DOI: 10.17573/ipar.2016.1.05
1.01 Originalni znanstveni članek
Povezanost vodenja in zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov na Policijski upravi Ljubljana
Dominik Žužman
Ministrstvo za notranje zadeve, Slovenija dominik.zuzman@gmail.com
Melita Moretti
Univerza v Ljubljani, Slovenija melita.moretti@amis.net
ZVLEČEK
Kvantitativna raziskava, katere cilj je bil raziskati vpliv elementov vodenja na zavzetost uniformiranih policistov, je bila izvedena med 514 uniformiranimi policisti na vseh 22 policijskih postajah na območju Policijske uprave Ljubljana. Ugotovili smo močan pozitiven vpliv odnosa vodje, kot enega izmed elementov vodenja, na zavzetost uniformiranih policistov. Z raziskavo smo tudi ugotovili, da je kljub v povprečju dobri oceni vodenja njihovih vodij več kot tri četrtine uniformiranih policistov pri svojem delu nezavzetih. Pri načrtovanju, organiziranju, vodenju in kontroliranju organizacije bodo izidi raziskave v praktično pomoč tako vodjem policijskih postaj na območju Policijske uprave Ljubljana, kot tudi izvajalcem izobraževanj vodij policijskih postaj.
Ključne besede: policijska postaja, uniformirani policist, vodenje, zavzetost zaposlenih
JEL: J24
1 Uvod
Uspešnost vodenja zaposlenih se presoja po doseženih ciljih v organizaciji. V pridobitnih organizacijah so to ekonomsko-finančni cilji, medtem ko so v slovenski policiji cilji operativna uspešnost, učinkovitost in legitimnost delovanja (Anželj, 2001).
Rezultati raziskave (Aristovnik et al., 2012) o učinkovitosti slovenske policije na regionalni ravni so pokazali visoko stopnjo neenakosti med posameznimi obravnavanimi policijskimi upravami. Izvedba raziskave je temeljila na primerjavi statističnih podatkov ocen o (ne)učinkovitosti opravljanja policijske
Žužman, D., & Moretti, M. (2016). Povezanost vodenja in zavzetosti uniformiranih
policistov na Policijski upravi Ljubljana [Correlation between Leadership and i Engagement of the Uniformed Police Officers at the Ljubljana Police Directorate]. 1 International Public Administration Review, 14(1), 115-155.
Dominik Žužman, Melita Moretti
dejavnosti pri preprečevanju, odkrivanju in preiskovanju kaznivih dejanjv časovnem obdobju 2005-2010, letnih poročilih policijskih uprav, podatkovnih bazah Ministrstva za notranje zadeve in Statističnega urada Republike Slovenije. Zaradi ugotovljenih rezultatov raziskave (Aristovnik et al., 2012) ter zaradi dejstva, da je slovenska policija v zadnjih dveh desetletjih doživela mnoge spremembe na področju ciljev, vrednot, organiziranosti, opreme, infrastrukture, načinov nagrajevanja ipd., postaja vodenje zaposlenih v slovenski policiji še toliko večji izziv,
Uspešnost vodenja zaposlenih je povezana s stopnjo njihove zavzetosti (Fleming & Asplund, 2007). Zavzeti zaposleni so pri svojem delu uspešnejši od nezavzetih zaposlenih (MacLeod & Clarke, 2009; Harter, Schmidt, Agrawal, & Plowman, 2013). Ob tem se zastavlja vprašanje, ali elementi vodenja zaposlenih v slovenski policiji vplivajo na zavzetost uniformiranih policistov. V ta namen smo postavili naslednjo hipotezo: elementi vodenja zaposlenih v slovenski policiji statistično značilno vplivajo na stopnjo zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov.
Cilj prispevka je, predstaviti značilnosti zavzetosti zaposlenih (opredelitev, pomen in dejavniki zavzetosti zaposlenih) in vodenja na splošno, in obravnavati izsledke kvantitativne raziskave, ki smo jo izvedli v avgustu in septembru 2013 na naključnem vzorcu uniformiranih policistov na vseh 22 policijskih postajah na območju Policijske uprave Ljubljana.
2 Vodja in vodenje
Vodja ima pomembno vlogo v vsakodnevnem življenju zaposlenih in ima nad njimi določeno socialno moč (Schermerhorn, Osborn, Hunt & Uhl-Bien, 2011; Griffin & Moorhead, 2014; McAuley, Duberley & Johnson, 2014; Schermerhorn & Wright, 2014).
Vodenje je tako proces usmerjanja, vplivanja, spodbujanja in spremljanja zaposlenega ali skupine zaposlenih (Robbins & Judge, 2012; Yukl, 2013; McAuley et al., 2014). Opira se na t. i. mehke dejavnike, kot so vrednote, etika, pričakovanja, interesi in zaupanje (Tavčar, 2006; Yukl, 2013; McAuley et al., 2014). Med elemente vodenja štejemo odnos vodje do zaposlenih (motivacija, skrb, komuniciranje, reševanje konfliktov ipd.), zadovoljevanje potreb zaposlenih (prilagajanje dela) in pomoč vodje (Schermerhorn, 2012; McAuley et al., 2014; Schermerhorn & Wright, 2014). Neposreden vpliv na uspešnost vodenja imajo osebnostne (npr. spol, starost, delovna doba, analitičnost, komunikativnost), delovne in socialne (npr. olikanost, pripravljenost za sodelovanje) značilnosti vodje (Armstrong, 2009).
Za uspešno vodenje so pomembne kompetence vodje (Griffin & Moorhead, 2014). Kompetence vodje delimo na tehnične kompetence (obvladovanje dela, specialna znanja, analitične sposobnosti, razreševanje konfliktov ipd.), medosebne kompetence (sposobnost komuniciranja, motiviranja
116 International Public Administration Review, Vol. 14, No. 1/2016
Povezanost vodenja in zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov na Policijski upravi Ljubljana
in koordiniranja) in konceptualne kompetence (sposobnost razmišljanja, sposobnost odločanja, sposobnost dolgoročnega pogleda ipd.) (Yukl, 2013).
Poleg kompetenc vodje sta za uspešno vodenje pomembni tudi moč in vpliv vodje (Schermerhorn et al., 2011; Griffin & Moorhead, 2014) - sposobnost vplivanja na zaposlene, ki izhajajo iz položaja, ki ga vodja ima (t. i. pozicijska moč) in njegovih osebnih značilnosti (t. i. osebnostna moč) (Daft & Marcic, 2013).
Med sestavne dele vodenja štejemo delegiranje, spodbujanje in mentorstvo/ poučevanje (Armstrong, 2009; Schermerhorn et al., 2011). Delegiranje je prenašanje dela na podrejene zaposlene in njihovo pooblaščanje (Schermerhorn, 2012; McAuley et al., 2014). Z delegiranjem vodja na zaposlene prenaša del pooblastil, odgovornosti pa ne (Biloslavo, 2008). Delegiranje razbremenjuje vodjo tekočih opravil in reševanja podrobnosti. Na ta način se vodja lahko osredotoča na nujne in pomembne zadeve (Armstrong, 2009). Kdaj, kaj, komu in kako delegirati, presodi vodja sam, pozoren pa mora biti, da oseba/podrejeni, ki mu vodja preda del svojih pristojnosti, delo zna opravljati (Biloslavo, 2008; Schermerhorn, 2012). Z mentorstvom/poučevanjem vodja poskuša povečati zmožnost zaposlenih, da bi bolje razumeli, ravnali in obvladovali spremembe, s spodbujanjem tega pa vodi zaposlene v zavzeto dejavnost (Tavčar, 2006).
Splošni način vodenja zaposlenih v policiji je linijsko-kooperativni način vodenja - način vodenja, ki je naravnan na linijske odnose med posameznimi ravnmi vodenja in na operativno izvajanje nalog in ukrepov (Anželj, 2001). Vodenje na ravni operativnega vodenja se deli na operativno usklajeno vodenje (vodenje regijskih policijskih uprav), operativno usmerjevalno vodenje (vodenje oddelkov in drugih organizacijskih enot znotraj policijskih uprav - policijskih postaj) in operativno taktično vodenje (vodenje policijskih postaj) (Vršec, 1993; Anželj, 2001). Sistem vodenja v policiji ni enak sistemu vodenja drugih organizacij, saj sistem vodenja v policiji oblikuje »narava dela«: delo, ki terja delovanje 24 ur na dan, posebni pogoji dela (npr. tudi ponoči, ob nedeljah in praznikih, stalna dosegljivost ipd.), uniformiranost policije, status policije kot državnega organa, zakonsko določene funkcije, pristojnosti in pooblastila, javnost in tajnost delovanja (Vršec, 1993; Anželj, 2001; Žužman, 2014).
Po pregledu raziskav s področja vodenja v policiji lahko razberemo naslednje značilnosti učinkovitega vodenja v policiji, in sicer: 1) ustvarjanje skupne vizije (Schafer, 2008; Steinheider & Wuestewald, 2008; Miller, Watkins & Webb, 2009; Andreescu & Vito, 2010; Vito & Higgins, 2010; O'Leary, Resnick-Luetke & Monk-Turner, 2011; Vito, Suresh & Richards, 2011); 2) gradnja zavezanosti organizaciji (Steinheider & Wuestewald, 2008; Vito & Higgins, 2010; Dick, 2010; Johnson, 2012); 3) skrb za podrejene (Singer & Singer, 1990; Moore, 1994; Bryman, Stephens & Campo, 1996; Densten, 1999, 2003; Davies, 2000; Metcalfe & Dick, 2000; Davies & Thomas, 2003; Butterfield, Edwards & Woodall, 2004; Fleming, 2004; Murphy & Drodge, 2004; Andreescu & Vito, 2010;
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 14, št. 1/2016 117
Dominik Žužman, Melita Moretti
Schafer, 2010; Vito & Higgins, 2010; Žagar & Duric, 2012); 4) nadzorovanje sprememb (Vito, Walsh & Kunselman, 2005; ButterfieLd, Edwards & Woodall, 2005; Brodeur, 2005; Clarke, 2006; Silvestri, 2007; Steinheider & Wuestewald, 2008; Miller et al., 2009) in 5) razreševanje problemov (Silvestri, 2007; Miller et al., 2009; O'Leary et al., 2011; Meaklim & Sims, 2011; Žagar & Duric, 2012).
3 Zavzetost zaposlenih
Samoumevno se nam zdi, da razumemo pomen zavzetosti (angl. employee engagement) in najbrž večina ljudi verjame, da je zavzetost zaposlenih koristna, niso pa povsem prepričani, kako se zavzetost kaže, z izjemo tega, da si predstavljajo ljudi, ki trdo delajo in jim je mar za svoje delo. Kljub velikemu številu opredelitev zavzetosti ne moremo podati enoznačne opredelitve, s katero bi se strinjali vsi avtorji, vendar vse vsebujejo nekatere skupne sestavine,
3.1 Opredelitve zavzetosti zaposlenih
Eden od prvih teoretikov, ki je začel pisati o zavzetosti v povezavi z delom, je bil Kahn (1990). Kahn je zavzete zaposlene opisal kot povsem fizično povezane s svojimi delovnimi vlogami (kot fizično energijo, ki jo posameznik vloži v opravljanje svojih delovnih nalog), kognitivno povezane (kot posameznikovo prepričanje o organizaciji in delovnih pogojih) in čustveno povezane (kot pozitivna ali negativna čustva zaposlenega, ki mu jih vzbujajo organizacija, vodje in delovni pogoji). Glede na omenjene dimenzije zavzetosti je Kahn (1990) mnenja, da je zaposleni lahko zavzet bodisi v eni bodisi v drugi dimenziji in bolj kot je zavzet v izbrani dimenziji, večja je njegova zavzetost.
Maslach in Leiter (1997) trdita, da je zavzetost zaposlenih nasprotje izgorelosti, saj menita, da je izgorelost stanje telesne, čustvene in mentalne izčrpanosti, medtem ko zavzetost pooseblja pozitivno energijo, visoko učinkovitost in intenzivno vpletenost.
Schaufeli in Bakker (2004) sta nasprotnega mnenja in menita, da zavzetost in izgorelost nista dva nasprotujoča si pola iste dimenzije, ampak da sta to dva ločena in med seboj negativno povezana pojma, saj odsotnost nečesa negativnega še ne pomeni prisotnosti nečesa pozitivnega. Avtorja (2004) menita, da si je zmotno predpostavljati, da bo posameznik, ki ne doživlja izgorelosti, zavzet.
