Prof. dr. Ana Krajnc
Hlozoßka fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani
studu andragogike in izobraževanje andragogov
POVZETEK
Večje bilo vzrokov za to, daje v povojnem obdobju primanjkovalo izobraženih ljudi. Država je načrtno in pospešeno razvijala industrijo, zato je primanjkovalo kvalificiranih delavcev. Vojno obdobje je marsikomu preprečilo dokončanje šolanja. Poleg tega so bili izobraženci pogostejše žrtve vojne kot preostalo prebivalstvo. Zato je bilo na zavodih za zaposlovanje povpraševanje po usposobljenih delavcih večje kot ponudba. Posledično seje izobraževanje odraslih v prakü hitro razvijalo. Praktiki so iskali strokovno podporo in ustrezno literaturo.
Leta 1956 so v Zagrebu na Filozofski fakulteti uvedli v okviru študija pedagogike prva predavanja andragogike v takratni Jugoslaviji. Profesor Mihajlo Ogrizovič kot nosilec predmeta je študij v naslednjih letih podprl z objavo prvih krijig s področja andragogike: Metode obrazovarija odraslih in Problemi andragogije. Leta 1960je nastala katedra za andragogiko na Filozofski fakulteti v Beogradu (profesorja Dušan Savičevič in Borivoj Samolovčev). Za raziskovanje na področju izobraŽevanja odraslih sem se odločila med službovanjem na Inštitutu za sociologijo (1967), ko sem se pridružila takrat pri nas prvi mednarodni komparativni raziskavi Izobraževanje odraslih, socialna mobilnost in družbena participacija. S predavanji obče andragogike in andragoške didaktike smo v Ljubljani začeli leta 1972 na Oddelku za pedagogiko Filozofske fakultete. Leta 1976je študij andragogike postal ena od študijskih smeri na oddelku. V študijskem letu 1993/94 smo uvedli samostojni enopredmetni študij andragogike. Ministrstvo za šolstvo in šport je novi študijski program potrdilo v okviru evropskega projekta Tempus.
Na oblikovanje študijskih programov so vplivali najbolj znani inštituti in oddelki za izobraževanje odraslih v razvitem svetu (Oddelek za andragogiko Univerze v Montrealu, Evropski Bureau for Adult education v Londonu, Wellington College v Oxfordu, Institute for Andragology v Amsterdamu, Oddelek za andragogiko Karlove univerze v Pragi itd.). To nam je zagotavljalo, daje študij na mednarodni ravni. Enoletna postdoktorska specializacija na Inštitutu v Torontu (1971 )je priprave na predavanja dokončno zaokrožila. Strokovna in znanstvena literatura iz andragogike seje pomnožila. Andragogikaje dobila svoje mesto v nacionalnem raziskovalnem programu. Vzporedno smo raziskovali v mednarodnih raziskavah prek UNESCA, ICAE (International Council for Adult Education) in projektov EU. Študij andragogike seje ponovno preoblikoval v okviru bolonjske reforme visokega šolstva v zadnjih letih.
Ključne besede: potrebe po izobraževanju odraslih, povpraševanje po strokovnjakih večje od ponudbe, študij andragogike, mednarodni vplivi na študijski program, odnos med andragoško prakso in teorijo, raziskovanje v andragogiki in mednarodno sodelovanje
UDK:374.7:378
V obdobju po drugi svetovni vojni se je družba v Jugoslaviji načrtno spreminjala iz kmetijske v industrijsko. Simbol takratne ideologije je bil tovarniški delavec ob stroju. Kmetijstvo in kmečko prebivalstvo sta imela nizek družbeni položaj. Celotna politika napredka je bila grajena na industriji in industrializaciji države. Razvoj je tekel po petletnih načrtih (»petletkah«). Priliv kmečkega prebivalstva v industrijo, selitev iz vasi v mesta (urbanizaci-
ja) sta bila tako nagla, da sta vključevala tudi postopke prisilnega zaposlovanja v tovarnah. Ljudje so dobivali na dom odločbe občinskega urada za notranje zadeve, kdo, kdaj in kje naj se javi na delo v tovarni. Kolektivna volja je bila nad osebno.
V praksi se je izobraževanje odraslih v raznih oblikah (večerne šole, kulturna društva Svoboda, usposabljanje delavcev v tovarnah) naglo razraščalo in potrebe po teoriji so se
stopnjevale. Izobraževalce odraslih (delovodje, srednji strokovni kader, inštruktor je) je bilo treba usposobiti za ustrezno izobraževalno dejavnost. Veliko truda je v to v šestdesetih letih vlagal Ivan Bertoncelj.
Število zaposlenih v industriji je naglo naraščalo in s tem tudi število ljudi kmečkega rodu, ki jih je bilo za delovno mesto šele treba pripraviti. Potrebe po izobraževanju odraslih so bile množične in so iz dneva v dan naraščale. Pri nas se je ponovila podobna družbenoekonomska in tehnološka situacija, kot je bila v Severni Ameriki ali Zahodni Evropi konec 19. in v začetku 20. stoletja (pred prvo svetovno vojno). Ameriški avtor Lindemarui, ustanovitelj andragoške teorije in znanosti, je izhajal prav iz njihovega takratnega naglo rastočega množičnega izobraževanja odraslih. Po prvih dveh petletkah industrijskega razvoja so bila politična prizadevanja za sistemsko ureditev izobraževanja odraslih v Jugoslaviji vedno bolj močna. Iz povojnih kulturno-prosvetnih društev Svoboda so nastajale ljudske in delavske univerze. Na podlagi sprejetja zakona so se med letoma 1957-59 v vsaki od republik ljudske in delavske univerze povezale v zvezo delavskih univerz. Na Oddelku za pedagogiko Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Zagrebu so leta 1956 že uvedli predavanja iz andrago-gike (prof. Mihajlo Ogrizovic). Iz vedno bolj obsežne prakse izobraževanja odraslih se je razvijala za nas takrat nova veda: andragogika (Krajnc, 1978/1: 169-171).
KAKO SE JE ZAČELO V SLOVENIJI? ŠESTDESETA LETA: VEČJA PONUDBA SLUŽB KOT POVPRAŠEVANJE
V času ekstenzivnega razvoja industrije in množičnega zaposlovanja v Jugoslaviji v začetku šestdesetih let prejšnjega stoletja so naraščale potrebe po poklicni izobrazbi. Možnosti za zaposlitev je bilo še preveč. Najbolj množično so zaposlovali delavce. Cenjeni so
bili kvalificirani delavci. Poklic je zaposlenemu določal položaj v piramidalni strukturi podjetja.
Govorimo o obdobju množičnega zaposlovanja. Tovarne in gradbena podjetja so odhajala z avtobusi novačit delavce v druge republike Jugoslavije, ker je domačih primanjkovalo. V podobni situaciji so bile tudi sosednje države. Rade so sprejemale delavce iz drugih držav (južne Evrope in Turčije), da bi zadovoljile potrebe industrije po delavcih.
To je bil za zavode za zaposlovanje poseben čas. Osrednji problem je bilo poklicno usmerjanje ali poklicna orientacija. Že osnovnošolcem so svetovali, kateri poklic bi bil za nekoga najbolj primeren. Poklic je pomenil preživetje: zaslužek, socialni položaj in varnost.
Po podatkih iz leta 1961 v Sloveniji 40 odstotkov generacije ni dokončalo osemletke. Podoben delež je ostal samo z osemletko. Le manjši delež je šel v poklicne in srednje šole. Kot psihologinja na zavodu za zaposlovanje sem se znašla v primežu med ponudbo delovnih mest in povpraševanjem na eni strani ter skupinami mladih ljudi brez poklicne izobrazbe. Ko so fantje prihajali od vojakov, so se takoj zglasili na zavodu za zaposlovanje. Psihološki testi so mi potrdili njihove sposobnosti, pridobljena izobrazba pa tega ni potr jevala, ker je bila zelo nizka. Vladala je mentaliteta, da »zakaj bi se učil, se mučil, če lahko dobiš službo že takoj po opravljeni šolski obveznosti (15 let starosti) ali po odsluženi vojski (pri 19 letih)«. Ponekod zunaj večjih mest z razvito kulturno tradicijo so prav možnosti za zaposlitev zmanjševale težnje po nadaljevanju šolanja. Tak primer je Prekmurje. V Muri so zaposlovali mlade tudi z nedokončano osemletko (s sedmimi ali šestimi razredi osnovne šole), zato se jim nadaljevanje šolanja ni zdelo tako pomembno. Skozi desetletja je povprečno število šol na prebivalca vedno bolj zaostajalo za preostalo
Povpraševanje jjo delavcih je bilo večje od ponudbe.
Nastajale so delavske in ljudske univerze.
Slovenijo. In še drugi nekoliko poznejši primer z nasprotnega konca Slovenije. Igralnica v Gorici je zaposlovala mlade s srednjo šolo. Tudi že začeti študij so mnogi opustili, ker je bilo zaposlitev enostavno dobiti tudi brez diplome. Število diplomantov z visoko izobrazbo je tam začelo zaostajati.
Neposredne izkušnje sem dobila na izpostavi Zavoda za zaposlovanje Ajdovščina. Naše zaledje zaposlovanja so bile močne tovarne: Fructal, Tekstilna tovarna, pohištvena industrija Lipa, Tovarna poljskih orodij Batuje, Gradbeno podjetje Primorje, Kovinska Ajdovščina in druge tovarne v širšem zaledju (Gorica). Povpraševanje po kvalificiranih delavcih je naraščalo, a pogosto mu nismo mogli zadostiti, čeprav smo imeli na spisku mlade, sposobne in zdrave ljudi, a brez poklica. Nesmiselno se mi je zdelo psihološko testiranje sposobnosti prijavljenih delavcev, če so bili brez poklica. Kot svetovalka sem se začela spraševati, kaj bi se ti mladi ljudje še lahko naučili, si pridobili poklic, izobrazbo. V sedanjem stanju bodo težko šli skozi življenje. Vedno bolj sem se vrtela ob misli na izobraževanje odraslih. To se mi je zdel edini možni izhod, edina rešitev za brezposelne brez poklica. Bila sem sveže pečena diplomantka tudi pedagogike, a mdj študij ni omenjal izobraževanja odraslih. Predmeti so bili osredotočeni na šolsko pedagogiko. Z metodologijo pedagoškega raziskovanja, ki smo jo štiri leta poslušali pri profesorju Vladu Schmidtu, smo bili diplomanti dobro oboroženi za odkrivanje novih področij in prodirailje v nove pojave. Pri profesorju Stanku Gogali smo se prepdjili s pedagoškim optimizmom in to je bila dobra popotnica na novih poteh. Okolju, v katerem sem živela, bi se v tistem obdobju zamisel, da naj se odrasli še izobražiijejo, zdela dokaj nenavadna in nesprejemljiva, čeprav je pred prvo svetovno vdjno imelo močno tradicijo kulturno-izobraževalnih društev. To sem kmalu začutila v pogovoru s predsednikom mestne
občine in na nekaterih sestankih. Odločila sem se, da sama iščem dalje. Potrebe po kvalificiranih delavcih so ob razvijajoči se industriji naraščale in so jih čutili tudi drugi. V Ljubljani je o izobraževanju za delo predaval Bertoncelj. Nastajale so delavske in ljudske univerze. V tovarnah so organizirali priučevanje in usposabljanje delavcev. Kot izhod iz sile so nastale tako imenovane »notranje kvalifikacije« v podjetjih. V Ljubljani je že več let delovala Dopisna delavska univerza. Občasno so se ob rednih šolah organizirale večerne šole za odrasle. V Ljubljani je nastala Zveza delavskih univerz. Vodila jo je Tilka Blaha in pozneje Marjan Lah. Na zavodu je delovala posebna skupina za izobraževanje odraslih pod vodstvom Jožeta Valentinčiča. Kmalu nato so ustanovili Andragoško društvo Slovenije po zgledu društev v drugih republikah Jugoslavije. Na ljubljanski univerzi je bil zaposlenim dostopen izredni študij. Z njim so nadoknadili vdjna leta. Strokovnjakov je povsod primanjkovalo. Visoka politična šola CK Slovenije je imela več let samo izredni študij za izbrane ljudi na položajih. Izobraževanje odraslih se je pdjavljalo v vseh socialnih plasteh prebivalstva.
