenticity, which The purpose of this section are the following four points: 1) to are discovery and creation. I then assess three discovery views introduce the concept of authenticity, 2) to examine necessary and show why they are unsatisfactory in explaining feelings of conditions for its phenomenology 3) to present two problems that authenticity. In response I then provide my own creation model of authenticity faces and 4) to present two ways of thinking about the authenticity, which argues that feelings of authenticity are a result explanation of an authentic-like experience. of a convergence between our current and ideal self. In this sense, authentic self is created. What we are is a matter of choice. The concept of authenticity is defined in multiple ways (see [1], [3], [12]). Here, I take authenticity to denote “a convergence Keywords between what something is and what it claims it is” [1]. In other words, when a person is being authentic, her statements and Authentic self, true self, authenticity, phenomenology, ideal self thoughts, as well as her beliefs and actions are in accordance with 1. INTRODUCTION one another. The idea of an authentic or a true self1 seems to have been present For a person to undergo an authentic-like experience, I argue there since ancient times, from the Greek “Know Thyself” to are two necessary conditions that need to be met: 1) a certain Shakespeare’s “To thine own self be true” to modern advice to degree of enjoyment or dislike of a certain trait or ability and 2) “just be yourself” [11]. One often hears people speaking of their like Bialystok [1] argues, a convergence with a set of criteria need to find themselves or to discover who they “really are” where, when the convergence with those criteria takes place, the (ibid). I take it that most people agree with Bialystok that “almost result will be an authentic-like experience. In other words for the everyone has had an intuitive experience of authenticity that second condition, if a person is sometimes authentic, there must seems to reveal a glimmer of one’s true identity” [1]. However, be times when she is inauthentic [1] so we need to have a standard the problem arises how it is possible that a person sometimes feels that defines when the person is being authentic. Whenever a more or less like herself, when she is never another person, but person’s current state converges with those criteria, an authentic- only herself. However, if that is the case, how can these feelings like experience will take place. I will call those criteria the of authenticity be explained? Do these moments of experiencing authentic self* (and later on in my model, the ideal self), which authenticity reveal a deeper, truer identity of a person, an specifically denotes the thing with which the person converges unchanging inner core that lies beneath, an authentic self? Or do with in an authentic-like experience. It can be thought of as they reveal something else?2 discovered or created. On the other hand, the authentic self denotes the result of a convergence between the person and the authentic self*, i.e. the authentic-like experience and what people refer to as their authentic self. The convergence condition or the authentic self* presents a 1 For clarity purposes, only authentic self is used in this paper, not problem in the discussion of authenticity because it is unclear true or deep self. what the authentic self* represents, which will be the discussion 2 I do not differentiate between identity and self and I only take for the rest of the paper. In other words, it is unclear what makes appropriation as a necessary condition for personal identity or some parts count as the authentic self and how to separate it from self – that we see certain actions, beliefs, etc as ours. For a the inauthentic parts (see [1] for this issue). Authenticity denotes discussion on personal identity, self (and true self) from a the harmony between one’s beliefs, thoughts and actions (see phenomenological point of view, see Jacobs [5]. previous paragraph), but a person rarely identifies with all her 56 thoughts and beliefs and declares them as her authentic self (e.g., argue that it is the latter case that takes place when authenticity is rarely do we encounter a person that would identify having a felt. In the next part, I will present different ways one can think thought of strangling somebody who is annoying as her authentic about the authentic self* as being discovered and why these do self). However, as Bialystok [1] points out, in current not offer a satisfactory explanation for the phenomenal experience understanding of authenticity the authority on the authentic self is of authenticity. found within ourselves, which is why it is to an extent a matter of self-interpretation. There are no objective criteria against which it 3. AUTHENTIC SELF* AS DISCOVERY could be determined which parts of the person are authentic and The first question that needs to be asked is if the authentic self* which not or any empirical facts that could confirm a person’s (the criteria) is to be discovered, what exactly is it that is being authentic self [1]. It will therefore always come down to what the discovered? I will consider three possible answers to this problem, person declares as her authentic self. I do not hold that the matter which are 1) an unchanging ontological substance 2) a unique of authentic self depends on self-interpretation is problematic as personality or 3) a daimon. These can be regarded as Bialystok [1] does, since the final decision with what we identify manifestation of these criteria (or the authentic self*). ultimately lies in our hands. However, the problem of separating The first possibility of what the authentic self* represents is authentic from inauthentic parts still persists. connected to philosophical debates on the concept of self. Metzinger defines it as an enduring individual entity, an There is a second further issue with authenticity, which Bialystok unchanging essence or an ontological substance that could exist [1] labels as the hard case of authenticity. More specifically, it is independently in the world and would represent a basic impossible to determine when the person is being authentic where constituent of reality [6] [7]. He goes on to deny the existence of one’s feelings, thoughts or beliefs change throughout life. To such a self and argues there is currently no substantive empirical imagine such scenarios, Bialystok refers to religious conversions, evidence or any theoretical argument that would necessitate the career change, divorce, change in party affiliations or simply existence of a self [7]. Zahavi, on the other hand, rejects changes in personality [1]. It is not difficult to imagine such cases Metzinger’s definition and characterizes the self rather as being where one is different from how one used to be in the past. The constituted through the first-person givenness of different dilemma however, is, when is the person then authentic? For experiences [15]. In other words, there is no separate entity, but a instance, is a person authentic before or after a religious self exists simply due to the fact that the world is being conversion? Intuitively one might say that one is authentic after experienced from a first-person perspective. Olson [8] goes even the change, but most people claim they were also authentic before. so far as to state we should cease to speak of selves due to lack of If a person is authentic in both cases, then authenticity seems a common definition and its causing dilemmas that would impossible [1]. But if a person is inauthentic in both cases, when otherwise be avoidable. is he then authentic at all if not in the beliefs that constitute a greater part of his identity (ibid)? I believe this argument Any of these definitions do not provide any insight into the mistakenly presupposes that a person's identity should be constant authenticity of the self. If the authentic self* is understood in in order to constitute the authentic self. One can still act in Zahavi’s terms, such a definition presents a problem for accordance with what one feels in that moment, without assuming authenticity, since the givenness of a first-person’s perspective is the authentic self* is constant. Nevertheless, any explanation of always present, regardless whether a person feels authentic or authenticity needs to account for such cases as well. inauthentic. Just having a first-person experience does not solve the issue of why a person sometimes feels more or less like This brings us to two ways of thinking how the authentic self* is herself. If the authentic self* is understood in the way that to be understood. These are discovery and creation, which I take Metzinger defines it, the authentic self* is then understood as an from Waterman’s [14] distinction between different ways of unchanging ontologically independent core that is distinct from understanding identity formation. The metaphor of discovery any characteristic, perception or trait that constitute the person. denotes that something, which has already existed before, has now Furthermore, as Metzinger points out, there is currently no become known or understood [14]. The discovery entails the empirical evidence for this notion of self [7]. Additionally, there is process of causing the unknown to become known (ibid). In this also the issue that even if there seems to be the experience of an case, a person is discovering a prior authentic self* and every time unchanging self from a phenomenological standpoint (i.e. she converges with this authentic self*, she undergoes an constant unity of consciousness), we are nevertheless unable to authentic-like experience. Creation, on the other hand, involves directly access this inner core self if it is a separate and distinct creating something that has never existed before. In this process, entity, as Hume initially pointed out (see [4]). Therefore, if there one starts off from a point of unlimited possibilities and among is an entity as an authentic self* that is separate and distinct from those makes a choice and brings together parts to create all characteristics or perceptions that constitute the person it still something of value [14]. On this view, the assumption would be does not help address the problem of authenticity. It is not there is no prior not-yet-discovered authentic self* and it is only a connected to something that would be over and above the abilities product of our choices [12]. In this way, the authentic-like and characteristics that constitute him and which provide him with experience can be either thought of as being a result of a an authentic-like experience. Hence, feelings of authenticity convergence with a discovered prior authentic self* or as a result cannot be disclosing a convergence with an independent entity- of a convergence with a created authentic self*. In this way, an like authentic self*, but must be presenting something else. For authentic self* can therefore be something that has already existed these reasons it seems viable to conclude that conceptualizing the before and is becoming known or understood in moments of authentic self* as a separate entity cannot satisfactorily explain experiencing authenticity (or most probably parts of it). the phenomenology of authenticity. Alternatively, the authentic self* has not existed before and is The second model avoids the Hume worry in that it created from unlimited possibilities as a matter of choice (see e.g. conceptualizes the authentic self* as a unique personality, i.e. a [13]). Moments of experiencing authenticity are therefore set of characteristics and traits that are unique to every individual moments of experiencing something that we have created. I will and not as something distinct. This model presents the modern 57 conception of authenticity that is especially prevalent in ontology and the nature of self, I focus specifically on the contemporary self-help literature (see [2]). In opposition to older explanation of feelings of authenticity. I argue this conceptions of authenticity, where the task was to become what phenomenology of authenticity is best explained by a model on one can be, i.e. realizing her potentials and purpose, the which feelings of authenticity occur as a result of a convergence contemporary ideal of authenticity requires that the person between the current and the ideal self. As argued above, there realizes and becomes what she already is, the set of characteristics must be a convergence between a person and her authentic self* and traits that are already situated within the person ([2, 13], my for authenticity to occur. From now on I will refer to the authentic emphasis). The main idea of this understanding of authenticity is self* as the ideal self in my model. According to this model, that everyone possesses a deep, authentic self* within – a so- feelings of authenticity are (usually positive) momentary called Real Me – that is distinct from everything else that is not emotional experiences. Feelings of authenticity are usually really me. In other words, there is great emphasis on the connected to positive traits because the ideal self is generally difference between the inner and outer, where the outer is false viewed as intrinsically good (see [8]). However, there can also be and the inner true ([2], my emphasis). Authentic self* represents instances where the ideal self is connected to negative traits (e.g. the collection of all feelings, needs, desires, capacities, unsociable, not funny, etc). dispositions and abilities that constitute a person’s unique Current self denotes all beliefs one holds about herself at the personality and our task is to get in touch with this personality present time, for example being athletic, not funny enough, etc. (e.g. through introspection) and to express it (see [2] on this). The ideal self can be thought of as a collection of all desires of Here therefore, whenever the person is acting in accordance with how one wants to be, norms of how one should be and values that this unique personality, she is feeling authentic. The