183
Documenta Praehistorica XLIII (2016)
Neolithisation of Sava-Drava-Danube interfluve at the end
of the 6600–6000 BC period of Rapid Climate Change>
a new solution to an old problem
Katarina Botić
Institute of Archaeology, Zagreb, CR
kbotic@iarh.hr
Introduction
The Early Neolithic of Sava-Drava-Danube interfluve,
situated on the southern edge of the Carpathian
basin, was marked by Star≠evo culture. It first ap-
peared in western Syrmia and eastern Slavonia,
spreading through Baranja and western Slavonia
and further west along the Drava River sometime
around or slightly after 6000 BC. Over 100 Star≠e-
vo culture sites are known today, but only a hand-
ful have been excavated, and even fewer properly
published. Data from four sites are used in this pa-
per: Sopot, Zadubravlje – Du∫ine, Slavonski Brod –
Galovo and Virovitica – Brekinja (Fig. 1). The earli-
est radiocarbon dates can be attributed to features
exhibiting the full so-called Neolithic package. The
south-east to north-west direction of spread of Neoli-
thisation can be observed through the available ra-
diocarbon dates.
The first relative chronology of Star≠evo culture for
the region in question was determined by Stojan Di-
mitrijevi≤ (1969.40; 1979.237–238). This chronology
is still in use, and no attempts have been made to
challenge it or to attribute absolute dating to its phas-
es1.
ABSTRACT – The idea of the Neolithisation of the Sava-Drava-Danube interfluve has undergone very
little change since S. Dimitrijevi≤'s time. Despite their many shortcomings, new archaeological exca-
vations and radiocarbon dates of Early Neolithic sites have provided us with new insight into the
process of Neolihisation of this region. Using the recently published work by B. Weninger and L. Clare
(Clare, Weninger 2010; Weninger et al. 2009; Weninger et al. 2014) as a starting point, the available
radiocarbon and archaeological data are used to build up a time frame comparable to the wider
region of Southeast Europe and climate conditions for specific period. The results fit the model of
Neolithisation well (Weninger et al. 2014.9, Fig. 4), filling in the geographical gaps.
IZVLE∞EK – Premise o neolitizaciji v medre≠ju Save, Drave in Donave se od ≠asa S. Dimitrijevi≤a niso
veliko spremenile. Nova arheolo∏ka izkopavanja in radiokarbonski datumi zgodnjega neolitika so,
kljub mnogim pomanjkljivostim, prinesli nove vpoglede v proces neolitizacije na tem obmo≠ju. Za os-
novo pri interpretaciji smo uporabili nedavno objavljena dela B. Weningerja in L. Clarea (Clare, We-
ninger 2010; Weninger et al. 2009; Weninger et al. 2014), dosegljive radiokarbonske datume in arheo-
lo∏ke podatke pa smo uporabili za izdelavo ≠asovnega okvirja, ki je primerljiv s ∏ir∏im obmo≠jem ju-
govzhodne Evrope in s klimatskimi pogoji za posamezna obdobja. Rezultati dobro ustrezajo uveljav-
ljenemu modelu neolitizacije (Weninger et al. 2014.9, Fig. 4) ter zapolnjujejo geografske vrzeli v mo-
delu.
KEY WORDS – Neolithisation; Star≠evo culture; northern Croatia; flooding episodes; Rapid Climate
Change (RCC)
1 Kornelija Minichreiter added to it Linear C phase for the western Drava region (1992.54–55), but she concentrated more on inter-
nal chronologies of specific sites than on the absolute dating of Star≠evo culture phases in general. The only exception is the attempt
to date the white painted Linear A phase at Galovo site (Minichreiter 2007b) but without reference to the full problem of Neoli-
thisation.
DOI> 10.4312\dp.43.9 
Katarina Botić
184
In recent years, new interdisci-
plinary studies appeared that en-
abled more complex analysis
and offered different solutions
to the problem of Neolithisation
in the wider region from the
Middle East, through south-east
Europe and beyond. Whether
they deal with possible climatic
impact on Neolithisation from
the climatological point of view
(Perry, Hsu 2000; Migowski et
al. 2006; Weninger et al. 2006;
2009; 2014; Kuper, Kröpelin
2006; Budja 2007; Clare et al.
2008; Gronenborn 2009; Ber-
ger, Guilaine 2009; Clare, We-
ninger 2010; Weninger, Clare
2011; Zielhofer et al. 2012; Rei-
mer et al. 2013, etc.) or predo-
minantly from the archaeologi-
cal point of view (Juri≤ et al. 2001; Bonsall et al.
2002; Bonsall 2007; Bánffy et al. 2007; Bori≤, Di-
mitrijevi≤ 2007a; Bánffy, Sümegy 2012; Bánffy
2013a; Salisbury et al. 2013; Lespez et al. 2013; Gu-
rova, Bonsall 2014; Krauß et al. 2014; Boti≤ 2016,
etc.), they offer answers to some very old questions
on this subject.
Relative chronology of Star≠evo culture in north-
ern Croatia
The basic typological periodisation and relative chro-
nology of Star≠evo culture in northern Croatia was
determined by Dimitrijevi≤ (1969.40; 1979.237–238)
with very few later additions (Minichreiter 1992.
54–55; Markovi≤ 1994.62–63). Dimitrijevi≤ separat-
ed Star≠evo culture into seven phases: Monochrome,
Linear A, Linear B, Girlandoid, Spiraloid A, Spiraloid
B and the Final Ωdralovi phase (1969.40; 1979.237–
238). Kornelija Minichreiter later added Linear C
phase (Minichreiter 1992.54–55), which she con-
siders parallel to Spiraloid A phase in eastern Slavo-
nia and Baranja. Zorko Markovi≤’s proposed chrono-
logical system was never accepted (Markovi≤ 1994.
62–63)2. No recent attempts have been made to fur-
ther study the problem of the relative chronology of
Star≠evo culture, except Minichreiter’s internal chro-
nologies of the Zadubravlje – Du∫ine, Slavonski Brod
– Galovo, and Pepelana sites (Minichrieter 1992;
2007a; 2007b; 2007c), although the problem of
chronological sequences of these phases and their
apparent parallel appearance in different regions still
waits to be addressed.
An old problem
The process of Neolithisation of the Sava-Drava-Da-
nube interfluve has not been properly addressed
since Dimitrijevi≤’s time. The development of early
Neolithic Star≠evo culture was observed by Minich-
reiter mostly in the light of new excavations car-
ried out at the Pepelana, Zadubravlje and Galovo
sites in terms of internal chronology (Krajcar Bro-
ni≤, Minichreiter 2007; 2011; Minichreiter 2001;
2007a; 2007b; 2007c; 2010; Minichreiter, Boti≤
2010; Minichreiter, Krajcar Broni≤ 2006) but the
process itself was not the focus of Minichreiter’s re-
search.
Dimitrijevi≤ presumed the existence of an initial Mo-
nochrome phase (Dimitrijevi≤ 1969) even describ-
ing pottery finds (Dimitrijevi≤ 1969.40; Minichrei-
ter 1992.7–8), but sites containing finds from this
presumed phase were never documented in north-
ern Croatia (Minichreiter 1992.41, 54; 2007b.23),
not even after the large-scale rescue excavations on
highways, bypasses etc. carried out in the last 15
years. Dimitrijevi≤’s second presumed Linear phase
(Dimitrijevi≤ 1969), more specifically Linear A (Di-
mitrijevi≤ 1979.237; Minichreiter 2007b.22–23),
Fig. 1. Star≠evo culture sites mentioned in the text: 1 Sopot; 2 Zadubrav-
lje – Du∫ine; 3 Slavonski Brod – Galovo; 4 Virovitica – Brekinja. Sites
of sub-fossil wood extraction mentioned in the text (from east to west):
O∏tra luka; Sava River near Rugvica; mouth of the Krapina River.
2 Phases are: Star≠evo 1, Star≠evo 2-A, Star≠evo 2-B, Star≠evo 3, Star≠evo 4-A and Star≠evo 4-B. His phases are parallel to Dimitri-
jevi≤’s.
Neolithisation of Sava-Drava-Danube interfluve at the end of the 6600–6000 BC period of Rapid Climate Change> a new solution ...
185
was confirmed at the Slavonski Brod – Galovo site
(Minichreter 2007a.16; 2007b) where white paint-
ed pottery was found, and at the Zadubravlje site,
which had no white painted pottery, although the
coarse pottery shows characteristics of this phase
(Minichreiter 1992.35; 2007c.173): the lack of chan-
nelled barbotine decoration and lack of biconical
vessel forms. Dark painted Linear B phase (Dimitri-
jevi≤ 1979.237) was attested at both the Zadubrav-
lje and Galovo sites, the latter exhibiting white and
dark painted linear pottery in all three features
mentioned by Minichreiter (Minichreiter 2007b) 3.