OPAZOVANJE ANDRAGOŠKE PRAKSE IN SODELOVANJE Z ANDRAGOŠKIMI USTANOVAMI
Od takrat naprej, ko sem se odločila za področje izobraževanja odraslih, je to postalo mdj osrednji interes in žarišče vseh akcij. Še v času službovarlja na zavodu za zaposlovanje v Ajdovščini sem tesno sodelovala z znano direktorico tamkajšnje delavske univerze (ene od treh najboljših v Sloveniji) Miro Novak. Spoznala sem osnovni ritem in izobraževalne vsebine te in drugih delavskih univerz. Na sredriji šoli so bili tudi oddelki za odrasle (večerni tečaji). V Gorici sem sodelovala z direktorjem delavske univerze Rajkom Slokarjem. Ko sem kot raziskovalka prišla v novo službo na Inštitut za sociologijo v Ljubljani, sem do-
bila stik z republiškimi organizacijami: Zvezo delavskih univerz Slovenije z Marjanom Lahom na čelu, Zavodom za produktivnost dela, Andragoškim društvom Slovenije (s predsednico Tilko Blaha), Oddelkom za izobraževanje odraslih pri republiškem zavodu za šolstvo (predstojnik je bil Jože Valentinčič), republiškim zavodom za zaposlovanje (Jan Maka-rovič). Zavodom za zaposlovanje Ljubljana (Virant, Pavliha) in Oddelkom za izobraževanje pri republiškem odboru Zveze sindikatov Jugoslavije, Združenjem izobraževalnih centrov v industriji. Trendi in prerez prakse so mi postajali vedno bolj jasni. Udeleževala sem se konferenc in posvetov o izobraževanju odraslih, marljivo poslušala, o čem govorijo predavatelji in udeleženci. Obrisi prakse so se postopoma povezali. Vzporedno sem prebirala vse dosegljive tekste o tej temi. Zelo požrtvovalno je na terenu usposabljal izobraževalce odraslih Ivan Bertoncelj, zaposlen pri takratnem Zavodu SRS za strokovno izobraževanje. Žal je kmalu potem, ko sva se srečala, odšel kot UNESCOV strokovnjak v Afriko. Proučila sem koncept funkcionalnega izobraževanja in industrijske pedagogike na Visoki šoli za organizacijo dela v Kranju (Kejžar, Lorenčič). Na Reki sem poiskala avtorja industrijske pedagogike Martina Petančiča, prebrala njegove članke in obsežno knjigo Industrijska pedagogika iz leta 1968. Poiskala sem vire za študij kadrologije v Zagrebu. Brez vsega tega se pozneje ne bi mogla odločiti, kaj naj gre v študijski program andragogike in kaj ne (Miklič, Bertoncelj, Kejžar, 1969). Spoznala sem ljudi iz andragoških ustanov v drugih, manjših krajih Slovenije. Postopoma so z raznih koncev prihajala vabila za predavanja in sodelovanje. Vedno sem se jim odzvala in sprejela sodelovanje, razen če res nisem mogla zaradi drugih obveznosti. To je bilo obdobje pridobivanja dragocenih strokovnih izkušenj. Iz mojih letnih poročil o delu izhaja, da sem imela na leto v povprečju 40 javnih nastopov. Razen referatov na konferencah in
predavanj sem občasno nastopala tudi na radiu Ljubljana. To je bila dobra priprava za poznejše pedagoško delo na Filozofski fakulteti, na Oddelku za pedagogiko. Spremljanje prakse mi je dalo možnosti, da študijski program za andragogiko prilagodim slovenskim razmeram, izberem iz teorije in znanosti, kar ustreza našim potrebam. Tako bi študij najbolj koristil razvoju andragoške prakse. Na sodelovanje s prakso pa v akademskih krogih niso gledali z naklonjenostjo. Ni bilo dovolj prestižno. Zato ga na fakulteti raje nisem poudarjala.
En del vpogleda v prakso je bil tudi študij andragogike na drugih univerzah: v Bostonu (Knowjes), Sao Paulu (Freire), Pragi (Kamil Škoda), Zagrebu (Ogrizovic), Beogradu (Savi-čevic). Rimu (Filipo De Sanctis), Torontu (Robin Kidd), Tiibingenu (Günter Dohmen), Firencah (Paolo Federighi), Utrechtu itd. Nosilci študija so se mi odkrili kot veliki humanisti. Še danes imam jasne predstave o njih. Vplivali so na moja stališča in vrednote. Kar sem iskala, ni bila samo študijska vsebina. Glede na razlike v okolju so bile tudi med študijskimi predmeti velike razlike. A cilji študija so bili zelo podobni: usposobiti kvalitetne strokovnjake za izobraževanje odraslih, izobraziti izobraževalce odraslih.
PRVA MEDNARODNA KOMPARATIVNA RAZISKAVA »IZOBRAŽEVANJE ODRASLIH, SOCIALNA MOBILNOST IN DRUŽBENA PARTICIPACIJA«
Vsa ta nastajajoča praksa izobraževanja odraslih naj bi dobila svoj izraz v raziskovanju stvarnosti in se povezala v teorijo. Brez posplo-šitev in odkrivanja temeljnih načel in lastnosti pojavov začne praksa postopoma hirati, če se ne revitalizira z raziskovanjem. Zato sem iskala dalje in se povezovala s podobno mislečimi v praksi izobraževanja odraslih in v družbenih vedah. Z zavoda za zaposlovanje sem odšla
Raziskovalci smo se veliko učili
v službo na Inštitut za sociologijo v Ljubljani (1964). Tri leta po prihodu (1967) sem se kot raziskovalka, koordinatorica za Slovenijo, pridružila mednarodni študiji »Izobraževanje odraslih, socialna mobilnost in družbena participacija«. V raziskavi so sodelovali še trije kolegi z Inštituta za sociologijo: Zdravko Mlinar, Janez Jerovšek in Mišo Jezer-nik. Raziskovalni tim se je vsakič sestal v drugi državi. Leta 1968 (Dubčkovo leto) smo se zbrali na Karlovi univerzi v Pragi. Nato na univerzi v Utrechtu itd. Imeli smo priložnost, da neposredno doživimo raziskovalno in pedagoško delo na velikih svetovnih univerzah. Raziskovalci smo se veliko učili. Raziskavo je koordinirala Hamilton University iz Kanade, sodelovale pa so še univerze iz ZDA (University of Oregon), Poljske (Univerza v Varšavi), Holandije (Univerza v Utrechtu) in Karlova univerza v Pragi. S posebnim vprašalnikom sem v okviru te raziskave zbrala empirične podatke za doktorat. Leta 1969 sem na povabilo predstojnika Oddelka za pedagogiko Vlada Schmidta kot asistentka prišla delat na Filozofsko fakulteto. Menil je, da se izobraževalne vede glede na razvoj morajo razširiti s tem, da dodajo v program še »adultno pedagogiko«. V konstruktivnih odnosih zaupanja, medsebojne podpore in tovariškem vzdušju je bilo užitek delati. Predstojnik mi je dal svobodo ustvarjanja in iskanja. Strinjal se je, da bi se predmet imenoval andragogika, ker je bilo tako tudi na univerzi v Zagrebu (profesor Mihajlo Ogrizovič, 1956) in univerzi v Beogradu (profesor Dušan Savičevic in profesor Bora Samolovčev, 1961). Povezala sem se z vsemi vidnimi ustvarjalci domače prakse in prek mednarodne raziskave z avtorji v tujini. Odpiral se nam je zelo širok prostor delovanja. V komisiji za doktorat sem imela tri aktivne člane: profesorja sociologije na Pravni fakulteti Jožeta Goričarja, profesorico pedagoške sociologije na Oddelku za pedagogiko Filozofske fakultete v Ljubljani Milico Bergant in
predstojnika oddelka, profesorja metodologije in zgodovine šolstva in pedagogike Vlada Schmidta. Mednarodna komparativna raziskava se jim je zdela zelo zanimiva in besedilo doktorata so vsi trije kritično premleli. Praktično sem zagovarjala doktorat najprej pred vsakim od njih posebej in potem še v formalnem proceduralnem zagovoru pred komisijo (1971). Del besedila doktorata sem objavila v Kanadi, na Ontarijskem inštitutu za raziskovanje izobraževanja (OISE) leta 1973 pod naslovom »Adult Education and Social Participation«, in v knjigi »Izobraževanje - naša družbena vrednota« pri Delavski enotnosti v Ljubljani leta 1978.
KAJ [E VPLIVALO NA OBLIKOVANJE STUDIJSKEGA PROGRAMA ZA ANDRAGOGIKO NA FILOZOFSKI FAKULTETI V LJUBLJANI?
Teoretične smeri in stiki z znanstveniki na tujih univerzah in inštitutih
Strnjen intenzivni program krajše specializacije (dva meseca) za izobraževanje odraslih pri Združenih narodih v Ženevi leta 1970 je odprl nove vidike učenja glede na lokalni in nacionalni razvoj. Izobraževanja odraslih ni bilo več mogoče gledati zgolj z ozkega vidika dela in v funkciji dela, ampak vseh potreb neke socialne skupnosti in posameznika. Kulturna tradicija in razvojni načrti neposredno vplivajo na izobraževanje odraslih. Eden glavnih predavateljev na tej specializaciji je bil Leo Fornig, direktor Mednarodnega pedagoškega inštituta v Ženevi. Zanj je bila značilna trditev: »Slabih učencev ni. Slabi so lahko le učitelji.« Podrobneje je razložil, kako pomembno je, da ima učenec sebi primernega učitelja. Misel, ki smo jo deset let pozneje srečali ob mednarodni delegaciji ICAE na Kitajskem. Kanadska štipendija za postdoktorski študij (takoj po zagovoru doktorata) na Ontarijskem inštitutu za raziskovanje izobraževanja (OISE) Univerze v Torontu mi je omogočila neposredna
srečanja z vidnimi raziskovalci in teoretiki področja. Moj mentor na postdoktorskem študiju je bil profesor Robin Kidd, predstojnik Oddelka za izobraževanje odraslih omenjenega inštituta. Z dodatno štipendijo sem obiskala še druge večje univerze v Kanadi. Na Univerzi v Montrealu je velik vtis name napravil Pier Blondel z velikim oddelkom za andragogiko. Tu je imela svoj vpliv francoska kulturna tradicija. Ta priznava pedagogiko kot posebno znanost ali disciplino. Angleško govoreče univerze z anglosaško tradicijo, kot so University of Calgary, Windsor University in na zahodu v Vancouvru University of British Columbia, pa niso ločevale pedagogike kot znanosti in so tudi znanstveno področje izobraževanja odraslih pragmatično poimenovale »adult education«. Sodelovala sem z Alenom Toughom, glavnim raziskovalcem učnih projektov in avtorjem novih metodoloških pristopov, Alenom Thomasom in Malcokiom Knowelsom. Prav v tem letu je izšlo znamenito delo Paola Freireja »Pedagogika zatiranih« (Pedagogy of the Oppressed). Osebno srečanje z njim je močno vplivalo na moja razmišljanja in teoretični koncept pri pripravi študijskega programa za andragogiko na Filozofski fakulteti v Ljubljani. Med mojim postdoktorskim študijem v Torontu je Robin Kidd organiziral svetovno konferenco v Ottawi (1972). Na njej so se zbrali raziskovalci, praktiki in teoretiki izobraževanja odraslih z vsega sveta. Ustanovili smo Mednarodni svet za izobraževanje odraslih (International Council for Adult Education) s sedežem v Torontu. Kot svetovna organizacija je kmalu po nastanku dobila poseben svetovalni status pri UNESCU. Več mandatov sem bila članica upravnega odbora in strokovne povezave so se razširile po vsem svetu. Vsakih pet let smo imeli svetovno konferenco, vedno na drugi celini. Danes organizacijo ICAE vodi znani mednarodni strokovnjak Paul Belange. Na VI. svetovni UNE-SCOVl konferenci za izobraževanje odraslih CONFITEA 2009 v Belo Horizonteju v Braziliji je Paul Belange predstavil projekcijo razvoja izobraževanja odraslih in potrdil, kako nujen je
dialog med vladnimi in nevladnimi organizacijami, civilno družbo. Prek sodelovanja v ICAE sem dobila boljši pregled nad študijem izobraževanja odraslih in prakso v Latinski Ameriki, Avstraliji, Aziji in Afriki. Od prve raziskave dalje smo vedno sodelovali v raznih mednarodnih študijah. To nam je dalo podlago za razvoj komparativne andragogike tudi pri nas. Naše raziskovalno delo se je od leta 1976 do 1988 povezovalo z mednarodnim timom pri UNESCOVEM projektu »Sistemi izobraževanja odraslih v Evropi« (The Sistems of Adult Education in Europe). V vsaki državi so raziskovalci pripravili posebno študijo sistema izobraževanja odraslih in jo objavili v posebni UNESCOVI publikaciji. V samostojni Sloveniji smo zasnovali enega prvih TEMPUSOVIH projektov EU »Obnova študija andragogike v Sloveniji« (1992-1994). Njegova koordinatorica je bila Katedra za andragogiko na Oddelku za pedagogiko, partnerske univerze pa so bile: Univerza v Surreyu (Peter Jarvis), Anglija; Univerza v Utrechtu (Peter Hage), Nizozemska; Univerza v Bam-bergu (Jost Reischman), Nemčija; St. Patrick College (Liam Carey), Irska. Ob sodelovanju z več oddelki smo dopolnili naš študijski program na Filozofski fakulteti. Dobili smo tudi gostujoče profesorje. Na strnjena predavanja smo poleg rednih študentov andragogike vabili tudi druge strokovnjake iz neposredne andra-goške prakse. Predavanja, diskusije in strokovne knjige profesorjev z drugih univerz, ki so jih študenti imeli priložnost tudi osebno spoznati v Ljubljani, so neposredno vplivali na spremembe in dopolnitve študijskega programa.
