61
Mountain grassland ecosystems on 
abandoned agricultural terraces  
(Russia, North Caucasus)
Abstract
Terraces represent one of the most common agricultural landscape elements 
in the mountainous regions of the North Caucasus. In the Central and West 
Caucasus, most of the arable terraces were converted into grasslands for grazing 
and haymaking 60–70 years ago and then abandoned or underused during the 
last 20–25 years. The role of abandoned terraces in maintaining the diversity 
of grasslands of the mountain slopes was studied in the case of eight terraces of 
different types. Plant communities of subalpine meadows and meadow steppes 
were distinguished on the terraces depending mainly on slope steepness at the 
same altitudes and to a lesser extent on the slope aspect. In general, the grasslands 
of the terrace platforms and those of original unterraced slopes had similar traits. 
At that, the mesophilous communities on the rich soils of terrace edges and scarp 
communities similar to vegetation of steep slopes with eroded soils create regular 
patterns on the terraced slopes. Thus, former agricultural terraces conditioning 
geodiversity also contribute to the diversity of plant communities and landscape 
fragmentation. The current increase of temperature and humidity may lead to 
a reduction of climatic differences of the slopes, and the further convergence of 
grassland communities can be assumed.
Izvleček
Terease so eden najbolj običajnih elementov kmetijske krajine v gorskih predelih 
severnega Kavkaza. V srednjem in zahodnem Kavkazu so pred 60-70 leti večino 
obdelovanih teras spremenili v pašnike in košenice in jih nato pred 20-25 leti 
opustili ali pa z njimi neredno gospodarili. Preučevali smo vlogo opuščenih teras 
za ohranjanje raznolikosti travišč na gorskih pobočjih na osnovi osmih teras 
različnih tipov. Rastlinske združbe subalpinskih travišč in step se ločijo predvsem 
glede na naklon teras na istih nadmorskih višinah in manj glede na ekspozicijo. 
Travišča na zaravneh teras in na pobočjih brez teras imajo podobne rastlinske 
znake. Mezofilne združbe na robovih teras z bogatimi tlemi in združbe na terasnih 
stopnjah, ki so podobne vegetaciji na strminah z erozijo tvorijo jasen vzorec na 
terasiranih pobočjih. Geodiverziteta nekdanjih kmetijskih teras torej prispeva k 
raznolikosti rastlinskih združb in k fragmentiranosti krajine. Zvišanje temperature 
in vlažnosti pa lahko vodi v zmanjšanje klimatskih razlik med pobočji in 
pričakujemo lahko povečevanje podobnosti med travniškimi združbami. 
Keywords: abandonment, 
convergence, fragmentation, 
grazing, meadow, meadow steppe, 
soil. 
Ključne besede: opuščanje, 
konvergenca, fragmentacija, paša, 
travniki, travniška stepa, prst.
Received: 29. 3. 2017
Revision received: 19. 8. 2017
Accepted: 9. 10. 2017
Co-ordinating Editor:  
Orsolya Valkó
1 Institute of Geography, Russian Academy of Sciences, Staromonetny per. 29, Moscow Russia 117019. E-mail: gracheva@igras.ru; belena53@mail.ru;  
vvvinog@yandex.ru
* Corresponding author
Raisa Gracheva1,*, Elena Belonovskaya1 & Vera Vinogradova1
DOI: 10.1515/hacq-2017-001017/1 • 2018, 61–71
R. Gracheva, E. Belonovskaya & V. Vinogradova
Mountain grassland ecosystems on abandoned agricultural terraces  
(Russia, North Caucasus)
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17/1 • 2018, 61–71
Introduction
The grassland ecosystems play a special role in shaping 
the landscape and biodiversity of the Palearctic differing 
strongly in their traits affected by natural factors and hu-
man activity. Semi-natural grasslands, the origin and ex-
istence of which are largely a result of a millennial history 
of the activities of humans and their livestock, are among 
the richest ecosystems and host many more species than 
one would expect from their spatial extent (Habel et al. 
2013). At the same time, the semi-natural grasslands are 
mainly threatened by agricultural intensification or aban-
donment, while the natural steppes of the Palearctic have 
largely been destroyed by conversion into arable land 
and are threatened by amelioration, pesticides and other 
impacts (Dengler et al. 2014, Deák et al. 2016). Unlike 
previous decades, when the attention of researchers was 
focused on the anthropogenic impact on grasslands, in 
recent decades the opposite problem has arisen: What 
are the impacts of the cessation of grazing and mowing 
on the grasslands? There are a number of publications 
concerning abandoned farmlands with many local and 
regional examples (e.g. Benjamin et al. 2005, Pykälä et 
al. 2005, Kelemen et al. 2014, Valkó et al. 2016a, We-
sche et al. 2016). For instance, it was found that species 
diversity declined in abandoned meadows during the first 
years of abandonment regardless of meadow type (Csergő 
et al. 2013). In a series of experiments it was shown that 
reintroducing management in abandoned grasslands such 
as litter removal in combination with vegetation cutting 
supports the recovery of steppe grassland vegetation (Ru-
precht et al. 2010). A comparison of the effectiveness of 
spontaneous grassland recovery and active grassland res-
toration by seed sowing showed that seed sowing ensures 
higher weed control and biomass production, but lower 
biodiversity compared to spontaneous recovery, and that 
local seed banks might play an important role for grass-
land recovery on croplands (Valkó et al. 2011, 2016b). 