Bakker, Albrecht in Leiter (2011a) zavzetost opredeljujejo kot pozitivno čustveno stanje, za katerega je značilna visoka stopnja energije in visoka stopnja vpletenosti v delo. Avtorji (2011a) menijo, da zavzete zaposlene za razliko od zadovoljnih odlikuje visoka stopnja zadovoljstva s svojim delom (predanost), ki jo združujejo z visoko aktivnostjo (živahnost, zatopljenost). Zadovoljstvo pri delu opredeljujejo kot pasivno obliko dobrega počutja zaposlenega na delovnem mestu (Bakker et al., 2011a). Prav tako zavzetost razlikujejo od z delom povezanega zanosa, saj zanos običajno traja krajši
116 International Public Administration Review, Vol. 14, No. 1/2016
Povezanost vodenja in zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov na Policijski upravi Ljubljana
čas (uro ali manj), medtem ko zavzetost traja daljše obdobje (Bakker et al., 2011a). Zavzetost zaposlenih se prav tako razlikuje od motivacije zaposlenih, Za motivirane zaposlene je značilna velika predanost, medtem ko zavzete zaposlene še dodatno odlikuje visoka aktivnost, ki jo kažejo s svojo živahnostjo, zatopljenostjo in večjim uspehom pri delu. Zato je po mnenju Bakkerja (2011) zavzetost, pred motivacijo in zadovoljstvom, najboljši napovedovalec uspeha,
Iz opisanega lahko ugotovimo, da avtorji zavzetost opisujejo z izrazi, kot so strast, navdušenje, povezanost, zanos in usmerjen trud. Kljub neenotnim opredelitvam zavzetosti zaposlenih vse vsebujejo dve osnovni komponenti:
•	pozitivno in energično motivacijsko stanje, povezano z delom, in
•	pristno pripravljenost prispevati k delovni vlogi in uspešnosti organizacije,
Avtorji (Kahn, 1990; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; Wagner & Harter, 2006; Macey & Schneider, 2008; Bakker, 2011; Harter et al., 2013) so si prav tako enotni, da je zavzetost pozitivno, z delom povezano psihološko (kot navdušenje, energija, strast in živahnost) in motivacijsko stanje (kot pristna pripravljenost vložiti trud za dosego zastavljenih ciljev organizacije).
Zaradi tega se, v pridobitnih pa tudi vse več v nepridobitnih organizacijah (predvsem v javnem sektorju) osredotočajo na človeške dejavnike poslovanja, da bi izboljšali nizko stopnjo zavzetosti zaposlenih,
3.2 Dejavniki zavzetosti zaposlenih
Dejavniki zavzetosti so zanimivi za vse, ki se na teoretičen, empiričen ali praktičen način ukvarjajo z zavzetostjo zaposlenih. Dejavniki zavzetosti so postali ključni za načrtovanje dejavnosti v smislu zvišanja zavzetosti pri zaposlenih,
Z modelom delovnih zahtev in virov (angl. job demands-resources model) kot najbolj citiranim in uporabljenim modelom ugotavljanja zavzetosti zaposlenih, se pojasnjuje, kako značilnosti delovnega mesta in osebni viri neposredno vplivajo na zavzetost zaposlenih (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). V prispevku bomo predstavili značilnosti delovnega mesta, ki imajo notranjo motivacijsko vlogo, saj pospešujejo rast, učenje in razvoj ter zunanjo motivacijsko vlogo, ker povečujejo prizadevanje in sposobnost posameznika pri opravljanju dela.
Na podlagi omenjenega modela delovnih zahtev in virov so značilnosti posameznega delovnega mesta razdeljene v dve širši dimenziji, to sta zahteve delovnega mesta (delovna in čustvena obremenitev, fizične zahteve, časovni pritisk, izmensko delo, delo doma in slabi odnosi med zaposlenimi) in delovni viri (avtonomija pri delu, podpora vodstva, nagrade in priznanja, pravično razdeljevanje koristi, primerna nadzorna in socialna podpora pri delu, možnost razvoja in sodelovanja pri odločanju, povratne informacije ter varna zaposlitev) (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). Zahteve delovnega mesta po mnenju
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 14, št. 1/2016 117
Dominik Žužman, Melita Moretti
Van den Broeckove in sodelavcev (2008) vodijo v izgorelost, delovni viri pa nasprotno zavzetost zaposlenih povečujejo in se nanašajo na tiste vidike dela, ki imajo namen funkcionalno dosegati cilje dela, zmanjšati zahteve na delovnem mestu in s tem povezane fiziološke in psihološke stroške ter spodbujati osebno rast in razvoj (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner & Schaufeli, 2001).
Demeroutijeva in sodelavci (2001) z modelom razlagajo, da sta z zahtevami delovnega mesta povezani predvsem izčrpanost in izgorelost ter da pomanjkanje delovnih virov povzroči umik z delovnega mesta. Zahteve na delovnem mestu sprožijo proces energijskega izčrpavanja, v katerem naraščanje prizadevanja zaposlenega zaradi doseganja zahtev delovnega mesta povzroča povečanje psiholoških in fizičnih naporov, ki porabljajo energijo zaposlenih. Delovni viri kot so rast, učenje in razvoj, pa lahko po drugi strani nasprotno v njih spodbudijo motivacijski proces (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner & Schaufeli, 2001).
Kahn (1990) je mnenja, da delovna mesta, ki zagotavljajo izziv in raznovrstnost na delovnem mestu, omogočajo uporabo različnih vrednot, veščin in znanj, s tem pa zaposlenim ponujajo možnost, da prispevajo k čim boljšim poslovnim rezultatom organizacije ter povečujejo občutek psihološke smiselnosti,
Številne tuje raziskave so pokazale, da so poleg nagrad in priznanj (Mauno, Kinnunen & Ruokolainen, 2007; James, McKechnie & Swanberg, 2011), ustrezen nadzor (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; James, et al., 2011), avtonomija (Bakker, Hakanen, Demerouti & Xanthopoulou, 2007; Mauno et al., 2007; Schaufeli, Bakker & Van Rhenen, 2009; Tims, Bakker & Derks, 2012; Bakker & Demerouti, 2014; Breevaart et al., 2014), povratne informacije (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; Bakker et al., 2007; Mauno et al., 2007; Schaufeli et al., 2009; Albrecht & Su, 2012; Tims et al., 2012; Van den Berg, Bakker & Ten Cate, 2013; Bakker, Sanz Vergel & Kuntze 2015), podpora sodelavcev (Bakker et al., 2007; Schaufeli et al., 2009; Petrou, Demerouti, Peeters, Schaufeli & Hetland, 2012; Breevaart et al., 2014; Breevaart, Bakker, Demerouti & Van den Heuvel, 2015) in nadrejenega (Bakker et al., 2007; Schaufel et al., 2009; Breevaart et al., 2015) ter dobri odnosi med sodelavci (Nahrgang, Morgeson & Hofmann, 2011; Petrou et al., 2012; Bakker & Demerouti, 2014; Bakker et al., 2015; Breevaart et al., 2015) tisti vidiki delovnega okolja, ki naj bi razložili razlike v zavzetosti zaposlenih,
3.3 Pomen zavzetosti zaposlenih za delo
Zavzeti zaposleni so navezani na svojo delovno vlogo, ki jim pomeni pomemben del njihove identitete, sajso ponotranjili aspiracije (težnje, želje) in cilje svoje organizacije. Sami svojo utrujenost kljub napornemu delu opisujejo kot prijetno stanje, povezano z uspehi v organizaciji. Obratno pa nezavzeti zaposleni v opravljanje dela ne vlagajo svojih čustev, energije, strasti in so le fizično prisotni na delu. Vseeno jim je za cilje organizacije in le redko
116 International Public Administration Review, Vol. 14, No. 1/2016
Povezanost vodenja in zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov na Policijski upravi Ljubljana
se jim zgodi, da so zatopljeni v delo organizacije, do katere ne čutijo nobene pripadnosti (Bakker, Albrecht & Leiter, 2011b). Zavzeti zaposleni po mnenju Gorgievskega, Bakkerja in Schaufelija (2010) delajo zato, ker jih delo zabava in ne zaradi močnega in nepremagljivega notranjega nagona (kot na primer deloholiki).
Zavzeti zaposleni imajo prav tako občutek energične in učinkovite povezave s svojo delovno aktivnostjo, svoje delo opravljajo trdo, z občutkom navdušenja, navdiha, ponosa ter si ves čas sami zastavljajo nove izzive, ki jih prinaša delovno mesto, z namenom da ostanejo zavzeti (Bakker et al., 2011b). Kahn (1990) meni, da zavzeti zaposleni ni samo nekdo, ki trdo dela. Zavzeti zaposleni izraža tudi svoja mnenja, ideje, slutnje, čustva glede problemov, ki jih želi razrešiti, hkrati pa se čuti obvezanega, da dela najbolje, kar zna, in raje spregovori, kot da je tiho.
Zavzeti zaposleni so po mnenju različnih avtorjev:
•	bolj ustvarjalni, produktivni in so na delovnem mestu pripravljeni storiti več (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008);
•	željni učenja ter v celoti povezani s svojo delovno vlogo (Sonnentag, 2003);
•	polni energije, zatopljeni v svoje delo in delovne aktivnosti (Bakker, 2011);
•	tisti, ki imajo občutek energične in učinkovite povezave s svojo delovno aktivnostjo in ki sebe vidijo kot popolnoma sposobne soočiti se z zahtevami ter pričakovanji svojega delovnega mesta (Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzales-Roma & Bakker, 2002);
•	sposobni in željni delati še več, zato je za organizacijo pomembno, da razumejo motive za njihovo zavzetost (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007),
4 Raziskava
4.1 Metode raziskovanja
Za zbiranje podatkov in informacijsmo uporabili modificiran vprašalnik zaprtega tipa, ki smo ga oblikovali na podlagi teoretičnih izhodišč, vprašalnika Gorenaka (2003; segment: vodenje zaposlenih v slovenski policiji) in vprašalnika Wagnerja in Harterja (2006; segment: osebna zavzetost zaposlenih),
Vprašalnik je bil sestavljen iz treh sklopov, in sicer:
•	Prvi sklop: demografski podatki anketiranih oseb (spol, starost, izobrazba, delovno mesto, čas zaposlitve v Policiji);
•	Drugi sklop: trditve uniformiranih policistov s področja vodenja zaposlenih na posameznih policijskih postajah;
•	Tretji sklop: trditve uniformiranih policistov s področja zavzetosti zaposlenih na posameznih policijskih postajah.
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 14, št. 1/2016 117
Dominik Žužman, Melita Moretti
Stopnjo strinjanja s posamezno trditvijo v drugem in tretjem sklopu vprašalnika so anketirane osebe označile na podlagi Likertove petstopenjske ocenjevalne lestvice.
Metoda anketiranja: vprašalnike smo s prazno pisemsko ovojnico, spremnim dopisom z osebno predstavitvijo, namenom anketiranja ter zagotavljanjem anonimnosti v anketi osebno dostavili vsem komandirjem na izbranih policijskih postajah (število dostavljenih vprašalnikov je bilo prilagojeno številu uniformiranih policistov na posamezni policijski postaji).
Podatke smo statistično obdelali in analizirali s pomočjo programske opreme SPSS 22.0. V raziskavi smo opravili:
•	osnovno statistično analizo: izračun osnovnih značilnosti vzorca in posameznih spremenljivk s področja vodenja in zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov (uporaba aritmetične sredine, standardnega odklona, frekvenčna porazdelitev ipd.);
•	faktorsko analizo: potrdili smo manjše število nemerljivih skupnih faktorjev vodenja uniformiranih policistov na izbranih policijskih postajah (dejavnikov načina vodenja zaposlenih) in manjše število nemerljivih skupnih faktorjev zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov na izbranih policijskih postajah (dimenzij zavzetosti zaposlenih), ki pojasnjujejo večino variance večjega števila merljivih indikatorjev - te faktorje smo v nadaljevanju uporabili kot pojasnjevalne spremenljivke;
•	multivariatno linearno regresijsko analizo: izračunali smo opisne mere za vsako spremenljivko, mere korelacije, vrednosti parametrov regresijskega modela, ocene parametrov regresijske funkcije in vrednosti preizkusov neodvisnosti ocen parametrov in vrednosti ostankov.
4.2 Ciljna skupina raziskovanja
Populacijo predstavljajo vsi (9321) uniformirani policisti na vseh 22 policijskih postajah na območju Policijske uprave Ljubljana, kar je tudi vzorec anketiranih,
Anketiranje smo izvajali v mesecu avgustu in septembru 2013. Prejeli smo 514 popolnoma izpolnjenih vprašalnikov (55,15 % odzivnost), kar je bilo zadostna podlaga za nadaljnjo statistično obdelavo in analizo.
Reprezentativnost vzorca smo na podlagi podatkov Ministrstva za notranje zadeve, Urada za organizacijo in kadre, Službe za kadrovske zadeve, na dan 1. 8. 2013, potrdili po spolu (na izbranih policijskih postajah je bilo skupno zaposlenih 78,7 % uniformiranih policistov in 21,4 % uniformiranih policistk), po delovnem mestu (na izbranih policijskih postajah je bilo skupno 40,9 % policistov, 24,6 % vodij patrulj, 13,0 % policistov kriminalistov, 9,9 % vodij policijskega okoliša, 7,4 % dežurnih policistov in 5,0 % vodij izmen) in po
1 Med uniformirane policiste nismo vključili vodstev policijskih postaj (komandirji in njihovi pomočniki).
116 International Public Administration Review, Vol. 14, No. 1/2016
Povezanost vodenja in zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov na Policijski upravi Ljubljana
povprečni starosti uniformiranih policistov (povprečna starost uniformiranih policistov je bila 34,9 let).
4.3 Rezultati raziskave
Anketiranci so v vprašalniku na trditve s področja vodenja in zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov lahko odgovarjali na podlagi Likertove ocenjevalne lestvice od 1 (nikakor se ne strinjam) do 5 (popolnoma se strinjam). Ocene 2, 3 in 4 pa so pomenile vmesne stopnje.