SLOVENSKE ZNANSTVENE RAZISKAVE IN ŠTUDIJE V ANDRAGOGIKI
Diplomanti pedagogike v naših generacijah so bili dobro usposobljeni za empirično raziskovanje in znanstveno delo. Kot sem že omeni-
la, smo imeli pri profesorju Vladu Schmidtu metodologijo pedagoškega raziskovanja vseh osem semestrov in prve štiri semestre statistiko pri profesorju Vogelniku. Na tej podlagi je bil ustanovljen Pedagoški inštitut, ki pa seje v raziskovanjih omejih na pedagogiko. Raziskovanje s področja andragogike se je začelo na sociološkem inštitutu v okviru velikega mednarodnega projekta »Izobraževanje odraslih in družbena participacija« (1967-1972), ob kadrovski spremembi pa seje preneslo na Oddelek za pedagogiko Filozofske fakultete v Ljubljani. S tem ko se je andragogika uvrstila med študijske predmete, seje žarišče andragoških raziskav še utrdilo. Katedra za andragogiko je imela od srede sedemdesetih let prejšnjega stoletja pri ministrstvu za znanost financiran poseben raziskovalni program. Občasno so se pridružili še raziskovalci iz sociologije in psihologije. Žarišče za andragoške raziskave se je razširilo z delom za diplomske in magistrske naloge. Prve so zagovarjali sredi sedemdesetih let. Bolj obsežne raziskave so bili doktorati znanosti. Na katedri je potekala raziskava sistema izobraževanja odraslih za vso takratno državo. Nadaljevalo se je z raziskavami o motivaciji odraslih za izobraževanje, disleksiji odraslih in učnih strategijah, potrebah starejših po znanju, modelih uresničevanja vseživljenjskega izobraževanja, izkustvenem učenju itd. Nekatere analize so pripravili na Zvezi delavskih univerz, pri Andragoškem društvu Slovenije in Zvezi izobraževalnih centrov. V osemdesetih letih je del andragoških raziskav potekal na Pedagoškem inštitutu (Zoran Jelene, raziskava o neformalnem izobraževanju).
Sodelovanje Katedre za andragogiko v UNE-SCOVEM timu za komparativno andragogiko pri desetletje trajajoči raziskavi (1976-86) »Sistemi izobraževanja odraslih v Evropi« pod vodstvom Karlove univerze v Pragi in raziskovalnega vodje Premysla Majdla je dalo velik raziskovalno znanstveni prispevek. Katedri se je pridružil Ilija Mrmak in razširil raziskovanje na metodiko družbenopolitičnega izobraževanja in industrijske andragogike. Raziskave o poklicnem izobraževanju odraslih so na Oddelku postale domena Janka Muršaka. Ko so se od srede osemdesetih let dalje andra-goški katedri pridružile nove docentke (Nena Mijoč, Dušana Findeisen, Vida Mohorčič, Nives Ličen, Sabina Jelene, Sonja Kump in Monika Govekar), se je raziskovanje razcepilo v več samostojnih področij, kot so: komparativna andragogika, andragoško didaktične raziskave, zgodovina izobraževanja odraslih, izobraževalno svetovanje, socio-kulturna animacija, izobraževanje starejših in družinska andragogika. Evropska raziskava EURO DELPHI (1993-1996) (koordinatorica raziskave Univerza v Luevnu, Belgija, koordinatorica za Slovenijo Ana Krajnc) je uvedla novo metodologija (metodo delphi) in poglobila raziskovanje o družbeni funkciji izobraževanja odraslih v sodobnih razmerah.
Nosilci raziskav o izobraževanju starejših so postali vodilni strokovnjaki mreže 45 univerz za tretje življenjsko obdobje v 43 krajih Slovenije, združeni v Slovenski univerzi za tretje življenjsko obdobje. Posebna raziskava s tega področja se je v zadnjih letih izvajala tudi na Fakulteti za družbene vede Univerze v Ljubljani (Kump,
Po osamosvojitvi Slovenije je bil ustanovljen Andragoški center Slovenije (1992), raziskovalno-razvojna organizacija, za katero smo se pri državni upravi bojevali že nekaj desetletij in končno uspeli. Z raziskavami so spremljali novoraz-vijajočo se andragoško prakso. Sledile so raziskave o študijskih krožkih, borzah znanja, programih za usposabljanje mladih (PUM), izobraževanju odraslih v srednje- in vzhodnoevropskih državah, motivaciji za izobraževanje, mreži andragoških ustanov, poklicnem izobraževanju odraslih in kakovosti izobraževanja. Danes Andragoški center žal nima več raziskovalne funkcije, čeprav si težko predstavljamo, koliko časa in kako kakovostno bo razvojno delo, če ne bodo sproti raziskovali dejanske stvarnosti v andragoški praksi.
Jelene). Sonja Kump je bila leta 2003 izvoljena v naziv višjega znanstvenega sodelavca.
Na področju izobraževanja odraslih se je v zadnjih desetletjih toliko dogajalo, da je študijski program postal živo telo nenehnih sprememb in novosti.
Pomembno vlogo v razpravi o pomenu izobraževanja v neki družbi in za posameznika je imela evropska mednarodna študija EURO DELPHI »Prihodnost izobraževanja odraslih v Evropi« (1993-1996). Koordinatorica tega projekta EU je bila Univerza Lueven iz Belgije, v njej pa so sodelovali raziskovalci iz vseh takratnih 12 članic EU ter Češka, Estonija in Slovenija kot nekdanje socialistične države. Pomembna ugotovitev raziskave je bila, da trendi sodobnega razvoja v izobraževanju odraslih ne poznajo nacionalnih meja in so splošni. Konfiguracija empiričnih podatkov je bila podobna tako pri nekdanjih socialističnih državah kot pri članicah EU. Raziskovalci so odkrivali cilje in pomen izobraževanja odraslih na socialni in individualni ravni ter trende razvoja. Ugotovili so, da pridobivanje poklicnih znanj ni več v ospredju izobraževanja odraslih. Večji poudarek je na znanju za obvladanje družine in doma, računalniških znanjih, znanju za sodelovanje v kulturi in osebnostno rast, znanju za ohranjanje zdravja in varnost, znanju za aktivno državljanstvo in pridobivanje družbene moči, iskanje smisla življenja, znanju o medosebnih odnosih in naučiti učiti se. Podobne rezultate so pokazale tudi nekatere druge sočasne raziskave zunaj Evrope. Pod vplivom sprememb v informacijski družbi so se cilji izobraževanja odraslih bistveno spremenili. Posebno mesto imajo domače raziskave in mednarodno sodelovanje pri razvoju izobraževanja starejših. Univerza v Ulmu (Karmen Stadelhofer), središče »Učenje v poznejšem življenju« (Learning in Later Life, LILL) in
istoimenska revija ter strokovne konference podpirajo razvoj novega področja izobraževanja starejših kot nujne podlage za dejavno starost. V okviru tega področja poteka več projektov EU, ob njih se krepita tudi mednarodno sodelovanje in izmenjava spoznanj.
STROKOVNA LITERATURA IN PRVA SLOVENSKA REVIJA ZA IZOBRAŽEVANJE ODRASLIH »ANDRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA«
Ideja permanentnega ali vseživljenjskega izobraževanja J. A. Komenskega v delu Pampa-deia je postala neke vrste izhodiščna literatura. »Vsaka doba starosti je namenjena učenju in vsem ljudem so dani isti cilji za življenje in za učenje ... Ta (nižja) šola traja in mora trajati vse življenje, ker je samo življenje tudi šola. Vsaka življenjska doba je primerna za učenje nečesa drugega, in če zamudimo pravi trenutek, lahko veliko izgubimo.« (Vidmar, 1995: 50.) Najstarejšo tradicijo prosvetnega dela je mogoče zaslediti v priročnikih prosvetitelja Matije Vertovca (1784-1851), to so bili priročniki za izobraževanje prebivalstva in članki v tedanjem časopisju. V njih odkrivamo značilnosti izobraževanja odraslih kot prosvetnega dela v prvi polovici 19. stoletja (gradivo za simpozij o Matiji Vertovcu, 1984). Prvi slovenski deli, ki ju štejemo za teoretično izhodišče domače andragogike, sta Ozvaldo-va »Kulturna pedagogika« in Pranja Žgeča »Vzgoja ljudskih množic«. Obe poudarjata osebnostno rast in razvoj odraslih, izobraževanje odraslih postavljata širše, tako da služi življenju, osebni sreči in napredku (Žgeč, 1923; Ozvald, 1927). Oba sta opazila, kako se je predmet pedagogike kot znanosti z razvojem industrije ter hitrim razraščanjem poklicnega in strokovnega srednjega šolstva na prelomu iz 19. v 20. stoletje vedno bolj ožil na proučevanje pouka in šolskega sistema. Širši vzgojno--izobraževalni programi za odrasle, kulturno--prosvetno delo, kulturno-prosvetna društva
so zbledeli in ostali ob strani, ker se je spričo naglega razvoja industrije pedagogika bolj osredotočila na hitro rastoči sistem poklicnega šolstva. Oba utemeljujeta širše cilje znanosti o vzgoji in izobraževanju in potrebo po osebnostnem razvoju ljudi. Od tod tudi ime »kulturna pedagogika«. Ozvald, takrat profesor pedagogike na Filozofski fakulteti v Ljubljani in predstojnik Oddelka za pedagogiko, je bralca že v uvodu opozoril, da če išče v njegovi knjigi recepte, je bolje, dajo že na začetku odloži, saj jih v njej ne bo dobil. Če išče teorijo in globlji vpogled v človekov razvoj, pa naj nadaljuje (Ozvald, 1927: 4).
Franjo Žgeč je »vzgojo širokih ljudskih množic« povezal s podeželskim življenjem: kakovostjo družinskega življenja, vzgojo otrok in napredovanjem kraja. Preveč je bilo zaostalih podeželskih okolij, ki niso dosegala ravni poklicne izobrazbe v mestih. Menil je, da ima premalo ljudi možnost za razvoj in primerno izobrazbo. To jim je zato treba omogočiti tudi pozneje. Zanašal se je na ugodne učinke kul-turno-prosvetnega dela med prebivalstvom. Prva svetovna vojna je prekinila tradicijo kul-turno-prosvetnih društev po vaseh. Zamrli so poskusi prvih ljudskih visokih šol v Trstu, Celju in Mariboru. Izobraževalna društva v novi Kraljevini Srbov, Hrvatov in Slovencev niso bila dobrodošla, ker je vladal strah, da bi ljudi nacionalno prebujala in škodila novi državi. Ljudje so se izseljevali v Ameriko. Svojo potrebo po kulturno-prosvetnem delu in izobraževanju so uresničevali v Buenos Airesu, Clevelandu. Med prvimi zadevami po prihodu v novo domovino so ustanovili kulturno-pro-svetna društva. Imenovali so jih po nekdanjih društvih doma: Danica, Jutro, Zarja, Triglav. V okupirani Primorski je fašistična vlada Italije z enim dekretom zaprla vsa kulturno--izobraževalna društva, njihovo nepremično premoženje in denar na bančnih računih zasegla ter prepovedala slovenski jezik. V obdobju med vojnama je v izobraževanju odraslih vladal boj za obstoj. Zato v tem času niso nastala
kaka posebna teoretična ali znanstvena dela s področja izobraževanja odraslih. Beseda »prosveta« ali »ljudska prosveta« se je pojavila spet na partizanskih mitingih med drugo svetovno vojno kot ena od idej in ciljev osvobodilnega gibanja. Najdemo jo predvsem v besedilih Edvarda Kocbeka in Josipa Vidmarja. Optimizem po končani vojni je bil poln navdušenja nad prosvetnim delom. Leta 1945 je začel izhajati časopis »Prosvetni delavec«. Vladala je splošna socialna klima, da naj ljudje, ki imajo znanje, tega posredujejo ljudskim množicam. Po člankih sodeč, so na teh dogodkih nastopali učitelji, zdravniki, umetniki in politiki. Največ je bilo enkratnih predavanj, razne »proslave«, »mitingi« in »povorke« (pohodi ljudi v procesiji skozi mesto, vzklikanje gesel in prepevanje pesmi, prikazi industrijskega dela na prirejenih pomičnih odrih na tovornjakih ali vozovih). Članki v Prosvetnem delavcu dokazujejo, da so bile vsebine blizu ljudem, opisujejo same dogodke in z izobraževanjem tesno povezujejo kulturne programe. Beseda »prosveta« se je pogosto pojavljala. Tako se je nadaljevalo do leta 1949. Takratni politični preobrat v državi je pomenil konec tudi za prosvetno delo. Prosvetni delavec je čez noč postal glasilo Zveze sindikatov Jugoslavije. Od takrat dalje je ohranil samo še svoje ime. Besedila so se z naslednjo številko povsem spremenila. Na prvih straneh so bili objavljeni politični govori s kongresov sindikatov, poročila z raznih sestankov in časopis se je povsem spolitiziral. Učitelji pa so ga še naprej dobivali obvezno in brezplačno. Brali so ga le politično zagnani. Pogosto so se med starim papirjem znašli neprebrani izvodi. Še manj so se za spremenjeno publikacijo zanimali preprosti ljudje, saj to ni bil več »njihov« časopis. (Glej arhiv Šolskega muzeja v Ljubljani, Prosvetni delavec od 1946 do 1950.)