However, according to Dimitrijevi≤ (1979.242–246),
barbotine and channelled barbotine decoration was
introduced in the Linear B phase, which is absent
from both of these sites, although some fragments
with amorphous relief appliqués appear (Minichrei-
ter 1992.35, 69, 101, Tab. 19.1; 2007a.93).
The last campaign at the Sopot site also provided
some fragments of white painted pottery, although
some fragments were found earlier scattered over
the site out of context4. How and where the so-called
Neolithic package reached northern Croatia and how
that affected the Mesolithic way of life remain un-
answered question.
There is another problem concerning most of the
new and some of the old archaeological excavations:
most of the finds were never published. The same
holds for the radiocarbon dates obtained from these
excavations. They have not been published or are
published without any actual context, or perhaps
with just a short description of the feature they were
collected from. Thus, the view of how and where the
neolithisation started in this region is limited. Never-
theless, data available, although limited, can provide
a basis for a new interpretation of the beginning of
Neolithic in northern Croatia.
14C sequences of four sites
From over hundred Star≠evo culture sites only six
have been radiocarbon dated5 and only four of
these sites have usable data6. From Sopot near Vin-
kovci (Fig. 1.1), Zadubravlje – Du∫ine (Fig. 1.2), Sla-
vonski Brod – Galovo (Fig. 1.3). and Virovitica – Bre-
kinja sites (Fig. 14) 37 radiocarbon dates are avail-
able, most of them from Galovo (Tab. 1)7. Recon-
structing a time frame from a limited number of ra-
diocarbon dates per site, the obvious difference in
quantity from site to site, the limited information
about the context from which the samples were
taken, etc., is methodologically questionable, but it
is the only information available at the moment.
Sopot near Vinkovci (Fig. 1.1)
The Sopot site was systematically excavated from
1996 until 2008 in 13 campaigns (Krznari≤ πkri-
vanko 2015.372) although there were several pre-
vious excavations during the 20th century (Krzna-
ri≤ πkrivanko 2015.371–372). The excavations fo-
cused on a late Neolithic Sopot culture tell settle-
ment, but during the last campaign in 2008: “Dug
into the pre-sterile layer (prehistoric humus), for
the first time at Sopot, a structure was excavated
which can be attributed to the Star≠evo culture.
Pit dwelling SU 519 was dated to the period be-
tween 6060 and 5890 BC.” (Krznari≤ πkrivanko
2015.378) (Fig. 2)8. The pit was found on the east-
ernmost side of the excavated area, very close to
the summit of the settlement plateau (Krznari≤
πkrivanko 2009.90). The pottery from this pit was
coarse, but according to the excavator, fragments of
white painted pottery were discovered before, scat-
tered over the site out of context9. These finds have
not been published yet. The area excavated was
375m2, several metres in depth (Krznari≤ πkrivan-
ko 2011.212; 2015.375).
Three dates are available, from pit SU 519 (Beta
251910) and two pre-virgin soil layers SU 80 (Beta
251909) and 143 (Beta 251911) (Fig. 3; Tab. 1). All
three dates group around 6000 BC or just slightly
earlier. These are the oldest dates for Star≠evo cul-
ture in northern Croatia so far. The existence of two
layers into which the Star≠evo feature was dug in
may suggest one or more episodes of flooding seal-
ing off the Star≠evo layer, rather than being layers
3 Pits 9, 205, and 207.
4 See note 9.
5 Only the published data were taken into consideration, with the exception of one unpublished date from Galovo provided by Dr
Kornelija Minichreiter, for which we are grateful.
6 Dates from Toma∏anci – Pala≠a site were published as a 5660–5300 BC range without details (Balen, Gerometta 2011.84, note
2) and for Beli∏≤e – Staro Valpovo site the date was published as 6400–5450 BC, a sample being taken from a male skeleton, but
with no other information (πimi≤ 2007a.34, note 4; 2007b.10; 2012.27). Both sites were excluded from this paper.
7 Sopot 3 dates; Zadubravlje 8 dates; Brekinja 2 dates; Galovo 24 dates.
8 Krznari≤ πkrivanko (2011.219) mentions two layers (80 and 143) through which this structure was dug in. These two layers were
detected over other areas at the site and contained sporadic Star≠evo finds (Krznari≤ πkrivanko 2009.90).
9 M. Krznari≤ πkrivanko, personal communication.
Katarina Botić
186
of prehistoric humus. The next occupa-
tion level at this site appears almost
1000 years later during the late Neoli-
thic Sopot culture10.
Zadubravlje – Du∫ine site (Fig. 1.2)
Rescue excavations on the site were car-
ried out in 1989 and 1990. An area of
6200m2 was excavated (Minichreiter
1992.31; 1993.93; 2001.203, Fig. 4).
Several large and small pits were ex-
plored, comprising working and living
areas, many post holes, several kilns
and a well (Minichreiter 1992; 1993a;
2001). No white painted pottery was re-
ported from this excavation, but dark
painted linear motifs were found together with
coarse pottery characteristic of Linear A phase (Mi-
nichreiter 1992.35, 103, Tab. 21; 2007c.173).
Eight radiocarbon dates are available from this site
(Fig. 4; Tab. 1). The oldest date (Z-2924) comes from
a sample taken from the well. It was probably taken
from a larger beam or a trunk and may be consid-
ered old wood; it was not taken into further consi-
deration in this paper. Most of the dates group be-
tween 5900 and 5600 BC (Fig. 4; Tab. 1) with one
exception (Z-2925).
Slavonski Brod – Galovo site (Fig. 1.3)
The site is situated about 9 km west of the Zadub-
ravlje – Du∫ine site. The excavations started in 1997
and are continuing. An area of around 3000m2 yield-
ed 11 large pits which are considered burial pits, pit-
dwellings and working pits, one above ground struc-
ture (Minichreiter 2010; Minichreiter, Boti≤ 2010.
107), several large fences, a large number of post
holes and smaller pits11. White painted pottery was
found in pits 9, 205, and 207 (Fig. 5) although most
of the painted pottery in all three pits exhibit dark
motifs (Minichreiter 2007b). Here, as at Zadubrav-
lje site, the coarse pottery corresponds to Dimitrije-
vi≤’s definition of Linear A phase (Dimitrijevi≤ 1979.
243).
At the end of its life, the site was covered with an
80cm layer of sediment indicating no later occupa-
tion except a late Bronze Age necropolis (Minichrei-
ter 2007a.33–34).
Twenty-four dates are available from this site, but
some should be excluded. Some samples may have
been contaminated by water from flooding episo-
des12, while others (Z-3586, Z-3584) may be consi-
Fig. 2. Pit-dwelling 519 during and after the excavation (after
Krznari≤ πkrivanko 2009.91; 2015.378, Fig. 11).
Fig. 3. Sopot 14C dates.
10 The oldest house SU 23 is dated to 6020±100 BP/5050–4780 BC (68.2%) (Z-3139) and 6010±100 BP/5040–4770 BC (66.35%)
(Z-3140) (Krznari≤ πkrivanko 2011.211, Tab. 1).
11 The last section excavated since 2010 was only published in short reports (Minichreiter 2011; 2012; 2013; 2014; 2015).
12 Most probably samples Z-5043, Z-5044, Z-4879 and Z-4880. The site was damaged by clay exctraction for a brick factory now
closed, and there is a large hole to its north-east side. After heavy rains, water sometimes reaches the level of the site. Damage
could have been done to unexcavated features with 80 cm of sediment already removed from their top. However, the oldest
date from pit 323 (Z-4357) comes from the nearby southern area of the site, which could not have been affected by flood
episodes. Further detailed analysis of the material from the southern pits is required.
Neolithisation of Sava-Drava-Danube interfluve at the end of the 6600–6000 BC period of Rapid Climate Change> a new solution ...
187
dered old wood. Most of the dates group between
5800 and 5550 BC although a younger group of
dates can be observed between 5500 and probably
5150 BC (Fig. 6). This group of dates belongs to the
part of the feature (Z-3925, the youngest hearth
from a pit 9 containing burials) or features (Z-3583,
pit-dwelling 37; Z-2935 pit 15 containing male bur-
ial) situated on the north side of the site. However,
if we consider the possible validity of the three old-
est dates (Z-4357, Z-3586, Z-3584), then a third
phase of the settlement can be added which would
represent slightly younger phase than at the Sopot
site and an almost parallel phase at Zadubravlje site.
Virovitica – Brekinja site (Fig. 1.4)
The site was excavated in 2005 on the future west-
ern Virovitica by-pass road. An area of 9000m2 was
explored, but Star≠evo culture features were found
only on 5400m2. Merely the border area of the set-
tlement was excavated, yielding a few partially ex-
plored features interpreted as working and residen-
tial areas. Most of the finds were fragments of coarse
pottery with a barbotine surface. No painted pottery
was found. The excavators date this site to the Spira-
loid B phase (Sekelj-Ivan≠an, Balen 2007).