4.3.1 Vodenje
Iz tabele 1 je razvidno, da so anketiranci namenili v povprečju najvišjo oceno trditvi »Upošteva vaše želje o koriščenju dopusta.« (M = 4,53), najmanjšo pa trditvi »Odkriva konfliktne situacije v kolektivu.« (M = 3,64). Standardni odkloni (SD) se gibljejo med 0,800 in 1,143.
Tabela 1: Vodenje uniformiranih policistov na policijskih postajah
Trditve	M	SD
Upošteva vaše želje o koriščenju dopusta.	4,53	0,80
Prilagaja razpored dela, če to vi predlagate zaradi vaših službenih obveznostih.	4,47	0,87
Prilagaja razpored dela, če to vi želite zaradi osebnih obveznosti.	4,45	0,91
Pripravljen je na pogovore s policisti.	4,21	0,94
Izvaja nadzor nad delom policistov.	4,11	0,88
Pripravljen je na pogovore s policisti o načrtovanju dela.	4,11	0,98
Podpira policiste pri njihovem delu.	4,10	1,00
Načrtuje delo policistov.	4,09	0,83
Policistom daje navodila.	4,09	0,86
Prizadeva si za vzpostavljanje pozitivnega odnosa do policistov.	4,03	1,04
Preden greste k njemu na pogovor, zaupate v uspešnost komunikacije med vami in njim.	4,03	1,05
Prizadeva si za uspešno informiranje in komuniciranje s policisti.	4,00	0,96
V informiranju in komuniciranju med njim in policisti prevladuje sproščen odnos.	3,95	1,10
Neposredno se vključuje v razreševanje zahtevnejših operativnih primerov.	3,94	1,04
Policistom nudi pomoč pri delu.	3,87	1,07
Policistom postavlja jasne cilje.	3,87	1,00
Skrbi za soudeležbo policistov pri soodločanju o operativnih nalogah.	3,74	1,02
Skrbi za nagrade in pohvale policistov.	3,74	1,14
Odpravlja konflikte v kolektivu.	3,73	1,12
Preprečuje konflikte v kolektivu.	3,68	1,14
Prizadeva si za motivacijo policistov pri delu.	3,68	1,12
Odkriva konfliktne situacije v kolektivu.	3,64	1,09
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 14, št. 1/2016 117
Dominik Žužman, Melita Moretti
Vnadaljevanjusmoizvedliredukcijosklopatrditevspodročjavodenjazaposlenih v slovenski policiji, kjer smo s faktorsko analizo generirali nove neodvisne spremenljivke - elemente vodenja, in sicer: »Odnos komandirja policijske postaje do podrejenih« (krajše Odnos), »Komandirjevo zadovoljevanje potreb podrejenih« (krajše Potrebe) in »Komandirjeva pomoč podrejenim« (krajše Pomoč) - tabela 2. V regresijskem modelu so te spremenljivke predstavljale vzrok - neodvisne spremenljivke. Pri preverjanju zanesljivosti smo ugotovili, da imajo vsi trije elementi visoko stopnjo zanesljivosti (Cronbach Alfa nad 0,7) in skupaj pojasnijo 74,62 % celotne variance,
Tabela 2: Elementi vodenja zaposlenih v slovenski policiji in komunalitete
posameznih spremenljivk
Rotirana vrednost				
Spremenljivka	Faktor*			Komunalitete
	V1	V2	V3	
V informiranju in komuniciranju med njim in policisti prevladuje sproščen odnos,	0,848			0,805
Prizadeva si za motivacijo policistov pri delu,	0,846			0,808
Prizadeva si za vzpostavljanje pozitivnega odnosa do policistov,	0,841			0,832
Skrbi za nagrade in pohvale policistov,	0,827			0,750
Prizadeva si za uspešno informiranje in komuniciranje s policisti,	0,827			0,818
Preden greste k njemu na pogovor, zaupate v uspešnost komunikacije med vami in njim,	0,817			0,781
Pripravljen je na pogovore s policisti,	0,778			0,775
Skrbi za soudeležbo policistov pri soodločanju o operativnih nalogah,	0,764			0,674
Odpravlja konflikte v kolektivu,	0,759			0,715
Podpira policiste pri njihovem delu,	0,747			0,778
Preprečuje konflikte v kolektivu,	0,747			0,725
Pripravljen je na pogovore s policisti o načrtovanju dela,	0,699			0,775
Odkriva konfliktne situacije v kolektivu,	0,649			0,636
Policistom nudi pomoč pri delu,	0,623			0,696
Neposredno se vključuje v razreševanje zahtevnejših operativnih primerov,	0,602			0,624
Policistom postavlja jasne cilje,	0,574			0,668
Prilagaja razpored dela, če to vi želite zaradi osebnih obveznosti,		0,866		0,876
Prilagaja razpored dela, če to vi predlagate zaradi vaših službenih obveznostih,		0,846		0,859
Upošteva vaše želje o koriščenju dopusta,		0,824		0,837
Izvaja nadzor nad delom policistov,			0,753	0,569
Policistom daje navodila,			0,701	0,740
Načrtuje delo policistov,			0,678	0,693
% pojasnjene variance skupaj: 74,629	62,856	6,189	5,584	
* Faktorji: V1 - Odnos; V2 - Potrebe ; V3 - Pomoč,
116 International Public Administration Review, Vol. 14, No. 1/2016
Povezanost vodenja in zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov na Policijski upravi Ljubljana
4.3.2 Zavzetost zaposlenih
Podatke v tabeli 3 smo razvrstili padajoče glede na povprečno vrednost posamezne trditve. Razvidno je, da so anketiranci namenili v povprečju najvišjo oceno trditvi »Točno vem, kaj se pričakuje od mene na delovnem mestu.« (M = 4,26), najmanjšo pa trditvi »Moj najboljši prijatelj je iz službe.« (M = 2,20). Standardni odkloni (SD) se gibljejo med 0,759 in 1,291.
Tabela 3: Zavzetost uniformiranih policistov na policijskih postajah
Trditve	M	SD
Točno vem, kaj se pričakuje od mene na delovnem mestu.	4,26	0,76
Moj vodja me upošteva kot celovito osebo.	3,74	1,02
Moje mnenje se ceni in upošteva.	3,43	1,01
Moji sodelavci so iskreno zavzeti za dobro in kakovostno delo.	3,34	1,03
Vsaj nekdo načrtno spodbuja moj razvoj.	3,24	1,09
V tem letu sem imel priložnost za učenje in razvoj.	3,11	1,25
Imam priložnost početi praktično vsak dan tisto, v čemer sem najboljši.	3,05	1,08
Imam na voljo vse, kar potrebujem, da dobro opravim svoje delo.	2,93	1,08
V zadnjih šestih mesecih so se z menoj pogovarjali o mojem razvoju.	2,91	1,29
V zadnjih sedmih dneh so moje delo pohvalili.	2,82	1,26
Moj najboljši prijatelj je iz službe.	2,20	1,24
Pri merjenju zavzetosti smo trditve zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov po Gallupu razvrstili v tri kategorije (Harter et al., 2013):
•	Zavzeti zaposleni: energični zaposleni, ki so zaupljivi tako do sodelavcev kot do svojih predpostavljenih (vodij). Delajo s strastjo in so globoko povezani z vrednotami in poslanstvom organizacije, kjer so zaposleni (merilo: M > 3,7),
•	Nezavzeti zaposleni: »delno odsotni« zaposleni. Delo opravljajo korektno. V delo vložijo svoj čas, energije in strasti pa ne (merilo: 2,6 < M < 3,7).
•	Aktivno nezavzeti zaposleni: zaposleni, ki so nezadovoljni na svojem delovnem mestu. To nezadovoljstvo tudi aktivno izkazujejo. Ti zaposleni podcenjujejo delo zavzetih sodelavcev in vplivajo na splošno klimo v organizaciji (merilo: M < 2,6).
V nadaljevanju smo izvedli redukcijo sklopa trditev s področja zavzetosti zaposlenih, kjer smo s faktorsko analizo generirali nove neodvisne spremenljivke, in sicer: »Pripadnost in rast«, »Prispevek« in »Pogoji dela« (tabela 4). Pri preverjanju zanesljivosti smo ugotovili, da imajo vsi trije elementi visoko stopnjo zanesljivosti (Cronbach Alfa nad 0,7) in skupaj pojasnijo 64,24 % celotne variance.
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 14, št. 1/2016 117
Dominik Žužman, Melita Moretti
Tabela 4: Elementi zavzetosti zaposlenih in komunalitete posameznih
spremenljivk
Rotirana vrednost				
Spremenljivka	Faktor*			Komunalitete
	Z1	Z2	Z3	
Moj vodja me upošteva kot celovito osebnost.	0,813			0,741
Moje mnenje se ceni in upošteva.	0,763			0,750
Vsaj nekdo načrtno spodbuja moj razvoj.	0,760			0,729
V zadnjih sedmih dneh so moje delo pohvalili.	0,699			0,546
V zadnjih šestih mesecih so se z menoj pogovarjali o mojem razvoju.	0,660			0,653
Poslanstvo naše organizacije odslikava tudi to, kako pomembno je moje delo.	0,616			0,617
V tem letu sem imel priložnost za učenje in razvoj.	0,487			0,506
Imam na voljo vse, kar potrebujem, da dobro opravim svoje delo.		0,837		0,772
Imam priložnost početi praktično vsak dan tisto, v čemer sem najboljši.		0,741		0,676
Točno vem, kaj se pričakuje od mene na delovnem mestu.		0,572		0,487
Moj najboljši prijatelj je iz službe.			0,841	0,725
Moji sodelavci so iskreno zavzeti za dobro in kakovostno delo.			0,477	0,507
% pojasnjene variance skupaj: 64,237	47,084	8,744	8,409	
Rotacijski seštevki kvadratov uteži (A)	3,650	2,510	1,548	
* Faktorji: Z1 - Pripadnost in rast; Z2 - Prispevek; Z3 - Pogoji dela.
Za ugotavljanje skupne stopnje zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov na izbranih policijskih postajah smo z metodo tehtanega povprečja (angl. Weighted Average Cost Of Capital - WACC) dobili novo spremenljivko »Stopnja zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov na policijskih postajah« :
COMPUTE i1= (Z1 * 3.650 (X1) + Z2 * 2.510 (X2) + Z3 * 1.548 (X1)) / (3.650 (X1) + 2.510 (X2) + 1.548 (X3)
V regresijskem modelu je ta spremenljivka predstavljala posledico (odvisno spremenljivko).
4.3.3 Preverjanje zastavljene hipoteze
Na preizkus smo postavili naslednjo hipotezo: »Elementi vodenja zaposlenih v slovenski policiji statistično značilno vplivajo na stopnjo zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov«.
Izide regresijske analize smo predstavili z modelom. Izpolnjene so vse predpostavke veljavnosti regresijskega modela (ostanki so normalno porazdeljeni, prisotnosti heteroskedastičnosti ni, vrednost VIF posameznih trditev ni zadosti visoka (< 2), da bi vplivala na izide ocene).
116 International Public Administration Review, Vol. 14, No. 1/2016
Povezanost vodenja in zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov na Policijski upravi Ljubljana
Tabela 5: Ocene regresijskih koeficientov modela
Model	Nestandardni koeficienti		Standardni koeficient Beta	t	sig
	Beta	Standardna napaka			
Stopnja zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov	1,258	0,137		9,153	0,000
Neodv. sprem. Odnos	0,635	0,037	0,762	17,207	0,000
Neodv. sprem. Potrebe	-0,117	0,041	-0,127	-2,867	0,004
Regresijska analiza (tabela 5) je pokazala (z uporabo Stepwise regresijske metode), da le en element vodenja v nasprotju s pričakovanji pozitivno vpliva na stopnjo zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov, in sicer: »Odnos komandirja policijske postaje do podrejenih« (krajše Odnos; fin = 0,635) ima močan pozitiven vpliv. Element vodenja »Komandirjeva pomoč podrejenim« (krajše Pomoč) je statistično neznačilen (fi = 0). Element vodenja »Komandirjevo zadovoljevanje potreb podrejenih« (krajše Potrebe) ima na stopnjo zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov negativen vpliv (fin = -0,117), fi pa dokazuje, da je prispevek tega elementa zelo majhen.
Regresijsko funkcijo tako lahko zapišemo v obliki enačbe regresijske hiperravnine, zato zapišemo:
Stopnja zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov = 1,258 + 0,635 * Odnos - 0,117 * Potrebe
S hipotezo smo predvidevali, da elementi vodenja zaposlenih v slovenski policiji statistično značilno vplivajo na stopnjo zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov. Ugotavljamo, da hipotezo lahko delno sprejmemo.
5 Razprava
Raziskava je pokazala, da je vodenje uniformiranih policistov na območju Policijske uprave Ljubljana v povprečju dobro (M = 4,00). Upoštevanje želja glede razporejanja delovnega časa in letnega dopusta so policisti ocenili najbolje. Odlična ocena kaže na to, da vodjem kljub slabši kadrovski zasedenosti policijskih postaj pri razporejanju delovnega časa in dopusta »zaenkrat« še uspeva zadovoljevati želje policistov.