Želja po ponovni ustanovitvi kulturno-izobra-ževalnih društev se je uredila na državni ravni. S posebnim odlokom so bila ustanovljena kul-
turna društva Svoboda. Živahna so bila nekaj let in zamrla skupaj s Prosvetnim delavcem. S sistemsko urejeno prakso izobraževanja odraslih konec petdesetih let prejšnjega stoletja so v takratni državi spet nastale možnosti za razvijanje raziskovanja in teorije na tem področju. Konec leta 1958 se je, po danskem zgledu ljudskih visokih šol, z državnim odlokom ustanovila mreža delavskih in ljudskih univerz. Vsaka republika je imela svojo zvezo delavskih in ljudskih univerz. Na začetku je bilo njihovo število zelo veliko (v Sloveniji jih je bilo čez 200), nato je postopoma upadalo in danes ima Slovenija le 10 odstotkov začetnega števila teh ustanov. Celo Ljubljana in Maribor je več nimata. Mreža je bila dobro organizirana in je delovala tudi v manjših krajih. Posvečala se je predvsem poklicnemu usposabljanju in pridobivanju formalne šolske izobrazbe odraslih. Razvejena praksa je omogočala sistematična opazovanja in posplošitve. V šestdesetih letih so začeli objavljati prve knjige o izobraževanju odraslih (Krajnc, 1978/1).
Od šestdesetih let prejšnjega stoletja naprej količina literature o izobraževanju odraslih narašča tudi pri nas: posamezne razprave, članki, zborniki odražajo najpomembnejše oblike in programe za odrasle. Cilji izobraževanja odraslih so se spremenili. Pokazalo se je, da je z industrializacijo izobraževanje odraslih pri nas postalo ožje, namenjeno je predvsem delu, zaposlitvi in je osredotočeno na usposabljanje delavcev za operacije ob stroju. Avtorji Ivan Bertoncelj, Jože Valentinčič in Ivan Kejžar objavljajo članke o prerezu stanja in uspešnih primerih učenja odraslih (Miklič, Bertoncelj, Kejžar, 1969; Bertoncelj, 1963). Pri študiju andragogike pa smo uporabljali dela Savičevica, Filipovica in Samolovceva z Univerze v Beogradu in Mihajla Ogrizo-vica z Univerze v Zagrebu. Ogrizovic je sredi šestdesetih let izdal dve za andragoško teorijo temeljni publikaciji: Problemi andragogije (1966) in Metode obrazovanja odraslih (1966).
Istega leta je v Sarajevu skupina avtorjev (Ogrizovic, Samolovcev in drugi) izdala obsežno delo Osnovi andragogije. Kmalu potem, ko je bila andragogika uvedena kot študijski predmet v programu pedagogika, to je bilo v začetku sedemdesetih letih prejšnjega stoletja, je v Sloveniji izšlo več učbenikov za študij andragogike (Krajnc, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1978/2, 1982; Valentinčič, 1972). Naštela sem le nekaj izhodiščne literature. Pozneje se je količina strokovne literature v andragogiki povečevala in avtorji so se posvečali že bolj posebnim strokovnim temam, kar so omogočale predvsem nove raziskave. Morda pa so nas podatki o prvih knjigah prepričali, da andragogika ni več tako mlada veda, kot nekateri radi poudarjajo (Ogrizovic, 1966 in 1966/1; Ogrizovic, Samolovcev in drugi, 1966). Ko sem dela domačih avtorjev zatem primerjala z deli tujih piscev, sem ugotovila, da so prva in druga odraz spremljajoče se stvarnosti v praksi. Domača dela so obravnavala izobraževanje odraslih v funkciji industrijskega dela in produktivnosti. Tuji avtorji so perspektive izobraževanja odraslih zastavili mnogo širše in poudarjali še druge funkcije učenja, saj so že izhajali iz teorije vseživljenjskega izobraževanja Paula Lengranda. Bralec je pri tujih avtorjih zaslutil iskanje neke nove stvarnosti. Veliko je bilo iskanj in eksperimentov. Pojavljale so se novosti v povezavah izobraževanja odraslih s kulturnimi ustanovami (vloga knjižnic v izobraževanju odraslih, muzejska andragogika, družinska andragogika, gledališče kot izobraževalna metoda), športom (športna andragogika), društvi (izobraževalni tabori, poletne šole), samoorganiziranimi skupnostmi in priložnostnimi druženji (izobraževalni turizem). Zveza izobraževalnih centrov v podjetjih je med letoma 1975 in 1990 izdajala manjše glasilo Novice. Po osamosvojitvi Slovenije je zveza ugasnila. Izdajanje Novic je nadaljeval novoustanovljeni Andragoški center Slovenije (ACS). Tiskane Novice so leta 2010 nadomestile elektronske.
Pomembno dopolnilo k strokovnim knjigam so vedno znanstvene in strokovne revije. Majhna naklada strokovnih knjig v majhnih jezikovnih skupnostih ni privlačna za založbe. Za knjižno izdajo izsledkov neke raziskave je potrebnega precej časa in naporov. Zato ima lahko tukaj pomembno vlogo strokovna revija, ki sproti objavlja članke in razširja nova znanja med strokovnjaki svojega področja. V projektu EU za razvoj nacionalnih revij za izobraževanje odraslih v Srednji in Vzhodni Evropi, koordiniralo ga je finsko združenje za izobraževanje odraslih iz Helsinkov pod vodstvom Tima Toivinianena (1994-1996), smo tudi v Sloveniji začeli izdajati prvo slovensko strokovno znanstveno revijo za izobraževanje odraslih »Andragoška spoznanja«. Revija izhaja od leta 1995 dalje pri Filozofski fakulteti v Ljubljani, in sicer štirikrat na leto v skupnem obsegu okoli 400 strani znanstvenih in strokovnih člankov. Pretok strokovnega znanja je s tem dobil nove možnosti. Revija prinaša znanstvene novosti in odmeve iz uspešne prakse, spremlja pomembnejše strokovne dogodke in obletnice, delno služi kot študijska literatura pri študiju andragogike na univerzah v Ljubljani, Mariboru in v Kopru, namenjena pa je tudi praktikom. Najpogostejši naročniki so strokovnjaki v andragoški praksi in ustanove, ki se kakorkoli ukvarjajo z vzgojo in izobraževanjem odraslih. Širok krog avtorjev in bralcev ji daje vitalno vlogo v razvoju izobraževanja odraslih pri nas.
KAKO SE JE ŠTUDIJ ANDRAGOGIKE V SLOVENJI RAZVIJAL KRONOLOŠKO?
Bližal se je čas, ko sem morala za študij pedagogike na Filozofski fakulteti v Ljubljani dokončno pripraviti študijski program za dva nova andragoška predmeta, občo andragogi-ko in andragoško didaktiko. Predavanja sem morala začeti v študijskem letu 1972/73, takoj po vrnitvi s postdoktorskega študija na On-tarijskem inštitutu za raziskovanje vzgoje in izobraževanja (Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, OISE) pri Univerzi v Torontu. Ob spoznavanju domače in tuje prakse ter strokovne literature sem zagledala dve podobi izobraževanja odraslih: domačo v deželi v razvoju (takratni Jugoslaviji) in tujo v razvitih državah; te so že takrat odkrivale zakonitosti postindustrijske ali informacijske družbe. Študijski program naj bi prinesel čim več novega, omogočil naj bi, da se andragoška praksa razvije do te mere, da usposablja odrasle za sedanjost in prihajajočo prihodnost. Sledil naj bi raziskavam o izobraževanju odraslih v razvitejšem svetu in hkrati naj bi ustrezal domačim razmeram, bil vraščen vanje in prinašal nova andragoška znanja, uporabljiva v praksi. Pri sestavljanju študijskega programa sem morala upoštevati teoretično in znanstveno tradi-
cijo pedagogike na Oddelku za pedagogiko. To mi ni bilo težko, ker sem tudi sama diplomirala po tem programu. Pri sestavljanju študijskega programa seje med seboj križalo več vplivov. Nekatere teme sem zavestno izločila: individualizacijo izobraževanja odraslih, osebne učne projekte, kvalitativno metodologijo raziskovanja, izobraževalno svetovanje, komparativno andragogiko itd., ker jih naša stopnja razvoja andragoške prakse takrat še ni dosegala.
Študenti prvega in drugega letnika so poslušali občo andragogiko, v tretjem letniku pa andragoško didaktiko. Poleg predavanj so pri obči andragogiki študenti na seminarju predstavili svoje seminarske naloge in se tako poglobili v izbrano temo. Razen slovenske literature so uporabljali še knjige v srbohrvaščini, nemščini in angleščini. V stalnih stikih smo bili z univerzama v Zagrebu in Beogradu. Tesno smo sodelovali z oddelkom za pedagogiko odraslih na pobrateni univerzi v Tiibingenu v Nemčiji (Günter Dohmen) in fakulteto za izobraževalne vede v Londonu (Colin Titmus). Razvoj izobraževalnih ved je napredoval. Leta 1976 je v strokovnih krogih nastala pobuda, da bi se na Oddelku za pedagogiko uvedli še nekateri novi predmeti. Odločili smo se, da bomo študij pedagogike razdelili v nekaj smeri. S takratnim uvajanjem domske pedagogi-
ke bi bil namreč enoten študij z vsemi novimi predmeti (šolskim svetovalnim delom, domsko pedagogiko, industrijsko andragogiko, metodiko družbenopolitičnega izobraževanja, svetovanjem za osebnostni razvoj) odločno preobsežen. Zato se je študij pedagogike s študijskim letom 1976/77 razdelil v tri študijske smeri: šolska pedagogika, domska pedagogika in andragogika. Predvidena je bila še četrta smer: predšolska pedagogika, a ni nikoli zaživela. Diploma je ostala enotna z oznako izbrane smeri študenta v oklepaju. Andragogika se je razdelila na nekaj kateder. Novo katedro za industrijsko andragogiko in metodiko družbenopolitičnega izobraževanja je vodil profesor Ilija Mrmak z asistentom Jankom Muršakom. Na andragoški smeri se je podvojil predmet andragoška didaktika, uvedena je bila komparativna andragogika in nekaj novih predmetov: andragoško svetovalno delo, industrijska andragogika. Vse tri smeri so delovale na enotnem oddelku za pedagogiko do srede osemdesetih let prejšnjega stoletja, ko se je domska pedagogika »preselila« na Pedagoško fakulteto Univerze v Ljubljani in je tam postala samostojen študij: socialna pedagogika. Andragoška smer in smer šolske pedagogike pa sta ostali naslednjih 15 let. V drugi polovici osemdesetih let so bili pritiski za skolari-zacijo izobraževanja zelo močni: industrijska andragogika je prešla v poklicno pedagogiko in andragogiko (Muršak). Nadomestila jo je pedagogika poklicnega izobraževanja. Leta 1992 smo na Centru za razvoj univerze pri Univerzi v Ljubljani, ki sem ga v tistem času vodila, pridobili tri evropske TEMPUSO-VE projekte: Računalniško podprto delovanje univerze (koordinator S. Vilfan), Kvaliteta visokošolskega študija (koordinatorica Barica Marentič Požarnik) in Prenova študija andra-gogike (koordinatorica Ana Krajnc). Slovenija takrat še ni bila članica EU, zato smo sodili v posebno kategorijo TEMPUSOVIH projektov EU. Velika prednost je bila v tem, da smo pri vseh treh projektih mi bili tudi koordinatorji in
so bile univerze drugih držav naše partnerice. Tako smo laže načrtovali in tudi uresničevali delo v projektih, prilagojeno našim potrebam, da je bilo neposredno koristno za naše nove razmere v samostojni Sloveniji. Pri evropskih partnerjih smo odkrili veliko pripravljenost za sodelovanje. Vladala je pozitivna socialna klima v podporo novonastali državi. Osredotočila se bom na projekt Prenova študija andragogike, kjer so bile partnerske univerze: Univerza v Surreyu (koordinator Peter Jarvis), Univerza v Bambergu (koordinator Jost Rei-schmann), San Patric College na Irskem (koordinator Liam Carey) in Univerza v Utrechtu (koordinator P. Hage). Skupaj smo pripravljali program za samostojen enopredmetni študij andragogike in diplomo z nazivom diplomirani andragog. Novi program za samostojni študij andragogike je šel skozi vse potrebne postopke na ministrstvu za šolstvo in šport, pri fakultetnih in univerzitetnih organih. Spomladi leta 1993 ga je potrdil tudi svet Univerze v Ljubljani. Jeseni v študijskem letu 1993/94 se je vpisala prva skupina študentov andragogike kot samostojnega enopredmetnega študija. Sočasno je bil sprejet tudi program enopredmetnega samostojnega študija pedagogike; ker so kolegi izhajali iz potreb šole, je pedagogika poleg tega ohranila tudi dvopredmetno obliko študija. Na oddelku smo torej pridobili dva samostojna, enopredmetna študija: andragogika in pedagogika.