Only two dates are available from this site (Fig. 7),
but unfortunately no description of the context from
which the samples were taken has been published.
The dates confirm the late existence of this site, pro-
bably between 5500 and 5300 BC.
Time span of Star≠evo culture in northern Croatia
(Fig. 8)
Although scarce information about Star≠evo culture
sites is available, it is nevertheless possible to reach
some preliminary conclusions about its time span:
❶ Sopot: So far, there are no traces of settlement
at this site before 6060 BC (Beta 251909, Beta
251911, Beta 251910). After 5880 BC, early Neo-
lithic life ends and life is renewed only a thousand
years later.
❷ Zadubravlje – Du∫ine: The oldest date 6850–6100
BC from a wooden beam in the well (Z-2924)
should not be taken into consideration as the
oldest date for this settlement, but the date 6067–
5666 BC (Z-2923) could indicate this first phase.
The youngest date (Z-2925) corresponds to dates
from the Virovitica – Brekinja site.
❸ Slavonski Brod – Galovo: The oldest date is from
a small pit 323 from the south side of the exca-
vated area (Z-4357) while the next two dates (Z-
3586, Z-3584) are from the two wooden fences.
These three samples group just after 6000 BC.
The next group of dates is the largest, and groups
between 5800 and 5550 BC. The three youngest
dates (Z-3925, Z-3583, Z-2935) range from about
5500 to 5100 BC; these samples were taken from
pits 9, 15 and 37 situated on the northern side of
the site.
Fig. 4. Zadubravlje – Du∫ine 14C dates.
Katarina Botić
188
❹ Virovitica – Brekinja: Two dates from this site be-
long to the period between 5500 and 5300 BC13.
It is worth noting that three of the sites, Sopot, Ga-
lovo, and Zadubravlje14, were at some point covered
by one or several layers of sediment. These layers
sealed off the sites for a considerable time: at Sopot,
for about a thousand years, and at Galovo until the
end of the Bronze Age. Life at Zadubravlje site was
never renewed.
The sum of all the usable dates from all four sites
(Fig. 8) shows the existence of Star≠evo culture in
this area roughly between 6000 BC (or slightly ear-
lier) and 5300 BC. Obvious problems with some
dates make it impossible to firmly establish the boun-
daries of phases, but it is possible to establish a time
frame for further discussion in this paper.
The overview of 14C dates provided by Bernhard
Weninger et alii (2014) from central Anatolia to
north-east Hungary (Fig. 9) can be complemented
with the dates available for north Croatia, filling in
the geographical gap. It is also clear that Neolithisa-
tion reached northern Croatia just after 6600–6000
BC, following after the Bulgarian and Romanian
dates15, but before the Hungarian dates (Hertelen-
di et al. 1995.242, Tab. 1). On the territory of Serbia
the oldest dates come from southern Serbia16, while
the Iron Gates17 and Donja Branjevina site (Budja
2009.127, Tab. 1, 129, Tab. 2; 2013.42. Fig. 1)18
show very similar dates to those from northern Cro-
atia.
New solution – RCC 6600–6000 as terminus
post quem
For a new interpretation of the beginning of the
Neolithic in northern Croatia, it is necessary to have
a closer look at investigations of the Holocene cli-
mate fluctuations of the northern hemisphere. Re-
cent palaeoclimate research has discovered the exi-
stence of a distinctly repetitive series of cooling ano-
Fig. 5. Slavonski Brod – Galovo, white painted pot-
tery. 1–2 working pit 205; 3–5 working pit 207;
6–7 pit 9 with 3 burials (modified after Minichrei-
ter 2007b.31, Fig. 4).
13 During the preparation of this paper, new 14C dates were obtained for the Na∏ice – Velimirovac, Arenda 1 site (situated north-
west of Na∏ice, near Velimirovac). A rescue excavation was carried out in 2011 on the Na∏ice by-pass road. The dates obtained
from charcoal samples from a single pit are: 6855±32 BP (DeA-8335) and 6704±39 BP (DeA-8336). However, low temperature
combustion yielded 6822±23 BP and 6804±25 BP, showing better results. These are the oldest dates for the Drava region, pre-
dating most of the dates at Zadubravlje, half of the dates from Galovo (both in Sava region) and dates from Virovitica – Breki-
nja site situated further west. The pottery shows traces of black painted motifs on a red surface, the most similar to the Girlan-
doid phase according to Dimitrijevi≤ (1969.36–37). Similar finds were collected at the Na∏ice – Brick factory site (Minichreiter
1992.16; 86, T. 4) about 4km to the southeast. This is further confirmation of the somewhat later spread of Star≠evo culture to
the Dravina region. It is still an open question if flooding prevented the advance of the Neolithic to the west along Drava River.
14 K. Minichreiter, personal communication.
15 Similarity of the earliest radiocarbon dates across the Balkans from southern Bulgaria (Dzhuljanitsa, Kova≠evo) to Transilvania
(Gurova, Bonsall 2014.100; Krauß et al. 2014). See also absolute chronology data for the Star≠evo-Cris cultural complex (Luca
et al. 2011; Biagi et al. 2005.44.Fig. 4; Biagi, Spataro 2005.38.Fig. 8a–b; 2008.342–343. Tab. 2).
16 Blagotin by 6200 BC (Whittle et al. 2002.107, 113; Bonsall 2007.55).
17 Vlasac was occupied before and after the 8.2 ka event (Bori≤ et al. 2008.279.Fig. 22), but at Lepenski Vir there is a gap between
7200 and 6300 BC; the range of dates for the phase with trapezoidal buildings is 6240–5845 BC, while the early Neolithic con-
text has range of dates 6005–5798 BC (Bori≤, Dimitrijevi≤ 2007a.67, 69).
18 Dates clearly group before and after 6000 BC, forming a boundary connecting Grivac, Lepenski Vir, Padina before 6000 BC and
the disappearance of this boundary after the 6000 BC, indicating two directions of spread of the Neolithic along important rivers:
one through Divostin and along the Danube, north-west to Donja Branjevina, and the other to the north-east, along the Tisza and
its tributaries to Pannonian Plain and Gura Baciului (Drasovean 2007.69).
Neolithisation of Sava-Drava-Danube interfluve at the end of the 6600–6000 BC period of Rapid Climate Change> a new solution ...
189
malies during the Holocene (Weninger et al. 2009;
Weninger, Clare 2011.11) termed ‘Rapid Climate
Change’ (RCC) events (Rohling et al. 2002; Mayew-
ski et al. 1997; 2004; Clare et al. 2008; Weninger,
Clare 2011.11; Budja 2015). The RCC intervals are:
9000–8000, 6000–5000, 4200–3800, 3500–2500,
1200–1000 and 600–150 BP, the most recent corre-
sponding to the LIA (Mayewski et al. 2004; Budja
2007; Weninger et al. 2009; 2011; Clare, Weninger
2010). The main cause of these events, in addition
to solar intensity weakening (Perry, Hsu 2000; Bond
et al. 2001; Mayewski et al. 2004.244; Marino et al.
2009.3246), appears to have been a strengthening
of atmospheric pressure gradients between Siberian
(High), Iceland (Low) and the Azores (High), condi-
tions supporting an influx of extremely cold air from
the polar regions into Europe (Clare et al. 2008; We-
ninger et al. 2009; Clare, Weninger 2010; Wenin-
ger, Clare 2011; Weninger et al. 2014; Weninger,
Harper 2015.478, Fig. 2; Benito et al. 2015.5). RCC
events correlate with ice-rafted debris (IRD) events
(Bond et al. 1997) although not entirely. Further-
more, the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) positive
phases may have been connected to these cold
events (Bout-Roumazeilles et al. 2007.3212).
The most severe of these events was the 8.2 ka event
(6600–6000 BC) (Alley et al. 1997; Magny et al.
2003; Alley, Ágústsdóttir 2005; Thomas et al. 2007;
Clare et al. 2008; Gronenborn 2009; Marino et al.
2009; Weninger et al. 2009; Weninger et al. 2014)
during which temperatures in the North Atlantic re-
gion dropped over the course of the subsequent 160
years (Thomas et al. 2007.75; Weninger et al. 2009.
11). This cooling event was amplified between 8.2
and 8.0 ka calBP by the collapse of a remnant Lau-
rentide ice-dome and subsequent drainage of large
amounts of melt-water from the Hudson Bay into
the North Atlantic (Bauer et al. 2004; Budja 2007.
191; Marino et al. 2009.3246; Weninger et al. 2009.
11–12; 2014.8; Weninger, Clare 2011.17) resulting
in one of the most extreme climate anomalies of the
entire Holocene (Weninger et al. 2014.10). Marine
Core LC21 from the southeast Aegean to the east
Fig. 6. Slavonski Brod – Galovo 14C dates.