Tudi področje nadzora nad delom policisti dobro ocenjujejo. Kar 79,50 % policistov je ocenilo, da je vodja vedno pripravljen na pogovore s policisti. Najslabše so ocenili njihovo prizadevanje za motivacijo policistov pri delu (M = 3,68) ter njihovo skrb za nagrade in pohvale (M = 3,74). Policisti so dobro ocenili tudi odnose vodstva do njih (M = 4,00). Kar 69,06 % policistov je ocenilo, da si vodstvo zelo prizadeva vzpostaviti pozitiven odnos.
Merjenje zavzetosti policistov je pokazalo, da jih je glede na stopnjo zavzetosti pri delu največ nezavzetih (58,00 %), sledijo zavzeti policisti (24,50 %), najmanj pa jih je pri delu aktivno nezavzetih (17,50 %). Poleg visokega odstotka nezavzetih policistov je skrb zbujajoč tudi podatek o aktivno nezavzetih
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 14, št. 1/2016 117
Dominik Žužman, Melita Moretti
policistih. Aktivno nezavzeti zaposleni so nezadovoljni na svojem delovnem mestu in to tudi aktivno izkazujejo. Izražajo vedenja, ki so negativna, nesodelovalna in celo sovražna (Wagner & Harter, 2006) ter s tem zmanjšujejo zadovoljstvo in zavzetost svojih sodelavcev.
Hipotezo, s katero smo predvidevali, da elementi vodenja zaposlenih v slovenski policiji statistično značilno vplivajo na stopnjo zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov, smo delno sprejeli. Raziskava je pokazala, da ima odnos vodijpolicijskih postaj, kot eden izmed elementov vodenja, močan pozitiven vpliv na stopnjo zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov (glejte tabelo 5).
6 Zaključek
Z raziskavo smo ugotovili, da je kljub v povprečju dobri oceni vodenja njihovih vodij več kot tri četrtine uniformiranih policistov pri svojem delu nezavzetih. Ugotovitev ne preseneča, saj policisti praviloma uporabljajo tudi stara in iztrošena vozila, veliko policijskih postaj je v slabem stanju in delajo na računalnikih, ki jih na drugih ministrstvih odpišejo. Policijske postaje na območju Policijske uprave Ljubljana so tudi kadrovsko podhranjene (povprečna kadrovska zasedenost je 72,64 %, najslabše kadrovsko zasedena policijska postaja dosega le 60,87 % zasedenost). Delovna obremenitev, časovni pritisk in izmensko delo že ob »normalni« kadrovski zasedenosti pri policistih povzročajo negativen stres. Neustrezna kadrovska zasedenost policijskih postaj, zaradi še večje količinske pripadnosti dela na posameznega policista, delovne zahteve policistov in s tem povezani stres samo le še povečuje. Takšen stres lahko vodi v izgorelost policistov (Maslach & Leiter, 1997).
Vodje policijskih postaj, katerih odnos do podrejenih ima močan pozitiven vpliv na stopnjo zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov, lahko storijo veliko, da zaščitijo policiste in sebe. Avtorji v vseh opravljenih raziskavah o vplivu delovnih virov na zavzetost zaposlenih, ki smo jih omenili v prispevku, prepričljivo trdijo, da na stopnjo zavzetosti zaposlenih najbolj vpliva vodja. Prav vidiki delovnega okolja, ki so pod neposrednim vplivom vodje, naj bi razložili razlike v zadovoljstvu in zavzetosti zaposlenih (Harter, Schmidt & Hayes, 2002).
Na osnovi spoznanj naše raziskave bi bilo smiselno izvesti sistematično evalvacijsko študijo programa usposabljanja Vodenje v policiji, ki bi pokazala, ali program usposabljanja zagotavlja ustrezna znanja in veščine, ki pripomorejo h gradnji pozitivnih medsebojnih odnosov in ali obstaja prenos znanj in veščin v vsakdanjo prakso vodenja v slovenski policiji. V trenutnih razmerah, ko izboljšanja finančnih in kadrovskih težav ter težav, povezanih z opremo ne moremo pričakovati, je vloga vodje ključna.
116 International Public Administration Review, Vol. 14, No. 1/2016
Povezanost vodenja in zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov na Policijski upravi Ljubljana
Mag. Dominik Žužman je zaposlen v slovenski policiji in dela v Centru za varnost in zaščito. Magistriral je področju organizacijskih znanosti na temo zavzetosti zaposlenih v slovenski policiji na Univerzi na Primorskem. Je doktorski študent, ki v cilju izboljšanja zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov pri njihovem delu še naprej raziskuje učinke vodenja in socialnega kapitala na zavzetost uniformiranih policistov.
Dr. Melita Moretti je doktorirala na področju organizacijskih znanosti na temo trajnostne rabe energetskih virov na Univerzi na Primorskem. Njeno raziskovalno, razvojno in strokovno delo je usmerjeno na področje menedžmenta, menedžmenta znanja, marketinga in prodaje. Sodeluje na mednarodnih znanstvenih konferencah, je avtorica in/ali soavtorica strokovnih in znanstvenih člankov ter članica različnih projektnih skupin, ki so povezane z gospodarstvom in s šolstvom.
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 14, št. 1/2016 117
Dominik Žužman, Melita Moretti Viri in literatura
Albrecht, S. L., & Su, M. J. (2012). Job resources and employee engagement in a Chinese context: the mediating role of job meaningfulness, felt obligation and positive mood. International Journal of Business and Emerging Markets, 4(4), 277-292. DOI: 10.1504/IJBEM.2012.049823
Andreescu, V., & Vito, G. F. (2010). An exploratory study on ideal leadership
behaviour: the opinions of American police managers. International Journal of Police Science and Management, 12(4), 567-583. DOI: 10.1350/ijps.2010.12.4.207
Anželj, D. (2001). Management v policiji. Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za družbene vede.
Aristovnik et al. (2012). Vzpostavitev sistema merjenja učinkovitosti, uspešnosti in kakovosti v slovenski policiji (ciljni raziskovalni projekt). Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za upravo in Ekonomska fakulteta.
Armstrong, M. (2009). Armstrong's handbook of human resource management practice. London: Kogan Page.
Bakker, A. B. (2011). An evidence-based model of work engagement. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(4), 265-269. DOI: 10.1 177/096372141 1414534
Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The job demands-resources model: state of the art. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(3), 309-328. DOI: 10.1 108/026839407107331 15
Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2008). Towards a model of work engagement. Career Development International, 13(3), 209-223. DOI: 10.1 108/13620430810870476
Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2014). Job demands-resources theory. V P. Y. Chen & C. L. Cooper (Ur.), Work and Wellbeing: Wellbeing: A complete reference guide, VolumeIII(str. 37-64). Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
Bakker, A. B., Albrecht, S. L., & Leiter, M. P. (2011a). Work engagement: further reflections on the state of play. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 20(1), 74-88. DOI: 10.1080/1359432X.2010.54671 1
Bakker, A. B., Albrecht, S. L., & Leiter, M. P. (2011b). Key questions regarding work engagement. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 20(1), 4-28. DOI: 10.1080/1359432X.2010.485352
Bakker, A. B., Hakanen, J. J., Demerouti, E., & Xanthopoulou, D. (2007). Job resources boost work engagement, particularly when job demands are high. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(2), 274-284. DOI: 10.1037/0022-0663.99.2.274
Bakker, A. B., Sanz Vergel, A. I., & Kuntze, J. (2015). Student engagement and performance: a weekly diary study on the role of openness. Motivation and Emotion, 39(1), 49-62. DOI: 10.1007/s1 1031-014-9422-5
Breevaart et al. (2014). Daily transactional and transformational leadership and daily employee engagement. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 87(1), 138-157. DOI: 10.1111/joop.12041
Breevaart, K., Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Van den Heuvel, M. (2015). Leader-member exchange, work engagement, and job performance. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 30(7), 754-770. DOI: 10.1108/JMP-03-2013-0088
114 International Public Administration Review, Vol. 14, No. 1/2016
Povezanost vodenja in zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov na Policijski upravi Ljubljana
Brodeur, J. (2005). Trotsky in blue: Permanent policing reform. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 38(2), 254-267. DOI: 10.1375/acri.38.2.254 Bryman, A., Stephens, M., & Campo, C. (1996). The importance of context: qualitative research and the study of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 7(3), 353-370. DOI: 10.1016/S1048-9843(96)90025-9 Butterfield, R., Edwards, C., & Woodall, J. (2004). The new public management and the UK Police Service. Public Management Review, 6(3), 395-415. DOI: 10.1080/1471903042000256556
Butterfield, R., Edwards, C., & Woodall, J. (2005). The new public management and managerial roles: the case of the police sergeant. British Journal of Management, 16(4), 329-341. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8551.2005.00466.x Clarke, C. (2006). Proactive policing: Standing on the shoulders of community-based policing. Police Practice and Research, 7(1), 3-17. DOI: 10.1080/15614260600579508
Daft, R. L., & Marcic, D. (2013). Understanding management (8th ed). Mason:
South-Western, Cengage Learning. Davies, A. (2000). Chang in the UK police service: the costs and dilemmas of restructured managerial roles and identities. Journal of Change Management, 1(1), 41-58. DOI: 10.1080/714042456 Davies, A., & Thomas, R. (2003). Talking Cop: discourses of change and policing identities. Public Administration, 81(4), 681-699. DOI: 10.1111/j.0033-3298.2003.00367.x Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The job demands-resources model of burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 499-512. DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.499
Densten, I. L. (1999). Senior Australian law enforcement leadership under
examination. International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 22(1), 45-57. DOI: 10.1 108/13639519910256875 Densten, I. L. (2003). Senior police leadership: does rank matter? International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 26(3), 400-418. DOI: 10.1 108/13639510310489467
Dick, G. P. M. (2010). The influence of managerial and job variables on
organisational commitment in the police. Public Administration, 89(2), 557576. DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.2450068 Fleming, J. (2004). Commissioner Mick Keelty, Australian Federal Police. Police
Practice and Research, 5(4-5), 317-326. DOI: 10.1080/1561426042000281800 Fleming, J. H., & Asplund, J. (2007). Human sigma: managing the employee-
customer encounter. New York: Gallup Press. Gorenak, V. (2003). Vpliv managerjev na uspešnost policijskih organizacij
(Doktorska disertacija). Kranj: Univerza v Mariboru, Fakulteta za organizacijske vede.
Gorgievski, M. J., Bakker, A. B., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2010). Work engagement and workaholism: comparing the self-employed and salaried employees. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 5(1), 83-96. DOI: 10.1080/17439760903509606
Griffin, R. W., & Moorhead, G. (2014). Organizational behavior: managing people and organizations (11th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 14, št. 1/2016 117
Dominik Žužman, Melita Moretti
Harter, J. K., Schmidt, F. L., & Hayes, T. L. (2002). Business-unit-level relationship between employee satisfaction, employee engagement, and business outcomes: a meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(2), 268-279. DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.87.2.268 Harter, J. K., Schmidt, F. L., Agrawal, S., & Plowman, S. K. (2013). The relationship between engagement at work and organizational outcomes: 2012 Q12® metaanalysis. Gallup Organization: Omaha.
Hitt, M. A., Miller C. C., & Colella, A. (2011). Organizational behavior. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
James, J. B., McKechnie, S., & Swanberg, J. (2011). Predicting employee engagement in an age-diverse retail workforce. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32(2), 173-196. DOI: 10.1002/¡ob.681 Johnson, R. R. (2012). Police officer job satisfaction: a multidimensional analysis.
Police Quarterly, 15(2), 157-176. DOI: 10.1 177/109861 1 1 12442809 Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of Management Journal, 33(4), 692-724. DOI: 10.2307/256287 Macey, W. H., & Schneider, B. (2008). The meaning of employee engagement. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1(1), 3-30. DOI: 10.1111/¡.1754-9434.2007.0002.x MacLeod, D., & Clarke, N. (2009). Engaging for success: enhancing performance through employee engagement (a report to government). Dostopno na http:// enqaqeforsuccess.org/wp-content/upioads/2015/08/fiie52215.pdf Maslach, C., & Leiter, M. P. (1997). The truth about burnout: how organizations
cause personal stress and what to do about it. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Mauno, S., Kinnunen, U., & Ruokolainen, M. (2007). Job demands and resources as antecedents of work engagement: a longitudinal study. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 70(1), 149-171. DOI: 10.1016/¡.¡vb.2006.09.002
McAuley, J., Duberley, J., & Johnson, P. (2014). Organization theory: challenges and perspectives. New Jersey: Pearson Education Limited.