Pri novih predmetih smo računali z izvolitvijo novih docentk in enega docenta, direktorja Andragoškega centra Slovenije, Zorana Jelenca. Ker so formalni postopki še tekli in da bi bil naš začetek študija samostojne andragogike čim bolj kakovosten, so v okviru TEMPUSOVEGA projekta prvo študijsko leto 1993/94 kot gostujoči profesorji predavali vsi koordinatorji partnerskih univerz v projektu: Peter Jarvis, Liam Carey, Jost Reischmann in Colin Titmus. S tem smo v izvajanje študija pritegnili za teorijo o izobraževanju odraslih najbolj znane znanstvenike in profesorje v
Evropi z lepim številom objavljenih knjig. Ker so se nam zdela predavanja gostujočih profesorjev zelo dragocena in nismo vedeli, kdaj se nam bo v prihodnje še ponudila priložnost, da znane profesorje lahko poslušamo kar doma, smo njihova predavanja organizirali v večji predavalnici na Andragoškem centru Slovenije in povabili k udeležbi tudi strokovnjake iz prakse. Predavanja so bila sicer v angleščini. Rednim izvajalcem študija andragogike se je pridružil doc. dr. Zoran Jelene in kmalu nato še doc. dr. Vida Mohorčič (doktorirala v okviru omenjenega TEMPUSOVEGA projekta), oba z Andragoškega centra Slovenije. Meni (obča in komparativna andragogika), doc. dr. Janku Muršaku (poklicna andragogika) in doc. dr. Neni Mijoč (andragoška didaktika) so se postopoma pridružile še: doc. dr. Dušana Findeisen (sociokulturna animacija), doc. dr. Sabina Jelene (andragoško svetovalno delo in andragogika ciljnih skupin), doc. dr. Sonja Kump (komparativna andragogika), doc. dr. Nives Ličen (obča andragogika in družinska andragogika) in doc. dr. Monika Govekar Okoliš (zgodovina izobraževanja odraslih in obča andragogika za pedagoške smeri drugih študijev). Predmet informatika in računalništvo v izobraževanju odraslih je oblikoval in predaval doc. dr. Denis Trček z Inštituta Jožefa Štefana. Ob uvedbi samostojnega študija andragogike je nastala poleg prejšnjih dveh (katedre za občo in komparativno andragogi-ko, vodja Ana Krajnc, in katedre za poklicno pedagogiko in andragogiko, vodja Janko Mur-šak) še tretje katedra za andragoško didaktiko (vodja doc. dr. Nena Mijoč). Po uvedbi dveh smeri samostojnega študija se je leta 1995 dotedanji Oddelek za pedagogiko tudi uradno preimenoval v Oddelek za pedagogiko in andragogiko. Tak naziv je ohranil do danes.
Leta 1998 je fakulteta pod vodstvom dekanje prof. dr. Neve Šlibar iz nepojasnjenih razlogov odpravila naziv diplomirani andragog, ne da bi se sploh posvetovala s takratno predstojnico
Oddelka za pedagogiko in andragogiko in sno-valko študija, prof.dr. Ano Krajnc, ali jo kakorkoli obvestila. Informacijo je predstojnica odkrila slučajno in po neformalni poti. Kakršenkoli nadaljnji pogovor o tej temi je dekanja kategorično zavrnila. Še do danes mi ni znano, kaj je bilo v ozadju take odločitve. Besede in nazivi se mi ne zdijo najpomembnejši, stvari presojam po dejanjih. Zato nisem izgubljala energije in časa z raziskovanjem negativnih manipulacij v ozadju odločitve za odpravo naziva »andragog« v diplomi samostojnega študija andragogike. Najpomembneje se mi je zdelo, da so andragogi čim boljši strokovnjaki in čim bolj kompetentni za prihodnje odgovornosti pri delu, da dohitevajo svetovni razvoj stroke in znanosti, pa naj imajo tak ali drugačen na/iv. Brez ustreznega naziva so se diplomantom delno skrčile možnosti zaposlovanja. Ker se je obseg prakse večal in je bila zahteva po kakovostnem in profesionalno vodenem izobraževanju odraslih vedno bolj glasna, je tudi upad v zaposlovanju postopoma izzvenel.
ANDRAGOGIKA NA DRUGIH UNIVERZAH V SLOVENIJI
V zadnjem času se je Oddelku za pedagogiko in andragogiko Filozofske fakultete v Ljubljani pridružil še doc. dr. Marko Radovan. Na Univerzi na Primorskem predava andragogiko doc. dr. Maja Mezgec, sicer direktorica Slovenskega znanstvenega inštituta v Trstu. Za učitelja andragogike v Mariboru se pripravlja študentka doktorskega študija Senka Hočevar Ciuha. Na druge univerze v Slovenji se je andragogika razširila predvsem v okviru Pedagoško- andragoškega izobraževanja za bodoče učitelje srednjih šol in predmetnega pouka v osnovnih šolah. Strokovnjaki, diplomanti nepedagoškega študija na drugih fakultetah, si s tem študijskim modelom pridobijo licenco učitelja. Po zakonu iz leta 1981 je v Sloveniji andragogika eden od štirih temeljnih predmetov (poleg pedagogike, didaktike in specialne didaktike)
pedagoško-andragoškega izobraževanja (PAI). Opisani študijski model traja dva semestra. V letih 2007-2008 je bil ta model vsebinsko prenovljen, dodani so mu bili še nekateri izbirni predmeti (retorika, socialne veščine) in opazovalna praksa.
Prav pod vplivom PAI se je andragogi-ka kot veda razširila tudi med diplomante drugih fakultet in je imela velik vpliv na popularizacijo teorije permanentnega ali vseživljenjskega izobraževanja v Sloveniji, na nastajanje učeče se družbe in širjenje izobraževanja v vse pore našega družbenega in osebnega življenja. Tako so v novih strokovnih okoljih nastale nove aplikacije an-dragogike, kar je obogatilo tudi samo vedo.
Oddelek za pedagogiko na Univerzi v Mariboru se razvija in predvidevamo, da bodo v prihodnje uvajali tudi nove predmete. Med drugim bosta gotovo postopoma zaživela samostojna predmeta pedagogika in andragogika, zdaj se še vedno predavata skupaj. Mezirow, profesor na Columbia University v New Yorku, loči genotipsko ali šolsko izobraževanje kot podlago za sekundarno socializacijo otrok v šoli po zahtevah družbe od fenotipskega izobraževanja, sprotnega izobraževanja, nastalega kot odziv na spremljajoče situacije (izobraževanje odraslih). Dva povsem nasprotna pristopa k izobraževanju. Če bi ju pomešali ali poskušali poenotiti, bi vsak od njih izgubil svoje bistvo.
ZAKLJUČEK
Uvajanje študija andragogike na Univerzi v Ljubljani je zgodba uspeha in resničnih dosežkov. Ne bi bilo povsem naravno, če ne bi v zakulisju delovale tudi razvoju nasprome sile. Probleme imamo vsi ljudje, pravi Erik Bern v knjigi Katero igro igraš?. Razlikujemo se po tem, ali se osredotočimo na zmage ali izgube. Zmagovalci se osredotočijo na zmage, dosežke.
Zgubarji se največ ukvarjajo z ovirami in izgubami, zato se vedno bolj oddaljujejo od ciljev, namesto da bi se jim vztrajno približevali kot zmagovalci (Bern, Erik, 1980). Nasprotovanja in ovire na poti do cilja, da razvijemo študij andragogike, smo pretežno puščali ob strani. Bolj smo se zanašali na podporo in sodelovanje. Naj dejstva govorijo o tem, koliko smo napravili in kako daleč nam je uspelo priti.
Gospodarska in finančna kriza je kriza vrednot, je dokončna revolucija znanja. Zadnja svetovna UNESCOVA konferenca o izobraževanju odraslih nam je začrtala pot iz krize: postavite ljudi na prvo mesto. Potem, ko se bodo prevrednotile vrednote, bo izobraževanje in zdravstvo na prvem mestu. Kakovostnih učiteljev in zdravnikov nam že danes manjka. Kakovost študija andragogike se med drugim spozna tudi po primernem povezovanju s sorodnimi strokami: psihologijo, sociologijo in ekonomijo. Izobraževanje odraslih je fenotip-sko (Mezirow). Odziva se na nastale situacije v javnem in zasebnem življenju. Pričakujemo timsko delo več vrst strokovnjakov. Interdisciplinarni pristop namesto delitve na discipline je bliže resničnosti. Problemi so vedno interdisciplinarni. Ljudje od znanja pričakujejo rešitev. Pričakujemo, da bo šel nadaljnji razvoj po dveh navidezno nasprotujočih si poteh: poti interdisciplinarnih pristopov v izobraževanju in hkrati po poti vedno večje specializacije.
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Prof. Ana Krajnc, Ph. D.
the study of andragogy
University ofljuhljana and education of andragogues
ABSTRACT
There were a number of reason for a shortage of educated people in thepost-war time. The .■itate planned and dictated accelerated development of industry. There was a lack of skilled workers. The war had interrupted education of many individuals and there the casualties among intellectuals were greater than in the rest of population. The demand for qualified workers, recorded by employment agencies, exceeded the supply. As a result, education of adults in practice expanded rapidly. Practitioners required professional support and suitable literature.
In 1956 the first lectures in andragogy were delivered within the framework ofpedadgogy studies at the Faculty of Philosophy in Zagreb. In the years to follow. Prof Mihajlo Ogrizovic, founder of the study subject, published the first works on andragogy Metode obrazovanja odraslih (Adult Education Methodology) and Problemi andragogije (Problems of Andragogy). In 1960 the Chair of Andragogy was set up at the Faculty of Philosophy in Belgrade (Prof Dušan Savicevic, Borivoj Samolovčev). My decision to get engaged in research into adult education was made while I was working at the Institute of Sociology (1967) and joined the first international comparative research study in this country. Education of Adults, Social Mobility and Social Participation. Lectures in General Andragogy and Andragogical Didactics began in Ljubljana in the Pedagogy Department of the Faculty of Philosophy in 1972. In 1976 the study of andragogy became o special course of study within the Department. In 1993/94 andragogy was introduced as an independent study. The Ministry of Education and Sport confirmed the new study programme within the framework of the European TEMPUS project. The new study programmes were devised under the influence of the best-known world institutes for adult education (The Andragogy Department of Montreal University, the European Bureau for Adult Education in London, Wellington College in Oxford, Institute for Andragology in Amsterdam, Andragogy Department of Charles University in Prague, etc.). This guaranteed international quality of the programme. My one-year post-doctoral specialization at the Institute in Toronto (1971) gave a final turn to the preparations of andragogy teaching. Professional and scientific literature augmented. Andragogy gained a place in the national research programme. Simultaneously, a number of research studies were conducted within transnational research programmes, run by UNESCO, ICAE (International Council for Adult Education) and EU. In recent years, the study of andragogy underwent a new reform to meet higher education objectives as formulated by the ena Declaration.
Keywords: needs for adult education, demand for experts higher than supply, study of andragogy, international influences on study programme, relationship between andragogical theory and practice, research in andragogy and international cooperation
UDK:374.7:378
In the period following the Second World War Yugoslav society experienced a planned transition from agrarian to industrial economy. While the industrial worker behind a machine became the ideological icon of the time, agriculture and peasant population had a rather a low social status. The policy of progress was based on industry and industrialization of the country, the development of which was geared by five-year plans. The influx of people into industry and
the country-to- town migration (urbanisation) were so fast that they entailed forced recruitment of factory workers. Individuals were sent home decrees, issued by their communities' interior affairs offices, about where and when they must report for factory work. The collective will was well above that of the individual. In practice, adult education of various types (evening classes. Svoboda cultural societies, on-the-job training in factories) spread fast and
the need for some kind of educational theory became more and more pronounced. The educators of adults (foremen, middle management, instructors) needed to receive training to be able to perform appropriate educational activities. In the sixties in Slovenia it was Ivan Bertoncelj who dedicated all his efforts to this aim. The number of industrial workers was increasing rapidly and alongside with it the number people of peasant origin who had to be trained for this new type of job. The demand for adult education was great and augmenting from day to day. The socio-economic and technological situation of the country was similar to that of North America and Western Europe and the end of the 19*^ century and at the beginning of the 20«^ (before the First World War). The American, Edward Lindeman, founder of the adult education theory and the discipline of andragogy, drew inspiration from the rapidly growing mass education of adults of his time. In Yugoslavia after the first two five-year-plan periods the political ambitions to provide a systemic provision of adult education became stronger. From cultural societies titled Svoboda, which emerged after the war, people's and workers' universities were developing. On the basis of a Bill that was passed in all republics people's and workers' universities got incorporated into the Workers' Universities Association between 1957-1959. Pedagogy Faculty of the Faculty of Philosophy of Zagreb University offered the first lectures in andragogy already in 1956 (Prof Mihajlo Ogrizovic). The quickly expanding adult education in practice gave birth to a new discipline: andragogy (Krajnc, 1978/1, pp. 169-171).
HOW IT BEGAN IN SLOVENIA -THE SIXTIES: A SURPLUS OF JOBS
In the time of industrial expansion and mass employment in Yugoslavia in the early 1960's, the needs for job-oriented training were growing. Job opportunities were abundant.