Katarina Botić
190
of Crete showed rapid sea-surface temperature varia-
tions resulting from the rapid movement of extre-
mely cold air masses over the surface of the Aegean
Sea over a distance of some 700km over short peri-
ods of time during winter and early spring (Wenin-
ger et al. 2009.10; 2014.10; Weninger, Harper
2015). Cold and dry air flowing rapidly over a warm
ocean surface caused evaporation (Weninger et al.
2009.11), which in turn could have provoked inten-
sive precipitation (Weninger et al. 2009.33). Similar
cooling events were documented for the Adriatic
Sea (Siani et al. 2013; Budja 2015.172). However,
in Eastern Mediterranean periods of extreme drought
were documented, such as the low levels of Dead
Sea (Migowski et al. 2006; Budja 2007.194; Wenin-
ger et al. 2009.15–16) (Fig. 10.H), during which
‘flash-flood’ events would have had devastating re-
sults on the environment and human occupation
(Weninger et al. 2009.33). Weninger et alii (2014.
14) distinguish two phases: an earlier phase at 6600–
6200 cal BC (RCC only) and a later phase at 6200–
6000 cal BC (RCC amplified by Hudson Bay impact).
Northern Africa was arid until 8500 BC, when an
abrupt arrival of monsoon rains created savannah-
like environmental conditions, which prompted the
swift population of the area by 7000 BC; conditions
changed back to arid after 5300 BC (Kuper, Kröpe-
lin 2006.806.Fig 3). Nile River sediments record an
enhanced riverine contribution between 8600 and
5500 calBP, indicating enhanced precipitation in
north-east Africa (Magny, Combourieu Nebout 2013.
1449). The aridity in North Africa, southern Near
East and Middle East is due to the reduced north-
ward migration of the Intertropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ) in summer (Berger, Guilaine 2009.41).
Southern Europe shows similar records, indicating
that it should be integrated into the same climatic
zone during the 8200 calBP event (Berger, Guilaine
2009.41).
In Europe during the 8.2 ka event, low latitudes
were affected by colder and more arid conditions,
especially in winter (Alley et al. 1997; Alley, Ágústs-
dóttir 2005; Berger, Guilaine 2009.35.Fig. 3). Ger-
man oak tree-ring records show a distinct low (Fig.
11) (Alley, Ágústsdóttir 2005.1127; Budja 2007.192;
Berger, Guilaine 2009.37; Weninger et al. 2014.15.
Fig. 9), implying poor growing spring and summer
conditions (Alley, Ágústsdóttir 2005.1127; Budja
2007.193; Berger, Guilaine 2009.37; ∞ufar et al.
2014.1275).
In southern-central Europe, pollen spectra show a
sudden disappearance of Corylus avellana (hazel)
and rapid expansion of Pinus (pine), Betula (birch)
and Tilia (lime) and an invasion of Fagus sylvatica
(beech) and Abies alba (fir). This change in vegeta-
tion is thought to relate to annual temperature de-
creasing by about 2–3°C and increased moisture
availability. The rapid retreat of drought-adapted
Corylus was probably caused by taller and longer-
lived trees (Pinus, Betula, Tilia, Quercus, Ulmus,
Frayinus excelsior, etc.) (Tinner, Lotter 2001; 2006;
Budja 2007.194; Nafradi et al. 2015. 14, Dörfler
2013.322). Research conducted at Proko∏ko jezero
in central Bosnia, the closest to our region of inter-
est, showed similar trends: from 7360 BC until 5500
BC a distinct change occurred, when Fagus increas-
ed rapidly and became the dominant species in sub-
alpine woodlands, closely followed by Abies, while
Corylus greatly decreased; Betula, Quercus and Ti-
lia values diminish, while Carpinus orientalis (ori-
ental hornbeam) and Picea slightly increase (Dörf-
ler 2013.325). The difference in vegetation is noted
for north-western Greece (Rezina marshes – Willis
1992, and Boras Mountains – Lawson et al. 2005):
the spread of thermofilic trees starts with Quercus,
Abies and Carpinus orientalis, followed after some
1000 years by Corylus and Ulmus, and after anoth-
er 1000 years by Tilia (Dörfler 2013.329). Fagus
and Abies values are very low in the Rezina marsh-
es (Dörfler 2013.329). In north-west Romania (Pre-
luca Tiganului and Steregoiu) pollen-based analysis
showed a drop of 1.5–2°C in mean annual tempera-
ture, 2–4°C in mean temperature of the coldest
month, and an increase in mean temperature of the
warmest month, while precipitation shows a de-
Fig. 7. Virovitica – Brekinja 14C dates.
Neolithisation of Sava-Drava-Danube interfluve at the end of the 6600–6000 BC period of Rapid Climate Change> a new solution ...
191
Fig. 8. Sum of 14C dates for Star≠evo culture in northern Croatia.
crease of about 200mm. This suggests an intensifi-
cation of seasonality and continentality (Feurdean
et al. 2008.500).
European mid-latitudes between 43° and 50°N un-
derwent wetter conditions in response to cooling,
while northern and southern latitudes were mark-
ed by drier climate (Magny et al. 2003.1593; Alley,
Ágústsdóttir 2005.1128; Budja 2007.194; Berger,
Guilaine 2009.37, 40.Fig. 6). Increasing cyclonic ac-
tivity over mid-latitudes consecutive to a southward
displacement of the Atlantic Westerly Jet and a
strong thermal gradient between high and low lati-
tudes could have been the cause of hydrological tri-
partition of Europe (Magny et al. 2003.1592.Fig. 2,
1593–1594.Fig. 3; Budja 2007.194–195.Fig. 3; Ber-
ger, Guilaine 2009.41). Lake sediment and palaeo-
botanical records from Alpine region indicate cooler
and wetter conditions between 8500 and 7800 cal
BP (Haas et al. 1998; Bonsall et al. 2002.2; Magny
et al. 2003.1592; Berger, Guilaine 2009. 37; Budja
2015.172) while wet winters and wet summers are
documented in southern regions below 40°N (Budja
205.172) marked by sea surface salinity lowering
and reduced deep-sea convection during the sapro-
pel S1 phase between 9.3 and 7.4 ka (Magny, Com-
Katarina Botić
192
Fig. 9. Overview of 14C-ages (modified after Weininger et al. 2014.9.Fig. 4).
Neolithisation of Sava-Drava-Danube interfluve at the end of the 6600–6000 BC period of Rapid Climate Change> a new solution ...
193
bourieu Nebout 2013.1449; Siani et al. 2013.510).
There is also evidence for a major period of flood-
ing in several parts of Europe, i.e. central Europe
(fluvial episode associated with a massive accumula-
tion of tree trunks in the Rhine Valley between 8500
and 8000 cal BP – Berger, Guilaine 2009.37–38),
Britain, the Danube delta and specifically the French
Alps between 8250 and 7950 BP (Bonsall et al.
2002.4). A recent study by Gerardo Benito et alii
(2015) combines more than 2000 14C and OSL dated
flood units from 12 regions in Europe and North Af-
rica (Benito et al. 2015.2, Fig. 1), but unfortunately
this study does not include data from regions be-
tween the Alps and the Black Sea including the en-
tire Carpathian basin19. Studies have shown that
intensive runoffs of the Po, coastal Italian, Apennine
and Albanian rivers may have had an impact on low-
ering salinity during the middle part of the Holocene
in the south Adriatic Sea (Magny, Combourieu Ne-
bout 2013.1449; Siani et al. 2013.505).
Fig. 10. Northern Hemisphere Palaeoclimate Records showing Holocene Rapid Climate Change (RCC). The
purple line marks the duration of the early Neolithic in northern Croatia (modified after Weininger et al.
2014.11.Fig. 5).
19 It is, however, interesting to note an increase in flooding after the 8.2 ka event, first in temperate European regions and slightly
after in Mediterranean regions (Benito et al. 2015.4, Fig. 3). These flood episodes in both regions correspond to IRD 5b, i.e. to
the period between 5700 and 5100 cal BC (Gronenborn 2009.100; Benito et al. 2015.4.Fig. 3), adding to our understanding of
climatological conditions during the early Neolithic in northern Croatia and especially during its end.
Katarina Botić
194
The end date for the 8.2 ka event (Weninger et al.
2014) falls at 6000 BC, or slightly before. The avail-
able radiocarbon dates from the early Neolithic pe-
riod from the Sava-Drava-Danube interfluves fall
within the same time range. Thus, the end of the
RCC 6600–6000 BC can be taken as a terminus post
quem for the appearance of the early Neolithic in
this region. It is important to stress that the full
‘Neolithic package’ is present at all the above-men-
tioned sites20.