Meaklim, T., & Sims, J. (2011). Leading powerful partnerships - a new model of public sector leadership development. International Journal of Leadership in Public Services, 7(1), 21-31. DOI: 10.5042/i¡lps.201 1.0090 Metcalfe, B., & Dick, G. (2000). Is the force still with you? Measuring police commitment. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 15(8), 812-832. DOI: 10.1 108/02683940010379369 Miller, H. A., Watkins, R. J., & Webb, D. (2009). The use of psychological testing to evaluate law enforcement leadership competencies and development. Police Practice and Research, 10(1), 49-60. DOI: 10.1080/15614260802128575 Moore, D. B. (1994). Views at the top, down under: Australian police managers on Australian policing. Policing and Society, 4(3), 191-217. DOI: 10.1080/10439463.1994.9964693 Murphy, S. A., & Drodge, E. N. (2004). The four I's of police leadership: a case study euristic. International Journal of Police Science and Management, 6(1), 1-15. DOI: 10.1350/¡¡ps.6.1.1.34461
Nahrgang, J. D., Morgeson, F. P., & Hofmann, D. A. (2011). Safety at work: a meta-analytic investigation of the link between job demands, job resources, burnout, engagement, and safety outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(1), 71-94. DOI: 10.1037/a0021484
116 International Public Administration Review, Vol. 14, No. 1/2016
Povezanost vodenja in zavzetosti uniformiranih policistov na Policijski upravi Ljubljana
O'Leary, D., Resnick-Luetke, S., & Monk-Turner, E. (2011). Holding out for a hero: selecting a chief of police. Police Practice and Research, 12(5), 435-449. DOI: 10.1080/15614263.2010.536727 Petrou, P., Demerouti, E., Peeters, M. V. W., Schaufeli, W. B., & Hetland, J. (2012). Crafting a job on a daily basis: contextual correlates and the link to work engagement. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 55(8), 1120-1141. DOI: 10.1002/job.1783
Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. A. (2012). Organizational behavior. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Schafer, J. A. (2008). Effective police leadership: experiences and perspectives of law enforcement leaders. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 77(7), 13-19. Dostopno na http://www.ajssh.[eena-[una.co.jp/AJSSHPDFs/Voi.1(3)/ AJSSH2012(1.3-03).pdf
Schafer, J. A. (2010). Effective leaders and leadership in policing: traits, assessment, development and expansion. Policing, 55(4), 644-663. DOI: 10.1 108/1363951 101 1085060 Schaufeli, W. B., & Bakker, A. B. (2004). Job demands, job resources, and their relationship with burnout and engagement: a multi-sample study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25(3), 293-315. DOI: 10.1002/job.248
Schaufeli, W. B., Bakker, A. B., & Van Rhenen, W. (2009). How changes in job demands and resources predict burnout, work engagement, and sickness absenteeism. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 50(7), 893-917. DOI: 10.1002/job.595
Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M., Gonzáles-Roma, V., & Bakker, A. B. (2002). The measurement of engagement and burnout: a two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 5(1), 71-92. DOI: 10.1023/A:1015630930326
Schermerhorn, J. R. (2012). Exploring management. Hoboken: Wiley. Schermerhorn, J. R., & Wright, B. (2014). Management (2nd Canadian ed.). Hoboken: Wiley.
Schermerhorn, J. R., Osborn, R. N., Hunt, J. G., & Uhl-Bien, M. (2011). Organizational behavior. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
Silvestri, M. (2007). "Doing" police leadership: enter the "new smart macho". Policing and Society, 17(1), 38-58. DOI: 10.1080/10439460601 124130
Singer, M. S., & Singer, A. E. (1990). Situational constraints on transformational versus transactional leadership behaviour, subordinates' leadership preference, and satisfaction. The Journal of Social Psychology, 150(3), 385396. DOI: 10.1080/00224545.1990.9924594
Sonnentag, S. (2003). Recovery, work engagement, and proactive behavior: a new look at the interface between nonwork and work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(3), 518-528. DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.88.3.518 Steinheider, B., & Wuestewald, T. (2008). From the bottom-up: sharing leadership in a police agency. Police Practice and Research, 9(2), 145-163. DOI: 10.1080/15614260802081303 Tavčar, M. I. (2006). Management in organizacija. Koper: Univerza na Primorskem,
Fakulteta za management Koper. Tims, M., Bakker, A. B., & Derks, D. (2012). Development and validation of the job crafting scale. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80(1), 173-186. DOI: 10.1016/j.jvb.2011.05.009
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 14, št. 1/2016 117
Dominik Žužman, Melita Moretti
Van den Berg, B. A. M., Bakker, A. B., & Ten Cate, Th. J. (2013). Key factors in work engagement and job motivation of teaching faculty at a university medical center. Perspectives on Medical Education, 2(5-6), 264-275. DOI: 10.1007/s40037-013-0080-1 Van den Broeck, A., Vansteenkiste, M., De Witte, H., & Lens, W. (2008). Explaining the relationships between job characteristics, burnout, and engagement: the role of basic psychological need satisfaction. Work and Stress, 22(3), 277-294. DOI: 10.1080/02678370802393672 Vito, G. F., & Higgins, G. E. (2010). Examining the validity of the leadership challenge inventory: the case for law enforcement. International Journal of Police Science and Management, 12(3), 305-319. DOI: 10.1350/ijps.2010.00.0.169 Vito, G. F., Suresh, G., & Richards, G. E. (2011). Emphasising the servant in public service: the opinions of police managers. Policing, 34(4), 674-686. DOI: 10.1 108/1363951 1 1 1 1 180270
Vito, G. F., Walsh, W. F., & Kunselman, J. (2005). Community policing: the middle manager's perspective. Police Quarterly, 8(4), 490-511. DOI: 10.1 177/109861 1 103260558 Vršec, M. (1993). Organiziranje in vodenje policije: splošni del. Ljubljana: Ministrstvo za notranje zadeve.
Wagner, R., & Harter, J. K. (2006). 12: the elements of great managing. New York: Gallup Press.
Yukl, G. A. (2013). Leadership in organizations (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson Education, Inc. Žagar, D., & Durič, D. (2012). Razvoj sistema vodenja v slovenski policiji. Dostopno
na http://www.fvv.uni-mb.si/DV2012/zbornik/poiiciiska dejavnost/zagar duric razvoj.pdf
Žužman, D. (2014). Analiza vodenja dveh policijskih postaj na območju policijske uprave Ljubljana. Mednarodno inovativno poslovanje, 6(1-2). Dostopno na
http://journaLdoba.si/?aid=469
116 International Public Administration Review, Vol. 14, No. 1/2016
DOI: 10.17573/ipar.2016.1.05
1.01 Original scientific article
Correlation between Leadership and Engagement of the Uniformed Police Officers at the Ljubljana Police Directorate
Dominik Zuzman
Ministry of the Interior, Slovenia dominik.zuzman@gmail.com
Melita Moretti
University of Ljubljana, Slovenia melita.moretti@amis.net
ABSTRACT
Quantitative research aims to examine the impact of the elements of leadership on the engagement of uniformed police officers and was conducted among 514 uniformed police officers in all 22 police stations in the area of the Ljubljana Police Directorate. We have found a strong positive impact of the leader's attitude on the engagement of uniformed police officers as being one of the elements of leadership. The research study has also shown that, despite of the average good rating of the leader's leadership, more than three-quarters of uniformed police officers are disengaged in their work. In planning, organizing, leading and controlling of the organization, the research results will provide practical assistance to the leaders of the police stations in the area of the Ljubljana Police Directorate as well as to the training providers for the leaders of police stations.
Keywords: police station, uniformed police officer, leadership, employee engagement JEL: J24
1 Introduction
Leadership effectiveness is determined according to the goals achieved in an organization. Profit organizations strive for economic and financial goals, while the goals set at the Slovenian police force are operational performance, efficiency and legitimate functioning (Anzelj, 2001).
The research results (Aristovnik et al., 2012) on efficiency of the Slovenian police force at the regional level have shown a high level of inequality between individual police directorates analyzed. The conducted research was based
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 14, št. 1/2016 135
Dominik Žužman, Melita Moretti
on a comparison of statistical data on assessments of (in)efficiency in performing police activities in preventing, detecting and investigating criminal offences between the period of 2005-2010, annual police directorates reports, databases of the Ministry of the Interior and the Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia. Given the identified research results (Aristovnik et al., 2012) and the fact that, in the last two decades, the Slovenian police force has been facing with many changes in goals, values, organization, equipment, infrastructure, modes of remuneration etc., leadership in the Slovenian police force is becoming even more challenging,
Leadership effectiveness is correlated with the level of their engagement (Fleming & Asplund, 2007). Engaged employees are, compared to the disengaged employees, more successful at their work (MacLeod & Clarke, 2009; Harter, Schmidt, Agrawal & Plowman, 2013). This raises a question whether the elements of leadership in the Slovenian police force have an impact on engagement of the uniformed police officers. To this end, we have postulated the following hypothesis: Elements of leadership in the Slovenian police force have a statistically significant impact on the level of engagement of the uniformed police officers.
The aim of this paper is to present the characteristics of employee engagement (definition, importance and factors of employee engagement) and leadership in general, and to analyze the findings of quantitative research which was conducted in August and September 2013 on a random sample of uniformed police officers in all 22 police stations in the area Ljubljana Police Directorate.
2 Leader and Leadership
Leader plays an important role in daily lives of the employees and has a certain social power over them (Schermerhorn, Osborn, Hunt & Uhl-Bien, 2011; Griffin & Moorhead, 2014; McAuley, Duberley & Johnson, 2014; Schermerhorn & Wright, 2014).
Leadership is thus a process of directing, influencing, encouraging and monitoring an employee or group of employees (Robbins & Judge, 2012; Yukl, 2013; McAuley et al., 2014). It draws on the so-called soft factors, such as values, ethics, expectations, interests and confidence (Tavčar, 2006; Yukl, 2013; McAuley et al., 2014). The elements of leadership include: leader's attitude towards its employees (motivation, attention, communication, problem solving, etc.), fulfilling the employees' needs (work adjustment) and leader's assistance (Schermerhorn, 2012; McAuley et al., 2014; Schermerhorn & Wright, 2014). A direct impact on the effective leadership have personality traits (e.g. gender, age, length of service, analytical skills, communication skills), work-related and social characteristics (e.g. good manners, willingness to participate) of a leader (Armstrong, 2009).
116 International Public Administration Review, Vol. 14, No. 1/2016
Correlation between Leadership and Engagement of the Uniformed Police Officers
at the Ljubljana Police Directorate
The competences of a leader are important for a successful leadership (Griffin & Moorhead, 2014). The leader's competences are divided into technical competence (control of the work, special skills, analytical skills, problem solving, etc.), interpersonal skills (communication, motivation and coordination skills) and conceptual skills (ability to think, decision-making, long-term vision, etc.) (Yukl, 2013).
In addition to the leader's competences, power and influence of a leader are also important for an effective leadership (Schermerhorn et al., 2011; Griffin & Moorhead, 2014), that is the leader's ability to influence his employees arising out of his position of a leader (the so-called positional power) and his personality traits (so-called personal power) (Daft & Marcic, 2013).
The components of leadership include delegating, encouraging and mentoring/coaching (Armstrong, 2009; Schermerhorn et al., 2011). Delegation is defined as the transfer and appointment of the work to the subordinate employees (Schermerhorn, 2012; McAuley et al., 2014). By delegating, the leader transfers to the employees a part of his powers, but not his responsibilities (Biloslavo, 2008). Delegating helps the leader to relieve current tasks and solve the details. In this way, the leader can focus on urgent and important matters (Armstrong, 2009). When, what, to whom and how to delegate is determined by the leader himself, but he must pay attention that the person/the subordinate to whom the leader delegates a part of his competences knows how to do the work (Biloslavo, 2008; Schermerhorn, 2012). By mentoring/coaching, the leader is trying to increase the ability of the employees to better understand, handle and manage the changes, and by such encouragements, he builds the employees' engagement in the activity (Tavčar, 2006).
Linear-cooperative leadership style - a mode of leadership that is focused on linear relationships between different levels of leader and on operational implementation of tasks and measures is a general method of leadership at the police force (Anželj, 2001). Leadership at the level of operational leadership is divided into operational coordinated leadership (leadership of regional police directorates), operational visionary leadership (leadership of departments and other organizational units within the police directorate -police stations), and operational tactical leadership (leadership of police stations) (Vršec, 1993; Anželj, 2001). The police leadership system is not the same as the leadership system of other organizations since the police leadership system is defined by the nature of its work: work that requires action 24 hours a day, special working conditions (e.g. also nights, on Sundays and holidays, constant availability, etc.), uniformity of the police force, status of the police force as a state's authority, statutory functions, responsibilities and powers, the public and secrecy of operation (Vršec, 1993; Anželj, 2001; Žužman, 2014).
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 14, št. 1/2016 137
Dominik Žužman, Melita Moretti
After reviewing the researches in the field of police leadership, the following characteristics of effective police leadership can be observed, namely: 1) creating a shared vision (Schafer, 2008; Steinheider & Wuestewald, 2008; Miller, Watkins & Webb, 2009; Andreescu & Vito, 2010; Vito & Higgins, 2010; O'Leary, Resnick-Luetke & Monk-Turner, 2011; Vito, Suresh & Richards, 2011); 2) building an engagement towards the organization (Steinheider & Wuestewald, 2008; Vito & Higgins, 2010; Dick, 2010; Johnson, 2012); 3) a concern for the subordinates (Singer & Singer, 1990; Moore, 1994; Bryman, Stephens & Campo, 1996; Densten, 1999, 2003; Davies, 2000; Metcalfe & Dick, 2000; Davies & Thomas, 2003; Butterfield, Edwards & Woodall, 2004; Fleming, 2004; Murphy & Drodge, 2004; Andreescu & Vito, 2010; Schafer, 2010; Vito & Higgins, 2010; Žagar & Duric, 2012); 4) monitoring changes (Vito, Walsh & Kunselman, 2005; Butterfield, Edwards & Woodall, 2005; Brodeur, 2005; Clarke, 2006; Silvestri, 2007; Steinheider & Wuestewald, 2008; Miller et al., 2009); and 5) problem solving (Silvestri, 2007; Miller et al., 2009; O'Leary et al., 2011; Meaklim & Sims, 2011; Žagar & Duric, 2012).