problems constitute what is important in a person’s life. It is important to here are the assumptions our personality has been shaped at birth note that what will constitute the ideal self will be highly and there seems to be disregard for personal experiences on influenced by what is desirable within the society as well. Both shaping a person’s self because this understanding of the authentic the current and ideal self-beliefs can be either conscious or non- self* assumes the authentic self* is within us and not influenced conscious. When one considers one’s ideal self, there are four by the environment (the outer), neither it is changed throughout possible scenarios that can take place. First is the scenario where a life. With the inner-outer distinction, there is also disregard for convergence between a positive current self belief (e.g. I am societal influences on our identity. funny) and the ideal self (I want to be funny) occurs. In those The third model envisions a daimon (= authentic self*) that cases, feelings of authenticity will be experienced. In the second represents the potentialities and talents within each person which scenario there is a lack of convergence between a person’s are not yet realized but whose realization represents the greatest positive belief about the current self and her ideal self. In this fulfilment in life (an ideal) [14]. In other words, the person aims case, the person most likely experiences a questioning of her to reach her authentic self* or her daimon by realizing her behaviour, or (if such situations happen often enough) an identity potentials, not by becoming a person she already is within. The crisis if the belief is central to her identity. The third scenario is a difficulty with this model is still the persisting assumption that case of negative current self belief (e.g. I am not smart) and a lack daimon is fixed since birth (if daimon is to be discovered with of convergence with the ideal self. In this case, a person believes time and lived, it is difficult to know what is being discovered if it she is lacking certain ability or trait (current self) that she wants to consistently changes). And as the hard case of authenticity possess (ideal self) and situations confirm that it is the case she is highlights, nothing about a person’s personality appears to be lacking them (confirmation of existing current belief). In this permanent enough that it would remain fixed upon discovery. The scenario, there is no self-acceptance present of how she is at the person does not stay the same after unearthing the daimon. It present time (and oftentimes no self-awareness of what constitutes might be objected that the daimon is only a set of potentialities her ideal self). In such scenarios, possible phenomenology might and abilities. It presents us with the limitations of our capabilities be one of sadness or disappointment, but for the purposes of this or reveals in what activities or tasks we find enjoyment in. It is not paper it is important that no feelings of authenticity will be to be understood as a set of fixed properties. This argument holds experienced. The fourth scenario presents the most complicated some merit, but it must nevertheless be argued that we might scenario where the negative current self belief initially does not become aware of our capabilities, interests and talents, but we are converge with the ideal self but can gradually converge with the not equal to them. Feelings of authenticity can be out of alignment ideal self if a) negative current self beliefs change to positive or b) with one’s abilities as in, for example, when a person is highly ideal self changes (to negative belief). The current negative beliefs talented for running but does not enjoy it. Therefore, potentials can change into positive in two ways: 1) by changing behaviour or and abilities are not a sign of an authentic* self. 2) by gradually discovering that the negative beliefs were inaccurate. For illustration of 1 and 2, a person named Peter 4. AUTHENTIC SELF* AS CREATION: believes he is unsociable (negative current belief) and wants to be MY OWN MODEL sociable (ideal self). There is currently no convergence and no The purpose of this section is to present my own model for authentic-like experience is present. He can change his behaviour explaining feelings of authenticity, which views the authentic to being sociable, which will in turn change his negative current self* as created. The idea that the authentic self is created is self belief of unsociable to sociable and a convergence with the mostly found in existentialist writings. Generally put, according to ideal self will occur. In those moments, Peter will have an existentialism, there is no pre-existent essence or a “true self”, but authentic-like experience. Alternatively, Peter is exposed to one’s identity is created through personal choices [14]. Sartre situations where he receives feedback that he is indeed sociable states that “man first of all exists /…/ and defines himself and like his ideal self, despite his thinking otherwise. In this case, afterwards” and that every person chooses herself [10] (see also Peter’s belief of being unsociable will gradually transform into Nietzsche and Foucault). current self belief of being sociable and a convergence between his current and ideal self will take place. Again, authenticity will This model is ultimately compatible with the existentialist view of be present in such a scenario. In terms of changing the ideal self the authentic self, but whereas they focus more broadly on the 58 (option b), Peter comes to accept he is unsociable and realizes that beliefs, thoughts and desires at the present time. The task for his enjoyment of his alone time is more important to him than further research would be to look deeper into the structure and being sociable (or some other reason for preferring not to be creation of the ideal self. It would be further useful to empirically sociable). In this case, a shift within the ideal self takes place in examine which situations elicit feelings of authenticity and to that it now includes not being sociable. Therefore, if Peter is being investigate what drives people’s experiences of authenticity in reproached for not being sociable, he says “This is who I am” and those moments. experiences authenticity because being unsociable is now part of his ideal self.3 If Peter might be disrespecting the latter desire, this 6. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS could lead to scenario two. Thanks to Dr. Alistair Isaac and Dr. Mog Stapleton for their This model avoids the problems faced by the previous presented guidance and advice in preparing this paper. models. Firstly, it avoids the problem of having to find an 7. REFERENCES enduring ontologically distinct entity that is over and above the [1] Bialystok, Lauren. Authenticity and the Limits of traits and abilities of a person, because the ideal self is constituted Philosophy. 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Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2011. Finally, it might be objected that the phenomenology of becoming [8] Newman, E. George, Bloom Paul and Joshua Knobe. Value more and more self-aware with time pushes us more towards the Judgments and the True Self. Personality and Social discovery view. There is a sense of “peeling-off” layers and Psychology Bulletin, 40 (2): 203-16, 2014. coming to know ourselves better during life. However, I would [9] Olson, T. Eric. There is no problem of the self. Journal of argue that we are not discovering an authentic self* that is waiting Consciousness Studies, 5: 645-57, 1998. to be discovered in those moments. We are becoming more aware of our ideal self and the latter is becoming more specific and [10] Sartre, Jean-Paul. Existentialism and humanism, trans. Philip detailed with time. The one other concern is how does one Mairet. UK, Methuen London, 1980. distinguish what is part of the ideal self and what not? I would [11] Schlegel, J. 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Existential choices: to what degree is who desires and influences that is simply becoming more and more we are a matter of choice? Continental Philosophy Review, detailed with time. The more detailed it is, the greater choice we 44: 65-79, 2011. have in what we want to become, i.e. our authentic self. [14] Waterman S., Allan. Identity Formation: Discovery or Creation? The Journal of Early Adolescence, 4 (4): 329-41, 5. CONCLUSION 1984. The aim of this paper was to provide a preliminary model for explaining phenomenology of authenticity. On this account, [15] Zahavi, Dan. Unity of Consciousness and the Problem of authentic-like experiences are a result of a convergence between Self. In S. Gallagher, editor, The Oxford Handbook of the our current self and ideal self. The ideal self is a collection of our Self, pages 316-35. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. 3 I would argue that if a characteristic is seen as fixed and cannot be changed, it is scenario three. If the said characteristic is more a choice, then it is scenario four. 59 Exploring Features of Cognitive Science as Natural Epistemology Tine Kolenik Department of Intelligent Systems Jožef Stefan Institute Jamova cesta 39 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia tine.kolenik@ijs.si ABSTRACT identified by continually updating the image and comparing it Historically as well as conceptually, epistemology and cognitive with stored images of that same object [7] – this happens science seem to be intimately connected. The overlap between especially when identifying the same object from different them seems to be rather extensive, and this overlap can be perspectives. It therefore seems that CS can offer some sort of dubbed as natural epistemology, which has been similarly answers to epistemological questions. I believe the insight into proposed by a few other researchers. In the work, I define the deep intertwinings between CS and epistemology is natural epistemology as the study of epistemological questions important to be able to discern an overlapping research endeavor using scientific methods. Due to the particular nature of that studies epistemological questions with natural scientific studying knowing, which is what cognitive science largely does, methods. This research endeavor, which will be dubbed as I identify other important features, hidden behind the definition. natural epistemology, is strongly embodied in CS. By realizing To explore such features, I apply Kuhn’s ‘essential tension’ the epistemological background of the latter, it is important to between convergent and divergent thinking to how progress in delve into its features as natural epistemology to understand its cognitive science had historically played out, especially particular nature, organization and scientific workings, which regarding its paradigm shifts (cognitivism, connectionism, have significant influences on how research and progress in embodied/embedded cognition, enactivism). I propose that natural epistemology is manifested. ‘essential tension’ that fuels progress in cognitive science manifests as a loop between knowing of cognitive science 2. NATURAL EPISTEMOLOGY (epistemology of cognitive science) and knowing within While gaining insight from studying epistemological questions cognitive science (epistemological insights in cognitive with contemplative philosophical work is an extremely valuable science). I describe the knowledge loop’s importance and relate endeavor, philosopher and logician Quine followed what it to the history of cognitive science. In the end, I discuss future Dennett [8, p. 134] colorfully described with the following work, pointing to the problem of what is epistemological or not words: “Just as you cannot do very much carpentry with your as well as the problem of potential convergence of the bare hands, there is not much thinking you can do with your knowledge loop with the ideas of second-order cybernetics. bare brain.” Quine [9] described a view wherein epistemology uses scientific methods and subsequently coined the phrase Keywords ‘naturalized epistemology’. In parallel, similar views arose from cognitive science, epistemology, Kuhn, philosophy of cognitive cybernetics and second-order cybernetics circles as well as from science, philosophy of science the sociological domain. Bateson [10] used the terms ‘empirical epistemology’ and ‘experimental epistemology’ when describing 1. INTRODUCTION an endeavor of researching perceivers’ presuppositions built into the product or the final image of perceiving. Keeney [11] used Cognitive science (CS) has been by many characterized by its the term ‘natural epistemology’ to research how living beings strong historical [1] and contemporary connection to make distinctions in the world that construct it while at the same epistemology [2], despite some opposition to the possibility of time knowing that these distinctions are wholly dependent on expanding philosophical ideas to scientific disciplines [3]. these same living beings. Luhmann [12] used ‘natural Kvanvig [4] indicates that the question of the relationship epistemology’ to characterize that knowledge depends on an between mind and world (and more broadly of ‘what it is to observer’s inner processes and not on the question of what is know’) is the deepest question of epistemology, and some [2] ‘true’ or ‘false’ as such. He notes that there is a certain have claimed that this same relationship is the foremost circularity in this, observing self-reference in natural investigative matter of CS. Both CS and epistemology ask epistemology, which is hinted by Keeney as well – we certain questions that seem to be the same, especially in terms of supposedly know that the construction of the world is what sources of knowledge of the external world, e.g., perception [5], living beings do, which we want to research, but at the same where epistemology offers answers through philosophical time we are aware that we are these same living beings who analysis [6], while CS uses different scientific methods for its construct the world in the first place. I therefore propose that the answers [7]. For example, both are interested in perception, base definition of natural epistemology is this: Natural being one of the sources of knowledge, and how it is used to epistemology is the study of epistemological questions with the construe the world. Berkeley [6] argues against material objects use of natural scientific methods. However, due to the particular using philosophical analysis, while one of the constituent nature of the study, stemming from the fact that the construction disciplines of CS, artificial intelligence, uses computer vision to of knowledge is studied by constructors of knowledge or that examine different ways that the world is constructed. Namely, in knowing is investigated by others’ ‘knowings’, natural computer vision, material objects are largely construed and epistemology as manifested in CS possesses some unique 60 features. I try to ascertain some of them in this work. There are facts or concepts without necessarily accepting them” [Ibid.]