Discussion
Several studies published in the last 15 years or so
(Perry, Hsu 2000; Migowski et al. 2006; Weninger
et al. 2006; 2009; 2014; Kuper, Kröpelin 2006; Bu-
dja 2007; Clare et al. 2008; Gronenborn 2009; Ber-
ger, Guilaine 2009; Clare, Weninger 2010; Wenin-
ger, Clare 2011; Zielhofer et al. 2012; Reimer et al.
2013, etc.) were dedicated to the observation of the
8.2 ka event impact on Neolithisation processes with
some regard to archaeological evidence from the
Middle East across the Eastern Mediterranean, north-
ern Africa, and southern and central Europe. Others
(Juri≤ et al. 2001; Bonsall et al. 2002; Bonsall 2007;
Bánffy et al. 2007; Bori≤, Dimitrijevi≤ 2007a; Bánf-
fy, Sümegy 2012; Bánffy 2013a; Salisbury et al.
2013; Lespez et al. 2013; Gurova, Bonsall 2014;
Krauß et al. 2014; Boti≤ 2016, etc.) take the archaeo-
logical context more into consideration but recog-
nise the possible climatic influence on Neolithisation
process from the Middle East to central Europe or
at least deal with ecological/environmental condi-
tions that could have enabled or prevented the
spread of Neolithisation at specific point in time.
These studies seem to indicate a halt in Neolithisa-
tion advances caused by the 8.2 ka event, which led
to unfavourable conditions across certain European
regions, mainly the Carpathian basin and other re-
gions of temperate Europe.
Fig. 11. Timing and structure of the 8.2 ka calBP event on a global scale. The relevant time frame for the
beginning and duration of early Neolithic in northern Croatia is marked in darker green (modified after
Weininger et al. 2014.15.Fig. 9).
20 At the Sopot site, only a partial pit was excavated, but it contained coarse pottery and an altar (Krznari≤ πkrivanko 2015.Fig.
12). White painted fragments were collected at similar depths across the site, but out of context and radiocarbon dates come from
teeth (Krznari≤ πkrivanko 2011.223, Tab. 3), although it is not clear if the teeth are from animals and if they are from domes-
ticated species.
Neolithisation of Sava-Drava-Danube interfluve at the end of the 6600–6000 BC period of Rapid Climate Change> a new solution ...
195
Eszter Bánffy and Pál Sümegi (2012) discuss the
role of the Central European-Balcanic Agro-Ecologi-
cal Barrier (CEBAEB)21 in the Carpathian Basin as
a zone of interaction between immigrant farming
communities and the local forager population, al-
though the reasons for the existence of the barrier
were manifold: the climatic conditions on the south-
ern side of the boundary were favourable, but the
soil was sandy and unsuitable for long-term settle-
ment and crop cultivation (Bánffy, Sümegi 2012.59),
especially given the limited agricultural knowledge
of immigrant communities adapted to different con-
ditions in south-eastern Europe; the specific climatic
conditions in Carpathian Basin due to the basin ef-
fect (Bánffy, Sümegi 2012.59) which could trigger a
unique transformation in vegetation and soil types;
wet habitats and sandy ridges more suitable for a
Mesolitic population based on hunting and forag-
ing (Bánffy, Sümegi 2012.60) etc. The German oak
tree-ring record22 (Fig. 11) shows another low be-
tween 6000 and 5900 BC, possibly indicating un-
favourable climate conditions such as excess of pre-
cipitation that could have caused large-scale and un-
predictable floods (Bonsall et al. 2002; Bonsall
2007) representing impenetrable barriers, although
their intensity could have been less pronounced
than in the previous 8.2 ka period. However, some
of the barriers recognised, such as the one in the Ka-
locsa area and Tolna Sárköz region (the southern
Danube region in Hungary), are difficult to explain
using ecological/environmental arguments (Bánffy
2013b). Bori≤ (2011) does not see the gap in the
settlement of the area between the late Mezolithic
and early Neolithic in the Iron Gates gorge; gaps can
be seen at certain sites, while others were settled
during that time. Bori≤ also does not agree with Bon-
sall (Bonsal et al. 2002; Bonsall 2007) that large-
scale floods were the reason for discontinuity of oc-
cupation of sites, but considers different economic
strategies to be the reason for that. It is also clear
in the Iron Gates gorge that Early/Middle Neolithic
(5950/5900–5500 BC) settlements are at least to a
point situated in different environments and on dif-
ferent soils (such as Aria Babi) (Bori≤ 2011.183).
The question is whether some kind of ecological bar-
rier existed in the Sava-Drava-Danube interfluve, in-
fluencing the emergence and spread of Neolithisa-
tion in this region or whether this spread was dic-
tated by some other reasons, such as in the Tolna Sár-
köz region. So far, specific environmental analysis
compared with archaeological data has not been
done for the Sava-Drava-Danube region, and only cir-
cumstantial data are available which might give an
insight into the climatic conditions of this region
during the Neolithic. In a recently published paper
(Pearson et al. 2014) two sub-fossil wood samples
are of interest for the region discussed here. Samples
25 from O∏tra Luka near Ora∏je and 151 from the
mouth of Krapina River near Zagreb yielded very in-
teresting dates (Fig. 12–13). The date for sample 25
from O∏tra Luka is almost identical to three dates
from Sopot (Fig. 3) and the date for sample 151 from
the Krapina River coincides with the beginning of
flood episodes (Benito et al. 2015.4, Fig. 3c), which
in turn coincide with IRD 5b (Bond et al. 2001.2131,
Fig. 2; Gronenborn 2009.99, Fig. 2; Benito et al.
2015.4, Fig. 3b). As the extreme flooding in spring
2014 showed, extremely high precipitation in the
central Bosnian mountain region can provoke ex-
treme episodes of flooding of the Vrbas, Bosna and
lower flow of the Sava rivers. This scenario may have
happened around 6000 BC or slightly after; debris
could have sealed off the Sopot site for the next
1000 years23,24.
Interestingly, in the Proko∏ko jezero pollen record,
a significant drop in the Corylus record and a rapid
increase of Fagus are noted around 6000 BC (Dör-
fler 2013.322, Fig. 11). This episode could have been
provoked by increased precipitation.
21 CEBAB: an ecological–palaeoecological–mathematical model based on the combination of archaeological and the palaeoenviron-
mental evidence (Bánffy, Sümegi 2012.57–58).
22 The positive correlation between tree-ring widths and amount of summer precipitation in different months, the ambiguous effect
of summer temperatures (∞ufar et al. 2014.1268). The sub-regional climatic signal should be taken into consideration because there
is clear evidence that the eastern part of the Sava-Drava-Danube interfluve shows a different climatic signal from the western part
(∞ufar et al. 2014.1272.Fig. 3).
23 The date for sample 151 from Krapina river may indicate climatic conitions just before the appearance of the Na∏ice – Velimi-
rovac, Arenda 1 site in Drava region (see note 13). The Krapina and Drava rivers respond to increased precipitation in pre-Alpine
region, while the lower flow of Sava river responds to precipitation in the central Balkan region. Quite often, floods of the Kra-
pina, Drava, Kupa and upper flow of the Sava rivers do not correspond to floods in the lower flow of Sava river because of this
dual source of excess precipitation.
24 As mentioned above, this is all circumstantial evidence; nevertheless, the closeness of dates is striking. Bearing in mind that Star-
≠evo culture was more extensive and more intensive presence in western Hungary can only be documented from around 5700–
5550 cal BC (Bánffy 2013a.17), this circumstantial evidence carries even more weight. In this respect, the temporal map of the
spread of Neolithisation from the Middle East to Europe (Gronenborn 2014) needs to be modified.
Katarina Botić
196
The early Neolithic in Sava-Drava-Danube interfluve
shows all the characteristics of full Neolithic package.
White painted motifs on some fragments from the
Galovo and Sopot sites suggest the earliest Linear A
phase, although these fragments are accompanied by
fragments with black painted motifs. The percentage
of both white and black painted pottery is very low
in the overall amount of pottery from all sites. There
is a difference of opinion as to whether a Mono-
chrome phase of early Neolithic existed throughout
south-east Europe preceding the ‘developed’ Neoli-
thic (Stojanovski et al. 2014.24): Lolita Nikolova
(2007.91) puts Hoca Çesme 4–3, Krajnitsi 1, Divo-
stin 1, Koprivets 1, Dzhulyunitsa, and Smurdesh 1
sites in this phase, dating it to ?6300–6200/6100 cal
BC, while Krauß (2011) argues that the amount of
painted pottery during the whole early Neolithic in
south-eastern Europe is notably below 10%, and that
painted pottery was present from the very begin-
ning in this region25. This latter can be applied to
Sava-Drava-Danube region: the amount of painted
pottery is well below 10% at observed sites and it is
already present in the earliest dated sites. So far, no
traces of Star≠evo Monochrome phase have been
found in our observed region (Minichreiter 1992.54;
2007b.23). Nevertheless, some sites in the Balkans
were attributed to that earliest Monochrome phase:
Krajnici, Koprivec and Poljanica-platoto in Bulgaria;
Divostin, Donja Branjevina and Grivac in Serbia; Pe∏-
terica, Rudnik and Grn≠arica in the Republic of Ma-
cedonia (Krauß 2010.41; Stojanovski et al. 2014),
Foeni-Sălas and Gura Baciului in Romania (Draso-
vean 2007.70, Fig.2–4; Luca, Suciu 2007.79; Krauß
2010.36).