At the same time, many examples have proved that for 
vegetation recovery site conditions are as important as 
management (Wesche et al. 2016).
In mountainous regions, as a consequence of the popu-
lation outflow, not only unproductive grasslands, but also 
productive, easily accessible sites are abandoned. Among 
them are grasslands of terraced slopes occupying signifi-
cant areas. An overview of a number of terrace systems 
of the world and an assessment of their anti-erosion ef-
fects is provided by Dorren & Rey (2012). Agricultural 
terraces are among the oldest human-made elements of 
mountain slopes. Correctly constructed and maintained 
terraces stop or reduce soil erosion, and thus, terracing is a 
way of soil and water saving and enlarging the agricultural 
area. Usually terraces were made for cereals, orchards or 
vineyards and only sometimes for grasslands. At present 
many agricultural terraces are abandoned. Even in the tra-
ditionally terraced Andes, over half of the terraces have 
been forgotten, and at high altitudes, many of them have 
already been abandoned in prehistoric time (Denevan 
2001). Nowadays their abandonment is still going on.
Abandoned terraces became elements of mountain 
ecosystems. With time many of them were occupied by 
native vegetation according to the local natural factors 
and land use legacy (Bragg & Stephens 1979, Lasanta et 
al. 2013).
Depending on the construction and stability, terraces 
may become areas of soil destruction and sliding; thus, 
terrace conditions can slow the process of establishing 
a continuous stand of native perennial grasses (Cerda-
Bolinches 1994, Harden 1996, Dorren & Rey 2012, 
Arnaéz et al. 2017). Secondary succession with shrubs re-
sults in homogeneous post-pastoral and post-arable eco-
systems and a reduction of biodiversity; encroachment 
and increasing abundance and biomass of other competi-
tor species can also lead to diversity loss in the abandoned 
grasslands (Hansson & Fogelfors 2000, Benjamin et al. 
2005, Hillebrand et al. 2008, Lasanta et al. 2013). Thus, 
the state of grasslands on abandoned mountain terraces is 
influenced by various factors.
In the Caucasus agricultural terraces occupy large areas 
both in the South and in the North. According to archae-
ological data, the first terraces may have been built 1200–
600 BC or even before, and terraces have been continu-
ously built until the mid 20th century. Information on the 
construction of agricultural terraces is found in chronicles 
of the 6th and 7th century. Many terraces from the 10th to 
the 12th century are still preserved over a length of tens of 
kilometres (Lomkatsi & Gegechiladze 1971, Kushnareva 
1997, Skripnikova et al. 2002, Borisov et al. 2012). 
In the North Caucasus of Russia, agricultural terraces 
are widely spread from the East to the West, from the 
Caspian Sea to the Black Sea coast. They occupy up to 
60% of the slopes of the intermontane basins, exceed-
ing the area of the river terrace complexes (Borunov & 
Bochaver 1987). The oldest terraced regions, not younger 
than three millennia, are in the East, in Dagestan, where 
they occupy an area of 150 000 ha at altitudes from 400 
to 2500 m a.s.l. (Idrisov 2017). 
At present vast areas of agricultural terraces in the 
North Caucasus are abandoned. The last waves of sig-
nificant abandonment occurred in the 1950s and 1960s, 
following the kolkhoz reforms and the development of 
recreation industry, and in the 1990s, after the demise 
of the kolkhoz system (Gracheva et al. 2012). The same 
periods are characteristic for some other regions of the 
R. Gracheva, E. Belonovskaya & V. Vinogradova
Mountain grassland ecosystems on abandoned agricultural terraces  
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world (Agnoletti et al. 2015, Kricsfalusy 2013, Lasanta et 
al. 2013, Valkó et al. 2016a). Only in the East Caucasus, 
some terraces located close to settlements are still used 
for planting fruit trees and vegetables instead of cereals, 
for which they have been built and used for a long time. 
In Central and West Caucasus, practically all agricultural 
terraces are abandoned. 
In this paper we report a study of grasslands formed on 
abandoned terraces in North Ossetia (Central Caucasus). 
The main objective of the study was to clarify the role of 
abandoned agricultural terraces for the grassland diversity 
on mountain slopes.