. some similarities of the ascertained features to those of second- This is the last step before “one of those shifts in fundamental order cybernetics, which is “the study of the organization in theory, in problem field, and in scientific standards […], autopoietic machines, which are able to build their own referred as scientific revolutions” [14, p. 234]. components, and possess cognizance which allows them to observe and control other machines” [13, p. 73]. This insight is I believe that understanding Kuhn’s concept of ‘essential self-referenced in natural epistemology and it thus determines tension’ and its role in scientific progress is necessary to the progress in CS as such. To identify the features and their articulate how the self-reference of natural epistemology in CS influence in the progress of CS, I describe and apply Kuhn’ plays out. This articulation will follow after a short examination concept of ‘essential tension’ between convergent and divergent of how progress worked historically in CS in relation to thinking in science1 [14] to CS. Kuhnian scientific revolutions or paradigm shifts. 3. KUHN’S ESSENTIAL TENSION 4. SHORT EXAMINATION OF PROGRESS Kuhn [14] proposed that progress in science is typified by the IN COGNITIVE SCIENCE interplay between convergent thinking and divergent thinking Froese [15] distinguishes (roughly) four paradigm shifts in CS which emerges as ‘essential tension’. According to Kuhn, so far, which can be seen in the figure below. convergent thinking in science is what scientists usually do and the way they normally operate, where “the research scientist is not an innovator but a solver of puzzles, and the puzzles upon which he concentrates are just those which he believes can be both stated and solved within the existing scientific tradition” [14, p. 234]. The usual research scientist, “the practitioner of a mature science, from the beginning of his doctoral research, continues to work in the regions for which the paradigms derived from his education and from the research of his contemporaries seem adequate” [14, p. 245] and tries to “elucidate topographical detail on a map whose main outlines are available in advance” [Ibid.]. Kuhn believes, partly opposed to usual views on the topic, that convergent thinking is extremely important as it ensures safe, steady, sure and stable production the likes of which cannot be achieved with divergent thinking as prevalent; it is also why, apart from being the norm, Figure 1. Froese's interpretation of paradigm shifts in CS convergent thinking is so abound and common. It is exactly its [from 15, p. 76]. Circles do not represent the end of a exuberance that eventually leads to encountering “a problem in paradigm, only emergence of a new one. which the anticipated does not occur, a problem that goes wrong The four paradigms are cognitivism, connectionism, to ways suggestive of a fundamental weakness in the paradigm embodied/embedded cognition and enactivism. Following itself” [Ibid.]. Convergent thinking in established sciences is Kuhn's 'essential tension', convergent thinking was researchers' therefore a prelude to divergent thinking, which has to happen in modus operandi within these paradigms, while divergent order to find a solution to the described problem. However, thinking ultimately spawned a paradigm shift. The short scientists do not always go beyond the prelude as they do not overview below is meant as a conceptual validation of Kuhn's identify the problem as paradigm-breaking. They believe that ideas rather than a comprehensive and nuanced treatise of the continuing research in the established paradigm will exhibit history of CS. It is more focused on the role of artificial desired outcomes. Alas, according to Kuhn, the desired outcome intelligence (AI) in it, but it has to be noted that AI was only one cannot occur, as convergent thinking is “neither intended nor wave in the necessary tsunami that caused a paradigm shift. This likely to produce fundamental discoveries or revolutionary means that ideas from many other consitutent fields of CS that changes in scientific theory” [14, p. 233]. The scientist therefore directly contributed to paradigm shifts are not mentioned. has to have “the ability to recognize trouble when confronted by it” [14, p. 235] and to recognize “that something has gone wrong The insight that cognition is supposedly computation with with existing knowledge and beliefs” [Ibid.]. This modus arbitrary symbols started the cognitive revolution and the era of operandi continues into divergent thinking, which means that the cognitivism in the 1950s. This idea on cognition has been scientist must “rearrange the intellectual and manipulative manifested in most research since. A few decades long prosper, equipment he has previously relied upon, discarding some especially in AI, signalled to scientists that their idea about elements of his prior belief” [14, p. 226] and “lack prejudice” cognition was correct. One of the most publicly known examples [Ibid.], which is imposed by the established paradigm, “to a of this prosper is the AI chess player, as it symbolized human degree where [the scientist] can look at the most `self-evident' higher-order cognitive abilities. The artificial chess player's skills grew exponentially, and in 1996, the reigning world champion of the time Kasparov was beaten by it. However, the 1 Kuhn described and published his work on ‘essential tension’ idea of the top-down, centralized cognition, embodied in the AI as a result of lecturing at a conference on scientific creativity, of the time proved to have many problems. For example, large where the knowledge of creativity, which is gained by domains were a big issue [16], which could not be solved by scientists who study creative talent, was applied to scientists convergent thinking. It was recognized “that something ha[d] themselves. gone wrong with existing knowledge and beliefs” [14, p. 235], 61 and in the 1980s, the idea on cognition shifted to it being This outline forms a loop, as the last step inevitably leads into parallel, distributed and bottom-up, which was largely the first. The figure below summarizes this process: synonymous with the method of artificial neural networks (ANN). Connectionism opened doors to new research in many phenomena where the cognitivist paradigm failed (e.g., natural language processing [16]). ANNs are still predominantly used today and exhibit numerous achievements in mimicking human abilities2. However, many scientists [17] felt that connectionism was missing a key point in what cognition supposedly is and EPISTEMOLOGICAL EPISTEMOLOGY OF INSIGHTS IN how organisms perceive and act by dismissing the constitutive COGNITIVE SCIENCE COGNITIVE SCIENCE role of bodies in cognition and focusing solely on the brain. Again, convergent thinking shifted the view on cognition that started to incorporate organisms’ bodies and how they constitute organisms’ cognition. By being aware that cognition is embodied as well as embedded in the environment, research in robotics (as well as using robots to investigate cognition) started to flourish like never before, convergent thinking leading the Figure 2. The loop between epistemological insights in way again. cognitive science and epistemology of cognitive science. The last paradigm shift to enactivism will not be covered here, Relating this loop to Kuhn’s ‘essential tension’, convergent as its manifestation seems to be a bit more unclear than the thinking represents epistemological insights in CS or research previous ones as well as it being harder to delineate from the on knowing and cognition that occurs on daily basis. Divergent embodied cognition paradigm [18]. The short overview was thinking represents epistemology of CS, as this is where a shift meant to be exemplary as to apply Kuhn’s ‘essential tension’ to has to occur to overcome the problems in epistemological historical progress in cognitive science as natural epistemology. insights in CS. The interplay of knowings is apparent here: epistemology of CS may be dubbed as knowing of cognitive In the next chapter, I will build on the manifestation of Kuhn’s science, while epistemological insights in CS may be dubbed as ‘essential tension’ in CS by noting the role the circularity of knowing within cognitive science. One refers to the established knowing (see chapter 2) plays and relating it to convergent and paradigm and idea on cognition, from which the other stems. To divergent thinking. In the chapter I will show how, when overcome paradigm-breaking problems in knowing within conceptualized in this way, CS’s particular organization works. cognitive science, scientists have to become aware of epistemological presuppositions they hold on knowing and shift 5. THE KNOWLEDGE LOOP OF them. Knowing within cognitive science can therefore only COGNITIVE SCIENCE AS NATURAL advance at crucial points when something in knowing of cognitive science happens, and vice versa. The knowledge loop EPISTEMOLOGY emphasizes the importance researchers play in researching and From the way the progress in CS was described in the previous defining cognition and knowing. chapter, I can outline an abstract step-by-step template: 1. Scientists research a particular cognitive phenomenon 6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION with their existing knowledge (Kuhn’s ‘prior beliefs’ In this work, I identify and specify certain features of cognitive or presuppositions from an established paradigm) science as natural epistemology. This is only the first step in a about knowing. process to try to characterize how scientific studying of knowing 2. Scientists make great advances, but then encounter an manifests itself. There are a few issues that I will explore in insurmountable problem, which cannot be solved with future work. First, the issue of what is epistemological and what convergent thinking (current epistemological is not will have to be addressed. Are the crucial questions in presuppositions). cognitive neuroscience like “What is the complete connectome of the human brain?” [19, p. 173] epistemological questions or 3. If the problem is identified as such, scientists have to not3? Second, the knowledge loop and the analysis of the work through a different set of epistemological interplay between knowing within cognitive science and presuppositions and new ideas about cognition, knowing of cognitive science will have to be taken further to therefore exhibiting divergent thinking. incorporate stronger ideas of second-order cybernetics, as it 4. The problem is solved, which opens the door to seems that this is where the concept of Kuhn’s ‘essential numerous new research not envisioned as such before. tension’ in cognitive science as natural epistemology is A paradigm shift within which research is conducted gravitating towards. Hopefully, the endeavor will not completely occurs, changing how the discipline sees knowing and converge into ideas of second-order cybernetics and offer changing epistemological presuppositions of the something new to philosophy of CS; if not, the connection scientists. between Kuhn’s ‘essential tension’ and second-order cybernetics was somewhat established. 2 And, interestingly, being used to model game players in more 3 Interestingly, some researchers [2] are sceptical of putting and more complex domains outside of strict-rules based ones neuroscience under the interdisciplinary umbrella of CS for as chess (e.g., OpenAI in Dota 2). precisely this reason. 62 As CS is considered as a too loose of a research program by [18] Ward, D., Silverman, D. and Villalobos, M. 2017. some [20], especially because it lacks its own methods, it seems Introduction: The varieties of enactivism. Topoi. 36, 3 important to characterize it by its own, unique properties. 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MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. 