3 Employee Engagement
It would seem natural to understand the importance of employee engagement, and probably most people believe that it is beneficial that the employees are engaged at their work, yet they are not quite sure how exactly the engagement manifests itself, with the exception that they depict people who are hard-working and care about their work. Despite a large number of definitions of engagement, an unambiguous definition which could be agreed by all the authors cannot be given, yet all of them contain some elements in common.
3.1 Definition of Employee Engagement
Kahn (1990) was one of the first theorists who began writing about the engagement associated with the work. He described engaged employees as purely physical (as physical energy that an individual invests in the performance of his duties), cognitive (as an individual's belief about the organization and working conditions) and emotional dimension (as positive or negative emotions of an employee inspired by an organization, leaders and working conditions) related to their job roles. Depending on the mentioned dimensions of engagement, Kahn (1990) argues that the employee may be engaged in one of the dimensions and the more the employee is engaged in the chosen dimension, the greater the engagement.
Maslach and Leiter (1997) argue that the employee engagement is opposite of burnout as they consider that burnout is a state of physical, emotional and mental exhaustion, while the engagement embodies positive energy, high efficiency and intensive involvement,
116 International Public Administration Review, Vol. 14, No. 1/2016
Correlation between Leadership and Engagement of the Uniformed Police Officers
at the Ljubljana Police Directorate
Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) take the opposite view and believe that engagement and burnout are not regarded as two opposite poles of the same dimension, but they are two separate and negatively correlated concepts since the absence of something negative does not imply the presence of something positive. The authors (2004) believe that it is a mistake to assume that an individual who does not suffer from burnout is engaged,
Bakker, Albrecht and Leiter (2011a) define employee engagement as a positive emotional state characterized by a high level of energy and a high degree of involvement in work. The authors (2011a) believe that engaged employees, unlike satisfied employees, are distinguished by a high degree of satisfaction with their work (commitment) combined with a high level of activity (liveliness, immersion). They define work satisfaction as a passive form of employee's well-being in the workplace (Bakker et al., 2011a). Moreover, they also distinguish engagement from the work-related enthusiasm since enthusiasm usually lasts for a short time (an hour or less), while engagement persists over a longer period (Bakker et al., 2011a). Employee engagement is also different from the employees' motivation. Motivated employees are characterized by a high level of commitment, while engaged employees are additionally distinguished by a high level of activity manifested by liveliness, immersion and greater success at work. Therefore, according to Bakker (2011) engagement is, surpassing motivation and satisfaction, the best predictor of success.
The description above leads us to a conclusion that the authors describe engagement with the terms such as passion, enthusiasm, consistency, liveliness and focused effort. Despite of divergent definitions of employee engagement, all definitions include these two basic components:
•	positive and energetic motivational state associated with the work, and
•	genuine willingness to contribute to the work role and performance of the organization.
The authors (Kahn, 1990; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; Wagner & Harter, 2006; Macey & Schneider, 2008; Bakker, 2011; Harter et al., 2013) also share the same opinion that engagement is a positive and work-related psychological (such as enthusiasm, energy, passion and liveliness) and motivational state (as a genuine willingness to invest effort to achieve the goals of an organization).
As a consequence, a growing number of non-profit organizations (particularly in the public sector), in addition to profit organizations, are focusing on human factors of leadership to improve low level of engagement among the employees.
3.2 Factors of Employee Engagement
Factors contributing to engagement are of interest to all who address the employee engagement in a theoretical, empirical or practical ways. Factors
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 14, št. 1/2016 137
Dominik Žužman, Melita Moretti
contributing to engagement have become crucial for planning the activities in terms of increasing the level of engagement among the employees,
Job demands - resources model as the most quoted and used model of determining employee engagement helps to explain how the characteristics of a workplace and personal resources may have a direct impact on employee engagement (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007), In this paper we present the characteristics of a workplace which play an internal motivational role as they enhance efforts, learning and development, and external motivational role as they enhance individual's efforts and ability to perform his work,
Based on job demands-resources model, the characteristics of each workplace are divided into two broad dimensions, namely job demands (work and emotional overload, physical demands, time pressure, shift schedules, work at home and poor relations between employees) and job resources (autonomy at work, leader's support, rewards and recognition, equal distribution of benefits, adequate control and social support at work, the possibility of development and participation in decision making, feedback and safe employment) (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007), According to Van den Broeck and colleagues (2008), job demands lead to burnout, and on the other hand, job resources increase employee engagement and reffer to those aspects of work aimed at functionally achieving work objectives, reducing job demands and the related physiologic and psychological costs and promoting personal growth and development,
According to Demerouti and colleagues (2001) the job demands-resources model is used to explain that job demands are mainly related with exhaustion and burnout, and that the lack of job resources could lead to withdrawal behaviors in the workplace, Job demands launch a process of energy depletion in which the increased employee's efforts to attain the objective of job demands lead to increased psychological and physical efforts which result in energy consumption of the employee, Job resources such as growth, learning and development may, on the contrary, encourage motivation process (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner & Schaufeli, 2001),
Kahn (1990) believes that the jobs that provide challenge and diversity in the workplace, enable to apply different values, skills and knowledge, and thereby offer the employees an opportunity to contribute to the best possible business results of an organization and increase a sense of psychological meaningfulness,
Numerous foreign researches have shown that, in addition to rewards and recognition (Mauno, Kinnunen & Ruokolainen, 2007; James, McKechnie & Swanberg, 2011) are adequate control (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; James, et al., 2011), autonomy (Bakker, Hakanen, Demerouti & Xanthopoulou, 2007; Mauno et al,, 2007; Schaufeli, Bakker & Van Rhenen, 2009; Tims, Bakker & Derks, 2012; Bakker & Demerouti, 2014; Breevaart et al,, 2014), feedback
116 International Public Administration Review, Vol. 14, No. 1/2016
Correlation between Leadership and Engagement of the Uniformed Police Officers
at the Ljubljana Police Directorate
(Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; Bakker et a!., 2007; Mauno et a!., 2007; Schaufeli et a!., 2009; Albrecht & Su, 2012; Tims et al., 2012; Van den Berg, Bakker & Ten Cate, 2013; Bakker, Sanz Verge! & Kuntze 2015), coworker support (Bakker et al., 2007; Schaufeli et al., 2009; Petrou, Demerouti, Peeters, Schaufeli & Hetland, 2012; Breevaart et al., 2014; Breevaart, Bakker, Demerouti & Van den Heuvel, 2015), supervisory support (Bakker et al., 2007; Schaufel et al., 2009; Breevaart et al., 2015), and good coworker relationships (Nahrgang, Morgeson & Hofmann, 2011; Petrou et al., 2012; Bakker & Demerouti, 2014; Bakker et al., 2015; Breevaart et al., 2015) the aspects of working environment which could explain the differences in employee engagement,
3.3 Importance Of Employee Work Engagement
Engaged employees are attached to their job role which costitutes an important part of their identity as they have internalized their aspirations (endeavours, wishes) and the objectives of their organization. Despite the onerous work, they describe their own fatigue as a pleasant condition associated with the success of the organization. In contrast, disengaged employees do not invest their emotions, energy, and passion in their work and are only physically present at work. They are indifferent of the organization's objectives and it rarely happens to them that they are immersed in the work of the organization to which they feel no affiliation (Bakker, Albrecht & Leiter, 2011b). According to Gorgievski, Bakker and Schaufeli (2010), engaged employees work because their work makes fun to them, not because of a strong and invincible inner instinct (such as workaholics),
Engaged employees have also a sense of energetic and effective connection with their work activity, they work hard with a sense of enthusiasm, inspiration, pride, and they always set new challenges, arising from their workplace, on their own in order to remain loyal (Bakker et al., 2011b). Kahn (1990) believes that engaged employee is not only a hard working employee. Engaged employee also expresses his points of view, ideas, hunches, feelings regarding the problems he seeks to solve, while feeling the need to work at its best as he can, and prefers to speak up rather than keep silent,
According to different authors engaged employees are:
•	more creative, productive and are ready to do more in their workplace (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008);
•	eager to learn and are fully connected with their work role (Sonnentag, 2003);
•	full of energy and immersed in their work and work activities (Bakker, 2011);
•	those who have a sense of energetic and effective connection with their work activity and who see themselves as fully capable to meet their job demands and expectations (Schaufeli, Salanova, GonzalesRoma & Bakker, 2002);
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 14, št. 1/2016 137
Dominik Žužman, Melita Moretti
•	capable and eager to work more, therefore it is important for an organization to understand the motives for their engagement (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007).
4 Survey Research
4.1 Survey Research Methods
To collect data and information we used modified close-ended questions designed on the basis of theoretical principles, the Gorenak questionnaire (2003; segment: Leadership in the Slovenian Police Force) and the Wagner and Harter questionnaire (2006; segment: Employee Engagement),
The questionnaire was composed of three sets, namely:
•	First set: demographical data of respondents (gender, age, education, job, period of employment within the police force);
•	Second set: statements of uniformed police officers in the field of leadership at individual police stations;
•	Third set: statements of uniformed police officers in the field of employee engagement in individual police stations,
In the second and third part of the questionnaire the respondents marked level of agreement with each statement on the basis of a 5-point Likert rating scale.
Survey method: the questionnaires were personally delivered to all the leaders at the selected police stations in an empty envelope, containing cover letter with a personal presentation, the purpose of the questionnaire and ensuring the anonymity of the purpose of the questionnaire (the number of delivered questionnaires was adapted to the number of uniformed police officers at each police station).
The data were statistically processed and analyzed by using SPSS 22.0 software. The following analyses were conducted within the research:
•	basic statistical analysis: calculation of basic characteristics of the sample and individual variables in the field of leadership and engagement of uniformed police officers (use of arithmetic mean, standard deviation, frequency distribution, etc.);
•	factor analysis: a smaller number of non-measurable common leadership factors of uniformed police officers at the selected police stations was confirmed (factors influencing leadership style) and a smaller number of non-measurable common engagement factors of uniformed police officers at the selected police stations (dimensions of employee engagement) that explain a greater part of the variance of a larger number of measurable indicators - these factors were subsequently used as explanatory variables;
116 International Public Administration Review, Vol. 14, No. 1/2016
Correlation between Leadership and Engagement of the Uniformed Police Officers
at the Ljubljana Police Directorate
• multivariate nonlinear regression analysis: descriptive dimensions of each variable were calculated, correlation coefficient, parameter values in regression model, parameter estimates of regression function, test values of independent estimates of the parameters and residual values.
4.2	Focus Group
The population is represented by all (9321) uniformed police officers at all 22 police stations in the area of the Ljubljana Police Directorate which is also represented by the sample of respondents.
The research survey was conducted in August and September 2013. We received 514 fully completed questionnaires (55.15% response rate) which was a sufficient basis for further statistical processing and analysis.
Based on data obtained from the Ministry of the Interior, Organisation and Personnel Office, Human resource Department of 1. 8. 2013, the representative sample was confirmed according to gender (a total of 78.7% of uniformed male police officers and 21.4% of uniformed female police officers were employed at the selected police stations), workplace (a total of 40.9% of police officers, 24.6% of heads of patrols, 13.0% of police criminalists, 9.9% of heads of police precinct, 7.4% police officers on duty and 5.0% shift leaders were present at the selected police stations), and the average age of uniformed police officers (the average age of uniformed police officers was 34.9 years).
4.3	Research Survey Results
In the questionnaire, the respondents were asked to rate the statements in the field of leadership and engagement of uniformed police officers based on the Likert rating scale ranging from 1 (Completely disagree) to 5 (Completely agree). The rates 2, 3 and 4 present intermediate levels.
4.3.1 Leadership
Table 1 shows that the respondents gave, on average, the highest rate to the statement "Takes into account your wishes regarding home leave." (M = 4.53), and give the lowest rate to the statement "Identifies conflict situations within the team." (M = 3.64). The standard deviations (SD) range between 0.800 and 1.143.