The question of the transition from late Mesolithic
to early Neolihic is also open for discussion for Sava-
Drava-Danube region, because no Mezolihic sites are
yet known from eastern Slavonia, which may be the
result of later floods covering earlier sites or the
state of current research. In the surrounding areas,
the best-preserved and explored sites exhibiting the
transition from Mesolithic to Neolithic are situated in
the area of the Iron Gates (Krauß 2014.194). There,
among other periods, the Late Mesolithic (c. 7400–
6200 cal BC) and Transformation period/Early Neo-
lithic (c. 6200/6300–6000/5950 cal BC) can be dis-
tinguished (Bori≤ 2011.161). There are several well-
documented Mesolithic sites in this region: Hajdu≠ka
Vodenica, Icoana, Kula, Ostrovul Banului, Ostrovul
Corbului, Ostrovul Mare, Padina, Schela Cladovei,
Velesnica, and Vlasac (Bori≤ 2011.163, Tab. 2; Bo-
ri≤ et al. 2014). In the Transformation/Early Neoli-
thic period only Hajdu≠ka vodenica, Padina and Vla-
sac show uninterrupted occupation, while new sites
appear: Ajmana, Alibeg, Lepenski Vir26 and Stubica
(Bori≤, Dimitrijevi≤ 2007a.69, Tab. 2; Bori≤ et al.
2008.279; Bori≤ 2011.163, Tab. 2; Bori≤ et al.
2014)27. In the following Early/Middle Neolithic (c.
5900–5500 BC) occupation continues in Ajmana,
Hajdu≠ka Vodenica, Icoana, Lepenski Vir, Padina,
Schela Cladovei, Velesnica, and Vlasac and new sites
appear: Ari Babi, Cuina Turcului, Donje Butroke, and
Lepenski Abri (Bori≤ 2011.163, Tab. 2).
In southern Banat, a part of the Iron Gates region,
only two sites are known: Hotu Cave, near Steierdorf
(Anina) and Băile Herculane-Hotilor Cave (Krauß
2014.195). These sites are situated a few kilometres
north of the Iron Gates in the hilly parts of the south-
ern Carpathians, while in the northern part of the
Banat, the Mesolithic is as yet unknown (Krauß
2014.195–196). In Ba≠ka, Mesolithic sites are docu-
mented at Hajdukovo close to Subotica and at Ba≠-
ka Palanka, west of Novi Sad; the sites are located
exclusively on the banks of the alluvial plains of the
rivers (Krauß 2014.196). In Transdanubia, the Re-
göly 2 site was recently explored, but there are some
older finds from the vicinity of Győr, from the Sár-
rét bog, Csór-Merítőpuszra, next to the village of Ná-
dasdladány and from a sand dune on the flood
plain of the Kapos River at Kapshomok (Krauß
2014.196). In Alföld, excavations were carried out at
two sites in the Sződliged/Vác area, together with in-
tensive survey in the Jászság area. The sites at Sződ-
liged are situated close to the Danube and are com-
pared to Iron Gates sites by the excavators (Krauß
2014.201). Extensive surveys were carried out in
Jászág Basin, the large flood plain between the up-
per Tisza and Danube rivers, and two Mesolithic sites
were found: Jászberény I and Jásztelek I (Krauß
2014.201–202). Five more sites from the Alföld have
been mentioned in the literature, some of them situ-
ated on the sandy dunes of the floodplains or close
to major rivers (Krauß 2014.212). In the Sathmar
district of north-west Romania Ciumesti II site is also
situated on a dune (Krauß 2014.212).
25 In Dzhulyunitsa, the oldest layer contains black painted pottery, while only the second layer presents white painted pottery
(Krauß et al. 2014; Dzhanfezova et al. 2014). It is also clear from a preliminary archaeometric study (Dzhanfezova et al. 2014)
that all the pottery was locally made and that the presumed south-eastern imports do not exist.
26 For the non-existent Late Mesolithic period at Lepenski Vir (see Bori≤, Dimitrijevi≤ 2007b.51, Tab. 2; 2007b.69, Tab. 2; Bori≤
2011.169).
27 Note the change in view of the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition at Vlasac in papers by Bori≤ et al. (2008.279; 2014).
Neolithisation of Sava-Drava-Danube interfluve at the end of the 6600–6000 BC period of Rapid Climate Change> a new solution ...
197
Maria Gurova and Clive Bonsall (2014), comparing
known data for Upper Palaeolithic and Late Mesoli-
thic sites in the Balkans, show the peripheral distri-
bution of latter sites within the Balkans. In their as-
sessment, most of the sites are located within 50km
of the sea or the Danube. One of the reasons for Me-
solithc peripheral site distribution could have been
the change in vegetation cover – from semi-desert
steppe and forest-steppe ecosystems to a major ex-
pansion of temperate forest during the early Holo-
cene. Dense forests protected animals, thus reducing
hunting productivity and they have also “posed sig-
nificant challenges for inter-group communication
and participation in viable mating networks” (Gu-
rova, Bonsall 2014.98). Edible plants in temperate
forest ecosystems are found on the forest margins,
such as upland tree lines, recently burned areas or
along sea, lake and river shores. Aquatic resources
became an essential substitute for the lack of ani-
mal biomass (Gurova, Bonsall 2014.97–98).
Bearing in mind the specific site positions on dunes
near large rivers or at elevations near floodplains,
the change in resources due to the change in the en-
vironment and appearance of dense temperate fo-
rests, it is clear that the lack of Mesolithic sites in the
Sava-Drava-Danube region, specifically eastern Slavo-
nia, was partially due to environmental change at
the beginning of the Holocene. The only large river
in this area is the Danube, while the Sava and Drava
plains experienced regular seasonal flooding, but
were also covered by dense forests. Mesolithic set-
tlements can nevertheless be expected on the high
right margin of the Danube and ∑akovo-Vinkovci
loess plateau. However, intensive occupation of these
regions from the Late Neolithic to modern times re-
duces the hope of finding surviving Mesolithic sites.
Conclusion
The appearance of the early Neolithic, i.e. Star≠evo
culture in the Sava-Drava-Danube interfluve can be
placed around 6000 BC or just slightly before, as
current research and radiocarbon dates show. The
earliest dates and finds come from the Sopot site
situated in the south-eastern part of Slavonia. After
a short period of settlement during this initial Neo-
lithic phase, an episode of flooding probably sealed
off the site for the next 1000 years. Shortly after the
abandonment of Sopot site, the Zadubravlje and Ga-
lovo sites situated in the Sava valley to the west were
settled. Both sites show traces of flooding, which was
probably the reason why both sites were abandoned
and never resettled (except for the late Bronze Age
necropolis at the Galovo site). Most of the dates
from Zadubravlje and Galovo group after 5850 BC,
Fig. 12. 14C dates for two sub fossil samples: AA99705 = sample 25 and AA99706 = sample 151 (after
Pearson et al. 2014.S54, Tab. 2).
Fig. 13. 14C dates for two sub-fossil samples: AA99705 = sample 25 and AA99706 = sample 151. OxCal
v4.2.4 (Bronk Ramsey et al. 2013); IntCal 13 atmospheric curve (Reimer et al. 2013).
Katarina Botić
198
although two older dates, slightly younger than the
Sopot dates, come from the Zadubravlje site and
four dates from the Galovo site. The youngest group
of dates can be observed at the Galovo and Viroviti-
ca – Brekinja sites (with one date from Zadubravlje)
starting after 5500 BC. The end of Star≠evo culture
can be expected before 5100 BC. Radiocarbon dates
also indicate the north-western spread of Star≠evo
culture to the Drava valley around 5750 BC and later.
Taking climatological/ecological data into considera-
tion, the beginning of Star≠evo culture can be linked
to the end of the 6600–6000 BC period of Rapid Cli-
mate Change (8.2 ka cal BP) but it cannot be ex-
pected earlier than 6100 BC. Similarly, the end of
Star≠evo culture can be linked to the 7.1 ka calBP
event (5300–5100 BC).
There is circumstantial evidence of climatic instabi-
lity in this region, i.e. excess of precipitation that
can probably be linked to flooding responsible for
sealing off the Sopot site and for the unfavourable
conditions prior to the Drava region settlement
around 5750 BC.