63 Učinki telesne poze na prag termične bolečine za vroče Novaković Dušanka Puh Urška Vidmar Gaj MEi: CogSci, Univerza v Ljubljani Zdravstvena fakulteta Univerzitetni rehabilitacijski inštitut 1000 Ljubljana Univerza v Ljubljani Republike Slovenije – Soča nd333@protonmail.com Zdravstvena pot 5, 1000 Ljubljana Linhartova 51, 1000 Ljubljana urska.puh@zf.uni-lj.si IBMI, Medicinska fakulteta Univerza v Ljubljani Vrazov trg 2, 1000 Ljubljana Moharić Metka Bresjanac Mara FAMNIT, Univerza na Primorskem Univerzitetni rehabilitacijski inštitut Inštitut za patološko fiziologijo Glagoljaška 8, 6000 Koper Republike Slovenije – Soča Medicinska fakulteta gaj.vidmar@ir-rs.si Linhartova 51, 1000 Ljubljana Univerza v Ljubljani metka.moharic@ir-rs.si Vrazov trg 2, 1000 Ljubljana maja.bresjanac@mf.uni-lj.si POVZETEK telesnih poz na različne parametre [4 - 6], vedno več novejših raziskav [3, 7, 8] oporeka izsledkom predhodnih. Obvladovanje bolečine je pomembno področje vsakodnevnega življenja, pa tudi klinične in raziskovalne prakse. Ker so novi Zaradi kontroverznih izsledkov, vedno dobrodošlih novih načinov načini obvladovanja bolečine vedno dobrodošli in je povezava obvladovanja bolečine in neraziskanega področja morebitnega med telesno pozo ter bolečinskim pragom slabo raziskana, smo se vpliva telesnih poz na bolečinski prag smo se namenili ponoviti in namenili preveriti, ali zavzetje naključno dodeljene dominantne nadgraditi predhodni eksperiment. V navedeni raziskavi [1] so ali submisivne poze lahko povzroči akuten dvig ali znižanje praga udeležencem pred in po vzdrževanju ene od poz izmerili termične bolečine. Uporabili smo najvišje in najnižje ocenjeno bolečinski prag za ishemično bolečino, ki je bila izzvana z pozo moči iz predhodno izvedene spletne raziskave ter ponovili in manšeto za merjenje arterijskega tlaka. Rezultati so pokazali, da je nadgradili eksperiment Bohnsove in Wiltermutha [1]. Dobljeni dominantna poza zvišala bolečinski prag, pri submisivni pozi pa rezultati so pokazali, da je dominantna poza statistično značilno statistično značilnega učinka ni bilo. vplivala na dvig praga bolečine za vroče, kar je skladno z izsledki izvirne raziskave [1]. Naša raziskava je potekala tako, da smo najprej izbrali najbolj dominantno in najbolj submisivno pozo, nato pa izbrani pozi Ključne besede uporabili pri preverjanju povezave med naključno dodeljeno pozo in spremembo v pragu termične bolečine. Predhodno raziskavo Neverbalna komunikacija, poza visoke moči (dominantna poza), smo nadgradili z večjim vzorcem, zanesljivejšo metodo merjenja poza nizke moči (submisivna poza), termični bolečinski prag. ter z zagotovitvijo nepristranskosti in ponovljivosti navodil za zavzemanje poze. 1. UVOD Moč in nadvlado izražamo poleg besedne govorice tudi skozi 2. METODOLOGIJA nebesedno govorico telesa [2], ki za sporočanje poleg intonacije in 2.1 Udeleženci barve glasu uporablja telesno držo, geste in obrazno mimiko. Posameznik kaže lastno moč skozi nadrejeno, ekspanzivno držo in V raziskavi je sodelovalo 130 udeležencev, 56 moških in 74 asertivne gibe ter podrejenost skozi zaprto, kolabirano držo in žensk, starih od 19 do 62 let. En udeleženec je bil naknadno skromne gibe. izločen zaradi neupoštevanja navodil. Nekatere raziskave [1 - 3] nakazujejo, da odnos med nebesedno 2.2 Pripomočki in merski instrumentarij govorico in počutjem lahko poteka tudi v obratni smeri: namerno zavzeta dominantna poza spodbudno vpliva na dojemanje lastne Za merjenje praga termične bolečine za vroče smo uporabili moči, namerno zavzeta submisivna poza pa ima nanj negativen napravo Medoc Pathway Pain & Sensory Evaluation System učinek. Izraz poza moči uporabljamo, ko govorimo o telesnih (PSES, model ATS). S pomočjo spletnega vmesnika je udeleženec pozah, ki posnemajo dominantno ali submisivno držo telesa. odgovorili na nekaj vprašanj, si kasneje ogledal naključno Glede na njeno sporočilnost in občutenje moči osebe, ki jo dodeljeno fotografijo poze, sledil navodilom za njeno zavzemanje vzdržuje, jih imenujemo tudi poze visoke moči (dominantne poze) ter jo ob koncu ocenil glede na zaznani občutek moči oziroma ali poze nizke moči (submisivne poze), glede na držo telesa ter nemoči. položaj rok in nog pa tudi ekspanzivne (odprte) in kolabirane (zaprte) poze. Pri dominantnih pozah so udi običajno stran od 2.3 Postopek telesa, hrbtenica je zravnana in brada nekoliko privzdignjena. Pri Udeleženec je ob prihodu podpisal soglasje o sodelovanju in prek submisivnih pozah so udi običajno tesno ob trupu ali prekrižani, spletnega vmesnika odgovoril na nekaj demografskih vprašanj. Za brada je nemalokrat nekoliko spuščena in drža je sključena [1, 2]. zagotovitev anonimnosti podatkov mu je bila avtomatsko Čeprav številne raziskave iz zadnjih treh desetletij navajajo učinke dodeljena štirimestna koda, pod katero so bili obravnavani vsi 64 nadaljnji podatki. Sledile so testne meritve s termodo na koži submisivno razmeroma enostavna za zavzetje, bila je bolj stabilna palčne kepe nedominantne roke. Po testni meritvi je sledila prva in je verjetno zahtevala manj vzdrževane mišične aktivnosti. Zato eksperimentalna meritev na enakem mestu dominantne roke. dvomimo, da bi odsotnost vpliva submisivne poze in prisotnost vpliva dominantne poze na prag termične bolečine za vroče lahko Meritve bolečinskega praga za vroče so bile izvedene trikrat, pri pojasnili z večjo aktivnostjo mišic pri vzdrževanju dominantne čemer je bila izhodiščna temperatura termode vedno 32 °C. Po poze. meritvah je bil udeleženec povabljen pred namizni računalnik. Naročeno mu je bilo, naj po odhodu eksperimentatorja iz prostora Nekateri raziskovalci [2] so poročali, da je vzdrževanje na spletnem vmesniku nadaljuje na naslednjo stran, kjer mu bodo dominantne poze privedlo do zvišanja testosterona v slini in podana nadaljnja pisna navodila, fotografija naključno dodeljene vzdrževanje submisivne poze do njegovega znižanja. Drugi so poze ter posnetek glasovno predvajanih navodil za zavzetje poze. poročali o višjem bolečinskem pragu po zvišani ravni testosterona Pozo je udeleženec izvêdel in v njej vztrajal 3-krat po 20 sekund, pri živalskem modelu [9]. Raziskovalci študije o učinkih pri čemer je glasovno navodilo oznanilo iztek 20 sekund, začetek testosterona na moške, ki so bili razdeljeni v skupine glede na in konec premora, ponovno zavzemanje ter konec preizkusa. kronično izpostavljenost eksogenemu ali endogenemu testosteronu, pa so poročali o zmanjšani občutljivosti na taktilne Po vrnitvi v prostor je eksperimentator povabil udeleženca k drugi dražljaje pri skupini moških z najvišjo ravnijo testosterona [10]. Iz eksperimentalni seriji meritev na predelu palčne kepe dominantne tovrstnih raziskav bi lahko sklepali o povezavi med vzdrževanjem roke, ki so potekale enako kot prej. Vrednosti eksperimentalnih poz, zvišanjem ravni testosterona in zaznavanjem bolečine, vendar meritev so se shranjevale preko spletnega vmesnika ter bile novejše raziskave takšnim povezavam oporekajo [3, 7]. V naši kasneje povprečene za vsak sklop treh vrednosti. raziskavi se namenoma nismo odločili za meritve koncentracij Po drugi meritvi je udeleženec ocenil, s kolikšnim občutkom moči hormonov. Z nepristransko metodo smo želeli preveriti domnevo oziroma nemoči ga je na lestvici od 1 do 11 navdala zavzemana o učinku poze na bolečinski prag in se pri tem namerno izognili poza. dodatnim virom variabilnosti. Poleg tega so bili v raziskavo vključeni udeleženci obeh spolov in med spoloma razlik v 2.4 Analiza podatkov spremembi praga nismo zaznali. Čeprav bi nevroendokrini dejavniki lahko prispevali k vplivu, bi za vpogled v njihovo Učinek poze smo analizirali z univariatno primerjavo razlik v vpletenost morali izvesti novo, kompleksnejšo raziskavo, kjer bi srednji vrednosti med skupinama. Za analizo podatkov smo na ustrezen način vrednotili tudi morebitno spreminjanje uporabili programje IBM SPSS Statistics 23 za okolje Windows. nevroendokrinih parametrov. 3. REZULTATI 5. ZAHVALA Sprememba v pragu bolečine za vroče se je med skupinama z Zahvaljujemo se prostovoljcema Mateji Drolec Novak in Janu dominantno in submisivno pozo pred in po vzdrževanju poz Zibelniku za pomoč pri izvajanju raziskave. statistično značilno razlikovala ( t(127) = -3,11, p = 0,002). Pri udeležencih z dodeljeno dominantno pozo je bila povprečna 6. VIRI vrednost temperature praga bolečine za vroče na začetku 44,79 °C ( SD 3,55 °C) in po vzdrževanju poze 45,97 °C ( SD 3,51 °C). Pri [1] Bohns, V. K. in Wiltermuth, S. S. 2012. It hurts when I do udeležencih z dodeljeno submisivno pozo je bila povprečna this (or you do that): Posture and pain tolerance. Journal of vrednost temperature praga bolečine za vroče pred vzdrževanjem Experimental Social Psychology. 48,1, 341–345. DOI= poze 46,40 °C ( SD 3,14 °C) in po vzdrževanju 46,34 °C ( SD https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.05.022. 3,17 °C). [2] Carney, D. R., Cuddy, A. J. C. in Yap, A. J. 2010. Power Udeleženci, ki so vzdrževali submisivno pozo, so na lestvici od 1 Posing: Brief Nonverbal Displays Affect Neuroendocrine do 11 v povprečju poročali o manjšem občutku moči ( M = 3,8, Levels and Risk Tolerance. Psychological Science. 21,10, SD = 1,4) v primerjavi z udeleženci, ki so vzdrževali dominantno 1363–1368. DOI= pozo ( M = 8,7, SD = 1,5; t(127) = -19,06, p < 0,001). Rezultati so https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610383437. primerljivi z ocenami udeležencev v spletni raziskavi za izbrani [3] Ranehill, E., Dreber, A., Johannesson, M., Leiberg, S., Sul, dve pozi. S. in Weber, R. A. 2015. Assessing the Robustness of Power Posing. Psychological Science. 26,5, 653–656. DOI= 4. RAZPRAVA https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614553946. Namen naše raziskave je bil ugotoviti, ali imata izbrani pozi [4] Carney, D. R., Cuddy, A. J. C. in Yap, A. J. 2015. Review učinek na dvig oziroma spust praga termične bolečine za vroče. and Summary of Research on the Embodied Effects of Rezultati so pokazali, da je dominantna poza vplivala na dvig Expansive (vs. Contractive) Nonverbal Displays. praga za bolečino in da submisivna poza nanj ni imela učinka. Psychological Science, 26, 5, 657–663. DOI= Tovrstni izsledki so skladni s predhodno raziskavo, v kateri so https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614566855. prag bolečine merili z izzivanjem ishemične bolečine [1]. Avtorja slednje sta domnevala, da je višji bolečinski prag dominantne [5] Nair, S., Sagar, M., Sollers, J., Consedine, N. in Broadbent, poze povezan z višjo aktivacijo mišic med njenim vzdrževanjem E. 2015. Do slumped and upright postures affect stress ter da to lahko vpliva na fiziološke procese v telesu, ki so responses? A randomized trial. Health Psychology, 34, 6, povezani z zaznavo bolečinskega praga. V naši raziskavi mišične 632–641. DOI= https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000146. aktivnosti nismo neposredno merili, zato o tovrstnem učinku ne [6] Peña, J. in Chen, M. 2017. Playing with power: Power poses moremo argumentirano razpravljati. Lahko pa izpostavimo, da je affect enjoyment, presence, controller responsiveness, and bila izbrana dominantna poza iz naše raziskave v primerjavi s arousal when playing natural motion-controlled video games. 65 Computers in Human Behavior. 71, 428–435. DOI= [9] Rao, S. S. in Saifi, A. Q. 1981. Effect of testosterone on https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.02.019. threshold of pain. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 25(4), 387–388. [7] Smith, K. M. in Apicella, C. L. 2017. Winners, losers, and posers: The effect of power poses on testosterone and risk- [10] Burris, A. S., Gracely, R. H., Carter, C. S., Sherins, R. J. in taking following competition. Hormones and Behavior. 92, Davidson, J. M. 1991. Testosterone therapy is associated 172–181. DOI= https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.11.003. with reduced tactile sensitivity in human males. Hormones and Behaviour, 25, 2, 195–205. [8] Garrison, K. E., Tang, D. in Schmeichel, B. J. 2016. Embodying Power. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 7, 7, 623–630. DOI= https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550616652209. 66 The effect of distractors in lateralized change detection working memory task Anka Slana Ozimič Mind and Brain Lab, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana Aškerčeva 2 1000 Ljubljana anka.slana@ff.uni-lj.si ABSTRACT relevant visual information in the absence of the external environment, is needed to carry out the tasks at hand. The capacity of working memory to maintain visual information is highly limited and varies significantly across individuals. An important research effort is to understand the mechanisms of its An important effort of VWM research is to understand the limitation, one being the efficient selection of the relevant items reasons for the highly limited capacity to maintain visual from the immediate external environment to encode and representations, which spans from 3 to 5 meaningful items in maintain in working memory stores, while preventing the young adults, varies significantly across individuals and irrelevant items to occupy it’s capacity. Recently, a series of declines in healthy aging [2]. Recently, a series of EEG studies EEG studies using lateralized change detection task, in which [5, 3] focused on the neural substrates of VWM processes and the participants only have to maintain items presented on one identified a neurophysiological index of storage capacity in the visual hemifield, while irrelevant items are also presented on form of the slow negative ERP difference wave, known as the opposite hemifield, identified a neurophysiological correlate contralateral delay activity (CDA). Studies have shown that of storage capacity in the form of contralateral delay activity CDA is sensitive to the number of objects maintained in VWM (CDA) wave. Moreover, studies revealed that low-capacity [3]—its amplitude increases as the number of objects participants maintain irrelevant items along the target items, maintained in VWM increases, but reaches an asymptote at when both are presented in the same visual hemifield, indicating around 3-4 items (Figure 1F), depending on each individual’s a reduced ability to filter irrelevant stimuli from visual working memory capacity. Interestingly, the extent of the increase in memory. These studies, however, do not consider the possibility amplitude in CDA when working memory load is increased that participants might also maintain the irrelevant items from two to four items was found to strongly correlate with presented to the opposite visual hemifield. To address this individual’s VWM capacity and is therefore considered a concern, we designed an experiment in which we directly neurophysiological index of VWM capacity [5]. Moreover, manipulated the presence of distractors in the irrelevant visual studies have shown [3] that low-capacity participants find it hemifield to estimate and control for their effect. Twenty-eight hard to ignore irrelevant distractors when presented either participants took part in a visual working memory experiment concurrently with or successively to the target items [6]. The in which they were asked to maintain orientation of items authors suggested that irrelevant