A job was synonymous to existence
especially for industrial workers - skilled workers were in great demand. One's job determined one's position in the pyramidal company structure. Since there was a shortage of workers in Slovenia, manufacturing and construction companies went recruiting to other republics, bringing busloads of workers to Slovenia. The neighbouring countries had a similar situation: they were glad to receive workers from other countries (Southern Europe, Turkey) to meet domestic labour demand, which was exceeding the supply of labour. This was a special time for employment agencies. Their central task was career counselling, which started being practiced already in primary schools to help children choose a proper career. A job was synonymous to existence, it meant money, social status, safety. The 1961 statistics show that 40% of the year's generation failed to complete the eight-year primary school, a similar percentage failed to proceed with education, and only a small proportion received vocational or secondary education. As a psychologist working for an Employment Agency, I experienced the pressures of the demand for qualified workers on the one hand and job expectations of great numbers of young people without a career and vocation on the other. After doing their military service young men immediately came and registered with the Employment Agency. Psychological tests showed their capabilities, but their formal education was very low. It was considered common sense that "there is no point in learning and struggling through school, if you can start earning money as soon as you have done your compulsory school education (at the age of 15) or military service (at the age of 19)". In many areas outside bigger towns, which had some cultural tradition, the abundance of job opportunities tended to have a negative effect on continuation of education. The clothing company Mura, used to take on
Education adults star burgeon
young job-seekers even if they had not completed primary education (after the or grades); proceeding with learning, therefore, seemed rather irrelevant. In the following decades the average number of schools in this area began to lag behind the
ted to
rest of Slovenia. A similar situation emerged at a later period in the Gorica area, where the casino was recruiting primary- school leavers. As it was easy to get a job without a university degree in recent years, many undergraduates from this area became drop-outs, and, consequently, the proportion of graduates started to decline. My immediate experience comes from the Ajdovščina Branch of Employment Agency. The job suppliers in this area were successful companies, e.g. the fruit-juice producer Fructal, the furniture maker Lipa; the agricultural machinery producer Batuje, the construction company Primorje, Metalworking Ajdovščina, and others in the Gorica area. The demand for skilled workers was growing and could not be satisfied although we had long lists with names of capable, healthy, young, but unskilled, job-seekers. As a counsellor I began to wonder what these people could learn, how they could get some qualifications, a vocation. How will they do in life without it? I became increasingly preoccupied with the idea of education for adults. It appeared to be the only possible remedy, the only option for the vocationless unemployed. A fresh pedagogy graduate, I had not done adult education or andragogy during my studies. But although our curriculum had focused on school pedagogy, I had studied pedagogical research methodology with Prof Vlaldo Schmidt and so gained the necessary knowledge to explore new domains and research new phenomena. Prof Stanko Gogala had inspired us with optimism, which was a good companion on the new courses we had taken. In spite of the fact that before the war the region in which I was living had a strong tradition
of educational and cultural societies, the idea of adults continuing with education seemed preposterous, which I soon learnt in the interviews with the president of the municipality and meetings with local authorities. I decided to proceed with my search alone. Similarly pressing as in Primorska was the demand for workers in other parts of the country where industry was expanding. In Ljubljana Ivan Bertoncelj gave lectures on vocational training. Workers' and people's universities were emerging. Manufacturing organizations introduced on-the-job training to develop specific skills and introduced the so-called "in-company qualifications" as an emergency solution. In Ljubljana a workers' university had been set up, here and there regular schools provided evening classes. In this period the Workers' Universities Association was established in Ljubljana, headed first by Tinka Blaha and then by Marjan Lah. A special section, in charge of education of adults, was operating within the School State Agency of Slovenia, run by Jože Valentinčič. Soon thereafter Slovenia got its Adult Education Society, upon the model of other Yugoslav republics. The University of Ljubljana organized part-time studies for people with jobs, giving them a chance to make up for the years lost during the war. There were insufficient numbers of experts in all fields. The Higher Political School of the Central Committee of Slovenia provided part-time studies for selected individuals in key positions. Education of adults started to burgeon in all segments of the population.
OBSERVATION OF ADULT EDUCATION PRACTICE AND COOPERATION WITH ADULT EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS
Since the time I opted for adult education, it has been my primary interest and the focal point of all my activities. Already while working with the Employment Agency, I closely cooperated with Mira Novak, the well-known director of
the Ajdovščina Workers' University (one of the three best in Slovenia). There I learnt what this and other workers' universities offered and how they operated. Evening classes were held for adult learners also by the Ajdovščona secondary school, and in Gorica I had contacts with Rajko Slokar, director of their workers' university. After starting my new job as a researcher at the Institute of Sociology in Ljubljana, I established contacts with many national institutions: the Workers' Universities Association, headed by Marjan Lah, the Institute for Work Productivity, the Adult Education Society of Slovenia and its President Tilka Blaha, the Adult Education Department of the Slovenian School Institute (Jože Valentinčič), the Employment Agency of the Republic of Slovenia (Jan Ma-karovič), the Employment Agency of Ljubljana (Ciril Virant, Milan Pavliha), and the Education Section of the Slovenian Committee of the Trade Union Federation of Yugoslavia, the Industrial Training Centres Association. With time, by participating in meetings and conferences on adult education and listening attentively to what the speakers and participants had to say, I acquired a rounded-up picture of the trends and of the prevailing practice. At the same time I studied a multitude of texts on the topic. Ivan Bertoncelj, working at the Institute for Vocational Training of Slovenia dedicated all his efforts selflessly to adult education. Unfortunately, he left for Africa as a UNESCO expert soon after we had met. I studied the concepts of functional education and of industrial pedagogy which were included in the studies at the Faculty for Organizational Studies in Kranj (Kejžar, Lorenčič). In Rijeka, I met Martin Petancic, "the father" of industrial pedagogy, read his articles and his extensive work Industrial Pedagogy (Petancic, Martin, 1968). I searched for and found source materials for the study of kadrology in Zagreb. Without accumulating all this knowledge, I could not have decided what to include in the andragogy study curriculum, which I was pre-
paring, and what not at he University of Ljubljana (Miklič, Bertoncelj, Kejžar, 1969). I met people working in adult education organizations in many smaller places in Slovenia. Invitations for lectures and cooperation started pouring in from various addresses. I always welcomed and accepted them unless my other responsibilities forbade it. This was the period of gaining precious professional experience. My annual report data show that I gave, on average, around 40 public lectures a year. Besides preparing conference papers and giving lectures, I occasionally appeared on Radio Ljubljana. All this gave me a solid background for my later pedagogical work at the Department of Pedagogy of the Faculty of Philosophy in Ljubljana. Observing adult education in practice would later enable me to adapt the study of andragogy to the Slovenian circumstances, to select from the discipline and its theory those study subjects that were relevant to our situation, thus making the discipline best serve the needs of the adult education practitioners. Involvement in adult education practice was, however, not appreciated in academic circles - it lacked prestige; therefore, I did not emphasise it much in my work at the university. A part of my insight into the practice of adult education came from adult education study programmes of other universities, those in Boston (Knowles), Sao Paolo (Freire), Prague (Kamil Škoda), Zagreb (Ogrizovič), Belgrade (Savičeveč), Rome (Filipo de Sanctis), Toronto (Robin Kidd), Tubingen (Günther Dohmen), Florence (Paolo Frederighi), Utrecht, etc. The study founders, great humanists whose ideas are still vivid in my mind, influenced greatly my views and values. What I was looking for, was not merely the contents of study courses. Study subjects differed greatly from university to university, reflecting differences in the environments; study aims, however, were almost identical - providing high-quality experts for education of adults, giving adult educators appropriate education.
As researchers we gained a ^reat deal of knowledge.
THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL COMPARATIVE STUDY: ADULT EDUCATION, SOCIAL MOBILITY AND SOCIAL PARTICIPATION
The new burgeoning adult education practice derived from research of real-hfe circumstances; it then needed to be systematized and organized into a theory. Without generahzati-ons and discovery of the basic principles and characteristics of the phenomena, the practice would gradually be doomed to decline. My search, therefore, took me further; I kept looking for connections with similarly thinking people in adult education practice and in social sciences. After leaving the Employment Agency, I started working for the Institute of Sociology in Ljubljana (1964). Three years later (1967) I joined, as a researcher and coordinator for Slovenia, the international research study Adult Education, Social Mobility and Social Participation. Involved in this research were three additional members of the Ljubljana Institute of Sociology: Zdravko Mlinar, and Mirö Jezernik. Our research team met in another country every year: in 1968 (Dubcek's year) we met at Charles University in Prague, a year later in Utrecht, etc. This gave us a chance to gain direct experience of how research and teaching in the area of adult education were done at the great world universities. As researchers we gained a great deal of knowledge. The research programme was coordinated by Hamilton University, Canada; the participants included the universities from the USA (University of Oregon), Poland (University of Warsaw), the Netherlands (University of Utrecht) and Charles University from Prague. Within the framework of this research programme I collected empirical data for my PhD thesis by means of a specially designed questiormaire. Invited by Prof Vlado Schmidt, Head of the Pedagogy Department, I joined the Faculty of Philosophy as an assistant professor. Prof Schmidt believed
that in view of the contemporary trends, the science of education should expand to incorporate what he termed "adult pedagogy". A constructive relationship of trust, mutual support and a spirit of cooperation and respect, made my work at the Faculty a great pleasure. I was given the freedom to create and search. The new discipline was named andmgogy, as the term was used by the universities of Zagreb (Prof Mihaj-lo Ogrizovic, 1956) and Belgrade (Prof Dušan Savičevic and Prof Bora Samolovčev, 1961). I had contacts with numerous prominent scholars at home and, through the international research programme, also abroad. New horizons were opening up for our work. My PhD committee was made up of three active members: Dr Jože Goričar, professor of sociology at the Law Faculty, Dr Milica Bergant, professor of pedagogical sociology at the Department of Pedagogy, Faculty of Philosophy, and Dr Vlado Schmidt, professor of methodology and school history and pedagogy. They showed great interest in the international research programme and gave my thesis a thorough critical examination. My oral doctoral defence was first done with each of them individually and then conjointly, before the whole committee (1971). A part of my thesis was pubhshed under the title Adult Education and Social Participation by the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE) in 1973, and in 1978 in the book form under the title Education - Our Social Value by Delavska enotnost in Ljubljana.
WHAT INFLUENCED THE DESIGN OF THE ANDRAGOGY STUDY PROGRAMME AT THE FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY IN LJUBLJANA
Theoretical trends and contacts with scholars at foreign universities and institutes
An intensive, compact (two-month) specialization course in adult education, organized by UNESCO in Geneva in 1970, opened up new
aspects of teaching and learning, taking into consideration the needs of local and national development. Adult education could no longer be seen in the narrow perspective of work and work functions, but as a response to all requirements of a social community and the individual. Cultural tradition and development plans have a direct connection with adult education. One of the principal lecturers on the specialization course was Leo Fornig, director of the International Institute of Pedagogy in Geneva. His characteristic statement was: "There are no bad students. There can only be bad teachers." He maintained that it was very important for each student to have an appropriate teacher - a thought expressed again ten years later by the ICAE delegation in China. The Canadian post-doctoral Grand fellowship I was awarded after the dissertation enabled me an 18 month- specialisation at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE) of the Toronto University, gave me the opportunity to establish direct contacts with prominent researchers and theoreticians in the field. My post-graduate mentor was Prof Robin Kidd, Head of the Institute's Adult Education studies. An additional scholarship enabled me to visit other major Canadian universities. At the Montreal University I was greatly impressed by Pier Blondel and his huge adult education department, where the French cultural influence, in which pedagogy is regarded as an independent science and discipline, dominated. The English-speaking universities with Anglo-Saxon tradition, such as the University of Calgary, Windsor University and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, did not regard pedagogy as a special science and used pragmatically the term adult education for the entire scholarly discipline. I cooperated with Allen Tough, the main researcher of adults learning projects and author of new methodological approaches, with Alan Thomas and Malcolm Knowles. This was the year when Pedagogy of the Oppressed, a famous
work by Paulo Freire, was published. Personal contacts with him greatly affected my ideas and the theoretical concepts in the preparation of the andragogy study programme for the Faculty of Philosophy in Ljubljana. In the time of my post- doctoral studies in Toronto, Robin Kidd organized a world conference in Ottawa (1972), which was attended by researchers, practitioners and theoreticians from all parts of the world. At the conference the International Council for Adult Education (ICAE) was established, with the seat in Toronto, and was soon awarded a special counselling status by UNESCO. As I served as a member of the executive committee during several terms, my professional connections spread throughout the world. Every five years there was a world conference, always on another continent. It had regional offices in all parts of the world. Today the ICAE is headed by Paul Belange, an international expert for adult education. In 2009, at the CONFITEA UNESCO world conference on adult education in Belem, Brazil, Paul Belanger gave a projection of adult education development and stressed the importance of the dialogue between government organizations and the NGOs - the civil society. Through participation in the ICAE I acquired a clear picture of adult education study and practice in Latin America, Australia, Asia and Africa. Starting with the first research study, I continued international collaboration by engagement in various international researches, which helped establish a basis for the study of andragogy in Slovenia. Between 1976 and 1988 our research work was connected with the international team working on the UNESCO project The Systems of Adult Education in Europe. In each country the researchers examined the system and published the findings in a special UNESCO publication. When Slovenia became independent, the Chair of Andragogy within the Department of Pedagogy became the coordinator of one of the first TEMPUS projects of the EU, Renovation
of the Andragogy Studies at the University of Ljubljana. The project partners were Surrey University, England (Peter Jarvis), University of Utrecht, the Netherlands (Peter Hage), St. Patrick College, Ireland (Liam Carey). This project introduced through cooperation with other universities new contents into the andragogy study programme, it also brought visiting professors to the Faculty in Ljubljana for one study year . Their lectures were attended not only by full-time students, but also by other experts in adult education practice. The lectures, discussions and professional publications by the authors from other universities, whom the students had a chance to meet face-to-face, inspired modifications and complementation of the andragogy study programme.