Materials and Methods 
North Ossetia, or North Ossetia-Alania, lies on the 
northern macroslope of the Caucasus. The series of the 
mountain ridges are divided by deep and wide intermon-
tane basins of which slopes glaciers rise. The altitudinal 
zonality of the region has been described in previous ar-
ticles (Gracheva & Belonovskaya 2010, Belonovskaya et 
al. 2016). Shortly, forests occupy slopes up to 1200–2000 
m a.s.l. and are replaced by a forest-meadow steppe zone, 
where post-forest grasslands are widely spread. Above, 
subalpine and alpine grasslands follow, reaching up to the 
nival zone. The grasslands are home to a rich biodiver-
sity, including many endemic plant species such as Secale 
dighoricum, Silene akinfievi, Gentianella caucasea, Cam-
panula dolomitica and others (Popov & Gogaev 2004).
Grasslands of post-agricultural terraces were studied at 
the slopes of intermontane basins between Bokovoi Ridge 
(Side Ridge) and Skalistyi Ridge (Rocky Ridge) (Figure 
1). Key areas were located in the Uallagkom Basin and 
the Tsey Basin (Iraf and Alagir districts, respectively) at 
altitudes of 1750–2050 m a.s.l. Those are the areas of the 
forest-meadow steppe zone and the transition to subal-
pine grasslands, where steppes occupy the driest steep and 
the most eroded slopes. 
Eight former arable terraces of different types con-
verted into pastures about 60 years ago and abandoned 
about 20–25 years ago were selected. Grassland plots 
of 100 m2 size were studied in June 2015. The descrip-
tion of plots included general topographic features and 
terrace relief (platform, edges, scarp and original slope 
between terraces), soil description and a list of vascular 
plants with nomenclature according to the checklist of 
Cherepanov (1995). The old Braun-Blanquet coverage-
abundance scale was used (Braun-Blanquet 1964). 21 
relevés of grasslands were selected and analysed using 
the frequency and constancy concept. Diagrams of the 
relationship between herbaceous coverage, species rich-
ness and slope inclination were developed using acces-
sible approaches within Microsoft Excel. Soils of all plots 
were described morphologically, and 10 soil profiles were 
sampled and analysed in the laboratory of the Depart-
ment of Soil Geography and Evolution of the Institute 
of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences using 
routine methods recommended by the World Reference 
Base for Soil Resources (WRB). Based on the labora-
tory test results, the soils were classified according to the 
WRB soil classification system (IUSS Working Group 
2014). Land use history and stages of land use change 
have been described earlier (Gracheva et al. 2012, Belo-
novskaya et al. 2016).
Results
Agricultural terraces are clearly distinguishable at the 
slopes of intermontane basins by the benched profiles of 
the slopes. They were mostly cultivated to compensate 
land shortage for the cereals and used for this purpose un-
til the 1950s/60s. Terraces situated on high slopes and far 
from settlements were partially converted into grasslands 
about 100 years ago.
There are different types of terraces depending on con-
struction and size (Kulumbegov 2013). All terraces are 
sustainable, and there are no signs of soil destruction and 
sliding despite the cease of maintenance. Grasslands on 
terraces of various sizes formed as a result of plowing and 
on large terraces with retaining walls were studied.
Figure 1: Location of study area in the Central Caucasus. (Modified 
from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Caucasus_ topo-
graphic_map-ru.svg#/).
Slika 1: Lokacija preučevanega območja v srednjem Kavkazu.  
(Prirejeno po https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Caucasus_ 
topographic_map-ru.svg#/).
R. Gracheva, E. Belonovskaya & V. Vinogradova
Mountain grassland ecosystems on abandoned agricultural terraces  
(Russia, North Caucasus)
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17/1 • 2018, 61–71
Terraces formed by plowing
Terraces formed by plowing are widely distributed. 
Plowed soil material gradually moves down and forms 
a ridge on the slope transformed into a bench by man-
power. Sometimes such terraces have been formed due to 
low stone borders of the land plots. Grasslands on such 
kind of terraces were studied in the Tsey Basin and in the 
Uallagcom Basin.
Terraces of the Tsey Basin
In the Tsey basin, four terraces formed by plowing were 
studied. They rise up the gentle (10–12°) southern slope 
from 1870 to 1980 m a.s.l. (Figure 2). Terrace plots are 
square-shaped or of rectangular shape and bordered by 
low stone walls (< 1 m), which served as plot boundar-
ies. Grasslands are currently used for occasional grazing. 
Individual young pines and Juniperus sabina spread in the 
grasslands, gradually occupying terraces downward. In 
the soils buried humic horizons are evidence of significant 
soil redistribution, especially on the lowest terraces. The 
grasslands are generally defined as subalpine meadows with 
such common species as Festuca valesiaca, Anthoxanthum 
odoratum, Alchemilla caucasica, Galium verum, Polygala 
anatolica, Plantago media, Trifolium medium, Veronica 
chamaedrys, Lotus corniculatus and Trifolium canescens.
The most gentle terraces at the lowest slope position 
with deep soils are the most mesophilous habitats. They 
were used for growing vegetables, and newly formed 
grasslands, which developed after the abandonment of 
the Upper Tsey village, are not older than 25 years. Soils, 
Mollic Umbrisols (Anthric Loamic Aric), are loose, well 
structured and rich in organic matter. The total grass 
cover is 95–100%, the grass height is 50 cm. Here, the 
following species enrich the plant community: Veronica 
gentianoides, Ranunculus oreophyllus, Poa alpina, Phleum 
montanum, Seseli libanotis, Bromopsis variegata, Agrostis 
tenuis, Tragopogon reticulatus and Stachys macrantha. 