items burden the limited VWM presented to the left or right visual hemifield, while the capacity, leading to lower working memory performance. distracting items were either present or absent in the opposite visual hemifield. The results revealed significantly lower A typical paradigm used to study CDA is lateralized change estimates of the capacity in the presence vs. absence of detection task [5] (Figure 1A), in which participants are distractors, suggesting that participants were not able to ignore presented with a number of items on both sides of the screen, the distracting items presented to the opposite visual hemifield, but only have to focus on the side that was previously indicated challenging the validity of the estimates of visual working with a cue (usually an arrow pointing either left or right), memory capacity in CDA and other studies employing encode and maintain the relevant item information (e.g. colors lateralized change detection task. or orientations), while keeping their eye-gaze focused at the fixation point in the middle of the screen. Such tasks evoke an increase in electrical activity above the parietal-occipital cortex Keywords of the hemisphere contralateral to the visual hemifield in which Change detection task, capacity, contralateral delay activity, the target items were presented (Figure 1C). CDA is computed distractors, visual working memory. as the difference in EEG activity between contralateral and ipsilateral hemispheres (Figure 1E). In this way, any nonspecific, task-general bilateral activity such as perceptual 1. INTRODUCTION responses (Figure 1D), is removed and the remaining signal In everyday life, access to immediate external environment should be solely related to working memory processes [3]. obtained through different sensory systems is crucial not only to respond to the sources of threat, being one of the basic functions While this logic seems well reasoned for eliminating task- of sensory systems, but also to guide complex mental tasks irrelevant activity, we have identified a potential issue in the needed to carry out goal directed behavior. For example, when experimental design that could lead to false conclusions. When driving a car, one must have access to the visual environment at testing VWM capacity, researchers usually don’t consider the all times, in order to follow the driving rules and avoid potential possibility that participants might be either distracted by or also obstacles, such as pedestrians and other vehicles in the traffic. encode and maintain the items presented to the irrelevant Frequently, however, sensory input from the relevant visual hemifield. Encoding and maintenance of irrelevant distractors information is either interrupted by short events, such as eye- was demonstrated in previous studies [6, 3], however, in these blinks or saccades, or redirected to irrelevant visual stimuli, studies the irrelevant distractors were present in the same visual such as a phone screen when receiving a call. In such cases, a hemifield interspersed between relevant targets. In this study we temporary memory buffer known as visual working memory considered the possibility that the distractors significantly affect (VWM) [1], which allows us to actively maintain and integrate VWM performance even when presented to the irrelevant visual 67 hemifield. In this case, the participants might try to encode 2.2 Task and procedure items from both hemifields, spreading the VWM resources Participants completed multiple trials of the VWM task (Figure across both relevant and irrelevant items and reducing the 2). On each trial they were shown a brief array of black ability to maintain the items from the relevant visual hemifield. rectangles of different orientations ( targets) presented either on If that is the case, in such studies the results would one or both sides of the screen and were asked to remember the underestimate the VWM capacity for the relevant hemisphere. items presented in either left or right hemifield only, as indicated with an arrow ( initial cue). Following a brief delay a To address this concern, we designed an experiment in which second cue, which matched the initial cue and reminded the we directly manipulated the presence of distractors in the participants which objects they will need to base their response irrelevant visual hemifield, which enabled us to estimate and on, was presented. After another delay, the probe items were control for their effect. shown on both sides of the screen and the participants had to indicate by a button-press, whether there was a change in the 2. METHOD orientation of any of the rectangles on the relevant, previously indicated side of the screen, ignoring a possible change on the other side of the screen. 2.1 Participants Twenty-eight students (22 females) aged between 19 and 25 (M Two main factors were manipulated: side, which corresponded = 20.5, SD = 1.6) signed an informed consent to participate in to the side of the screen from which the participants had to an 1.5-hour experimental session. Five participants were remember orientation of the presented items ( left, right) and excluded from the analysis due to inadequate performance in distractors, corresponding to whether the items were presented the VWM task (accuracy was lower than chance in one of the to both or the relevant visual hemifield only ( distractor and no- task conditions). distractor condition) . Overall we tested 4 experimental conditions: 4 target items presented to the left (L4N) or right (R4N) visual hemifield with no distractors on the opposite 68 hemifield; and 4 target items presented to the left (L4D) or right (R4D) visual hemifield, with distractors present. In order to hinder verbal recoding of the visually presented stimuli, in addition to the VWM task, participants also performed a concurrent verbal suppression (VS) task, which was embedded between the trials of the main VWM task (Figure 2). Before the start of the VWM task, a suppression stimulus (VS target) consisting of blue-colored letters was presented for 2 s. Participants were instructed to maintain the letter sequence while performing the VWM task. After every eight VWM trials a VS probe was presented in red and the participants had to indicate by pressing the appropriate key, whether the probe was the same or different from the target. Data were collected in a sound-isolated room, allowing participants to attend to the task without any interruption. To control for eye-movements, we used an EyeLink 1000 system. 2.3 Data analysis Statistical analyses are based on estimates of working memory capacity (K). The capacity estimates were computed with Pashler’s formula [4]: ! K = N h − f , 1 − f where h and f are the observed hit and false alarm rates and N is the number of to-be-remembered items. 3. RESULTS Whereas the estimated VWM capacity did not differ between The goal of this study was to assess the effect of distractors in left and right hemispheres, the results indeed revealed lateralized change detection task on the VWM capacity. A significantly lower estimates of VWM capacity in the presence repeated measures ANOVA with within-subject factors side (left vs. absence of distractors. This suggests that participants were vs. right) and distractor (distractors vs. no-distractors) revealed not able to ignore the distracting items in the irrelevant a main effect of distractor, F(1, 22) = 19.7 , p < .001 , η2 = .06, contralateral visual hemifield, which resulted in lower estimate reflecting lower capacities in the presence of distractors (see of successfully remembered items (K) in the distractor present Figure 3). Neither the effect of side, F(1, 22) = 0.754 , p = . 394, conditions. These results are in line with prior studies using nor its interaction with distractor, F(1, 22) = 1.36 , p = .254, CDA [3], which have shown that participants find it hard to were significant. ignore irrelevant distractors when presented along the target items [6]. These studies, however, assessed the effect of 4. DISCUSSION distractors presented in the same visual hemifield, while not taking into consideration the possibility that the distractors can The aim of this experiment was to identify a potential significantly affect working memory performance even when shortcoming of lateralized change detection tasks used in the presented to the irrelevant visual hemifield. CDA studies in assessing VWM capacity, by manipulating the presence of distractors in the irrelevant visual hemifield. The effect of the distractors could be explained either by a Specifically, our concern was, that the presence of distractors reduced ability to encode the target items, or—as suggested by could result in reduced estimates of VWM capacity, when previous research [3]—by leading the participants to encode defined as the number of remembered target items. and maintain also irrelevant distractors, thereby reducing the effective capacity for encoding of the relevant items. 69 Though confirming the negative effect of the distractors, the 6. REFERENCES results do not enable unequivocal explanation of the mechanism underlying their effect. One possibility is that, similar to the [1] Baddeley, A., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working memory. In G. observations of the CDA studies [3], participants fail to ignore A. Bower (Ed.), Recent Advances in Learning and the irrelevant stimuli and maintain them along the relevant Motivation (Vol. 8, pp. 47-90). 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Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Whereas our experiment does not provide sufficient information Reviews, 62, 100–108. to distinguish between these two possibilities, future studies tracking the magnitude of the CDA in the presence and absence [4] Rouder, J. N., Morey, R. D., Morey, C. C., & Cowan, N. of distractors in the contralateral visual hemifield, could help (2011). How to measure working memory capacity in the resolve the dilemma. change detection paradigm. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 18(2), 324–330. [5] Vogel, E. K., & Machizawa, M. G. (2004). Neural activity predicts individual differences in visual working memory capacity. Nature, 428(6984), 748–751. 5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [6] Vogel, E. K., McCollough, A. W., & Machizawa, M. G. This research was supported by the Slovenian Research Agency (2005). Neural measures reveal individual differences in grant J7-5553, J3-9264 and P5-0110. controlling access to working memory. Nature, 438(7067), 500–503. 70 Zmota luči v hladilniku in značilnosti opazovanja fenomenov z obrobja zavesti Urban Kordeš Viktorija Lipič Univerza v Ljubljani Univerza v Ljubljani Pedagoška fakulteta Pedagoška fakulteta Kadeljeva pl. 16, Ljubljana, Slovenija Center za kognitivno znanost +38615892200 +38631460174 urban.kordes@pef.uni-lj.si viktorija.lipic@gmail.com POVZETEK ujeto v tople roke: »snežinka namreč ob stiku z rokami spremeni V prispevku predstavljamo delne rezultate študije, v kateri smo svojo kvaliteto – ni več kristal, temveč le še kapljica«. poskušali odgovoriti na vprašanje, kaj se zgodi s fenomeni, ki se V nadaljevanju vprašanje naslovimo iz vidika treh raziskovalnih nahajajo na obrobju zavedanja, ko vanje usmerimo luč pozornosti. področij: kognitivne znanosti, fenomenološke filozofije in Osredotočamo se na fenomen srži, ki je del širšega doživljanja empiričnega raziskovanja doživljanja. udejanjanja znanja. V uvodnem poglavju predstavimo tako imenovano zmoto luči v hladilniku – vprašanje, ali so doživljajska Kognitivna znanstvenica Blackmore, podobno kot Dehaene, stanja, ki se jih zavedamo, ko o doživljanju reflektiramo, prisotna uporablja metaforo luči v hladiliniku [4]. Blackmoreova meni, da tudi takrat, ko o njih ne reflektiramo. Na podlagi empiričnih je naš občutek tekočega, neprekinjenega toka zavestnega podatkov o doživljanju fenomena srži in transformacijah tega doživljanja »velika iluzija« [4, str. 26] - vsakič ko se vprašamo doživljanja pod lučjo refleksivnega preiskovanja, poskušamo »sem zdaj zavesten?« se seveda ponudi pozitiven odgovor. Napaka, sklepati o možnostih reflektiranja fenomenov na obrobju in ki jo delamo je, da iz tega sklepamo, da smo zavestni tudi, ko tega veljavnosti empiričnih podatkov o fenomenih iz predrefleksivne ne preverjamo. Refleksivni akt oz. preizkušanje (angl. probing) je dimenzije zavesti. vedno na voljo, zaradi tega ni nikoli lukenj v našem (iluzornem) občutku neprekinjenega toka zavesti. Ključne besede Doživljanje, Po drugi strani, Rosenthal [5] ne vidi nobene iluzije. Njegovo empirična fenomenologija, refleksija stališče je, da zavestno izkustvo sovpada z zmožnostjo poročanja o njem. Ob tem pa poudarja, da je pogosto prisotna tudi vsebina, ki ni zavestna in o kateri udeleženci ne morejo poročati. Rosenthal 1. UVOD zagovarja t.i. plitko konceptualizacijo zavesti [6], katere stališče je, Raziskovanje doživljanja, torej subjektivne (oziroma da se je možno zavedati le doživljanja, ki je prej že bilo predmet fenomenološke) dimenzije zavesti, predstavlja za uveljavljene refleksije. To kar je 'zavestno' je vselej neposredno doživeto med paradigme empiričnega raziskovanja kopico problemov. Med njimi procesom refleksije. je verjetno največji pa tudi epistemološko najbolj zanimiv, Sodobni fenomenologi, na primer Zahavi [7], so po večini mnenja, problem, ki ga Dehaene in sodelavci [1] imenujejo zmota luči v da je zavestno izkustvo takoj na voljo, ko se po njem vprašamo, hladilniku (angl. refrigerator light fallacy)1. ravno zaradi predrefleksivnega samo-zavedanja. Pojasnjuje, da Po Dehaeneju, vsakič, ko se vprašamo o doživljanju, metaforično refleksivno samo-zavedanje temelji na predrefleksivnem samo- odpremo hladilnik in pogledamo ali je luč še vedno prižgana. zavedanju in da ravno zaradi tega lahko neposredno poročamo o Takoj, ko na določen del doživljajskega polja usmerimo pozornost, svojem izkustvu. Za ponazoritev predlaga naslednji primer: lahko opazimo bogato doživljajsko pokrajino, naseljeno z čustvenimi, »Če sem vključen v določeno zavestno dejavnost, kot je na primer miselnimi, telesnimi in drugimi fenomeni. O opaženem doživljanju branje zgodbe, moja pozornost ni usmerjena name ali na aktivnost lahko razmišljamo in poročamo. Vemo, da hladilnikova luč branja, temveč je na zgodbi. Če bi me nekdo v tem trenutku ugasne, ko vrata zapremo. Kako je s tem pri doživljanju? So doživljajska povprašal o mojem početju, bi takoj lahko odgovoril, da sem (že stanja, ki se jih zavedamo, ko o njih reflektiramo, kar nekaj časa) bral. Samo-zavedanje, na podlagi katerega lahko prisotna tudi takrat, ko o njih ne reflektiramo? Je akt raziskovanja odgovorim na to vprašanje, ni nekaj, kar je bilo pridobljeno v tistem (refleksivni akt) samo odprtina, skozi katero opazujemo doživljanje takšno trenutku, temveč je bilo prisotno v sami zavesti že ves čas« [7, str. kot je, ali refleksija nekaj »naredi« doživljanju – prispeva k 21]. Zahavi trdi, da se vselej predrefleksivno zavedamo lastnega konstrukciji bogate fenomenološke pokrajine? doživljanja in se lahko ponavadi takoj odzovemo »brez sklepanja Vprašanje, ki si ga zastavljamo, ni novo. Navajajo ga že avtorji kot ali opazovanja, če nas kdo vpraša, kaj počnemo, razmišljamo ali so Comte [2] in James [3], ki tok zavesti deli na na osrednjo, jasno vidimo, ali kaj smo občutili neposredno pred vprašanjem« [prav vsebino in območje, ki to glavno vsebino spremlja – t. i. obrobje. tam]. Poskus opazovanja obrobja James [3, str. 244] primerja s snežinko 1 Zmotna domneva, da je luč v hladilniku prižgana tudi, ko so vrata hladilnika zaprta – saj je vedno prižgana, ko odpremo vrata in pogledamo. 