SLOVENE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND ANDRAGOGY AS A STUDY COURSE
Pedagogy graduates of my generation were well-qualified for empirical research and scientific work. As already mentioned. We had studied Pedagogical Research Methodology during all eight semesters and done a course of Statistics with Prof Vogelnik in the first four semesters of our studies. These subjects were the foundation for the establishment of the Institute of Pedagogy, which, however, concentrated mainly on school pedagogy Andragogical research had its beginnings at the Institute of Sociology with the international project Adult Education and Social Pan
ticipation (1967-1972). Once andragogy was introduced as a study subject, the focus of andragogical research got firmly established. From the mid-I970's on the Ministry of Science supported financially the research programme of the Chair of Andragogy. Occasionally researchers from sociology and psychology participated in the programme. Andragogical research grew, as undergraduate and graduate students conducted research for their papers and theses. The first andragogy degrees were awarded in the mid-seventies. More extensive research was done for doctoral dissertations. The Andragogy Chair conducted a study of the adult education system in the entire country. It proceeded with research into motivation for education in adults, dyslec-tic adults and their learning strategies, knowledge requirements of older people, models of lifelong education, experiential learning, etc. Some analyses were carried out by the Workers' Universities Association, the Adult Education Society of Slovenia and the Training Centres Association of manufacturing organizations. In the eighties some andragogical research was carried out at the Institute of Pedagogy (Zoran Jelene, study of informal education).
The involvement of the Chair of Andragogy with the UNESCO team for comparative andragogy within the research study The System of Adult Education in Europe, which lasted for ten years (1976- 1986) and was led by Premysl Maydl of Charles University in Prague, was a significant scientific research contribution and achieve-
After Slovenia gained independence in 1992, the Slovenian Institute for Adult Education (SIAE) was established, an institution for which we had fought with the State administration for several decades. The SIAE research studies focused on monitoring the newly developing adult education practice. Research of study circles was followed by research of the knowledge exchange, training programmes for the young school drop- outs (PUM), adult education in Middle-and East-European countries, learning motivation, adult education institutions network, vocational adult education and quality of education. Unfortunately, the Ministry had recently decided the Slovenian Institute for Adult Education has other functions to perform and not research, although it is difficult to imagine how long development work can be pursued and what its quality will be without continuous research monitoring the adult education practice reality.
ment, important for the whole of Europe. Our research field was widened in the late seventies to didactics of socio-political education and industrial andragogy, whereas Janko Muršak specialized in vocational adult education. When several new associate professors of andragogy joined the Department of Pedagogy in the 1980's and in the 1990's (Nena Mijoč, Dušana Findeisen, Vida Mohorič, Nives Ličen, Sabina Jelene, Sona Kump and Monika Govekar), research diversified into several autonomous domains, such as: comparative andragogy, andragogical didactic research, adult education history, educational counselling, socio-cultural animation, education of older adults and family andragogy. The European transnational study EURO DELPHI (1993-1996), coordinated by the University of Leuven in Belgium (with Ana Krajnc as the Slovenian coordinator), introduced a new methodology (the delphy method) and gave the research of adult education a new role in the contemporary society.
The leading experts from the network of the Slovenian Third-Age University, consisting of 45 third-age universities, which are operating in 43 locations all over Slovenia, conducted a study into education of older people (Findeisen, Šantej, Krajnc). A similar study was carried out in recent years by the Faculty of Social Sciences in Ljubljana (Kump, Jelene), where, in 2003, Sonja Kump was elected Senior Scientific Advisor.
With so many new developments and events that occurred in the field of adult education in recent decades, the study programme of andragogy has become a living organism of continuous change and innovation.
The transnational European research study EURO DELPHI was noteworthy because it brought discussions on the importance and role of education in the society and for the in-
dividual to the foreground (the future of adult education in Europe). Its coordinator was the University of Leuven, Belgium (1993 - 1996), with researchers coming from all 12 countries of the EU of that time. Included in the project were also the Czech Republic, Estonia and Slovenia as representatives of former socialist countries. An important finding of the study was that contemporary adult education development trends are not restricted to the territories of individual countries, they run across borders and are general in their character. The empirical data configuration in the former socialist countries was similar to that in the EU member countries. The researchers investigated the aims and the significance of adult education at the level of society and individual; they also studied new development trends. Vocational and professional skills acquisition is no longer in the foreground of adult education. There is more emphasis on learning for home and family management, IT skills, participation in culture, personal growth, preservation of health and security, knowledge for active citizenship and empowering, search for the meaning of life, knowledge of interpersonal relations, and on learning how to learn. Similar results were found in some other studies, carried out outside Europe in the same period. As a result of the changes brought about by information society, the aims of adult education have undergone a significant change too.
Local studies and international cooperation practice hold a special place in the field of education of older adults. The University of Ulm (Karmen Stadelhoffer), together with the Learning in Later Life Centre (LILL) and the magazine of the same title, work in support of the development of a new area of education of older adults, the necessary background for active ageing. Several European projects are being conducted within this framework, successfully fostering international cooperation and exchange of irmovation.
PROFESSIONAL LITERATURE AND THE JOURNAL ANDKA-GOGICAL PERSPECTIVES (ANr DRAGOŠKA SPOZNANJA) - THE FIRST SLOVENE PERIODICAL FOR ADULT EDUCATION
J.A. Komenski's Pampaedia, which brought the idea of continuous or hfelong learning, has become a fundamental work in adult education. "Each period of life is intended for learning; all people are given the same aims in life and learning ... The (elementary) school lasts and must last all life, since life itself is a school. Each period in our lives is suitable for learning of something different, and if we lose the right moment, we lose a great deal" (Vidmar, Tadej, 1995, p. 50). The oldest records of educational tradition in Slovenia go back to the teachings of the popular educator Matija Vertovec (1784-1851), his educational instructions and his articles published in the journals of his time. His work shows adult education to be part of the educational trend of the first half of the 19*^ century (materials for the symposium on Matija Vertovec, 1984). A theoretical basis of the national andrago-gy were the first Slovene works of this sort: Ozvald's Cultural Pedagogy (Kulturna pedagogika) and Franjo Zgec's Education for the masses (Vzgoja ljudskih množic). Both men emphasized the importance of personal growth and development in adults, seeing adult education as a broad discipline in service of life, personal happiness and progress (Zgec, F, 1923), (Ozvald, K., 1927). Both educators noticed how the rapid development of industry and quick expansion of school pedagogy resulted in the narrowing of pedagogy research subject to the study of class teaching and school systems. Broad educational and learning programmes for adults, cultural education and cultural educational societies were losing in importance and slowly vanished since, due to quick expansion of industry, pedagogy turned its focus to the development of the vocati-
onal school system. Both scholars had a broad view of educational aims and needs, stressing the importance of personal growth and development, hence the term "cultural pedagogy". In the Preface to his work, Ozvald, then professor of pedagogy at the Faculty of Philosophy in Ljubljana and Head of the Department of Pedagogy, warned the readers not to expect recipes in his work. They should proceed with reading only if they were interested in the theory and a better understanding of the development of the individual (Ozvald, 1927, p. 4). Franjo Žgec linked "education for the masses" with life in rural communities - quality family life, children's education, development of the local community. In too many backward rural areas vocational training and education lagged in quality considerably behind those of the town. He believed that since not enough people had a chance to obtain a proper education and develop, they deserve a new opportunity in their later lives. He believed in favourable effects of cultural and educational work on the masses. The first world war disrupted the tradition of cultural and educational societies in villages. The first organized folk high schools in Trieste, Celje and Maribor slowly vanished. Educational societies were not welcome in the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, for fear that they might enhance national feelings and be harmful for the new state. There was mass migration to America. In Buenos Aires and Cleveland the immigrants continued to practice cultural and educational activities. Among the first things they did when arriving in their new homeland was to establish educational societies, which were named after the societies that had existed in their home country: Danica (the Morning Star), Jutro (the Morning), Zarja (the Dawn), Triglav. In the occupied region of Primorska, all cultural and educational societies were banished with a a single decree of the fascist Italian government, their assets and bank accounts were seized and the use of the Slovene language forbidden. In the time between the two wars the struggle for
survival dominated in adult education, therefore, no significant theoretical or scientific work could be done in this period. The terms prosveta (enlightenment) and ljudska pro sveta (people's enlightenment) could be heard again at partisan meetings during the Second World War; they designated one of the proclaimed aims of the liberation movement, most frequently appearing in the texts of Edvard Kocbek and Josip Vidmar. The post-war optimism was full of enthusiasm for the spread of knowledge among the people. In 1945 a specialized journal. Prosvetni delavec (Enlightenment Woher) began to appear. The spirit of the time demanded that people who possessed knowledge should pass it on. The articles in Prosvetni delavec show that the authors were teachers, doctors, artists and politicians, dealing with topics of general interest and reporting on contemporary events, linked with education and culture of the masses. Mostly these were public speeches, "victory celebrations", "meetings" and parades (marches through town, slogan chanting and song singing, demonstrations of industrial production on movable stages -trucks and carriages) all in very positive social climate of the end of the second world war. The word prosveta (enlightenment) could be heard again and again - until 1949 when the political shift in the country brought, among other, an end to prosveta - the endeavours to educate the people. Overnight the journal Prosvetni delavec became the mouthpiece of the Yugoslav Trade Union Federation, in which nothing but its name remained the same. The character of the articles was changed already in the first issue. From now on the front pages brought speeches delivered at Trade Union functionaries at congresses and reports from various meetings: the journal served political propaganda. Teachers continued to receive a compulsory free copy, but among waste-paper unread copies of Prosvetni delavec could be found in piles. The journal was even less popular with common people, it was no longer "their" paper (See the
archives of the School Museum in Ljubljana, Prosvetni delavec 1946-1950). The wish to establish again educational and cultural societies was dealt with at the state level. Cultural societies Svoboda were resuscitated with a decree. They operated a couple of years and then slowly faded away together with Prosvetni delavec. Once the adult education practice was regulated systemically by the state in the late 1950's, the conditions for development of research and a theory were reinstated. At the end of 1958 a network of workers' and people's universities was established with a state decree, upon the model of the Danish folk high schools. Each republic had its own Workers' and People's Universities Association. At the start they were many (in Slovenia there were above 200), their number then gradually declined so that today Slovenia has merely 15% of the original number. Even Ljubljana and Maribor have been left without them. The network was well-organized and operated also in smaller localities. Its main preoccupation was vocational training and acquisition of formal education for adults. The diversified practice allowed researchers to do systematic monitoring and to obtain generalized findings. In the sixties the first publications on adult education started appearing (Krajnc, Ana, 1978/1). From the sixties on literature on adult education began to proliferate: treatises, articles, almanacs reflect the most common types and programmes of education for adults. Educational aims had changed. It became evident that with industrialization adult education's objectives narrowed down to satisfy work and job demands, focusing on training how to operate machines. In this period authors, Ivan Bertoncelj, Jože Va-lentinčič, Ivan Kejžar, produced articles that reflect a cross section of adult education situation and contain descriptions of individual cases of successful adult learning practice (Miklic, Bertoncelj, Kejžar, 1969), (Bertoncelj I., 1963). In the andragogy study the works of Savicevec, Filipovic and Samolovčev of Belgrade Univer-
sity and of Mihajlo Ogrizovic of Zagreb Uni-verstiy were used. In the mid-1969's Ogrizovic , the pioneer of Yugoslav andragogy, published two works of fundamental importance for the theory of andragogy: Problemi andragogije (Andragogy Problems, 1966) and Metode obra-zovanja {Methods of Education, 1966). In the same year a group of authors (Ogrizovic, Sa-molovcev, et al.) published in Sarajevo Osnovi andragogije (The fundaments of andragogy). Soon after andragogy became a study subject within the pedagogy study in the early 1970's, several course-books were issued in Slovenia (Krajnc, Ana, 11976,1977, 1978, 11978/2, 1982, Valentinčič, 1972). 1 have listed only a few titles, those related to basic literature. Later the scope of professional andragogical literature increased with introduction of specialized professional topics, resulting from research activities. The data collected in the early publications may have convinced some among us that andragogy as a discipline is not as young as is sometimes claimed (Ogrizovic, M., 1966 and 1966/1), (Ogrizovic, Samolovcev, et al. 1966). Later when comparing the works of domestic authors with those of foreign scholars, we came to the conclusion that both tended to reflect the changing reality of adult educa-
tion practice. Domestic authors treated adult education with regard to the role it had in the field of industrial work and productivity. Foreign authors, deriving from Paul Lengrand's theory of lifelong education, saw it, however, in a broader perspective, highlighting a number of additional functions of adult education. While reading these authors, we discovered how narrowly the adult education was treated in the Yugoslav society. The scholars abroad were looking for a new reality, experimenting and seeking. New approaches developed when adult education established links with cultural institutions (the role of libraries, museum andragogy, sports andragogy, family andragogy, drama as a teaching method), sport societies and clubs (educational camps, summer schools, etc.), self-organized communities and occasional social events (educational tourism). The Association of Training and Education Centres, operating within major work organizations, issued a news bulletin. Novice, between 1975 and 1990. After Slovenia's independence, the Association ceased to exist, but the newly founded Slovenian Institute for Adult Education continued to publish the bulletin. In 2010 the hard copy was replaced by the newsletter in electronic form.