At the highest and more drained terraces with rela-
tively shallow Leptic Mollic Umbrisols (Anthric Loamic/
Siltic), grasslands are about 55–60 years old. After cereal 
cultivation, these terraces were used for haymaking. The 
grass cover is 70–80% and the grass height 20–30 cm. 
Typical species of this type of terraces are Festuca ovina, 
Campanula hohenackeri, Carum carvi, Luzula multiflo-
ra, Ranunculus polyanthemos and Carex tristis. Artemisia 
chamaemelifolia occurs at the driest places.
The mesophilous traits of the grasslands are a result of 
sufficient moisture conditioned by gentle slope and prop-
erties of soils that were not compacted by heavy grazing. 
Grassland landscapes are scattered by trees and shrubs 
growing on the stone and soil accumulations bordering 
terrace plots such as Prunus divaricata, Rubus bushii and 
Rubus idaeus, of tall herbaceous species some of which 
could be considered as weeds such as Urtica dioica and 
Dactylis glomerate and of tall herbs of the open forest edg-
es: Calamagrostis arundinacea, Phleum pratensis, Lamium 
album and Anthriscus sylvestris. 
Grasslands on the abandoned terraces do not differ 
from subalpine meadows of unterraced slopes. Subalpine 
traits of the grasslands of southern slope and at the stud-
ied altitudes can be explained by the proximity of glaciers 
of the opposite steep northern slope of Tsey valley.
Terraces of the Uallagcom Basin
West from the Tsey, in Uallagcom Basin, plant com-
munities are generally defined as meadow steppes. Here, 
grasslands on the series of bench-like terraces formed by 
plowing and located on the steep (25–30°) northern slope 
were described (Figure 3). Terraces represent narrow 
(3–3.5 m) flat strips with steep scarps about 3 m high. 
The interval of original slope between terraces is about 
20–25 m. About 60 years ago, terraces were converted 
from arable lands into haylands. During the last 25–30 
years, they have been used for grazing with gradually re-
duced impact. Soils are defined as Someric Mollic Um-
brisol (Anthric Siltic). At the described terrace platform 
(1884 m a.s.l.), short grasses dominate. The grass height 
is not more than 15–20 cm; vegetation cover is 100%. 
The plant community consists mainly of meadow species 
such as sod grasses and firm bunchgrasses (Festuca vale-
siaca, Helictotrichon versicolor, Poa alpina, Phleum monta-
num and Anthoxanthum odoratum) and herbs (Alchemilla 
Figure 2: Subalpine meadows on the small abandoned terraces formed 
by plowing, 1870–1980 m a.s.l. (North Ossetia, Tsey Basin).  
Photo E. Belonovskaya.
Slika 2: Subalpinska travišča na majhnih opuščenih terasah, nastalih z 
oranjem, 1870–1980 m n.m.v. (Severna Osetija, Tsey).  
Foto E. Belonovskaya. 
R. Gracheva, E. Belonovskaya & V. Vinogradova
Mountain grassland ecosystems on abandoned agricultural terraces  
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caucasica, Plantago atrata, Veronica gentianoides, Myosotis 
alpestris, Galium verum, Ranunculus oreophyllus, Alchillea 
millefolium, Pulsatilla albana, Seseli libanotis and Stachys 
macrantha). Species of meadow-steppe communities play 
a significant role (Salvia verticillata, Bromopsis riparia, 
Artemisia chamaemelifolia, Linum nervosum and Linum 
hypericifolia). The same communities are in general chara- 
cteristic for the original slope except for the steepest plots 
(Table 1). 
In spite of the northern slope, grasslands have more 
steppe components than the above-described Tsey’s grass-
lands on the gentle southern slope due to the distance 
from glaciers, general slope steepness and good drainage. 
These grasslands are defined in general as meadow steppes. 
The vegetation cover of edges separating the terrace 
platform from the scarp differs from the other terrace sur-
face. Edges are covered by more mesophilous species such 
as Polygonum alpinum, Cephalaria gigantea and other tall 
herbs. The deep and rich soil that has been accumulated 
on the edges due to plowing provides comfortable condi-
tions for plants. Tall mesophilous herbs including weeds 
and inedible plants are common on the terraces’ edges 
regardless of terrace size and general slope steepness.
In contrast to the edges, on the scarps of the terraces, 
xerophilous plants dominate: Artemisia splendens, Thymus 
collinus and even Stipa pulcherrima. Disturbed, strongly 
eroded gravelly spots and stone fragments are character-
istic features of the scarps, and petrophytes occupy these 
habitats: Anthemis sosnovskyana, Thesium alpinum, Sem-
pervivum caucasicum and Sedum oppositifolium. 