1 The leaders of police stations (commanders and their assistants) were not included among uniformed police officers.
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 14, št. 1/2016 137
Dominik Žužman, Melita Moretti
Table 1: Leadership of Uniformed Police Officers at the Police Stations
Statements	M	SD
Takes into account your wishes regarding home leave.	4,53	0,80
Adjusts the work schedule due to your work obligations, if you suggest it.	4,47	0,87
Adjusts the work schedule due to your personal obligations, if you suggest it.	4,45	0,91
Is willing to discuss with the police officers.	4,21	0,94
Exercises control over the work of police officers.	4,11	0,88
Is willing to discuss with the police officers regarding work planning.	4,11	0,98
Supports the police officers in their work.	4,10	1,00
Plans the work of police officers.	4,09	0,83
Gives instructions to the police officers.	4,09	0,86
Seeks to establish a positive attitude towards the police officers.	4,03	1,04
You believe in effective communication between you and him before talking to him.	4,03	1,05
Strives to effectively inform and communicate with the police officers.	4,00	0,96
In informing and communicating with the police officers an easygoing attitude is predominantly established.	3,95	1,10
Is directly involved in solving more complex operational cases.	3,94	1,04
Assists the police officers in their work.	3,87	1,07
Sets clear objectives for the police officers.	3,87	1,00
Is in charge of co-participation of police officers while undertaking a co-decision on operational tasks.	3,74	1,02
Is in charge of rewards and recognition of the police officers.	3,74	1,14
Resolves conflicts within the team.	3,73	1,12
Prevents conflicts within the team.	3,68	1,14
Seeks to motivate the police officers at work.	3,68	1,12
Identifies conflict situations within the team.	3,64	1,09
As explained further below, a reduction of set of statements in the field of leadership in the Slovenian police force was conducted, whereas new independent variables - elements of leadership, namely: "Attitude of the commander of the police station towards the subordinate" (abbreviated "Attitude"), "Commander's ability to meet the subordinates' needs" (abbreviated "Needs"), and "Commander's assistance to the subordinates" (abbreviated "Assistance") - were generated through the factor analysis (Table 2). These variables (independent variables) represented the cause in the regression model. In verifying the reliability, we have found that all three elements have a high degree of reliability (the Cronbach's alfa above 0.7), and thus jointly explain 74.62% of the total variance,
116 International Public Administration Review, Vol. 14, No. 1/2016
Correlation between Leadership and Engagement of the Uniformed Police Officers
at the Ljubljana Police Directorate
Table 2: Elements of Leadership in the Slovenian Police Force and Communalities of Individual Variables
Values of rotated factor				
Variable	Factor*			Communalities
	V1	V2	V3	
In informing and communicating with the police officers an easygoing attitude is predominantly established.	0,848			0,805
Seeks to motivate the police officers at work.	0,846			0,808
Seeks to establish a positive attitude towards the police officers.	0,841			0,832
Is in charge of rewards and recognition of the police officers.	0,827			0,750
Strives to effectively inform and communicate with the police officers.	0,827			0,818
You believe in effective communication between you and him before talking to him.	0,817			0,781
Is willing to discuss with the police officers.	0,778			0,775
Is in charge of co-participation of police officers while undertaking a co-decision on operational tasks.	0,764			0,674
Resolves conflicts within the team.	0,759			0,715
Supports the police officers in their work.	0,747			0,778
Prevents conflicts within the team.	0,747			0,725
Is willing to discuss with the police officers regarding work planning.	0,699			0,775
Identifies conflict situations within the team.	0,649			0,636
Assists the police officers in their work.	0,623			0,696
Is directly involved in solving more complex operational cases.	0,602			0,624
Sets clear objectives for the police officers.	0,574			0,668
Adjusts the work schedule due to your personal obligations, if you suggest it.		0,866		0,876
Adjusts the work schedule due to your work obligations, if you suggest it.		0,846		0,859
Takes into account your wishes regarding home leave.		0,824		0,837
Exercise control over the work of police officers.			0,753	0,569
Gives instructions to the police officers.			0,701	0,740
Plans the work of police officers.			0,678	0,693
% of explained variance in total: 74.629	62,856	6,189	5,584	
* Factors: V1 - Attitude; V2 - Needs; V3 - Assistance.
4.3.2 Employee Engagement
The data as shown in Table 3 were sorted in descending order according to the average value of each statement. It is evident that the respondents attributed, on average, the highest rate to the statement "I know exactly what is expected of me at work." (M = 4.26), while the lowest rate was attributed to the statement "My coworker is my best friend." (M = 2.20). The standard deviations (SD) range between 0.759 and 1.291.
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 14, št. 1/2016 137
Dominik Žužman, Melita Moretti
Table 3: Engagement of Uniformed Police Officers at the Police Stations
Statements	M	SD
I know exactly what is expected of me at work.	4,26	0,76
My leader considers me as a complete person.	3,74	1,02
My point of view is appreciated and respected.	3,43	1,01
My colleagues sincerely strive to achieve good and quality work.	3,34	1,03
At least someone deliberately encourages my development.	3,24	1,09
This year I had the opportunity to learn and develop.	3,11	1,25
I have the opportunity to do every day practically what I am best at.	3,05	1,08
Everything I need to do my job well is at my disposition.	2,93	1,08
In the last six months my development was discussed with me.	2,91	1,29
In the last seven days my work was complimented.	2,82	1,26
My coworker is my best friend.	2,20	1,24
To measure employee engagement, the statements referring to engagement of uniformed police officers were categorized, according to Gallup, into three categories (Harter et al., 2013):
•	Engaged employees: energetic employees who have confidence both in their colleagues and their superiors (leaders). They work passionately and are deeply connected to the values and the mission of the organization where they work at (criterion: M > 3.7).
•	Disengaged employees: partly absent employees. They carry out their work properly. They invest their time and energy in work, but not passion (criterion: 2.6 < M < 3.7).
•	Actively disengaged employees: employees who are not satisfied in their workplace. This dissatisfaction is also actively manifested. This type of employees underestimates the work of engaged colleagues and has an impact on the overall climate in the organization (criterion: M < 2.6).
As explained further below, a reduction of set of statements in the field of employee engagement was conducted, whereas new independent variables - elements of leadership, namely: "Affiliation and growth", "Contribution" and "Working conditions" - were generated through the factor analysis (Table 4). In verifying the reliability, we have found that all three elements have a high degree of reliability (the Cronbach's alfa above 0.7), and thus jointly explain 64.24% of the total variance.
116 International Public Administration Review, Vol. 14, No. 1/2016
Correlation between Leadership and Engagement of the Uniformed Police Officers
at the Ljubljana Police Directorate
Table 4: Elements of Engagement of Uniformed Police Officers in the Slovenian Police Force and Communalities of Individual Variables
Values of rotated factor				
Variable	Factor*			Communalities
	Z1	Z2	Z3	
My leader considers me as a complete personality.	0,813			0,741
My point of view is appreciated and respected.	0,763			0,750
At least someone deliberately encourages my development.	0,760			0,729
In the last seven days my work was complimented.	0,699			0,546
In the last six months my development was discussed with me.	0,660			0,653
The mission of our organization also echoes how important my job is.	0,616			0,617
This year I had the opportunity to learn and develop.	0,487			0,506
Everything I need to do my job well is at my disposition.		0,837		0,772
I have the opportunity to do every day practically what I am best at.		0,741		0,676
I know exactly what is expected of me at work.		0,572		0,487
My coworker is my best friend.			0,841	0,725
My colleagues sincerely strive to achieve good and quality work.			0,477	0,507
% of explained variance in total: 64.237	47,084	8,744	8,409	
Rotation sums of squared loadings (X)	3,650	2,510	1,548	
* Factors: Z1 - Affiliation and growth; Z2 - Contribution; Z3 - Working conditions.
To determine a total level of engagement of uniformed police officers at the selected police stations, the weighted average cost of capital (WACC) generated a new variable "level of engagement of uniformed police officers at police stations":
COMPUTE i1= (Z1 * 3.650 (X1) + Z2 * 2.510 (X2) + Z3 * 1.548 (X1)) / (3.650 (X1) + 2.510 (X2) + 1.548 (X3)
In the regression model, the variable represented a result (dependent variable).
4.3.3 Hypothesis Verification
The following hypothesis was tested: "Elements of leadership in the Slovenian police force have a statistically significant impact on the level of engagement of the uniformed police officers."
The results of regression analysis are presented based on this model. All the assumptions of validity of regression model are confirmed (residues are normally distributed, no presence of heteroscedasticity, the VIF of individual statements is not sufficiently high (<2) to influence the outcome of the estimate results).
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 14, št. 1/2016 137
Dominik Žužman, Melita Moretti
Table 5: Estimate Results of Regression Coefficient Model
Model	Non-standardized Coefficients		Beta Standardized Coefficient	t	sig
	Beta	Standard Error			
Level of Engagement of Uniformed Police Officers	1,258	0,137		9,153	0,000
Independent Variable Attitude	0,635	0,037	0,762	17,207	0,000
Independent Variable Needs	-0,117	0,041	-0,127	-2,867	0,004
Regression analysis (Table 5) has shown (by using the Stepwise regression method) that there is only one element of leadership, contrary to the expectations, which has a positive impact on the level of engagement of uniformed police officers, namely: "The attitude of the commander of the police station towards the subordinate" (abbreviated Attitude; In = 0.635) has a significant positive impact. The element of leadership called "Commander's assistance to the subordinates" (abbreviated Assistance) is statistically insignificant result (| = 0). The element of leadership called "Commander's ability to meet the subordinates' needs" (abbreviated "Needs") has a negative impact (|n = -0.117) on the level of engagement of uniformed police officers, thus I proves that the contribution of this element is very low,
The regression function can be written in the form of regression hyperplane equation, therefore we write:
Level of engagement of uniformed police officers = 1,258 + 0,635 * Attitude - 0,117 * Needs
By this hypothesis, we have assumed that the elements of leadership in the Slovenian police force have a statistically significant impact on the level of engagement of uniformed police officers. We have found out that the hypothesis can be partially accepted.
5 Discussion
The research survey has shown that the leadership of uniformed police officers in the area of the Ljubljana Police Directorate is, on average, good (M = 4.00). Taking into account the wishes regarding the organization of working time and annual leave was ranked highest by the police officers. The excellent rank implies that, for now, the leaders still manage, despite understaffed police stations, to satisfy the wishes of police officers regarding the organization of working time and home leave,
The field of control over the work of police officers was also rated as good. As many as 79.50% of police officers estimated that the leader has always the willingness to discuss with the police officers. Nevertheless, their efforts to motivate the police officers at work (M = 3.68) and their concern for
116 International Public Administration Review, Vol. 14, No. 1/2016
Correlation between Leadership and Engagement of the Uniformed Police Officers
at the Ljubljana Police Directorate
the rewards and recognition of the police officers (M = 3.74) were ranked the lowest. Police officers also ranked well the leader's attitude towards them (M = 4.00). As many as 69.06% of police officers estimated that their leaders strive hard to establish a positive relationship.
The results of police officer engagement have shown that, compared to the level of engagement in their work, most of the police officers are disengaged (58.00%), followed by the engaged police officers (24.50%) and the lowest percentage present actively disengaged police officers (17.50%). In addition to the high percentage of disengaged police officers, the data on actively disengaged police officers is also alarming. Actively disengaged employees are not satisfied in their workplace and they also actively manifest it. They express the behaviors that are negative, non-cooperative and even hostile (Wagner & Harter, 2006), and thereby reduce satisfaction and engagement of their colleagues.
The hypothesis assuming that the elements of leadership in the Slovenian police force have a statistically significant impact on the level of engagement of the uniformed police officers was partially accepted. The research survey has shown that the attitude of the leaders of police stations as one of the elements of leadership has a strong positive impact on the level of engagement of the uniformed police officers (See Table 5).
6 Conclusion
The research study has shown that, despite of the average good rating of the leader's leadership, more than three-quarters of uniformed police officers are disengaged in their work. This finding is not a surprise since the police officers ordinaly also use old and worn out vehicles, many of the police stations are in poor condition and they work on computers which have been written off by the other ministries. Police stations in the area of the Ljubljana Police Directorate are also understaffed (the average number of staff responds to 72.64%, and the most understaffed police station attains only 60.87% of occupancy level). Workload, time pressure and shift work cause negative stress for the police officers already at a normal occupancy level. Inadequate level of police staffing at the police stations due to an even greater workload assigned to an individual police officer only contributes to higher job demands of police officers and the associated stress. Such stress may lead to burnout of the police officers (Maslach & Leiter, 1997).
The leaders of police stations, whose attitude towards their subordinates has a strong positive impact on the level of engagement of uniformed police officers, can do a lot to protect the police officers and themselves. Authors of all the conducted research studies on the impact of job resources related to the employee engagement mentioned in this article convincingly argue that the level of employee engagement is most affected by the leader.The aspects of the working environment which are under the direct influence
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 14, št. 1/2016 137
Dominik Žužman, Melita Moretti
of the leader should explain the differences in employee satisfaction and engagement (Harter, Schmidt & Hayes, 2002).
Based on the findings of our research study, it would be reasonable to conduct a systematic evaluation research on the Police leadership training program which would show whether this training program provides adequate knowledge and skills that contribute to building positive relationships and whether there is a transfer of knowledge and skills in the everyday practice of the Slovenian police leadership. In the current situation, when improving financial and staffing problems and equipment-related problems cannot be expected, the leader plays a key role.
Dominik Žužman, MSc, is employed in the Slovenian police force and works at the Security and Protection Centre. He holds a Master's degree in organizational sciences in the field of employee engagement in the Slovenian police force at the University of Primorska. He is a doctoral student who, in order to improve engagement of uniformed police officers in their work, continues researching the effects of leadership and social capital on the engagement of uniformed police officers.
Melita Moretti,PhD, holds a PhD in organizational sciences in the field of sustainable use of energy resources at the University of Primorska. Her research, development and professional work is focused on the field of management, knowledge management, marketing and sales. She participates in international scientific conferences, is an author and/or co-author of various specialist and scientific articles as well as a member of various project teams related to the economy and education.
116 International Public Administration Review, Vol. 14, No. 1/2016
Correlation between Leadership and Engagement of the Uniformed Police Officers
at the Ljubljana Police Directorate
References
Albrecht, S. L., & Su, M. J. (2012). Job resources and employee engagement in a Chinese context: the mediating role of job meaningfulness, felt obligation and positive mood. International Journal of Business and Emerging Markets, 4(4), 277-292. DOI: 10.1504/IJBEM.2012.049823
Andreescu, V., & Vito, G. F. (2010). An exploratory study on ideal leadership
behaviour: the opinions of American police managers. International Journal of Police Science and Management, 12(4), 567-583. DOI: 10.1350/ijps.2010.12.4.207
Anželj, D. (2001). Management v policiji. Ljubljana: University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Social Sciences.