The white painted pottery found at Sopot and Galo-
vo sites shows the connection to other regions of
south-east Europe in the Neolithisation process. This
connection is also visible in available radiocarbon
dates. Weninger et alii (2014.6) give the best sum-
mary of the process: “The moment the Neolithic left
the Aegean basin, which appears to have occurred
not earlier than 6100 cal BC, it apparently took lit-
tle more than 100 years to become established at
sites in Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania, and little
more than around 200 years even to have reached
the Pannonian Basin.”
Although the climate was not the primary reason for
cultural change, and in some cases played almost no
role in it (Budja 2015; Flohr et al. 2015), it is worth
noting that radiocarbon dates from early Neolithic
sites of the Sava-Drava-Danube interfluve fit well be-
tween documented RCC periods; further archaeo-
logical, geoarchaeological and palaeoenvironmental
research is needed to firmly establish a cultural, cli-
matological and environmental connection. The term
archaeological climatology or archaeoclimatology,
introduced by Fabian Welc (2016) describing a sub-
discipline within geoarchaeological science, can be
applied to this future interdisciplinary research.
Epilogue
During spring 2016, a small scale geoarchaeological
survey in eastern Slavonia was conducted by Zagreb
Institute of Archaeology and the Institute of Archaeo-
logy, Cardinal Stefan Wyszynski University in War-
saw with the cooperation of the Faculty of Geology,
University of Warsaw. The survey consisted of geolo-
gical sampling and a geophysical survey and was
conducted at, among other places, at Slavonski Brod
– Galovo and Sopot sites. At the Galovo site, a core
of 9m was taken, while at the Sopot site the depth
of the core was 3.6m. Magnetic susceptibility pre-
liminary results show an episode of drought follow-
ed by an episode of extreme wetter conditions just
at the end of life at the Galovo site, while the cultu-
ral layer at Sopot site was sealed off by a pronounced
wet episode. The interchange of dry and extremely
wet conditions can be compared to the eastern Medi-
terranean periods of extreme drought during which
‘flash-flood’ events occurred (Weninger et al. 2009.
33). The full results of this survey will be published
in the future.
This paper presents partial results of my doctoral re-
search in the framework of Zagreb Institute of Ar-
chaeology’s Archaeological landscapes and identities
(A1 and A2) research programme.
I would also like to thank my colleagues Dr K. Mi-
nichreiter (Zagreb), M. Krznari≤ πkrivanko (City Mu-
seum Vinkovci) and Dr I. Krajcar Broni≤ (Rudjer Bo∏-
kovi≤ Institute, Zagreb) for all the information pro-
vided.
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Katarina Botić
204
Site Lab code Material and context 14C Age δ13C\ cal BC Reference
(BP) 12C (‰) (2σ)
Sopot Beta 251909 tooth from SU 80 7120±50 –20.0 6072–5897 Krznarić {krivanko 2011.215,
(sq. J25)> layer before Tab. 3
sterile ground
Sopot Beta 251911 tooth from SU 143 7110±50 –19.7 6067–5892 Krznarić {krivanko 2011.215,
(sq. J37)> layer before Tab. 3
sterile ground
Sopot Beta 251910 tooth from SU 519 7100±50 –20.5 6065–5886 Krznarić {krivanko 2011.215,
(sq. K35)> pit-dwelling Tab. 3< Burić 2015.145, Tab. 2
Zadubravlje – Z-2924 charcoal from 7620±140 6850–6100 Obelić et al. 2002.620< Krajcar
Du/ine well 11 (sq. C\19< Bronić et al. 2002.18< Minich-
3.90–4.10m depth) reiter, Krajcar Bronić 2006.14,
Fig. 5< Minichreiter 2001.207<
Krajcar Bronić 2011.183,185, Fig.
5< Krajcar Bronić , Minichreiter
2011.47, Fig. 3
Zadubravlje – Z-2923 charcoal from south- 6995±115 6067–5666 Obelić et al. 2002.620< Krajcar
Du/ine east part of the pit- Bronić et al. 2002.18< Minich-
dwelling 10 reiter, Krajcar Bronić 2006.14, 
(sq. D-E\15) Fig. 5< Minichreiter 2001.205<
Krajcar Bronić 2011.185, Fig. 5<
Krajcar Bronić, Minichreiter
2011.47, Fig. 3
Zadubravlje – Z-3931 charcoal from work- 6919±102 5991–5641 Krajcar Bronić 2011.185, Fig. 5<
Du/ine ing pit 19 – workshop Krajcar Bronić, Minichreiter
for stone tools and 2011.47, Fig. 3
weapons production
(sq. D\11)
Zadubravlje – Z-3930 charcoal from work- 6770±110 5884–5491 Krajcar Bronić 2011.185, Fig. 5<
Du/ine ing pit 12 that con- Krajcar Bronić, Minichreiter
tained several kilns 2011.47, Fig. 3
(sq. A\20-A\21)
Zadubravlje – Z-2921 charcoal from 6710±115 5873–5470 Obelić et al. 2002.620< Krajcar
Du/ine pit-dwelling 6 Bronić et al. 2002.18< Minich-
(sq.  A\14-A\15) reiter, Krajcar Bronić 2006.14,
Fig. 5< Krajcar Bronić 2011.185,
Fig. 5< Krajcar Bronić, Minich-
reiter 2011.47, Fig. 3
Zadubravlje – Z-2922 charcoal from 6705±95 5775–5477 Obelić et al. 2002.620< Krajcar
Du/ine southwest part of the Bronić et al. 2002.18< Minich-
pit-dwelling 9 reiter, Krajcar Bronić 2006.14,
(sq. A\18) Fig. 5< Minichreiter 2001.203<
Krajcar Bronić 2011.185, Fig. 5<
Krajcar Bronić, Minichreiter
2011.47, Fig. 3
Zadubravlje – Z-3929 charcoal from the 6673±75 5710–5486 Krajcar Bronić 2011.185, Fig. 5<
Du/ine south pit-dwelling 10 Krajcar Bronić, Minichreiter
(sq. E\15) 2011.47, Fig. 3
Zadubravlje – Z-2925 charcoal from work- 6260±130 5481–4858 Obelić et al. 2002.620< Krajcar
Du/ine ing pit 12 Bronić et al. 2002.18< Minich-
(sq. A\20–21) reiter, Krajcar Bronić 2006.14,
Fig. 5< Minichreiter 2001.204<
Krajcar Bronić 2011.185, Fig. 5<
Krajcar Bronić, Minichreiter
2011.47, Fig. 3
Slavonski Z-5043 charcoal from 7358±114 6431–6025 Minichreiter 2013.27 (only par-
Brod – burial pit 2013, tial date published< BP age
Galovo sq. J\6a first published here)
Tab. 1. Star≠evo culture 14C dates in northern Croatia. OxCal v4.2.4 (Bronk Ramsey et al. 2013); IntCal
13 atmospheric curve (Reimer et al. 2013).
Neolithisation of Sava-Drava-Danube interfluve at the end of the 6600–6000 BC period of Rapid Climate Change> a new solution ...
205
Site Lab code Material and context 14C Age δ13C\ cal BC Reference
(BP) 12C (‰) (2σ)
Slavonski Z-5044 charcoal from 7076±158 6250–5647 Minichreiter 2013.27 (only par-
Brod – burial pit 2013, tial date published< BP age
Galovo sq. J\6a first published here)
Slavonski Z-4357 charcoal from a small 7067±152 6234–5664 Minichreiter, Botić 2010.120,
Brod – pit 323 (sq. J\10-a,b, Fig. 14< Krajcar Bronić, Minich- 
Galovo I\10-c,d) under the reiter 2011.46, Fig. 2
hearth SU 1681
(sq. J\10-b)
Slavonski Z-3586 charcoal from the 7060±150 6227–5668 Minichreiter, Krajcar Bronić
Brod – western cult structure 2006.8, Fig. 2< Minichreiter
Galovo 89 (sq. F\12-d) 2007a.192, Fig. 1< Krajcar Bro-
nić, Minichreiter 2007.716< Mi-
nichreiter, Botić 2010.120, Fig.
14< Krajcar Bronić 2011.182, 184,
Fig. 4< Krajcar Bronić , Minich-
reiter 2011.46, Fig. 2
Slavonski Z-3584 charcoal from the 7000±140 6205–5634 Minichreiter, Krajcar Bronić
Brod – western cult structure 2006.8, Fig. 2< Minichreiter
Galovo 149 (sq. E\11-a) 2007a.192, Fig. 1< Krajcar Bro-
nić, Minichreiter 2007.716< Mi-
nichreiter, Botić 2010.120, Fig.