Grasslands of terrace platforms and originally uneroded 
slopes are practically similar; plant communities of the 
scarps are similar to those of the steep convex eroded plots 
of the slopes. 
Large terraces with retaining walls
The large terraces were constructed by redistributing an 
enormous volume of soil and even bringing soil from the 
valley, stone removal and building of high retaining stone 
or wooden walls. The stony retaining walls have been pre-
served until today, whereas wooden supports disappeared 
during the past hundreds years. Terrace size and its scarp 
height depend on the slope relief, especially on the gen-
eral steepness of the slope.
Grasslands of large terraces were studied in the Uallag-
com Basin.
Grasslands of two terraces on the southern convex slopes 
with a steepness from 15–18 to 25° were described. Ter-
races have gentle platform surfaces smoothly inclined to 
the South, about 50 m in width and 150 m in length, and 
Figure 3: Meadow steppes on the abandoned bench-like terraces, northern slope, 1800–1900 m a.s.l. (North Ossetia, Uallagcom Basin).  
Photo E. Belonovskaya.
Slika 3: Travniška stepa na opuščenih terasah, podobnih klopi, severno pobočje, 1800–1900 m n.m.v. (Severna Osetija, Uallagcom).  
Foto E. Belonovskaya. 
R. Gracheva, E. Belonovskaya & V. Vinogradova
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steep scarps 3–5 m in height. The intervals between terrac-
es are 25–50 m. There were wooden retaining walls, which 
have not been preserved until today. Terraces have been 
used for grazing for about 60–70 years; at present grazing 
intensity is low. Soils, Calcaric Someric Phaeozems (An-
thric Loamic), are cleared of stones and debris (Figure 4).
Three main groups of plant communities were de-
scribed on the terraces and unterraced slopes.
The first group is common over the slope including 
terraces and steep uneroded slopes. It was described in 
the key plot on the large terrace, 1943 m a.s.l., and the 
neighbouring slope. The total vegetation coverage is 
 80–90%, vegetation height is 20–30 cm. The communi-
ty consists of meadow species such as Alchemilla caucasi-
ca, Plantago atrata, Festuca ovina, Veronica gentianoides, 
Pedicularis sibthorpii, Myosotis alpestris, Helictotrichon ver-
sicolor, Astragalus oreades, Ranunculus oreophyllus, Phleum 
montanum, Alchillea millefolium, Amoria am bigua, Ono-
brychis petraea, Aster alpinus and Polygala anatolica. More 
xerophytic meadow-steppe species are also common here, 
such as Salvia verticillata,  Medicago furcata, Pentaphylloi-
des fruticosa, Galium verum and Plantago media.
The second group of meadow and meadow-steppe spe-
cies occurs among species of the first group only on the 
terrace platform and gentle slopes and disappears in the 
steep sections: Amoria montana, Poa alpina, Lotus cornicu-
latus, Tragopogon reticulatus, Anthyllis vulneraria, Arenaria 
lychnidea, Leontondon hispidus, Campanula hohenackeri, 
Bupleurum polyphyllum, Silene ruprechtii, Bromopsis ri-
paria, Artemisia marschalliana, Koeleria cristata, Carex 
humilis and Linum nervosum.
The third group is characteristic for scarps and steep 
slopes between two terraces that gradually pass into the 
scarp of the upper terrace. Vegetation specific of these 
sections – especially of scarps – is clearly expressed (Fig-
ure 5). Soil surface is disturbed by cattle, and vegetation 
coverage is not more than 50%. A key plot, 1957 m a.s.l, 
25–30° (Table 1, rel. 1), is described. The meadow and 
meadow-steppe species of the second group are absent, 
and along with the plants of the common first group, 
xerophytes and petrophytes are common: Thymus col-
linus, Anthemis sosnovskyana, Veronica chamaedrys, Heli-
anthemum nummu larium, Potentilla crantzii, Androsace 
lehmanniana, Silene lychnidea, Onosma caucasica, Psephel-
lus dealbata, Rumex scutatus, Sedum oppositifolium, The-
sium alpinum and Draba sp.
The terrace edge has a clearly expressed strip of meso-
philous plants, the same as described above. 
A large terrace with stone retaining wall was described 
on the northern slope, left bank of Songutidon River, 
1996 m a.s.l. The vegetation cover had characteristics sim-
ilar to those described on the southern slope and did not 
reflect the climatic differences of different slope aspects. 
Figure 4: Soil profile cleared of stones. Large artificial terrace, 
1943 m a.s.l., meadow steppe (North Ossetia, Uallagcom Basin). 
Photo I. Shorkunov.
Slika 4: Talni profil z odstranjenim kamenjem. Velika umetna terasa, 
1943 m n.m.v., travniška stepa (Severna Osetija, Uallagcom).  
Foto I. Shorkunov.
Figure 5: Scarps of the terraces on the southern slope, 1900–2000 m 
a.s.l. (North Ossetia, Uallagcom Basin). Photo R. Gracheva.