71 Za Zahavija je ključno sklicevanje na trenutek refleksivnega samo- izsek iz raziskave, usmerjen na vprašanje, kaj akt opazovanja zavedanja, ki razkriva obstoj (vselej prisotnega) predrefleksivnega (refleksije) »naredi« fenomenom, ki se navadno izmikajo fokusu samo-zavedanja. Jasno zanika možnost, da akt refleksije spremeni pozornosti. doživljanje. Zanj akt refleksije le razpira to, kar je vselej že bilo Predstavljen izsek je del širše študije doživljanja udejanjanja implicitno (predrefleksivno) zaznano. znanja, v kateri smo z uporabo tehnike drugoosebnega globinskega 1.1. Vloga akta opazovanja v raziskovanju fenomenološkega raziskovanja [13] zasledili fenomen srži. Gre za doživljanja posebno vrsto doživljanja, ki ga Kordeš in Demšar [14] opišeta kot občutek, da imamo na voljo védenje o določeni stvari oziroma občutenje bistva vsebine. Odgovor še ni jasno opredeljen v zavesti Kot vidimo, filozofska razprava o vplivu akta refleksije razkriva – imamo pa občutek, da je na voljo in da vemo kam je treba usmeriti problematiko luči v hladilniku, in z njo povezane različne pozornost, da se vsebina razkrije. Bistvena značilnost srži je, da se epistemološke možnosti pogleda na problematiko. Problem vpliva nahaja na obrobju zavedanja – kot taka je idealni poskusni zajček akta opazovanja na opazovano pa ni le teoretski – razumevanje za raziskovanje vpliva akta refleksije. Kaj se zgodi, če na ta obrobni vloge akta refleksije pri opazovanju doživljanja je ključno v fenomen posvetimo z lučjo pozornosti? Odgovor na to vprašanje empiričnem fenomenološkem raziskovanju, saj sta z njim bistveno lahko pomaga pri oceni veljavnosti predpostavk raziskovalnega povezani vprašanji vloge raziskovalnega aparata pri raziskovanju pristopa globoke konceptualizacije zavesti (ki trdi, da je možno doživljanja in narave s takšnim raziskovanje dobljenih raziskovati tudi fenomene, ki se po svoji naravi nahajajo na (fenomenoloških) podatkov. predrefleksivni dimenziji zavesti). Vodilni predstavniki prvoosebnega raziskovanja doživljanja priznavajo, da združevanje akta opazovanja z vsebinsko komponento opazovanja predstavlja pomemben izziv za empirično 2.1. Opis metode raziskovanje doživljanja [8]. Podobno kot vodilni predstavniki Osnovo drugoosebnega globinskega fenomenološkega sodobne fenomenološke filozofije, večina empiričnih raziskovanja predstavljata mikro-fenomenološki intervju, opisan v raziskovalcev doživljanja verjame, da je mogoče pridobiti Petitmengin [10] in metodološki obrat, pri čemer udeleženec doživljajske podatke o pristnem, z refleksijo neomadeževanem postane raziskovalec svojega doživljanja. S tem se njegova vloga doživljanju. spremeni iz udeleženca v soraziskovalca. Bistvena značilnost raziskovanja te vrste je, da udeleženec ni več samo vir informacij, Sodobno empirično prvoosebno raziskovanje vključuje celo vrsto ampak postane dejaven sodelavec v študiji. Metodološki obrat metodoloških pristopov opazovanja doživljanja, ki poskušajo ujeti udeleženca v soraziskovalca pa je možen samo, če udeleženca neokrnjeno, pristno (angl. pristine) doživljanje (npr. [9]). zanima raziskovanje in opazovanje lastnega doživljanja. Globinsko Raziskovalci, povezani s tehniko elicitacijskega in mikro- raziskovanje postane zares »globinsko« šele, ko udeleženci fenomenološkega raziskovanja [10, 11] verjamejo, da njihova vzamejo raziskovalno vprašanje za svoje in se raziskovani tematiki metoda omogoča razširitev pozornosti na predrefleksivno posvetijo. Takrat postanejo soraziskovalci [15]. dimenzijo doživljanja. Z drugimi besedami, verjamejo, da lahko vedno artikulirajo vsebine, ki se jih udeleženec v trenutku, ko so Raziskava je razdeljena v dve fazi. Prva faza vključuje začetne nastale ni zavedal (oziroma se jih je zavedal samo v intervjuje in je primarno namenjena urjenju udeležencev v predrefleksivnem »obrobju«). Dotični raziskovalni pristop Froese, samoopazovanju lastnega doživljanja. Udeleženci prve faze, ki Gould in Seth [6] imenujejo globoka konceptualizacija zavesti, kar skozi izvedbo začetnih intervjujev ugotovijo, da jih raziskovalna pomeni, da sta raziskovalno dostopni tako predrefleksivna kot tema in opazovanje doživljanja zanimata, postanejo aktivni refleksivna dimenzija zavesti. soraziskovalci in preidejo v drugo fazo raziskovanja. Na tej točki so soraziskovalci že dovolj izurjeni v samoopazovanju in lahko Mikro-fenomenološki intervju poskuša kultivirati posameznikovo začnejo samostojno raziskovati doživljanje fenomena v refleksijo in retrospekcijsko poročanje o doživljajskih podatkih. vsakodnevnem življenju. V drugi fazi se tako začenja razvijati Predrefleksivno dimenzijo opisujejo kot skrito, obrobno, skoraj že dialog v smislu skupnega participatornega sodelovanja med nezavedno raven zavesti, refleksivno pa kot zaznano vsebino, na raziskovalcem in soraziskovalcem [13]. katero je usmerjena pozornost [10]. Skozi proces izvedbe intervjuja raziskovalec vodi udeleženca do ponovnega podoživetja izkustva in pozornost udeleženca poskuša preusmeriti z eksplicitnega, refleksivnega dela, na implicitni, predrefleksivni, »obrobni« del 2.2. Poskusna teorija doživljanja [12]. Osredotočamo se na dobljene doživljajske opise, ki se nanašajo na primere, kjer je soraziskovalec poskušal pri sebi opaziti in Avtorji torej svojo metodo gradijo na predpostavki, da je možno opredeliti srž v intervjujih. reflektirati doživljanje s predrefleksivne dimenzije. Njihovo razumevanje razdelitve zavesti in vloge akta opazovanja je bistveno 2.2.1. Neoprijemljivost srži za razumevanje podatkov, ki jih producira njihova metoda. Je vera Soraziskovalci so poročali o velikih težavah pri poskusih avtorjev v sam obstoj predrefleksivne dimenzije zavesti in v reflektiranja na srž. Pogosto so se pojavljali opisi, da se srž izmika možnost razširitve pozornosti na to dimenzijo upravičena? pozornosti, da jo poskus opazovanja ne ujame, ali da izginja s poskusom opazovanja. Tipična poročila soraziskovalcev so bila v obliki občutkov, ki jih niso znali konkretizirati. Soraziskovalec 2. ŠTUDIJA: FENOMEN SRŽI Vprašanje veljavnosti in pomena prvoosebnih podatkov seveda presega okvire tega prispevka. Upamo pa, da bo opis rezultatov empirične študije lahko pomenil droben korak na poti k razumevanju fenomenalne zavesti. V tem razdelku predstavljamo 72 K01 2 je občutek neoprijemljivosti srži opisal kot: »bolj kot ga 3. ZNAČILNOSTI OPAZOVANJA skušam opisat, bolj ga ne morem«, »bolj ko ga poskušam najt, bolj OBROBNIH FENOMENOV mi izginja«. V istem intervjuju je v nadaljevanju poročal, da se doživljanje srži začenja pojavljati, ko srži aktivno ne poskuša iskati Ugotovitve o srži predstavljajo težavo predpostavki, na kateri in opazovati: »ko pa neham tko na en način to iskat, ko pa temeljijo svoja spoznanja raziskovalni pristopi, ki trdijo, da sta doživljam, pa se pojavi«. raziskovalno dostopni tako predrefleksivna kot refleksivna dimenzija zavesti (tj. globoka konceptualizacija zavesti [6]). 2.2.1.1. Opisi srži med udejanjanjem znanja Naši podatki kažejo, da je refleksivna dimenzija zlahka dostopna Nekateri soraziskovalci so poročali tudi o srži znotraj udejanjanja poročanju, na predrefleksivno pa ima raziskovanje transformirajoč znanja – kako se je občutek, da imajo védenje na voljo, kazal med učinek. Srž so soraziskovalci namreč uspeli zaznati, ampak se je procesom udejanjanja (pojavljanja znanja v zavesti). razprla v vsebino ali izginila takoj, ko je prešla v fokus pozornosti. Bistven skupni imenovalec soraziskovalcev, ki so poročali o srži Ko so se soraziskovalci pričeli osredotočati na fenomen srži, ga med udejanjanjem znanja, je zaznavanje srži na obrobju, ko je niso bili več zmožni opisati, saj ga je pozornost izničila ali pozornost usmerjena na pojavljanje vsebin v zavesti. Srž se kaže spremenila. Pokazalo se je, da reflektiranje vodi v spreminjanje kot občutek še neoprijemljivih možnosti oziroma nejasnih vsebin v fenomena – namesto jasnejšega zaznavanja fenomena srži se zgodi ozadju. Pozornost je že na določeni vsebini, obenem pa so razpiranje vsebin v obliki slik, besed itd. soraziskovalci zmožni zaznati srž kot oblak potencialnih novih Reflektiranje izbranega izkustva ne omogoča jasne zaznave ali vsebin, v katere se lahko misli nadaljujejo: »Torej poleg tega, da je razširitve pozornosti na predrefleksivno dimenzijo, temveč ustvari bil zvok grmenja, je bil hkrati kokr v ozadju blazno ene vsebine, novo vrsto doživljanja. To vzbuja dvom v konceptualizacijo take neoprijemljive. [...] Kot neke ne zares predstave, ampak možnosti. zavesti, ki jo zagovarja Petitmengin [10, 12], da je možno pozornost Gist [srž] možnih predstav, kaj bi ta zvok lahko bil. [...] preusmeriti na predrefleksivno doživljanje in le-to opazovati Takrat je bilo samo kot neko ne zares oprijemljivo ozadje« (F01). nedotaknjeno s strani refleksije. Soraziskovalec F01 je poročal o udejanjeni vsebini, ki je bila v Najbližje središču poskusu opisa predrefleksivnega doživljanja smo prišli z zavedanja in občutku prisotnosti srži, ki jo je zaznaval na opisi »neoprijemljivosti srži«, kamor spadajo poročila robu »kot neko ne zares oprijemljivo ozadje«, občutek, da je »v soraziskovalcev, ki so srž zaznali, a se je ta izmikala opazovanju. backgroundu [ozadju] že nekaj«. Podobno so drugi soraziskovalci Srž, zaznano v predrefleksivni dimenziji, so soraziskovalci opisali, govorili o občutku, »kot da se nek proces dogaja zadaj«. kot da izginja, ko poskušajo nanjo usmeriti pozornost. Doživljanje 2.2.1.2. Razpiranje srži v vsebino srži pa se spet pojavi, ko soraziskovalec preneha vanjo posegati z Naslednji primer soraziskovalca F01 ilustrira, da z usmeritvijo aktom refleksije. pozornosti na občutek védenja vsebina začne postajati vedno bolj Opisi srži med udejanjanjem znanja in razpiranjem srži v vsebino dostopna. Soraziskovalec obenem nima občutka, da sam aktivno kažejo, da ni jasnega prehoda med fenomenom na obrobju in povzroča to razpiranje vsebine, ampak da vsebina sama nastaja, reflektiranjem o tem fenomenu. Nekateri soraziskovalci so uspeli vse, kar je potrebno, je ohranjanje pozornosti: med reflektiranjem in poročanjem o vsebini na obrobju zaznati »Da sam usmerim fokus nanj in potem se mi itak razvije samo od fenomen srži, a le, ko je bila pozornost osredotočena na drugih sebe. [...] To razpiranje srži. Ko iz srži nastaja neka vsebina. Kjer v vsebinah v zavesti. bistvu nimam občutka, kokr da jaz to nekaj razpiram, da jaz povzročam to. Jaz samo držim pozornost na tem in pol se zadeva razvije in pol, ker imam pozornost na tem, vem, kaj to je.« 4.VIRI [1] Dehaene, S., Changeux, J. P., Naccache, L., Sackur, J. in Prepletanje srži in pojavljanja vsebin (udejanjanja znanja) opiše Sergent, C. 2006. Conscious, preconscious, and subliminal soraziskovalec F01 v naslednjem primeru: processing: a testable taxonomy . Trends in cognitive »Kokr, da začne se samo z eno vsebino, enim vedenjem. In pol se sciences, 10(5), 204-211. to začne razvijat v neko artikulirano misel. 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Consciousness and Mind. Oxford ilustrirana in se bo lahko razvila »v neko artikulirano misel«. University Press. New York. [6] Froese, T., Gould, C. in Seth, A. K. 2011. Validating and calibrating first-and second-person methods in the science of consciousness. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 18(2), 38. 2 Šifriranje soraziskovalcev jemljemo iz širše študije, kjer je vsak kodiran z določeno črko in zaporedno številko po principu X01. 73 [7] Zahavi, D. 2006. Subjectivity and selfhood: Investigating the [12] Petitmengin, C. 2007. Towards the source of thoughts: The first-person perspective. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. gestural and transmodal dimension of lived experience. [8] Depraz, N., Varela, F. J. in Vermersch, P. 2003. On Journal of consciousness Studies, 14(3), 54-82. becoming aware. John Benjamins. [13] Kordeš, U. in Klauser, F. 2016. Second-person in-depth phenomenological inquiry as an approach for studying [9] Hurlburt, R. T. 1992. Sampling Normal and Schizophrenic Inner Experience. Plenum Press, New enaction of beliefs. Interdisciplinary Description of Complex York. Systems, 14(4), 369–377. [14] Kordeš, U. in Demšar, E. 2018. Excavating belief about past [10] Petitmengin, C. 2006. Describing one’s subjective experience in the second person: An interview method for experience: experiential dynamics of the reflective act. the science of consciousness. Phenomenology and the Constructivist Foundations 13(2): 219–229. Cognitive Sciences, 5(3-4), 229-269. [15] Kordeš, U. in Smrdu, M. 2015. Osnove kvalitativnega [11] Vermersch, P. 1994. L'entretien d'explicitation. Paris: ESF. raziskovanja. Založba Univerze na Primorskem. 