14< Krajcar Bronić 2011.182, 184,
Fig. 4< Krajcar Bronić , Minich-
reiter 2011.46, Fig. 2
Slavonski Z-3574 charcoal from pit- 6875±35 5842–5676 Minichreiter, Krajcar Bronić
Brod – dwelling 205\kiln 752 2006.8, Fig. 2< Minichreiter
Galovo (sq. I\13a,c) 2007a.192, Fig. 1< Krajcar Bro-
nić, Minichreiter 2007.716< Mi-
nichreiter, Botić 2010.120, Fig.
14< Krajcar Bronić 2011.182, 184,
Fig. 4< Krajcar Bronić , Minich-
reiter 2011.46, Fig. 2
Slavonski Z-3587 charcoal from the 6865±65 5887–5640 Minichreiter, Krajcar Bronić
Brod – western cult structure 2006.8, Fig. 2< Minichreiter
Galovo 389 (sq. G\12-a) 2007a.192, Fig. 1< Krajcar Bro-
nić, Minichreiter 2007.716< Mi-
nichreiter, Botić 2010.120, Fig.
14< Krajcar Bronić 2011.182, 184,
Fig. 4< Krajcar Bronić , Minich-
reiter 2011.46, Fig. 2
Slavonski Beta 318679 charcoal from SU 6860±40 –24.8 5838–5666 Minichreiter 2012.20 (only par-
Brod – 2243 (sq. I\6b), fill of tial date published< BP age
Galovo the burial pit first published here)
Slavonski Z-3575 charcoal (loom beam) 6850±60 5873–5635 Minichreiter, Krajcar-Bronić
Brod – from pit-dwelling 205 2006.8, Fig. 2< Minichreiter
Galovo (sq. I\13a) 2007a.192, Fig. 1< Krajcar Bro-
nić, Minichreiter 2007.716< Mi-
nichreiter, Botić 2010.120, Fig.
14< Krajcar Bronić 2011.182, 184,
Fig. 4< Krajcar Bronić , Minich-
reiter 2011.46, Fig. 2
Slavonski Beta 318678 charcoal from kiln SU 6840±40 –23.8 5808–5642 first published here
Brod – 258 (sq. I\13-b,d) in
Galovo pit-dwelling SU 205
Tab. 1. continue
Katarina Botić
206
Site Lab code Material and context 14C Age δ13C\ cal BC Reference
(BP) 12C (‰) (2σ)
Slavonski Z-2936 charcoal from kiln 6835±110 5981–5557 Obelić et al. 2002.616< Krajcar
Brod – 032, pit-dwelling 9 Bronić et al. 2002.18< Minich-
Galovo (sq. C\3), contains 3 reiter, Krajcar Bronić 2006.8,
skeletal burials Fig. 2< Minichreiter 2007a.192,
Fig. 1< Krajcar Bronić , Minich-
reiter 2007.716< Minichreiter,
Botić 2010.120, Fig. 14< Krajcar
Bronić 2011.182, 184, Fig. 4<
Krajcar Bronić , Minichreiter
2011.46, Fig. 2
Slavonski Z-3588 charcoal from pit- 6820±70 5876–5618 Minichreiter, Krajcar Bronić
Brod – dwelling 155 2006.8, Fig. 3< Minichreiter
Galovo (sq. G\13a) 2007a.192, Fig. 1< Krajcar
Bronić , Minichreiter 2007.716<
Minichreiter, Botić 2010.120,
Fig. 14< Krajcar Bronić 2011.182,
184, Fig. 4< Krajcar Bronić , Mi-
nichreiter 2011.46, Fig. 2
Slavonski Z-3801 charcoal from a kiln 6750±70 5769–5531 Krajcar Bronić et al. 2010.495,
Brod – SU 181 (sq. G\12-a, Fig. 3< Minichreiter, Botić 2010.
Galovo G\13-b) in pit 155 120, Fig. 14< Krajcar Bronić 2011.
182, 184, Fig. 4< Krajcar Bronić ,
Minichreiter 2011.46, Fig. 2
Slavonski Z-3924 charcoal from a burial 6726±147 5975–5380 Krajcar Bronić et al. 2010.495,
Brod – pit  9 (sq. C\4) Fig. 3< Minichreiter, Botić 2010.
Galovo 120, Fig. 14< Krajcar Bronić 2011.
182, 184, Fig. 4< Krajcar Bronić ,
Minichreiter 2011.46, Fig. 2
Slavonski Z-3803 charcoal from pit- 6710±100 5801–5476 Krajcar Bronić et al. 2010.495,
Brod – dwelling 207, bottom Fig. 3< Minichreiter, Botić 2010.
Galovo near the kiln 794 120, Fig. 14< Krajcar Bronić 2011.
(sq. H\13-d), PU548 182, 184, Fig. 4< Krajcar Bronić ,
Minichreiter 2011.46, Fig. 2
Slavonski Z-3922 charcoal at the 6709±82 5736–5486 Krajcar Bronić et al. 2010.495,
Brod – bottom of a working Fig. 3< Minichreiter, Botić 2010.
Galovo pit 291 (sq. K\11-a) 120, Fig. 14< Krajcar Bronić 2011.
182, 184, Fig. 4< Krajcar Bronić ,
Minichreiter 2011.46, Fig. 2
Slavonski Z-3928 charcoal from pit- 6700±86 5737–5482 Krajcar Bronić et al. 2010.495,
Brod – dwelling 153 Fig. 3< Minichreiter, Botić 2010.
Galovo (sq. E\13d) 120, Fig. 14< Krajcar Bronić 2011.
182, 184, Fig. 4< Krajcar Bronić ,
Minichreiter 2011.46, Fig. 2
Slavonski Z-3927 charcoal from pit- 6659±61 5672–5483 Krajcar Bronić et al. 2010.495,
Brod – dwelling 108 Fig. 3< Minichreiter, Botić 2010.
Galovo (sq. G\11c) 120, Fig. 14< Krajcar Bronić 2011.
182, 184, Fig. 4< Krajcar Bronić ,
Minichreiter 2011.46, Fig. 2
Slavonski Z-4879 burial pit 2243, 6620±102 5720–5376 Minichreiter 2012.19–20 (only
Brod – sq. I\6b partial date published<
Galovo BP age first published here)
Slavonski Z-4880 burial pit 2243, 6600±162 5896–5311 Minichreiter 2012.20 (only
Brod – sq. I\6b partial date published<
Galovo BP age first published here)
Tab. 1. continue
Neolithisation of Sava-Drava-Danube interfluve at the end of the 6600–6000 BC period of Rapid Climate Change> a new solution ...
207
Site Lab code Material and context 14C Age δ13C\ cal BC Reference
(BP) 12C (‰) (2σ)
Slavonski Z-3926 charcoal from hearth 6567±66 5630–5380 Krajcar Bronić et al. 2010.495,
Brod – near the kiln SU 31 in Fig. 3< Minichreiter, Botić 2010.
Galovo burial pit 9 (sq. C\4) 120, Fig. 14< Krajcar Bronić 2011.
182, 184, Fig. 4< Krajcar Bronić ,
Minichreiter 2011.46, Fig. 2
Slavonski Z-3925 charcoal from a burial 6398±67 5483–5227 Krajcar Bronić et al. 2010.495,
Brod – pit  9 (sq. B\3) Fig. 3< Minichreiter, Botić 2010.
Galovo 120, Fig. 14< Krajcar Bronić 2011.
182, 184, Fig. 4< Krajcar Bronić ,
Minichreiter 2011.46, Fig. 2
Slavonski Z-3583 charcoal from pit- 6300±80 5470–5061 Minichreiter, Krajcar Bronić
Brod – dwelling 37 2006.12, Fig. 4< Minichreiter 
Galovo (sq. b\10-c) 2007a.192, Fig. 1< Krajcar Bro-
nić , Minichreiter 2007.716< Mi-
nichreiter, Botić 2010.120, Fig.
14< Krajcar Bronić 2011.182, 184,
Fig. 4< Krajcar Bronić , Minich-
reiter 2011.46, Fig. 2
Slavonski Z-2935 charcoal from pit- 6185±130 5466–4803 Obelić et al. 2002.616< Krajcar 
Brod – dwelling 15 (sq. D\2), Bronić et al. 2002.18< Minich-
Galovo contains 1 skeletal reiter 2007a.192, Fig. 1< Krajcar
burial Bronić , Minichreiter 2007.716<
Minichreiter, Botić 2010.120,
Fig. 14< Krajcar Bronić 2011.182,
184, Fig. 4< Krajcar Bronić , Mi-
nichreiter 2011.46, Fig. 2
Virovitica – Beta 212603 charcoal 6470±70 5557–5312 Sekelj-Ivan;an, Balen 2007.24
Brekinja
Virovitica – Beta 212601 charcoal 6350±80 5482–5079 Sekelj-Ivan;an, Balen 2007.24
Brekinja
Tab. 1. continue
.