Slika 5: Terasne stopnje na južnem pobočju, 1900–2000 m n.m.v., 
(Severna Osetija, območje Uallagcom). Foto R. Gracheva. 
R. Gracheva, E. Belonovskaya & V. Vinogradova
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In general, plant communities of the grasslands of ter-
raced and unterraced slopes have similar traits in relatively 
similar sections. Communities of subalpine meadows and 
meadow steppes occupy terraces depending mainly on 
the slope topography at the same altitudes and to a lesser 
extent on the slope aspect. This confirms the observed 
plant communities’ distribution, which is independent 
of the climatic difference between southern and north-
ern slopes (Belonovskaya et al. 2016). However, before 
the background of the general similarity of the grasslands, 
different plant communities are characteristic for the 
abandoned agricultural terraces: communities common 
to the terrace platform and the original slope, mesophil-
ous edge communities, and scarp communities similar to 
the vegetation of steep slopes. Thus, terraces create spe-
cific vegetation patterns on the slope. 
Discussion
Terraced areas are characteristic elements of the mountain 
landscape and part of the cultural history and human-land 
resource relations of the rural mountain regions of the 
world. In spite of the progressive abandonment of rural 
mountain areas, terraces have remained on the slopes un-
til now as evidence of past agricultural landscapes. There 
is much information on the loss of major species and bio-
diversity following abandonment of managed grasslands. 
Regarding abandoned terraces these processes are usually 
explained by the disintegration of the terraces (Dorren & 
Rey 2012, Agnoletti et al. 2015, Arnaéz et al. 2017).
As was already mentioned, in the studied areas old ar-
able terraces were integrated in the grassland landscapes 
about 60–70 years ago and grazed or mown up to the 
1990s. They have been abandoned (or underused in some 
cases) during the last 20–25 years. Terraces appear to be 
stable, resisting even rain storms. According to the cur-
rent study, plant diversity and vegetation cover are similar 
on the terraces’ platforms and gentle uneroded slopes and 
on the scarps of terraces and steep slopes. We can consider 
this fact as a convergence of plant communities of man-
made and natural elements of mountain topography.
In a previous article, the convergence of soils and veg-
etation of abandoned rural mountain areas within the 
studied altitudinal range was shown (Belonovskaya et al. 
2016). It was assumed that the legacy of past land use 
including the unifying role of soil cultivation, combined 
with a relatively short period of grassland development, 
plays a role in the similarity of vegetation composition. 
This is especially true for the grasslands on the terraces. 
However, terraces contribute to the plant diversity 
of communities due to their construction. Elements of 
terraces, such as platform, edge and scarp, determine 
the spatial structure of communities along the terraced 
slopes. Thus, anthropogenic transformation of the slopes 
is a prerequisite for the fragmentation of vegetation cover 
into regular patterns. In the Caucasus this important fact 
has not been noted and evaluated so far, though the eco-
system fragmentation conditions the diversity of soils and 
mesofauna and affects the waterways. Effects of habitat 
fragmentation may be a major threat for species on the 
local scale (Habel et al. 2013).
What could the future hold for the grasslands of aban-
doned agricultural terraces? It is well known that heat 
and moisture are limiting factors of vegetation devel-
opment. For the study area, an analysis of changes in 
heat and humidity was made using the vegetation index 
(NDVI), the index of vegetation conditions (VCI), the 
Satellite Climatic Extremes Index (SCEI) and other rele-
vant data, estimating relations between index values and 
vegetation condition. It was shown that, during the last 
20 years, active temperatures (a sum of temperatures for 
the season with daily temperatures exceeding 10 °C) and 
humidity have been gradually increasing in the altitudes 
from 1400 to 2800–3000 m a.s.l. and that the condi-
tions for vegetation growth have improved (Vinogradova 
et al. 2015, 2017). An increase in temperature and hu-
midity may lead to a reduction of climatic differences of 
the slopes, and a further convergence of grassland com-
munities can be assumed.
Grasslands of abandoned agricultural terraces are ap-
propriate and informative objects for scientific studies of 
the natural processes following the social and economic 
transformation and environmental changes. Being part 
of the cultural heritage and having important environ-
mental and aesthetic functions, these grasslands should be 
protected by nature conservation.
Acknowledgements
Field research was supported by the Russian Foundation 
for Basic Research (RFBR) grant № 14-05 00233A. The 
analysis of data and article preparation were made under 
support of the Federal Program, Project 0148-2016-0003 
«Geographical assessment of natural and anthropogenic 
evolution of soils based on the concept of soil memory for 
the purpose of rational nature management», and Project 
0148-2014-0017 “Revealing biotic indicators of sustain-
able development and land use optimization, elaboration 
of the biogeographic principles of territory-based nature 
protection”. The authors are very grateful to Dr. Aiko 
Huckauf for the linguistic edition and to Dr. Orsolya 
Valkó for the comments and general edition of the text.