Aristovnik et al. (2012). Vzpostavitev sistema merjenja učinkovitosti, uspešnosti in kakovosti v slovenski policiji (ciljni raziskovalni projekt). Ljubljana: University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Administration & Faculty of Economics.
Armstrong, M. (2009). Armstrong's handbook of human resource management practice. London: Kogan Page.
Bakker, A. B. (2011). An evidence-based model of work engagement. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(4), 265-269. DOI: 10.1 177/096372141 1414534
Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The job demands-resources model: state of the art. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(3), 309-328. DOI: 10.1 108/026839407107331 15
Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2008). Towards a model of work engagement. Career Development International, 13(3), 209-223. DOI: 10.1 108/13620430810870476
Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2014). Job demands-resources theory. V P. Y. Chen & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Work and Wellbeing: Wellbeing: A complete reference guide, Volume III (str. 37-64). Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
Bakker, A. B., Albrecht, S. L., & Leiter, M. P. (2011a). Work engagement: further reflections on the state of play. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 20(1), 74-88. DOI: 10.1080/1359432X.2010.54671 1
Bakker, A. B., Albrecht, S. L., & Leiter, M. P. (2011b). Key questions regarding work engagement. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 20(1), 4-28. DOI: 10.1080/1359432X.2010.485352
Bakker, A. B., Hakanen, J. J., Demerouti, E., & Xanthopoulou, D. (2007). Job resources boost work engagement, particularly when job demands are high. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(2), 274-284. DOI: 10.1037/0022-0663.99.2.274
Bakker, A. B., Sanz Vergel, A. I., & Kuntze, J. (2015). Student engagement and performance: a weekly diary study on the role of openness. Motivation and Emotion, 39(1), 49-62. DOI: 10.1007/s1 1031-014-9422-5
Breevaart et al. (2014). Daily transactional and transformational leadership and daily employee engagement. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 87(1), 138-157. DOI: 10.1111/joop.12041
Breevaart, K., Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Van den Heuvel, M. (2015). Leader-member exchange, work engagement, and job performance. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 30(7), 754-770. DOI: 10.1108/JMP-03-2013-0088
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 14, št. 1/2016 137
Dominik Žužman, Melita Moretti
Brodeur, J. (2005). Trotsky in blue: Permanent policing reform. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 38(2), 254-267. DOI: 10.1375/acri.38.2.254 Bryman, A., Stephens, M., & Campo, C. (1996). The importance of context: qualitative research and the study of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 7(3), 353-370. DOI: 10.1016/S1048-9843(96)90025-9 Butterfield, R., Edwards, C., & Woodall, J. (2004). The new public management and the UK Police Service. Public Management Review, 6(3), 395-415. DOI: 10.1080/1471903042000256556
Butterfield, R., Edwards, C., & Woodall, J. (2005). The new public management and managerial roles: the case of the police sergeant. British Journal of Management, 16(4), 329-341. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8551.2005.00466.x Clarke, C. (2006). Proactive policing: Standing on the shoulders of community-based policing. Police Practice and Research, 7(1), 3-17. DOI: 10.1080/15614260600579508
Daft, R. L., & Marcic, D. (2013). Understanding management (8th ed). Mason:
South-Western, Cengage Learning. Davies, A. (2000). Chang in the UK police service: the costs and dilemmas of restructured managerial roles and identities. Journal of Change Management, 1(1), 41-58. DOI: 10.1080/714042456 Davies, A., & Thomas, R. (2003). Talking Cop: discourses of change and policing identities. Public Administration, 81(4), 681-699. DOI: 10.1111/j.0033-3298.2003.00367.x Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The job demands-resources model of burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 499-512. DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.499
Densten, I. L. (1999). Senior Australian law enforcement leadership under
examination. International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 22(1), 45-57. DOI: 10.1 108/13639519910256875 Densten, I. L. (2003). Senior police leadership: does rank matter? International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 26(3), 400-418. DOI: 10.1 108/13639510310489467
Dick, G. P. M. (2010). The influence of managerial and job variables on
organisational commitment in the police. Public Administration, 89(2), 557576. DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.2450068 Fleming, J. (2004). Commissioner Mick Keelty, Australian Federal Police. Police
Practice and Research, 5(4-5), 317-326. DOI: 10.1080/1561426042000281800 Fleming, J. H., & Asplund, J. (2007). Human sigma: managing the employee-
customer encounter. New York: Gallup Press. Gorenak, V. (2003). Vpliv managerjev na uspešnost policijskih organizacij (PhD Thesis). Kranj: University of Maribor, Faculty of Organizational Sciences.
Gorgievski, M. J., Bakker, A. B., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2010). Work engagement and workaholism: comparing the self-employed and salaried employees. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 5(1), 83-96. DOI: 10.1080/17439760903509606 Griffin, R. W., & Moorhead, G. (2014). Organizational behavior: managing people and organizations (11th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
116 International Public Administration Review, Vol. 14, No. 1/2016
Correlation between Leadership and Engagement of the Uniformed Police Officers
at the Ljubljana Police Directorate
Harter, J. K., Schmidt, F. L., & Hayes, T. L. (2002). Business-unit-level relationship between employee satisfaction, employee engagement, and business outcomes: a meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(2), 268-279. DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.87.2.268 Harter, J. K., Schmidt, F. L., Agrawal, S., & Plowman, S. K. (2013). The relationship between engagement at work and organizational outcomes: 2012 Q12® metaanalysis. Gallup Organization: Omaha.
Hitt, M. A., Miller C. C., & Colella, A. (2011). Organizational behavior. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
James, J. B., McKechnie, S., & Swanberg, J. (2011). Predicting employee engagement in an age-diverse retail workforce. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32(2), 173-196. DOI: 10.1002/¡ob.681 Johnson, R. R. (2012). Police officer job satisfaction: a multidimensional analysis.
Police Quarterly, 15(2), 157-176. DOI: 10.1 177/109861 1 1 12442809 Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of Management Journal, 33(4), 692-724. DOI: 10.2307/256287 Macey, W. H., & Schneider, B. (2008). The meaning of employee engagement. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1(1), 3-30. DOI: 10.1111/¡.1754-9434.2007.0002.x MacLeod, D., & Clarke, N. (2009). Engaging for success: enhancing performance through employee engagement (a report to government). Available at http:// enqaqeforsuccess.org/wp-content/upioads/2015/08/fiie52215.pdf Maslach, C., & Leiter, M. P. (1997). The truth about burnout: how organizations cause personal stress and what to do about it. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Mauno, S., Kinnunen, U., & Ruokolainen, M. (2007). Job demands and resources as antecedents of work engagement: a longitudinal study. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 70(1), 149-171. DOI: 10.1016/¡.¡vb.2006.09.002
McAuley, J., Duberley, J., & Johnson, P. (2014). Organization theory: challenges and perspectives. New Jersey: Pearson Education Limited.
Meaklim, T., & Sims, J. (2011). Leading powerful partnerships - a new model of public sector leadership development. International Journal of Leadership in Public Services, 7(1), 21-31. DOI: 10.5042/i¡lps.2011.0090 Metcalfe, B., & Dick, G. (2000). Is the force still with you? Measuring police commitment. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 15(8), 812-832. DOI: 10.1 108/02683940010379369 Miller, H. A., Watkins, R. J., & Webb, D. (2009). The use of psychological testing to evaluate law enforcement leadership competencies and development. Police Practice and Research, 10(1), 49-60. DOI: 10.1080/15614260802128575 Moore, D. B. (1994). Views at the top, down under: Australian police managers on Australian policing. Policing and Society, 4(3), 191-217. DOI: 10.1080/10439463.1994.9964693 Murphy, S. A., & Drodge, E. N. (2004). The four I's of police leadership: a case study euristic. International Journal of Police Science and Management, 6(1), 1-15. DOI: 10.1350/i¡ps.6.1.1.34461
Nahrgang, J. D., Morgeson, F. P., & Hofmann, D. A. (2011). Safety at work: a meta-analytic investigation of the link between job demands, job resources, burnout, engagement, and safety outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(1), 71-94. DOI: 10.1037/a0021484
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 14, št. 1/2016 137
Dominik Žužman, Melita Moretti
O'Leary, D., Resnick-Luetke, S., & Monk-Turner, E. (2011). Holding out for a hero: selecting a chief of police. Police Practice and Research, 12(5), 435-449. DOI: 10.1080/15614263.2010.536727 Petrou, P., Demerouti, E., Peeters, M. V. W., Schaufeli, W. B., & Hetland, J. (2012). Crafting a job on a daily basis: contextual correlates and the link to work engagement. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 55(8), 1120-1141. DOI: 10.1002/job.1783
Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. A. (2012). Organizational behavior. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Schafer, J. A. (2008). Effective police leadership: experiences and perspectives of law enforcement leaders. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 77(7), 13-19. Available at http://www.ajssh.leena-luna'co.jp/AJSSHPDFs/Vol.1(3)/ AJSSH2012(1.3-03).pdf
Schafer, J. A. (2010). Effective leaders and leadership in policing: traits, assessment, development and expansion. Policing, 55(4), 644-663. DOI: 10.1 108/1363951 101 1085060 Schaufeli, W. B., & Bakker, A. B. (2004). Job demands, job resources, and their relationship with burnout and engagement: a multi-sample study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25(3), 293-315. DOI: 10.1002/job.248
Schaufeli, W. B., Bakker, A. B., & Van Rhenen, W. (2009). How changes in job demands and resources predict burnout, work engagement, and sickness absenteeism. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 50(7), 893-917. DOI: 10.1002/job.595
Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M., Gonzáles-Roma, V., & Bakker, A. B. (2002). The measurement of engagement and burnout: a two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 5(1), 71-92. DOI: 10.1023/A:1015630930326
Schermerhorn, J. R. (2012). Exploring management. Hoboken: Wiley. Schermerhorn, J. R., & Wright, B. (2014). Management (2nd Canadian ed.). Hoboken: Wiley.
Schermerhorn, J. R., Osborn, R. N., Hunt, J. G., & Uhl-Bien, M. (2011). Organizational behavior. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
Silvestri, M. (2007). "Doing" police leadership: enter the "new smart macho". Policing and Society, 17(1), 38-58. DOI: 10.1080/10439460601 124130
Singer, M. S., & Singer, A. E. (1990). Situational constraints on transformational versus transactional leadership behaviour, subordinates' leadership preference, and satisfaction. The Journal of Social Psychology, 150(3), 385396. DOI: 10.1080/00224545.1990.9924594
Sonnentag, S. (2003). Recovery, work engagement, and proactive behavior: a new look at the interface between nonwork and work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(3), 518-528. DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.88.3.518 Steinheider, B., & Wuestewald, T. (2008). From the bottom-up: sharing leadership in a police agency. Police Practice and Research, 9(2), 145-163. DOI: 10.1080/15614260802081303 Tavčar, M. I. (2006). Management in organizacija. Koper: Univerza na Primorskem,
Fakulteta za management Koper. Tims, M., Bakker, A. B., & Derks, D. (2012). Development and validation of the job crafting scale. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80(1), 173-186. DOI: 10.1016/j.jvb.201 1.05.009
116 International Public Administration Review, Vol. 14, No. 1/2016
Correlation between Leadership and Engagement of the Uniformed Police Officers
at the Ljubljana Police Directorate
Van den Berg, B. A. M., Bakker, A. B., & Ten Cate, Th. J. (2013). Key factors in work engagement and job motivation of teaching faculty at a university medical center. Perspectives on Medical Education, 2(5-6), 264-275. DOI: 10.1007/s40037-013-0080-1 Van den Broeck, A., Vansteenkiste, M., De Witte, H., & Lens, W. (2008). Explaining the relationships between job characteristics, burnout, and engagement: the role of basic psychological need satisfaction. Work and Stress, 22(3), 277-294. DOI: 10.1080/02678370802393672 Vito, G. F., & Higgins, G. E. (2010). Examining the validity of the leadership challenge inventory: the case for law enforcement. International Journal of Police Science and Management, 12(3), 305-319. DOI: 10.1350/ijps.2010.00.0.169 Vito, G. F., Suresh, G., & Richards, G. E. (2011). Emphasising the servant in public service: the opinions of police managers. Policing, 34(4), 674-686. DOI: 10.1 108/1363951 1 1 1 1 180270
Vito, G. F., Walsh, W. F., & Kunselman, J. (2005). Community policing: the middle manager's perspective. Police Quarterly, 8(4), 490-511. DOI: 10.1 177/109861 1 103260558 Vršec, M. (1993). Organiziranje in vodenje policije: splošni del. Ljubljana: Ministry of the Interior.
Wagner, R., & Harter, J. K. (2006). 12: the elements of great managing. New York: Gallup Press.
Yukl, G. A. (2013). Leadership in organizations (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson Education, Inc. Žagar, D., & Durič, D. (2012). Razvoj sistema vodenja v slovenski policiji. Available
at http://www.fvv.uni-mb.si/DV2012/zbornik/poiiciiska dejavnost/zagar duric razvoj.pdf
Žužman, D. (2014). Analiza vodenja dveh policijskih postaj na območju policijske uprave Ljubljana. Mednarodno inovativno poslovanje, 6(1-2). Available at
http://journaLdoba.si/?aid=469
Mednarodna revija za javno upravo, letnik 14, št. 1/2016 137