74 Zemljevid prepričanj – od propozicije do doživljanja Florian Klauser Urban Kordeš Univerza v Ljubljani Univerza v Ljubljani Pedagoška fakulteta Pedagoška fakulteta Kardeljeva pl. 16, Ljubljana, Slovenija Kardeljeva pl. 16, Ljubljana, Slovenija florian.klauser@pef.uni-lj.si urban.kordes@pef.uni-lj.si POVZETEK morajo biti ti konkretni primeri, oziroma katere vrste prepričanj je V prispevku predstavimo nekaj izsledkov iz še odvijajoče se za nas najbolj smiselno raziskovati. Hitro je postalo jasno, da raziskave doživljanja udejanjanja prepričanj, natančneje iz vprašanje izbora vrste prepričanj ni le tehničen problem, ampak ustvarjanja t.i. zemljevida prepričanj, ki naj bi služil razjasnitvi da kaže na širšo (in morda usodno) nejasnost: kaže nam, da je – pred empiričnim preverjanjem – pojma prepričanje in s prepričanji povezanih ekoloških situacij, za dobro razčistiti, kaj sploh namene empirične raziskave. Na splošno opredelimo pogled mislimo s pojmom prepričanja. Prvi poskusi določitve nabora analitične filozofije in ga primerjamo z ustreznih vrst prepričanj so namreč pokazali na ogromno širino opisi vsakodnevnih situacij, kot jih soraziskovalci beležijo v dnevnik. Na koncu situacij, ki jih lahko povežemo s prisotnostjo prepričanj. Nabor možnih primerov je tako raznolik, da utemeljuje dvom v predstavimo, katera vprašanja o naravi prepričanj in možnosti njihovega empiričnega raziskovanja je zemljevid prepričanj smiselnost obravnavanja pojma prepričanje kot jasno razčistil, in katera ostajajo še odprta. opredeljenega (kljub vsakodnevnim intuicijam, skozi katere ga navadno vidimo kot neproblematičnega ali celo očitnega). Ključne besede Pričujoč prispevek predstavlja del našega poskusa odgovoriti na prepričanje, doživljanje, propozicija, to vprašanje. Poudarjamo, da iščemo odgovor za potrebe fenomenologija fenomenološke raziskave (torej: kaj so prepričanja z vidika empirične fenomenologije in katera od teh so najustreznejša za 1. UVOD raziskovanje?) in ne splošnega odgovora, ki bi predstavljal V prispevku predstavimo nekaj izsledkov iz še odvijajoče se dokončno zamejitev pojma. raziskave doživljanja udejanjanja prepričanj. Celotna raziskava temelji na predpostavki, da se med pozivom po nekem prepričanju 2. SPLOŠNA PREDSTAVITEV POGLEDA in njegovo manifestacijo odvija vrsta vsebinsko bogatih ANALITIČNE FILOZOFIJE doživljajskih procesov. Naš raziskovalni cilj je te doživljajske V zadnjem stoletju je bilo brez dvoma največ povedanega o procese raziskati. Na primer, če nas nekdo vpraša (pozove po prepričanjih v sklopu analitične filozofije, zaradi tega smo prepričanju), kaj je voda, se odgovor ne pojavi takoj, temveč se predvidevali, da bi to področje moralo služiti kot dobra morda najprej izzove spomin na učbenik kemije iz osnovne šole, v izhodiščna točka za naše iskanje (za raziskovalno delo) uporabne katerem piše »voda je tekočina brez vonja in okusa«; ali pa morda razmejitve pojma. predstava kozarca vode in pričakovanje, da ob njenem zaužitju ne bo ne vonja ne okusa. Drug primer: v raziskavi je soraziskovalec1 Schwitzgebel [4] predstavi pregled splošno sprejetih pogledov in poročal o tem, da je poslušal predavanje v angleščini kjer je bil glavnih tokov razmišljanja analitične filozofije o prepričanjih, ki omenjen organ »adrenal gland« (slov. nadledvična žleza). Občutil jih opredeli kot propozicionalno naravnanost – kot to, ko neko je radovednost po tem, kje se ta organ v telesu nahaja in hkrati propozicijo vzamemo za resnično. Te propozicionalne tudi zavedanje, da on to vé, četudi se mu 'odgovor' v tem trenutku naravnanosti pa služijo kot vzrok za vedênje. Schwitzgebel ne pojavi v zavesti2. Z vztrajnim upiranjem pozornosti v ta opozori, da sam obstoj propozicionalnih naravnanosti kot vzrokov občutek se mu je le pojavila predstava trupa in občutek določene za delovanje ni splošno sprejeto gledišče. Izpostavi, da je polje razmišljanja o prepričanjih zelo široko in se ukvarja z različnimi lokacije v njem. povezanimi problematikami [4]. Osnovna metodologija, ki jo uporabljamo za raziskovanje je intervju, kjer poskušamo pridobiti iz konkretnih primerov čim Ena od teh je, na primer, vprašanje reprezentacij: ali so bolj natančne doživljajske prepričanja podatke o procesu manifestacije propozicije, ki so na kakšen način reprezentirane v prepričanj (več o metodologiji umu; ali bi bilo bolj primerno misliti prepričanja kot v Kordeš in Klauser [1]). Pri samo stanje, načrtovanju raziskave smo se tako soočili z vprašanjem, kakšni da je dana propozicija reprezentirana v umu. Ne glede na to, ali gre za reprezentacije prepričanj, ali prepričanja kot reprezentacije sveta, je vprašanje, v kakšni obliki se te reprezentacije nahajajo v 1 Izraz soraziskovalec nadomesti sicer uveljavljen izraz umu. Ali se pojavljajo v obliki notranjega jezika misli, ali gre udeleženec. Izbiro pojasnjujeta Kordeš in Klauser [1]. morda za bolj kompleksne sisteme zemljevidov. Med tem ko se z 2 reprezentacijami in njhovo strukturo ukvarja struja Občutek, ki je v tovrstnih doživljajskih procesih tako pogost, da si je zaslužil svoje ime – reprezentacionalistov, drugo strujo, dispozicionalisti (in srž. Več o srži in nekaterih drugih izsledkih raziskave v Kordeš in Demšar interpretacionalisti), bolj zanimajo vzorci dejanskega in [2], glej tudi Kordeš in potencialnega vedênja. Ti t.i. dispozicionalisti (in Klauser [1] ter Kordeš in Lipič [3] v tej publikaciji. 75 interpretacionalisti) analizirajo, kakšno vedênje mora oseba orodji logike. Zgoraj omenjen govor o t.i. implicitnih izkazovati, da zanjo lahko rečemo, da je prepričana. Nekateri prepričanjih, na primer, da vedeti, da ima vsak posameznik predstavniki – podstruja liberalnih dispozicionalistov – dopušča nešteto prepričanj (da planetov ni 10, da planetov ni 11 itd.). To tudi zasebne mentalne epizode (doživljanje?) kot relevantne za pomeni, da so (vsaj implicitna prepričanja) konstrukt logike in ne določanje prepričanja [4]. morejo imeti (ne fizične, ne mentalne) reprezentacije – z vidika Pojavi pa se tudi vprašanje o tem, ali prepričanja res obstajajo (kot empirije jih torej ni. V analitičnih razpravah (e.g. [4], [5]) nismo to zanikajo eliminitavisti), in ali so, tudi če ne obstajajo, našli jasnejše nastavke za možno empirično preizpraševanje prepričanja še vedno smiseln (ali celo nepogrešljiv) koncept za predstavljenih argumentov in ugotovitev. razlaganje vedênja [4]. Ni tudi povsem jasno, kaj predstavlja enoto prepričanja. Analitična filozofija se najpogosteje sklicuje na eno prepričanje Schwitzgebel [4] predstavi tudi pogosto sprejeto tipifikacijo prepričanj v kot povezano z eno propozicijo. A, kot že Schwitzgebel pojavne (angl. occurent) in dispozicijske (angl. [4] sam dispositional). Če se prepričanje le nahaja v spominu ali t.i. izpostavi, se lahko dve propozicionalno izraženo identični »škatlici prepričanj« prepričanji med seboj razlikujeta v kontekstu spremljajočih je to prepričanje dispozicijsko (i.e. subjekt ima dispozicijo ali nagnjenost k temu, da izrazi to prepričanje). prepričanj. Tako Ani kot Sanjay sta, na primer, prepričana, da so Ko pa subjekt prepričanje prikliče iz spomina za uporabo pri lososi ribe. A Ani je poleg tega prepričana, da so tudi kiti ribe, načrtovanju, sklepanju ali aktivnemu izjavljanju, pa je to med tem ko je Sanjay prepričan, da kiti niso ribe. Sta prepričanji prepričanje pojavno. Schwitzgebel od Ani in od Sanjaya o tem, da so lososi ribe, potem identični? [4] navede primer subjekta Harryja, ki meni, da so kariraste kravate grde. O tem le redko Mnenja se delijo: zagovorniki holizma bi to zanikali, zagovorniki razmišlja, tako da je to prepričanje večino časa dispozicijsko. Ko atomizma pa pritrdili [4]. pa le privre na površino njegovega uma, bi ga označili kot pojavno. 3. ZEMLJEVID PREPRIČANJ Schwitzgebel [4] izpostavi tudi podobno delitev na eksplicitna in Ker pregled razprav analitične filozofije ni zadovoljil naše potrebe implicitna prepričanja. Če je dani subjekt eksplicitno prepričan, po razmejitvi prepričanj za raziskovalne namene, smo se odločili da P, se v njegovi »škatlici prepričanj« nahaja reprezentacija z sami zgraditi zemljevid situacij, povezanih s prepričanji. Namen vsebino P. Če pa je subjekt prepričan implicitno, tovrstne je bil preiskati čim več čim bolj ekološko veljavnih tipov raprezentacije tam ni, a bi to prepričanje lahko hitro izpeljal iz že primerov situacij, ki jih soraziskovalci povezujejo z obstojem obstoječih. Schwitzgebel [4] to ilustrira s primerom števila prepričanj. Dobljenemu naboru, ki smo ga kasneje poskušali na planetov. Subjekt S sicer ni eksplicitno prepričan, da je planetov različne načine razmejiti, pravimo zemljevid prepričanj. manj kot 9, in manj kot 10, in manj kot 11; a ker ima eksplicitno Primere za zemljevid smo začeli zbirati s pomočjo skupine prepričanje, da je planetov 8, lahko hitro izpelje vsa omenjena soraziskovalcev – kolegov, ki jim je tema znana in so bili prepričanja o tem, da je število planetov manjše od katerega koli pripravljeni opazovati ter beležiti dogodke iz svojega življenja, za števila, ki je večje od 8. Ko za dano prepričanje to stori, prav to katere sodijo, da govorijo o prisotnosti prepričanja. V zemljevid prepričanje sicer postane eksplicitno, a pred tem ostaja implicitno. smo dodali tudi nekatere primere iz tekstov analitične filozofije Iz analitične filozofije pridobljeno znanje nam že pomaga zožiti (predvsem iz Schwitzgebel[4]), za katere sklepamo, da so nabor prepričanj, ki bi bila primerna za empirično raziskovanje – predstavniki posameznega tipa situacij, povezanih s prepričanji. dispozicijskih ali implicitnih prepričanj, na primer, ni mogoče Vsak primer smo razdelili v tri komponente: situacijsko, ki direktno preiskati, saj jih naša na ozaveščanju in eksplikaciji opisuje širši kontekst dogajanja in/ali vedênje osebe; doživljanja temelječa metoda takoj spremeni v pojavna ali fenomenalno, ki opisuje doživljanje osebe; in propozicionalno, ki eksplicitna. (skladno s tradicijo analitične filozofije) navede vsebino Pojem (propozicionalna) naravnanost vsekakor namiguje o prepričanja v obliki povedi 'S je prepričan, da P'. Če iz primera doživljajskem fenomenu (naravnanosti do določenega katera od komponent ni bila razvidna, je njen razdelek ostal intencionalnega sistema; [5]). Ni pa jasno kakšne vrste doživljanje prazen. Vsakemu primeru smo tudi dodelili ime, za lažje kasnejše naj bi takšna naravnanost bila, še manj pa – če je možno v nanašanje. doživljajskem polju opaziti intencionalni sistem ali vsebino Nad zbranimi primeri smo izvedli več kategorizacij in tako propozicije do katerega/katere smo naravnani. Po drugi strani izdelali zemljevid z grupiranji opisov situacij, ki kažejo na razne mnogi analitični avtorji podajajo vedênjske primere za svoje vrste prepričanj. Zemljevid smo razdelili na več podzemljevidov, razprave o prepričanjih – nekdo vzame s seboj dežnik, ker je ki predstavljajo različne kategorizacije primerov, kot na primer na prepričan, da bo deževalo. Predhodni izsledki raziskav [1][2] implicitna in eksplicitna prepričanja, na primere z opisano kažejo na to, da eno in isto vedênje lahko spremlja mnogo fenomenološko komponento in primere brez. Edina razdelitev, ki različnih doživljanj in obratno – kateri vidik je torej relevanten za skoraj v celoti pokrije ves prostor zbranih primerov je delitev na raziskovanje? Če pri blagajni sežem v žep po denarnici, katero »občutek, artikulacija, vedênje«, ki jo predstavljamo v prepričanje se tu manifestira: prepričanje, da imam v žepu nadaljevanju. denarnico; prepričanje, da je v denarnici denar; prepričanje, da žep in/ali denarnica obstajata; prepričanje, da svet obstaja; Delitev je osnovana na treh deskriptorjih. Vsak deskriptor predstavlja eno možno raziskovalno perspektivo na prepričanja: prepričanje, da jaz obstajam; prepričanje, da blagajničar od mene fenomenalno, verbalno in vedênjsko. Fenomenalni deskriptor pričakuje plačilo;…? Po večini pregledanih razprav sklepamo, da občut je odgovor: prepričanje, ki ga v opisanem vedênju želi videti avtor ek označuje prisotnost »občutka, da tako je.« Verbalni deskriptor artikulacija označuje prisotnost artikulacije prepričanja opisa. (v propozicionalni obliki) – »izrekanja, da…« . Vedênjski Z vidika analitične filozofije je očitno pomembna predvsem deskriptor vedênje pa označuje prisotnost »vedênja, kot da…« – vsebina propozicije – tisti element torej, ki ga lahko preiskujemo z torej obnašanja, ki namiguje na vpletenost določenega 76 prepričanja3. Vsak primer lahko vsebuje od enega do vseh treh Tabela 4. Primer za občutek in artikulacija: deskriptorjev. PRIMER »Voda« Tabela 1. Primer za samo občutek: PRIMER »Bambus« Vedenjski in Janeza nekdo vpraša, kaj je voda. Janez kontekstualni odgovori s »tekočina brez vonja in okusa.« Vedenjski in Hodim po cesti in za sekundo pogledam opis: kontekstualni desno v neka drevesa in nato spet drugam. opis: Fenomenološki Vidim dve tanjši debli, desno od njiju pa še Fenomenološki Janezu se pojavi vizualna predstava telesa opis: dve zeleni podolgovati navpični stvari – ena opis: vode, na katerem so valovi – ki ga pa še ima vodoravno rumenkasto črto. Ob nikoli ni videl. Skupaj s to predstavo se trenutku kot preblisk védenje, da je to tak pojavi splošen občutek o lastnostih vode, od debel in visok bambus. Občutek triumfa. teh se najbolj izpostavijo, nebesedno, »tekoče«, »brez vonja«, »brez okusa«. Propozicionalni opis: Propozicionalni Janez je prepričan, »da je voda tekočina opis: brez vonja in okusa.« Tabela 2. Primer za samo artikulacija: PRIMER »Robot« Vedenjski in Človeku podoben robot ima v sebi Tabela 5. Primer za občutek in vedênje: kontekstualni shranjeno, v strojnem jeziku, stavek opis: katerega prevod je »kemijska formula za PRIMER »Deževalo bo« vodo je H2O«. Če ga vprašamo, »iz katerih Vedenjski in Janez se odpravlja od doma. Na nebu vidi elementov je sestavljena voda?«, Robot kontekstualni temne oblake. S seboj vzame dežnik. dostopa do omenjenega stavka in ga opis: manipulira tako, da poda odgovor, kot bi ga Fenomenološki Ko že stopi ven opazi temne oblake in čuti podal človek. opis: védenje, da bo deževalo. Nameni se vzeti Fenomenološki dežnik. opis: Propozicionalni Janez je prepričan, »da bo deževalo.