Scientific and professional journals tend to be a significant supplement to professional literature. Publishers in small language communities have problems due to low circulation of professional literature. To have research findings published in the book form thus requires a great deal of time and effort. The role of the professional journal - timely releasing of articles on new findings and spreading knowledge among the professionals in a particular field - is therefore very important. Within a EU project for development of adult education national journals in the Central and Eastern Europe (coordinated by the Finnish Adult Education Association from Helsinki, headed by Tim Toivinianen (19941996), the first Slovenian periodical for adult education, Andragoska spoznanja (Andragogical Perspectives) saw the light of day, and has been published by the Faculty of Philosophy of Ljubljana since 1995. Annually there are 4 issues, totalling approximately 400 pages of scientific and professional papers. By bringing news from the field of andragogy and presenting accounts of good practice, by reporting about important events and anniversaries, the journal has given a new impetus to the spread of professional knowledge. Besides being used, in part, as required reading in andragogy studies at the universities of Ljubljana, Maribor and Koper, it also caters for adult education practitioners. The subscribers tend to be individual professionals and the institutions involved in education of adults. Due to the wide circle of authors and readers the publication plays a vital role in the development of adult education in Slovenia. The journal is abstracted and indexed in the international bases EBSCO and in COBISS.
CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE STUDY OF ANDRAGOGY IN SLOVENIA
Soon after my return from the post-doctoral studies at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE) of the University of Toronto, I was expected to start lectures at the Faculty of Pedagogy in Ljubljana in the academic year 1972/73. This meant that I had to finalize the study programmes for two newly introduced andragogy subjects, General An-dragogy and Andragogical Didactics. While getting acquainted with the domestic and foreign practice and professional literature, I had discovered two faces of adult education: one at home, in a developing country (the former Yugoslavia), and one abroad, in highly- developed countries, where scholars had already started observing the phenomena of post-industrial information society. We wanted the study programmes to bring fresh ideas and at the same time to enable the andragogical practice to prepare adults for their present and future needs. The programmes had to include advanced research findings and also consider domestic circumstances, grow roots in the domestic soil in order to make andragogical knowledge applicable in practice. When designing our study programme we had to take into consideration the theoretical and scholarly tradition of pedagogy teaching in the Department of Pedagogy. We also had to integrate many opposing influences. In view of the stage of andragogical practice at that time, several topics were had to be considered at a later time: individualization of adult education, personal learning programmes, qualitative research methodology, educational counselling, comparative andragogy, etc. The first- and second-year students had a class in General Andragogy, in the third year they did Andragogical Didactics. In addition to lectures, they did project learning, had to write papers and present them in the seminar, which requi-
red a deeper insight into certain topics. Besides literature in Slovene, they used study materials in Serbo-Croatian, German and English. We had constant contacts with the universities of Zagreb and Belgrade and a close collaboration with the Department of Pedagogy for Adults of the university of Tübingen, Germany (Günther Dohmen), and the Faculty for Studies in Education in London (Colin Titmus). The formal study of pedagogy developed and progressed. In 1976 the idea to introduce several new study subjects matured in professional circles. The decision was made that the pedagogy studies should be divided into several sub-programmes. A uniform programme of pedagogy studies would become too extensive after introduction of a number of new subjects (school counselling, residential institutions pedagogy, industrial pedagogy, socio-political education methodics, personal growth counselling). Therefore, in 1976/77 the pedagogy studies were split into three streams: School Pedagogy, Residential Institutions Pedagogy (later Social Pedagogy) and Andragogy. A fourth programme. Preschool Pedagogy, was also foreseen, but never put into practice. The degree certificate remained uniform, with the name of the sub-progammes specified in the brackets. The Andragogy course was divided among three Chairs: the Chair of General Andragogy (basic introductory courses), the newly appointed Chair of Industrial Andragogy and Methodics of Socio-Political Education (Prof Ilija Mrmak, and was assisted by Asst Prof Janko Muršak), and the chair of Comparative Andragogy, All three programmes ran at the uniform Department of Pedagogy until the mid-1980's, when Residential Institutions Pedagogy was transferred to the Faculty of Pedagogy of the University of Ljubljana to become an independent study course - Social Pedagogy, whereas Andragogy and School Pedagogy remained over the next 15 years. In the second half of the 1980's the pressures for scholariazation of education were very strong:
Industrial Andragogy became Vocational Pedagogy and Andragogy (Mursak). In 1992, the University Development Centre of the University of Ljubljana, which I headed at that time, was awarded three European TEMPUS projects: Computer Supported Higher Education (coordinated by S. Vilfan), Quality in Tertiary Education (coordinated by B. Ma-rentic Pozarnik) and Renovation of Andragogy Education (coordinated by A. Krajnc). At that time Slovenia was not yet an EU member, and it was a great privilege that Ljubljana headed all three projects, whereas other universities participated as partners. This facilitated planning and implementing of the project work and adapting it to our needs in order to make it directly relevant to the conditions in the independent Slovenia. In Tempus projects we were given a great deal of support from our European partners. A positive climate was prevailing in support of the newly established country. We will focus on one of the Tempus projects: the Renovation of Andragogy Education project, in which our partners were the University of Surrey with Peter Jarvis, Bamber University with Jost Reischman, St Patrick College in Ireland (coordinator Liam Carey) and the University of Utrecht (coordinator Peter Hage). We worked together to design the programme for an independent andragogy study, which would give successful graduates a degree in andragogy and the title "diplomirani andra-gog" ("graduate andragogue"). After passing all the required procedures at the MinisQ-y for Education and Sport, at the Faculty of Philosophy and in University Committees, the new independent andragogy study was confirmed in spring 1993 by the University Council and by the Ministry of Education. In autumn 1993/94 the first students enrolled in this study programme. At the same time an independent pedagogy study programme was introduced to supplement the study option allowing students to graduate combining two different study courses, which had subsisted as a response to the
practical job-demand in schools. This is how the Department of Pedagogy began to run two independent study programmes, Andragogy and Pedagogy.
In order to inti-oduce new study subjects, we had to acquire new faculty staff, several associate professors, among whom the Director of the Slovenian Institute for Adult Education, Zoran Jelene, Dušana Findeisen, and Vida Mohorčič. Since the electoral procedures were not yet completed and in order to make the beginnings of independent andragogy studies as promising as possible, the TEMPUS project coordinators from the partner universities (Peter Jarvis, Liam Carey, Jost Reischmann and Colin Titmus), agreed to teach in our Department as visiting professors in the first academic year of 1993/94. That is how we managed to involve some of the best- known European professors and scholars - adult education theoreticians with numerous published works - in the implementation of the new curriculum. Aware of how precious these lectures were and how difficult it would be to have the famous professors come to Slovenia again, we organized lectures in the big auditorium of the Slovenian Institute for Adult Education, so that a wider audience of adult education practitioners could attend the events, too. The lectures were in English. The Department was first joined by Assoc Prof Zoran Jelene and then by Assoc Prof Vida Mohorčič (after having completing her PhD within the above mentioned TEMPUS project), both coming from the Slovenian Institute for Adult Education. The team in which I worked (subjects: General Andragogy, Comparative Andragogy) together with Assoc Prof Janko Muršak (occupational pedagogy and Andragogy) and Assoc Prof Nena Mijoč (Andragogi-cal Didactics) was later joined by Assoc Prof Dušana Findeisen (Socio-cultural Animation), Assoc Prof Sabina Jelene (Andragogical Counselling, Andragogy of Target Groups), Assoc Prof Sonja Kump (Comparative Andra-
gogy), Assoc Prof Nives Ličen (General An-dragogy, Family Andragogy) and Assoc Prof Monika Govekar Okoliš (Adult Educaton Hi-stoy, General Andragogy for students of other departments). The subject "IT in Adult Education" was conceived and delivered by Assoc Prof Denis Trček from the Institute Jožef Stefan. With the introduction of andragogy as an independent study a third Chair (Andragogical Didactics) was set up and taken by Assoc Prof Nena Mijoč (in addition to the Chair of General and Comparative Andragogy, held by Prof Ana Krajnc, and the Chair of Professional Andragogy, held by Janko Muršak), In 1995, after the introduction of two independent study programmes, the Department of Pedagogy was officially renamed to become today's Department of Pedagogy and Andragogy. In 1998 the Faculty of Philosophy, under Dean Prof Neva Šlibar, cancelled the title diplomirani andragogue (graduate andragogue) without giving an explanation or consulting Prof Ana Krajnc, the conceiver of the study programme, then Head of the Department of Pedagogy and Andragogy, who was informed of the change in a random, unofficial manner. As the Dean categorically refused to discuss the matter, the reason for this measure has remained unexplained. Believing that actions speak louder than words and titles, we did not waste time and energy trying to reveal the negative manipulations behind the removal of the title andragogue from the degree certificate of the independent andragogy study. For us, it was essential that andragogues become professionals, able to perform the jobs allocated to them and to keep up with progress of the science and profession in the world, regardless of what title they bear. Still, the absence of a relevant academic title resulted in a marked diminishment of job openings for andragogy graduates. However, with adult education practice growing and the resulting increase in the demand for qualified professionals to manage education of adults, the job opportunities decline passed with time.
ANDRAGOGY STUDY AT OTHER SLOVENIAN UNIVERSITIES
Recently the Department of Pedagogy and Andragogy of the Faculty of Philosophy in Ljubljana was joined by a new faculty member, Assoc Prof Marko Radovan. At the University of Primorska, andragogy is taught by Assoc Prof Maja Mezgec, Director of the Slovenian Research Institute in Trieste. Senka Hočevar Ciuha, a doctoral student, is preparing to take over andragogy classes at the University of Maribor and the Faculty Doba. Andragogy had spread to other universities in Slovenia primarily through the Pedagogical and Andragogical Education Programme, designed for the teachers in secondary and primary schools (higher classes). This programme allows graduates from faculties without educational subjects to acquire a license to teach. According to the 1981 Law, andragogy belongs among the four basic subjects of the Pedagogical and Andragogical Education Programme (besides pedagogy, didactics and special didactics). The implementation of the Programme lasts two semesters. During 20072008 the Programme was amended to include several optional subjects (rhetoric, social skills) and teaching observation practice.
Thanks to the Pedagogical and Andragogical Education Programme, the knowledge of andragogy has spread to graduates of other faculties and contributed greatly to popularization of lifelong or continuous education in Slovenia, to development of a learning society and spread of education to all segments of our social and individual lives. New professional environments have given rise to new applications of andragogy, enriching the discipline.
As the Department of Pedagogy in Maribor is developing, it is expected to introduce new subjects in the future as part of the development
Winners focus on winning and achievement
of educational sciences. Most likely andragogy, now a single subject, will begin to be taught separately Mezirow, professor of the Columbia University in New York, distinguishes between genotype- or school education (as the basis for secondary socialization of children, based on the demands of the society) and phenotype education, which occurs as an immediate response to occuring situations (adult education). These two diametrically opposed approaches to education should not be mixed or unified, or else they both lose their essence.
BASIC PREMISES
Introduction of the andragogy study at the University of Ljubljana is a story of success and real achievement. It would not be realistic not to expect opposition to the new developments. In his book Games People Play, Eric Berne says that all people experience problems; we differ, however , in what we concentrate on. Wirmers focus on winning and achievement, losers deal with obstacles and losses and so get further and further away from their goals, instead of trying to reach them as winners (Berne, Eric, 1980).
Relying on support and cooperation, we did not pay much attention to the opposition and obstacles on our path to the goal - development of the andragogy study Let the facts speak for themselves to show what has been achieved and how far we have managed to get. The economic and financial crisis is a crisis of values, a final ste into knowledge society. The latest UNESCO world conference on adult education has indicated the way out of the crisis: put people first. Once the values have been rethought, education and health care will be in the forefront. Quality teachers and doctors are already missing.
The quality of the study of andragogy depends, among other, on its links with other related disciplines; psychology, sociology and economi-
cs. Adult education is a response to the changing situations in public and private lives. In the future we can expect to see more team work with professionals from different fields. Since the problems we need to solve tend to be interdisciplinary, an interdisciplinary approach in science is more feasible, closer to reality, than division into separate disciplines. Science is expected to provide solutions. It is possible to predict that in the future the development of educational science will proceed into two seemingly opposing directions: the interdisciplinary approach and, at the same time, greater specialization, or, as Peter Drucker puts it : in the past the highest degree we were expected to acquire (a degree in higher education) is now the first that allows us to enter the labour marked. It is followed by lifelong education. Specialisation brings the fresh knowledge, updating competences of an individual. Adult education has become to a great extent an individual enterprise, implemented through adults' learning projects.
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