R. Gracheva, E. Belonovskaya & V. Vinogradova
Mountain grassland ecosystems on abandoned agricultural terraces  
(Russia, North Caucasus)
68
17/1 • 2018, 61–71
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Appendix
Field characteristics of the relevés and coverage of the lay-
ers in Table 1 given in the following order: locality, date, 
relevé number, herb layer (%), altitude (m), aspect, incli-
nation (%), number of species.
Iraf district, Uallagkom basin. The Dargonkom River 
valley, the right bank, 08. 06. 2010: 2) 55; 1846; S; 17; 
22 – 4) 60; 1962; E; 27; 20 – 18) 80; 1962; E; 5; 20. – 
10. 06. 2010: 1) 50; 1957; S; 20; 29 – 15) 100; 1952; S; 
2; 25 – 16) 90; 1952; S; 8; 24 – 5) 50; 1985; S; 15; 22. 
The Dargonkom River valley, the left bank, 08. 06. 2010: 
13) 80; 1931; N; 20; 27. – 10. 06. 2010; 21) 85; 1884; 
EN; 10; 39. – 28. 06. 2014: 19) 85; 1943; S; 15; 47 – 
20) 80; 2034; WSS, 15; 44 – 11) 40; 1975; S; 25; 24. 
The Songutidon River valley, the left bank, 27. 06. 2014: 
12) 100; 2047; NE, 30; 47. 
The Songutidon River valley, the right bank, 11. 06. 
2010: 7) 70; 1758; S; 20; 36.
The Komidon River valley, the right bank, 09. 06. 2010: 
10) 75; 1914; NE; 25; 26. – 10.06.2010: 3) 35; 1824; 
S; 25; 20. – 25. 06. 2014: 6) 30; 1834; S; 35; 21. – 
26. 06. 2014: 8) 100; 1890; WWS; 30; 21 – 17) 80; 
1923; WWS; 5; 41 – 14) 75; 1952; WWS; 10; 38 – 9) 
65; 1890; WS; 35; 39. 
R. Gracheva, E. Belonovskaya & V. Vinogradova
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Groups of relevés S S S S S S S S S S S S S T T T T T T T T
№ of relevés 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
The group of grassland species
Alchemilla caucasica 2 . 1 . 2 . 1 + + + . . . 1 3 2 1 1 + . 3
Plantago atrata 1 + 1 . + + + 1 . . 1 1 + + 1 1 + . + 1 1
Festuca ovina 2 1 . 2 . . 2 2 2 1 1 1 . 3 1 2 4 1 3 3 .
Veronica gentianoides + + . + 2 . + + . + . + + + + + 1 + + + +
Myosotis alpestris + + . . . + 1 + + + . + 1 + . . + + + + +
Galium verum . . . + + + + 1 1 + 1 + . 1 + + 1 . + 1 +
Ranunculus oreophyllus . . . . 1 . . .   . . 1 . + 1 + 1 1 . 1 2
Helictotrichon versicolor 1 + . . . . . + + 1 . 1 . 1 2 2 . . . + 1
Amoria montana . . . . . . + . + 3 . 3 . . 2 . + + + 1 .
Poa alpina . + + . 1 . 1 . + + . . . 1 + . . + 1 1 +
Phleum montanum . . . . + . + .   . . + 1 . . 1 1 . 1 1 +
Alchillea millefolium . . . . . . + .   + . + . 1 . + 1 . + . 1
Amoria ambigua . . + . 2 . + . . . . 1 1 . . 2 + . + 1 .
Leontondon hispidus . . . . + . . . . . . + . + . . 1 . + 1 .
Pedicularis sibthorpii + . . . 2 . + + . . + . 1 + + 1 + 1 + 1 .
Polygala anatolica . . . + + . + + + + . . + . . 1 . . + 1 1
Plantago medium . + . + 1 . + +   . . . . + + 1 1 + + + .
Campanula hohenackeri . + + . . . + 2 + . 2 . 1 1 . . 1 . + + .
Bupleurum polyphyllum . . . . . . +   + . + + . . . . . . + 1 .
Pulsatilla albana . . . . . . . . . . . + + . + . . + . + 1
Silene ruprechtii . . . . . . . + r . + + . . . . + . + + .
Scabiosa caucasica . . . . . . . 1 . . . 1 . 1 . . 1 . . 1 .
Dactylorhiza species . . . . . . . . . . . + . + . . + . . + .
Centaurea fischeri . . . + . . . . . + . 1 1 + . . . + . + .
Seseli libanotis . . . . . + . + + . . + . + . . . . + . +
  The group of meadow steppe community species
Salvia verticillata + . + + 1 1 + + 1 . 1 1 . 1 + + . + + . +
Medicago furcata + + + + 1 + + + + + 1 + . . 2 1 . . + . .
Bromopsis riparia . . . 1 1 + . 2 2 2 1 3 1 2 1 . 2 4 1 2 3
Artemisia 
chamaemelifolia + 1 + 1 2 . 2 . + 2 2 2 . . 1 1 2 1 . 1 +
Thymus collinus 1 1 1 + . . + + + + 1 . . + . . 1 . . 1 .