« Propozicionalni Robot je prepričan, »da je kemijska opis: opis: formula za vodo H2O.« Tabela 6. Primer za artikulacija in vedênje: Tabela 3. Primer za samo vedênje: PRIMER »Filozofski zombi« PRIMER »Bakterija« Vedenjski in Filozofski zombi je po vedenju identičen Vedenjski in V vodi živeča bakterija ima v svojem telesu kontekstualni navadni osebi, le da ničesar ne doživlja. kontekstualni magnet, ki se odziva na Zemljino magnetno opis: Tako kot Janez v prejšnjem primeru se opis: polje. Na severni polobli magnetni sever zombi od doma odpravlja z dežnikom. Ko kaže navzdol, tako se bakterija, pod ga vprašamo, zakaj s seboj nosi dežnik, vodstvom magneta, giblje navzdol proti odvrne: »ker bo deževalo.« globlji vodi in sedimentu, stran od kisika, ki Fenomenološki je zanjo škodljiv. opis: Fenomenološki Propozicionalni Filozofski zombi je prepričan, »da bo opis: opis: deževalo.« Propozicionalni Bakterija je prepričana, »da je v smeri, v opis: katero jo vodi magnet, manj kisika.« Tabela 7. Primer za vse tri: PRIMER »Deževalo bo 2« Vedenjski in Janez se od doma odpravlja z dežnikom. Ko kontekstualni ga vprašamo, zakaj ga nosi s seboj, odvrne: opis: »ker bo deževalo.« Fenomenološki Janez se ob vprašanju spomni na občutek, opis: ki ga je čutil ob pogledu na temne oblake – na védenje, da bo deževalo. 3 Zavedamo se, da je strogo gledano artikulacija tudi le oblika vedênja, a akt izrekanja ocenjujemo za pomembno drugačnega Propozicionalni Janez je prepričan, »da bo deževalo.« od drugih načinov vedênja. opis: 77 4. ZAKLJUČEK: V KOLIKŠNI MERI spremljata manifestacijo odgovora »tekočina brez vonja in okusa.« Recimo, da Janez doživlja predstavo kozarca vode in PROPOZICIJE RES ODRAŽAJO pričakovanje, da ob njenem zaužitju ne bo ne vonja ne okusa; in PREPRIČANJA Jože doživlja spomin na učbenik kemije iz osnovne šole, v V zaključku navajamo nekaj spoznanj, ki nam jih je prinesel katerem piše »voda je tekočina brez vonja in okusa.« razmislek o možnostih empiričnega raziskovanja prepričanj. Lista Pripisovanje enake propozicionalne vrednosti obema primeroma je razdrobljena in ni popolna – gre bolj za nastavke oziroma smeri (»voda je tekočina brez vonja in okusa«) bi bilo najverjetneje za nadaljnjo razpravo. napačno. Če bi že morali pripisati propozicionalno vrednost Prvo presenečenje, ki smo ga opazili po razmejitvi prostora (zavedajmo se, kako arbitrarno je to dejanje), bi bili dejanskemu situacij, povezanih s prepričanji je, da so primeri, ki vključujejo stanju še najbližje naslednji propoziciji: propozicionalno komponento skoraj izključno tisti, ki prihajajo iz 1) Janez je prepričan, da je voda tekočina brez vonja in okusa. teoretskih logov analitične filozofije. Izjemno malo ekološko veljavnih primerov (torej tistih, nabranih iz dnevniških zapiskov 2) Jože je prepričan, da je ustrezen odgovor na vprašanje »kaj je soraziskovalcev) ima jasno definirano propozicionalno vsebino. voda?« zapisan v učbeniku kemije iz osnovne šole in se glasi Fenomenalna komponenta tovrstnih primerov največkrat ne »voda je tekočina brez vonja in okusa.« vključuje artikuliranih propozicij (e.g. PRIMER »Bambus«). V obeh primerih je možno govoriti o propozicionalni Propozicionalni opis prepričanja bi lahko bil venomer podan šele naravnanosti. Razlika je, da je prva naravnana na stališče do post hoc in arbitrarno – v skladu s pričakovanji in razumevanjem narave elementa sveta. Druga pa na stališče o izjavi avtoritete (v interpreta. takšni ali drugačni obliki). Zanimivo vprašanje povezano z ugotovitvijo, da ne iz vedênja, ne Takšna analiza odpre nova vprašanja, nekatera zelo praktična in iz doživljanja, ne moremo enoznačno sklepati na propozicionalno povezana z vsakodnevnim življenjem. Na primer vprašanje o vrednost prepričanja je: kakšno vrednost ima razprava o naravi in možnostih preverjanja znanja (imajo res vsi, ki opravijo propozicijah za empirična razmišljanja o duševnosti? Sestavljanje zemljevida prepričanj je pokazalo na test z enakim rezultatom, enako znanje – oziroma bolje: enako izziv fenomenološkega vrsto znanja?). aspekta tovrstnih fenomenov (in morda s tem pojasnilo izogibanje tej temi v analitični filozofiji) – fenomenologija drže (angl. attitude), še bolj pa fenomenologija tistega, na kar se drža nanaša 5. VIRI (torej propozicije), odpira zelo zapletena vprašanja. Kako se lotiti [1] Kordeš, U., in Klauser, F. 2016. Second-person in-depth raziskovanja doživljanja fenomena, ki ga bistveno (izključno?) phenomenological inquiry as an approach for studying določa vsebina (oz. propozicionalna vrednost) ni jasno. Kljub enaction of beliefs. Interdisciplinary Description of Complex temu ocenjujemo, da se odgovor skriva v natančni empirični Systems: INDECS, 14(4), 369-377. preiskavi. [2] Kordeš, U., in Demšar, E. 2018. Excavating belief about past Kako nam lahko pomaga dobljeni zemljevid pri nadaljnjem experience: experiential dynamics of the reflective act. raziskovanju doživljajskih procesov, povezanih z manifestacijo Constructivist Foundations, 13(2): 219-229. prepričanj? Vsekakor smo jasno razmejili področja, ki niso [3] Kordeš, U., in Lipič, V. 2018. Zmota luči v hladilniku in dosegljiva našim raziskavam (npr. celotno področje z vedênjem značilnosti opazovanja fenomenov z obrobja zavesti. Zbornik določenih situacij). Ostajata še področji artikuliranih prepričanj in 21. mednarodne multikonference Informacijska družba – IS tistih situacij, ki jih opredeljuje doživljajski občutek, »da tako je« 2018. (oz. – z besedami analitične filozofije – propozicionalna [4] Schwitzgebel, E. 2015. Belief. The Stanford Encyclopedia of naravnanost). Philosophy (Summer 2015 Edition). Edward N. Zalta (ur.), Pomembno je opaziti, da med tema področjema ni popolnega URL=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2015/entries/bel prekrivanja. Ne le, da mnogokrat propozicionalna naravnanost ni ief/. artikulirana (ampak je prisoten le občutek takšnosti); še bolj [5] Fodor, J. A. 1990. A theory of content and other essays. The zanimivo je neujemanje v nasprotno smer: velikokrat je enaka MIT press. artikulacija pospremljena z različnimi doživljajskimi vsebinami. Vrnimo na primer odgovarjanja na vprašanje »kaj je voda?«, kjer smo predstavili dva možna doživljajska procesa, ki lahko 78 Indeks avtorjev / Author index Banda Marko ................................................................................................................................................................................ 12 Bresjanac Mara ............................................................................................................................................................................. 64 Cigale Matej ................................................................................................................................................................................. 37 Elersič Kristian ............................................................................................................................................................................. 49 Engelhardt Meike ......................................................................................................................................................................... 37 Fatur Katarina ............................................................................................................................................................................... 52 Gabrić Petar .................................................................................................................................................................................. 12 Gams Matjaž .......................................................................................................................................................................... 33, 37 Gostečnik Christian ...................................................................................................................................................................... 46 Jerebic Sara .................................................................................................................................................................................... 5 Karavanić Ivor .............................................................................................................................................................................. 12 Klauser Florian ............................................................................................................................................................................. 75 Kolenik Tine ................................................................................................................................................................................. 60 Kordeš Urban ......................................................................................................................................................................... 71, 75 Krämer Torsten ............................................................................................................................................................................ 37 Lipič Viktorija .............................................................................................................................................................................. 71 Luštrek Mitja ................................................................................................................................................................................ 37 Moharić Metka ............................................................................................................................................................................. 64 Nadásdy Zoltán ............................................................................................................................................................................ 21 Novaković Dušanka ..................................................................................................................................................................... 64 Puh Urška ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 64 Repič Slavič Tanja ....................................................................................................................................................................... 41 Simonič Barbara ........................................................................................................................................................................... 17 Siserman-Gray Cristina ................................................................................................................................................................ 29 Slana Ozimič Anka....................................................................................................................................................................... 67 Urbančič Maša ............................................................................................................................................................................. 56 Vidmar Gaj ................................................................................................................................................................................... 64 Vukčević Marković Maša .............................................................................................................................................................. 9 Y. Fakhreddine Rawan ................................................................................................................................................................. 21 Zapušek Tjaša ............................................................................................................................................................................... 23 Zentel Peter .................................................................................................................................................................................. 37 Zupanič Katja ............................................................................................................................................................................... 21 79 80 Konferenca / Conference Uredila / Edited by Kognitivna znanost / Cognitive Science Toma Strle, Olga Markič Document Outline 01 - Naslovnica-sprednja-B 02 - Naslovnica - notranja - B 03 - Kolofon - B 04 - 05 - IS2018 - Skupni del 07 - Kazalo - B 08 - Naslovnica podkonference - B 09 - Predgovor podkonference - B 10 - Programski odbor podkonference - B 11 - Clanki - B 01 - Jerebic-Razumevanje odraslih partnerskih odnosov v luči spolne zlorabe v otroštvu 02 - Vukčević Marković-Do healthy participants make advantageous decisions Evidence from the Iowa Gambling Task_final 03 - Gabrić, Banda & Karavanić- Palaeolithic toolmaking and the evolution of cognition and language 04 - Simonič-Psihonevrobiološka razvojna perspektiva razumevanja nasilja 05 - Zupanič et al-Emergence of Visual Consciousness in ADHD Children 06 - Zapušek-European Legal Regulation of Self-learning Systems 07 - Siserman Gray-Legal Practitioners’ Views on Neuroscientific Evidence in Court Proceedings 08 - Gams-From AI to our future I 09 - Cigale et al_The Quest for understanding-Helping people with PMLD to communicate with their caregivers 10 - Repič Slavič-IJS Kognitivna raven kot del rdt pri predelovanju spolnega nasilja 11 - Gostečnik-Medgeneracijski prenos nasilja 12 - Elersič-The other side of neurotechnology 13 - Fatur-Braincrafting 14 - Urbancic-In search of the authentic self 15 - Kolenik-Exploring Features of Cognitive Science as Natural Epistemology 16 - Novakovič et al.-Učinki telesne poze na prag termične bolečine za vroče 17 - Slana-The effect of distractors in lateralized change detection working memory task 18 - Kordeš, Lipič-Zmota luči v hladilniku in značilnosti opazovanja fenomenov z obrobja zavesti 19 - Klauser Kordeš zemljevid prepričanj 12 - Index - B 13 - Naslovnica-zadnja-B Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page 04 - 05 - IS2018 - Predgovor in odbori.pdf 04 - IS2018 - Predgovor 05 - IS2018 - Konferencni odbori