Artemisia marschalliana . + + 1 . . + 1 . . . . . 1 . . . . 1 . .
Astragalus oreades 2 + . + . 1 . + 2 . + . . . . . 1 . + + .
Veronica caucasica . + . + . 1 . . + . + . . + . . + . + . .
Onobrychis petraea . . . . . . . 1 1 . . . 2 + . 1 1 1 + 1 .
Aster alpinus . + . . . . . + + . . + . + . + 1 . + + +
Pentaphylloides fruticosa + . . . . . + r   . . 1 1 . . . + . + + .
Koeleria cristata . . . . . . . 2 + . + 1 . 1 . . 1 . + . .
Tephroseris caucasigena . . . . . + . . . + . . . + . . + . . . 1
Carex humilis . . . . . . . 2 2 . + . . . . . . . 1 3 .
Linum nervosum . . . + . . . + . + + . . . . . . . + . +
Linum hypericifolia . . . . . . . . . + . . + . . . + . . . 1
Table 1: Differentiation of grasslands on the terrace platforms and scarps of the Uallagcom basin, Iraf district (North Osetia-Ala-
nia). Legend: T – terrace platforms; S - scarps. Locality, coverage of the layers, altitude, slope aspect and inclination are indicated 
in the Appendix.
Tabela 1: Različne oblike travišč na ravnih delih teras in na terasnih stopnjah na območju Uallagcom, regija Iraf (Severna Osetija-
-Alanija). Legenda: T – ravni deli teras; S – brežine teras. Lokacija, pokrovnost plasti, nadmorska višina, ekspozicija, naklon so 
prikazani v Dodatku.
R. Gracheva, E. Belonovskaya & V. Vinogradova
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Groups of relevés S S S S S S S S S S S S S T T T T T T T T
№ of relevés 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
  Species, related to the slopes’ habitats
Anthemis sosnovskyana + + . . . + . 2 . + 1 + 2 . . . . . . . +
Veronica chamaedrys + . 1 . + . + + . + . . . . . . . . . . .
Artemisia splendens . . . . . 1 . . 1 . 1 . . . . . . . + . .
Vicia alpestris . . . . . . + + . . . + + . + . . . . . .
Stipa pulcherrima . . + . . . . . + . . . . . . . . . . . .
Helianthemum 
nummularium + . . . . . . . . . . + . . . . . . . . .
Potentilla crantzii + + + + . . . . + . . . . . . . . . . . +
Androsace lehmanniana + . + + . . . . + + + . . . . . . . . . .
Silene lychnidea + + + . . . . + +   + . . . . . . . . . .
Onosma caucasica + + . + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Psephellus dealbata + . . . . . . 1 + . . . . + . . . . . . .
Rumex scutatus + . . . . + + . . . . + . . . . . . . . .
Sedum oppositifolium + . 1 + . . + . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thesium alpinum + + . + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sedum tenellum . + . . . . + . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Draba sp. + + . . . . + . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Carduus sp. . . . . + + . + . . . . . + . . . . . . .
Cephalaria gigantea . . . . + + . + . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Allium saxatilis . . . . . + . . + . . . . . . . . . . . .
Filipendula hexapetala . . + . . . . . . . . + . . . . . . . . .
Coronilla varia + . . . + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Luzula multiflora . . . . . . . . . . . + + . . . . . . . 1
Carum carvi . . . . . . . . . + . + + . . . . . . . +
Trifolium medium . . . . . . . + + . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inula orientalis . . . . . . . . . . . + + . . . . . . . .
  Accompanying species
Festuca valesiaca . . 1 . . . . . 3 . . 1 3 . 1 . . . . 1 1
Lotus corniculatus . . . . . . . . 1 . 1 + . 1 . . 1 . + . .
Trifolium canescens . . . . . . . . . . . + . + + . 1 + . 1 +
Anthoxanthum odoratum . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . +
Tragopogon reticulatus . . . . . . . . . . + + . . . . 1 . + . .
Rhinanthus minor . . . . . . . . . . . + . 1 . . 1 . . . .
Anthyllis vulneraria . . . . 1 . + . 1 . . . . . + . + . + . .
Arenaria lychnidea . . . . . . + . + . . . . . + . . . + + .
Stachys macrantha . . . . . . . . . . . . . + . . . . . . +
Primula macrocalyx . . . . . . . . . . . + . . . . + + . . .
Cruciata laevigata . . . . . . . . . + . + . . . . . . . . +
Alchemilla sericata . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . 2 .
Nonea echioides . . . . . + . . . . . . . . . . . + . . .
Euphorbia glaberrima . . . . + . . . . . . . . . + . . . + . .
Scrophularia ruprechtii . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Scutellaria orientalis . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . + . . . .
Heracleum sosnowskiana . . . . . + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convolvulus vulgaris . . . . . . . . . . + . . . . . . . . . .
Geranium sanguineum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .