ER ER RAZPRAVE IN GRADIVO |. RAZPRAVE IN GRADIVO TREATISES AND DOCUMENTS 18 INSTITUT ZA NARODNOSTNA LJUBLJANA — MAREC VPRASANJA 1986 o RAZPRAVE IN GRADIVO YU ISSN 0034 - TREATISES AND DOCUMENTS - 0251 UDK Izdajateljski svet — UDC — Editorial 323.1 (497.1) (058) Board Andrej Caserman, mag. Silvo Devetak, dr. Vladimir Klemenëië, dr. Peter Klinar, Vera Klopti¢, dr. Ernest Petri¢é, Amalia Petronio-Bertoni, dr. Rudi Rizman, dr. Janez Stanonik Uredniski Dr. mag. Borut Jogan, Silvo Kloptié dr. urednik Bohte, dr. Devetak Vladimir - Editorial Bratina,. lavni - Editor Lev Kreft, Technical Editor), dr. dr. Rudi Rizman, Janko Janez urednik — Uprava Milena Editor revije Kisovec, in in dr. charge), Rudi Majda Pleterski, Stergar _. Dugan Vika Jereb, Sule Qwen Zunanja Neva To Stevilko Ponatis so uredili: Za mag. znanstveno ¢lankov je oprema Lebar French) — Cover Silvo Devetak, samo Ojdanié English), RapoSa vsebino mogoé Potré, - English), (francoS¢ina, Kazimir Lukanovié. Vera (tehniéni Editors (angleS@ina Jaquie Savin — Translators - Language GabrovSek Premzl, dr. Malle, Miran DuSan GabrovSek, Martin BriSki, Maja Ogrin, Baukje Jelka Arh, Dejan sues’ Martin Cregeen (angleséinaenka Znidarsi¢é (francoStina French) Lektorji Catinovié, Chief), BULLE — Management JoZica Prevajalci Committee Gres Caserman, urednik Klemen¢i¢, (odgovorni - odbor arte z d RE Vera Klopéié, TRAVROr so veLsen jen Sonja odgovorni urednistva in Novak- avtorji. naved vira. This issue was edited by: mag. Silvo Devetak, Vera Klopéië, ane Novak-Lukanovië. The authors are responsible for the scientific contents of their contributions. The articles may be reproduced only with the prior permission ZaloZil of in the izdal Institut FR CEnEeEnE or YU-61000 Ljubljana, Cankarjeva publisher and by - Published and Edited Mag. Silvo Revijo Raziskovalna - Devetak Slovenije Naklada 1000 - Silvo izvodov Danica Devetak, - Co-Financed - Research — First Tipkopis by — LL.M. by Community of Slovenia Printing 1000 copies - Typed By Dolenc TISK - Printed By Janez Ple&Sko, source. Representative sofinancira skupnost the a - Institute for Ethnic Studies tel: (061) 210-823, 210-879, 210-964 5, Predstavnik quoting Ljubljana, Junij (June), 1986 . Razprave PREFACE OCTOBRE SOME in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 POUR LE RECUEIL DES ACTES DU SEMINAIRE DE LJUBLJANA 15 - 17 1985S. .vecacscnvcvcccsvveccccveeseeesseserecvsvccccccccccesce CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CONFERENCE...,,.,.,.......s.ssssenususs PRESENTATION OF THE TWO CONVENERS: INSTITUTE FOR ETHNIC STUDIES AND CECD/CER sas sauts asie sta ee sie ie elite ote atete salué lé état die o 0165 de 2/5ic ons aie eee de 14 EDITORIAL COMMENT. ......ssssesssesssssssesenesesenessssssssssesses EXPERIENCES PLURALISTIC DERIVING FROM THE POLICY IN YUGOSLAVIA Safa Zabjek: Some YUIOSLAVÉA . css soso Ciril Zlobec: OF THE CULTURAL Reflections on Cultural Pluralism oo coco ssssssssce roses esse ses eee sc eue Unity WIECOE) a ciele aie saisvosainis AE APPLICATION in Diversity AR M A (Reflections Ne DO in 0e of ES a EE Sonja Novak-Lukanovié: Some Yugoslav Experiences in Asserting Equality of the Nations and Nationalities in the Field of EGucations sesicccceccnevccvessstavseavieacscevesvbsceccasdeocscvcseceese RuZa Petrovié and Ethnic Groups Conde) sarah Etienne Verne: République Janez de Kerémar: Maintaining and Marina in Blagojevié: écrous La situation Slovenie: The The Yugoslavia de une Bilingual Developing Educational (Results the est autre diese l'enseignement étude 6 UN oi Core eos bilingue dans System - An Aid la in Consciousness.....ssssssssu. Ludvik Horvat: The Role of Pre-School Education and Preparatory Classes in a Bilingual Environment and the Child's Cognitive and Socio-Emotional 20 32 of 1981 Cas............s.sss Education National Structure of 17 Development.........sssvssssssssmessesesssesssssese 90 102 114 121 Slavica Pavlié: Educational Work in Partisan Schools in SIOVenia,. sise does d'oise soc oieidie e déiée 6-6 00 0 0107016 envie sie de de 0 0 ovine di0:510 0 125 Lucija Cok: L'Education bilingue et transculturelle dans les écoles du Littoral Slovéne - particularités de l'orientation didactique.......ssssseseosesesseseceesssnsnesesessnesesesneesseuse 129 Nelida Milana-Kruljac: L'Ecole et bilinguisme dans la région IstroQuarnerienne, ..ssssssscsessssseésseneseresesenesesssecesesssesesese 135 Vera Glavinié: territoires bi- L'Enseignement de la littérature dans les écoles des et pluriculturels. Analyse d'un plan et programme d'enseignement... ..sssssseeseesessessssssesnesseseesstossense ee 144 Razprave Zdenka in gradivo, Ljubljana, Gudelj-Velaga: March 1986, Sociolinguistic No.18 Conditioning and Socio- linguistic Consequences of Second Language Learning: Example of the Elementary-School Teaching of the Croatian or Serbian language Conducted in the Languages of the Nationalities within the Confines Of SR Anka Croatia...s.se soso sois 23%. 83 Budimlija: The Role of School Serena ess i esse in Maintaining 150 and Developing Cultural and Language Identity of Pupils in SR Serbia and its Influence on the Development of Brotherhood, Unity and Equality of the Peoples and Nationalities in SR Serbia............ wen S40 Co senen 158 Marin Mladenov: Socio-Linguistic Aspects of Bilingualism at the Schools of the Bulgarian Ethnic Group in SR Serbia.......... esse 165 Djordje Djurié: Quelques aspects socio-psychologiques de l'éducation en fonction du developpement de identité ethnique et culturelle des jeunes dans une communauté plurinationale.........., 172 Gedomir Kuzmanovié: Cultural Pluralism in the Ethnically Mixed Socialist Autonomous Province Of VOjVOdiNna.sssssssssssssss sossssves 180 Radomir Babin: NOXth|ern, Principles and Problems of Bilingual Jon Muntean: Education of Pupils of Teaching Languages in the Rural Area Ferenc Bagi: Teaching Fatmir Education in BACK Aaciccceccvccicsecdcesccccvecdveccdewceecesesecewseeeeseee Some the Topical Hungarian Fehmiu: Questions Language Equality of Primary-School Age in Two of Middle Banat.:.......sssss of as the the Language, Nations and Nationalities PIAA ETON Sw ain 5555-01029 050 0:10:96 aS: Theory and Language Oral and of Practice the Written 195 of Social of 188 203 the in SAP Kosovo in the Field of 6,6) 20 Whe) WLKE Sw WIRES L6)'8:10:-H16) WENO LSU) ALE WISH: w sere) e) A478 210 Dali Emrulahu: Education and Instruction in the Spirit of Brotherhood and Unity Within Extracurricular Activities of Pupils at Schools in SAP KOSOVO.......s.sesssseresenssssessssmeseetes 219 Riza Brada: Attribute KOSOVO. Mirko Education of a and Instruction Multinational + 0 5 6» 5 5 6 vie ne oo s00 en 6 sie Djuranovié: The for the Environment: eds se ces 65e Development and Community The p ose Results as Experience an Of ete ssseeeen se of Education and 223 Montenegro.....srsssenre 227 TaSe Stojanovski and Feim Isai: L'Egalité dans le travail éducatif avec les élèves de differentes nations et nationalités vivant en la République socialiste de Macedoine......sssssssemvnsonsessessesses 234 Culture of the Albanian Ethnic Group in SR SOME THEORETICAL ASPECTS Albert Verdoodt: Theoretical Aspects of Education Relating to the Maintenance of Ethnic Identity with Special Reference to InterEthnic Relations in Multicultural Societies... Guy Héraud: Le rapport de "peuple" à “langue,” = a l'exemple de 241 253 Razprave Vera in gradivo, Ljubljana, Raëkovié-Zec: Bilingualism Inka and Our March Attitude 1986, No.18 toward the American Type of Biculturalism.......ssssssssssomessonemsssesense Strukelj: Bilingual/Bicultural Education: Problems and 259 Prospects............... Solos e sos cs essor cvess eee 265 Jim Cummins: Policy 281 Albina Theory and Neéak-Lük: Education Social “Imp LL Caton Dietmar Peter Larcher: Klinar: in In in Oise cia Defence Sociological Bilingual Education...........ses Multicultural Societies of the Integration Aspects of and Its witin a Weeeocee's 309 Model..........s.ses 314 cise sees Sissi CEG EST multiculturalism: The Concept Development....... 318 Eugenia Koutsouvanou: The Role of the Cultural Factors in the Educational Process of Recent Immigrant Children of Greek and Italian BACK QFOUNG s siccccdveiecsccccctvcccccecvccececesevcseseneeeees 330 Theodor Veiter: The Rights of Nationalities and Ethnic Groups to their Ancestral Soil and Bilingual Education: A Study in International Public Laws... ss. sosssesessseosenses descente 5 010 0 335 of Cultural Pluralism (Multiculturalism) and Its DIFFERENT WAYS AND DIFFERENT CIRCUMSTANCES PROVIDING ANSWER TO THE QUESTION OF “HOW TO LIVE TOGETHER" Giusseppe Slovenian Francescato: Minority Tn Feruccio Clavora: AN Bilingualism of Young People in the TtalY.ssssesss doses sue oseisoueisé cie se L'Enseignement bilingue en Benecia, option pour 347 desalienante,.....ssssessssse see 351 Darko Bratina: Bilinguisme et dualisme linguistique dans des contextes ethniquement mixtes.........sssssssssosse 360 une politique éducative Antonio Giunta Italia: potenziolità La Spada: e La tutela ruolo dell' della minoranze educazione linguistiche nell' attuazione in dell covvccvevccsevsssccsssveseveseses 364 Serena Tiella and Daniela Ceschi Veronesi: Education et pluralisme culturel et lLlinguistiques....ssssossssessssssvessssssosscsssesssese 370 Mauro de Luca: d'AOSTR rave 374 PFincCipiN Dietmar Heinz COSTITUTSTLONALS. .cersevee Notes sur l'organisation scolaire dans la vallée ET TRES TROT ESS IS EN ESE RTE use ro Sons due Larcher: The Tichy: The GTOUPS. .rsnosnsese Avgugtin 14 Malle: CHINE Peter Austrian Annotations within in Austria... ss... cee eeeeenee Educational nero ssmssns esse essesessss neue Gstettner, Schooling Slovenes Dietmar the Concerning the cesssuremens esse Larcher, Carinthian System esse Bilingual e-re nee Vladimir Minority for sonores Wakounig: School Ethnic sssessseese School System vase mines Jane Experimental System............. 378 389 391 395 Razprave Albert in gradivo, Reiterer: Slovenes in Plasseraud: cas ‘des Maria Le langues Siguan: in and 1986, Interest: No.18 An Investigation of the bilinguisme dans l'enseignement en France: le régiohalésissisienunanice essaie cesse Education Cuenca: The in Process Spain........s...sssssservve of Linguistic Normalization in Catalondia.iisss ensure essuie stoleiss dos ere sosie Johan Hendrik Euryn Ogwen Communities: March Carinthia........sssesomssesssssossssss vue Bilingual Eugenica Teaching Identity Southern Yves Miguel Ljubljana, Poulsen: On the Faroese Language....,,.......s..sss Williams: À Television Service for Small Linguistic The Welsh Experience... sssessssses 398 404 415 421 427 429 APPENDIX List of Working National Papers... .cccossccscccccccccesccvcccvescvcccceeseces Reports/Information...........ssese.sesesssosseseseusssss 439 aul Razprave La in gradivo, PREFACE POUR période de Ljubljana, LE RECUEIL DES ACTES 15-17 OCTOBRE changements lesquelles s'appuyaient Les points sociétés repére No.18 DU SEMINAIRE 1985 que de vivre est les valeurs les de 1986, structurels industrielles sont en train culturelle qui déstabilise mondiale. March LJUBLJANA toutes les marquée et les issues qui DE de sociétés par une crise croyances sur la deuxiéme quadrillaient guerre l'environnement culturel des communautés et qui fonctionnaient comme péles d'organisation de la vie quotidienne ont été secoués, déplacés, voire anéantis par le formidable bouleversement économique et sociale causé par l'évolution de la croissance. Des communautés entières qui avaient réussi à protéger leurs modes de vie et leurs langues pendant des siècles ont tout à coup connu le risque de la disparition. Des cultures dynamiques par leur production artistique et leur capacité à maîtriser le changement commencé brusquement à dépérir, presque incapables de faire à la concurrence train la de s'étaler force de de la sur culture toute séduction de scientifique la planète. cette culture et Rien ne ont face technologique paraît planétaire, en résister à universaliste et globalisante, dont la force interne est ultérieurement alimentée par une extraordinaire capacité d'absorption qui lui permet de s'implanter partout et d'offrir les termes de référence obligés des sociétés Face à cette d'unification de la fin du seulement élucidée À et culturelle, des nouveaux modes devient un défi mais réévaluée. l'intérieur siècle. irrésistible entreprise d'homogénéisation et culturelle qui accompagne le triomphe des technologies de pointe et des survie des cultures anciennes non 20ème sociétés sociale et contemporaines de production, la dont l'importance, économique, moulées doit par la être culture scientifique qui tisse une toile de fond commune à tous les se maintiennent et se reproduisent des cultures autres, langues minoritaires, des traces d'autres manières de vivre, ne sont pas seulement des reliques d'un passé révolu. La vitalité même de ces cultures, culture dominatrice comme de leur fonctionnalité: cultures comme disparaître. des Quelle témoignent-elles toujours travail plus de donc leur présence identique? dans Ces et de multiculturelle. questions leur culture serait survivances est réflexion l'éducation les la la il résistance anachroniques système recherche mené L'organisation à une destinées De ordre et social sont au coeur par le CERI sur séminaire sur d'un l'intérieur à quel économique interrogations éducatives à scientifique, est la preuve erroné de concevoir ces signification? un face pays des qui des du sociétés multiculturelles s'insérait parfaitement dans ce cadre de travail du projet du CERI sur l'Education et le Pluralisme Culturel et Linguistique. Les autorités rencontre fédérales internationale yougoslaves et nous avons ont eu pris la l'initiative chance de d'une rencontrer Razprave in gradivo, l'enthousiasme Ljubljana, et collaborateurs la de March 1986, compétence l'Institut No.18 du pour directeur les Etudes et des Ethniques de Ljubljana pour la réaliser. Il ne pouvait peut-être pas y avoir une meilleure occasion pour proposer à l'ensemble des pays Membres de l'OCDE une séminaire sur les problèmes éducatifs des sociétés multiculturelles. kaléidoscope cohabitent de à peuples, En de l'intérieur effet, la Yougoslavie nationalités d'un Etat et dont de l'ambition démontrer que le respect, la tolérance, le compréhension réciproque peuvent se développer sur la base de l'égalité de tous. Il les était donc tentant réalisations mises d'étudier de en-oeuvre dans près les un est minorités pays un qui est de bien-être, la et se renforcer expérimentations et pluriethnique se où développe une politique multiculturelle à la fois originale et très active. Le choix de la Slovénie pour accueillir le séminaire a été des plus heureux, car cette République qui, grâce à ses indéniables succès économiques, s'insère activement dans la coopération internationale, a en même temps prêté une grande attention aux besoins son territoire. géopolitique de parfaitement culturels des minorités Minoritaires depuis la Mittel Europa, l'importance de qui se toujours dans les Slovènes l'enjeu trouvent sur le contexte connaissent multiculturel. Les programmes d'éducation bilingue des autorités de Ljubljana méritaient à tous égards d'être connus et discutés par la communauté internationale des spécialistes de l'éducation multiculturelle. Le succès analyse. remarqué La du qualité séminaire et la a confirmé richesse des la validité interventions de cette apparaît évidente à la lecture de ce recueil. Il faut donc féliciter les promoteurs du séminaire pour avoir décidé de publier l'ensemble des communications et pour avoir réussi à préparer un matériel aussi imposant dans des délais aussi brefs. Cette au publication développement elle apporte un méritent d'être sera de appréciée l'éducation éclairage amplement par tous ceux multiculturelle très stimulant connues. sur J. R. des qui et s'intéressent bilingue car réalisations qui Gass, Directeur du CERI Razprave in gradivo, SOME I. GENERAL 1. Organization Within Ljubljana, March CHARACTERISTICS OF 1986, THE No.18 CONFERENCE BACKGROUND the Cooperation of the framework and Conference of the Development), OECD (Organization through the CERI for Economic (Centre for Educational Research and Innovations), work began in 1982 on an international research project entitled, "Educational, Cultural and Linguistic Pluralism" (ECALP). The objective of the Project is the presentation and analysis of the experiences of the OECD member states (and also of those which, like Yugoslavia, have observer status) in the implementation of various educational models in multicultural societies, with a special emphasis on the importance of education in their mother tongue for members of ethnic and/or national minorities and for migrant children. As part of the OECD Project "Linguistic and Cultural Pluralism," the organization of an international conference was envisaged, at which the experiences of the OECD member states would be presented as well as initiatives adopted for further work on the Project. In view of Yugoslavia's interesting and multifarious experiences in this field the OECD proposed that the conference be held in Yugoslavia. The Institute for Ethnic Studies in Ljubljana was designated already at the beginning of the Project as the coordinator of Yugoslavia's activities and thereafter also as a co-organizer of the Conference itself (together with OECD/CERI). 2. Participation The Conference was attended by 57 participants from 17 OECD countries and 78 participants from Yugoslavia (from all the republics and provinces). Of the foreign participants, 27 were experts and 23 representatives of governments or observers. The Conference was also attended by representatives of the OECD, the European Council and the European Used European Languages) and governmental organizations: Understanding from Copenhagen, 3. Opening of the Parliament (Office of the following Foundation for FUENS, INTEREG and for Less European nonInternational AIDLCM. Conference The Conference was opened by the Director of the Institute for Ethnic Studies and Chairman of the Organizing Committee, Silvo Devetak, LL,M. The Conference was welcomed by Nenad Bucin, Member Razprave of the in gradivo, Presidency Alliance of Ljubljana, of the Working March Federal People of 1986, No.18 Conference of Yugoslavia, the on Socialist behalf of the Federal Conference of the Socialist Alliance of Working People of Yugoslavia; by Professor Dr. Tine Zorié, on behalf of the Yugoslav preparatory committee and the sponsors (Executive Council of the Assembly of the SR of Slovenia); and by Professor Norberto Bottani, project leader (ECALP), on behalf of the OECD. The Conference Yugoslavia and 4. was from covered by over 50 journalists the neighbouring countries. from all over Documentation The participants of the Conference (31 from Yugoslavia), Conference, which presented were a total of distributed 54 papers during the In addition, the participants received another 8 national reports from OECD member states as material for the Conference, as well as 3 special studies by internationally renowned experts on the topic, trip including to background Prekmurje. Conference will The be information papers and material selected on II. regions PROCEEDINGS Before the was OF formal participants study from the published. During the Conference, an exhibition of teaching schools for members of various nationalities in Yugoslav their discussions used in various staged. THE CONFERENCE opening visited aids the of (Course the Prekmurje and Conference and were Content) on 15 October, the about the informed practical bilingual education experiences in that region. Attending classes at the bilingual elementary school "Drago Lugaric" in Lendava, they were able to witness a form of bilingual education practiced in Yugoslavia. An extensive tables took and place lively on the - ethnically mixed areas Hungarian nationality; discussion following and - cultural life of members (linguistic problems, the mass Yugoslavia and Hungary); - organization of the Lendava the organized in three round topics: rights of members of the of the Hungarian nationality media, border cooperation between of educational work in the and Murska Sobota communes. ethnically mixed area On 16 and 17 October the participants gathered at the Cankar Cultural Center in Ljubljana to exchange their experiences (theoretical and practical ones) pertaining to education in multicultural societies. On the first day the presentation of the Yugoslav experiences was the center of attention. The introductory study, "On Some Experiences in Attaining the Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Equality of the Nations and Nationalities in Yugoslavia," was prepared and presented by researchers from the Institute for Ethnic Studies in Ljubljana, in collaboration with contributors from all over Yugoslavia; it was supplemented by practical reviews by the other participants from Yugoslavia. Of special interest were the observations of the French expert, Professor Etienne Verne, who, prior to the Conference, stayed in Slovenia for several days and got acquainted with bilingual education in Slovenia. He concluded his observations by noting that in the SR of Slovenia, "it was the majority that ensured the rights of the minority." In his statement he also opened up several basic dilemmas, leaving open the question of whether this model (the solutions from Slovenia) reflected also the political will of the minority, i.e., nationality. The afternoon work on the first day of the Conference proceeded in three workshops that surveyed various aspects of education in multicultural societies. From the lengthy, animated and polemical discussions we shall single out several stances advanced by the individual in their participants (experts and government representatives) workshops: a) Practical Experiences of Neighbouring Countries encompassed primarily the specific situation in 4 countries: Austria, Italy, Switzerland and Yugoslavia. The following issues or dilemmas were singled out as the most important: - the question of the positive/negative decisively influenced by the majority; - the Does question the of minority (in)appropriate use the legal available political and legal various types of bilingualism and normative regulation. regulations? - the question of different approaches assimilation and a common identity; - atmosphere to the prevention different content of of concepts; - bilingual education: statement of Mr. Etienne further Verne. Although discussions wound they notable the conclusions, remain up discussion without for the the internally, as b) of of well as at the adoption dialogue the analysis of problems with the active members of minority groups themselves. dialogue is particularly important because are multinational and are interested in international relevant to of the binding initiated and participation of the The openness of the all the four countries reviewing this issue bilateral and broader, levels. Socio-linguistic, Psychological, Pedagogic and Similar Aspects Education. As is evident from the title itself, a broad frame reference was characteristic of this workshop's work. The discussion focused mainly on the following issues: - theoretical horizons of linguistic policy (including language prestige) together with practical reviews issues of (e.g. the Razprave in gradivo, introduction of specificity a of the the the problems importance of issues of of financing Italian of students; migrant various such environment and educational - activities - specific In the that in a of education in some for the first - for the second - for the third second sessions, was not sufficient for a more complex phenomenon with the family up to the The discussion focused - workshop workshop of mainly on countries; two groups workshop the in general. basic ideas crystallized: in the if we contemporary were Dr. - - the to world confine are still position. workshops at the last plenary chairmen of the workshops: day where bilingualism Yugoslavia; discussion the the in organizations; subordinated - brought in minority distinctly the of would be oversimplifying matters to multicultural education only; The work of reported on by On various international of the policy. in situation course - that it ourselves - policy or members activities; models ¢) Cultural and Ethnic Identity. the following three issues: - schools, nationality children; The discussants agreed that school bilingual education and that this was affected by various elements, starting social No.18 in the extracurricular of 1986, language of motivation - the presentation Yugoslavia; - March Catalan position an - psycho-social - Ljubljana, Danilo Dr. Yvo Prof. issues was Turk; Peeters; Norberto Conference following session work of Bottani. continued general with plenary significance were up: ~ An efficient bilingual education model has to reflect specific socio-economic and cultural circumstances as well as political will - Education in of both the the mother majority tongue and for the minority. the ethnic groups cannot in itself substitute measures in all the provinces of social life. - Having noted evident (these that the practical two statements were the the members for of various comprehensive experiences are positive and made while reviewing Yugoslav Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, the participants experiences), March 1986, raised No.18 the question of such research as would test their efficiency through empirical data. Especially useful would be comparative studies based on a uniform methodology well as and in other encompassing countries. various regions in - A very interesting question is the study significance of education in the mother tongue groups in preventing the assimilation process. Yugoslavia as of the role and of various ethnic - In discussing the theoretical aspects, various theoretical concepts and approaches were advanced. The fact was confirmed that the diversity of these approaches is not only based on different theoretical and methodological terms of reference, but that it is also a reflection of the different specific historical, cultural and socio-demographic circumstances in which various ethnic groups live and which also given rise to terminological differences in reviewing some essential concepts. Hence the question was raised whether it was at all possible to apply the theoretical models thus conceived to other milieux as well, and whether the creation of a universal theoretical model was at all possible. - It was particularly emphasized that autochthonous ethnic groups with a long-standing cultural tradition should be treated differently from migrant groups in present-day industrialized countries, as the former are distinguished above all by their more pronounced - was It pointed practice in the aspirations for preserving out that progress and the area of education in the their own further mother identity. development tongue of of some individual ethnic groups necessarily called for interlinking theoretical achievements and practical experiences, the latter in fact serving to test the validity of theoretical assumptions. III. 1. Results of the Conference and Specific Results The Conference had Project (ECALP): the following aims, - presentation and consideration of attaining the equality of the nations field - Tasks of OECD and the OECD Yugoslav experiences and nationalities in in the consideration of the Taking all these components into the Conference was a success in the of other achievements and approaches pertinent to education and related to the cultural societies; - examining the possibility of following within the framework of the OECD. of experiences members; - review of theoretical the various aspects of policy in multicultural relevance from education; presentation countries, resulting subject matter up the ECALP consideration we many ways. First was confirmed. The can of project say all, that the presentation Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 and consideration of various concrete solutions which are not mutually exclusive, but rather can be complementary and a basis to further build upon, gave the Furthermore, the Conference exchanging views and Conference its substantial value, reaffirmed the importance of opinions, whereby new questions were accordingly raised or viewed from other angles. Especially useful is direct communication between experts who work and live in different circumstances, because it is precisely this diversity that invigorates the discussions and poses new challenges for new research, studies and thought. A and large so number of did number a governments, international proves not foreign experts of view of part in the of Conference, OECD member as well as virtually all of the most important West European organizations and institutions. This only that the subject is of relevance as part of the policies of individual states, in took representatives the topicality sought to deal with institutional level as of these well. matter internal but that these issues of inter-ethnic cultural also in questions, relations and educational western Europe, ways are internationally being at the Some of the issues discussed at the Conference are of general significance and can represent a general basis for concrete regulatory measures in some countries, in keeping with the existing objective circumstances. Vera IES Klopéié, Razprave The in gradivo, INSTITUTE lized FOR institution, Ljubljana, ETHNIC March STUDIES which in the various aspects of the in Yugoslavia and abroad, an 1986, (IES) No.18 in Ljubljana interdisciplinary is way a specia- investigates national and ethnic-minority thus highlighting historical problems factors, sociopolitical processes which affect the status and the development of individual nations, nationalities and minorities, their economic situation and development as well as their language problems, their culture, education and instruction. There are at the IES two closely associated groups whose work runs parallel to one another, namely a group of researchers and another group of those involved in the information-documentation center for national and ethnic studies and problems of neighbouring countries; their duties complement one another and they are often interrelated. the work of the present one of the followers of had been founded on 12th Institute, which worked twenties. Research We detect a certain continuity in Institute, since it can be considered as the partisan Scientific Institute, which January, 1944 and of the prewar Minority in Ljubljana from the first half of the Work Systematic acquiring, deepening and spreading of the theoretical and practical knowledge in the field of ethnic problems and the transfer of the obtained results to social practice, represent the basic activity. It is organized in at least two mutually complementary directions: - within the framework of different research projects - those of the Institute itself as well as the Yugoslav and international ones - which interlink individual national and ethnic-cum-minority unified and systematic in-depth status also - of within for the point nations, at possible the framework shorter studies, research nationalities directions of a of or specialist commentaries supplemented by the inclusion program, Jadran) of both minorities future program and and actions or scientific-research institutions, organizations and Committee for cultural and social ethnic their topical aspects of the national question, the basis for subsequent research work; - studies problems, integrating them into presentations not only of the (organized information which are co-operation but development; yearly) about diverse often used in as individual projects of international bodies (e.g. OECD/CERI, the studies of Europe, the UNESCO the IIIrd Committee for International Relations Alpein well-developed international relations and in co- operation with related institutions and organizations, which include the ethnic and minority problems in their activities. Our central "Problems in projects and Neighbouring are: Perspectives of the Slovenian National Communities Countries" By the project, which is realized in co-operation with both institutes of the Slovenian ethnic minority (from Trieste and Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Klagenfurt), and other institutions and individuals, themselves with the different aspects of the ethnic problem, research the we of want to provide a frame for a the problems and perspectives Slovenian Hungary, from linkage, not ethnic the communities, aspect only here, of but also systematic long-term of the development of living their roles in which occupy and minority in in Austria, the Italy and cultural-ethnic Europe. It is divided into several thematic units, in which individual research studies are made from theoretical starting-points of the research of problems and perspectives of the Slovenian ethnic communities in the neighbouring countries, their socioeconomic and political development, different problems and expectations, which they meet in the field of education and instruction as well as of culture, to the international protection of the minorities and the bilateral relations of the Socialist Republic or of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia neighbours. The research studies run independent from but they "Research of complement of the one Ethnic of Slovenia with their each other, another. Problem in the Socialist Federal Republic Yugoslavia” The research program in the different theoretical and practical aspects of the international relations of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia with the emphasis on the ethnically mixed area in the Socialist Republic of Slovenia, results from the sample linkage of the ethnic problem with the whole sociopolitical development and from the connection of the development of the ethnic groups with the development of the international relations in the Yugoslav community in general and means the beginning of a systematic research of these problems. Within this framework we are preparing the project by which we shall and in an interdisciplinary processes in the field way of research the individual national phenomena problems in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, resulting from experiences of continuous and comparative following up of the ethnic problems and the phenomena and processes in connection herewith, especially in the Socialist Republic of Slovenia. Information-documentation activity is very important at the IES. The newspaper documentation, which has been collected during several decades, the historical and current archives, documents and the acquisitions of the specialized Institute Library represent The a unique collection. information-documentation basis for our research, service specialist- and does not publicity form the activities, only but are of an open type as well. Besides, the computer information system and intensive IES is building up à connections with the institutions minority in our which homeland and research the ethnic and problem both abroad. Public activity is a secondary activity of our institution. Every year we issue one number of the sole specialized journal for ethnic problems in Yugoslavia "Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and The Documents," journal in 800 comprises - 1200 articles copies of 10 with about collaborators 250 of - 350 the pages. Institute Razprave in and other nationality gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Slovenian, Yugoslav and foreign and ethnic-minority problems, with in one of the world-languages, broader circle of people, which makes it specialists for longer summaries accessible to a Every year the information-documentation service prepares together with the Republic's Committee for Information of the Socialist Republic of Slovenia 4 issues of “Informator," printed in about 400 copies in the Serbo-Croatian languages, by which we try to inform constantly about the novelties in all fields of the IES. In the past few years the IES, in compliance with the paper Slovene and the readers work of the the financial possibilities, also issues independent publications of a smaller extent in the Slovene language and if possible in other languages as well, by which we are trying to ensure a better acquaintance of the people with the problems we are occupying ourselves with and with the results of our work. Scientific meetings and lectures respresent a complementary activity of the IES in the shape of direct life contact with the problems which are being treated and with the different specialists who are dealing with them. From time to time they are organized for special try to invite operate. the More organize often “Ethnic we problems rounded largest in lectures the off thematic possible or circle thematic contemporary attention paid to the problems of the neighbouring countries." The selected Yugoslavia and abroad, contribute units. of Every time specialists discussions world, with to we co- entitled: special Slovenian minorities in the lecturers, specialists from to the current information of the Slovene and Yugoslav public from different aspects of the national and ethnic-minority problems and help by their knowledge and expertise also directly to increase the ability of the younger collaborators of the Institute. 11 Razprave in gradivo, The CENTRE created in Ljubljana, March 1986, FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH June 1968 by the Council No.18 AND of INNOVATION (CERI)was the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development for an initial period of three years, with the help of grants from the Ford Foundation and the Royal Dutch Shell Group of Companies. In May 1971, the Council decided that period of five years extended this The objectives - main the Centre should continue its work fora as from lst January 1972. In July 1976 it mandate for of the the following Centre are years, as 1977-82. follows: - to promote and support the development of research activities in education and undertake such research activities where appropriate; to promote and support pilot experiments with a view to introducing and - to the promote countries The in Centre operation Council testing the field functions and of innovations development of the in in the the educational co-operation education within Development of research and Organisation accordance Organisation, with under Member innovation. for the the system; between Economic decisions authority Co- of of the the Secretary-General. It is supervised by a Governing Board composed of one national expert in its field of competence from each of the Le countries CENTRE participating POUR été créé par Développement de trois Royal poursuivrait RECHERCHE its programme ET L'INNOVATION grâce Shell. à des En mai dons de 1971, la le En juillet 1976, pour Les l'enseignement a a Ford décidé et du groupe que le Centre ses activités pour une période de cinq ans à compter renouvelé et work. dans Fondation Conseil du 1©* janvier 1972. 1977-81 of le Conseil de l'Organisation de Coopération et de Economiques en juin 1968 pour une période initiale ans Dutch LA in ce mandat de puis en juillet nouvelles périodes de 1981, cinq il a années, 1982-86. principaux objectifs du Centre sont les suivants: - encourager et soutenir le développement des activités de recherche se rapportant à l'éducation et entreprendre, le cas échéant, des activités de cette nature; - encourager et soutenir des expériences pilotes en vue d'introduire des innovations dans l'enseignement et d'en faire l'essai; - encourager Membres dans le développement le domaine de de la la coopération recherche et de les pays l'innovation entre dans l'enseignement. Le Centre exerce son activité au sein de l'Organisation de Coopération et de Développement Economiques conformément aux décisions du Conseil de l'Organisation, sous l'autorité du Secrétaire général et le contrôle direct d'un Comité directeur composé d'experts nationaux dans le domaine de compétence du Centre, chaque pays participant étant représenté par un expert. 12 Razprave The was in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT (OECD) set up under a Convention signed in Paris on 14th December 1960, which provides that the OECD shall promote policies designed: - to achieve the highest sustainable economic growth and employment and a rising standard of living in Member countries, while maintaining financial stability, and thus to contribute to the development of the world economy; - to contribute to sound economic expansion in Member as well non-member countries in the process of economic development; - to contribute to the expansion of multilateral, non-discriminatory basis international obligations. The Members Denmark, of OECD Finland, Greece, Iceland, Netherlands, New are Turkey, En l'article de the Ireland, Zealand, Switzerland, vertu Australia, France, the 1©* de la 1960, à Paris, et entrée en l'ORGANISATION DE COOPERATION (OCDE) a pour objectif de Austria, Federal Italy, Norway, United world trade in accordance Belgium, Republic of as on a with Canada, Germany, Japan, Luxembourg, the Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Kingdom and Convention the United signée le States. 14 décembre vigueur le 30 septembre 1961, ET DE DEVELOPPEMENT ECONOMIQUES promouvoir des politques visant: - à realiser la plus forte expansion de l'économie et de l'emploi et une progression du niveau de vie dans les pays Membres, tout en maintenant la stabilité financière, et à contribuer ainsi au développement de l'économie mondiale; - à contribuer à Membres, ainsi économique; - à contribuer 4 l'expansion du commerce multilatérale et non discriminatoire obligations internationales. une que Les signataires de République Fédérale saine expansion économique dans les pays non membres, en voie de développement la Convention d'Allemagne, monidal sur une conformément relative à l'Autriche, base aux l'OCDE sont: la Belgique, la le Canada, le Danemark, l'Espagne, les Etats-Unis, la France, la Grèce, l'Irlande, l'Islande, l'Italie, le Luxembourg, la Norvège, les Pays-Bas, le Portugal, le Royaume-Uni, la Suède, la Suisse et la Turquie. Les pays suivants ont adhéré ultérieurement à cette Convention (les dates sont celles du dépôt des instrument d'adhésion): le Japon (28 avril 1964), la Finlande (28 janvier 1969), l'Australie (7 juin 1971) et la Nouvelle-Zélande (29 mai 1973). La République socialiste fédérative de Yougoslavie prend certains travaux de l'OCDE (accord du 28 octobre 1961). 13 part à Razprave in EDITORIAL The gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 COMMENT Editors of Razprave in gradivo (Treatises and Documents) have prepared a survey of the most important issues presented and discussed by the participants at the National Seminar on “Education in Multicultural Societies." All of the papers presented at the Seminar Seminar and during the Ethnic Studies In preparing Razprave in the in distributed to presently kept at for publication in this has been the the participants Institute for Ljubljana. texts gradivo, contributions were are it whose length necessary exceeded to the thematic shorten issue some of predetermined of the 10-15 typewritten pages, with the exception of key studies which were prepared for the plenary sessions. Some of the contributions are in fact autonomous studies in their own right, which the Editors plan Our to publish editing in has unabridged been Seminar. Given the Yugoslav experience form based on interest of in this the the field, in subsequent thematic foreign and issues. divisions of participants bearing in mind in that the the this is one of our first integrated publications on this topic to be brought out in a foreign language, the first part contains the contributions which analyze various aspects of linguistic and cultural pluralism The second essence of in Yugoslavia. part consists linguistic and of papers which concentrate on cultural pluralism in general, the and provide theoretical starting points for a number of disciplines, from sociology and sociolinguistics to international law. Such an approach is important also for the treatment of social and cultural integration of migrant populations. The third part outlines some practical experiences of individual countries, which - despite the specificities inherent in their various approaches - testify to the urgent need for modern societies to confront the problem of solving the basic question of multicultural and multinational societies: “How are we to live together?" 14 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 EXPERIENCES DERIVING FROM THE APPLICATION OF THE CULTURAL PLURALISTIC POLICY IN YUGOSLAVIA Razprave NOTE: one in gradivo, This by part Sonja languages bilingual is the and the March essentially Novak of Yugoslavia) (on Ljubljana, other education in (on and by No.18 based Lukanovié peoples 1986, on two studies, education in the nationalities Professor Etienne of Verne Slovenia). In selecting the other papers for publication, special consideration has been given to those which shed light upon the specific forms and ways of exercising the right to ethnic equality in the field of education, and to those which discuss specific features of the coexistence of various languages and cultures within the Yugoslav context. Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 SaSa Zabjek Institute for Ethnic Studies Ljubljana, Yugoslavia SOME The the REFLECTIONS Yugoslav ON CULTURAL society equality of is all built the UDC PLURALISM on IN YUGOSLAVIA* self-management nations 323.15(497):800 and relations nationalities. and on It is precisely these relations which permanently unite our community, which is not only multinational but also multilingual. All the most important legal acts derive from the principles of national and cultural pluralism. Equality itself also expresses itself through education, instruction and in culture, by way of the activity of various institutions, publishing activities, mass media, etc. It is expressed above all through education, in which the relation to individual languages is reflected to the greatest extent. It is precisely the right to the paves the way to the right to one's own sense of its existence but also through the course of one's development. mother culture, creative tongue which not only in the cooperation in Modern nations strive for the affirmation and defence of national and cultural identity. Nationalities are recgonised through their cultural forms. The whole of culture is firmly linked with its collective experience of a collective historical past, although it does not have equal significance in all eras and with all nations. Such is also the case in Yugoslavia. Edvard Kardelj wrote: "A different historical past has given a different degree of economic development to individual parts of Yugoslavia and, with this, also differences in the general social and cultural level". These differences have not altered substantially in the decades since the National Liberation War, so that it is impossible to reduce the culture of Yugoslavia to a single general model, although both its origin and development must be traced in the framework of a united multinational self-management society and on the basis of new, productive social forms and economic and historical development; it is the reflection of the collective experiences. It would be very difficult to enumerate all the many factors which define individual cultures, linked as they are to a (e.g. cultural specific environment, background, tradition, conditions and situations language; models, styles). National cultures cannot be integrated into such a monolithic culture without losing some of their own characteristics in the process. The cultures of the Yugoslav nations and nationalities have developed over the centuries in different socio-economic environments; they have existed in different cultural spheres and hence achieved different levels of development, which have been more or less in correspondence with the coexistent demands of national politics and of the country. Thus the meaning and role that culture plays in different nations and nationalities is also specific. It is also necessary to take into account here the interaction with the culture of the central society. * Original: Slovene 17 Razprave in gradivo, However, all nationality these there cumulative Ljubljana, March differences are cultural elements, 1986, are diminishing. creations developments in books, films, of the authors, nation/nationality. this with with that But the existing other possible the should also world cultural world (the every of themselves theatre, members the felt music, art, and of a particular cooperation of In discoveries make (national culture formation of new be a culture of and that directly and indirectly scientific achievements conflict No.18 as a culture) other creative as well nations) as makes structures. Such a new structure “equality in diversity," with a respect for particularities, in which individual cultures interconnect, intertwine and permeate one another, thus creating a kind of dialogue with the existing particularities, traditions and differences. Equality in diversity also includes cultural pluralism, which, of course, also opens up the question of relations between the parts and the whole, the question of the political and cultural association of the multinational community. in the the We cannot understanding individual deny of the differences existing culture/cultures republics and and provinces. In in in the other Yugoslavia practice words, of cultural pluralism means the right to a free development of all the cultures; to their openness and reciprocal permeation, as national culture is not a reservation in which the processes of creativity are pumped dry. There is a constant critical dialogue between the cultures, in establish itself which which not only does at the same time a certain culture influences other cultures, but also the existing cultural influences of the different nations/ethnic groups give rise to changes in the development of culture in general and in society as a whole. And changes in culture are urgently needed, since a culture is only alive when it (neither is paracultural development avoids We can in the and change, negating itself historical hand, is state of constant cultural tradition (external) change since and change and static). This but culture's it does is only not in development is not forced own need for this become way that removed from it its essence. look at creating the differences the favourable between cultures possibility for as, the the one enrichment on and development of each national culture separately, and, on the other hand, as maintaining the possibility of generating a new structure, as already mentioned - the culture of the "equality in diversity," - as a unifying element interlinking the Yugoslav nations and nationalities. Such a culture is not achieved overnight but demands planned education by which we not only ensure other the basic but, cultural through cultural information awareness, which also we have slowly from each diminish the existing differences. This new culture, in the,sense of numerous cultures made up of individual cultures having different relations to tradition, different cultural backgrounds, historical of pasts, language, a greater special be generalised, creation of the or problems smaller in sensitivity their and following their collective cultural development own paths interests and of to questions which cannot forms in the the Yugoslav nations and nationalities, does not exclude the unified Yugoslav cultural policies which issue from uniform cultural criteria with a clearly defined “differences which progressive and direction but flexible enough to encompass create unity," with an understanding of a new, creative culture 18 with clearly defined Razprave in gradivo, correlations nationalities. of Such Ljubljana, cultural a culture, March 1986, creativity which No.18 of stimulates the and nations and supplements a mutual understanding of other cultures, can be considered a priceless link which perpetually interconnects our nations and nationalities, without regard to the actual state of mutual relations at any given time. : 19 Razprave Ciril in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Zlobec UDC 323.15.00:008 President of the Yugoslav Association of Writers Ljubljana, Yugoslavia UNITY IN DIVERSITY (REFLECTIONS OF A WRITER)* In today's world of almost unlimited information potential, of the computer age, and of an ever-stronger philosophy of star wars, it is not difficult to be statistically cogent in calculating, defining, assessing virtually everything. The same can be claimed for predictions and for getting organized in planning behavioral patterns of the future. At first sight, life itself appears transformed into pure science, the embodiment of a universal organization that can be programmed, guided, transmuted. Fear of the population explosion, ecological disasters, fear of losing the job under the conditions of rampant unemployment, the ever-increasing belief that science and technology do not in themselves ensure worldwide progress and peace - all of these make the individual, nations, and states feel that our sole and all-embracing solution is an even more perfect and total organization which admittedly dehumanizes human beings but compensates for that by offering them social security. The world has already attained that level of organization when, faced by the more and more programmed nature of our lives with who regret, of recurrent disturbances supposed may have for a moment neglected to conform his of thoroughly function process, ought to achieved any a defined link in a certain which admittedly philosopher reality, work the human but has is race not been proposed nevertheless has to part renounce man and of if set our it is forth everyday to be kept in existence. This, only seemingly absurd logic used in thinking impels us to strive for something that we fear most: give up our essence in fear of losing our identity. It is in the increasingly factor," that of the of an this context, undesirable, question community, statehood, - framework that of that national all differentness unit which his so-called is must be disparate of human easiest to natural later abolished, attuned functioning organization of yet we have responsibility Original: decided and Slovene, discern, of what this and - viz. Is the it that pages 20 to we nation, but not individual not true that of least with all extension of the must be sooner or the convene, what the deprived last are but an element that time is groups to the rhythm of tomorrow's world? conviction 20 posed rights? our we in which man's status is the intruding "human ethnic beings these forms of human existence humanistic tradition, an intruding And to to behavior, responsibility. "The human factor" therefore be done away with, so that perfect reliability could be in the functioning of programmed life. According to this reasoning, by * we become aware, simpler terms, faultlessly with are all doing the is Razprave in meaningful, set the gradivo, so as Ljubljana, to offer our March 1986, thoughts No.18 on these very categories in the contemporary world: the nation, national minorities, individual who is either resolute or confused in search of his own identity and his deeper existential substantiation grounded in his relation with the broader community, and who does find his deeper significance and identity in the community where he was born and which represents his national, social and cultural givenness. Not long ago, at an international poet, German if I am not mistaken, with the verses that went roughly poetry festival I listened to a who concluded one of his poems like this: Rockets were created by man Man would like to live without rockets. I believe that by using this aphoristic message, the poet described well ovr plight, which is the basic plight in the contemporary world. It appears that the ancient man, that lucky being as well as the victim of his own desires confronting and fighting with the forces of nature and clashing with the will of Gods, has left the Earth for good. The uncontrollable human craving for a better and freer life impels us to produce more and more material things and create such relations as subordinate our human dignity and our individual and common freedom to some new dependence which, on the one hand, logically results from our functioning in the world of today, while on the other hand it also embodies a universal threat that makes us feel increasingly powerless, ever so powerless because the war we wage incessantly in all the possible forms is all but hopeless, since in waging it we can no longer be - unlike the ancient man just mentioned either heroes or victims, as this time we fight only with ourselves. Yet it is well-known that man is uncritically selfindulgent. We no longer sharpen and ennoble ourselves and our lives by “engaging nature and Gods;" we have already transcended the phase when we were masters of nature. We have instrumented it thoroughly by now, and all we do today is exploit it. We have replaced all types of Gods, including those of seemingly stable ideologies, by our own projections of the future which, however, can develop only as offered, or rather imposed, by laws of the social and technological evolution. Thus, I can paraphrase the poet's idea as follows: Man simply has to keep creating rockets, even and would like Our common fate, the fate of increasingly moral question. every one Is though he morality, fears whether them social, political, to of live us, without thus them. becomes scientific, or an intimate, that is, any conceivable kind of morality, something that can really exist in our computer-dominated civilization? And what bearing, in this respect, can be given to such categories as nation, ethnic community, national minorities, national identity of the individual? Even though these are apparently outmoded or at least traditional forms of life, which nevertheless have survived into our age, are one of the most reliable correctives available for the soulless universalization of the technological development, as well as one of the most enduring hopes that "the human factor," sum of various might keep its conceived individual momentum of as both an individual worlds, thus as the unity and influence 21 in the years unit and the in diversity, to come too. Razprave in gradivo, It is quite development on the future Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 true that the universalization of the technological imposes also the universalization of political ideas world. The minds have conjured up of the overpowering planners of the a picture of the world population characterized by identical reflexes, needs, and goals. Naturally, given this leveled vision of the future man, the existence of any nation, let communities, alone national seems an minorities unnecessary and hitch other in the types wheels, of an imperfect implementation of a great plan. Ever since the last war ended, we have been listening and reading - and often watching as a concrete instance - the confrontation between the two so-called blocs, a bipartite division of the world, which amounts to nothing but imposition, mental and factual, of a certain mentality according to which the world faces the imminent decisive battle that is supposed to lead to a universal way of life, hence also to one single nation or people. If it was not for the existence of the nations on all the continents and in all the systems, and also for national minorities within these nations and an ever-increasing number of the individuals who refuse to be divested of their basic natural rights or who are more and more firm in fighting for them, the uncontrolled and yet planned technological pattern of logic and the levelingregulating totalitarian political thought would have already effected the fatal transformation of our "good old world." It appears, however, that nature - including human nature - has not yet been subjugated all down the line: every current is bound to encounter its countercurrent, thereafter never again regaining its original source of strength. "The human factor," subsuming both its individual and collective dimensions, has in this respect too proved to be stronger than it was thought, more unpredictable than the design stage would have had it. The experience of were very clear most evil and momentous: the and Second World unequivocal self-immolating the tragic War, in manner, experience when nations expressing of of the themselves was momentous and the confrontation world in the remains of the nations in the most destructive enmity this world has ever seen had to be followed by the policy of reconciliation. People and nations felt the need for such deeper level than the political idea of the equality of nations a policy on a more genunine and calculations would have it. The irrespective of their biological, economic and military strength came to stand for the fundamental idea embodying justice and human dignity as well as the only form of international yet Even human another relations world though rights expected to preclude the outbreak of war. slogans remain calling but for empty the words equality in many of nations places of the and for world, thus amounting to little more than propagandist delusion, a mere smokescreen, it is nevertheless possible to state that in the consciousness of modern man both of these desiderata have crystallized into truly inalienable natural rights of every single nation; moreover, in individuals too the awareness of human dignity has been increasing by leaps and bounds. Both of these ideas are very closely interrelated and interdependent: there is no free nation without the existence of individual freedom, just as there are no free people without the freedom of the nation to which the people concerned belong. Thus at least part of former conflicts between the nations "moved" within the 22 Razprave in framework nations gradivo, of the and Ljubljana, nation itself nationalities. March or 1986, the Never No.18 state before incorporating have there same time such a large number of revolts, fights, counterrevolutions, coups d'état of all kinds, fights and acts of terrorism also due to the several been at the revolutions and armed tribal dissatisfaction of the ethnic communities that believe their equality of rights to have been infringed. Force and violence are still the means of changing the existing conditions, and the old saying that the end justifies the means is still employed and exploited. True enough, there was hardly any sustained peace in the past as well, and local wars are the tragic regularity of our own time too. Yet most of the present-day conflicts show qualitative changes in comparison with those belonging to the past: formerly, that is, up to and including the Second World War, the world predominantly showed the pattern of the rule of the stronger over the weaker, or the strongest themselves engaged in battles for leadership on a worldwide scale. Today, however, a comparable confrontation takes place especially in the fields of politics and economics (for instance, the USA versus the USSR, or the NATO countries versus the Warsaw Pact countries), although the presence of the "big ones" can be perceived in almost all of the local wars. Peculiar to the present age are also autochthonous and violent states of ferment within small - and the smallest - nations as well as within national minorities living within the confines of a of single a country. desire for Unfortunately, The ferment national in question emancipation, however, the cases is normally the independence, of striving result identity. for gaining supremacy over others are not infrequent, even though they may be veiled by the slogans calling for patriotism, loyalty to ideology or to a political bloc, to a given civilization or religion. Cases are not difficult to find where such things happen in virtually all the corners of the world: most of Africa, the Middle East (Lebanon, Cyprus, Iraq - Iran), the Indian subcontinent, Central and South America. Such developments can be found also in a number of European countries, occasionally ina less conspicuous form: Northern Ireland, the Basque Provinces, and Kosovo in Yugoslavia as well. Many a nation that got rid of the foreign rule - the rule of the stronger - has not yet mustered the strength to begin to live in freedom. After the Second World War, the process of decolonization has been in full swing, much but the slower The truth decolonized process than was of democratization must be told or otherwise that many liberated of them simply cannot their own identity maturity and without doubt been nations that had been in the postwar period, subsequently somehow "disappointed" the what is worse, even failed to live up to many have has expected. dignity, and rest of the world and, their own expectations: find their own image and hence which would reassure them, qualify them for real equality, do not secure for the international dialogue. This certainly is one of the gravest tragedies in the contemporary world, because it is the lack of identity, that painful hovering in an empty space of history and civilization, which devalues the noble expectations of yesterday, their fight for freedom, and the victory itself. The fact remains that it proved that liberation is not necessarily also freedom, and in particular that it is not automatically also real independence. And yet, the experiences 23 show that there is no inevitabl e The misunderstandings to what primary, bound to linger more and natural more the and level, this on sparked is as ments No.18 1986, March Ljubljana, in gradivo, Razprave this that realization the corroborate further gh ns solutio optimum even that problem ated is a truly complic certain manner; satisfactory wholly a in resolve NET ented implem Se matter cannot are ncies Fully on. deficie being limits and mental with state borders education, provinciality is ultimately but a self-destructive keeps foundations very the inexorably and irrevocably undermining identical, that of the also is effect in Similar a nation. of autonomy the sole the represent to taken state, the of fetishization agency that possibility of meeting all the needs - and the only of and individual single - of every should meet all the needs the shifts unavoidably which community, every single national essence of indoctrination and very which and consciousness, collective in all simplified superficiality state symbolizes a multinational the way, shallowness, verbal awareness. Is there extremes? rejection propaganda, of level the to education sterile any way out existing somewhere between these two Without doubt, it is to be sought only in the utter of both the extremes, in a unity in diversity of some sort. Can such a unity undoubtedly very in diversity difficult -for be actually anyone to attained? reach, It because it is can only result from. the deepest mutual understanding, respect, vital (rather than ideological, political) need for one another, and from the conviction that such a mutual enrichment does not undermine within both. either a state And the there genuninely lines of independence community, must enrich giving be each and but of that no any on the nation or contrary the it unity strengthens misunderstanding here: we which done along other, accepting can and only never be through must the taking or coercion, The category of “state" must not be and cannot be something that transcends nations and nationalities; instead, it must originate in the relations of the equality of rights established among on this basis The reason of another meds that why the equals, such a nation mation or the will and a in their fruitful scoops out common whatever nationality is Customary life. education not it can does coercive practice of be It is from law, the solely organized. the well political stronger, but cee ae e need for broadening the spiritual horizons through ie the er Rernenn: the curiosity also about the otherness, which es ura eing natural consequence fulfilled need of of within the previous oneself. accumulating What only the and we complete have here condition is thus the best. Tuan yoyelcqnony of culture and education can only be achieved social, and cultural e political, of an asappropriat climate much as entertaining the notion that in only ae eis eine a state has committing th culture LL Same misunderstandi asic which the fittingly destin education and effects error, Spring the oe up. One a as whence one Even nation multinational-community a single-nation most case the in - one of of state, the state means subsequent the countries seems to to apply logic is often at work: the state symbolizing the nevcrse tty nation subordinates to it all the other nations living oreo Ving within its borders, 26 not to mention nationalities, Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 national minorities, these having long ago been ghettoized — at the most in terms of language and folklore activities in the field of culture. Some of this - to my mind unacceptable - spirit of the political state rather than of the actual single-nation state is discernible to me even in the title of our seminar, viz. "Education in Multicultural Societies," where one can forebode the process tending to the most dangerous image - new image — of the world, one in which such a state is a mere intermediate link between independent nations enjoying equal rights and the denationalized unification of the world governed by internal logic of the technological development and political vision of one single proper way of life (American? Soviet?). As we have already pointed out above, this represents the worst type of impoverishment of man, his degradation from “the human" to the “production and consumer factor." In my view, this is the underlying of modern man and of the contemporary post-industrial dominated by computers and information science. question society Proper education must have as its starting point the awareness that the nation within which it takes place accumulated during its past such an amount of spiritual heritage and today has in its possession all of that whence education is nurtured, that the corresponding level of the "culture" and “education" of its members is taken for granted, i.e. that they are, in short, qualified - if I may use the expression - for the spiritual and material reproduction of their own nation as well as for the dialogue conducted on an equal footing with any other nation. Of course, that this should be so is taken as a matter of course by any one nation - at least within Europe - that also has a state of its own, because it is the state that offers such an education, even stimulates it, organizes it, and furnishes the economic basis for its implementation. , The foregoing observations seem to indicate that a nation living in a multinational state must have its own statehood. But since many nations do not have it, their independence is curtailed, incomplete, which is why with them state education rather than national education asserts itself of necessity. We have mentioned above that we will take a closer look at this area through the example of the Slovenes, a nation that in many ways is typical of such an analysis. To begin with, the comparison between Yugoslavia in the interwar years and the Yugoslavia of today is not uninteresting. Although the Kingdom of Yugoslavia recognized some nations (Serbs, Croats and Slovenes), their special national rights were far from being complete. The political and demographic conditions were such that the country simply had to be multinational, but its constitution, legislation, and the actual implementation tended toward a single-nation form of state. For this reason, the Slovene fight for emancipation was taking place throughout the existence of that state, but in the most unfavourable times it could only take on the form of a fight for culture, the striving for the autonomy of the language and for its use in public life and in schools yet the schools’ curricula themselves were shaped by state interests and not national concerns. The new Yugoslavia, formed and peoples our all of participation conscious the by 27 Razprave in gradivo, nationalities Revolution, in Ljubljana, the was March National 1986, No.18 Liberation organized anew as Struggle a and in the constitutionally multinational state that recognized several previously ignored peoples and nationalities; enjoying full equality of rights regardless of numerical strength by the Constitution, these peoples and nationalities were also to have a democratic, federated basic state. With characteristic single official respect to of country this the language, title is of our also because seminar, that this there the is no function is constitutionally distributed among all the languages of the nations that enjoy equal rights: Serbo-Croatian/Croat-Serbian (the Serbian and Croatian varieties), Slovenian and Macedonian; on the territories populated by national minorities, thus in the ethnically mixed areas, the language of the ethnic minority in question has also the status of an equal rather than a second language. This applies to public use, public administration, the educational system, the judiciary, health service, etc. Finally, the education based on of the each national and every nation living in Yugoslavia is principle. Like every other nation in Yugoslavia, then, so we Slovenes too have our statehood, and even the Constitution defines us as a state that together with others makes up the Federation and represents In one of its constitutional constituents. terms, this is certainly the ideal and just solution, one against which no objection can possibly be made. And yet there are difficulties that arise in the course of everyday practice, when opportunism and vulgar economic profit considerations, coupled with the recent economic, political,and internationality complications, with a renewed belief that the state as the highest ideal can solve even that which is insolvable, incite some people to the goal of trying to alter even the basic aims of education, showing clearly the tendency toward gradual nationalization of all public life. Each nation ought to contribute, in proportion to its total population figure, its share (e.g. to the economy, mental content that reality, a new value. would - be - in begin to its that makes marginal prominently a larger And since spiritual, later nation, to by up the subject positions, the and nationalities that the larger, accorded effects. lead to and area feature the peoples such a way also the relegated army recruitment) to some common fund of should be on its way to becoming a new In simpler terms, elements of the national of whereas mathematical sum of this country, i.e. numerically share, more weight in our reflections education of - would true - all but distributed superior ones, their activities in be and majorization is a concrete matter, this would cultural, educational-instructional, national, necessity language, also political culture, and its domination way of the state would substitute for the nation in delicate functions. This would also be a great life. of one single In this way, the latter's most blow to the inde- pendence of the national minorities which, in the wake of such a reorientation of values and aims, would have to loosen their ties with that their parent hitherto have nations living outside Yugoslavia, been natural and firm enough. the ties international an at emphasis, an such ask, might one Why, meeting, on certain specifics that beyond our borders may be even 28 Razprave in gradivo, incomprehensible, contemporary and It would opposed in the seem Ljubljana, or appear in today's - that in March 1986, to some world - Yugoslavia to be the only sensible, inevitable development? the Slovenes to such tendencies. Our opposition cognitive principle which takes complete life value and function of No.18 a are most firmly originates not least due account of the nation in the society of today, and proceeds from the assumption that democracy and equality of rights in a multinational state can only be actualized by giving full consideration to all the peoples and nationalities concerned, i.e., those that constitute the population of the state. In other words, democracy and equality of rights in a multinational state can only be attained through complete functionalization of the nation on all levels, because all the other tendencies - whether or not we keep closing our eyes to the fact - lead to such a single-state formation as necessarily represents a state of coercion, although against its own will, throughout its "transitional period" on the way through amalgamation and assimilation. Such instances of submitting to considerations of practicality, economy, strategic suitability, and the like, would force such state communities - according to the very same thread of logical reasoning - into another “transitional period" of the withering away of single-nation states as well, this time in favor of what has been referred to repeatedly in these reflections, namely, the unification and universalization of the world as the rule of a single idea, a single way of life, or two counterpoised socio-political systems constantly engaged in battle. I believe that the existence, the functioning, and the optimum perspective of every single nation are the best expedients warranting the nation to be free from the threatening dehumanization of the world. The Slovene nation was lucky enough, perhaps in having been able to choose the lesser of two evils, to shape its own national soul and self-awareness and by fighting to gain at least the basic possibilities of functioning too as a nation, already in the period when it had neither a statehood nor a state of its own, It is for this reason that the Slovene nation is not willing under any condition, including warning and pressure, to give up its cohesion, it own identity. Education founded on a ingredients and rights consideration pendence an of of the “expensive" the national basis belongs among the essential of any sovereign nation. The respect and spiritual, nation is affair from to existential, the maintain: viewpoint a kindergartens, primary, secondary cation universities, sciences that are political vulgar complete nurseries, and and of network and both inde- economics of vocational autonomous day edu- and qualified for cooperation with the world, an appropriate state and administrative structure, and participation of all these in the broader community - in the case of Yugoslavia at the level of the Federation. This represents a considerable economic burden, and hence fewer and fewer things are taken as a matter of course, inherited and preserved, thanks to the so-called natural laws; today, and even more so tomorrow, such things will necessitate conscious decisions, many-sided organization of the society, well-founded and promising developmental orientation. It is par- ticularly important with fact reference to a small nation today - much more so than at 29 that the any time single in the most past Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 - is the dictum: if you want to be a nation and to remain a nation, it is not only because you are convinced it is your right, but because you are convinced it is your advantage. To discuss the possibilities nation, of its the danger survival, means that we must also have element which shapes both community. Naturally, Yugoslavia of its even its including by seizing the upon disappearance, thriving the existence, clear-cut notions of education, that the individual and the national the whole world - and this as well - teems with all nationalism, be fought and dangerous the idea is something encountered the conceivable kinds varieties, of doing but away they with must the in of not nations and the national consciousness, for many a nationalism emerges out of unbearable frustration, emotional and physical restrictedness of an endangered or dominated nation or nationality. To eliminate misunderstandings and conflicts on this particular level represents also the task of education, one that education is able to tackle. I have repeatedly stressed that education must be grounded ona national basis, but far removed from nationalism of any sort and from self-complacent introversion. Today, the world is a broad and open expanse wherein "the evil" and "the good" are increasingly difficult to delimit precisely; they exist here and there, within ourselves and within others, and any attempt at a generalization of the one or the other is doomed to failure and is in fact out of place; if carried on at the political level, it is even very dangerous. Unfortunately, we live in an unsettled and highly neurotic period, when perseverance, patience and tolerance have all but vanished from our everyday life, when all too often we are prone to pronounce inappropriate such matters as due to their inherently complicated nature occasion also difficulties, the matters we try to eliminate from our lives in the mistaken belief that everything will be easier then. This happens also in the field of inter-nationality relations within a common multinational state. By analogy, when various state nationalisms sparked duration, try and in we certain nationalities of these and peoples (and to find cases one still the even and spark) reasons wars for hostilities the same nationalities among country persist of varying extent disagreements, in in the the peoples very keeping and disputes, fact their and that present, given status they fought for. Yet it must be admitted that the reasons for these predicaments are often to be found elsewhere, most frequently in our own inability to set up and immediately assert genuine equality of rights enjoyed by the unequally strong, by the unequally developed, by the communities that live with disparate customs and foster different goals. It may be true that a the rule multinational contains givenness, a also real state, entity, historical, political and stronger (the numerically injustice and from members contributed The error close-knit which numerous yet apart minorities, it is at from peoples is first the same almost and as foremost time also a moral obligation prohibiting the superior) from doing the weaker an misusing the faith that all the to the creation of their state. community of either type in the educational system, namely, nationalism which beyond its limits cannot find 30 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, anything good, let alone indoctrination unfavorable to (mere verbal patriotism fatal to existing peoples the and March being and No.18 better than itself, or state the positive national consciousness the circumstances nationalities 1986, in the interlinking and force), relations framework of both the can be within state. The proper way in this respect is also the most arduous one, viz. that of parallel selection and synthesis of the highest and most stable values inherent in the nation as well as the state, together with full awareness of the essence and possibilities of the one and the other. However that may be, it is quite certain that in a multinational state comprising several languages, cultures, different currents of tradition and civilization as well as dissimilar natural developmental perspectives, education represents a highly delicate issue; it is the field where even the greatest case is not great enough, because the matter in question is not merely a profession but nothing less than the shaping of man who is to acquire a feeling and sense of conflictless coexistence in a multinational state, a feeling and sense also of his own intimate relationship with the nation he belongs to, and with the state that he shares with his nation - but not only with his nation. Though neither a teacher nor a politician, I am convinced that this aspect too should not be ignored in reflecting upon life, whenever it is discussed in the light of our own experiences and those of others, and not least in the planning of education. 31 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, Sonja Novak-Lukanovié Institute for Ethnic Studies Ljubljana, Yugoslavia No.18 UDC 376.744(497.1):800.7 SOME YUGOSLAV EXPERIENCES IN ASSERTING EQUALITY AND NATIONALITIES IN THE FIELD OF EDUCATION* This paper was cooperation prepared of Institute for Arh, Natalija Djuranovié, Silvo by Sonja Devetak B. THE Novak-Lukanovié, and Vera Kloptité Ethnic Studies, Ljubljana, Benini, Riza Brada, Anka Cedomir OF Kuzmanovié, with the of the (all Yugoslavia). Budimlija, TaSe NATIONS Stojanovski, Jelka Mirko Vaso Strehaljuh and Ilja Tanovié collaborated in the collection of the material. Magdolna Horvath and Marinka Lazié helped in the composition of the tables and other graphic illustrations in the appendices. In culturally pluralistic societies, the educational process plays a complex role, since it must guarantee the education of the individual as well as train the person for life in an environment in which numerous cultures, languages and other specifics of identity are intertwined. That is why the educational in such societies only when it draws contextual and spiritual power the historio-traditional cultural and linguistic variety, as from well as from process all that can perform which its comes development into being integrative links between them. Only actually implemented, educational general-cultural pluralistic and harmonised That is and socio-economic society, why as one of the with such a policy the growth conceptualised, can grow into structure main function of strands a of and the definitively of the complete development. education, specifically in Yugoslavia, which is nationally so heterogeneous, not only has socialisation functions but also represents one of the foundations for educating people in the spirit achieved of understanding simply by and acquainting co-existence. people with This the cannot languages be of others (which is a prerequisite for the development of communication among people), but requires also the development of wider educational aims such as the mutual acquisition of knowledge of the culture and history and the development of human values of respect The ethnic Yugoslavia still special consideration for others. and cultural interrelatedness in the is situated (complicated historical present political and here) has attention aims and not required only in moral-ethical and the will continue formation values of region in which experiences are the of to the Yugoslav require global society, but also further fulfillment of educational aims, taking into account the irreplaccable role of school in the formation of man's view of the world and society. Yugoslav multilingual society has a collective ideology and one socio-political system for all the nations and nationalities. * Original: Slovene 32 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 each of which exhibits particular socio-economic structures and its own history and cultural heritage. Perhaps this can explain the special ways of dealing with the concrete forms of education, which is one of the common principles of the equality of the nations and nationalities. The different methods of realising national equality within Yugoslav pluralism have a collective foundation, since it is precisely their correlated interrelatedness which makes up the whole of that which we may call the "Yugoslav model of education of the equal nations and nationalities." In a culturally pluralistic society, with the simultaneous respect of specific autonomous needs that can adjust the educational content, it is only by agreements which reflect the interests of all that the collectively acceptable directions can be set up in this so sensitive area of social life. With this aim in mind, in 1981 we in Yugoslavia passed the Agreement of the socialist republics and provinces on the collective foundations of the education system. In it, the republics and provinces, amongst other things, agreed that “they would assure, taking into account the possibilities indicated by the laws on education the individual republics and provinces, education in languages of the nations and nationalities, the learning of language of the social environment, the preservation of languages and cultures of the nations and nationalities of pupils and students who are educated in their own language. of the the the the The content of educational work in Yugoslavia derives from the collective aims, whose essential purpose is that the pupils, through a variety of contents, form moral-ethical views, respect for their own nation and awareness of the self-management socialist community of the nations and nationalities in SFRY as well unity as worldwide, amongst our and gain nations an and awareness of the brotherhood and nationalities. The aims are not only embodied in the curricula for all levels of education but are also defined through social and self-management agreements, in normative and self-management acts and in political following documents, etc. conclusions: Their content can be summarised by the Firstly: members of all the nations and nationalities are guaranteed the right to educate themselves in their mother tongue, and the pupils belonging to the nationalities the right to attend schools: - in which instruction is - in which lessons carried are conducted out only in the mother tongue; bilingually; - in which they come together only for the hours of the mother tongue, wherever it has not been possible to organise lessons either in the mother tongue or bilingually, for objective reasons (this form of teaching the native language is called "language cultivation"). Secondly: a very important component of education for coexistence and understanding amongst the nationalities is the teaching of a second language (L2) which is called differently in the various 33 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 republics and provinces of multilingual Yugoslavia. The expressions "the language of the social environment" or the “nonnative language” are used, for example, for the learning of the language of another nation or nationality. It is very important to note in this respect that the language of the social environment or the non-native language is not only learned by the members of the nationality but also by the members of the nation, that is, of the majority population. We believe learn as five that the equal in the example of parts of Slovak, or of the languages, particular Rumanian, the language SAP Vojvodina, social depending the on province Ruthenian), where environment the one ethnic not to be children many makeup (Serbo-Croatian, is the of as found in as the Hungarian, anywhere else world. The learning of mative language the language is variously of the social organised in Sometimes it is compulsory, sometimes Yugoslav multilingual society, this environment or nonindividual regions. an optional process is subject. carried In the out in such a way that people are trained through the school process to be able to communicate among themselves in two (or more) languages, because two-sided communication also does away with the psychological barriers which affect people who, for various reasons, are unable to use their mother tongue. In the Yugoslav pluralistic concept of language policy, this means that bilingual or multilingual communication in the ethnically mixed regions must not only restrict itself to communication in the social environment or between friends, but that the language of the nationalities is used with equal rights at the place of work and in all forms of activity of the self-management organs, and that it enjoys equal public status in general, on all levels rather than merely in the framework of the so-called ethnically mixed territory. Although the educational system in Yugoslavia represents a foundation for the development of functional bilingualism, solid since the organisation of educational work even takes into consideration differences as well as the objective possibilities for its realisation, in practice, such bilingualism is not realised in the same way everywhere, for a variety of reasons. Thirdly: a characteristic of the realisation of teaching aims to which we would like to draw attention refers to the content of educational programmes, which also contain specifics of the history and culture of the nations and nationalities with whom the pupils live. Knowledge of the neighbour permeates these specific contents strengthened. It is and worth lesson the members culture and history of of respect stressing the the for his here culture that, above is all, thereby in this "majority" nation get to know the nationality, which can essentially assist in reducing the psychological and other barriers which have occurred in various ethnic communities, either as a result of historical friction or with their source in contemporary which conditions and other politico-psychological socio-economic, prevail in particular surroundings. The purpose of education for and nationalities is not only understanding amongst the nations that the young, in the framework of 34 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 the educational content, receive certain knowledge, for example, about the history, geography and culture of other nations and nationalities, and learn their language, but also that these children form a view of the world, society and mankind and acquire the ability to appraise correctly and independently the processes and events that they encounter and will continue to encounter However, on various we coexistence must occasions. not restrict amongst the education nations and for understanding nationalities only and to schools, giving it an institutionalised form. We must also broaden it and direct it towards other fields of social and personal life. In doing this, we must take into consideration all those elements which make up the so-called functional education and which exert a very strong influence on any young person. Some Experiences of the Socialist Republics and Provinces In the framework of the division of competence between the Federation and the republics and the two provinces, questions of education fall within the competence of the latter. These questions are regulated on the basis of the Constitution of the SFR of Yugoslavia and other common agreed-on principles. In this respect, communes have an important role, as the Constitution itself stipulates their basic functions in the implementation of the principle of the equality of the peoples and nationalities; moreover, it is within the communal framework that the weightiest questions are solved that concern the life and work of citizens. Legal and organizational as well as meaningful dimensions of the educational activities are determined by laws, statutes, and the resolutions concluded on the communal level, self-management agreements, while some matters are regulated even by the autonomous self-management resolutions of the organizations and institutions that are active in this field. Just as in the case of all the other spheres of social life in Yugoslavia, questions of education too are solved on the basis of self-management, primarily through self-managing communities of interest for education and child care, which not only have at their disposal independent financial resources but also make decisions, on the democratic delegate basis, about all the questions that concern this important social activity. In such a system, the state organs have especially retained their role in creating a body of legal regulations and in controlling the legality of work. In spite of a uniform groundwork for the implementation of the system of education, multifarious educational methods have been developed for the benefit of the members of the peoples and nationalities not only in the individual republics and provinces but also within them, in smaller sociopolitical communities, in the framework of individual geographical areas and even of individual educational institutions. These methods have been designed in conformity with the traditions or specific needs of the life-styles and levels of development in question. This spectrum of experiences can hardly be analyzed adequately within the this than scope of a single reason, we have to throw light paper by using a uniform methodology. decided in this chapter to do on these features, drawing 35 For nothing more only on the Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 sources available to us. In this country, there is no unified, all-encompassing stock of information available on these questions. Hence most of the data presented are not commensurate with one another, and there is also of Bosnia the danger that they might be incomplete. The Socialist This Republic republic large number has a total of of members of Yugoslavia (see Appendix dispersed throughout the and Herzegovina 4,124,008 the inhabitants, peoples I). Members territory of and including nationalities a of of the nationalities are the republic (see Appendix II, Table 1) In what follows we will deal with some questions concerning members of the Ukrainian, Italian and Czech nationalities. The fact that this population lives widely scattered no doubt affects language development, i.e., education in the mother tongue, because members of the nationalities live mostly in the areas where the spoken language of the environment is Serbo-Croatian/Croato-Serbian. They learn their mother tongue only at the elementary school level. The native languages of the nationalities began to be introduced into the elementary schools as optional subjects in the 1960s. In 1975 the nationality languages (Italian, Ukrainian, Czech) became subjects of elementary-school instruction, representing an integral part of III, Table 1). the elementary school syllabus (see Appendix According to the syllabus of those elementary schools with SerboCroatian/Croato-Serbian as the language of instruction which are also attended by nationality members, the pupils Czech or Ukrainian two lessons a week in the learn Italian or first, second, seventh, and eighth grades, three lessons a week in the third and fourth grades, and either two or three lessons a week in the fifth and sixth grades. If any of the classes contains fewer than 10 pupils of instruction, first and who the wish to the learn the classes second nationality are grades, the joined third language as a consecutively, and the subject i.e., fourth the grades, etc. With respect to the nationality population makeup and its distribution in Bosnia and Herzegovina, we can justifiably assume that these nationalities in principle have fewer possibilities of using their mother tongue in various everyday situations. On these grounds, we may conclude with a high degree of certainty that they communicate mostly in the majority language Croatian/Croato-Serbian. The situation being such, they mother tongues most often only when communicating members of the same nationality and, of course, families (an exception can be found in the case - Serbouse their with fellowwithin their of some mixed marriages). Such as state of affairs partly accounts for the fact that members of the nationalities differ in their knowledge of the mother tongue For instance, when pupils first of the entering the Ukranian school. nationality only have minimal pre-school knowledge of their mother tongue when they containing a dialect speak They mostly first enter the school. their from adopted they words is, that foreignisms, numerous 36 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, neighbours - most frequently Serbo-Croatian/Croato-Serbian own language. Why is toward 20th this the so? The end century. of - Ukrainians the This March 19th was an 1986, those and who are adapted settled century economic No.18 in and native to the Bosnia at the migration speakers of use in their and Herzegovina beginning that occurred of the within a single state, namely, Austria-Hungary. When the state collapsed, the Ukrainians (and thereby their language) were separated from their parent nation; their language found itself in an environment where it was surrounded by languages of other nations. It is a known fact that overall economic and social development calls for language development on a permanent basis, not least by searching for new words and expressions; on the other hand, the "conservation" of a language leads to its stagnation. And this is exactly yhat befell (and probably still befalls) the Ukrainian language. Teachers play a particularly important role in teaching the languages of the nationalities. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, teachers cannot become qualified for teaching a nationality language through regular schooling (neither can they become so qualified anywhere else in Yugoslavia). Those who teach languages of the nationalities perfect their knowledge by attending various seminars and/or individually, according to the possibilities and their ambitions. The available analyses show that in their work these teachers have inadequate knowledge of the to of cope primarily with the the language ragher than pedagogical-methodological difficulties of the difficulties kind. In the course of the teaching of Czech and Italian, they mostly use schoolbooks printed in the Socialist Republic of Croatia, whereas the schoolbooks used in the teaching of Ukrainian were prepared in Bosnia and Herzegovina (in cooperation with the SR of Croatia). In regard to the Ukrainian language, the schoolbooks are intended to serve a double purpose: - to be used by the the language nor an used in language and - to poor teachers who do not have a good command adequate knowledge of the teaching literature instruction, and be used by the pupils (who, as already knowledge of their mother tongue). pointed of methods out, have a The fact that members of the nationalities live scattered over the republic is one of the main reasons why numerous childrenmembers of the nationalities do not have the opportunity of learning their mother tongue. An analysis has shown that in the school-year of 1984/85, for example, 516 such children were not given the possibility of attending organized lessons in their mother-tongue. (By comparison, lessons in nationality-language instruction in the very same year were attended by 775 pupils!) Since no teaching of the available in secondary teaching will probably cultural-educational mother tongues schools (even fail seminars to reach have been of the nationalities is when available, such the majority organized years, at which the children of the Ukrainian nationalities learn their mother tongue and find 37 of for and out children), a number of Ruthenian about the achievements seminars have of Bosnia of Vojvodina. year of been and their national organized Herzegovina, Fourteen in and such No.18 1986, March Ljubljana, gradivo, in Razprave culture. turn the by Since the SR Socialist seminars were of 1965, these Croatia, the Autonomous organized SR Province up to the 1980. Republic Socialist The of Montenegro In addition to the Montenegrin nation, there live in this republic members of the other peoples and nationalities of Yugoslavia (see Appendix I), among which the Albanian nationality - living in the following five communes: Bar, Plav, Rozaje, Titograd, and II, 2) In is Table Ulcinj - is numerically the largest the five communes concerned, the educational organized for the benefit of the members (see Appendix line of activity of the Albanian nationality either in their mother tongue or bilingually, ranging from the pre-school level to the secondary vocationally oriented education.” The four pre-school institutions operating in the five communes incorporate about 200 children of the Albanian nationality. The network of the elementary schools which are attended also by members of the Albanian nationality consists of 11 full-fledged elementary schools (eight grades), with 42 subsidiary classes (for the most part in the rural areas of the school year of 1984/85, these schools were children for 11.4 in all.(See Appendix III, Table per cent of the total number Albanian nationality that of the SR of Montenegro. reside in the republic). In the attended by 4,208 2) This of the five number accounts members of the above-cited Elementary-school pupils of the Albanian nationality Croatian/Croato-Serbian, the language of the social as a compulsory subject, whereas it is learned as subject in the secondary school with Albanian as instruction. In certain places, claims have arisen of these lessons stipulated by the pointing out communes learn Serboenvironment, an optional the for medium of the number to be increased to a number exceeding law; the advocates of this claim support that a good command of schooling has been completed, enables the vocational spectrum throughout the the language, one to be country. that it by once integrated the with Likewise, the pupils attending the classes in SerboCroatian/Croato-Serbian as the language of instruction, can optionally learn Albanian as the language of the social Grades language. which they label the non-native environment, five through eight offer optionally two lessons a week, yet the number of pupils attending them is 27 eighth). not large. school year 1984/85, there was a total of commune of Ulcinj (45 in the fifth grade; the seventh; and in the For example, in the 161 such pupils in the 42 in the sixth; 48 in pupils of the Serbo-Croatian-speaking the number that We believe is environment who learn Albanian as the language of the social so low primarily sufficiently which is why because Albanian in all probability 15 not level, on the institutional used in communication it. to learn enough are not stimulated the pupils 38 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, Nonetheless, we must not ignore the fact pupils is increasing, albeit minimally. No.18 that the number of these In the communes of Plav, Titograd and Ulcinj there are centers of the secondary vocationally oriented education, where teaching is conducted in both Serbo-Croatian and Albanian (22 vocational orientations being available in Albanian). Almost half of the children attending these centers are of Albanian descent (see Appendix III, Table 3). The syllabuses have been unified for all the schools in the republic. For pupils of the Albanian nationality, they contain specific topics related to the Albanian literature. The curriculum in history does not contain any additional material on the history of the Albanian nationality, because it forms part of the curricula used in the educational process throughout the republic of Montenegro, Schoolbooks used for the instruction conducted in Albanian were either published in the SR of Montenegro or appeared in the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo, where they are also presently used in the schools where teaching is conducted in the Albanian language. In the republic of Montenegro there are no junior colleges, colleges or universities with Albanian as the language of instruction. It is for this reason that a large number of students of the Albanian nationality study at the University of Pristina (SAP Kosovo). The teachers and professors teaching in Albanian can perfect their knowledge of the language by attending the plentiful seminars which take place. The Socialist Republic of Croatia Members of a large number of nationalities live in this republic, including the Hungarians, Slovaks, Czechs, Ruthenians, Ukrainians, and Italians (see Appendix I). In many communes, these nationalities account for 0.7 - 10 per cent of the total population. They are to be found concentrated especially in the region of Istria and the Quarner Bay (communes Novigrad, Umag, Buje, Porec, Rovinj, Pulj, Labin, Cres-Losinj, Reka), where members of the Italian nationality live; the Czech nationality is mostly located in the area of Bilo-gora and Podravina (communes Daruvar, Grubisno Polje, Garesnica, Pakrac). The regions of Baranya and north Slavonia are populated by the Hungarians (communes Beli Manastir, Osijek, Vukovar, Vinkovci, Djakovo, Virovitica, Bjelovar, Donji Miholjac). The greatest number members of the Slovak nationality live on the territory communes Nasice, Vukovar, Djakovo, and Novska. Members Ruthenian and Ukrainian nationalities territory of the Vukovar commune, be found in other communes, too; Novska (see Appendix II, Table are most while lower for example, numerous numbers of Slavonski of of of the the on the them Brod can and 3). Education in the mother tongue for the benefit of th¢ members of the nationalities has been organized in various ways. 1 while for the Italian nationality an integral educational system has been developed in the Italian language, ranging from pre-school 39 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 institutions and the elementary school to the vocationally oriented education and higher education, the Slovak, Ukrainian and Ruthenian nationalities can mother tongues only at the elementary-school level. In the SR of Croatia, the syllabus regardless of the language contain specifics designed in nationality languages, languages, the the language teaching of the is the same secondary members of learn their for all schools, of instruction. Individual syllabuses especially for the sake of education namely: the teaching of nationality of the social Croatian or environment, Serbian the language teaching of music as and art, history and geography specifics. These curricula have been designed to enable the pupils-nationality members to gain better insights into the culture and history of its own nation as well as of the homeland of the nation that they share the ethnic background with (parent nation). The syllabus includes programmes for the teaching of nationality languages and cultures to all those members of the given nationalities who for various reasons attend the schools where teaching is conducted in Croatian or Serbian. Moreover, the syllabus takes due account of the teaching of the nationality language as the language of the social environment. The following designed for III, Table Hungarian The pupils outline of various individual types of instruction nationalities (Appendix Nationality attend: elementary instruction - will benefit 4). The - sections the schools (in elementary the with lower schools Hungarian grades with as the language of only); bilingual instruction, i.e. where instruction in question is conducted in two languages; - elementary schools with Croatian or Serbian as the language the of instruction, where only optional instruction is provided of the Hungarian language and culture, which is labelled "cultivation of the mother tongue." Some schools have set up also bilingual pre-school classes. education oriented vocationally for center secondary-school The is located at Beli Monastir, where most members of the Hungarian nationality live. There, bilingual instruction has been in Hungarian. are taught so that some of the subjects introduced, are available tongue in the mother lessons optional Additionally, for the all integrated Prospective training the bilingual Faculty programme Hungarian Statistical data in special language Hungarian teaching of Croatian/Serbian as the Hungarian subjects has which courses teachers Osijek, courses and where are trained are within the are not at the and in that been the number decreasing 40 of (from lower-grade the in organized literature, the either with schools at language of instruction. indicate nationality and instruction. nationality-school Teacher-Training of those of students with the 783 teaching methodology Hungarian or of the in the pupils to 698 Razprave last in five gradivo, years), Ljubljana, for which March several 1986, No.18 reasons are often adduced, 13 in particular the decline in the birth-rate and the internal migration of the population to the administrative and economic centers, where there are no prerequisite conditions for education in Hungarian. The lower number of pupils occasioned the introduction of combined classes (see Appendix III, Table 5). Furthermore, it has been repeatedly pointed out that in Croatia too the parents often decide to send their children to the schools with Croatian or Serbian as the language of instruction, because they believe that by doing so they will facilitate their children's further schooling as well as their general outlook for the future. What usually happens is that these children electively attend classes in the Hungarian language as the mother tongue ("cultivation of the mother tongue"). (See Appendix III, Table 6) Even in the localities with hardly any possibilities of organizing a school or some classes with Hungarian as the language of instruction (communes Vukovar, Djakovo, Virovitica, Bjelovar, Donji Miholjac), pupils of Hungarian nationality have the opportunity, within Croatian- or Serbian-language schools, to learn the Hungarian language and culture (“cultivation of the language") on an optional basis (Appendix III, Table 6).This kind of instruction was first introduced in the 1967/68 school year, when elective lessons in the Hungarian language were attended by 42 pupils. Today, their number is on the increase (Appendix III, Table 6a). Why? doubt very interesting. In the The classroom, specially prepared answer they for to this make use question of nationality would schoolbooks schools (for be without that were instance, Negovanje madZarskog jezika 1-4 (Cultivation of the Hungarian Language 1-4) - a manual; Povijesna Gitanka za osnovne #kole (History Reader for Elementary Schools), and of the translations of textbooks employed in the schools with Croatian or Serbian as the language of instruction. Textbooks written in Hungarian and produced in the SAP of Vojvodina will begin to be utilized starting with the next school year (1985/86), when they will be coordinated common in Yugoslav contents as a "cores" in the result of the educational implementation of the programmes. As to the training of teachers, there are several possibilities. They can take up studies at the Teacher-Training Faculty in Osijek (lower-grade teaching and the Hungarian language), while at the faculties located in the SAP of Vojvodina they can gain the qualifications for the job of specialized upper-grade elementary-school teachers. On the basis of the intergovernmental Programme 5 of the educational-cultural cooperation between the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFR of Yugoslavia) and the Hungarian People's Republic (Hungary), teachers and teachersto-be can also study at the corresponding universities in Hungary. Additionally, they can perfect their professional knowledge by participating in special seminars, such as those held in Subotica or Novi Sad, by attending special lectures, or by taking part in the summer seminars organized in Hungary. The Italian Nationality The organizational structure uniform, as there exist: of 41 elementary schools is not schools - elementary - and language, Italian schools elementary the where there | classes both are the in only conducted is teaching where No.18 1986, March Ljubljana, gradivo, in Razprave as Italian with or 7, Croatian with and classes of instruction the language III,Table (see Appendix as the language of instruction pupils). of respective numbers Serbian for the The Croatian or Serbian language as the language of the social environment is taught as a compulsory subject in all the schools with Italian as the language of instruction. It is the language that also figures in other forms of classroom/school In the educational institutions with language of instruction, the Italian the social environment is taught as: activities. Croatian or Serbian as the language as the language of - a compulsory subject of instruction in bilingual, according to the law (Rovinj, those communes that are Buje, and partly Pulj) from the second grade to the second sophomore year of the secondary-school vocationally oriented education; and - an optional subject of instruction in the communes Reka, Opatija, Labin, Pazin, Porec, and Pulj (likewise from the second grade to the second sophomore year of the secondary-school vocationally oriented education. During the school year of 1983/84, about and stygents learned Italian either on a basis. In this way, prerequisites are 14,000 Croatian pupils compulsory or elective brought into being for genuine bilingualism that is not restricted solely to school situations, but of necessity penetrates into all other types of social and public life throughout the territory populated by members of both the nation and the nationality. Virtually all qualifications, the teachers have having been trained Training Faculty in Pulj, in the Italian language. with Italian as Italian as the possibility of gained mainly where courses The teachers the language language of participating and who the necessary at the Teacher- examinations teach at the of instruction and those the social environment, in many in-service training are held schools who teach have the seminars organized alternately by the two countries in cooperation with the appropriate Italian institutions, particularly the Universita populare of Trieste/Trst. These seminars are attended by teachers from the SR of Croatia and from the SR of Slovenia (there are, to enumerate a few examples, seminars on language, culture and literature; on mathematics and natural sciences; and on pre- school education). linguistic in improvement only not offer seminars These knowledge, but also perfection in the fields of methodology and as a native of Italian for the teaching pedagogy as required language be aware and that the as there language are a of environment. social the of number specific features One that must the have features these entails; language in a nationality education syllabuses from of education, types into all incorporated to be materials. teaching to other and textbooks with schools The of several kinds as the Italian of textbooks: language 42 of instruction make use Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 - those specially prepared for use foremost the textbooks containing in these schools (first specific elements for benefit as the as of the language the nationality of the language of - social the Italian the environment, social native and language Croatian or and the or as Serbian environment); - translations from Croatian or Serbian; - books imported from Italy, as a result of direct, fruitful cooperation of the Italian Union for Istria with the Universita popolare of Trieste/Trst. Some of these textbooks are used also in those of Slovenia where teaching is conducted in the The Czech and Slovak schools in the SR Italian language. Nationalities Education in the Czech 4) is implemented: and Slovak languages (Appendix III, Table - in two full-fledged elementary schools with Czech as the language of instruction, both in the commune of Daruvar; - one elementary school with classes where Czech is the language of instruction, in the commune of Grubisno Polje; it may be noted that this is true of some classes only; - two subsidiary, lower-grade schools, each comprising grades one through four, with Czech as the language of instruction, whereas in the lower grades there are combined classes because of the low number of pupils (in the communes of Garesnica and Slavonska Pozega); - two of subsidiary instruction, four-grade in the schools commune of with Slovak Vukovar as the (classes are language combined). In the areas without larger numbers of the members of the Czech and Slovak nationalities, instruction is only given of either the Czech or Slovak language"), three Such communes. language and instruction of Just as in the culture the (“cultivation Czech case of language the and of the culture Hungarian in language, the number of Czech and Slovak pupils has been on the increase; we are referring to the pupils learning their mother tongue on an optional basis ("cultivation of the language"). (See Appendix III, Table Neither 8) Czech nor Slovak taught in any environment is Croatian Serbian there or are teacher no junior training as the as for language within language colleges, courses the school of colleges teaching the of SR of the instruction. or in Czech with Similarly, universities the social Croatia that offer language. In order to fulfill the needs of the Slovak nationality, teachers are trained at (junior) colleges and universities in the SAP of Vojvodina. The teachers can improve their professional skills, and hence facilitate their everyday work, by taking part in various conferences, specialist meetings, and seminars on the Czech language, held in Prague, and those on the Slovak language, held in Bratislava. In both teaching and learning the Czech and Slovak languages and cultures, certain difficulties arise primarily on account of the inadequate and uneven teaching of the pupils' mother tongue. This state of affairs calls for specially adapted curricula and the 43 No.18 1986, March Ljubljana, in gradivo, Razprave individual approach to the organization of work; these desiderata have in actual fact been incorporated into the new curricula that are to be put into effect starting with the school year of 1985/86. Further, a number of textbooks, manuals, and other teaching aids and materials are lacking no textbook designed for the teaching languages). The Ukrainian and Ruthenian (for instance, there is of the Czech and Slovak Nationalities Children of Ruthenian nationality are introduced tongue already at the pre-school level in one (Croatian or Serbian (Miklosevci). In and the Ruthenian) 1983/84 in school the to their mother bilingual group commune year, this of Vukovar group had 15 children. Since there are no elementary schools or classes with Ruthenian and Ukrainian as the language of instruction, those who are interested attend only lessons in the mother tongue. Ruthenian as a subject of instruction is taught in five elementary schools within the communes elementary number has of pupils been of schools on the Vukovar in the and Zupanja, communes attending this of and Ukrainian Vukovar instruction and in the in four Novska. The upper grades decrease. For the benefit of those pupils who for some reason or another do not learn their mother tongues, special summer seminars are organized that last from 8 to 10 days in all. Each year, these seminars are attended by 80-100 pupils from Republics of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, the SAP of vojvodina.! These programmes that are pedagogically include the subject-matter that the Socialist as well as from seminars are based on the designed in such a manner as to the pupils attended regular lessons in the mother culture of the nationality concerned. would tongue, acquire the if they history and Teachers of Ruthenian are trained within the Ruthenian Programme at the Paculty of Arts in Novi Sad; however, we have already noted that the training of prospective teachers and teachers of Ukrainian is not available everywhere in Yugoslavia. Their language qualifications therefore depend mostly on the knowledge they acquire within their families, in the elementary school, OF through self-education. The textbooks used in the teaching of Ruthenian Finally, are two those which textbooks are (one used for in third the and SAP fourth of Vojvodina. grades and the other for fifth and sixth grades) for the teaching of Ukrainian were prepared in 1979 in cooperation with Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Apart also Socialist from I and of other Turks Appendix of Macedonia nation, Macedonian the members Albanians, Republic II, and peoples Roms Table and (Romi) are in this the there republic nationalities, most among numerous live which (Appendix 4). provisions and self-management enactments f legal i and especially for members ation, educ the field: of : eta ating che eS regul 44 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 of the nationalities, education is implemented in the language of the nationality concerned and/or bilingually in those comaungg which according to the relevant by-laws are ethnically mixed. These are as shown below: Macedonians Albanians Turks Gostivar Debar Kiéevo Kumanovo 18,383 2,561 21,190 65,803 63,135 10,308 23,338 39,608 10,994 §,:155 3,342 2,302 Ohrid 54,263 3,587 2,688 Resen 17,574 3,689 3,180 Skopje Struga 320,562 30,096 86,462 23,623 20,563 967 Tetovo 31,451 113,414 4,675 Pre-school educational-custodial institutions using the Albanian and Turkish languages were in 1984 attended by 481 Albanian and 183 Turkish children. Why so few children in day nurseries and kindergartens? The answer to this question is probably not as simple as one might think, because aside from the capacity problems, one has to take into account the socioeconomic conditions as well as the psychological-traditional social relationships. In this republic, there elementary schools which many as 1,286 elementary in the Macedonian, is an extremely variegated network of in the 1983/84 school year comprised as schools, in which teaching is conducted Albanian, languages (Appendix III,Table primarily in those educational Turkish are used. Larger places have schools Turkish, and Serbo-Croatian 9). Naturally, we are interested institutions where Albanian and where Albanian and Turkish are the languages of instruction, whereas in localities with fewer pupils belonging to individual nationalities “mixed” elementary schools have been established, where in addition to the Macedonian classes there are classes with Albanian, Turkish, and SerboCroatian used as the languages of instruction (Appendix III, Table 10). Such an organization of school activities, which comprises as much as 39.3 per cent of the pupils of the Albanian and Turkish nationalities, doubtless represents a very welcome influence upon the strengthening and fostering of the understanding and coexistence among the children of dissimilar ethnic backgrounds. If they attended separate schools, these children would be able to meet only in situations. On the contrary, in linguistically pluralistic elementary during the excursions, In those realistic communicational culturally and pupils meet daily intervals for recess, on the occasion of school outside the classroom activities, and so forth. places of the possibilities least a few main reason classes usually only mother in certain such a school, the SR of of Macedonia setting up where elementary there are schools or no at in the languages of the nationalities (the being too low a number of children), lessons tongue are offered 45 by the schools in question. Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Similarly, on the level of the secondary vocationally oriented education, students can attend classes in their mother tongues, viz., Macedonian, Turkish, Serbo-Croatian, or Albanian, but these schools too teaching is nationality are "mixed," conducted makeup of The curriculum, the peoples which and because they subsume classes where in different languages, depending students (Appendix III, Table 11). on the is of all common to nationalities the pupils living in and the students SR of Macedonia, provides also for the instruction of the language of the social environment, which in Macedonia can be Macedonian, Albanian, or Turkish, depending on the demographic population makeup. The educational programme has been designed in such a manner that other subjects also contain the subject-matter that broadens the pupils' or students' knowledge of the history and culture of the peoples and nationalities other than their own.In this way, coexistence in an ethnically heterogeneous society is being built up. All the necessary implementation of textbooks the are available educational for programme in a the successful Macedonian, Albanian, and Turkish languages. Qualifications for teaching in Turkish or Albanian can be gained at the institutions of higher education in the SR of Macedonia as well as at teacher-training colleges in other parts of Yugoslavia. Knowledge of the language and culture seminars The can that also are Socialist be improved organized Republic of by by attending pedagogic a large number of services. Slovenia In this ethnically homogenous republic, the autochthonous population consists of the Slovenes and members of the Italian and Hungarian nationalities (see Appendix I). The demographic structure of the population in the last decades has become more diversified in the wake of internal economic migrations, so that now numerous Yugoslavia concentrated Hungarian Appendix It of members can be in one II, the in developed to of the the in other peoples Slovenia. communes the Table is due to the Slovenia two members of found of communes The Koper, of and Piran Lendava nationalities Italian and nationality and Izola, Murska and Sobota of is the (see 5). dissimilar historical background that in the SR types of educational institutions have been the advantage Hungarian of members nationality of attend the nationalities: bilingual (Slovene- Hungarian) educational institutions, while members of the Italian nationality are incorporated into the educational institutions where the teaching is conducted in the nationality language. Each of the two types of institutions will be presented separately in the following pages. Education Slovenia for forms specific, very self-management In the been for the part of of a the of the by education and nationalities uniform is regulated documents. fulfilled process has members educational also development the special by of of 46 the in system which, a communities members of the SR of being provisions legal education, self-managing culture living the special of and role interest Italian and Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Hungarian nationalities. These communities discuss and participate in making decisions that bear on all the weighty questions associated furthermore, they educational schools, with take PEgITams the an and status active in the of part the in nationalities; the distribution of creation the network of of etc. a)Education for the Hungarian Nationality On the Slovenian-Hungarian ethnically mixed territory, which is in the communes of Murska Sobota and Lendava, the children attend bilingual educational-—custodial divisions (see Appendix III, Table 12). In order that they might be successful in the elementary school and acquire a certain amount of second-language knowledge - i.e. language of the environment - already in their pre-school period, all of the children aged five attend two-year preparatory programmes prior to beginning regular grade-school work (in the other parts of Slovenia, this program lasts only one year). In the elementary schools of the Appendix III,Table 13), educational the principle of bilingualism - i.e. ethnically mixed area (see work is uniformly based on implemented in Slovenian and Hungarian, both being the languages of instruction as well as subjects of instruction. In grades one through four bilingualism is complete, with the teaching giving the explanation of the subject-matter first in Slovene and then in Hungarian. Various forms of consolidation, enlarging and testing are based on the principle of internal linguistic differentiation and individualization. The teacher also takes into account the mental abilities and linguistic knowledge of the pupils of both languages. In the upper grades, the instruction of the natural sciences, mathematics, history, and geography is carried out mostly in Slovenian, the exception being those units which deal with the Hungarian history and geography; for these, Hungarian is used, with the addition of the relevant Slovene terminology. At the secondary Appendix III,Table viz., pedagogy and vocationally oriented education 14), two bilingual programmes are economics-oriented training, level (see available, while Slovenian is used for the other types of specialized training. Hungarian as the language of the environment is compulsory. Even in some secondary schools located outside the ethnically mixed area students can enroll for courses in the Hungarian language (for instance, at Murska Sobota and Radenci), yet this possibility has failed to generate the expected response (it would be interesting to find out the psychological-political and socioeconomic reasons for this state of affairs). Hungarian can be studied within language and literature at the There is also an instructorship the Programme in the Hungarian Teachers’ College in Maribor. in Hungarian at the Faculty of Arts (College of Liberal Arts) in Ljubljana, providing the opportunity for in-service training. Within the YugoslavHungarian Programme of educational-cultural cooperation, studies to two of the students language a year are available only). 47 in Hungary too (but limited In the Italian Nationality Italian the for Education b) No.18 1986, March Ljubljana, gradivo, in Razprave three communes of the Littoral nationality live, the network of As to the secondary vocationally oriented education, five specialized training programmes in Italian are the members of the Italian nationality, for example, available to viz., economics, metallurgy-manufacturing, pedagogy, social sciences, sciences-mathematics (see Appendix III, Table programmes provide good grounds education. At all the levels all the the the language, pupils in all language (see members making where Italian Likewise, the for of Appendix and of educational instruction, so is is or natural These for are with further carried is out compulsory Slovene institutions Italian and 16). nationality choices language and educational III,Table Italian activities Slovenian students, the the vocational the assures at all 15). III,Table Appendix (see levels vocationally- that it tongue such a way the mother in in been designed instruction secondary and schools, elementary institutions, oriented schools has pupils and students where members of the educational-custodial in for literature. with Slovenian compulsory for all as too 17). Regular four-year-college courses in the Italian language and literature can be taken up at the Faculty of Arts in Ljubljana; one can also pursue studies of this subject on the same level in Italy. A special programme comprising the teaching methodology has also been Italian language designed within College (the Koper branch), where students gain for lower-grade teaching in the schools using language The of and the languageTeachers’ qualifications Italian as the instruction. curriculum used by the educational institutions with Italian as the language of instruction and by the bilingual HungarianSlovene institutions is identical to the one that is in effect in the educational institutions with Slovenian as the language of instruction which are located outside the ethnically mixed area. In addition to the general educational and instructional objectives, the curricula of these educational institutions also include specific objectives, namely the learning of the language of the social environment and the introduction to culture and history of one's own nation or of the nationality that the nation lives together with. institutions of language Those teachers who teach at bilingual educational the as Italian with institutions and at the instruction Moreover, Italy, receive on advanced participating by training they the also part take basis educational-cultural actively of the in numerous in seminars seminars. Hungary and programmes in in held inter-governmental ~ linguistic - including in-service cooperation. Nationality schools in the SR of of schoolbooks and textbooks: 48 Slovenia make use of four kinds Razprave in original gradivo, textbooks translations textbooks of and Ljubljana, March written Italian Slovene in 1986, or No.18 Hungarian; textbooks; schoolbooks published in Italy or Hungary; - textbooks and schoolbooks published by EDIT (SR of Croatia) the Textbook Publishers of the Province (SAP of Vojvodina). and By way of illustration, in the period from 1979 to 1984, the following books appeared for use in the elementary schools with Italian as the language of instruction: 14 translations of Slovene textbooks, 11 textbooks brought out in cooperation with the EDIT publishers, and 5 books imported from Italy. Since 1979, the following publications have appeared for use in the bilingual elementary schools: 18 textbooks and schoolbooks, of which 3 are original works, 12 are translations of Slovene textbooks, and 3 are translations of summaries of Slovene textbooks for some upper-grade elementary-school subjects. As to the pupils in elementary schools and students in secondary vocationally oriented schools who learn Hungarian as their mother tongue, the textbooks used are those that were pyblished in Novi Sad by the Textbook Publishers of the Province. The Socialist Republic of Serbia The territory of the SR of Serbia (excluding the Provinces) is not ethnically homogeneous either. Data collected during the 1981 census indicate that in addition to Serbs, this republic is populated Rumanian also and by members Slovak nationalities (see of the Albanian, nationalities Appendix I; as see well also as Bulgarian, by Appendix other II, Romany, peoples Table and 6). The Acts, pn elementary and secondary vocationally oriented education stipulate that the educational work performed in the commune where the nationality members live be conducted also in the nationality language as specified by the communal by-laws. In case language, elements benefit educational work is not conducted in the nationality special instruction in the mother tongue incorporating of national culture is provided and implemented for the of the nationality members. The possibility is also provided of pupils' and students' learning the language of the other peoples and nationalities living on the territory of the commune in question, in conformity with the parents’ decision. Whenever educational work is performed in the nationality language, register papers, certificates, and other public documents intended for the nationality members are issued in two languages, viz., in Serbo-Croatian and in the language of the people or nationality. Children of Albanian and Bulgarian nationalities have the possibility of attending educational-custodial institutions that are either bilingual or use their mother tongues. The following table shows where these institutions are located and indicates the number of children attending them:2 49 in gradivo, Razprave Commune Number Bulgarian (bilingual) of Children 65 x Bosiljgrad Albanian Albanian Serbo-Croatian/ Albanian (bilingual) Serbo-Croatian Number of Kindergartens POP Bulgarian No.18 1986, March Ljubljana, Bujanovac Medvedja 5 2 314 50 Presevo 3 547 Dimitrovgrad 1 169 Elementary schools in the languages of the nationalities and bilingual schools (see Appendix III; Table 18) work according to the curricula used also by the schools with Serbo-Croatian as the language of instruction, the difference being that the former contain the following specificities concerning the nationalities: - respective languages in programmes in Bulgarian grades one through eight; and Albanian as native — @ programme in Serbo-Croatian as the language of the social environment, designed for grades one through eight of the schools with Albanian or Bulgarian as the language of instruction; - supplementary programmes in history, geography, art and music, whereby children become acquainted with the history and culture of their nation. Bulgarian is used as the language of elementary schools (i.e. grades one communes Of Bosiljgrad, Gabusnica and instruction in nine full through eight) in the Surdjulica. In the school year 1982/83 a bilingual (Serbo-Croatian/Bulgarian) elementary school was established at Dimitrovgrad, which is attended by Serbian and Bulgarian children. Both languages are treated as subjects on Instruction an equal carried footing out in with each Albanian is other. implemented in 14 central elementary schools in the communes of Bujanaovac, Medvedja, and Presevo. In the school year 1981/82, 94.5 per cent of all the compulsory-school-age cniigren of the Albanian nationality were enrolled in these schools. instruction Slovak-language is conducted in only The secondary the Albanian vocationally and Bulgarian oriented education nationalities has one class instruction and Rumanian-language Dobanovci (commune Zemun), at the locality of Ovca (commune Palilula). for been at only members of organized in the ae Bujanovac, Medvedja (Presevo, centers educational five aoe Bulgarians). for ad Dimitrovgr and Bosiljgrad Albanians; oo one their in classes attend nationality of the Albanian a in used that with is identical The curriculum tongue. with Serbo-Croatian secondary vocationally oriented schools 50 Razprave the in gradivo, language of Ljubljana, March instruction, but specific features (the learning of the social environment and matter history country designed of one's where the to enhance nation as nation of 1986, again No.18 with the addition of of Serbo-Croatian as the language specific supplementary subject- the knowledge of the culture well as the knowledge about the same ethnic background and the resides). At Bosiljgrad, members of the Bulgarian nationality attend secondary vocationally oriented instruction conducted in SerboCroatian, whereas at Dimitrovgrad day-nursery activities, elementary-school instruction and secondary vocationally oriented instruction are all conducted bilingually. Those who intend to teach in Bulgarian-language schools study at the Teachers' College in Vranje and within the Programme in Bulgarian at the Philological Faculty in Belgrade. In-service training is also available there. On the other hand, teachers and teachers in Albanian-language schools are mostly at the University of Pristina. trainee trained The teachers who teach in the nationality languages receive advanced professional - including linguistic - training during special seminars (for instance, at the seminar for teachers of the Bulgarian language and literature held in Bosiljgrad and Dimitrovgrad, and at the seminars for teachers of Serbo-Croatian as the language of the social environment held in Bujanovac, Bosiljgrad and Dimitrovgrad). All the textbooks used for instruction in the schools with Bulgarian as the language of instruction, as well as in the bilingual schools, were first published in the SR of Serbia. As to the schools with Albanian as the language of instruction, they make use of textbooks from the SAP of Kosovo and the SR of Montenegro (the sole exception being the biology and languageteaching textbooks, both of which were prepared by Textbook Publishing in Belgrade). The Socialist Autonomous Province The Province is characterized the population (see Appendix educational process organized the levels, education, from by I in pre-school regardless of the languages of instruction Turkish. 23° Starting with of Kosovo a variegated national makeup of and Appendix II, Table 7). The the mother tongue comprises all institutions number are the of in the language of their those and of higher students. The Albanian, Serbo-Croatian and school year 1984/85, certain communes (Pristina, Gnjilane, Titova offered Roms (Romi) the possibility tongue at the elementary-school level, taught to pupils own Mitrovica, Urosevac) have of learning their mother whereas other subjects are choice. As early as the pre-school level, children can educational-custodial institutions using their mother Compared with the total number of children, the number attend tongue. of pre- school and institutions is very low (111 infant nurseries 121 kindergartens consisting of 540 divisions) due to socioeconomic and other reasons. According to the data of the Provincial Board of Education, in the school year 1984/85 there were 343,063 51 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 pupils enrolled in 927 elementary schools. Of this total number, 294,750 pupils (85.91 per cent) attended Albanian-language instruction, 46,645 pupils (13.59 per cent) attended SerboCroatian-language instruction, and 1,668 pupils (0.49 per cent) attended Turkish-language instruction. (The number of pupils by individual communes is tabulated in Appendix III, Tables 19 and 20). In order that a consistent implementation of the principle ef the equality of the peoples and nationalities might be attained with respect to mother-tongue instruction, special classes have than 10 smaller pupils, especially in the case of children who live in localities. Such classes are attended by more than 10,000 pupils been in all created (see in Appendix the Province III, Table comprising 21) that are even fewer organized in 770 classes, which certainly represents a sizable share out of the total of 11,600 classes using Albanian, Serbo-Croatian, Turkish, and Romany, respectively, as the languages of instruction. As of the active school centers year of 1984/85, secondary in the Province vocationally there oriented were 47 training totalling 2,650 classes, of which 2,050 were in Albanian, 582 in Serbo-Croatian, and 18 in Turkish-language instruction, (See also Appendix III, Table 22). The University of Pristina employs three languages - Albanian, Serbo-Croatian and Turkish. In the 1984/85 academic year, the University had an enrollment of 37,594 students (29,659 Albanians, 4,338 Serbs, 1,053 Montenegrins, 162 Turks, 1,845 Muslims, 50 Roms and 487 others). re 2 interesting to note 1978/79, the number Appendix III, Table Knowledge of the language nationality one lives significant strands nationalities. heterogeneous teaching of import of regulated that in comparison with the academic of students decreased by about 10,000 23). In culture with interlinking the SAP province the and together second, its own. by legal members of in Kosovo, terms i.e. of of another represents of is population non-native, language nation one different which an year (see or of the peoples and ethnically makeup, has a the specific The teaching of non-native languages is provisions and on the hasis of direct decisions made by the parents and students." The non-native language (Albanian or Serbo-Croatian or Turkish) is a curriculumspecified subject that retains its optional character only to the point when the parents or pupils decide on it, thereupon becoming compulsory The has on par with number of pupils and been increasing from learning show and non-native quite clearly other students who learn a year to year, as the languages in the subjects. in eLomentasy following table: Non-Native School Year 1971/72 elementary secondary school school 52.50% 51.00% 52 non-native language statistical data on and secondary schools 4 Language Learned by School School Year 1977/78 96.84% 94.20% Year 1981/82 99.98% 99.95% Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 The Provincial Board on the development of education of the effectiveness of non-native language elementary and secondary education during the 1981/82, in attending grades conclusions which the four reached linguistic to in eight this (in study knowledge 101 of schools) include the made a study teaching in school year 98,335 was pupils assessed. following The ones: - of the total number of 70,940 pupils attending Albanianlanguage classes 70,060 or 98.76 per cent learn Serbo-Croatian as a non-native language (880 pupils, or 1.24 per cent, do not learn it); - of the total number of 27,415 pupils attending Serbo-Croatianlanguage classes 26,820 or 97.85 per cent learn Albanian as a non-native language (595 pupils, or 2.17 per cent, do not learn it); - instruction conducted in the 182 pupils. All of them learn language. Turkish language is attended by Serbo-Croatian as a non-native Although the second, non-native language is learned by a large number of pupils, the analyses performed show that the results are not positive enough. Upon completing their school - whether elementary or secondary - the pupils and students have not yet reached the level of being able to communicate in two languages, i.e., in Albanian and Serbo-Croatian, which fact is particularly noticeable in the applications for the jobs that require knowledge of both these languages.° Nevertheless, the large percentage of pupils and students learning the second, non-native language (99%) does provide good grounds for hoping that the situation might, after all, improve in the years to come. This improvement, however, cannot be achieved without altering the socialization role of the languages of the peoples and nationalities living in Kosovo, nor without eliminating certain inherited psychological drawbacks, which in our opinion still fail to generate the interest in second-language learning and represent an obstacle to direct interpersonal communication in the languages of the social environment - in all of them. The Textbook following Publishers publications of in Pristina Albanian: have 98 brought out the elementary-school textbooks, 209 textbooks to be used, and which are actually used, in the secondary vocationally oriented schools, 64 students’ and teachers' manuals, and 167 textbooks for use at the junior colleges, colleges and the university. In Serbo-Croatian there are textbooks covering the social sciences and language, i.e., the subjects containing specific subject-matter. These textbooks include 26 for the elementary school, 13 for secondary education, and 27 for the needs of higher education. Serbo-Croatian textbooks that SR of Serbia. As to the remaining subjects, schools with as the language of instruction make use of the have been published and used also elsewhere in the In the Province some other textbooks have been published in the Turkish language; these are used in the elementary schools and in the secondary vocationally oriented education. In schools with Turkish as the language of instruction, textbooks from ane SR of Macedonia are also employed in the educational process. 53 Razprave The in gradivo, Socialist Ljubljana, Autonomous March Province of 1986, No.18 Vojvodina Instances where so many people of different ethnic backgrounds can be found living together, as in Vojvodina, are quite rare in the world. (See Appendix I) Members of the nations and nationalities living here daily encounter a number of languages, whether at work, on the street, or in the school. The truth of this statement can be illustrated by the fact that in 21 communes of the Province, two languages are used in various communicational situations, while in 12 communes three and in 7 communes even four languages are in use. Only four communes of the Province are linguistically homogeneous; there, only Serbo-Croatian/CroatoSerbian is mostly used (see also Appendix II, Table 8). Education is regulated in a specific manner by a large number of legal provisions. The Act on Education, which covers all the educational levels, assures the use of the languages of the nationalities: - in in in in the pre-school education; elementary education; the common educational basis of secondary instruction; educational work in the field of special education and secondary-school language of the people nationality selected by at least 15 students receiving the same specialized training; and of the same - in educational language students level work at in the the level of higher education of the people or nationality chosen by at of the same year studying the same subjects. Decisions in favour of education people or nationality are work and at the beginning instruction is not the conducted in the same everywhere. These of the or year in least language made at the beginning of the school year if at of the 30 the educational language of decisions are made by: — parents, in the case school-level children; - secondary~school of students kindergarten-level and those and taking education courses at the elementary level; — students (who make their decisions at school year). and the elementary- part in beginning adult- of the Though spoken by the majority of the population, SerboCroatian/Croato-Serbian is not the sole language of the social environment; the same status has been accorded also to the languages of individual nationalities (Hungarian, Slovak, Rumanian and Ruthenian). work, there instruction instruction. In the are as school As to the organization educational institutions well as those with two year 1983/84, there were of educational with one language or more languages 49,000 children of of attending pre-school educational-custodial institutions that consisted of Serbo-Croatian/Croato-Serbian, Hungarian, lovak: and Rumanian divisions as well as bilingual’ divisions. Some nurseries and kindergartens are “combined,” in that they use Serbo-Croatian and one of the Rumanian or There other equal languages Ruthenian or Slovak). are nine custodial work institutions make use of that as of Vojvodina (See Appendix in many 54 the as course three (Hungarian III, Table of OF 24) educational- languages. In the Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 school year 1983/84, the number of pupils attending elementary schools in their mother tongues was 204,404 (see Appendix IIT, Table 25). The linguistic diversity of instruction in elmentary schools can be illustrated, for instance, by the fact that in the school year 1983/84 as many as 109 schools (i.e., one sixth of all the schools) offered bilingual instruction, namely in SerboCroatian/Croato-Serbian combined with one of the other equal languages of the nationalities (Hungarian or Rumanian or Ruthenian or Slovak), while instruction in six elementary schools followed the elementary-school curriculum by using even three languages. At the secondary vocationally oriented education level, students belonging to various peoples and nationalities can choose among three types of schools: mother-tongue schools, bilingual schools, and multilingual schools. Of particular importance in this respect is the fact we have already referred to, viz., that the law allows the establishment of classes containing a minimum of 15 students (in practice, however, this provision is implemented - particularly in the upper grades - even if the number of students is actually lower than 15). In the school year 1980/81, the secondary vocationally oriented education consisted of 27 specialized training programmes with Serbo-Croatian as the language of instruction, 22 with Hungarian, 5 with Slovak and 5 with Rumanian and Ruthenian, respectively, as the language of instruction. All these specialized programmes without doubt enable the students to master the technical terminology of their profession, whereby the possibility is also enhanced that they will use their language also at work. This very factor is of paramount importance in asserting genuine equality of rights of the peoples given and social nationalities and of the languages used in the environment. Institutions of, higher education offer courses of lectures in five languages. There are six teacher-training colleges where trainee teachers are trained for pre-school and elementary-school work that is conducted in five languages (Serbo-Croatian/Croato- Serbian, Hungarian, Slovak, Ruthenian and Rumanian); at the Faculties of Economics and Civil Engineering, both in Subotica, lectures are given in two languages (Serbo-Croatian/CroatoSerbian and Hungarian); students at Law School, Medical School, Faculty of Arts (College of Liberal Arts), and Art Academy can take exams in their mother tongue. The University of Novi Sad offers four-year courses in Hungarian and Slovak as well as Rumanian and Ruthenian. Prospective teachers of Serbo-Croatian/Croato-Serbian as the language of the social environment taught in schools where instruction is conducted in the languages of the nationalities, can gain their qualifications type of higher why there regarding teach in at the Faculty of Arts. This highly diversified education provides the answer to the question of are hardly any major problems in the SAP of Vojvodina the professional qualifications of the teachers who nationality-language schools and in bilingual and multilingual schools. At all the levels mixed Province of of instruction carried out Vojvodina - from pre-school 55 in the ethnically and elementary to Rarprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March - the edu cational process secondar y y equa l nee e languages eine ofthatthe have language optional basis. in is regulated available on an learn it or not 1986, No.18 may take place in any status; ; whenever 3 this L of the social one of is the h environment is pupils and students as follows: the Whether ways, several comparatively the Topola), live in _ in the communes where the nationalities Backa Senta, substantial numbers (e.g., Subotica, is environment social the of language the of introduction the of resolution the by or by-laws the by either regulated students and pupils all communes, In these assembly. communal and pupils for environment; social of the language the learn Serbomeans that nationalities, the to belonging students is mother tongue for those whose whereas Croatian/Croato-Serbian, Serbo-Croatian/Croato-Serbian environment be may the the of one any language of of the languages - the learning of the language of the social regulated by the educational institution itself; - the their pupils and students themselves learning of the language of the Almost all members of the probably environment and is make decisions concerning social environment. nationalities Croatian/Croato-Serbian, social the nationalities; decide out on of learning Serbo- conviction that knowledge of that language will facilitate their integration into all types of social life. However, in the matter of the learning of the languages of the nationalities as those of the social environment in the schools with Serbo-Croatian/Croato-Serbian as the language of instruction, the situation is not that promising. By way of illustration, in the school year 1984/85 schools where the teaching was conducted in one languages large total of the number number Vojvodina peoples and of pupils, of of 207,068 learned one nationalities, whom only 28.56 elementary-school of the languages of the elementary of the native were per attended cent pupils the in social out by of the SAP a the of environment. Details are as follows: Serbo-Croatian/Croato-Serbian as the language of the social environment was learned by 35,311 pupils; Hungarian by 20,430 pupils; Rumanian by 2,042 pupils; and Slovak by The 1,460 pupils. curricula covering contain also specific children in the spirit nationalities. literature, history, art, subject-matter designed of peaceful coexistence of and music to educate the peoples the and Those pupils who for various reasons do not attend mother-tongue instruction can optionally attend lessons in their mother tongue (two or three lessons a week of the “cultivation of the mother tongue"). In 1976, five per cent of the total population, 1-€-, 20 per cent of the elementary~school pupils and secondary-school instruction The designed textbooks process identical treatment on all in of they to use levels content Vojvodina of SAP the in students teach the in the and in (with tongue. implementation all the five differences specificities). 56 gpen attended mother of a type of 4 the languages appearing educational are only mostly in the Razprave in gradivo, 25. Report on the the Italian and education, RKVITK, Ljubljana, exercise of Hungarian 1985. March 1986, No.18 special rights nationalities of in the members the field of of 26. “Act on Elementary Education," Official Gazette, No. 5/1978, Article 11: Educational work in the elementary school is implemented int he Serbo-Croatian language. In the elementary school on the territory of the commune in which members of nationalities live, the educational work is implemented also in the language of the nationality in keeping with specific communal by-laws. Communal by-laws may stipulate that educational work within the given elementary school be implemented in the languages of the other peoples and nationalities. If in the elementary school educational work is not carried out in the language of the nationality, separate instruction is implemented for the members of the nationalities based on the mother-tongue curriculum and including elements of the national culture. Article 12: In the elementary school on the territory of the communes in which peoples and nationalities live, pupils can learn the language of these peoples and nationalities in conformity with the decisions made Pupils and students can learn the the nationality according to their "Act on the Amendments Education," Official "Act on the No. 29/1979. and Gazette, Vocationally by their language of decisions. Additions No. Oriented parents. to 30/1979. the the Act Education," nation on and of Elementary Official Gazette, Article 9: Educational work is implemented in the Serbo-Croatian language and in the language of the other peoples and nationalities in keeping with the by-laws of the commune, If the educational work is not implemented in the language of another people or nationality, separate instruction is implemented, on the basis of the mother-tongue curriculum and including elements of the national culture, in the language of that people or nationality. 27. The table was prepared by the Republic Board of Education of the SR of Serbia in June 1985. on 28. on of According Education communes with of to of the the data SR Bosiljgrad, bilingual of of the Serbia, Babusnica instruction in the Republic See: “Act on Pre-School Education" (1980); Education" (1980); “Act "Act on 57 Promotion schools and Surdjulica too school Secondary Higher the elementary Education” on Promotion the year 29. Information provided by the Republic of Educational Work of the SR of Serbia. 30. Board the will in the start 1985/86. Board the Promotion on Elementary Vocationally Oriented (1978); Education" on “Act (1979). Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Notes 1. E. Kardelj, 1957, Razvoj Development of the Slovene 2nd Edition, p. 54. slovenskega narodnega vpraSanja (The National Question), DZS, Preface to 2. See: Agreement reached on 6 March 1981 by the Socialist Republics and the Socialist Autonomous Provinces on joint foundations of the education system (Official Gazette of the SR of Slovenia, No. 25/1981). 3. See, e.g., “List Elementary School," of Compulsory Subjects and Board of Education of the SR Syllabus of the of Slovenia, 20 May 1983, and the “Plan and Programs for the Organization of Educational-Instructional Work," Vjesnik republiékog komiteta za prosvjetu, kulturu, fizitku i tehniéku kulturu SR Hrvatske, No. 3-9, Zagreb, 1985. 4. "Act on Elementary Education" (Official Gazette of SR of Bosina and Herzegovina 16/78 and 23/79 and Amendments 30/1981 and 22/1983); 22/1981 "Act and on Higher 5. S. Vaso, "Jezici Nationalities in Our Institut Education” Amendments za (Official Gazette 18/1977 and 25/1984). narodnosti u nasoj skoli" (Languages of the School), Jezik i nacionalni odnosi, Sveske, prouéavanje nacionalnih odnosa, Sarajevo, 5-6, 185- 93. 6. Ibid. 7. For the Herzegovina, archives). 8. In the promotion of Sarajevo, 1985 period 1965-1980, educational these Seminar/Place work (Institute seminars Date for were in Bosnia Ethnic held as Year and Studies follows: No. of Participants T Fruëka III Lipovaéa II IV Vv VI VII Prnjavor Ruski Vukovar Kozara Strmac gora near Sid IX Banja XI Djakovatka Breznica x XII XIII XIV Ilok Source: Regional July ~80 1967 100 1969 1971 80 100 1974 1975 140 80 1-10 August Luka Celinac Slavonski Erdut 18-28 1965 8-18 July 25 July-4 Aug: near VIII July 10-20 July Krstur N. Gradiéka Novi Sad 15-25 30 30 Brod Council August-4 Sept. July-6 August 6-14 August. 23-29 July 4-12 August 16-24 August on Nationalities, 58 1966 80 1968 90 1976 66 1977 100 1978 80 1979 1979 1980 Banja 50 80 90 Luka, Jan. 1981. Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 9. See "Act on Elementary Education" and "Act Vocationally Oriented Education in the SR of (Official Gazette of the SR of Montenegro, No. legislation has "Act Organization on the Conducted Gazette 10. in of So, the the all main number of the the of in which No. in contained the National in the Instruction Minority" is (Official 22/60). Ostros lessons ll. “Act on Education Nationalities," Narodne provisions Schools Montenegro, instance, the the of Language SR of for increased retained on Secondary Montenegro” 22/83). This elementary school already Serbo-Croatian/Croato-Serbian. Implemented in novine 25/1979. the Languages 12. Vjesnik Republi¢kog komiteta za prosvjetu, tehniéku kulturu SR Hrvatske, No. 3, Zagreb, 9 of the kulturu, fiziëku April 1985. i 13. Delegatski Bilten, No. 68, Union of the Self-Management Communities of Interest for Education and Elementary Instruction of the SR of Croatia, p. 10. 14. Ibid. 15. See “Program of education and culture Administration and Technical 16. Cf. 17. Ibid., 18. Cf. 19. of note International Cooperation, 13, p. note "Act the for Cooperation" for the years p. Scientific, 43. 80. Pre-school of and Macedonia Elementary Education of Statistics, Skopje Survey), No. 139. 21. on e.g., “Act Members of the Italian of Education (Official 22. the (Official Gazette 19/1983). 20. Republic Bureau pregled (Statistical See, Educational-Cultural 1983. 8 on SR May in the fields of science, 1983, 1984 and 1985, Federal the Exercise of 1984, Special Statisti¢ki Rights of the and Hungarian Nationalities in the Field Gazette of the SR of Slovenia, No. 4/82). See, e.g., Self-management Self-Management Community agreement on the establishment of of Interest of the members of the Hungarian nationality for education Ethnic Studies archives, No. 1230). and culture (Institute for 23. See “Program of Cooperation" in the fields of science, education and culture for the years 1983, 1984 and 1985, concluded between the Federal Executive Council of the Assembly of the Socialist Government 24. List school, of of the Federal compulsory Board of Republic Hungarian People's subjects Education of and the 59 SR of Yugoslavia Republic, syllabus of May for Slovenia, and the 1983. the 20 elementary May 1983. Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 31. Source: Provincial Self-Managing Community of Interest for Education: Report on the enrollment, pupils and students at the start of the school year 1984/85 in the SAP of Kosovo, Pristina, November 1984. 32. Provincial year 1984/85. 33. Bureau colleges in the Bilten Cf. note of Statistics: SAP 59, of Kosovo, Pristina, Junior colleges Students 1985, p. of the 35. fouryear ll. 30. 34. Effectiveness of the teaching of non-native elementary and secondary education with proposals (for the year 1981/82), Provincial Board on the Education, and school Pristina, languages in for measures Promotion of 1983. Ibid. 36. The exercise of the policy of the peoples and nationalities in the field and further tasks of the League of national equality of the of language and writing; Communists, Provincial Committee 1983. of of the League 37. V. Penavin, organizacija u zajednistvo." of Communists Kosovo, PriStina, May 1980, "Organizovanost vaspitno-obrazovnih ostvarivanju nacionalne ravnopravnosti i (Organization of Educational Institutions in the Exercise of National Equality and Togetherness), in Ostvarivanje nacionalne ravnopravnosti i zajedniStva naroda i narodnosti u vaspitanju i obrazovanju, Novi Sad, p.77. 38. See Offical Gazette of the SAP of Vojvodina, No. 15/1983. 39. Complete bilingual instruction is not a typical form of educational work in the SAP of Vojvodina, but it is implemented wherever there are no objective conditions for instruction to be organized 40. the and carried out only On the relation between language of the social in the mother tongue. the use of the mother tongue and environment, and on the subject of of bilingual communication on the job and whether it is proportional to bilingual communication outside the job environment, see F. Jungel, 1984, “Dvojezicna komunikacija u radnoj organizaciji" (Bilingual nost Communication - individualne 41. Cf. note 38. 42. Cf. note 37, 43. Information in the Work in dru#bene on education in the Provincial Sad, 1985. 44. D.Jol, L.Berlus, ja Activity R.Babin, delatnost pripadnika as kao oblik razliéitih a Form Nationalities), in Dvojezié- Ljubljana, p. 111. p.83. nationalities. Source: SAP of Vojvodina, Novi pedagoëka Organization), razse#nosti, G.Gulka, Education stvarnost, 60 of on S.Pal, zajedniékog nacionalnosti" of Joint Pedagoska languages Committee the peoples Education 1976, the Novi Members Sad, 10, and the "ViSejezicna vaspitanja i (Multilingual of of obrazovan~ Pedagogical of 773. Different APPENDIX I Bational Composition Of the Inhahitants Of SFRY SFR Yugoslavia T9 (Total) SR Bosnia & Herzegovina Total 22,447,701 Montenegrin 578,890 Croatian 4,419,325 Macedonian 1,340,542 Muslim 2,000,276 Slovene 1,754,128 Serbian 8,140,801 Albanian 1,731,566 Austrian 1,382 Bulgarian 36,028 Czech 19,581 Greek 1,616 Italian 15,109 Jewish 1,375 Hungarian 426, 720 German 8,620 Polish 3,016 Romany 134,071 Rumanian 54,938 Russian 4,355 Ruthenian 23,281 Slovak 80,297 Turkish 101,356 Ukranian 12,806 Viach 32,067 Others 16,961 Nationally undetermined* 48,568 Yugoslav 1,216,348 Regional affiliation 25,466 Unknown 165,413 4,124,008 14,114 758,136 1,892 1,629,924 2,753 1,320,644 4,394 to Art. Source: National Composition 180 689 36 616 343 945 460 604 7,251 302 295 lu 350 277 4,502 49 629 (1961 Census) SR Monte- SR Croatia SR Macedonia SR Slovenia SR Serbia negro — 584,310 400, 488 6,904 875 78,080 564 19,407 37,735 6 24 52 a 45 5 238 107 45 1,471 159 96 19 33 67 16 1 368 SR Serbia SAP Kosovo SAP Vojvodina (narrower 4,601, 469 9,818 3,454,661 5,362 23,740 25,136 531,502 6,006 267 441 15,061 100 11,661 316 25,439 2,175 758 3,858 609 758 3,321 6,533 279 2,515 16 1,553 1,912,257 3, 3,344 1,281,195 39,555 667 44,613 377,726 32 1,984 164 709 96 28 281 288 223 43,223 98 363 24 67 86,691 68 6,392 740 1,912,257 3,217 55,625 3,288 13,425 1,712,445 42,182 1,985 180 105 433 18 2,187 9 9,496 380 204 1,435 94 194 54 144 87 192 17 577 region) 9,313,677 147,466 149,368 48,986 215,166 12,006 6,182,159 1,303,032 867 33,455 3,225 757 527 683 390,468 5,302 1,204 110,959 53,693 2,761 19,757 73,207 13,890 5,520 25,596 13,778 5,694,463 77,124 31,447 29,033 151,674 8,207 4,865,283 72,484 757 30,769 1,170 392 358 395 4,965 1,402 581 57,140 6,387 1,603 447 3,621 1,182 512 25,535 1,993 1,584,441 27,028 8,718 1,056 58,562 343 209,498 1,226,736 22 161 43 25 23 9 147 92 27 34,126 17 112 5 37 12,513 7 4 684 2,054,772 43,304 109,203 18,897 4,930 3,456 1,107,378 3,812 88 2,525 2,012 340 146 279 385,356 3,808 5% 19,693 47,289 1,046 19,305 69,549 195 5,001 Ss? 11,101 17,950 326,280 301 31,243 17,133 379,057 508 14,240 2,975 26, 263 7,834 441,94) 4,340 272,050 133 2,676 3,361 167,215 3,649 26,576 1,602 4,338 8,657 64,737 956 4,037 4,018 10,635 6,848 43,222 4,941 38,661 264 1,373 1,643 3,187 of by Territory Inhabitants (final results), Statistical Bulletin, No. 1295, Belgrade 1982. 29 [ad stovene ea?) Bulgarian voijvoda: 1982 A P- P Demographic SR BOSNIA composition AND Table II EWN DIX of some ethnicaly communes mixed in SFR of Yugoslavia Sid GREDISKA i VENTA LAKTAËT PRISE EA Rx ms TT |Ronte- negrans roatian Macs- donfans 53695 57 3845 57910 35 22 |22629 27576 28 2333 LL: 52 We | 12083 223% | 57 61 | Muslins |Slovene{SerbiantAlbania i 12 | 13026 31 32825) 70 16 | 602]à 16 2284) 7 2050 1913 22822 Census) HERZEGOVINA Nationally COMUNE (1981 2 245 6613 1 | 6698 m|n 10287 | sco | 22 | 619 | 35 ustri Ss ons a 35 20 e 3ie 2 > 8 34699 6 Czechs | Greek 2 21642 2] pales 7 3 |ltallans Jewish 3 = 1 201 7 - |Rosanie one la js si 225) - 7 159 7355 - 1 15 4 el 1 8 143 3752 19 353 2 8 399, 21 6 34 2204 22 216 7 6 1651 - 7 6) 2291 48 526 1 - = - 1 1 193 3 53 2 - ze} 1 9 WI 1334 63 221 1 % 1563 3 51 $5 192 2 2 457 = 16 3 162 42 1 3 - - || . u . - 15 1 | - 2 «'f) 4 | - 8 | 3 | 8 18 1 - 8| - - 1 1 1 - - Zz} |25399 | 231| Puy 19560 4533 2| 8 weau 20227 | 1060 9 a TITGGR:0 weiny 32 9 12229 as% : Table 3253 4 | 2242 18 126 |10153 8 50 | 1036 3 |19975 : wo} 156 folsez | 686] 351 | 508 Q | |: 3346 6) 22] Source: Statistical bulletin 1295 Belgrade, May 1982 no1 nl 41C9 a3} 4060 | 12122 a1lhses | è 10 1 4 15 ' n it . - 1| - | 1 | - | - | - |. o eel 2 8 ie 18 | 15 5° 18 | : 1 à LT 4À ot - - =, regional Matt 8 4 2 it A Yugoslav Ne Const .off 6 4 1] Pthers 1 & 54 at lachs Ie 4 2 [Turkish - = 12 Slovaks alreacy ceciced 232 - 5 | 19175] ‘ à nians data 125 | n| - [Nationally unafffliated pe 19 8 - 1 12 — 6; | = 31 furgarians | Gerwans!Polish ; z - $21] | 6 49] 21 } affiliated | — SR MONTENEGRO 2 1 Gi 3 & 2| 10 3 - | 4 24 2 |. el. 10 515 |1on 3} %|7 & 2 ? n hs 6 2 ;NLE 3 . - 1 2 4 . . 5 3 ‘ 4] 2 45 2923 - | 12% 15 378 6 : 13h 7% 4704 41s 1269 1082 6h 238 1 - 205 3 Le 2 Zz 63 4 ‘ 86 532 4 128 10 | 14 Table SR CROATIA = Cone TOR. KOMASTIR \ eu \ WE BUELOVAR CRES - LOSINJ DERUVAR DOW) MIHLJAC Nationally -|Croa- | Macedo tions ne a BulgaSorbiantAlbanta Rustriai Ras Crochs | Greek th 82 45 276 | 19136 | 53409 353 2657 56 6 12 ss | sx | 131 6 1 - 32 11 |igueor | 18 | 228 66553 gr |aens | 64 35 V0 397 178 - ? 479 | 10361 > |1us| 2% 76 63 |537 4 € 1 &| 3424 | 45 | 87 | 22 13 45 B528 28 2 12 | 5709 | 1 2 | 16551 | 22 3 20 285 1 1 n 16 | - 46 | 2265 36 1 35 | s87 | 3 - 93 - n bh | 20173! 1 | 1255 | 2% | 52 60 2 . 5| -; 48 7 | 29026} 45 25 53 | 4440 33 2 - 28 | - 19 | 15060) 8 a 2 | 519 25 1 1 poret 199%6 | S1 | 15558! «6 17 | 103 | fom; | 2 - 132 | 519 | 165 3 PULA 77278 | 807 | 48284) 306 | 1277 | ver 15347 | 301 Rl 193064 378 | 6277 EKA 870 130068 2854 | 3194 ROVIKS 16277 | 42 | 13560) 36] 73 | Kove! VINKOVC sas] 5 96 | 71260! 79 | 1939 | wi À VIRGVITICA be VUXSVAR Source: 47 417] 5 97 | 33562] 81203} 146 | 20157] ] lis: | 56 35 5$ | n 7205 | 90 | 124 | 102 Statistical bulletin 1295 Belgrade, May 1982 323 2 . 2 3 5 3 6 | = 6 221 2192 ae | ml 8! vw! - |: a] 4f-]2 ese | Bl i 1 2 - 2 - 2 13 5 1 1 1 3 25 . 2 2 1 = 2 . 7 | 4 2 2 % 1 - è Slovaks} Turki shkrania 7 Gi NX? - 1 - 9 - - 1 3 : Viachs| achs} Others Other fhe Cofstso SFRY s | à] - as regional Yugoslav_kffi list 1226 n |” 4 152 5532 2 a é 4 69 11372 4 é 8 69 1133 56 | $f - - 2 13 1220 n - 5 152 2140 5 1 . lu Kg ais 52 3 - 6 197 2664 6 - 4 152 5582 ‘x 1 x 5 - 5 3 > 3 1 2 1 - 2 - 11530 1 1 1 3 % - 43 ay l@ ; é . Vs se dis ik - |v 214 5965 45 - n 107 2060 485 146 23 | 18 2 i = 149 61 à 2 3520 | ay tog 18 36 5 . 1 4 1 | 159 - 16 3 - 3 1 . 2 - 1 it 58 3 4 |? 16 1 | 667 - | 3 | 2 |& 3 We] 2 191 | - en | 5 374 3 8| - 39 | 2 «1 8 | 15 43 | 7 3225} 1 239 3 | 2 | 132 B 25 18 58 16 21 = 53 al 1313 [117 LÉ 2 Who} 7 362 54 28 59 43 5 50 33 = 98 sus 30459 556 nL = | 12 18 | - [nm - 2 9 | n 3 ]- | 6 7 1558 ms | 2 | 1980 62 5é 4 185 6742 2 ait ‘ 426 y 3 1 139 4956 0 5 3 620 11139 in 19 15 3 | 3 3] 2 505] w 1 6 a 3 1 35 é 4 163 . à | 5 46 2 [25166 | 227 4 32 Russiang Ruthe. |" nians 12 | 646 156 | 58 | 103 2 25 - | 229] 9| 6 - 1 12 ee 8 16 &r3] m - 18 | 4555 16 | 9 8 4 21903 | 6301 5 6 PAKRAC 2 al 12 | 566 | 2 | 2 265 - | 4% À 15756 | Passe | 183 5 1 1 sg 2 - 1 457 | 6 3 38 | 2122 261 | m - 6 158790 | 510 | 90770] 44 12 10 OSIJEK iteÛ - | ies 12 | 13669 | 24530 | 15 2 19693 | WOVSKA 262 | 204 4 GRRESMICA 38936 Vv 61 2 WASICE c 41 “ | we |ason | GHG | RusaRoaani Panett nians 3u à 72 35 10 hunga- é | rians | ™"* POLE 1 | 3% 8 1 Nationally unaffiliated CRE Trea c affiliated [saà 1 52349 L481M 1 Jovi DJAKOVO ERUSUSNO POLE 21 jItalfang - | 2367 6 20577 | 2ü647 3 n 113 Z [wa 4 8c 48 142 3 | n ; 51 2 15 259 | 1 | 53 1 156 - 4 5 1371 - 60 } - 6. je 5 . | 2238 | a LEse 23 ng DE 26 e = SR MACEDONIA Natiojally UE TOTAL ta tt Rd on stat, our “eae ee | 139 | 22 [rassse | 1033 | 43 Licss | sx: 22497 4} 1 [ ee sa | 2 | x rows wstiva —foicze En wo 51422 35 | as | ans [ans ns | 127 | 129 | 65803] 577 | 2| 52 | vexs3|sso3 | on | ae Czechs | | lens: i wl «. es @ W | 8 | «| 3! - | uw | Gersans/Polish a Te hs oj tj -'3 x [x = Turkish ul Viacha Others se]? | los | z | $* ve gia | = pais et |ixe | 8| 5 hos 3 = 7 oy we | ñ |. 5 6 wi} 4G m1 | 55 :| we 5 5 8 am 1 s ass | - | 3 sis | om os | æ| x me | 42 | 187 103 | 54263/ sn | 34 | st | 3567 5 |lwl sl 1 !li | a ln law z la -| 6 | 266 zs | 32 1374 a 87 cl sl wie pores fs 2.5 42 Eu K om 33 269 1 | 8366 Z 4 1 es ‘|. 6. 28 nm | @ 6 12 5 293 Lu 26575 2 | 7 3 | i | s| - RS 25360 à | 22 ns | 1 | & | sr 17 | 253] lusnml 33 z HART scugs2 | zac | 1931 | 320563) 13905 | 401 | 21362 | 6eA62 151 | 32 [368 | 2 | * 17 | 098} 303 | | Sack 87347 35} 48} eose7} ns! 15 | se] 7 i | 3 Lt asso 15] 93} 3988] 300] 1 | ss] 16 s |: 13 | no Ina & lu | &wl2 Me) 103 | 2323 3 ‘ ‘ RELETE | Seas 5. | 2 T_@ep® tt sl ie NES “| 6 | w 19 | 10 | so | a | = LS 5115 ri ey ats ts |. [ul tee niners 3a] a | LF - ieee foal tn] 13 | 475 | 351 ee 1 | ‘cult + go | wz | armalaz3a | DRE asi -| 95770 | -!e se gl wo | 1 | » | uo | +s | wl fu | Nationally s | #2 |23335 23 |nésr | 35608 Palle? Seren: Statistica} review, Skopje, 1982 if el et ao | 166 TG, Greek} talians| Jewish y | et ta) SPE _affiliated - | |: |2 - | = | na coer] a2 | me | 12 | oa “| s|wl-| 31. ol 2| 4] 6 | wer] [V5 ss Li) | esses 1 | se -| - | 3 |[sne s | 50 | - | a | ne 8 | © | - | 2 las | 140 | 25 | 433 | 2 18 15 760. } sw | ge $2 6 22 nl 48 « 2 3 : 199 x fone ws7 | & à S oa LES bad Wo ea a ue Table SR © SLOVENIA affiliated COMRUNE TOTAL (264 1SOL& 13513 CAFCDISTRIA 41843 4456 3132 PIRAM FIRAD 15235 2624 1C417 599 LENDAVA LERDVA 26717 4 gs 117978 99 64299 19 612 FIRASZOPSAT Greek | Italian’ 16? | 8957 16 SR SERBIA PABUSKICA 10 13 BUJAROVAS 2 BOSILESRAD € DIRI TROVGRAD nivo nis PRESEYO Polish Others the Const. 56 356 Sus Faite 727 270 ‘9 4 39 2 13 | 611% | Source: R Slovenia Institute for Statistics 264, Ljubljana, Narch 1982 PIROT Jew! 69653 2 101 1 8 | 36 Source: Statistical bulletin 1295, Belgrade, May 1982 193 F . 2 Table SAP KOSOVO Nationally COMMUNE = TOTAL css sa - 6 Slovens {Serbian Pt 21 | 3 |a7 paGLOGWAC osu} 5] 1 2 ae GJILAN Boss | 1% 26 | ar | ar | à lag [som | po istosu rar ( wugssig sous | 1856! 14 | 8 |asg72 | - | 3 | 2 = 30072 | iz | 3 [xelas | 2 ele de KLINA im ssas | 3 eat TiflJen LIFLJsM ‘ ‘e906 | lisse - Greek ass | 49 | 0 | 27 | fom] Crechs| gus | 1953] Leposevie [2 oh DOTE GJMOIA DRASASEn ar] |-6 | 5. | 21|-- beta i mon KcSGYSKA RKAEHICA een | 2 | Les bong je us : En # a | - | - | 2 | + | i : | , ; 1 À - . . ; - | 11 | 1 2 à rs wa 6 | 1 | coe 13 | à | 27 | 6 | ea E « xe Wags 0] 8 | 22 m | 1 lissu > [19813 | 32390 . 2 59! 12 | 18 | 681 | 6 [or | asa] 1 5 : ior La la] 22] x . 3 5 . ‘ j 2 . 2 } we] |3s | 8739 | 18 | 7995 [res | - 2 COUEYO FOOLEVI ma | 65] 3 |4 5 merci (eomo | 6300] seo foso Lame | no feasts [nous | » | « [2 |s | 3 | PRIZRENI das | s38| 18 |e3 fae? | [nes | gel « |2 Sar aa | 16] 3 |3 0| rh TITCWA ¥TROVICA 59434 a| w | it me | AUTAOVICA E-T1TGS}105323 UROSEVAC FERITAII! vt ane {120.5 | 228 |142 119630 |-353 | 302 |47 47839 179 | 3722 | 28 Ka Eu Sowest 6512 | 21 | 15 | 10 | 1 | nee | ass] -| - 4 | ase | sso] | 4519 | 79 142 | 9 Statistical bulletin 1295 Belgrade, May 1982 21 - 9 1 % | 6 | 6691 | 57351] 3 2 Sis 1 ‘i al ‘ - | 23 | 1 os | see] |e Ww] 1 = 1% Fee far SES 123 6} 1 | 232] eh el AU AE | F| . 1 - 1 1 = 1 a = 5 ? a 3 PTE “tes s & 1" g “le Else 7) 43] 9] 2 : 1 1936 4 4 =. 229 ee 4 . 6 - |e 12 129 1 2 ‘ : 11 ‘ 7 3 | 8 - #3 - 19 - 2 19 2 f ï i a 8 1 = [15 - 43 1 3 8 = S 36 2 a 4 i = = 4 à 127 1 5 LR 13 635 1 25 il |e foe Ie : 3 - a as 49 x 487 3 2 2 - 18 - - - - | 120 4 | = ÿ 32 RS | sat |i mo | me | 17 221 ib E à > 2 : 7 325 29 151 6 57 67 207 15 5 i 13 6 sp |- a B - 218 ‘i . 35 ° - a 5 jl 1,4} 00 = à ua - =nl s “| 2 1 . 19: 4 a 2 - du 2 7 | 739 - 5 oe F8 = 1 s | 1 VO, | ? | 3 5 ” 1% fu tes « la 2 BY ee [ay $ |: - 1 | 3 LS | 9 - + sl a |: we | à - s - | a Vs as i a 5 ws fe - - ss es} - sl - ar = TE Unknown as Vlachg Others Ehe Const.offl Yeseslev = x |Z s - ll - 2 9 + ; 2 8 5 . D - y le ls 2 “ Ze Dal TE “| 5 63 a 16 | 8369 | 35165] 1 à - | a | - | - - w & 185 a 8 fils 5 : Ni8s | gs] 5 3 [sz 1| De 14 1 3 | 21 : à he 2 25030 | 66528] se OÙ 3 | 78 nh we 2 1| 6 « | 4 o1 1 . law | mon | 9796] PRIZREM |- | [alu s aes . Slovaks |Turkf sh Lou |- 1 Pa tem [uw 5 Spe Russian te “995 |- 12 = sha . |- “ e g uw | - Russ- Ruthe a [eo | - | - a tale 2 | av rx | - 3 | 3 | - | he 12 , Polish ; oa | 5 | vs | 2 | wxlssa | - |: | ‘ le am Geraans su : a 1 21 affiliated & + sms | 9] an! Jowish) sons : 1 ne Hunga |. | - | - | 2 | 2 jue | al 93. | 18623 2 | 2 | 2 is low ass | 6 a gost |- 356 | 2676 | 28 | me | 4 | 10259 ne | - i 7 W - if) @ Table SAP VOJVODINA Nationally “ COMINE TOTAL nine hasta [50008 Fovenosberbi an nl" eee me ni PATI Batxa PeLarxe 2930s | 124 | cai) FE cay: ws] el as 122 | 2 | ssl a | - | &| | ap | aaa ae 47] pps 95 | se | | |: 5 aco) 91 | - rf 20] 4] 2 «| sao] a ws! al wr | at el we | 182 | 19! 3| 2] 2296) x. 69854 267 | 293 61 | 179 & | 49597) novscica 32793 70] no] 21 | 182 we} eas s9399 À s750 | anne | 100 | 237 | 35 | meilin | - Ral! 1908 gs | #38 | 133] Is] - WOW! S#D 257685 | $377 | 12655 | 1888] 1212 | 78> | 160310] 955 PANÉENG 12379) | 1765] 2216 | 754 froszi | 27% SENTA 30519 238] 12] 33 | 21 | 2x9 | 19 eLep | som 99168 $53) 15223 | 107 | 304 | 163 | 46957 | 108 2 | SUBOTICA dsagn | 62132580 | 23 | sre | 2 STARA PAZOVA ses | ul vaBAS 45735 | 13033) 107 | Wo] vRSAC 61005 | ZRENJENIN 139300 | 402] 199! a siz} 26 | | LT [sw al 2] was | 6| & | 2 | 5 [3 Le Là à wi] - 6 | wi] 47 - | 2B Wh : 2 41 |- Iv 53 4793 5 Fe EL E Dee» LA D L 593 3 42 1205 # 867 € 1 Viz] 103 ô | lt? Won 21 3!1s3 |!) 3 & sal 68] 45 | 10 «las es ul nl 51 1x se] uel B| - 185 | 75 8 Su 6 @l Ta 2 | 3 7 - 6 53 5586 16 jis 7 - | 4 = 3 RB €29 1 fae 45 at | 4 457 [an | à us | alle 1% 1 ls ls 2 | 206) 5 | 2] n | ow 299 10297 | 104 Th 1 | 26 2] 5 | m2 ys fn 2] 2 - | n 23 1481 a 408 | 41 82 6 | 7 3 | 820 241 14058 | 43) [125 | 7 261 ere | a 0% | we | oe ds 3 | MOY isl} 38 | 475 | lo ln | 31 2| : 2! 60068! wy 2| 3 4 | 2 | ses6{ 233 | 14 | 18 | soc | «0 5 | 3 | 24] 2% | 19 | mo WI él ag | «2 | ss} 73 2 | 13 | 23 16 | oe | snl 36! 85 | 3] 13 f 13 | |169 | 4 | 5 st] 3 wl 3 | 2 | 3379) he |. | tne | 1 aw]. 2 | 31 | - lo | fa.] 6 [159 | 1 32977 i: 26 | rn1 | 592 | o3 7 549 2 363! |- fs 189 |A ey ul 7 | ss] 3 ¥ 126 | 480 | 83 | HIS | 9105 | 7) | 5s2 | a 395] 12 2 | 359 | 42 | |= a MS] 9 | 10 | Seg i277 LE |2) LE 337 | 92 | 1 | nz | 2 | 19 ee 5 10 | 16813] 22 | soo] ml e 1 -| LR [ax | 53 2 98 | m7} 351] 6 | 22 fw | - 1] Do €h ay] rss | - 4 ss | 10 | 4 | 3 10 | 3 | at so | 200 | 53373) P we | ot æn| 3 le Kw 9] é . | she wr | un | oe] - | m}om 2 = 7 | us] Source: Statistica? bulletin 1296 Belgrade, Hay 1982 LT : we] 67%] 1280 | 268 | LE 9 sp | - 8") E |ecsss [203 | 42 | ee | 57 | 48 | |-v6 À 20 | à | nest sus 5 À 27 |acm | a7 | 102 Per | - 16 | hes #6 85 39 | |- 46 a! ey we] se), 2] 4 | 13] to |. 3] nl re - | - - 1339) 9 | Re ail -| | ‘7 ali 3 TS ' ee | &l PIE C 23 ls = alle [al sta à Others i ce lue niwsal KIKIRDA 0! lu aline Slovaks teri [A ri]: 32109 | gos} | |- rae sz] | tat le le SEA Le 7 Sul 1} affiliated Cuechs| Greek |Italiand Javish [1082 |Gorsans Polish Rosanieg "2" D] selects | | Sens | 331 | its | Beal retaovsc | 160% | 8 mys a 2 9% a Sa 9 Æ a mu | 28 im J ams | 2 “| mess | 47 M Razprave in gradivo, APPENDIX Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 It PRESENTATION OF SOME DATA ABOUT THE EXERCISE OF EQUAL RIGHTS OF THE NATIONS AND NATIONALITIES IN THE FIELD OF EDUCATION Table 1 Data on the Teaching of Languages of Herzegovina for the School Year 1964/85 UKRAINIAN Trno-polje Prnjavor LiSnja Potoëani No. of pupils No. of lessons 75 129 the Nationalities 1 2 G 3 R A 9 12 9 20 ll 19 9 13 15 13 10 15 39 42 4 4 4 5 4 5 5 4 7 6 91 8 7 8 9 23 2 5 2 50 49 in SR Bosnia DES 5 6 4 and 7 8 4 23 9 15 8 11 6 7 3 5 5 4 5 6 17 4 8 17 2 - 4 - 7 3 48 52 46 43 57 54 ITALIAN Sibovska 2 CZECH Prnjavor Total 399 39 Source: Republic BoardonthePromotionofEducation, Sarajevo, 1985 Table2 Number of Pupils of Albanian Mationality Rg i a in Elementary Schools with Albanian ERERRn an School Year 1984/85 COMMUNE Total No. of Pupils 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Bar Plav RoZa je Titograd Ulcinj 521 421 73 1,258 1,935 57 53 8 162 223 55 51 7 127 223 68 48 14 143 229 78 51 10 169 242 87 50 8 176 265 57 51 10 176 260 69 59 10 181 270 55 58 6 124 213 Total 4,208 503 411 502 550 586 554 589 456 75 Razprave Table in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 3 Number of Pupils Albanian of in Nationality Vocationally of Centres the Qriented Secondary Education in SR Montenegro in the School Year 1964/85 Plav Titograd Ulcinj Total Source: Republic Pupils of Albanian Nationality All Pupils Centres for Secondary Vocationally Oriented Education Board on the 842 520 795 174 321 581 2,160 1,076 Promotion of Education in SR Montenegro, 1985 Table4 Data on Education of Members of the Nationalites in SR Croatia in the School Year 1963/84 Biucational—Custodial Institutions (Pre-School) Cc LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION No. of Kindergarten H I L Education in the Native Language D R €E N Bilingual Total 499 192 85 15 Italian Hungarian Czech : Ruthenian 16 7 1 1 391 107 85 = 108 85 15 Total 25 583 208 LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION No. Of Schools Education in the Native Language Mother-Tongue . 791 tal as Teaching Language 21 992 = 992 Hungarian Czech 14 12 698 593 808 570 1,506 1,163 Ukrainian 4 ~ Italian Ruthenian Slovak Total 5 = 2 43 58 2,326 212 80 76 212 80 399 442 2,069 4,395 Razprave in LANGUAGE OF gradivo, Ljubljana, No. INSTRUCTION March of 1986, Education Schools the No.18 in Mother-Tongue Native as Language Total Teaching Language Italian Hungarian 4 1 550 161 48 550 209 Czech 2 = 202 202 Total 7 Table Data 711 250 Departments in Schools 961 5 on the Number of Pupils and for the Hungarian Nationality in SR Croatia in the School Year 1983/84 NUMBER 1979/80 1980/81 1981/82 1982/83 1983/84 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 94 101 91 76 80 85 85 98 84 81 104 98 102 118 82 76110 92 107 89 84 78 104 96 84 88 93 73 102 97 £4 88 91 78 ‘Tot. 109 112 101 89 100 783 758 738 718 698 DEPARTMENTS Hun. Com. Hun. Con. Hun. Con. Tot. 8 8 10 10 10 Source: Delegate Bulletin, Union of Self-Managing Education in SR Croatia, Zagreb 1984 Table OF 21 21 19 19 18 24 24 23 23 23 4 4 4 4 4 Communities 32 32 33 33 33 of 25 57 25 57 23 56 23 56 22.55 Interest for 6 Number Attending Mother—Tongue Departments of Pupils (“Language Cultivation") in Some Communes in SR Croatia in the School Year 1983/84 No. DEPARIMENTS COMMUNE Beli Manastir Osijek Vinkovei Total No.of Indiv-— iduals Comb- ined Optional Hungarian and Pupils 571 35 29 - of Pupils Attending with Serbo-Croatian 16 4 325 186 89 4 2 63 - - - 21 Djakovo - - - 35 Virovitica Bjelovar - - - 223 106 - - - 22 Donji 77 (" Cultivation") Cultural Vukovar Mihol jac Schools Language and Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Table 6a 1981/82 1982/83 879 808 1983/84 984 all pupils Table 7 Number of Pupils and Departments in Schools Instruction in SR Croatia in the School Year a COMMUNE Total Reka Pulj . Rovinj Poreé Buje Total Table with Italian G Number of Departments as the Language of 1983/84 R À D E 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 378 258 147 20 189 30 21 10 5 28 75 28 29 6 36 53 47 20 6 21 55 34 12 26 55 34 13 35 38 32 26 4 21 47 29 16 2 12 25 26 14 13 30 28 17 2 25 992 94 174 147 127 137 121 106 78 102 8 Comparative Data on the Number of Pupils Attending Czech and Slovak Language Lessons (“Language Cultivation”) in SR Croatia 1981/82 612 and culture in SR Croatia ("language cultivation") Czech 1982/83 1983/84 517 570 Slovak language lessons and culture in SR Croatia ("language cultivation") 1981/82 1982/83 1983/84 370 404 399 Source: language lessons Delegate for Education Bulletin of in SR Croatia the Union 1984, No. of Self-Managing 63 78 Communities of Interest Razprave Table in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 9 Number of Elementary Schools and Pupils Attending School in the Languages of i i in SR Macedonia in the Scool Year 1983/84 GRA LANGUAGE OF INST- No. of Pupils No. of Schools 1 DES 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 RUCTION Macedonian 188,425 Albanian 76,340 Turkish 5,243 SerboCroatian 2,296 Total Table 272,304 931 25,390 25,035 23,934 23,583 23,987 22,816 22,279 21,401 284 51 10,821 904 10,209 858 9,913 754 9,814 726 9,939 560 9,388 520 8,461 471 7,795 450 20 310 300 301 264 264 1,286 37,245 36,402 34,424 34,750 334 34,935 251 32,988 31,462 272 29,918 10 Elementary Schools, Departments, Schools Schools Departments Pupils Albanian Albanian Combined Total 207 77 284 1,749 933 2,682 48,946 27,394 76,340 Turkish Turkish Combined Total 25 26 51 44 171 225 1,076 4,167 5,243 Serbo-Croatian SerboCroatian 9 41 823 Combined Total 11 20 62 103 1,473 2,2% 79 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Table 11 Departments, Pupils and Schools in the Languages of the Nationalities in SR Macedonia in the School Year 1963/84 Schools = 20 20 Departments ms 154 154 Pupils = 8,947 8,947 Albanian Albanian Combined Total Turkish = = = Turkish Combined 4 14 256 Total 4 14 256 SerboCroatian = = = Combined 1 8 234 Serbo-Croatian Total 1 8 234 Table 12 Statistical Survey of Bilingual Educational-Custodial Institutions in the School Year 1983/84 NAME OF ORGANISATION oa No. of Groups ORGANSATION LENDAVA Lendava i of Children 27 563 à : ate ee Branch Nafta Branch Centiba Branch DR PetiSovei No. 1 Branch Gaber je Branch Dobrovnik Branch Genterovei Branch 19 ; ro : . 4 64 2 29 1 I ee me Prosen jakovej Hodos Branch Source: Branct CS Set JerEayutteles, Lendava 1904 its 80 24 eet Razprave Table in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 13 Statistical Survey of Bilingual Elementary Schools in the School Year Elementary School No. NAME OF ORGANISATION Elementary 1983/84 of Departments No. of Pupils School DRAGO LUGARIC-LENDAVA 48 955 Subsidiary Elementary School Centiba 1 15 Subsidiary Elementary School JL 15 Subsidiary Elementary School Gaber je 4 77 Subsidiary Elementary School 2 28 Elementary School 9 144 il 156 1 8 1 9 8 108 8 68 Dolina PetiSovci JOSKO TALANYI-JANEZ Dobrovnik Elementary BRATSVO IN School ENOTNOST Prosenjakovci Subsidiary Elementary School Subsidiary Elementary School DomanjSevci Elementary School VLAJ HodoS LAJOS Genterovci Elementary School JOZE KRAMAR-JUS Lendava Table 14 Statistical Survey of Bilingual Elementary Schools in the School Year 1963/84 Secondary NAME School OF ORGANISATION No. of Departments Secondary School: Metallurgy, Econamics and Pedadgogy Source: SoZitje = Egyutteles, 4 Lendava 1984 81 No. of Pupils 54 Razprave Table in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 15 EBducational-Oustodial Activities in Italian Elementary Scools with the Language of Instruction EDUCATIONAL-CUSTODIAL INSTITUTION 1983/84 No. of No. Of Depart- KOPER Semedela Bertoki Brvatini ments 2 2 1 1 1ZOLA 2 Strun jan 1 14 PIRAN Luci ja Setovlje 2 2 1 Total Children 44 37 10 ll ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS WITH ITALIAN AS THE LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION 1984/85 NO. Of No. of Departments 2 2 1 1 40 1983/84 No. of NO. Of Child- Depart- ren 86 49 1984/85 No. Of No. of Pupils ments 42 36 9 8 2 21 37 8 Italian as Depart- Child- ments ren 4 2 9 8 2 1 2 101 2 3 8 66 8 8 1 2 2 8 4 3 75 65 28 17 8 4 1 4 1 270 37 303 39 2 2 1 20 41 10 61 31 7 5 1 3 211 14 218 8 4 5 Source: Report on the Exercise of Special Rights of Members of the Italian and Hungarian Nationalities in the Field of Education, Republic Committee on Education and Physical Culture, 1985 Table 16 Secondary Schools with Italian as the Language of Instruction ‘Secondary Schools with Itlian as the Language No. of Students 1983/84 KOPER~TOTAL Secondary School for the Social Sciences IZOLA~TOTAL Secondary School for: Economics of Instruction No. of Students 1984/85, 47 39 47 58 39 53 25 20 Metallurgy 16 18 Commercial 17 15 45 53 45 53 150 145 PIRAN Secondary School for the Natural Sciences and Mathematics Total Source: Cf. Table 15 82 Razprave Table in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, 17 Number of Pupils Who Learned the Italian Environment in the School Year 1984/85 Level No.18 of Language of Social RE | Education Pre-School to Prepare as the canes KOPER No. of Pupils Learning of Chldren for the Elements School IZOLA No. of Pupils PIRAN No. of Pupils 619 202 272 Italian as the Language of Social Environment in Elementary Schools 4,206 1,349 1,605 Italian in the Secondary of Vocationally Oriented 2,207 444 3,454 7,032 1,995 5,331 Schools Education Total Source: Cf. Table 15 Table 18 Number of Pupils in Elementary Schools by Grades and by Nationality Lanuage in Ethnically Mixed Commmites of SR Serbia (Narrower Region) in the School Year 1983/84 COMMUNE LANGUAGE TOTAL 1 2 3 4 Total 5 6 7 47 35 182 28 31 175 27 8 Total 14 OF INS- TRUCTION BabuSnica Bulgarian 300 23 40 47 43 Bosiljgrad Bulgarian 1,374 174 174 197 162 707 177 13 16 20 22 71 Bilingual 1,372 Albanian 4,912 9813 Albanian 582 Albanian 121 Slovak 156 760 133 911 14 188 677 108 773 15 203 624 134 740 16 36 5 7 11 Surdulica pre Bujanovac Medvedja Preéevo Dobanovci Palilula Bulgarian Rumanian me 164 Le Sn < 724 177 601 2,662 490 115 736 3,160 53 8 810 2 36 = 1 Source: Report of the Republic Bureau of Statistics : 83 we : se 5 34 165 28 147 667 106 en sk ae (Documentary Material) al 4 Razprave in gradivo, Table Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 19 Number of Departments and Pupils in Elementary School in SAP Kosovo by Language of Instruction in the School Year 1982/83 LANGUAGE Total Total Alban- COMMUNE ian Alban- ian OF Serbo- Serbo- Turk- Turk- Croa- Croa- ish ish tian Parallel INSTRUCTION tian Pupils Parallel Pupils Parallel Pupils Parallel Pupils 11,203 334,121 9,101 284,151 2,025 48,399 77 1,571 378 458 310 601 286 233 611 341 253 398 10,980 13,949 9,680 17,747 9,637 6,826 19,732 10,486 7,318 12,241 289 405 310 448 270 125 591 260 246 324 8,559 12,896 9,680 13,906 9,483 3,731 19,225 8,485 7,264 11,135 99 53 = 146 16 108 20 él 7 74 2,421 1,053 = 3,752 154 3,095 507 2,001 54 1,286 “i = 7 = * = = = cs # = 89 = = = = = 329 8,673 238 6,613 91 2,060 = = Mitrovica Leposavié Lipljan Orahovac Pec Podujevo 692 94 440 511 773 537 19,232 2,211 12,177 15,096 22,205 16, 289 490 8 338 475 607 515 14,529 190 9,669 1,437 18,309 16,083 201 86 102 36 166 22 4,696 2,021 2,508 719 3,896 206 1 = = = 7 i = = = F: Pristina Srbica Suva Reka Urosevac 1,480 314 471 790 41,264 11,188 13,960 24,527 1.088 302 444 663 31,513 11,061 13,364 21,677 377 12 27 127 9,613 127 596 2,850 KOSOVO Vitina Voéitrn Glogovac Gnjilane Degani Dragas Djakovica Istok KaGanik Klina Kosovska Kamenica Titova Prizren Source: 903 Bulletin 31, 28,523 1984; 665 Provincial 22,402 184 4,784 Bureau of Statistics 84 54 15 = = of SAP Kosovo 1,337 138 ~ ee Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Table 20 National Composition of Pupils in Elementary Schools of SAP Kosovo 1978/79 % 1979/80 % 1980/81 % 1981/82 & 1982/83 ¢ TOTAL Albanian Sebian Montenegrin Turkish Muslim Romany Others 310,483 255,145 37,717 100.0 82.2 12.2 316,392 261,731 35,991 100.0 82.7 11.4 321,547 268,548 34,827 100.0 83.5 10.8 326,041 273,873 33,189 100.0 84.0 10.2 334,121 282,142 32,417 100.0 84.4 9.7 4,063 1,450 7,304 2,831 1,973 1.3 0.5 2.3 0.9 0.6 4,180 1,448 7,328 3,796 1,918 1.3 0.5 2.3 1.2 0.6 3,462 1,466 7,127 3,880 2,237 1.1 0.5 2.2 1.2 O.7 3,459 1,565 8,668 3,433 1,854 1.1 0.5 2.6 1.0 0.6 3,211 1,611 8,384 4,530 1,826 1.0 0.5 2.5 1.4 0.5 Source: Provincial Bureau of Statistics of SAP Kosovo, Pristina, 1984 Table 21 Departments With a Small Number of Pupils in Complete and Lower-Grade 1982/83 INGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION Departments with 10 Depart- Albanian SerboCroatian Turkish Romany Total Source: Fewer TOTAL Depart- 2 3 4 5 354 - - 1 1 = 174 1,513 * $ * à 5 236 2,083 2 3 4 9 5 284 4,884 37 451 5,595 296 279= 22 3 770 10,857 on the | 1 ments Pupils Board 1-5 Pupils Pupils ments Provincial "Departments with then Promotion 1984 85 Pupils 19224 of Education ~ in SAP em = Kosovo, À & Pristina Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, % 1980/81 No.18 Table 22 1978/79 TOTAL Albanian Serbian Monte— negrin Turkish Muslim Romany Others Source: % 1979/80 76,573 56,892 14,262 100.0 74.3 18.6 81,966 61,854 14,415 100.0 75.4 17.6 2,219 620 2,026 223 331 2.9 0.8 2.7 0.3 0.4 2,239 532 2,293 345 318 2.7 0.7 2.8 0.4 0.4 Provincial Bureau of & 2,211 532 1,875 388 232 Statistics TOTAL 47,019 100.0 Albanian 33,736 71.8 1979/80 86,225 67,554 12,704 100.0 78.4 14.7 2,089 467 2,624 335 352 2.4 0.6 3.1 0.4 (0.4 2,103 507 2,621 408 337 2.4 0.6 3.0 0.5 0.4 Kosovo, Pristina, 1980/81 % 42,477 100.0 30,724 72.3 1981/82 40,192 100.0 30,896 76.9 68,222 17.5 7,940 16.8 7,107 16.7 5,424 negrin 1,975 4.2 1,965 4.2 1,766 4.2 1,379 Turkish Muslim Others Source: 312 1,954 26 794 06 42 0.0 1.7 332 2,113 32 629 0.7 45 0.0 1.3 % 100.0 76.7 16.4 Serbian Monte- 1982/83 85,441 65,517 14,057 2.6 0.6 2.2 0.4 0.3 of SAP % 1984 (Junior) Colleges and Universities of SAP % 47,261 100.0 34,250 72.5 1981/82 86,444 100.0 65,908 76.2 15,298 17.7 Mational Composition of Stixients in 1978/79 % 306 1,974 38 562 0.7 4.7 O.1 1.3 257 1,712 49 475 Provincial Bureau Of Statistics of SAP Kosovo, 86 % 1982/83% 39,505 100.0 31,006 78.5 13.5 4,793 12.1 3.4 1,206 3.0 0.6 4.3 O01 1.2 Priétina, 220 1,680 58 542 1984 0.6 4.2 0.2 1.4 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Table 24 Number of Educational Organisations in SAP Vojvodina in Language of Instruction Total No. of Day- Educational-— Custodial Institutions Serbo-Croatian Albanian 491 - Bulgarian Hungarian Rumanian Ruthenian Slovak Bilingual Kinder- Nurseries Education gartens Groups 76 112 - - - = 5 1 = 8 = 2 = 71 14 - = 84 14 3 Turkish 1984 7 - 1 - = = 10 303 6 * 3 5 Serbo-Croatian Combined with: Albanian Bulgarian een - 94 = = Rumanian 9 33 10 Fe 1 Ruthenian Slovak Turkish Total Source: 2 <= 2 = 8 = 723 93 : 8 = = ~ am Conmittee on Education of Vojvodina, Novi Sad, 30 87 52 7 = - = = = NDAD et tet 8 o a Ligot: Set = m tangs e6e’€ oF OLy’€ Tt 209'€ TT agg Sgr $ €ze €es'9z T SOT € ze OT Le‘ Lt 9ET SOT str zss vez zer'z 809 ‘6 Bez‘9 66h dT OBt'T 608 ZOb Oz 990 'EZ vOL‘S9T ettdng JO "ON 98/€86T 78ex TORS SR UT wuyposfon dvs UF LOFT RYIUWORNAEA RYILVYOus-oguas 88 8S> sToaps yo “oR TeuoTIeN Aq eTpdng Toopg AuwymesTE ST era Sources: Table 24 5 i 13 574 21 585 8 2,345 314 334 309 310 336 240 1 21 2 122 2 4 26 283 1 1 1 28 299 3 3 1 15 285 105 92 RS 1 558 li 587 5 7 248 2 2 1 101 8 2 7 229 1 100 torn 1 2 106 tier 260 S8rawrm 242 tier 8 1inwrBirnil eu 8 titmiBriwi 1 2 109 tent tree = Beirne tit Ss pritietewwit mn È prurbuSsrr 5 791 ~ ner 659 ca 626 17 tiun 608 ll 2 1 10 323 1 g 1 2 wolnw 12 649 24 5 ier 1 612 wo 1 1 18 16 6 1 4,846 105 < ë cf. 14 609 drrbE i 1 621 630 te 6 6 i 97 659 mimi 693 DD 5 à MERE € | HEREREEE € HUE SLOVAK RUTHENIAR 68 RUMANIAN Total 5,090 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Belgrade, 376.744(497.1) UDC RuZa Petrovié & Marina Blagojevié Yugoslavia GROUPS ETHNIC OF THE EDUCATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE 1981 CENSUS)* (RESULTS YUGOSLAVIA IN the in all at work has been which of education expansion The displayed has countries developing many and countries developed to the quantitative in addition aspects qualitative important increased (the ones teachers, students, pupils, of number of education The democratisation faculties), schools, professors, the in aspect qualitative important most the is probably development is enhanced has of this Under doubly the rational: global the conception, with democratisation regard to the resources- human appears education of individual personality the of of ordering optimal the and individual development the components: essential two the education and this of education. The emancipatory character of in direct relation to its democratisation, and with regard to society. The democratisation of education can therefore be defined in two ways. On the global level, it can be defined as the process of equalising the participation of various social groups in the educational system in relation to their numbers in the global social system. This equalising refers to very different social groups: layers/strata, sex, ethnic groups, as well as age groups (permanent education). On the individual level, it may be as the equalisation of the opportunity for the individual - without regard to sex, age, class or affiliation to an ethnic group, in the field of education - to develop as a creative personality to the limits which are determined above all by their capabilities, ambitions and interests. The more the democratisation is intensive, individual to For the democratisation of education itself, the development institutionalised foundations, which grow during the process, of is express his the indispensable, and (3) greater own the opportunities personality viz. (1) increase decentralisation for the are. of (growth); the (2) educational diversification? system. A greater accessibility to education is made possible through these processes. By way of illustration, it should be noted that the number of students in Yugoslavia increased more than six-fold in the period increased from nearly 1949/50 to 1979/80, four-fold during while the same of colleges nearly seven-fold. While faculties in ten cities in Yugoslavia, faculties in as many as 46 cities, the number period, of and in 1949/50 by 1979/80 faculties the there there number were were These data indicate that a strong institutional basis has been created in the educational system, which has made possible the although this has development of the process of democratisation, * Original: Serbo-Croatian 90 Razprave in not equally been that this gradivo, Ljubljana, successful development equalising of in has opportunity March all been 1986, its No.18 aspects. generally between the It in sexes is interesting relation and to between the ethnic groups, and slower in relation to different generations (or the increase of the participation of the older generations permanent education), or when the question was one equalisation between various layers of the population. in in of The in dynamics the field of of change in the elementary educational education, system the are best teaching of seen literacy (Table 1). In 1981 in Yugoslavia, 10.4% of the population over the age of 15 was illiterate. Of this percentage, a much higher number of women than men were illiterate (as many as one million more). The lowest and the rate of illiteracy highest difference Slovenes, among being as much illiteracy is the no that among Romanies as 34 longer the Slovenes (Gypsies) percentage really points. exists and Yugoslavia Percentages over the of Age Illiterates of 15 Number (in Total Total the only of the Romany This great reasons than schooling. Among the Inhabitants of Percentage Men All Men Women 1,393,683 10.4 4.5 16.1 4,797 100 6,006 176 0.8 1.6 0.6 1.3 0.8 1.8 562 31,646 198 5,777 364 25,869 2.9 3.5 2.1 1.3 3.6 5.6 181 5,274 48,950 23,127 4,461 1,399 362 10,412 192,103 63,648 30,974 3,393 3.9 4.4 6.9 8.6 8.1 10.5 2.9 3.1 2.3 5.0 2 "0 de 4.9 nee ao 2 12 : 1e 1,621 Italians Hungarians Croats Macedonians Montenegrins Rumanians 534 15,686 241,023 86,775 35,435 4,792 Serbs 796,513 Muslims Turks 239,731 13,526 588 Documentary * Yugoslav has subsumes all the Material, also 2.9 13.8 12.3 eo es 47,026 3,815 192,705 9,711 17.5 20.9 3 a. oy as 62,671 10,194 161,147 23,917 22.4 34.8 ae : aoe « 1981 for at the census 91 aes 7 Census. be applied, nationality, 1.8 3,560 two accepted meanings. In nations and mations tC It can 2.4 651,063 835 222,218 31,111 Albanians Romanies 1,033 145,450 4,413 Bulgarians of Women 370,686 Ruthenians Yugoslavs* sense of Illiterates 10,803 276 Slovaks «citizenship. of 1,764,369 Slovenes Czechs the is 1981) Illiterates in it 1 Number Source: the Among since present among the older generation, while one third population over 15 years of age is illiterate. difference is much more due to cultural-historical to the inaccessibility of the compulsory eight-year Table (0.8%) (34%), and oe ad o Pin taal". P ee ba chokes orposes. Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 There are seven ethnic groups with illiteracy rates above that of Serbs, These are Rumanians, which is 10.4%. the Yugoslav average, ethnic Ten and Romanies. Albanians Turks, Muslims, Bulgarians, Slovaks, Czechs, Slovenes, average: this below are groups and Macedonians Croatians, Italians, Yugoslavs, Ruthenians, Montenegrins. the there is the greatest illiteracy amongst numbers, In absolute The large number of illiterates within this nationality Serbs. group can be partially explained by the fact that the Serbs and in Yugoslavia, groups ethnic numerous most the are Croats a also plays underdevelopment in the case of Serbia, although and the Muslims among The greater number of illiterates part. population young relatively the with is associated Albanians make-up and underdevelopment. The ethnic average are with groups by a below rates illiteracy characterised relatively low the Yugoslav differential between the illiteracy of men and women, while those above the in differences large by characterised are average Yugoslav illiteracy with regard to sex. Thus, the difference amounts to to as it amounts while for the Romanies 0.2% for the Slovenes, much as 28%. In the case of the Montenegrins, who are among the ethnic groups with an illiteracy rate below that of the Yugoslav average, the difference between men and women amounts to a high 12.2%, which is due to the patriarchal life and the position of women in it. There are also great differences in the degree of illiteracy between men and women in the ethnic groups with the aa tradition: Muslims 21.1%, Turks, 19.1% and Albanians Table 2 Structure over the by Age School of 15 Total Education (in of the Population of Yugoslavia 1981) NoSchooling & Grades Grades 1-3 4-7 Elemen- tary School More Than Elementary School Total 100.0 17:39 26.8 24.2 311 Yugoslavs Montenegrins Slovenes 100.0 100.0 100.0 7.6 14.3 3:5 17.0 20.3 22.5 23.1 23.5 32.4 51.9 42.1 41.2 Italians 100.0 12.6 36.6 16.3 33.9 Czechs Croats Ruthenians 100.0 100.0 100.0 6.7 14.8 8.2 42.3 31.7 28.5 17.0 20.5 30.6 33.4 32.7 32.2 Macedonians Serbs Hungarians Bulgarians 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 13.5 19.8 12.4 21.0 26.9 27.9 26.7 30.7 27.2 22.2 33.2 20.7 32.2 29.9 26.9 24.2 Slovaks Muslims Rumanians Albanians 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 73 25.6: 18,3 29.2 31.9 27.0 32.0 20.2 37.0 25.5 31.7 34.6 23.4 21.8 17.1 15.9 Romanies 100.0 47.3 29.4 17,2 4.6 92 * Razprave in gradivo, Romanies, Turks, Ljubljana, Albanians and March 1986, Muslims. No.18 This again confirms that the differences in education between the generations decrease more quickly with the universal education of the population, which can be seen very well in the higher levels of education. If we examine the lower level of education, the differences between the entire population and the 25 - 34 age group are also very noticeable. In all the ethnic groups, the number of those without any schooling or with grades 1 - 3 of the primary school is lower in the 25 - 34 age group than in the total population. The differences are the greatest among the Albanians, Bulgarians, Muslims and Turks, which means that among those ethnic groups taken as a whole, an intensive process of the schooling of the younger generation between the If we look is taking generations at secondary, the are percentages college or of completed and that the the population aged education, an of In differences pronounced. university towards different levels ethnic groups (Table 4), average place, very of 25 - 34 with orientation schooling emerge among the various the 25 - 34 age-group, the Yugoslav secondary school is 60.3%. Below this average are the Yugoslavs, Italians, Croats, Macedonians, Bulgarians, Rumanians and Albanians. Above it are the Slovenes, Ruthenians, Czechs, Serbs, Hungarians, Slovaks, Muslims, Turks and Romanies. The highest proportion amongst those with completed secondary school are from the Romany ethnic group (93.2%), and the lowest from the Bulgarian (70.6%). We can conclude from the data presented that the proportion of those among the educated who have level of completed secondary school varies in relation to the literacy or development in the territorial units in which the ethnic group concerned is most concentrated. The ethnic group of kKomanies displays a high consistency of various characteristics, while in the remaining ethnic groups, especially those from the undeveloped regions of Yugoslavia, the process of education is rapid and unequal. This inequality is reflected in the fact that the number and structure of those with an education higher than elementary among the individual ethnic groups do not correspond either to the development of the region in which they are concentrated or to the needs of these regions which, under the conditions of a non-existent labour market and low mobility of labour, give rise to the conditions for permanent unemployment. The inequality - which is development (in this case system) - is universities. a especially The natural consequence of the development, of the noticeable proportion of the in educated accelerated educational relation population to aged the 25 - 34 attending university (faculty) is above the Yugoslav average among the Yugoslavs, Montenegrins, Italians, Czechs, Croats, Macedonians, Bulgarians and Rumanians, and below among the Slovenes, Albanians, Ruthenians, Serbs, Turks and Romanies. Hungarians, The highest Slovaks, Muslims, proportion of the university educated population is among the Rumanians (14.8%) and the lowest among the Romanies (2.7%). Those that have a higher proportion than the Slovenes (9.9%) are the Albanians (10.5%), the Muslims (10.6%), the Serbs (10.7%), the Macedonians (13.7%), and the Montenegrins (14.2%), i.e., those ethnic groups which are linked to the undeveloped parts of 93 Yugoslavia. Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, Yugoslavs, Montenegrins, Bulgarians and March 1986, Italians, Croats, is It it. below are Romanies No.18 Czechs, Serbs, that various clear economic age groups, etc. these groupings: influenced have factors structure, tradition, educational policies, a been has there a whole, as Yugoslavia of level the On levelling of differences between those with grades 4 considerable (24.2%). school - 7 (26.8%) and those with completed elementary level higher the largest group is that with an education However, we If (31.1%). school elementary than our compare four of regard to the highest percentages with categories etucational In the four types stand out. the population of each ethnic group, level is the largest number of those with an educational first Montenegrins, (Yugoslavs, years eight than the compulsory higher the In Serbs). and Macedonians Ruthenians, Croats, Slovenes, elemenwho have completed is the highest number of those second Albanians). Slovaks, (Hungarians, school tary comprises third The 4 - 7 of finished grades who have number of those the largest RumanMuslims, Bulgarians, Czechs, (Italians, school elementary the with one the is group final the while Turks), and ians 1 any schooling or with grades number of those without highest can extent to a certain Only (Romanies). school 3 of primary - non(agrarian groups by ethnic of the population cultural-historThey are much more related to various structure agrarian). the istics of border and groups, The development of the particularly intensive the elementary universities). categories in important. school the terms in territorial ethnic individual of traditions. educational system in Yugoslavia has been precisely in the field of education above Hence, While members the educational various as well of horizons different as character-— the defined the within systems educational and development of levels different factors, ical activity the of terms in for accounted be differences these level (secondary, differences of in individual Yugoslavia in the ethnic 1971 the colleges percentages groups percentage of and these is very of those with an education higher than elementary was 20.3%, by 1981 this figure had risen to 31.1%. In 1981, the following ethnic groups were above the Yugoslav average: Yugoslavs, Montenegrins, Slovenes, Italians, Czechs, Croats, Ruthenians and Macedonians. All these groups, as well as the Hungarians and Slovaks, have an illiteracy rate below that of the Yugoslav average. If we compare the data of 1981 with those of 1971, it can be seen that the Macedonians and Montenegrins were below the Yugoslav average in 1971 and Yugoslav above it in 1981, while the average in 1971 and below it Hungarians in 1981. were above the The much better structure of the population as a whole in all the ethnic groups in 1981 compared to 1971 is largely due to the spread of education and its democratisation, for which a solid institutional groundwork has been created, but also to the biological processes of aging and death, i.e. gradual disappearance of The strength speed and the least of educated the changes the various ethnic groups are the is interesting that in the period in the percentage elementary has been of the those generations. with greatest 94 in educational result of numerous from 1971 to 1981, an among education the structure of factors. It the change higher Montenegrin than ethnic Razprave group in (from (from 47.3% gradivo, 15.3% to Ljubljana, to 51.9%). 42.1%) March 1986, No.18 the least among and the Yugoslavs To eliminate large differences in the age structure of various ethnic groups, which are very significant with regard to the stages of their demographic transition, it is necessary to look at the extracted generation group of 25 - 34 years (Tables 3 and 4). The process of regular education is already largely behind this age group, so that different social positions and different opportunities for the individuals of the same age in different parts of the country and in various ethnic groups can readily be seen. Table 3 Structure (in by Education of 25-34 Age Group in Yugoslavia 1981) Total Yugoslavs Montenegrins Italians Slovenes Ruthenians Czechs Croats Macedonians Serbs Bulgarians Hungarians Slovaks Muslims Rumanians Albanians Turks Romanies Total No Schooling & Grades 1-3 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 3.6 13 res 2.5 0.9 1.9 2.2 0.7 1.9 2.8 2.4 3.2 255 8.1 9.9 9.6 10.9 35.7 Grades 4-7 Elementary School 19.6 7:3 10.8 11.2 16.8 211.5 13.0 17.1 15.9 20.0 15.2 19.5 19.6 31.9 25.5 26.7 35.8 38.2 26.9 21.1 22.3 20.6 21.8 27.5 26.4 24.3 30.0 28.0 36.5 33.1 38.2 25.8 33.0 37.4 32.3 18.6 In comparison with the ethnic groups taken differences are diminishing. This becomes even Romany ethnic group ethnic groups with Turks and Romanies, is the the excluded from exception of largest group the More than Elementary School 49.5 69.9 65.3 65.0 60.1 58.8 57.9 54.7 51.9 48.9 45.7 43.8 39.1 30.9 30.6 26.1 20.8 6.2 as a whole, more clear if comparison. In all the the the the Rumanians, Albanians, of the population aged 25 - 34 is those with an education higher than elementary. Comparing this age group with the total population of the ethnic groups listed, an important spectrum of differences emerges, Specifically, the differences are more marked between the 25 - 34 age groups in those ethnic groups which are average, Thus the difference is the greatest Ruthenians, Czechs and Montenegrins, 95 and above the Yugoslav with the Italians, the least with the March Ljubljana, radivo, in az rave Razp that à No.18 1986, at the time the same as is largely the of groups ethnic between ifferences rate The highest 2). (Table de ee Tu grades three to one only without schooling or with the highest school is precisely in the groups with Turks Albanians (47.3%), Romanies rates: (7.6%). Yugoslavs and higher at of persons of primary illiteracy the are Romanies The group only among category educational lowest very large, ranging from 3.5% for the are in one to in any school which the number of those without schooling or with only than the number is greater three grades of primary school elementary and illiteracy high Thus, category. other are interrelated. dropout in The differences literate population and (27.2%) (29.2%), lowest rate among the groups with a low Slovaks (6.7%), Czechs (3.58), Slovenes Muslims (25.6%); and the number of illiterates: (7.3%) ethnic the of order relative the It should bs fy co the rate of illiteracy groups previous census. the the Slovenes to 47.3% the next from 17% category, category (grades 4 - 7), where the percentage ranges for the Yugoslavs to 42.3% for the Czechs. For this it is characteristic that there are not very great differences for between the the Romanies. ethnic illiteracy, characterised underdevelopment, and the characteristics. So the They are groups less with a pronounced high In discussing differences difference elementary between schooling, of of by social and demographic groups with the opposite between the Slovenes and the Albanians (20.2%) is almost nil. However, the can be observed when these data are broken down into as unfinished elementary school is typical of generations in developed regions. of rate in those there is ethnic a further groups underdeveloped regions characterised by illiteracy and the others. This can be seen percentage of those that have finished the (20.3%) differences age groups, the older levelling belonging to a high level of if we compare the elementary school amongst the Slovenes (32.4%) and the Albanians (34.6%). The difference between the ethnic group with the lowest rate of completion of elementary school (Italians) and the ethnic group with the highest percentage in this category (Slovaks) is 20.7%. This levelling of differences is encouraging at first sight. However, in the case of the Slovenes, the high percentage of those with elementary school is associated with a high percentage of those with more than elementary school (41.2%), while in the case of the Albanians, this is so to a much smaller extent (15.9%). Thus, with ethnic groups which, taken as a whole, lack education, elementary policy whole, of those of a high school of the population percentage an important may be considered of development. more educated, with completed With those ethnic the trend towards elementary school completed with for the success groups which are, a decrease in the is due to higher on the number levels education. basis of those with If the ethnic groups are compared on the it av average (24.2%), s, completed elementary school to the Yugosl Slovak Macedonians, Ruthenians, s, Slovene the that seen can be the whereas are above this level, Rumanians, Albanians and Turks 96 Razprave Table in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 4 Educational School Structure in Yugoslavia Nationality of the Population Aged 25 — 34, Based on Types of (in 1981) % School Total Education 25-34 Age Secondary Total Vocational School High School Technical School College 80.3 77.0 76.7 77.4 81.6 80.7 80.8 79.9 78.9 81.6 70.6 84.9 83.2 82.1 73.0 78.6 84.4 93.2 43.6 36.7 37.9 34.0 54.2 50.2 46.1 46.6 33.9 43.9 26.3 54.7 51.9 55.2 37.1 20.2 42.6 62.6 9.6 11.3 12.1 20.2 6.1 7.2 7.5 8.3 16.2 8.9 20.6 7.2 9.3 6.4 9.4 21.7 17.8 5.0 27.1 29.0 26.7 20.2 23.1 23.3 27.2 25.0 28.6 28.8 23.7 23.0 22.0 20.5 26.5 36.7 24.0 25.6 8.2 8.5 9.1 12.0 8.5 8.7 7.7 8.4 7.8 7.7 12.7 6.7 7.4 7.3 12.2 10.9 8.8 4.1 University Group Total Yugoslav Montenegrin Italian Slovene Ruthenian Czech Croatian Macedonian Serbian Bulgarian Hungarian Slovak Muslim Rumanian Albanian Turkish Romany An 49.5 69.9 65.3 65.0 60.0 58.8 57.9 54.7 51.9 58.9 45.7 43.8 39.1 40.9 30.6 26.1 20.6 6.7 analysis 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 of the data relating to the proportion 11.5 14.5 14.2 13.6 9.9 10.6 11.5 11.7 13.7 10.7 16.7 8.4 9.4 10.6 14.8 10.5 6.8 2.7 with higher education (colleges, training schools) shows that above the Yugoslav average there are the Yugoslavs, Montenegrins, Italians, Slovenes, Ruthenians, Croats, Bulgarians, Rumanians, Albanians and that below there are the Czechs, Macedonians, Serbs, Hungarians, Slovaks, Muslims, Turks and Romanies. Those ethnic secondary groups which schooling have have a greater fewer proportion with college of and those with university education. In for respect the to completed workers), schools. schools Romanies secondary Albanian, schooling, have the vocational followed The for schools by skilled (62.6%), Slovenes (54.2%). Italians (34%) have finished the previous greatest and Slovenes (6.1%) or The have highly of of or groups, those least of have workers are Data on have skilled all, high completed among (54.7%), Macedonians proportion. except that highly that Hungarians (26.3%), lowest and, those skilled (55.2%), Bulgarians the ethnic skilled schools proportions Muslims the proportion (for technical largest all highest (33.9%) those the and and that high schools are to a great extent complementary to data, The proportion of Albanians (21.7%) is the the is proportion the of least. 97 the Romanies (5.0%) and the Razprave The in gradivo, proportion largely It may system than the ordering those among be concluded in Yugoslavia the higher of same actual levels of of the Ljubljana, who the March 1986, have completed various ethnic No.18 technical schools is groups. that the development of the educational was influenced by educational policies more needs. This education. proportions is The especially consequence of the noticeable of different this is ethnic at the that the groups remains roughly the same from census to census in respect of the unfinished elementary school or illiteracy, while there are great differences in the order of the groups at the higher levels of education. It may be assumed that, given the trend towards Gecreasing and rationalising the network of colleges and universities, future changes will be more balanced and in accord with the real needs of the development of individual regions of Yugoslavia. 98 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 APPENDIX1 SCHOOL QUALIFICATIONS OF THE POPULATION OF YUGOSLAVIA IN Nationality Total No School Grades Total & Primary School Grades 1981 Completed 4-7 Elementary 1-3 More Than Elementary School School 16,936,907 2,924,309 4,545,216 4,103,426 5,277,885 435,767 62,501 88, 264 100,839 183, 378 Croat 3,463,855 511,293 1,098,464 711,127 1,133,298 Macedonian 1,005,616 135,353 270,133 273,127 323,481 Muslim 1,367,750 349,779 369,399 329,048 297,003 Slovene 1,356,827 46,992 304,881 439,303 558,839 Serbian 6,461,422 1,278,106 1,803, 326 1,429,438 1,930,076 993,464 289,971 200, 862 343,271 157,768 Bulgarian 32,028 6,728 9,845 6,621 7,756 Czech 17,221 1,153 7,336 2,925 5,746 13,639 1,725 4,996 2,228 4,624 358,930 44,645 95,741 118,994 96,693 98,002 46,358 28,815 16,837 4,566 Rumanian 45,393 8,315 14,520 14,375 7,758 Ruthenian 19,512 1,607 5,568 5,974 6,273 66,412 4,863 21,194 24,597 15,539 Turk 64,648 17,682 21,008 17,715 8,144 Yugoslav 888, 583 67,526 150,898 205,489 461,665 Montenegrin Albanian Italian Hungarian Romany Slovak Source: Note: Documentary material of PS Totals include School qualifications also those are (Census) 1981 (not entered unknown. 99 elsewhere in the table) whose Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 APPENDIX2 SCHOOL QUALIFICATIONS OF THE POPULATION AGED 25-34 IN YUGOSLAVIA (IN Nationality Total No School & Primary School Grades Total Grades 4-7 1-3 Campleted Elementary School 1981) More Than Elementary School 3,589, 229 130,024 705,025 965, 828 1,776,638 96,120 1,454 10,393 21,456 62,715 Croat 659,261 17,738 112,789 160,027 360, 969 Macedonian 236,967 4,428 37,704 71,014 123,000 Muslim 314,091 25,642 100,082 80,979 97,240 Slovene 273,538 2,416 45,608 59,620 164,436 Serbian 1,354,784 38,681 270, 769 379,698 663, 342 217,862 20,974 58, 222 81,447 57,000 Bulgarian 4,834 117 736 1,672 2,209 Czech 2,814 63 367 742 1,628 Italian 1,724 43 193 356 1,121 Hungarian 60, 249 1,935 11,728 19,933 26,418 Romany 24,135 8,614 9,232 4,501 1,490 Rumanian 7,942 789 2,024 2,619 2,427 Ruthenian 3,440 67 396 945 2,023 12,574 310 2,469 4,805 4,941 14,767 1,616 5,284 4,769 3,075 258,856 3,447 18,953 54,632 180, 950 Montenegrin Albanian Slovak Turk Yugoslav Source: Note: Documentary Totals school include material also qualifications of those are PS (Census) (not unkown. 1981 entered 100 elsewhere in the table) whose Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 APPENDIX3 EDUCATED POPULATION AGED 25-34 IN YUGOSIAVIA Nationality Total Secondary School School for Skilled & (IN 1981) Grammar School Tech. School College University Highly Skilled Total 1,776,638 1,426,700 774,977 170,751 481,152 145,210 204,728 63,715 48,151 23,502 7,719 16,889 5,771 8,793 360,969 288,431 168, 333 29,827 90,271 30, 381 42,157 123,000 96,534 41,750 19,640 35,144 9,642 16,824 97, 240 79,897 53,581 6,253 19,963 7,052 10,291 Slovene 164,436 134,579 86,683 9,973 37,923 14,055 16,302 Serbian 663,342 541,272 190,185 58,164 191,258 51,405 70,665 Albanian 57,000 44,790 11,527 12,370 20,893 6,224 5,986 Bulgarian 2,209 1,561 581’ 457 523 280 368 Czech 1,628 1,316 750 123 443 125 187 1,121 834 381 227 226 135 152 26,418 22,437 14,437 1,915 6,085 1,767 2,214 1,495 1,392 935 75 382 62 41 Rumanian 2,427 1,770 901 228 641 296 359 Ruthenian 2,023 1,633 1,015 146 472 175 215 Slovak 4,941 4,115 2,568 458 1,089 364 463 3,075 2,595 1,310 528 757 271 209 180,950 139,295 66,402 20,379 52,512 15,406 26,249 Montenegrin Croat Macedonian Muslim Italian Hungarian Romany Turk Yugoslav Source: | Documentary material, Census 1981 101 March Ljubljana: gradivor in Razprave 1986, No.18 UDC 376.744(497.12) Verne Etienne INSP, Paris France DE REPUBLIQUE LA DANS BILINGUE DE L'ENSEIGNEMENT ETUDE CAS* LA SITUATION UNE SLOVENIE: Introduction à Slovénie en venu suis Je pour (OCDE) CERI du demande la y brève Cette étudier la situation de l'enseignement bilingue. étude devait être ensuite présentée et discutée dans le cadre multiculturel" l'enseignement sur national “Séminaire d'un conjointement organisé le par Etudes les pour l'Institut et CERI Ethniques de Ljubljana. Ce séminaire s'est déroulé à Ljubljana du 15 au 17 Octobre 1985. J'y ai présenté les informations et les éléments d'analyse que ce texte, rédigé à la suite du séminaire, reprend. Pour conduire écrites, pu l'Education, les cette j'ai de Etudes République bilingue. enquête, visiter, l'Institut Ethniques, L'une est de les (RS) Slovénie de en grâce située plus à de l'étude l'obligeance des du l'Education et deux géographiques sur zones le l'Institut littoral de pour de la enseignement un organisé est où de sources Ministère adriatique, en Istria, au Sud de la Slovénie. L'autre est située en Prekmurje, à l'Est de la Slovénie, le long de la frontière hongroise. J'ai pu y visiter des écoles maternelles et primaires, et y rencontrer des élèves, des enseignants, les responsables de ces établissements, les conseillers pédagogiques régionaux, et les responsables locaux des antennes de l'Institut de l'Education. J'ai pu aussi m'entretenir avec les représentants des différents groupes sociopolitiques et Communales, Présidents socio-professionnels, les de Présidents l'Assemblée des de les Travailleurs, Communautés d'intérêt autogérées nationalité" italienne ou hongroise. culture," communautés le terrain, de la des responsables de la projet était * original: French, Mon formées journalistes télévision de langue maison sur de la la et pour la base de J'ai presse italienne d'édition d'étudier Présidents l'Alliance EDIT des Assemblées Socialiste, les l'éducation l'appartenance rencontré écrite, (Koper), (langue situation de les Présidents de et aussi, la ainsi radio, que des à la la sur et les italienne). l'enseignement bilingue en Slovénie. J'avais lu auparavant, pas assez souvent à aux en Yougoslavie apportées que les solutions mon goût, ethnique problèmes éducatifs posés par la diversité culturelle, yougoslave l'Etat regroupe que peuples des et linguistique - et ils pays les tous pour intérêt grand un présenter devaient solutions des oeuvre en mettre à s'essayent sont nombreux - qui et linguistique. culturel éducatives adaptées à leur pluralisme très particulier, J'avais lu aussi des remarques Sur le caractère 43 pages 102 Razprave les les in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 écoles bilingues, sans toujours sentir dans marques et les preuves de cette différence, Après mais bien m'ont la rapide enquête sur le terrain, ma les première textes lus observation, aussi ma première conclusion, est de confirmer qu'il y a un “cas Slovène. Les informations recueilles sur le terrain convaincu solutions qu'il y nombreuses aurait et lieu variées d'étudier qui ont plus ét à fond les retenues pour l'éducation des nationalités et des minorités{ dans l'ensemble des Républiques de Yougoslavie. Ces solutions sont très différentes d'une République à une autre. Il n'y a pas en ce domaine un modèle yougoslave. Sur la même base constitutionelle, les choix faits en Voïvodine et en Slovénie diffèrent largement. C'est-à-dire aussi que les observations faites ici à propos de la Slovénie ne peuvent pas être étendues aux autres Répubiques yougoslaves. Les solutions bilingue sont comparer qu'on à mises en un "cas." celles peut faire oeuvre en Slovénie pour l'enseignement Pour s'en convaincre, il suffit de les adoptées sur un par d'autres terrain restreinte permettent questions qui occupent de les dont la pays. Les observations superficie réactiver à peu sciences sociales: est pourtant près toutes les les spécialistes des études culturelles, les historiens, les linguistes, les ethnographes, les sociologues, les psycho-linguistes, etc. Tout ce qui est observé ici dans cette perspective peut alimenter les débats actuels sur le multiculturalisme, les minorités culturelles, raciales ou ethniques, l'immigration, l'interculturalisme, le racisme, l'ethnicité, ou le bilinguisme, réactive toutes ces questions, mais en génère aussi de nouvelles. Et c'est l'ambition de cette étude, au-delà de sa partie descriptive cette et analytique, situation à la responsables politiques Bien rapidité sûr, rapidité traitées, la avec n'a Quelques-uns de fois aux et pu les problèmes sociales et aux que pose décideurs, éducateurs. de l'enquête laquelle les guère permis ont présenter sciences être menée sur le terrain, et la informations recueillies ont dû être de rassembler que quelques faits. déformés. D'autres ont pu m'échapper. Ils sont cependant suffisants pour composer un tableau cohérent et permettre au moins une analyse au premier niveau. Dans le cadre d'un travail conduit avec la rigueur de l'art, il resterait à valider à partir ces de historiques, déjà fait en Etudes informations, la recherche à les compléter, d'autres faits, en et à les approfondir particulier des faits culturels, sociaux et économiques. Beaucoup a ces domaines, en particulier par l'Institut pour Ethniques, par différents laboratoires Ljubljana, en l'histoire du linguistique, l'Institut de particulier peuple etc. dans le slovéne Seule mon de l'Education, recherche de cadre et de ignorance des sa de et l'Université recherches langue, la langue sur slovéne été les par de sur la ne m'a pas permis d'accéder à ces sources. Les échanges qui m'ont été ménagés avec différents experts” m'ont laissé entrevoir l'intérêt qu'il y aurait à ce que ces études soient plus largement accessibles. Mais faire cette remarque, c'est déjà se saisir le d'une problème situation de la qui diffusion relève des des études connaissances. 103 ethniques, à travers Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March de concentration forte plus soit à italienne, "nationalité" la la trouve on où géographiques personnes appartenant soit à No.18 étudier d'une maniére spécifique bilingue dans les deux régions suis venu en Slovénie pour y situation de l'enseignement Je la 1986, que le "Cas noté qu'on pour riche J'ai rapidement la "nationalité" hongroise. particulièrement un terrain était Slovéne" l'enseignement bilingue tel qu'il est organisé en RS. pas n'était qu'il j'en suis venu à la conclusion voir avec Davantage, oeuvre pour résoudre les problèmes sociaux et éducatifs nationalités italienne et hongroise implantées sur le mises en des deux au je si ä'en présenter une ce en incapable suis Même moment je cohérente, trame de fils ces tous tirer et situations les rappellerai de ont J'en ai donc la situation situations. à voir avec constamment fait référence à ces autres tiré la conclusion qu'elles avaient bien à laquelle mon enquête était limitée. Parlant interlocuteurs mes local, niveau au bilingue l'enseignement exigerait elle bases. ces sur reprise soit validée, être Pour enquête. l'enquête que moins mon dans tardivement compte imposée s'est conclusion Cette en pas prenait ne on si RS, situations. autres ces la de politique territoire toutes éducatives solutions les comprendre de et d'expliquer possible à directement ont qui situations d'autres bien observer y puisse - s'agissant les plus porteuses d'intelligibilité qui me semblent faits Pour qui ont été les choix éducatifs de comprendre développer les - problèmes sur s'occupe dont situation le territoire de spécifiquement seulement deux groupes et les Hongrois. que rappelle Italiens les nationales "minorités les toutes par posés présentes autochtones" la bilingue: enseignement un ont ce la Slovénie. Je Slovénie: en statut c'est étude. cette les problèmes sociaux et éducatifs posés par la présence en Slovénie des ressortissants d'autres "nations" yougoslaves et d'autres minorités nationales n'ayant ni la même langue ni la même culture que les Slovènes. Ces groupes vont des Croates aux 11 Monténégrins en passant par les Gypsies et les Albanais. existe en Slovénie une seule école maternelle ethnique pour les 70 à 80 (Prekmurje) Sobota à Murska regroupe qui Gypsies enfants. - Il existe croate. les problèmes posés par les culturels, minorités une 4 Ljubljana aussi seule secondaire et politiques éducatifs économiques, autochtones slovènes école dans présentes les et en en Autriche en Italie, essentiellement limitrophes, pays vont slovène cette population concernant chiffres (les Hongrie de 200,000 à personnes). 400,000 éducatifs que peut poser à l'ensemble du système les problèmes langue d'une la diffusion et l'imposition slovène scolaire très encore semblent les dialectes un pays où dans slovène dans maternelle langue de toujours servent et vivants, plusieurs Slovènes régions. utilisaient A la fin encore du dans siècle, XIX la les Prekmurje écrivains une langue littéraire slovène diffèrente de celle de Ljubljana, dans une l'un parlé Par région où il y avait deux dialectes slovènes, l'autre par les catholiques. Cette situation à les protestants, laissé ces traces. certainement et linguistiques culturels, économiques, les problèmes politiques qui se posent à la “minorité” slovène dans le cadre de la Fédération Yougoslave dans un pays où la question des 104 Razprave in gradivo, nationalités, Ljubljana, et les les problèmes ethnique mais encore riche plus histoire, relativement peu nombreux dans le monde, dont 1,700,000 flux culturels, économiques l'Europe, et plus largement importante pour comprendre, l'enseignement bilingue dans région influences, la région semble fermée, avec de des la beaucoup sans qui de sa se (environ en et le par une 2 à multiples moins à et et de et la 22% un de sa millions l'Italie, adossée sensible pesé groupe langue, de Slovènes Slovénie), face aux grands politiques qui traversent monde. Cette position est exemple, la situation de région comme le littoral échanges véritables posent culture adossée Prekmurje, ont contemporaine. 8% contre 40% de Serbes, larges son No.18 nationalistes la plus slovéne, de adriatique, 1986, mouvements pésent sur l'histoire population yougoslave est de Croates. - March à perméable et ouverts. elle-même l'influence échanges, si non à à ses Alors que la Hongrie, hongroise, dans un plus cadre plus officiel et plus formel. On verra, par exemple, que l'imposition de la langue italienne sur le littoral, et celle de la langue hongroise en Prekmurje, à tous les enfants de langue forme slovène dans de les ces deux deux régions cas. Comme mixtes si ne prend pas l'obligation enfants slovènes d'apprendre une de ces deux langues n'allaient pas également de soi, ou n'étaient pas supportées par et multiples. des échanges à la fois attrayants, la même faite aux étrangères également valorisants Pour les études culturelles, la Slovènie est un paradis ou un enfer. Si les observations faites et analysées ici ont été centrées sur le premier point cité: l'éducation bilingue dans les deux régions de la Slovénie où existe un enseignement bilingue, le terrain permet une observation beaucoup plus large. Surtout, les caractéristiques de l'enseignement bilingue, sa genèse et ses formes, ne pourraient pas être comprises si on n'avait pas en perspective les autres situations muliculturelles dans lesquelles le peuple slovène est impliqué. Cet enchevêtrement justifie le choix de ce cadre de référence large qu'offrent les notions de multiculturalisme et d'éducation multiculturelle, projet ECALP multiculturelle, C'est le choix par le CERI dans le cadre du en choisissant de parler de société et d'éducation multiculturelle pour ne pas limiter l'approche des réductrices empruntées de la notion faits sociaux observés à des catégories par exemple à la pédagogie (c'est le cas d'enseignement bilingue), ou aux sciences sociales (lorsqu'on parle par exemple de minorité, de race, d'ethnicité ou d'immigration). Bien que moins présent dans cette étude dont le champ est limité, c'est pourtant le cadre de référence retenu ici, dans la mesure où il est le seul à permettre de penser à la fois des éclatées 1. situations et L'élément qui relevant de décisif apparaissent problématiques concernat ment bilingue observés en territorial. L'enseignement territoriale, et sur le les prime deux principe constitutionnellement "nationalité" étant et de comme d'enseigne- le sur l'appartenance définie, n'étant 105 abord dispositifs RS semble bien être bilingue est organisé "nationalité" reconnu, de différentes. reconnu, le principe une base à caractère qu'aux une de ethnies Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, ces deux choix sont sur vivant autochtones March 1986, No.18 rigoureusement territoires délimités. ce de implications Les diverses: et hongroise concernées, nationalités deux ne social, par la langue concerne que les régions dont les limites ont été fixées loi de la RS. Il ne concerne que la langue slovéne et la des trés natures bilinguisme le comme bilingue, L'enseignement 1.1. de et nombreuses italienne. des langues les pas ne concerne bilingue L'enseignement 1.2. ou nationalités, autres des ou hongroises, nations autres de Il n'y a que la RS. de le territoire sur vivant minorités, s rares exceptions à cette règle. 1.3. même très restreinte par rapport à la superficie elle- est superficie la dont territoires, deux ces de Hors de la RS, et (8.4% de la population faible est relativement la population dont 4 droits les mixtes), zones deux les dans Slovénie de l'enseignement bilingue pour les deux nationalités italienne et enfants les pour cas le C'est plus. s'exercent ne hongroise italiens qui vivent dans les communes de Lendava et de Murska sur ), et pour les enfants hongrois qui vivent Sobota (il y ena les trois communes du littoral (il y en a aussi). C'est bien entendu le cas pour tous les enfants italiens et hongrois vivant dans les zones non mixtes de la RS. 1.4. En dehors des les dispositions s'appliquent plus, régions nationalement mixtes, non seulement concernant l'enseignement bilingue ne mais c'est aussi le cas pour toutes les autres dispositions légales et statutaires concernant la vie publique sociale. Il est difficile d'intégrer la mobilité des personnes des familles, compte que dans dans les le migrations cadre le de cadre ce de internes, L'enseignement simple programme programme visant aux enfants de bilingue de à la Il l'institution dispositions relevant de l'usage dans les tribunaux subsistent en 1.5. et dispositif. de la dehors n'est pas de les semble et et prendre qu'il en n'y judiciaire ait que des langue de la nationalité des territoires mixtes. non plus présenté comme un transition vers la langue de la majorité: un une meilleure insertion scolaire pour garantir minorité une réussite scolaire et sociale égale à celle des autres enfants slovènes. I1 couvre toute la scolarité, au moins jusqu'à la fin de l'école primaire (15 ans). La maitrise de la langue seconde n'implique pas pour les enfants de la minorité propre langue. 1.6. sur La la l'abandon dans l'enseignement L'enseignement l'autre: serait cadre de la scolarité caractéristique la plus remarquable, assise même base territoriale, porte sur le bilingue ne la minorité, mais tous de les enfants compris mixte. le bilingue Tous doivent utile d'évaluer ce choix concerne pas uniquement les enfants de la zone nationale la population concerne tous les obligatoirement ne relève le enfants apprendre pas de l'initiative coût social 106 de cette les de leur elle aussi fait que enfants de concernée, Y majoritaire- de la la région langue individuelle. obligation. de I1 Razprave 1.7. in Dans gradivo, le cas Ljubljana, de la limite pas au seul enfants slovènes et March Prekmurje, les 1.8. de Par contre, conduit à le principe développer scolaire distinct de au système scolaire ses 2. No.18 l'enseignement bilingue ne se apprentissage d'une langue seconde par les hongrois. C'est l'ensemble des enseignements que l'on tend à assurer dans réunis dans la même classe. pas 1986, deux la dans langues à tous localisation ces régions celui de la RS. unique de la RS, les élèves territoriale mixtes un n'a système IL est parfaitement intégré et par sa structure et par programmes. La pas prise en limitée Elle compte à la s'étend recherchés à sont bilingue, pièces toute minorités mise en l'ensemble des effets toujours nationalement des seule de la le d'un vie sociaux: dans mixte. nationales place la cadre du L'enseignement autochtones enseignement publique. n'est bilingue. Les effets constitution d'une société territoire défini bilingue n'est d'un dispositif culturel et linguistique qui la vie publique, culturelle, sociale, comme qu'une des veut englober économique, administrative, etc.... Ce dispositif ne se limite pas aux seuls intérêts de la minorité, à la prise en compte de sa spécificité pour le respect maintenance. Il de a ses des droits, pour conséquences sa reconnaissance tangibles aussi qui devient elle-même un des autrement que d'une manière passive. pour la sa acteurs sociaux impliqués C'est au moins le cas pour les enfants qui doivent apprendre la langue de la pour les organisations qui ont le devoir d'utiliser la et majorité minorité, la langue et de minorité. 2.1. Toute est appelé obligation publiques, la vie sociale doit être bilingue, et tout le monde à. être bilingue. Le recours au bilinguisme est une dans les administrations, dans les institutions dans les tribunaux, et dans les entreprises pour le fonctionnement de l'autogestion. En dehors des institutions, le développement du bilinguisme conduit plusieurs personnes dans les relations sociales ordinaires à un bilinguisme fonctionnel qui permet lorsque au moins chacun aux deux utilise sa groupes concernés langue maternelle. de se Il comprendre est difficile d'évaluer l'étendue de ce bilinguisme fonctionnel. Mais on peut au moins remarquer qu'il ne repose pas sur les mêmes bases dans les deux régions étudiées, et donc qu'il n'y a pas la même assise. Dans le cas du littoral, il au seul enseignement bilingue Maintenance, d'une société serait difficile d'attribuer le développement, ou la bilingue. 2.2. Cette volonté de bilinguisme va bien au-delà d'un simple phénomène linguistique, ou de la recherche d'une solution aux seuls problémes scolaires posés par les enfants des minorités: elle marque la reconnaissance politique des minorités culturelles et linguistiques dans les limites territoriales indiquées cidessus. Cette reconnaissance officiels avec essentiellement; culturelle étant propre appuyée, journaux, publiques; la par passe à la minorité en par nation-mére: l'entretien et le développement concernée, particulier, par des cette liens vie culturelle media revues, livres, etc.) financés sur par l'affirmation constitutionelle 107 de échanges culturels l'animation d'une vie (TV, radio, des ressources d'une existence Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 politique qui dans le cadre passe par une représentation des institutions politiques. 3. les Concernant assurer le cas stratégies l'enseignement des écoles pédagogiques bilingue, italiennes elles du politique mises en relèvent littoral autonome oeuvre assez des pour bien dans programmes dits a'“immersion": les enfants sont séparés sur une base linguistique, les enfants de la minorité sont enseignés dans leur langue, et ils reçoivent un enseignement de la langue de la majorité en tant que langue seconde. S'agissant des stratégies pédagogiques mises en oeuvre pour tous les enfants hongrois et slovènes de la région mixte de Prekmurje, elles ne relèvent ni ges programmes d'immersion, ni des programmes de submersion. Le tableau suivant deux dispositifs: résume les principales caractéristiques ISTRIA 1. Les PREKMURJE enfants italiens et slovènes fréquentent écoles différentes. 2. 1. Les des enfants La langue d'enseignement est, pour chacun, sa langue maternelle. Un enseignement de est assuré à tous élèves tout scolarité au long dans les 2. La est la L2 les de 3. Si l'on prenait sur membres comme les de dernier stade bilingue qu'il deux chacun référence minorités le hongrois. langues en même pouvant sont temps, utilisé sa l'OCDE, la spécifiques, n'est qu'un linguistique; officielle; coexister. les études culturelles situation et observée comparatives de linguistiques en RS relèverait S. des du de l'échelle de développement de l'enseignement propose, le stade 6. Les caractéristiques en sont les suivantes: les langues un même statut légal; la supports que propre langue. L'enseignement du slovène est renforcé pour les enfantshongrois. Churchill” pays slovène apprises deux et les dans langue d'enseignement aussi bien pour chacun Les la écoles. 4. hongrois slovènes fréquentent mêmes écoles et vont les mêmes classes. le 3. des des la des Cette de la majorité et de la minorité ont langue de la minorité bénéficie de financiers en particulier; l'enseignement champs d'application de la langue de la minorité a statut institutions situation éducatives suppose un politique de langue séparées consensus national peuvent pour la maintenance à long terme de la langue des minorités qui sont considérées comme des partenaires à part entière de la vie politique. Ce stade de développement, le plus élevé dans l'échelle de S. Churchill, est, pour lui, la marque de la coexistence entre plusieurs communautés. 108 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 5. Dans le cas de la RS, il serait difficile de ne pas prendre compte le fait que l'enseignement bilingue, mais davantage reconnaissance des minorités en tant que telle, est d'abord fruit d'une volonté l'affirmation valeur de parce politique valeurs qu'il est qui s'appuie politiques: la marque le d'une elle-même bilinguisme société civile où en la le sur est une tous les groupes sociaux, toutes les ethnies, ont les mêmes droits, et en particulier celui d'exister en tant que tel. Il apparaît moins comme le produit d'une dynamique culturelle et sociale propre aux deux nationalités, beaucoup public moins, semble d'ailleurs encore jusqu'à coiffer pas "nationalités" que une ici cette date la dynamique comprendre minoritaires G. Les objectifs d'ordre scolaire ou affichés de sociale. Ils du par sont l'Istria. droit leur d'ordre vaille Le ne bilingue les fédération relations finalité droit pourrait envers la question des la composent. et On ailleurs, l'enseignement pédagogique, remarque pour culturelle, l'état si, yougoslave n'avait pas à règler la les différentes nations slaves qui d'abord dernière récente, ne n'est socio-politique: entre sont pas pas que construire une société bilingue qui imprègne toute la vie région mixte. Il ne s'agit donc pas ici du seul sociale de la entretien des minorités minorités plus et de leur langue. d'enfermement ou de Il ne statu s'agit quo. pas non pour ces Il serait difficile de ne pas prendre en compte, comme élément essentiel de cette politique à l'égard des nationalités, la participation de ces minorités aux décisions les concernant, puisqu'elles ont une influence directe sur les décisions qui les concernent à travers politique propre à la Cette participation le processus Yougoslavie. renvoie à trois de gestion et d'animation observations: a) une corrélation sans doute forte entre la réussite scolaire des enfants des deux nationalités dans l'enseignement bilingue, et la participation des leaders des deux nationalités aux décisions b) cette concernant le développement participation adéquation minorités: entre les permet sans ressources de doute l'enseignement bilingue; d'assurer meilleure publiques et C) il resterait à vérifier si la participation processus de prise de décision renforce les membres de la minorité elle-même. les une besoins des des minorités au liens entre les 7. La volonté de produire une région et une population bilingue passe essentiellement aujourd'hui par l'école, et l'enseignement bilingue. Elle est appuyée par des dispositions juridiques, et par des supports culturels. Cette volonté de construire une société bilingue, et peut-être biculturelle, à travers un enseignement bilingue pose de nombreux problèmes, et en particulier celui de sa faisabilité. Dans l'état actuel de nos informations, il n'y a pas d'autre possibilité que de se limiter à faire des pronostics sur les innovation. 109 chances de réussite de cette Razprave 8. in gradivo, Jusqu'ici, il Ljubljana, semble que March le 1986, No.18 bilinguisme fonctionnel pour tous soit un objectif raisonnable. Des résultats significatifs ont d'ores et déjà été atteints. Resterait à savoir s'ils l'ont été essentiellement par des voies scolaires. Ce n'est pas le cas dans la région du littoral où persiste une longue tradition de bilinguisme, et ou les échanges avec l'Italie sont nombreux et diversifiés, y compris et surtout par le biais des mass-media. Il faudrait encore corréler cette réussite aux niveaux économiques et culturels des deux communautés concernées, niveaux satisfaisants, comparables à ceux de la majorité slovène dans presque tous les cas. population hongroise économique est La seule rurale de certainement la un exception pourrait Prekmurje. Cette facteur favorable être la homogénéité au bilinguisme. 9. Comme indiqué plus haut, si d'enseignement bilingue adopté on avait à situer le dispositif dans ces deux régions, il est clair haut qu'il se situerait développement qui ont au plus été des proposées. différentes Egalité échelles des de langues, coexistence linguistique, qui n'ont pour limite que la région géographique. On est très loin des programmes d'enseignement bilingue motivés par l'échec scolaire, ou même par le projet plus positif, mais aussi pédagogique, d'une affirmation de sa propre langue pour mieux assurer le développement cognitif et affectif de l'enfant. En cela au moins ce dispositif est exemplaire. 11 peut l'être aussi au sens où l'on aurait pu vouloir à travers ce dispositif donner l'exemple, en particulier à ceux qui décident du sort de la minorité slovène en dehors du territoire yougoslave, Quelques Les Problèmes études de cas servent davantage à poser des questions, à formuler des problèmes, qu'à les résoudre. Elles permettent de générer des hypothèses, mais rarement de les vérifier. Pour rester fidèle à cet usage, je terminerai en formulant quelques uns des bilingue 1. Je problèmes en RS. signale scientifiques que d'abord que peut poser pour l'état mémoire l'enseignement de l'enseignement l'ensemble bilingue en des travaux Slovénie pourrait susciter. Ce travail est déjà largement entrepris, en particulier par l'Institut d'Etudes Ethniques de Ljubljana, par l'Institut de l'Education, et par différents centres de recherche universitaires. En particulier, des études comparatives entre les résultat pédagogiques et les effets sociaux obtenus dans les deux régions du littoral et de la Prekmurje, seraient du plus grand intérêt pour faire progresser la recherche dans les domaines de l'éducation 2. multiculturelle Concernant auquel le niveau parviennent de les et du multiculturalisme. maitrise enfants du hongrois slovénes ou de l'italien concernés par l'enseignement bilingue dans les deux régions, je fais l'hypothèse qu'il n'est pas le même: les enfants slovénes de l'Istria doivent mieux maitriser l'italien que les enfants slovénes de la Prekmurje ne maitrisent le hongrois, et surtout ils continuent à mieux le maitriser à terme, malgré une immersion plus grande de ces derniers dans la langue hongroise. Cette hypothèse reste à vérifier. Je la fonde essentiellement sur des 110 Razprave raisons in gradivo, qui Ljubljana, tiennent à March l'histoire, 1986, à la No.18 culture ambiante, et à la gèographie, etc. Sur le littoral, le bilinguisme n'est pas la En tout cas, bilingue. par l'enseignement uniquement supporté survivance de l'italien sur le littoral me semble moins compromise à terme que la survivance du hongrois en Prekmurje. 3. Il reste modèles à expliquer d'enseignement d'enseignement. politiques, Comment les mêmes d'enseignement consisterait et dire comprendre à la que juridiques, en-deçà de du les ont à des même valeurs deux modèles vérifier l'appareil deux système mêmes suscité L'hypothèse, que, genèse l'intérieur expliquer bases bilingue? à à bilingue donc, juridique, on comprendrait mieux la genèse et les formes prises par l'enseignement et la culture bilingue si l'on prenait en compte l'histoire de ces deux régions, l'histoire de la Slovénie, les caractéristiques anthropologiques et culturelles des trois groupes ethniques concernés. En particulier, il est difficile de ne pas prendre en compte la longue tradition plurilingue qui a été celle des slovénes et des italiens en Istria, d'une maniére plus générale, les avatars de la longue la seule langue slovéne. 4. Une des autre deux hypothése porterait nationalités. hongroise est plus Je sur fais défensive les aspirations l'hypothèse que la mais aussi histoire de que la communauté de chacune communauté italienne, et qu'elle est donc plus portée que la communauté italienne a défendre sa nationalité, sa culture et sa langue, et à refuser la transition vers la culture de la majorité. Cela n'enlève rien au pronostic que avoir plus de pour des je me risque à chances 4 terme raisons qui ne faire: le bilinguisme me semble en Istria qu'en Prekmurje, mais tiennent pas à l'école. Il faudrait ajouter que la persistance d'un bilinguisme n'implique pas la survivance à terme d'une identité nationale, donc d'une minorité. Les flux dominants me semblent dans les deux cas tendre à terme à l'assimilation. 5. Pour me limiter quelques-unes des RS: quels sont les du bilinguisme, ou on à vu monter à quelques questions en que problèmes, pose chances aujourd'hui dans du multilinguisme, après puissance la j'indiquerai l'enseignement aussi bilingue en une société moderne plusieurs siècles où monolinguisme? A quoi peut bien conduire à terme un bilinguisme de fait qui aurait réussi? En particulier, dans une région comme la Prekmurje où les langues Est-ce qu'on sans s'interpénétrer? jusqu'ici ont plutôt cohabité les bienfaits tous bilingue l'enseignement de espérer peut annoncés dans les domaines de la paix, de la communication nationales, production quelque culture coexistence la de interculturelle, identités Il réduit se les s'apprennent, lentement. très pédagogiques peut qui 6. L'émergence, bilingue n'ont la pas être en utile pas cultures à Sauf à à ce une mutuel espérer sujet d'une lieu. mémoire En en culture de langue. une rappeler Si les la en qu'une langues où très peu ou lee aux ro particulier, collective hybride qui la ne : une. maintenance ou le cs démograp! l'évolution sur d'impact 111 des respect peut du qu'on ne communiquent pas, la culture réduire tiennent d'un peuple est nourrie que trés lentement. et Est-ce bi-culturelle, culture d'une sorte? ne etc.? OP peace s ciété ire Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 ci conditionne plutôt celle-là. De ce point de vue, il semble bien que les nationalités hongroise et italienne réagissent. Cela tient peut-être aux modalités de la déclaration de nationalité, à la natalité, à l'évaporation naturelle, ou à la transhumance. Cela tient surtout à l'importance prise par les mariages mixtes. La pente semble bien être à l'assimilation, ou à la dissolution dans le tissu pourrait être enseignement groupes social utile ambiant, sauf de vérifier bilingue nationaux, favorise ou la et accident de l'histoire. Il si le développement d'un accélère cette dissolution des retarde. 7. La principale question qui reste à poser et qui concerne les décideurs politiques et les éducateurs est celle sur le rôle de l'école dans résister aux ce processus: une communauté minoritaire peut-elle forces qui poussent à l'assimilation grâce à un enseignement et la assuré seule fournit cette dans volonté plus la vitalité communauté? volonté Ou politique vitalité 8. Une qu'une sa propre politique, langue? La peuvent-elles culturelle, bien, cette sont-elles dynamique suppléer démographique, dynamique les entretenir, suppléer ou tenir s'agissant de la maintenance d'un que ne politique de scolaire et cette preuves d'une l'Etat seul: sur le long. est-ce terme meilleures lieu de dynamique culturelle groupe ethnique et linguistique minoritaire? Cette volonté politique court s'investir essentiellement dans le scolaire et le qui ce culturelle? autre question porte sur le rôle de volonté politique affirmée peut double scolaire, à risque n'est de pas scolarisation d'abord de et de le risque pédagogique. pédagogisation nature scolaire et d'un remarquable 9. Le la gommage dans la langue les de situation d'une volonté marqué nations. dialectique de l'amitié, Est-ce que pas été évité le moins observée, politique par probléme n'appelle uniquement un traitement pédagogique semble bien avoir dans le cas de la Slovénie. Ce n'est pas l'aspect de Ce la ce majorité/minorité l'Etat yougoslave, coexistence, langage par la majorité est aussi nationalités minoritaires? celui qui qui la est est au inscrit profit d'une coopération d'abord correspond celui au entre voulu vécu des Conclusion On aura cette compris étude de à travers cas, que, les données s'agissant recueillies de la dans la république de Slovénie, le premier la configuration prise par l'enseignement région. Si l'enseignement bilingue en tant que tel ensemble d'observations qui intéressent éducateurs, ce tant que tel, n'est pourtant pas permet de poser intéressantes. Les permettent, certes, Mais les problèmes sociaux attendus de croyance résoudre en les ce que particularités l'enseignement que pose de rencontrée peut être l'objet les décideurs et d'un les l'enseignement bilingue qui, en ici les questions les plus de l'enseignement bilingue bilingue significatives. sur les effets particulier, la puisse l'affirmation 112 l'occasion étonnement porte sur bilingue dans cette des analyses pédagogiques les plus décisifs portent l'enseignement bilingue. En problèmes à situation et permettre la de maintenance Razprave d'une in gradivo, identité coexistence Ljubljana, nationale d'ethnies March pour une 1986, No.18 minorité, différentes sur le et même ceux posé par la territoire. 11 me semble que l'enseignement bilingue, ou le bilinguisme, est mal servi, en général, par deux catégories d'acteurs sociaux: les pédagogues qui s'investissent dans l'enseignement bilingue en termes essentiellement pédagogiques et méthodologiques sans voir les enjeux politiques et sociaux: les militants qui croient que l'enseignement bilingue, ou l'école ethnique, sont en tant que tels un lieu stratégique qu'il faut investir pour sauver l'identité des minorités, ou encore pour promouvoir la coexistence pacifique entre les peuples. Porteurs d'intérêts ou de projets différents, ces l'autre, sur le terrain, qu'ils poursuivent les s'appuient permet l'un de ethnique l'autre. conserver et confiance au acteurs Croire et culturelle deux peuvent être, des alliés objectifs. 11 mêmes buts, et encore de implique système qu'un protéger à qu'on scolaire pour enseignement bilingue lui identité seul accorde qu'à l'un n'est pas sûr moins qu'ils la une beaucoup plus dynamique et à de la production culturelle de la communauté minoritaire. A moins que ce choix ne signifie qu'on a déjà reconnu ne plus pouvoir faire confiance aux seules forces vives de la communauté minoritaire. C'est faire beaucoup d'honneur à l'enseignement bilingue. Ce n'est pas une raison suffisante pour écarter tous ceux qui n'y verraient qu'un moyen utile simplement pour enrichir les compétences objectif linguistiques, souhaitable pour et la communicationnelles, plupart des individus et donc des un groupes sociaux. NOTES 1. Je remercie l'Education de l'Education, particulièrement les personnes du Ministère la Rébublique de Slovénie, de l'Institut et de l'Institut pour les Etudes Ethniques qui de de ont préparé le programme de ma visite et m'ont accompagné sur le terrain. La qualité du programme qui m'avait été préparé, leur efficacité et leur patience m'ont permis d'utiliser au mieux le peu de temps 2. J'utilise 3. Je dont ici le remercie en Ljubljana, en accordé long un je disposais langage pour de particulier particulier de la cette enquête. la Constitution les professeurs Faculté de ° Yougoslave. de l'Université Philosophie, qui de m'ont entretien. 4. "Nationalité" est un terme spécifique à la Constitution celui de à la fois pour remplacer Il a été créé yougoslave. "minorité" jugé dévalorisant, et pour distinguer ces groupes de ceux qui font partie des nations yougoslaves. S. Education and Cultural and Linguistic Pluralism. S., "Bilingual Education and Second Language Acquisi6. Krashen, tion Theory," in: Schooling and Language Minority Students: A Theoretical Framework, California State Board of Education, Dissemination and Assessment Center, California State Los Angeles, California, 2nd Ed., 1982, pp. 51-79. 7. Churchill, Minorities S., in OECD The Education Countries, of Lingusitic CERI/ECALP/83.02. 113 and ed., University, Cultural Razprave j ; à —Stprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, Kercmar Janez Institute for Scho oling Organisational Unit Murska Sobota, Yugosl avia No.18 UDC THE BILINGUAL EDUCATION SYSTEM DEVELOPING NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS* - AN 376.744(497.12=945.11) AID IN MAINTAINING AND The ethnically mixed area in the communes of Lendava and Murska Sobota, along the border between Hungary and Yugoslavia, is about 20 kilometres long and about 8 kilometres wide. But for a small discontinuity near Kobilje, it covers the whole easternmost part of the region of Prekmurje with its compact settlements. The bilingual mixed area education system of Prekmurje in the was launched school year in the ethnically 1959/60. In the year before the introduction of this new educational system, which took place only gradually, the commune of Lendava had (in the school year 1958/59) no fewer than 1,206 pupils of the Hungarian nationality - out of a total of 3,067 pupils - which means that 40% of all the schoolchildren were Hungarian. Before the introduction of the bilingual education system, the Hungarian children had attended either the Hungarian departments (825 pupils or 69%) or, for the sake of gaining better possibilities for subsequent schooling, they went to school in the Slovene departments (381 pupils or 31% of all the Hungarian schoolchildren). This situation appeared to be most critical in the two schools of Lendava at that time, where over 50% of the schoolchildren of the Hungarian nationality attended the Slovene departments of came from the the elementary schools. These villages in the environs of children Lendava; nearly only all two children of the Hungarian nationality from the town Lendava itself attended the school departments before the introduction of the bilingual were better enrolled enrolled work education system, while in the Slovene departments. their children in the Slovene was organized better, further and schooling as than they the Hungarian offered all the others were The Hungarian parents departments because they ones, better well, the quality possibilities of for Before the introduction of the bili e i departments had Ged children peasant y by cann oy mainly were attended es coti dre stayed finished their elementary education, ae hone aoa wou mixed area of Pr sete continue their schooling. In the ethnically Hungarian schools system. all eight there cha ee before This caused grades mi tee each reme few pupils. Both point * Original: the in the de of anomalies eat into teacher (Most je) single class (Genterovci ve or Critical existed one six the in single grades RadmoZanci, etc.) Slovene and bilingual certain Hungarian education places, in class, with only together forming because there were that one one 50 ovene and the Hungarian schools reached a School year 1958/59. In some schools there Slovene 114 Razprave were in far gradivo, too few Ljubljana, children Slovene and Hungarian degree of combination Such working and March 1986, No.18 even those were departments, which of divisions. conditions inevitably caused led to divided an in extremely poor the high educational results and a very strong assimilation of the Hungarian children occurred, as the Hungarian departments were badly organized and understaffed. This very state of affairs called for certain measures aiming to change the situation in the Slovene and Hungarian departments. A new way of organizing the school system legally, pedagogically and organizationally was required in order to establish a form of organization of the elementary school system which would offer better quality and whose organizational basis would be more varied. This form was searched for in the direction of a bilingual schooling system. After having held wide-ranging general and professional discussions, and above all thanks to a thorough professional analysis, the bilingual education system was gradually introduced in the ethnically mixed area of Prekmurje. This process was started in the school year 1959/60. After two subjects years of preliminary of Biology forms or Geography, of which introduction were taught of the in grades 4-8 in the Hungarian departments in the Slovene language, while on the other hand, these subjects were taught in Hungarian in the Slovene departments, a start was made in the school year 1959/60 in all first grades of the six elementary schools in this area, with preparations for and gradual introduction of the first experimental bilingual divisions. Parallel with the beginning of the realization of this bilingual education programme, preparations were made for the provision of bilingual teaching material - only stencilled at first - which would form the basis of later bilingual schoolbooks. Together with which the was transition started cum-childcare programme children bilingual The of in to bilingual the school institutions bilingual follow a schoolchildren in the in elementary 1959/60 (nursery work two-year elementary work year schools) school preparatory also year course the schools, education- started 1961/62. before on the Today, entering the school. themselves - irrespective - immediately accepted the conception classroom, this model was met with number of members of the community and of their nationality of bilingual work in the different reactions by a with the parents. The fact of national diversity had already been present nobody had had any experience whatsoever with this earlier, and new bilingual education. People were afraid that the new system would entail a lower quality of education and they expected difficulties with subsequent schooling possibilities as well. All these doubts and hesitations, however, called the attention of the initiators to possible dangers of the new system and made them aware of the fact that only bilingual teaching of really high quality, i.e. with a vast knowledge and successful education results would offer an effective argument against any doubts about the true values of the conception of bilingual education. The greatest difficulties we encountered during the gradual introduction of the idea of bilingual education were caused by the teachers: there were too few teaching staff available and most of the 115 Razprave in gradivo, teachers did prerequisite teaching. not for Thus Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 master both languages which, of course, was a the realization of quality work in bilingual intensive language courses had to be designed, as well as teaching preparations in both languages and this had to run parallel with the introduction of the new teaching system. Nowadays teaching staff is qualified for their task in bilingual schools during their regular simultaneously. Thus the bilingual test in solving problems in the development of the national study in both languages education system has become a field of the existence and consciousness of the people in this area. We are aware that in lies some kind of an consciousness: the additional second the conception of bilingual education there extra burden on the nation and the national schoolchildren involved should reach pedagogical-educational language besides their goals, own and as have they to have to become learn a acquainted with a second culture which is unlike their own. Nevertheless, the conception of bilingual education as posed here has grown out of by a complex of already existing needs, conditions and interests; reaching good pedagogical-educational results thanks to such a conception we are forming an atmosphere of mutual understanding, tolerance, coexistence, interdependence of and interrelation between the nation and nationalities. This conception enables developments in the terms of It precisely is national, linguistic and cultural fields in equality. education for system, this we reason should that take in developing into the bilingual consideration its many different aspects. With this conception of work, success scored regularly in reaching coexistence through the life work in these schools, while the two-language system enables is and all the the children necessary It of forms should be different of nations expression emphasized in here equally speaking that as there to well is a achieve as in high writing. degree of sensitivity present in the solving of such an educational concept since it is precisely in school problems that different nations are most directly confronted with their own basic interests, such as culture, language, coexistence, We are very much aware that national feeling cannot be preserved only by speaking one's own language within one's immediate environment. We want therefore to help to develop national consciousness and we are of the opinion that within the majority nation the culture of the minority in a certain area should e allowed its place with equal rights and values. This goes also for the use of the language of that minority, while also its social norms and the idea of peaceful coexistence The should conception of be such respected. an difficult to develop in whatsoever and only with educational the the could we smooth out the rough path. was a very high quality of work, rightness of the goal we had system as outlined here was beginning. We had no examples experience we gained in this way set out An unavoidable which had to to precondition confirm the achieve. For the completion of this model of bilingual education we took into consideration that such an educational system must be based on an optimal coordination of realistic pedagogical and social 116 Razprave in gradivo, requirements of the and Ljubljana, a number individual of pupils, March needs, be they 1986, No.18 interests Slovene or and was necessary to define the relation between norms that are based on the demand that the acquire need - to of knowledge of both cultures and possibilities Hungarian. both Hence it the socio-legal children should languages, and the of those children - also in the bilingual elementary school gain so much general knowledge as to have fair possibilities continuing Taking into their schooling account social as successfully needs and as possible. pedagogical laws, we decided to bring into our model of the bilingual elementary school as much internal democracy and individualization of work as possible. Therefore, the set aims and ways of bilingual education belong to the principles that, in our opinion, can solve the problem of co-existence of different nationalities in the best possible way; consequently, a school-system like this one carries into effect the equality of rights and thereby develops the national feeling as well, as it consequently eliminates from everyday life the problem of the contrariness between the nation and nationality. Through are such a educated existence with background. spirit of other conception from their other This bilingual children leads national of early to of joint Such in their in principles an own efforts broad-mindedness nationalities. education, youth schoolchildren atmosphere age but of and achievements the attitude can be of of co- different in the towards the great help in solving the problem of intolerance of one nation towards the other, and in securing such relations as are based to a large extent on the moral qualities of young people and on the wide- ranging the relations same goals among and people (pupils) who become co-creators of ideals. Conceived in this way, the additional aims of our bilingual education system are based on and are hence in accordance with the Declaration on Human Rights and thereby secure the maintenance and development of one's own nation. Only because the whole society has fully accepted this conception of bilingual schools and supports it with its constitution and laws, have we been able to develop it, and to help solve the nationality question in a concrete environment. This in turn has created a genuine atmosphere realization of and such a provided concept of all the school. preconditions It is worth for the mentioning here that this school system is more costly than the regular one and that our social community has successfully dealt also with this It issue. is important realization given to all of the that an the possibility educational members of the project of co-operating of this community and kind to the in the should be parents in particular, and that they should be enabled as well to carefully monitor its efficiency. A new inspiration, which enriches and ennobles also the community members and parents, should originate from these bilingual schools and permeate the entire environment. The community members Opportunity to clearly themselves, on the other see that this is quality success. 117 hand, work must have an crowned with Razprave in For success the gradivo, Ljubljana, and bilingual education completely accepted March 1986, implementation system by the No.18 of this conception it is very important that schoolchildren themselves. of it be also Education designed in this way offers them a great deal of flexibility and attractiveness of educational work. It is essential that all work and the attitude towards the child during the educational work be very secure and consistent, to provide the pupil with true linguistic and overall equality of rights. In this education system help we to lay motivated Such very a form and emphasis co-existence successful a model persons in on the educative through his which elements the child which becomes schoolwork. must be endorsed also by the teachers. They are the who, through their pedagogical, methodological, psychological, the outcome flexible and and educative work, carry the responsibility of the pedagogical-educative interesting to the pupils. Apart from the at large and schoolchildren, realized special new work that for must be acceptance of our education system by the society by members of the community, parents and along with the ardour with which the teachers their task, we shall have to create favourable possibilities for providing qualified teaching staff and to solve the unavoidable pedagogical, didactic, organizational and material problems, if we are to attain truly quality work. In developing our cadre of teaching staff we feel that it is very important that the pedagogical-educational work be performed by teachers of both nationalities. Teaching in a bilingual school demands free communication in both languages and a high degree of commitment. This is why we train our prospective staff quite severely: we want our trainee teachers to meet the requirements of high quality in their future work in both languages. We therefore set up programmes of regular permanent linguistic training of teachers in both languages. In order the to fact reach that the quality material aimed conditions at, we must are of great take account importance of for high-quality modern pedagogical work. we are receiving more financial support for our bilingual education, because our pedagogical work is more difficult to perform than that in customary schools; we need additional educational material, equipment and technology (for the nationality-programme), libraries, etc. also for calls The a relaxed high system degree of we apply within organization. It our classrooms gives each of the children the possibility and the right to get up, go to his classmate and talk with him about his work or exercises. There is a consequent use of notices and captions always in both languages: all two languages environment same time the and where items thus his confronted The pedagogic other factors surely occupy of educational equipment are labelled the child is continually moving in mother with the tongue is present language of the while other he is ethnic at in an the group. and didactic considerations that together with the help to realize the set aims of bilingual teaching, a central place in the framing of this conception. We have therefore created additional pedagogical objectives, inserted elements of the culture and language of the nationality, and implanted in the minds of pupils the principle of education 118 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, for co-existence. Only our bilingual education designed in such a way compulsory of the When while other the 1986, No.18 these elements have given real value to project, The school programmes have been that learning one's native language is possibility language introducing March is also culture as of acquiring continuously an an active knowledge present. essential element and objective into the educational programme, we feel it important that all the children get acquainted with the culture of the ethnic majority as well as with that of the minority group and of their parent nation. In fact, three cultures are involved. Knowledge about Hungary itself and its history forms part of regular instruction. Language itself also occupies an important place in our bilingual school system. Each language is included in the syllabus on par with the other, with the same number of lessons and with the same level of planned proficiency. In fact both languages - Slovene and Hungarian - are subjects on a par with each other, both appearing as languages-in-use during the classes in other subjects and being completely equal means of communication. The affiliation of pupils with each ethnic group and their number are not essential elements of our bilingual schoolwork, because the teaching programme requires the child to become literate in the language he usually speaks at home. Thus the sheer number does not influence the bilingual teaching. During the classes in all the other subjects the teaching is conducted bilingually in the first grade insofar as the work is oral, while in writing the child expresses himself in his native language. In the second grade this is reversed and the writing is done in the language that the child is not used to speaking at home. From the third grade onwards the teaching is completely bilingual, both orally as well as structure in of In grades 5-8, school (where class-teacher, teachers), except writing. both we continue teaching the the so-called “subject level” of the elementary the various subjects are no longer taught by one as in grades 1-4, but by several subject there for However, languages. exists each of complete the bilingualism languages. At in all this the level subjects bilingual schoolbooks and workbooks as well as practical workbooks are in use. Only language-workbooks (exercise books) are separate, while the textbooks themselves are bilingual. The subject instruction both the languages lessons Slovene, matter, vant level and in (grades enrichment using the 5-8) of separate other consequently the knowledge exercise subjects, the followed by reinforcement, summaries in Hungarian Hungarian terminology. and On books the the and direct a the proceeds of writing other readers. teaching deepening of down hand, with the structure the of the is of During done in subject- the rele- Hungarian national subjects are taught in Hungarian first, while reinforcement, summary and terminology follow in Slovene. It is very important that the pupils be able to use their terminology successfully both in speaking and in writing. The textbooks of the Hungarian national programme are written in Hungarian, while all the other textbooks for the subject level are in Slovene with additional Hungarian textbooks in which the subject matter is 119 Razprave in gradivo, given a condensed in Ljubljana, form is paid to each pupil data only) in the Hungarian the exercises in special solves certain exercises workbooks. We in his mother and some in the other language, be it orally or in All figures, tables, pictures, charts and other teaching offered to these pupils are given with the terminology languages. Hungarian first No.18 ’ Much attention see to it that The 1986, (essential language. tongue, writing. material in both March in national the programme Hungarian language mentioned as a above subject is and implemented as the language of instruction for the other subjects; later, Hungarian used in subjects like Introduction to Nature and Society, and Geography Education, Education of the Music with Hungarian and People's Plastic Rhythmics, Arts, Republic, is also History Social-Moral Literature and Physical etc. The Hungarian national programme embraces 50% of the teaching matter in grades 1-4 (the so-called "class level," where all the subjects are taught by one any the same class-teacher), while on the so-called "subject level" (grades where other school activities are this way, the Hungarian national overall work of our bilingual 5-8) this concerned, programme schools with figure is it is again is present a percentage 35%; 50%. In in the of 44%. Besides the regular education we pay great attention to music and folklore activities as well. Competitions in reading, common in other Slovene schools, regularly engage our children irrespective of their nationality; they play an important role in for a better and deeper knowledge of both languages. The pupils who possibility of have finished further our training in bilingual all our schools appropriate striving have throughout Slovenia as well as in the People's Republic Hungary, especially in (junior) colleges and universities. On the secondary-school level they can attend programmes Hungarian in Lendava; the possibility of a language also exists in all other Prekmurje. taught at In the In everyday two practice this education is closely both Slovenia work. Everyday of bilingual further study of the secondary schools in the field of pedagogical studies, Teacher-Training College in Maribor. educational systems of quality to our bilingual the institutions Hungarian tied also and Hungary, praxis gives to is the which adds proof of the necessity of a specially developed tolerance on the part of the ethnic majority as well as of the minority, if we are to reach progress with our bilingual education system. We must, however, consider the impossible, The fact at that least development in in the solving the all the problems foreseeable future. 25 years the last of may bilingual well be education system encourages and stimulates, showing visible results that are confirmed also by the attained results in the subsequent schooling of conception of national our pupils bilingual consciousness and in education and to their has mutually 120 everyday clearly enrich helped both life. to The develop nationalities. Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Ludvik Horvat Faculty of Philosophy Ljubljana, Yugoslavia UDC 376.744:159.922.7 THE ROLE OF PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION AND PREPARATORY CLASSES IN A BILINGUAL ENVIRONMENT AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE CHILD'S COGNITIVE AND SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT* The psychological measurements made at the end of a two-year period of preparatory education before entering the elementary school took place in June 1984. Sixty-two children were involved in this the investigation. socio-economic that we chose It was status the of by the children for considering families our the from nationality which experimental and they derived research, taking account of the ratio to the whole population of children in this ethnically and linguistically mixed area. The range in age of these children was from 72 to 90 months, the average age being 6 years and 10 months. In our experimental group there were more boys (59%) than girls (41%), which the children came from families occurred accidentally. 56% of with a lower socio-economic status, strata the 37.1% were families that the children Hungarian and from the were middle and socio-economically were Slovene 7% belonged by to only better 6.5% were situated. nationality, 53% of other nationalities from 40% of them were (Croatian, etc.). The same structural composition existed also in respect of the language spoken with in the family and the usual language of the child himself. 56.5% of the children came from the urban area of Lendava, either while Lendava population. 43% or were Murska Thirty-four from villages Sobota, with children in an the communes ethnically attended only the of mixed above- mentioned two-year preparatory education courses, while 28 children had attended kindergartens already before the experiment. The structural composition of our sample (i.e. experimental) group was controlled in respect of three basic variables (nationality, language use, and mother tongue; these three completely the overlapped variables showed each other that the in our groups example). (Slovenes, An analysis Hungarians of and other nations) did not differ from each other where sexes were concerned, neither did they differ as to the chronological age. However, the groups differed from each other in the socioeconomic status of their families (profession and educational level of children a higher It the fathers appeared also experimental group more of them 2 years. had * and mothers). showed a higher educational socio-economic status. Original: that more were attended Slovene, 14 of living the in The level Slovene the kindergartens pages 121 parents and, children town for of related period to from (Lendava), a Slovene this, our and that longer than Razprave Chosen in gradivo, in this proportion to unsuitable for development of to decide attributed. way, the any the to Establishing Ljubljana, the 1986, experimental No.18 group is in correct entire population; it is, however, rather comparison between the groups as to the mental children concerned, as it would be difficult which the March effects possible Psycho-Social differences Development of should be Children All the testing within our experimental groups was done by three psychologists doing their post-graduate studies in psychology. They were assisted by kindergarten teachers. The testinstructions were consequently given in both languages. We established the degree of the children's cognitive development by following the Piagetian concept of the conservation of the quantity of substance. We found that only a small percentage of the children (about 8%) had reached - at this age - the level of concrete logical operations and had already developed the idea about the these children when conservation these was tests of the quantity somewhat are done lower on of than substance. we children are that The used live ratio to in of obtaining cities, where the usual percentage is 15-20%. An equal ration of the degree of development of these logical capabilities, however, was found in children coming from other provincial environments in the areas where only one language was spoken, As for the language use, we found no differences whatsoever in the level of cognitive development between several groups of children. With the aid pre-school the of the level children. Lorge-Thorndike - we This determined experiment general intelligence the intellectual yielded results which we are used to obtaining in children who family environments and over a broader region. that there better. are Among indications the several of these groups of results children test development similar to — of those grow up in similar We could even say being we even did somewhat not find any statistically significant differences in the results of the general intelligence-test, which surprised us in a way, as we know that the child's family circumstances very much influence the As test to the results of this structure of very our already that in our groups were privileged in that test. experimental group, the children from their parents had we have emphasized Slovene families a statistically significant higher level of education. Because of the specific structure of our experimental groups we applied separately the aptitude test for (elementary) school beginners developed by Toliéié, which is a good indicator of the functional maturity as desired for basic school education. Although the results of this test too are very much dependent on the socio-educational conditions within the child's family, we did not find any statistically significant differences here between the groups of children with different language use (considering either the language used in the emphasized, however, their socio-economic The for comparison provincial family or the these families status. nationality). differed of the results of these tests environments showed that on 122 from one As we have another with the norms all sub-tests in set the Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 children from our experimental groups had better than average. On account of this we two-year preparatory education just before scored significantly can conclude that the regular schooling has had an important influence on the development abilities for subsequent work in school. of the functional The socio-emotional development of the children in our experiment was determined with the help of a special questionnaire (L. Horvat, et al.) which includes four scales of assessment: intellectual productivity, level of neurosis, non-adapted behaviour, and level of socialization. The evaluations of the individual items in the questionnaire were produced - on a three-degree scale - by the kindergarten teachers who had guided the preparatory course and who had first-hand knowledge of the children's behavioural reactions. The results of this point too of the appraisal of the child's development have shown that here too no statistically significant difference between the several groups can be observed in their language use or ethnic background. When comparing the results scored by the children of our experimental group with the results on the same evaluation scale scored by other experimental groups of children, we also found no special differences. Thus we have not found anything at all that would indicate that the children of our experimental group showed a higher rate of neurotic behaviour or of behaviour disorders than the ones Slovenia we usually find with other children in those parts of where only one language is spoken. These children showed also a were sufficiently normal productivity during the educational process and socialized. Discussion In this paper important research. we have given only a rough outline of the most empirical results of our rather extensive empirical The overall results obtained give us grounds to con- clude that the cognitive and socio-emotional development of the children who completed a two-year preparatory course before entering elementary school in the ethnically mixed area of Prekmurje, does not children in similar language is spoken. ctional maturity environment differ from (provincial) Considering for were subsequent even more the psycho-social areas of Slovenia only the narrow schooling, successful the than development of where only one aspect of fun- children those of from this other, similar environments in Slovenia, That this is so should be above all attributed to the fact that all these children had received a two-year preparatory educative had been effects focussed cult, of within on the children. the the had experienced somewhat This too the stimulative stimulation, much on the however, mere prepara- schooling and probably less on the cognitive It is also possible that it is rather diffi- framework cognitive It and kindergarten. perhaps tion for elementary development itself. ence course of would of growth be the and still kindergarten, general more to exert intellectual difficult to draw influ- abilities any general conclusions about differences between the children coming from either of the ethnic groups. It is a fact that or investigations revealed no statistically significant differences, but that does not mean that such differences do this direction would be all the groups, in certain language, terms of were their ethnic not equalized 123 not exist. Any conclusions in more unrewarding since the background with and respect the to use some of a impor- Razprave tant gradivo, independent mental Our in growth Ljubljana, variables of the difficult to that 1986, notably No.18 condition the general child. investigations more March and try their to results discuss indicate bilingualism. that In it this is even project we worked with children from a linguistically, culturally and ethnically mixed area. In the homes of these children only one language was spoken (Hungarian or Slovene);moreover, they declared themselves for only one language. The other language, however, could be heard every day in their environment, and therefore they started to acquire it simultaneously with their mother tongue during the preparatory period before entering school, The results provided by this experiment allow only one conclusion in children: in children, the simultaneous learning of their mother tongue and of the second language which they hear in their environment the preparatory negative effect general, nor does every day and, besides, are exposed to during course in the kindergarten, neither has a on the child's intellectual development in it affect unfavourably the development of his specific functional subsequent schooling. aspects of Also, there maturity, as required for do not occur disturbances of the child's socio-emotional development education conceived along these lines. because of the pre-school Nevertheless, a whole series of extremely important questions remain unanswered. The answer to some of them can be found with the help of the data that have been collected up till now but not yet processed to yield any conclusions; also, we will have to wait for the results of further, more intensive empirical research which we intend to carry out in the course of the coming years. References 1. Bain, B., Bilingually: 1980, pp. A. Yu, "Cognitive Consequences of One Parent, One Language," Can. J. Raising Children Psychol, Vol. 34, 304-313 2. Barclay, L.K., "Using Spanish as the Language of Instruction with Mexican-American Head Start Children: A Re-evaluation Using Meta-analysis," Perceptual and Motor Skills, Vol. 56, 1983, pp359-366 3. G6, L., "Psychological Questions Bilingualism in the Experiments," in Bilingualism Ljubljana, 1984, 4. Horvat, L., Education on the the pp. thesis (in - - of Hungarian-Serbo-Croatian Results Individual of and a Decennium Social of Dimensions, 133-140 "The Influence of Systematical Pre-School Intellectual Development of Children, Seen from Psychometrical Ph.D. Vojvodina and Qualitative-Analytical Point of View," press) 5. Mikes, M., "Individual and Social Aspects of Early Bilingualism," in Bilingualism - Individual and Social Dimensions, Ljubljana, 1984, pp. 127-132 6. Titone, personalité Vol. 34, pp. R., “Bilingualisme chez l'enfant 697-703. precoce bilingue," 124 et developpement Bulletin de de la Psychologie, Razprave in Slavica gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, Pavlié No.18 UDC 37:949.712"1941/1945" Slovene School Museum Ljubljana, Yugoslavia EDUCATIONAL First of WORK IN all, PARTISAN it may be SCHOOLS noted IN SLOVENIA* that the specificities of educational work in the partisan schools in Slovenia described in this article were not characteristic only of the Slovene partisan schools, but of all similar institutions throughout the occupied Yugoslav national language and culture. The causes for the National beginning of Slovene such a proliferation Liberation War the Second World teachers territory gathered in are War of to in the of the country conditions for (Slovene the been order to partisan so-called At that time the Slovene people nationalistic and clerical-fascist seriousness of the situation, the necessary had in be sought 1941, when of Village Culture,” and earlier, in Movement," led by teachers-communists. leadership that schools during long before the the progressive “Club 1936, founded preserve in of the the Friends “Teachers' were exposed to strong propaganda. Aware of the Communist Party assumed nation) founding of and thus partisan created the schools. Among the invaders that divided up the Slovene territory in April 1941, the Germans were far better prepared than the Italians and the Hungarians; nevertheless, all of them had the same aim: to root out the Slovene nation, fortify the frontier regions, and forever exterminate all that bore testimony to Slovene autochthony. The division of the Slovene territory caused changes in educational policy. In the areas occupied by the Germans and Hungarians Slovene schools were abolished, and Slovene teachers dismissed, exiled language of the Slovene or imprisoned. Children the invader. The Italians children instruction in later on they merely kept postwar period - provided taught in the putting off the new regulation till they were victorious, of course. books Slovene Various children were forced to attend the invaders' schools. denationalization pressures soon gave rise toa general rebellion that textbooks grew establishment into of an the were systematically organized Liberation liberation Front on 27 burnt, the Slovene the and were at first promised to allow their mother tongue, but and movement April the with 1941. In its programme the Liberation Front underscored also a number of tasks connected with the development of Slovene partisan schools and with The expansion troops Pupils * the was took Original: preservation of the evident part in Slovene, of national the liberation also in the all kinds of 10 national language movement and and culture. of partisan life and work of the schools. activities that contributed to pages 125 Razprave in gradivo, successful Ljubljana, operations of troops concentrated in The first parts of the by partisans, the new March partisan 1986, troops. No.18 In April 1942 larger towns with strong occupied Slovene territory people's government was the enemy fortifications. were liberated established, and the members of the National Liberation Boards were elected. The Executive Board of the Liberation Front, first located at Ljubljana, moved to Suha Krajina and then to Rog. Some basic legislation based on the new foundations was necessary to regulate the life and work in the liberated areas. One of the first of such documents was the Act passed by the Liberation Front on 17 May 1942, regulating the establishment of people's government in the liberated areas. In the field of education, the Liberation Front had passed the following Act: Art. 1: Classes the school year Art. 2: the Act All activities contrary to of the Liberation Front are Art. 3: function Art 4: in schools are to be lasting up to 27 June The teaching personnel of electing the principal The leading directives school obtained staff from given 1942. the orientation prohibited. every day, provided as a whole will assume from among the staff. members the regularly will people's act according authorities, realizing the fundamental aims of the national movement: liberation, complete self-determination of nation, the democracy of life. to in the the thereby liberation the Slovene Art. 5: The leading school staff members should take further steps towards the total elimination of all external and psychological consequences of the invader's imposition (they are to remove the occupier's pictures, flags, textbooks, and cease teaching in the enemy language). Special meetings were to be organized in order to uphold the idea of the successful struggle against the occupier's forces, so as to strengthen in them the feeling of patriotism and gradually develop the positive attitude towards the new political, social and cultural values. Schools had to dedicate some of the regular lessons to the special liberation programme. Art. 6: special The The leading care of the Act where a itself comprised special educational Liberation Front staff members financial status of schools and work the emphasis and the core had programme been development of laid of on the were to take teachers. organization, the patriotism. contents In this of way, teachers were given the basic orientation on what to teach and how to educate. More attention was paid to the introduction of new methods of work in order to prevent the new contents from remaining mere propaganda. Special provided meetings were with implementation the of the organized basic for teachers guidelines above-mentioned From the organizational point tradition in that the principal of of 126 who for were in the practical this way Act. view, the the school new was Act broke with to be appointed Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 by the government or its agencies. Now it was the teaching staff itself that elected the leading personnel of the school from among the members of the collective. With this the importance of collective leadership was underlined. It represented a further step towards the democratization of educational policy. Nevertheless, the above-mentioned Act did not regulate in detail some aspects of the existence of partisan schools, as for instance the financial status of teachers and schools themselves. This deficiency Second There World were problems was often felt later, also after the end of the War. no dilemmas arose, as to however, the due ideology to the of shortage of teachers who were often regular troops in addition to their educational work. In spite of provide all work, there the lack new of school. funds members Many and of the partisan the fact that the liberated areas could not always the security necessary for uninterrupted educational is no doubt that the Act on Education, passed by the Liberation Front, represented the basic document not only for the development of partisan schools but also for the affirmation of education after the end of the National Liberation The second period of the development heralded by the Italian capitulation, number of schools in Lower Carnolia, Littoral, where instead of Italian, War. of partisan schools was which brought to life a Inner Carnolia and the Slovene became the language of instruction. The school system became more centralized, and a special school commission was appointed by the Liberation Front. Secondary schools were Kocevje and Sticna. reestablished at Crnomelj, Novo Mesto, The Italian capitulation and the liberation of sizable areas enabled the systematic organization of compulsory schooling, which was once more interrupted by the great German offensive in 1943. could It was assume only in February 1944 that the Section for education all the responsibility for further development of schools, Among the weightier tasks of the Section, - care for regular work of the different forms of instructional travelling - the enemy schools) foundation attacks; in of the occupied regular we must schools and work (courses, mention: organization of evening courses, areas; schools in the areas secure from - uniformity of compulsory education in Slovenia; this task had been partially carried out also by regional and district Supervisors. Within the Section for education, a pedagogical council was founded in November 1944 to deal the questions related to the instructional and other educational - organization political Syllabuses The the of courses, for special compulsory third period Session of teachers' in-service contents work; meetings training, and and and special with all methods of . conferences, preparation of new schooling. of partisan schools spanned the period between the Slovene National Liberation Council at 127 Razprave in Crnomelj gradivo, in country in Ljubljana, February May 1944, March and 1986, the No.18 final liberation of the 1945. The Slovene National Liberation Council founded a special administrative board to undertake all the activities related to the organization, development and supervision of schools. This period of the development of partisan schools was characterized by special care devoted to new teachers and the strengthening of the function towards of real the parents' council democratization of as the one of the basic educational and steps school policy. It follows from what we have said so far that the organization of partisan schools was not based on a stable system of life and work, because each individual school had to fight its way through the maelstrom of war. Nevertheless, the provisional and temporary organization of the elementary school grew into regular instructional work after the war. The location of schools had changed regarding the movement of the enemy army. The partisan schools in Lower Carnolia, Inner Carnolia, White Carnolia and the Littoral had the best possibilities for work. In all these regions teachers and pupils were in close contact with the population of the particular region where the school in question was located. There were Slovene many more schooling troubles in Upper with the Carnolia organization and of compulsory Styria. The circumstances during the war were not favourable to the introduction of any organizational changes. Nearest to the type of partisan schools was the organization of the pre-war elementary school. A very important role was assigned to the Pioneers’ organization, which connected the life in school with out-of-school activities and thus took an active part in the liberation movement. Pupils and teachers took part in special kinds of competition organized under the aegis of the Slovene National Liberation Council. This form of instructional work was carried out at the third anniversary of the establishment of the Liberation Front in March 1944. Pupils and teachers competed in different fields of educational work; for instance, in the arrangement and cultivation of school gardens and in the knowledge of the most important events that occurred during the National Liberation War. Pupils were keen on collecting medicinal herbs, fruits and different spare materials which could be of any help to the partisans. Besides their obvious practical usefulness, strengthened the feeling of collectivity, dependency. In understanding necessary in the it those general was not atmosphere difficult circumstances. 128 to of sustain these activites affiliation and friendship the and discipline Razprave in gradivo, Lucija Cok Institute for SR Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 UDC 376.744(497.12=50) Schooling Slovenia Organisational Koper, Unit Yugoslavia L'EDUCATION BILINGUE ET TRANSCULTURELLE DANS LES ECOLES LITTORAL SLOVENE - PARTICULARITES DE L'ORIENTATION DIDACTIQUE* Les la DU conditions concernant le bilinguisme/plurilinguisme reflètent situation sociogéographique, socioculturelle et socioéconomique conformément à du milieu. Elles deviennent particulières la spécificité de l'environnement. Le pays qui mène sa politique scolaire vers une éducation interlinguistique et transculturelle veut instituer - par un ordre établi - les conditions nationales et culturelles actuelles dans le contexte social existant. Etant fondée sur des concepts démocratiques, et tendant à l'égalité sociale, nationale et linguistique, cette politique peut concevoir des rapports sociaux plus solides. Elle aide à créer des nouveaux rapports interindividuels, à préparer un sol fertile pour une coexistence harmonieuse et active des nations. Une telle situation sociale ne permet aucune sorte de favoritisme où de suprématie d'une seule langue-culture-nation. La réalisation effective de ces objectifs n'est ni simple ni facile. Avant tout elle implique des changements radicaux en ce qui concerne la conception des rapports humains, et la formation du raisonnement concernant l'identité nationale, culturelle et sociale de l'homme. Par une rééducation de l'individu (et à travers lui toute la société) on peut vaincre les limitations uninationales et surpasser les ambitions uniculturelles, arrivant par conséquent à une nouvelle conscience, et à valeurs humaine. trois conditions Pour atteindre une telle formation essentielles doivent être réunies: 1) favorable une situation à l'acquisition et à l'adaptation des diverses sociogéographique et socioculturel; de cultures de nouvelles de l'individu plusieurs dans un langues contexte 2) l'instauration d'une politique linguistique perméable à coexistence des langues/des cultures et prête à une réforme l'instruction la de traditionnelle: 3) la création de systèmes institutionnels ouverts à toutes les innovations pédagogiques, aux propos spécifiques, à l'expérience acquise dans la recherche didactique. Cette réflexion faite, on pourrait se poser la question suivante: "Dans quelle mesure, l'école majoritaire du Littoral slovène, bilingue et pluriculturelle, a-t-elle réussi à établir une éducation on ne transculturelle peut * Original: consulter tendant ni au bilinguisme?" analyses French 129 ni données Pour le moment vérifiées. Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 L'observation extérieure du processus en marche, de l'état des choses telles-quelles n'indique que quelques faits positifs: -respect strict des lois de la part des institutions scolaires; -organisation l'italien; - exacte élargissement des de l'enseignement contenus de spécifiques la seconde appartenant langue: aux matières sociologiques; - intérêt et engagement du personnel (l'italien, dans notre cas); - bons résultats de leurs objective de la connaissance - augmentation de la part des de la enseignant la seconde efforts didactiques de l'italien); motivation pour l'étude de la langue (évaluation seconde langue éléves. Les deux nationalités autochtones du Littoral slovéne (Les Slovénes et les Italiens) ne présentent qu'une partie intégrante de la population hétérogéne et (peuplant le territoire de 346 République sociaux et des plyrinationale km“2). Dans la de 73,602 habitants Constitution de la socialiste slovéne, les rapports linguistiques, culturels des territoires plurinationaux sont réglés 4 niveaux divers, sous Dans l'instruction, droits égaux. les des formes Slovénes et et des les contenus spécifiques. Italiens jouissent de Le fait de rencontrer plusieures nationalités autochtones coexistant dans le méme contexte social présente une opportunité exceptionnelle, humaines la offerte générales formation d'une et à tous, individuelles société plus de et mieux de former les coopérer solidaire, plus valeurs activement tolérante, 4 plus forte, voire plus ouverte. C'est l'instruction, avant tout, qui constitue les fondements de ce processus de formation et de coopération. 11 n'est pas de mon intention de présenter l'aspect légal de l'éducation bilingue. Je ne voudrais que formuler quelques points de départ (partant de nos expériences) pour arriver au buts fondamentaux de cette sphère de l'éducation. L'apprentissage d'une seconde langue ne s'arréte pas à l'acquisition de la compétence communicative effective. Celle-là présente seulement le point de départ, la base pour atteindre des buts plus ambitieux: la formation d'une seconde culture et la promotion sociale et individuelle de l'individu. Apprentissage de la seconde langue + acceptation d'une seconde culture + connaissance d'une seconde civilisation représentent donc un trinôme encore plus valable pour l'enseignement de la seconde langue, qu'il ne l'est pour l'enseignement de la langue étrangère. Pouvoir communiquer valeurs - des éléments contacts avec en italien expressifs des proches tous les d'une chez jours, réalité - soi et en assimilant quotidienne avec des - des avoir voisins en Italie: tout cela devrait renforcer la motivation pour l'étude de la langue italienne. Les résultats de l'apprentissage devraient être meilleurs. Si ce n'est pas le cas, il s'en suit que les implications pédagogiques particulières 130 qui devraient Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March caractériser la didactique de la valables ou qu'elles sont absentes. manifester - par 1986, No.18 seconde langue ne sont pas Ces implications doivent se surtout: l'orientation didactique (méthodes, techniques, formes de travail), - par l'organisation - par Il les contenus s'agît de de l'enseignement et spécifiques. rejeter les manipulations verbales et formalismes didactiques et d'adopter des stratégies traditionnelles, fonctionnelles et dynamiques. Les enfants de l'école maternelle apprennent les les moins premiers éléments, les structures linguistiques italiennes de base à l'âge de 5 ans. Ce n'est pas l'anticipation de l'enseignement formel, Il s'agit de la stimulation, de la motivation à l'éducation bilingue. L'enfant doit s'habituer à l'audition de la seconde langue, prendre contact avec elle, et avec ceux qui la parlent. L'assimilation des aptitudes linguistiques, acquises par le chant, la danse, le jeu dans l'interaction de la situation didactique et de la vie réelle, ne constitue pas pour l'enfant un effort susceptible d'annuler les effets positifs de l'apprentissage précoce de la seconde langue. L'enfant qui est motivé et enthousiasmé, arrive à posséder des facultés cognitives et psychométriques ultérieures, sans se rendre compte de l'effort. Étant L'éducation secondaire indifférent bilingue ne se ou réele limite non et pas motivé propre à il à ne s'y prêtera l'école l'enseignement pas. primaire d'une et matière supplémentaire: l'italien. 11 s'agît d'exploiter l'ensemble des matières qui contiennent des éléments de culture et de civilisation. La éviter l'approche langue maternelle par exemple ne pourra pas contrastive dans l'acquisition de deux langues. L'histoire ou la géographie présentent des possibilités d'articulation cognitive à exploiter dans la perception de la réalité. La vie extérieure offre des leçons d'art, de science, d'architecture. L'acquisition considérée, bien-sûr, comme la de la partie seconde langue est fondamentale de cette éducation bien incorporée dans cet ensemble didactique. Elle doit, par conséquent, adopter des stratégies pédagogiques spécifiques. On propose des procédés méthodologiques plus mobiles dans l'organisation de l'enseignement, plus libres dans les plus ouverts dans le choix des contenus critères d'évaluation, tout en observant la routine didactique et les appuis glotadidactiques. L'application didactique 1) le répertoire 2) les méthodes et 3) les éléments éducatifs. Le . ; répertoire Les unités des des doit observer: contenus la forme du travail “en spécifiques contenus thématiques spécifiques se prétent 131 e at aux flexible élargissem . et entsvari etable aux Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 restrictions selon les intéréts et les aptitudes des éléves, leur connaissance linguistique, les conditions de travail, la formation des enseignants. Elles sont préparées à divers niveaux des difficultés linguistiques ou de contenu, en présentant, par exemple: les bilinguisme; science, aspects les historiques aspects culturels l'information, etc...les du et démographiques milieu deux bilingue: langues: par opposition à la seconde langue, écrite, le dialecte, la traduction. langue langue du l'art, la maternelle parlée - langue L'enseignement de la seconde langue doit introduir des formes de travail fonctionnelles et des méthodes dynamiques et actuelles. D'une part l'enseignement reste scolaire, par matières, avec une organisation extensive et d'autre part, extrascolaire, interdisciplinaire, avec une organisation intensive. L'étude du milieu, en groupe ou individuelle, les divers types de tables rondes ou discours ouverts, les activités (comme p. ex: la miseen-scène en classe, les cours de danse populaire, les manifestations traditionnelles), l'étude autonome sont des méthodes des qui leçons assez exigent une organisées limité dans le de liberté didactique manière choix des formelle. traditionnelle, procédés Au cours l'enseignant est didactiques. Le processus didactique, ainsi organisé, source naturelle d'éléments éducatifs: donne naissance à une - les contacts entre jeunes des deux nationalités; - les contacts et les échanges entre des institutions; - la connaissance des faits par expérience personnelle ne peuvent que former des jeunes tolérants, solidaires, curieux, plus informés et donc plus dynamiques et plus formés. Les réflexions et les constatations faites jusqu'ici sont plus au moins générales. Elles résultent des expériences pédagogiques et de la recherche glotodidactique actuelle. Mais elles sont aussi spécifiques en tout ce qui touche l'application didactique immédiate et les procédés pédagogiques concrets. Tout enseignement rencontre refonte de la pratique des obstacles, crées didactique. A chaque par les exigences de moment les méthodes d'enseignement sont soumises à l'évaluation objective, à la réforme ou à l'adaptation. Le milieu pour sa part exerce une influence déterminante sur toute activité didactique. On arrive donc par nécessité l'enseignement. urgente Dans notre à modifier cas il l'orientation faut didactique considérer encore: de les besoins linguistiques ultérieurs, la tendance à l'éducation transculturelle articulée, le devoir implicite de conserver les valeurs de la culture et de la tradition autochtones. En de 1980 l'Institut pour l'Instruction la Slovénie, groupe de travail de sur l'enseignement Littoral slovène. décidé de mettre de actualiser langue République socialiste a préparé une analyse italienne dans les En consultant les résultats et les au point une orientation didactique - déterminer mieux la l'ensemble didactique; - la de la Koper position l'enseignement de de la seconde écoles du données on a qui devrait: langue dans l'italien; - élargir l'éducation bilingue aux autres matières comme l'histoire, la géographie, la sociologie, l'éducation artistique, etc. 132 Razprave Pour in gradivo, actualiser Ljubljana, March l'enseignement 1986, de No.18 l'italien il fallait y introduir surtout des implications pédagogiques particulières présentées antérieurement. Pour mieux comprendre l'essentiel d'une telle parmi beaucoup implication, je d'autres vous présenterai activités un didactiques exemple seulement d'actualisation. L'année scolaire 1984/85 trois écoles secondaires (une classe de première et deux classes de troisième; 67 élèves) ont introduit l'enseignement de la langue italienne réorganisé. À ce moment il fallait avant tout préparer les professeurs d'italien aux nouvelles approches didactiques, formuler les instruments de travail, réorganiser le programme, informer le milieu dans lequel les activités didactiques innoveraient. On a préparé les instruments pour le travail de recherche et organisé des manifestations. Guidés par trois professeurs volontaires, les élèves ont effectué trois études du milieu. Encouragés par les résultats, ils ont projeté d'autres études. Ils ont pris part à une table ronde (La littérature italienne) à laquelle les poètes italiens de l'Istrie ont participé. Les élèves ont assisté à trois mises en scène, préparées dans leur classes par national Tout les acteurs italien cela de du Dramma italiano (théatre du groupe Rijeka). représentait 20% du contenu du programme de l'enseignement (20 leçons d'italien sur 105 prévues par classe/par année scolaire) et procédait d'une forme extrascolaire et interdisciplinaire. Les enseignants, formant la stratégie didactique et animant le procédé pédagogique, ont suivis les éléves dans leur travail individuel, et en groupe. Le programme réalisé, on a conduit une enquéte. Les réponses des éléves indiquent ce qui suit: a) ils ont b) l'approche élèves du été des pour milieu satisfaits les bilingue et compris d) été ils ont ou connaissance e) les £) ils la ont de de communiquer voisins rondes - les eu ont linguistiques vécu des Nous ont élèves l'italien selon n'avons scolaire. Le réveillé et l'intérêt des socioculturelles l'acquisition avec dans donc de la des italophones les interviews, obligés de pas les et culturelles nouvelles exprimé langue leurs les verifier leur ansint ®t pes rencontré travail de presque expériences désir le stratégies mêmes d'avoir l'impression interindividuels; g) a l'italien; élèves connaissances naturelles leurs tables de recherche; socioéconomiques nécessité obligés les de pluriculturel; camarades, enquêtes, travail situations conditions c) ils ont italienne; amis du ; 133 les continuer de à effort; rapports apprendre didactiques. x de difficultés UE recherche dans sans fini, dans par le mi le exemple, ilieu les extra- élèves Razprave in gradivo, ont mis les communautés Ljubljana, résultats à italiennes March 1986, No.18 la disposition des intéressés. se sont manifestées comme promouvoir la socialisation transculturelle. du contenu de l'éducation Quelques voulant bilingue et Cet exemple pourrait vérifier la valeur des implications pédagogiques spécifiques ci-dessus présentés. IL prouve aussi que l'apprentissage de la seconde langue ne présente qu'un seul élément du processus global de l'éducation tendant au bilinguisme et au transculturalisme. L'enseignement de complémentaire que du groupe éducation la de seconde l'éducation national. doit langue aussi bien doit de L'orientation dépasser les étre la une nation didactique stratégies et partie majoritaire de les cette procédés pédagogiques traditionnels. Former des jeunes gens bilingues et biculturels (but essentiel de l'éducation dans les territoires plurinationaux et plurilingues) et un processus complexe qui relie l'école au milieu et vice versa et impose à tous les participants une collaboration active, Bibliographie 1. AAVV, nuova 1983, Italia Glottodidattica Editrice, 2. Borgia, Charlotte, et transculturelle, 3. Cok, Lucija, Firenze - Princpi e realizzazioni, 1983, Vers une éducation interlinguistique Atti del convegno internazionale, Mantova 1984, Education for Bilingualism Restricted to Language Instruction, Conference, individualne in druzbene razseznosti," Ljubljana 4. Lado, Robert, 1976, lingue, Minerva Italica 5. Titone, bilingue, Renzo, Armando La ristampa 1972, Armando Per una didattica Bilinguismo editore, Not e - delle educazione Roma 6. Titone, Renzo, 1975, Psicolinguistica Armando editore, Roma, 1975. 134 scientifica precoce Is “Dvojezicnost applicata, Armando Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, Nelida Milani-Kruljac Paculté de Pédagogie Pula, Yugoslavia ECOLE ET Le But BILINGUISME que l'on No.18 UDC DANS LA poursuit REGION depuis 376.744(497.1=50) ISTRO-QUARNERIENHE* quelques années dans la région istro-quarnerienne est le développement du bilinguisme collectif, condition essentielle pour la construction d'une communauté qui ne soit pas éphémère, mais fondée sur de solides bases éthiques et civiles, enrichies par une communication interculturelle plus intense. C'est la meilleure idée directrice dans le développement des rapports entre peuples et nationalités“ de la Yougoslavie. L'étude réciproque de la langue dans l'école du peuple majoritaire et dans l'école du groupe national italien est une des conditions fondamentales dans la réalisation des postulats constitutionnels sur la parité linguistique des citoyens des territoires entre les populations du triangle régional et contribue à la connaissance réciproque et à l'acceptation des valeurs culturelles des peuples et des nationalités dans notre Pays plurinational. L'éducation à l'égalité est une indication précise de la pédagogie, conquérir au-delà de la éducative à rejoindre par Située dans étroit l'extrême avec des qui la considère comme une valeur a pure donnée naturelle, une finalité des moyens appropriés et concrets. nord-ouest territories germaniques, et de trois italiennes et slaves, zones linguistiques, toujours dans de eu, participation à partir des di un esodo” environ, pour sa aux longue trois de la Yougoslavie, habités au la histoire, cultures par des en carrefour de trois cultures région istro-quarnerienne a une qui fonction se médiatrice répandaient centres prééminents. Selon les données de (Columni, et al., 1980, p. 571), 200,000 la plupart italophones, contact populations partirent de ces et jusqu'ici la "Storia personnes terres-là, bien que le choix national ne fût pas la motivation exclusive et peut-être même fondamentale, en coupant ainsi un équilibre ethnique ancien de plusieurs siècles, soit à la suite du traité de paix de 1947 ou du Mémorandum de Londres en 1954, en provoquant un drame qui avait implications complexes: la des origines lutte entre lointaines et bourgeoisie des et prolétariat, entremêlée à la question nationale. À cause du vide crée par l'exode, l'ethnie italienne a aujourd'hui une position géographique de dispersion particulière, à peu près unique - ce qui comporte des particularités même au point de vue sociolinguistique et linguistique. C'est de là que naissent de nombreux problèmes, qui sont peut-être inconnus par d'autres communautés ethniques, de l'etablissement est sans tenir compte des homogènes sur leurs territoires. La forme un facteur de bilinguisme très important, autres facteurs qui peuvent à leur tour le renforcer ou l'affaiblir. Ici il ne s'agit pas d'iles linguistiques compactes, mais d'une péninsule linguistique avec une nationalité peu consistante, diluée dans la masse slavophone *Original: French 135 Razprave in gradivo, (Freddi, 1983, Ljubljana, p.9). Dans une March telle 1986, No.18 situation de pas de frontières linguistiques bien définies linguistiques réciproquement exclusifs. Les gens de nationalité italienne particulier le long de la bande méridionale de la péninsule, et dans contact ni de il n'y a territoires vivent dans l'Istrie, en côtière occidentale et la ville de Rijeka (Fiume). Administrativement les italiens sont inclus dans trois communes de la république de Slovénie (Koper-Capodistria, Prian-Pirano, Izola-Isola) et dans onze communes de la Croatie (Umag-Umago, Buje-Buie, Novigrad-Cittanova, Porec-Parenzo, Rovinj-Rovigno, Pula-Pola, Lain-Albona, Pazin-Pisino, Buzet-Pinguente, OpatijaAbbazia, Rijeka-Fiume). Dans une telle parcellisation territoriale ils ne jouissent pas des mêmes droits, étant incorporés dans des communes bilingues et dans des communes nonbilingues: dans les premières, les statuts imposent à tous les citoyens l'acquisition et le maintien de la condition de bilingue et c'est pourquoi l'étude de l'italien est obligatoire dans les écoles de la majorité; dans les communes, non-bilingues on applique, langue, au et facultative contraire, l'étude de le principe l'italien (Milani-Kruljac, de dans 1984, la les pp. liberté écoles d'usage de majoritaires la est 39-47). Aux phénoménes de l'exode et du mouvement démographique de la campagne vers les villes, il faut ajouter l'établissement massif des immigrés d'autres regions du Pays. La vie économique de la population (229,000 ouvriers) est fondée essentiellement sur l'industrie de constructions navales, sur les transports et l'activité commerciale L'activité rurale est ("La Voce devenue, del en Popolo," beaucoup de 17.V.1984, cas, une p.l). sorte travail secondaire. Logiquement ces phénomènes-là réduisent manifestations de vie typiques d'une communauté autocthone; de les on doit y ajouter les pièges généralisés d'une civilisation consommatrice et nivellatrice qui vont au détriment des valeurs caractéristiques, comme le patrimoine historique, les traditions, l'identité ethnique, la sauvegarde linguistique, selon un processus qui avance dans le sens de l'assimilation. Les chiffres du dernier recensement montrent d'une façon évidente que le problème fondamental de la communauté italienne de Yougoslavie est aujourd'hui celui de la définition et de la conservation de son identité: 15,132 habitants se sont déclarés italiens sur un total de 503,926 habitants.“ Mais la langue dans les terres de frontiére, ne détermine pas toujours la nationalité. Les conclusions d'une recherche de l'Institut Géographique de Ljubljana révèlent, pour ce qui concerne les aspects linguistiques, qu'il y a un nombre beaucoup plus élevé de personnes qui emploient l'italien soit comme langue maternelle soit comme 60,000-70,000 langue de communication.” slavophones qui On emploient estime qu'il indifféremment le y ait croate et l'italien, ou bien les codes dialectaux: c'est le résultat d'une anthropologie istrienne séculaire et spontanée. Les bases du bilinguisme collectif ne sont contraire, elles ont des appuis très l'histoire, la culture de la région. donc solides pas illusoires, dans la au tradition, Le fait qu'un très grand nombre d'istriennes devienne bilingue sans instruction formelle, ne signifie pas que nous devions renoncer à l'école comme moyen de formation des bilingues. Cette affirmation exige un approfondissement du problème dans une 136 Razprave in optique gradivo, Ljubljana, didactique et March conduit au binôme l'on considère le rapport étroit et de comportement des locuteurs, l'enseignement individus cela d'une seconde bilingues correspond au et 1986, bilinguisme. Si entre langue et modèles de il est possible de soutenir vie que langue en école doit bicultureisés territorie No.18 et tendre (Freddi, à réaliser 1973). des Est-ce que question? Il y a deux écoles distinctes: l'une avec le croate ou le serbe comme langue d'enseignement, l'autre avec l'italien comme langue d'enseignement, avec l'étude obligatoire de la deuxième langue dès la groupe deuxième classe primaire jusqu'à la fin des études linguistique italien: et l'étude de la deuxième soit obligatoire soit facultatif, slavophone dans l'école primaire sporadique, n'est pas étude ou l'école supplémentaire. L2", de dans vehiculaire - langue n'importe l'ordre dans motivations moyenne d'autres Elle est pour autre définie la qui “langue distinguer langue justifient La un mais du de linguistique aléatoire et deuxième disciplines, la étrangère: lequel elle est étudiée socio-politiques et particulières, groupe façon orientée, pour seconde, quelle pour le et d'une pour le langue, langue c'est milieu une social maternelle elle et renvoie à et à des situations et socio-psychologiques discours spécifique dans une perspective aussi bien éducative que méthodologique et didactique. Son acquisition a lieu dans un contexte - peu importe s'il est ample ou restreint - où elle est parlée et vécue dans la trame de l'existence quotidienne (Freddi, 1983, p.6). Les représentants du groupe national italien affirment que la survivance de l'ethnie est liée à une école de bonne qualité en langue italienne. L'école de langue italienne est parfaitement intégrée dans le système scolaire des républiques de Slovénie et de Croatie. Elle est une “traduction” en langue italienne des programmes faits dans les écoles du peuple de majorité; seules, font exception, comme prévu par la Loi sur l'education et l'instruction dans les langues des nationalités, les matières ethniquement marquées, considerées les axes portants de l'identité éducation nationale: artistique littérature, et musicale. histoire, L'exigence d'une géographie, connaissance parfaite de la langue italienne déconseille une école éventuellement bilingue. L'école de langue italienne garantit, à ceux qui en sortent, une telle maîtrise de la langue qu'ils peuvent établir des sans souffrir d'un demi-croate congruent italienne qui et l'enseignement y exige un de contacts complexes on n'en stimule en même avec l'aire culturelle d'infériorité. fait rien. D'un L'école est de la langue-deux, niveau de deuxième ou domaine le croate langue très ou serbe/slovéne.* supérieur à celui On qu'on En huit ans d'école croate où au serbe par semaine de la suivante: classe: heures l'unique et cultive l'emploi actif de la langue temps encourage et exploite à fond exige dans l'école de langue croate ou serbe. primaire, les heures de cours consacrées au sont de 1,120 à 1,280 environ, réparties manière italienne demi-italien 12345678 de croate ou serbe: Dans les classes de supplémentaires pour V, le 23444434 VI, VII travail 137 et de VIII il y a des legons renforcement avec les Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, et avec les March 1986, plus faibles. meilleurs éléves orientée, heures de dans chacune des quatre classes, croate ou serbe par semaine. No.18 Dans on fait la moyenne normalement 4 Les résultats dans les écoles de langue italienne en ce qui concerne la deuxième langue sont décidément superieurs à ceux de l'étude de l'italien dans les écoles de langue croate ou serbe, ou il est enseigné et appris trop souvent de manière épisodique, générique et selon une idée réductive de langue. Des facteurs psychologiques, sociaux et démographiques ont déterminé une situation de monolinguisme au sein du groupe slavophone, par rapport au bilinguisme total de la communauté italienne d'aujourd'hui. Jusqu'aux derniers temps ont manqué la volonté de parvenir à une intégration sociale avec la population italienne et les perspectives de promotion sociale moyennant la langue italienne. L'italien l'école majoritaire, en tant que deuxième c'est une réalisation langue, enseigné dans stable de date récente dans les communes bilingues et dans les fractions des communes partiellement bilingues (Vodnjan-Dignano, Sisan-Sisano, GalizanaGallesano, Fazana-Fasana); variable dans les communes non- bilingues: il est étiqueté comme langue étrangère à Rijeka-Fiume et en général dans les écoles supérieures et facultés de la region. Il a été introduit en territoire à nationalité mixte de Slovénie en 1959 après la signiature du traité de Udine. Depuis 1967 l'italien est une matière obligatoire dans le territoire de Koper-Capodistria, Gorizia. a été Dans les introduit factultative zones dans républicain; dans républicain; dans l'introduire peu sondage p- 1). à pour Si pour une communes le sur minorité bilingues bases parmi pédagogique l'obligation de Croatie par décret en 1973 par décret on commencé en 1973 a facultatives, les CC Gorica- de non-bilingues des préalable service territoire mixte bilingues communes peu au le dans nationalité communes les effectué (Institut les les à parents Gospic juridique et l'italien après et les a un élèves Rijeka, 1979, à apprendre la L2 est une parti intégrante du comportement complexe de l'individu, pour la majorité elle peut devenir un moment unique d'affirmation du principe de parité (Velan, 1983, p.3). Le point de vue du législateur a été justement celui d'assurer dans les territoires nationalemennt mixtes un statut paritaire aux deux langues en contact. Quelques chiffres sont éloquents: la langue italienne est étudiée par plus de 20,000 élèves (en territoire slovène et croate) dans les écoles de la majorité, dans lesquelles travaillent plus de 200 instituteurs et professeurs d'italien. En ce qui concerne le volume horaire en Croatie la situation est hétérogène: 2 heures par semaine demie) et moyenne. Rovigno), à l'école 2 Dans si linguistique, primaire heures les le par communes profil le est nombre (dans semaine quelques dans bilingues à orientation d'heures écoles certains une heure profils (Buje-Buie et de à 3-4 par la Rovinj- touristique-hôtelière monte et ou semaine. Généralement on commence à étudier l'italien en grand nombre à l'école primaire, bien que cet apprentissage ne soit presque jamais fondé sur une solide motivation psychologique et sociale, et après, au fur et à mesure, le nombre se réduit, s'éparpille, et il n'en classes de reste qu'un petit nombre ge l'école moyenne orientée. 138 fidéles dans les derniéres Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, Quand on se pose le apprendre le croate on n'entend déjà à primaire. pas discuter C'est une autre. La première langue enfants slavophones de la littéraire, mais c'est auraient besoin dans premières les affronter on peut vraie élèves le constater qui des dialecte années du des de le par l'école à croate On peut supposer que les contacts plus profonds avec connaissaient le dialecte slavophones langue dans où aussi le commencer problème avec Ces quand langue radio, littéraire standards, TV et la il faut Souvent créatif surtout de chez la les italienne. slavophones pourraient le groupe linguistique istro-vénitien. Donc, la élèves-là linguistique l'emploi la est aussi des la langue italienne. serbe, répondent pas à la réalité des faits analyser soigneusement l'approche au aussi bien croate ou outre que doit Le élémentaire la deux niveaux: linguistiques l'école, étude absolue. istro-vénitien. difficultés à son d'approfondissement dialecte problèmes apprendre un italien effet, les modèles si nécessité période seconde, ont No.18 des enfants italophones (mais campagne istrienne) n'est pas le d'une passage langue 1986, problème de l'âge optimal pour commencer à ou le serbe dans l'école de langue italienne, absolument la March et établir des italien s'ils il faudrait dialectal. En présentés aux presse italiennes, ne quotidiens. IL faudrait dialecte istro-vénitien de l'école de langue italienne que de celle de langue serbe. Le modèle linguistique istro-quarnerie qui, poursuive des buts fonctionnels, extend prendre en considération l'intégration des groupes linguistiques, devraient conduire les locuteurs aux aptitudes suivantes: comprendre, parler, lire et écrire l'italien littéraire mais aussi comprendre l'istro-vénitien. En effet, le dialecte ne diffère pas tellement de la langue pour ne pas être compris par ceux qui connaissent l'italien commun. D'ailleurs, les italophones comprennent parfaitement - sans savoir nécessairement les parler - les dialectes istro-slaves. Pour atteindre le but il serait suffisant de préparer pour la classe des matériaux linguistiques de type passif du dialecte, c'est-à-dire seulement auditif. Cela semble justifié si les slavophones doivent être rapprochés de la langue et de la culture du deuxième langue doit contexte istrien. L'enseignement de la logiquement respecter le répertoire régional. De réelles améliorations être obtenues: - en avec écoles - en portant celles de les de heures un - en rendant humeurs du aux points de obligatoire, épisodiques, intégrées d'enseignement conseiller l'enseignement langue croate faisant ainsi ou une dont dans la de du l'italien de croate pourraient l'italien à ou de serbe pour la langue égalité dans les italienne; à l'Institut pédagogique pedagosku sluzbu); d'égalité, l'étude l'enseignement langue employant dans serbe en jonction, pédagogique Rijeka-Fiume pour de plusieurs affirmer l'italien territoire un réseau sur programmation personnel, aux de vue de chaque une 139 za principe toutes italienne prosvjetnode parité et les écoles de à nationalité mixte, en entre maintes initiatives base scolaire aléas du commune le dans (Zavod facultative, générale et non pas soumises aux financement, aux exigences par rapport à son statut; et Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 - en confiant de préférence l'enseignement de l'italien aux instituteurs et institutrices pour qui l'italien est la langue maternelle; outre qu'ils possèdent une licence, ils ont une connaissance sûre de la langue des enfants dans l'école primaire et ils offrent un modèle acceptable d'italien qui soutient la comparaison la avec maison, est celui que offert par les la natifs parlent télévision et avec italienne, celui que qui les à élèves suivent; - en institutionalisant moyenne orientée: secondaire les l'efficacité: - en une sans liaison continuité resultats soignant la du sont entre école cycle primaire maigres qualification primaire sur au le et cycle plan professionnelle du de cadre enseignant; - en introduisant des éléments de culture vénitienne dans d'autres matières (histoire, l'école en langue croate; italienne et istrogéographie, etc.) de - en motivant à chaque niveau (structures socio-politiques, institutions, professeurs, familles) et en sensibilisant l'opinion publique aux problèmes du bilinguisme, qui devrait être une valueur dans l'échelle des valeurs, individuelle et collective, dans une région nationalement mixte; - en trouvant des activités extra-scolaires attrayantes, pour que la langue-culture italienne ne soit pas un apprentissage isolé et vide, strictement scolaire et neutre, mais une langue de communication connexion vécus et avec avec un les partagés. seulement à locuteurs ensemble Le l'école, de autocthones, valeurs plurilinguisme mais dans chaque L'école peut et doit exercer institutionnelle seulement si elle communautés reciproque doivent qu'une ne des soit facteur de comportments communs ne doit présent pas activité être humaine. avec succès sa fonction est soutenue par l'expérience positive d'une pratique sociale qui se capable de valoriser un sens national sortent, qui est évident un et montre intentionnée aux personnes qui et en affronter une réalité idéale précise. 11 vie sociale dans laquelle une des deux subordonnée problèmes, de à la l'autre exige langue-culture une du connaissance peuple et de la nationalité. L'exemple de l'école avec langue d'enseignement italienne devrait convaincre que l'école fait acquérir un degré satisfaisant de bilinguisme. Moyennant l'enseignement de la L2 il est possible sans aucun doute d'obtenir une connaissance de la langue au point de pouvoir l'employer dans les rapports sociaux concrets et pour les besoins professionnels; grâce à cette connaissance on assume une mentalité stéréotypes Une et de description considérer méthodes, point-là, s'epuise tolérance contribuant encore horaire, à et la de sociolinguistique manuels, etc. Mais souhaiter que notre pas dans une énième respect, construction qui programmes, le temps débarrassée d'une se vie respecte cadres, presse et je en aurait dû motivation, préfère, congrès, comme tant d'autres, élaboration de descriptions 140 des commun. a ce ne et Razprave in principes, gradivo, mais Ljubljana, qu'il March puisse 1986, créer un No.18 pont entre chercheurs, spécialistes, professeurs et politiques, c'est-à-dire ceux dont dépend la mise en oeuvre dans "le réel" d'un plurlinguisme- pluriculturalisme de diffusion générale dans les communautés à nationalité mixte. Le sujet est européen ou, pour mieux dire, mondial, et il a été discuté en long et en large; cependant dans le rapport entre première et deuxième langue ou balbutie encore, on est en train de faire les premiers pas. Le vrai sens de l'existence des minorités c'est le dépassement du monolinguisme majoritaire, ce lit de Procuste des états nationaux du XIX® siècle, dont la logique voudrait que tous les citoyens adoptent une langue idéologique commune de manière du pouvoir exclusif à de Nation. Il est temps réticence et que le que la science linguiste, le pour courage fournissent au affronter juriste avec et au ce que l'Etat linguistique sociologue, politique ces la justification coincide avec la les abandonne chaque l'anthropologue éléments problèmes-là. nécessaires C'est inutile de déclarer sur le plan formel - pour le principe - que les langues d'une communauté à nationalité mixte sont égales et jouissent des mêmes droits: du moment où l'on décide d'employer une langue d'une façon droit auquel pratique. nécessité réalité privilegiée, on se contredit en et on viole théorie, est le principe: piétiné dans Il est opportun, au contraire, de confirmer de l'emploi antagonique des langues-cultures dans régionale développer on réfère si langue-société plurinationale; nous voulons aillent c'est éviter composer que un tous les dangers de fermeture pacification fictive comporte. une les attitude tableau et de qu'on analyses du le la la une doit rapport pacificateur, conservatisme avec que la Si l'on ne veut pas que le groupe national italien passe du bilinguisme au monolinguisme de la langue dominante, alors, avec une effective socialisation de la langue-culture qui passe nécessairement à travers l'école, à travers la formation et l'instruction de chacun, il faut rendre possible la survivance des deux langues, le. croate ou le serbe et l'italien en concomitance d'un bilinguisme régional de diffusion et d'emploi collectif. Cette hypothèse est la seule utile à soutenir, contre l'assimilation totale. Elle paraît comme l'unique voie authentiquement démocratique, celle qui tout en réalisant postulats constitutionnels, mène à l'enrichissement des la reconnaissance de dignité humaine des populations différente qui sont appelées à vivre ensemble. les sujets, à de langue Notes 1. Le terme officiel de "nationalité" a remplacé celui de “minorité” et il veut exprimer au sens politique, un progrès qualitatif, qui confirme l'égalité totale entre peuples et groupes nationaux. 2. Le pour recensement la nationalité a enregistré italienne: en Croatie (cca. le 33%) chiffres des recensements contraire aux déclarations cartes constitutionnelles. de nationalité italienne en elle 1981 une a subi courbe une descendante diminution nette et en Slovénie (cca. le 27%). Les confirme le processus d'assimilation, de principe et aux intentions des En 1948, 79,575 citoyens yougoslaves residaient en Yougoslavie, passés en 141 Razprave 1953, in gradivo, Ljubljana, les options aprés date du deux premier March de recensement 1948 1906, et No.18 1951, yougoslave, a 35,874. aprés En 1961, l'intégration de l'ex Zone B, il y avait 25,615 italiens. Ces données statistiques ont été tirées des bulletins yougoslaves (Statistiëki godië#njak Jugoslavi je). 3. “La Voce del Popolo," 13 janvier 1983, montrait le décalage entre les données du donées 1926 4. relevées et sur le terrain de cca. le p.3: la recherche recensement et les 25%, respectivement 2,536. Ici il est mixtilingue question surtout de la situation du territoire croate. 5. En Slovénie les choses depuis quelques années. se développent dans un sens favorable 6. L'Accord social sur l'étude des langues étrangéres, tendant a établir en Croatie un certain équilibre dans l'enseignement de ces dernières qui souvent sont sujets au snobisme et à la mode, a marqué un déclin soudain pour l'italien, figurant lui aussi dans la liste des langues étrangères, à la dernière place avec l'espagnol, a commencé à être proposé dans les centres scolaires du triange régional comme langue optionnelle à la manière de toutes déjà les une autres, place les organismes particulière dans scolaires les oubliant programmes, qu'il étant avait sauvegardé par les statuts communaux. L'Accord social considérait l'italien comme n'importe quelle langue étrangère, telle qu'on peut l'apprendre à Zagreb ou à Split, par exemple, et certainement pas dans une langue 7. G. région du où milieu Prancescato souhaitait que elle jouissait déjà d'un statut spécial, étant social. au Séminaire l'enseignement comme langue maternelle langage des différentes de fût L2, Izola-Isola, donné par des gens dans ce cas-là l'instituteur phases, de l'enfant. avril 1983, ayant la L2 connaît le Bibliographie Columni, esodo, C., L. Istria movimento di Ferrari, G. 1945-1956, liberazione Nassisi, Instituto nel G. Trani, regionale Friuli-Venezia 1980, per Giulia, Freddi, G., 1973, Bilinguismo e biculturalismo, la promozione del bilinguismo, n.1, C.L.A.Di.L., Bergamo Freddi, G., Minerva Italica, 1983a Freddi, G., Civilta n.3, 1983b, (a cura di) L'Italia Storia la storia di un del Trieste in Quaderni per Minerva Italica, plurilingue, C.L.A.Di.L., Bergamo Lingue C.L.A.Di.L., per l'Europa e il Duemila, in Lingue € Brescia Informacija ©, 1979, Informacija o uéenju talijanskog jezika u Skolama s hrvatskim ili srpskim jezikom na podruéjima gdje zZive pripadnici talijanske narodnosti (Information sur l'état de l'étude de l'italien dans les écoles avec langue d'enseignement croate ou serbe dans les territoires où vivent les appartenants à 142 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 pédagogique CC comunali: e statuti Bilinguismo 1984, N., Milani-Kruljac, - individualne Dvojeziënost istro-quarnerina, situazione la in la nation Gospic et drugbene Slovenije, italienne), pour Institut le service Rijeka razseZnosti, 13-15.1X.1984, Drustvo UDK za uporabo 323.15(497.1-50), 143 jezikoslovja Ljubljana. SR Razprave Vera Pula, in gradivo, Ljubljana, 1986, No.18 Glavinié UDC 376.744(497.1):82 Yugoslavia L'ENSEIGNEMENT DE LA LITTERATURE BIET PLURICULTURELS: D'ENSEIGNEMENT La March réalité spécifique de DANS ANALYSE la LES ECOLES DES TERRITOIRES D'UN PLAN ET PROGRAMME Yougoslavie où vivent non seulement six peuples, mais encore neuf nationalités et d'autres groupes ethniques, impose à ce pays un problème de la plus grande importance: celui du maintien et de la tutelle des nationalités et des groupes ethniques ou, mieux, celui de leur enrichissement et de leur développement à tous les niveaux, dont aussi au niveau culturel/littéraire, sans lequel, comme chacun sait, tout peuple/toute nationalité disparaît de la face de la terre. A ce propos la Constitution yougoslave énonce des principes trés valables et démocratiques; toutefois la Constitution “n'est pas une valeur de par elle-même, elle est seulement l'instrument pour la réalisation des valeurs - finalités déterminées" 1985). Par conséquent, ce sont les républiques et les autonomes principes Mon qui sont responsables de la de la façon qu'elles considèrent exposé se propose justement (Mirié, régions mise en oeuvre la meilleure. d'éclaircir comment dans une des des républiques yougoslaves, la Croatie, et précisément dans le territoire de la Communauté des communes de Rijeka (Fiume), on réalise ces principes, c'est-à-dire comment, à travers l'enseignement de la littérature dans les écoles avec langue d'enseignement italienne, on sauvegarde et on groupe national italien, tel que groupe donne de l'essor autochtone de au la péninsule istriéene. Je dirai ache comment l'enseignement de la littérature italienne dans les écoles de la "majorité" contribue à développer chez les jeunes gens de langue non italienne de ce territoire-là la compréhension littérature/culture des dans la même société. Avant d'entrer dans quelques-unes de mes de la jeunes de et le leur âge le sujet, je vais réflexions sur la respect avec envers qui ils la vivent exposer très brièvement valeur de l'enseignement littérature. L'école est une institution sociale fondée sur deux moments sont indissolublement connexes: l'éducatif, qui tend développement intégral de la personnalité des jeunes, qui au et l'instructif, des qui se propose de "transférer" notions et habilités nécessaires à du travail. Par conséquent, chaque remplir une double fonction: éduquer dans les jeunes leur inclusion dans le monde matière d'enseignement doit et instruire. Logiquement, en parlant d'éducation et du développement de la personnalité des jeunes, les matières humanistiques l'emportent sur les autres, et entre elles la place principale revient de droit a la * Original: French 144 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, littérature. Entre les relief les suivantes: - moyennant expériences la des ignorées; c'est ce - grâce offrant du et au au raisons littérature générations connaître pourquoi qui s'est de sa on leur dans prééminence couperait je la l'histoire se forment littérature les une contribue des slogans des communications publicitaires, politiques, quatre de à de mettrais en possibilité de l'humanité; moments fondamentales, qu'elle exerce dont et font de la vie sensibles nous tous de subir la le rôle et et ouverte leur au être soin de la et particulièrement pression harcelante déviant, l'aplatit plus dans l'enrichissement masse, sociaux vision jeunes langue, surtout aujourd'hui quand les jeunes - nous sommes forcés Ces No.18 on transmet aux jeunes gens les passées qui autrement resteraient passé -la littérature rend esthétique et éthique; buts 1986, dialogue que la littérature ouvre avec le passé, en lecteur la possibilité d'entrer dans la durée humaine temps, les jeunes constructive; -la March avec l'avènement l'instrumente dans des idéologiques. de la littérature une si non la matière fondamentale, sur la formation des jeunes. des pour matières l'influence Dans un contexte bilingue (le même raisonnement vaut pour les territoires plurilingues) tel que l'istrien d'où je suis, l'école doit non seulement créer dans les jeunes communicatives, c'est-à-dire la maîtrise des des doubles capacités moyens expressifs soit en langue maternelle - le croatoserbe et/ou l'italien dans la langue du milieu - l'italien et/ou le croatoserbe aussi doit-elle les adresser à la connaissance des culturels du que les dans peuple/de la contacts nationalité sociaux avec qui quotidiens il/elle puisse - soit - mais biens vit pour circuler réellement un esprit de compréhension réciproque. Et cela réalise justement avec l'enseignement de la littérature. on état, Le problème de compétence un unique de plan l'enseignement est en des ministères de et programme d'étude principe, l'instruction est dans chaque publique, valable pour le ainsi que toutes les écoles d'un état. Ce n'est pas le cas de la Yougoslavie: le devoir de rédiger les plans et les programmes est déféré à chaque république (Bosnie et Herzégovine, Croatie, Macédoine, Monténégro, Serbie et Slovénie) et aux deux régions autonomes (Kosovo et Voivodina). Ce qui implique l'existence d'un éventail bigarré de plans et programmes au niveau fédéral. Sur le plan de l'enseignement de la littérature, les choses se compliquent davantage du moment qu'il n'existe pas une littérature yougoslave, mais diverses littératures, autant qu'il y a des peuples et des nationalités/groupes nationaux.* Donc les plans et les programmes pour la langue maternelle et la littérature des groupes nationaux (qui devient langue et littérature du milieu social pour les écoles de la “majorité") se fondent seulement en principe sur * La question sujet de débat les mêmes critères tout exige une analyse détaillée. dans un des prochains congrès. 145 en permettant Elle pourrait des être Razpr Prave i in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Pour j Littératures, COnCerne l'enseignement de la langue et (Piume) 1 e italienne dans le territoire de l'Istrie et de one le plus récent (mai 1985) est Le plan Pour l'organisation du travail éducatif langue italienne, culture, approuvé par le Comité pour la culture physique et technique de la en la Le document embrasse deux degrés (elle comprend huit ans d'étude) et tout au plus Nous arrêterons l'italienne langue et quatre la ans), et deux croato-serbe. maintenant d'enseignement scolaires: la moyenne notre italienne langues nous instructif l'instruction, RS de Croatie. l'école orientée attention et et de la Rijeka et les primaire (qui dure d'enseignement: sur les écoles tâcherons de avec mettre en évidence les finalités et les devoirs qui différencient, en l'enrichissant, l'enseignement de la littérature dans ces écoles de celui des prendrons en réalise les écoles examen finalités et les dans le fait que les élèves aux littératures la de en 3): consiste italien (p. 2 et p. Plan national au groupe comme il résulte du élèves qui appartiennent deux moments essentiels, a) devoirs. l'enseignement de fins des spécificité La situées en territoires uniculturels. Nous aussi les contenus à travers lesquels on "apprennent et assimilent la culture artistique nationale, celle de tous les peuples et nationalités de la Yougoslavie et celle des autres peuples;" et b) dans le fait qu' "avec la connaissance du patrimoine artistique on crée la conscience de la fonction de l'art dans le ralliement entre Les peuples et leurs cultures nationales, dans le domaine yougoslave et dans le domaine mondial." Entre les différents devoirs concernent la littérature: fixés a) littéraires l'un exige des contenus sentiments de fraternité, unité nationalités de la RSFJ;" et b) l'autre tend “au groupe national littéraire en langue les de que nous est nationalités de et sommes une le "le (p.2 p.3), peuples deux dialecte en train et de'appartenance stimulant en les et développement des l'orgueil en condition jouissent Plan égalité la RSFJ italienne le pluriculturalisme et et développement italien Si l'on considère par la Sane qui est instituée Hiecévetuee (er de investis, c'est et en vigueur ~ ici l'italien se impératif angue) des - n'est de parler mêmes pas d'un où les droits les pour jeunes Pays Les les et où formation de ceg Jeunes et apprennent aux 6128 unes-là. en territoire unilinguer gens professeurs nationalitiés souvent n'est pas ee. de le dire, d'une véritable sont eux qui achentncee” dans sa juste mesure), où peuples la les une d'un nécessaire, seulement catégorique. écoles au local." historique, pour des créativité cu rupeAElERerature est garantie, la spécificité exprimée par et les devoirs que la littérature doit dégager dans Fab Deis witn foots des de sont mission (qui parce que ce guident plus que les autres la 11 n'est pas suffisant qu'ils qu'on apprend 146 dans les écoles installées Razprave in gradivo, - la à travers - comment, leur Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 dans réaliser se peuvent-ils littérature, totalité; comment la littérature est une façon de connaissance du réel; - comment l'objectivation littéraire est conclue seulement pour son auteur, tandis que pour le lecteur elle est seulement le point de départ vers de nouvelles expériences. Il ne suffit pas enseigner les susdites et d'autres valeurs intrinséques de la littérature; il faut encore et surtout que les professeurs cherchent à former l'identité culturelle des jeunes, en développant leur conscience d'appartenance à une nationalité qui, bien que minoritaire, possède sa littérature/culture. Le moment de l'exiguité numérique ne doit pas créer chez les jeunes qui appartiennent à la nationalité des inhibitions aprioristiques à leur développement culturel authentique; au contraire, elle doit les pousser à la créativité dans la si l'on possède une littèrature/culture, soit, une nationalité/un peuple peut se Quand cette conscience les conscience rendra l'autre peuple propre Les qui contenus finalités “assûrent ces le même du bout Programme principes. idéales, le et de "Grâce éthiques développement solidarité l'unité respect italien" sur de de ils seront prêts comme respect de terre et qui possède spécifique. littéraires et thématiques, de vit culture seulement co-responsables l'accroissement culturel de leur nationalité, pour une vie démocratique en commun, ressentie sa que grande ou petite qu'elle maintenir et prospérer. respect et d'une concourent à leurs à rejoindre ces caractéristiques éducatives" ces contenus noblesse de sentiments, réciproque, de la du fraternité entre les peuples et les nationalités de la envers les conquêtes culturelles d'avant-garde (Le Plan, p.19) sens et de RFSJ, du du peuple Dans les citations nous remarquons quelques expressions sur lesquelles il convient d'arrêter notre attention: “sens de solidarité humaine - fraternité entre peuples/nationalités de la Yougoslavie - conquêtes culturel - les [...] du peuple italien." Traduites en contenus, ces expressions nous disent que dans les programmes des études des écoles en langue d'enseignement italienne il faut placer des auteurs de diverse “appartenance”: italiens, yougoslaves (représentant les diverses littératures des oublier, sans étrangers, et nationalités) des et peuples naturellement, choix doit se leurs les écrivains du groupe tenir au principe de la car oeuvres, le seul Ce n'est pas difficile faisant l'analyse d'un constater Prenons que par le choix exemple le de usage la rend ne l'italienne) ou de ses dialectes texte une oeuvre littéraire. national validité langue pas italien. Leur esthétique de (ici nationale un nécessairement de vérifier ce que je viens de dire. En programme quelconque du Plan on peut des est fait contenus de programme sixième nus justement classe a 1 ere primaire: sur vingt-neuf auteurs choisis à représenter les min an lyrique et narratif dix-sept sont italiens, six ae erctucae as groupe national italien, six représentent ee es at trois peuples/nationalités sont étrangers, yougoslaves de 147 langue non italienn Razprave Il va choix in gradivo, sans des Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 dire qu'un tel enseignement de la littérature, où le ouevres ne se borne pas seulement a la création nationale - italienne d'apparentance, il et du tend à groupe la ethnique réalisation - de ni ces à celle buts du pays principaux: - faire entendre aux jeunes que la vie littéraire du groupe national d'appartenance est l'élément fondamental du développement du groupe même, de son accroissement culturel; - faire comprendre aux jeunes gens l'importance des auteurs qui ont exercé un rôle historique dans la vie de la littérature nationale, sans pour cela les transformer en mythes; -les rendre conscients du danger qui menace chaque littérature nationale qui vit fermée en enclos culturels autarchiques. Seulement l'échange vif l'autre fait devenir nationale Et facteurs passons aux les la de la bi- tournure a très des l'apprécier. Si'il est littérature aussi pour en langue introduit jeunes d'enseignement l'italien comme l'enseignement important Dans notre territoire, en langue italienne et groupe national italien, près à la leur existe une une culture qu'il faut autre. plurilingues, est d'esprit "majorité." littéraires on et "minoritaire" d'une "majorité," lesquelles territoires littérature d'une littérature nationale à oeuvres d'une littérature développement écoles croatoserbe, dans langue du milieu. Dans de des oevres certaines qui pour la de la formation de appartiennent à la à travers l'étude des oeuvres en particulier des auteurs du ces jeunes se rendent compte que tout autre culture, riche de sa spécificité, connaître pour pouvoir l'estimer et vrai - et intervenir il est vrai - qu'on dans la réalité dans étudie le but la de l'améliorer, la connaissance de la littérature de notre voisin qui parle la langue de son milieu social, peut contribuer davantage à une meilleure et plus humaine vie en commun. Cela se réalise, néamoins, nationale est seulement entendue dans le comme cas où cette ressource, d'enrichissement du patrimoine culturel global, valeurs spécifiques des littératures de tous les nationalités yougoslaves. Le en Programme d'enseignment Istrie) dans les écoles naturel, dont le est but de en l'étude de devoirs que la prévoit de patrimoine on littérature p-35). qui Ce soit de les est n'est prévoit n'est "la members pas surtout peu pas 2 de de la langue, communication de leur communauté soit comme ga. Mais pour cela se pose négligée. seulement pour une vingtaine connaissance de les les il y Entre a les celui aux élèves certains aspects [...] groupe national italien" (p. 31). sont énumérées ils concernent des l'étude "à la domaines bien qu'il l'italien "faire connaître culturel [...] du Les contenus orientées et desquels littérature l'étude facteur créé par peuples et l'italien 2 (comme nous l'appelons langue croatoserbe, comme il est consacré pour la plupart à est d'habiliter les élèves plurilingistique dans tous sociale” (Le Plan, p.31). Il littérature comme la chose qualitatif, de nationalité si si 148 l'on l'on les écoles d'auteurs, la culture tend à n'aspire un du moyennes à côté et italienne" qui (Le de la Plan, enseignement pas à faire de Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, l'école une mine de données vitesse l'élève March 1986, et de faits qu'on les a mémorisés, mais est habitué à apprendre à lire No.18 qu'on oublie avec la même au contraire un lieu le texte artistique. où Pour les élèves de l'école primaire on propose globalement la réalisation des contenus “du patrimoine culturel [...] de la nationalité" qui “comprend les valeurs crées sur le sol de la RS de Croatie et de la RSFY et aussi les valeurs principaux du patrimoine culturel national soignent" au sens large que (Le Plan, p.33). les appartenants au groupe Cela signifie qu'il faut présenter aux plus jeunes élèves des textes littéraires brèves poésies et morceaux de narration - qui peuvent expliqués d'une façon simple, en soulignant leurs - de être valeurs esthétiques. En conformité avec ce puisse conclure ainsi: écoles dans cet sur territoires réside littéraires l'italienne), AA. VV., 1984, Corsine, G., Markovié, Kako le fait langues les à de plurilingues la jeunes vie doit sociale. qu'à être La travers au l'étude (dans niveau la vie en commun cultures diverses. estimé fonction "minoritaires" gens Mirié, de des notre transulturel de peuple et de 1974, 1985, programi italijanskom Republickog Ricciardi, produzione Z., knjiéevnost, Beograd interlingistica L'istituziéne letteraria, 1978, epistemologiji Prilog Liguori, e Napoli knjizevnosti, Beograd J., i predavati Verso una educazione Marzoratti, Milano V.E., Prosveta, Sreb, les élève et de consultes AA. VV., 1984, transculturale, Plan dans dans on en les préparant ainsi nationalité de langue et Textes bi- pluridimensionnel enseignement oeuvres cas les l'espace que j'ai dit jusqu'ici, il me semble qu'on l'enseignement de la littérature dans les Sistem za jeziku komiteta i kriza, CKD, organiziranje (Le za plan et odgojno-obrazovnog les prosvjetu Zagreb SR programmes), 1985, Hrvatske, 5-6, br. rada Zagreb G., 1974, Lineamenti di una sociologia artistica e letteraria, Liguori, Napoli 1976, Studij knjifevnosti, 149 Skolska knjiga, na Vjesnik della Zagreb. Razprave Zdenka in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Gudelj-Velaga Teachers Training Rijeka, Yugoslavia UDC 376.744:316:80 College SOCIOLINGUISTIC CONDITIONING AND SOCIOLINGUISTIC CONSEQUENCES OF SECOND-LANGUAGE LEARNING: EXAMPLE OF THE ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL TEACHING OF THE CROATIAN OR SERBIAN LANGUAGE CONDUCTED IN THE LANGUAGES OF THE NATIONALITIES WITHIN THE CONFINES OF THE SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF CROATIA* The teaching of language process. It is by way training of teaching is language qualification direction and extent of society in the medium socially determined and for the the the the communication of models potential of of language. as can be demonstrated this from differs the population tongue, of the mother the language spoken by In the case follows: if a of its members. By determining language skills of the population, types the projects practice consistently of syllabuses, teaching materials, staff that society shows the need the the by of the standardized variety, the teaching of language imposed society either hampers or facilitates the integration speakers of nonstandard varieties into the social communication practice making use of the standardized variety; hence the shift of the population up and down the ladder of social success is similarly hampered or facilitated. Therefore language culture does not equal language elitism. Furthermore, if - quite properly - the concept of language culture is conceived of as including not only the speaker's individual language skills but also the concept of linguistic tolerance, then the two notions (language culture and language elitism) clash and destroy each other, so that only the former can be included in the description of language medium as the most universal means of human communication. All this becomes quite complicated in those social communities which are not at the same time also single-code language communities. The destiny of speakers of one or another language of a social community manifests itself as homogeneity or non- homogeneity the two the social of a language languages community. defines community the which degree can be The of of speakers Of bilingualism number attained in described as entirely bilingual only if all of its members are actual (competent) speakers of the two languages alike. A low degree of bilingualism in a two-code social community favors the appearance of vertical stratification of language use with markedly social connotations. Certain societies underlies and its react instruction. bilingual every bilingual organization. to their is It For two-codedness second-language instruction, the present regardless purposes, it by setting of its seems to define the second language as the language which is learned first) nor a (the language the mother tongue * Original: Serbo-Croatian 150 up which teaching scope adequate neither foreign Razprave in gradivo, language (a living 1986, the not is native language SR Croatia, of parts certain In No.18 the the language Serbian or the Croatian of the nationalities, as a second language. learned and languages is taught the in in Consequently, languages. and Slovak teaching is conducted where regions Ruthenian, Czech, of these schools a of language, language has the status of a second Hungarian, of Italian, speakers by native Serbian such as Croatian or used being March which language community). social given Ljubljana, It can be assumed that every student attending a school using a nationality language as the language of instruction has gained some linguistic experience in the second-language medium (in this context, Croatian or Serbian). It is proper to distinguish the student's receptive language activity from his/her productive language use. One must be aware that these students, native speakers of - say - Italian or Hungarian, realize the minimum receptive language practice in the Croatian or Serbian language simply by being exposed to the mass media that embody the social communication practice (radio, television, the newspapers, songs, the movies, perhaps children's puppet theaters, various performances and shows, etc.). Some linguistic units are adopted through life in the social community: names and appellations (of people, places, streets, work organizations...). Certain linguistic units do get anchored in first-language speech practice, either in their original form or grammatically usually phonetically and morphologically - adapted to the first language (Vesna e mia amica. Vengono dal Treéi maj). This is the earliest use of linguistic units of other language, but one that cannot yet be regarded as productive language use/practice. In the context of this topic, productive language practice occurs when the communication of some kind has been achieved in the other language; it need not amount to more than a simple “Hello” used in a speech situation in which this linguistic unit carries the semantic function of "I greet you/I return the greeting." The the implication here is that language (second-language the elementary school), one in starting instruction should take organized teaching in the first grade into consideration of of the results of spontaneous language learning (exposure to the language in the communication practice of a bilingual social community). This pre-instructional language experience is characterized by the duality of language influence, being the same as that to which the new second-language speaker will be The community. linguistic his/her within exposed permanently and is the difference between the colloquial point in question official the is More nationalities. is spoken; developed use language wherever Serbian teaching which in on the Rijeka Croatian of speakers native the by or in schools the live who attend students the of languages the in conducted basis Pula and of Istria in specifically, this whose Chakavian the dialect, linguistic dialect speech urban has consists repertory in terms of their origin, including as ze components of disparate of a contributions linguistic specific instance, for does, settlers and elements in spoken dialects structure composite features. the and slang. city classic It may be useful corresponding standard of other the On are well-known Slavonia-Baranya Yhay ian URS yee ie comprising duality nonstandard to note at this point observed forms can 151 in be these stu ascertaine ; a yo oes ’ t si for cnens na er nate Razprave in gradivo, first-language Ljubljana, use. This nationality-language extremely complex March means school 1986, that the initially situation: student finds he/she No.18 attending himself/herself develops his/her a in an linguistic skills by learning spontaneously two languages, both in nonstandard (communication) and standard (mostly reception only) varieties, while at the same time he/she learns - on an basis - only the standard varieties of the very languages. Such a learner should therefore develop a degree of sensitivity language also with of these varieties to appropriate respect to usage both languages. in the first nonstandard The school and can organized same two very high or second standard counteract resistance to the learning of one or both languages - resistance which might result from difficulties in acquiring and using them - only by relying on the joy that the learning of a language can provide if the self-motivation function of developing language skills is taken advantage of. This function is the most significant motivation expedient in any serviceable teaching system, which is revealed by as rapid as possible a process after which the “new" speaker is capable and qualified to verify the results of the work put in (namely the learning of language) within the framework of actual communication by participating successfully in the speech situation that requires the use of the language he/she is learning. The curriculum language for (i.e. account the Gevotes its the teaching language linguistic basic part Croatian of the situation to the or Serbian social in task the of as the environment) social training second takes into community the and students to become integrated with direct communication practice, enabling them to gain well-rounded skills as soon as possible. At this point, two tasks quoted in the curriculum must in particular be singled out for special mention, viz.: - Task no. 1: That students be introduced into the communication using the Croatian or Serbian language, and that they gain the skills necessary for participating in all the communication situations - Task coevals and that no. 8: who later are realized That speak also students Croatian for Finally, active part in also in (Gazette Physical of the the the for Serbian Croatian Republic or our Serbian Committee be their of two use, the native their with social for self-managing their language, entire qualified taking socialist language. on Education, Culture of SR Croatia, The former of the preceding integrated nature of language application of communication as with students currents and Technical strict language; qualify or that April 1985) the that communication environment. society in No. 3, Culture, Zagreb, 9 tasks in fact centers on the whereas the latter discusses principle of gradualness in language learning. The syntagm - also in the Croatian or Serbian language indicates that the instructional program is implemented in the social community that tends to have an integrally bilingual character. As of given in language the program (or in the curriculum), the integrality use is built on several levels. The first, which 152 Razprave focuses in gradivo, on distinct speaking, the Ljubljana, student, breaks March down aspects of the overall reading and writing. groundwork for the prerequisite for the 1986, No.18 speech activities into four speech behavior, viz., listening, The first two of these are the initial stage of language learning, a student's successful coping with the other two which, naturally, during later stages of come to play the central role in the course education. the learning process of linguistic self- Assessing the student's pre-instructional experience formed in the stage of spontaneous language learning via listening, the curriculum pays special attention to developing this very aspect of the student's linguistic competence. Active listening enables him/her to get acquainted with and then to acquire all the values inherent in the spoken language, comprising all those language functions which can be expressed through sound. It is by guided listening that the student effectuates the speech activity, comprehending either globally or individually the factors making up a given speech situation. This in turn fosters the development of receptive linguistic skills and hence promotes the possibility of integrating the student into actual social communication, Conversation represents the basic form of social speech actualization. The orientation of the curriculum toward qualifying the student for communication practice can be followed in several ways and from different viewpoints, for instance, in terms of the order of introducing language units with respect to the selection of lexical items, and the like. Here, however, it seems best to cite in full the first sentence appearing in the curriculum unit entitled Conversation, which forms part of the chapter Speaking, itself incorporated in the part entitled Speech Activities. we quote the first sentence as given for each of the eight elementary-school grades. The First classmates Grade: Establishing speech contact with one's and with the teacher, in basic communication situations of classroom life and games. The Second Grade: Accomplishing classmates and with the teacher, situations of classroom life. The Third Grade: Accomplishing speech in all speech contact with one's the communication contact beyond classroom situations, The Fourth communication The Fifth Grade: situations The Sixth associated in The Grade: Accomplishing speech contact in situations associated with traveling and trips. question Seventh Accomplishing beyond the Grade: with i.e. Accomplishing social (maritime Grade: speech classroom, and speech economic affairs, of contact communication in speech situations of the area agriculture). contact performances, elsewhere. 153 in school. characteristics tourism, Accomplishing situations related to cultural the like, whether in school or contact out the in communication sports events, and Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 The Eighth Grade: Accomplishing speech contact in related to socio-political aspects of school life social environment. Of course, this communication list is situations in not out. It simply stresses the complexes in those contents of activities follow the intended which language gradual student integration to situations and of the exclude activities broadening of speech by which of an other are carried thematic language individual into the framework of broader social interaction and illustrate the societal and socializing function of knowledge of a second language (language of the social environment). The integrality of language use subsumes utilizing the language in all of its many-sided complex functions. It would be wrong not to include under this heading reflections on sociolinguistic conditions and consequences of introducing the student to the expressive and poetic functions of the second language. To do this, the however, dominant tongue and would ones the mean to beg a host appear second to be language the as of questions, relations subjects of among between the instruction, which mother and in this respect the function of the second language in the actualization of creative language use making part of an individual's speech production, and the participation in the cultural life and cultural heritage of a social community whenever the language used to achieve that aim is the student's second language. school, as they linguistic. Therefore are by these nature to questions the same refer extent not also only social to and In the total instructional process conducted in the student's mother tongue, the nature of things is such that the central concern is fostering and developing such complex skills as those which emanate from the interrelationship between speech and thought. This is the language in which the student attains cognition and expresses himself/herself, the world, and his being within the macrocosm. It is important to note that this does not happen because of the concrete idiom in question, but rather because the developmental psycho-mental thing here is idiom she/he reception of functions the nature interact. student's of In overall language other and words, language the the behavior relevant fundamental and not the employs while learning it. On the other hand, the a linguistic message is conditioned, among other things, by the degree to which the receiver's language skills have developed. They too are dynamically interrelated. Such questions are dealt with by sciences such as psycholinguistics, developmental psychology, language pedagogy, language teaching methodology, and others. Suffice it here to establish the fact that there is no reason that expression or reception should be linked to the idiom; they should be related to linguistic competence in that idiom. It follows from this that the student is able to express himself/herself also in the second language provided she/he possesses the means of linguistic expression and on condition that the language repertoire she/he has internalized is structured creative in such combinations a of manner as linguistic to enable units, the so that formation the of messge realized through them functions as language expression, If we accept the view that each and every message, regardless of its structural complexity and semantic range, is considered creative 154 Razprave in whenever gradivo, it expedient beginnings represents functional of a March the 1986, personal used to communicate a of creativity in language the initial stage we can regard as unit Ljubljana, No.18 choice of a linguistic personal experience, the can be traced as far back as of second-language learning. In this an example of language creativity intonation pattern referential applied code of to the a type, context, a novel, previously "This adopted is a toy,” provided that the intonation imparts a new, contextually appropriate meaning to the utterance. Likewise, choosing a felicitous adjective which, when actually used in the languageexpression process becomes an epithet rather than keeping its former function of an attribute, can of language creativity. In other development of language competence shape to a substantial semantic also be judged an instance words, the degree required for giving base by using the of the actual means of language expression will come sooner the less we wait for it to come. This fact derives from the nature of language medium that manifests itself in the self-motivation function of fostering linguistic skills: the use of language creates the need for acquiring new linguistic units by the communicated reality can which semantic units be expressed; the containing level of linguistic competence thus attained opens up the possibility internalizing a novel linguistic expedient. The spiral increasing internalized units is a process that goes throughout a person's of of on lifetime. On this basis, the students are introduced - right from the initial stage of second-language learning - to the expressive and poetic functions of the second language. This is not in opposition to the hitherto highlighted communicological orientation in second-language learning; rather, these are directions of one and the same course, because they are the same whole - integrated language use. Proportions of material proper to this or that orientation and the parts of language precise delimitation decisive role here. of their This can function be are explained teacher is in the situation of semantically related verbs, say, zuboriti (English: babble, burble), to the students the thematic verb take account stream. language Here, of the like learning, onomatopoeic in the the case point in the principles of functionality, of methods, expedients, and the be taught. It will have become clear by elements in the that have following if the having to choose one of teéi (English: run, flow) the and she/he will doubtless explain teéi, but without failing to value of of the a running other question is that the mountain components first and appropriateness and contents of subjects now a way: students of foremost gradualness that are to of a second language are to be introduced to the literature written language, right from the start. This, however, does not grounds to conclude that it is only the second-language in that give us subject of instruction that is used as a vehicle - the sole vehicle - for communicating knowledge of literature and of the other forms of non-material culture expressible environment. After gaining as literary sensitivity in the language of the the basic literary education in the mother tongue, the supplements it and deepens it in the subject of instruction by applying accomplishments; the extent to which 155 social as well student second language as the his/her mother-tongue this can be achieved Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 corresponds with the extent to which the advanced or not-soadvanced degree of his/her linguistic basis allows for the reception of a literay-artistic text (whereby the linguistic basis develops further). The matter in question is therefore a markedly complex body of instructional and non-instructional questions which are much easier to solve in theory than in teaching practice. The socio-culturological truth that the most integrated knowledge about a nation and its customs can - apart from life in the national community concerned - be derived from its literature clashes with the teaching practice imposing curricula, school equipment, and especially school libraries and what they supply. The complexity of this situation can be illustrated by adducing the policy of presenting literary texts in each of the two languages as given in each of the curricula: national literary works created in Yugoslavia and in the mother country of the language in question are in the mother tongue; works belonging to world literature appear translated into the language of the nationality; part of works making up the literature of the Yugoslav peoples and belonging to the Yugoslav core-section of the program as well as certain other works of Yugoslav authors which are either traditional parts of the program (thus timetested) or just happen to have been translated, form part of the body of translated literature. Works included in the program of Croatian or Serbian as the second language were entered according to the following criteria: from the results of the comparative analysis in which students attending the schools where teaching is conducted in the languages of the nationalities made decisions on reading matter making up part one of the reading program from among standard works figuring in the syllabuses covering the integral instruction in the Croatian or Serbian language and which the authors of the syllabuses estimated to be linguistically accessible to the age-group for which they were intended, and from that part of the Yugoslav educational core program which was not included in the mother-tongue program. It follows from above that students are introduced to the literature of the the Yugoslav peoples and nationalities both in their mother tongue and in the second language (i.e. Croatian or Serbian). Whether this is good or bad assessment of both the has yet to be shown by a scientific conception and the implementation of the program. One thing is certain, however: if a second language is acquired only according to curricula and actual teaching, knowledge of this language is such that it cannot be used successfully and integrally in the learning of the literature written in Croatian rather the language in hand, to aesthetic truism which or Serbian - to fulfill the requirement or that it is best to learn literature in the it was originally written, and on the other be in agreement and other riches with the opinion that the emotiveinherent ina literary-artistic text make it the most valuable treasury of the given language, and that certain characteristics of some texts (such as melodiousness and rhythm) make the literary-artistic text very suitable for use in language learning, as it facilitates the learning of language. Of special importance is the fact that one's incorporation into the integrated communication practice carried out in the given language subsumes participation in all 156 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 the aspects of social interaction occurring thus including the literary-artistic text reception and communication about it. Such a command of a second language would in in that language, terms of its indicate that full bilingualism has been achieved by all the members of a given community. Second-language instruction can contribute significantly to such an optimum state of language affairs, but it cannot attain it by acting in isolation from other sociocultural factors. Suffice it therefore to add here only a few observations on its orientation: Second-language instruction does away with the need for the vertical stratification of Language use with respect to the idiom (i.e., division into an official idiom and an idiom serving private purposes). This means that diglossia would emerge only with horizontal strata, representing a geographically conditioned transition from a bilingual linguistic community to a monolingual one, that is, to another bilingual community with an identical language and another new language combined in communication practice. Good second-language instruction in bilingual communities dispenses with the need for a socially motivated alteration (change of the idiom-code in communication practice), but amply provides for the linguistic expedients necessary for the change of code-idiom whenever the participants in communication find it Suitable for personal reasons. Note 1. Kriz, J., 1983, "Program domaée lektire u osnovnim Skolama na jezicima narodnosti" (Reading Program for National Literature in the Elementary Schools with Nationalities' Languages as the languages of instruction), Obrazovanje 157 i rad, No.3. Razprave Anka in gradivo, Ljubljana, March Budimlija Republiéki vaspitanja Yugoslavia 1986, UDC No.18 376.744(497.1:316.356.72 zavod za unapredjivanje i obrazovanja SR Srbije THE ROLE OF THE SCHOOL IN PRESERVING THE CULTURAL AND LANGUAGE IDENTITY OF PUPILS AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF BROTHERHOOD, UNITY AND EQUALITY OF THE PEOPLES AND NATIONALITIES IN THE SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF SERBIA* During the postwar period, many schools attended by different nationalities and using their languages have been established on the principle of equality and solidarity; they have created the conditions for education in the native languages (Bulgarian, Albanian, Slovak and Rumanian).* Elementary education encompasses all Bulgarian children, while secondary education encompasses more than 95 percent of the youth. A high percentage of secondary-school graduates continue their education (about 51 percent) in the institutions of higher education, either in this country or in Bulgaria. Although all (i.e. the society compulsory children and are has developed the principle of eight-year education), a lower adolescents enrolled in belonging elementary and education encompasses 94.5 children; secondary schools pupils; more than 30 percent their native language in the to the secondary education for percentage of Albanian nationality schools. Elementary percent of Albanian nationality include about 80 percent of these of Albanians continue education in institutions of higher education and universities in SAP Kosovo, while a lower percentage study at other universities in the country. But, if we consider that up to 1945 this nationality did not have any schools where the teaching was conducted percent of the that the Albanians regeneration Serbs The in their native language, and that more than 95 inhabitants were illiterate, it can be concluded and by other education have witnessed receiving nations of their unselfish living Rumanian and in educational support SR and and cultural solidarity of the Serbia. Slovak children is ordanized in their respective native languages only up to the fourth grade of the elementary school, because of the low percentage of children. Romany and Vlach children take preparatory classes before entering school, Serbo-Croatian. The growth development of of so as to education national more successfully follow of the nationalities cultures, and their the lessons in has stimulated the interrelation with the culture of the majority nation and of those of nations. This process, to be sure, has not taken place the other evenly in each environment, because of the social and cultural development. economic, * Original: Serbo-Croatian 158 different levels of Razprave During in gradivo, the Ljubljana, National March Liberation War 1986, and No.18 the Socialist Revolution, our country opted for the equality, unity and solidarity of the nations and nationalities, and consequently invested most of the available funds in the underdeveloped parts of the country, which include most of the communities where the nationalities live, in order to integrate them fully into the Yugoslav socialist community on an equal Organized Action Principle of basis. on the National Part of Equality, the Schools Brotherhood in and Realizing the Unity Education of all the nations and nationalities in SR Serbia proper is uniformly regulated by the Law on Education and other Republic and Communal self-managing acts. Equal rights and financial means are extended to all nationalities for the organization of schools, (either regular or extra-mural studies). The Law provides for a free choice of the language of instruction and a free orientation in deciding for or against learning the language of the social environment” in multi-national communes. The Educational Reform (implemented in 1975) made a step towards socializing education, which meant a reduced role of government authorities in directing the educational policy, in managing schools, their connection with associated labour (economic and social organisations), and socio-political communities and their self-management organizing. The process of securing financial means for carrying out educational goals and tasks is based on the principle of the free exchange of labour. This has brought about a qualitatively new relation between the school and the social environment. However, in this process, the positive effects from various social environments were set off against the negative ones. The link dissociation with the of social the school environment from the creates state and better its stronger possibilities for fostering national cultures and native languages, but on the other hand it requires, first, that the school establishes broader relations with the ideological, cultural, scientific and political influences of the society; and secondly, a complete socialization of the youth, training them to understand ideological, cultural and other values of their people and of the total social community, as well as developing their awareness of the necessity and importance of the homogeneous Yugoslav society. Therefore, the society must have the possibility of supervising, first of all, the relative success of schools in carrying out national equality, brotherhood and unity among pupils of different nationalities; and secondly, the performance of other such elements in the social environment as are charged with educational policy matters. According to regulating possibilities pupil's 1. is the the legislation school in and other organization, there multi-national nationality and Schools with a single conducted entirely in his environments native social are connected following with the language: language of instruction, the native language. 159 solutions the where teaching Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 2. Bilingual schools for children of Bulgarian, Serbian and other nationalities (in the Dimitrovgrad, Surdulica and Babusnica communes), Lessons are performed in Serbo-Croatian and in Bulgarian, Both of the languages are taught as subjects of instruction. 3. Secondary request of schools for students and Bulgarians their in Serbo-Croatian parents). In these (on special schools many specifics on national culture are taught, and the mother tongue is cultivated through the teaching of Bulgarian language, literature, history, art, music education, and through extracurricular activities. 4. Schools with Albanian in two the languages Presevo, Lessons and other language. Teaching school in two make their In friends schools equality with where as to of instruction Bujanovac and (Serbo-Croatian Medvedja activities are performed or more languages enables and communes). in the native the pupils to schoolmates. teaching is nationality conducted is fully in the realized. native The language, literature, history, art and music curricula contain elements of the national cultures; teachers' and students’ textbooks and handbooks for the teaching/learning of the native languages as subjects of instruction and as languages of instruction are provided. Teachers receive their education and in-service training in the native language. The most topical aevelopment of issue in these brotherhood schools and unity is the question between nationalities, their togetherness, Yugoslav socialist love of and respect for the heritage of the National War and the Socialist of peoples the and patriotism, Liberation Revolution. Classes in bilingual schools are nationally mixed. The curricular covering social science subjects contain proportional amounts of specific content derived from the pupils' national culture. Such a school organization, according to our research results, ensures full equality of nationalities, and promotes brotherhood, unity and togetherness among pupils of different nationalities. These schools employ mostly teachers of Bulgarian nationality, which is in agreement with the pupils' nationality. As the Constitution guarantees the right language of instruction, secondary schools to choose one's own for Bulgarians have been decision organized in Serbo-Croatian. Such a arose from practical needs. Education in Serbo-Croatian provides better possibilities for choosing a profession, place of work and similar favorable conditions. School organization, the furtherance of brotherhood, unity, togetherness and national equality of the peoples and nationalities, constitute the political components of the educational system. Therefore the organization and implementation of education for greater processes. in care multinational on the part and of multicultural all 160 the societies participants in calls these Razprave in gradivo, Teaching Cultures Syllabuses and their Role and Native Languages, Development The of Ljubljana, Brotherhood cultivation of and national March 1986, No.18 in the Cultivation of National and their Influence on the Unity cultures and native languages can be made very successful through education, The adequate content of teaching syllabuses and the skill to implement it are of utmost importance in developing brotherhood, unity and togetherness of the peoples and nationalities. The planning of material to be covered, especially in the social sciences, is a complex task. The selection of the syllabus content must be made to ensure that the pupils acquire an objective view of the past and present in our country; that the peoples and nationalities acquire a sound knowledge of the economic, cultural and scientific achievements of the other peoples and nationalities; that they acquire abilities and skills for living and working in the Yugoslav multinational community; that they are able to understand, from the scientific point of view, the nation and nationalities question; that they equality and Yugoslav develop brotherhood socialist patriotism and unity, and humanism. national These tasks can be actualized through the subject contents of the native language and literature, history, society, art and music as well as through the content of the other subjects, appropriate textbooks, handbooks and other literature. The teachers also play a very important role in this process. Recent changes in the educational system of the SFRY have enacted a number of unified solutions in this area and many more common content in the syllabuses for the whole country, particularly the SR of Serbia, which makes possible the publication of common textbooks, handbooks, other literature and teaching materials. Experience pedagogical unified teaching subjects, native and knowledge deriving theory and practice have and syllabuses for a language, for broader the scope literature, of history, from shown our the natural the contemporary necessity for sciences common art and and content music other in the syllabuses. This need has prompted the creation of the common core content for all the subjects of instruction and other areas of educational work, which has served as a basis for the elaboration program schools and only of world Such of of the national specificities culture curricula of of the Yugoslav curricula history, the and syllabuses. For example, as the native language in the included 80 percent of Albanian 10 percent of literature. common-core the new in Albanian of SR Serbia enable the literature nation other literature they peoples pupils and belong and and another to to 10 acquire other percent knowledge achievements as well nationalities. the elementary literature as In of and the native- language instruction the pupils will be introduced to the best writers and the most representative works from their own national literature as well as with the best writers and the most notable works world of the other Yugoslav peoples and nationalities and from literature. Thus the pupils are able to develop "an ability to assess artistic and research-oriented mind, outlook and critical other achievements with feeling, with and critically; a broader intellectual capability, a 161 scientific view of the world, Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 and creative abilities and working habits; and a positive attitude towards the languages, cultures and revolutionary traditions of our further cultural community depends country. We must explain to the pupils that and economic development of our national on beneficial, persistent and skilled work; and the Yugoslav to of fostering of socialist defend one's homeland." (The the native languages in the The educational contain topics and programs from the nationalities, and social for the subject common past and their position, patriotism struggle and and of readiness educational tasks of the elementary schools of SR for for teaching Serbia). Introduction to present of the improving creating Society peoples their national a homogeneous in particular native country. History foster as a the subject pupils’ of instruction national can identity. For instance, in help to schools of Bulgarian nationality the instruction includes specific content from the Bulgarian history. Through the subject contents, especially specific history topics, the following educational tasks are carried out: "Acquisition of knowledge of historical roots of events, processes, and oppositions within the modern society and learning to critically and objectively evaluate present events and occurrences, provide facts about the National Liberation War and the Socialist Revolution, and understanding the development of our socialist self-managing society." In the multinational environments of Serbia, the school realizes its educational role also by organizing the teaching of the language of the social environment (from the first grade of the elementary school to the end of secondary education). These languages are chosen by the majority of the pupils, especially in the nationalities' schools (although the subject is optional. Proficiency in the language of the social environment helps the pupils to get better acquainted with cultural values of the peoples and nationalities. All the languages of the social environment (Serbo-Croatian, on footing. an The equal syllabuses with their Albanian all-round and Bulgarian) character are treated contribute to the nations and maintenance of national identity and to the development of a versatile personality; they build the awareness of the socio- historical their the and cultures; position of enable the they cultural they need for enable their people pupils to interconnecting the in pupils the acquire Social and Social and knowledge role, Unity and Activities Togetherness extracurricular and experience. especially in the and of whose in the activities They play education 162 of world knowledge an the perceive community; of the destinies of the past contributes the present and future. Extracurricular Brotherhood, the objectively Yugoslav sound past of the nations and nationalities centuries interdependent. A proper understanding deeper understanding of to to a Developing Pioneers broaden important youth in common were for fuller and Education, and the Youth pupil's educational the spirit of Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 brotherhood, unity and togetherness in the Yugoslav socialist community of the peoples and nationalities. Through their numerous forms and varied teaching content based on the educational aims environment, wishes, and these interests, the needs and activities enable tendencies and We shall mention only some social and extracurricular possibilities the pupils of to the realize social their abilities. of the existing forms and contents of activities realized in joint pupils' collectives organized on a self-managing basis, communities and organizations in: Pioneers' Organizations, Socialist Youth League, class organizations and various out-of-school activities (groups, clubs, societies and other forms), The Pioneers' Organization - as a unified educational and sociorecreational children's organization, takes care of socialist education for all elementary school children. The pupils associate in pioneers’ units organized on self-management principles, through which their social life is organized, Oriented and unified in schools, local communities and throughout the territory of Yugoslavia; they stimulate their working, selfmanaging and social concern through different forms and contents of social and extracurricular activities: working discussions and agreements - meetings and assemblies, work and humanitarian drives of a socially beneficial character, admission of Pioneer's into the Pioneer's Organization, Pioneer's meetings, marches, competitions, exhibitions, cooperation between units, sports and recreational activities and other forms. The Socialist Youth League of Yugoslavia is a unified sociopolitical and voluntary organization of working-people, village, school and student youth, intended to satisfy their interests. Through this organization and its branches the schools propose, direct and implement the basic self-management tasks of pupils; organize ideological and political work; encourage creativity in work and production activities, in science, technology and art, social life, entertainment and sport. Through different activities of pupils' class communities, especially in multinational environments, it is possible to establish and promote friendship among pupils. Joint actions in schools and in the social environment, common interests in trying to achieve best results in schoolwork, and joint work and humanitarian drives bring together pupils of different nationalities. The whole-day school and prolonged school learning of the language of the social friendly pupils associations. is motivated by The cooperation love and are conducive to the environment and to between sincerity. the Through youngest childrens’ friendships, the parents often get acquainted with each other too and become friends. Thus the children effectively do away with national and linguistic barriers. Pioneers and youth joined in Physical labour on the local, levels, carry out programmes beneficial work: they collect cleanliness of the schools, activities of the voluntary mass provincial or republic and federal of production and other socially medicinal herbs, take care of the afforest 163 the bare rocky countryside Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 of the homeland, build public buildings throughout the country. These common activities are carried out in the native languages of the pupils, by a free choice of forms and contents of work and on the basis of self-management principles. Through joint activities the pupils develop the awareness of the equality and unity and interrelation of our peoples and nationalities, the need to understand each other's language, culture and specificities. Extracurricular activities of pupils, especially in the drama, literature, recitation, language, history, geography, music and art activities of pupils and in the groups of youngsters who learn the language of the social environment, offer great possibilities for the education of young people aiming to integrate them into multinational environments. In conclusion, we must stress that the education of youth is a very complex process, especially in multinational and multicultural societies, in particular those which are not evenly developed. Such is the case of Yugoslavia. Facing up to this problem, our society has developed a specific educational system based on the principles of national freedom and equality, solidarity and togetherness of the Yugoslav peoples and nationalities. The most important social task of the school in multinational environments is to foster national identity of pupils and to develop brotherhood, unity and Yugoslav socialist patriotism. Notes 1. Most of the Slovaks the Albanian people live in and Rumanians reside in SAP SAP Kosovo, Vojvodina. while most of 2. I.e,, any of the Yugoslav languages which is taught in schools in multinational environments as a subject of instruction in one's native language. 3. Common-core content of the syllabuses contains unified educational aims, tasks and contents of the educational work in all of the syllabuses, independent of the language of instruction used. 4. The educational in the elementary 5. In schools specific of content tasks schools of of Bulgarian from the teaching the SR of nationality Bulgarian history. 164 of the native languages Serbia. the instruction includes Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March Marin Mladenov Faculty of Philosophy Belgrade, Yugoslavia 1986, UDC No.18 376.744(497.11=867):316:80 SOCIOLINGUISTIC ASPECTS OF BILINGUALISM AT THE SCHOOLS OF BULGARIAN ETHNIC GROUP IN THE SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF SERBIA* Linguistic THE Situation The area the commune of Dimitrovgrad of Pirot, and Bosiljgrad Babusnica, and of Surdulica a few villages (southeastern part in of SR Serbia; the territorial belt alongside the Yugoslav-Bulgarian frontier; about 50,000 inhabitants of Bulgarian ethnic background) - can be described as a typical diglossic—bilingual community. In other words, the local inhabitants of the Bulgarian nationality use the Bulgarian dialect of the western type ("sopski" dialect, "trnski" dialect, “éstendilski" dialect) that is rather remote from the literary Bulgarian language, being a characteristic feature also of the western dialects within the confines of the People's Republic of Bulgaria. Even in the named zone there exist minor dialect differences between the dialect of Dimitrovgrad Bulgarian holds the (being the contemporary language, being the mother tongue of the position of a microlanguage of a limited and inhabitants, functionality linked of Bosiljgrad. to a small For geographic this zone area, and to certain fields of the social life - the elementary school, partially the secondary school, the mass media involving communication of the regional type, the cultural life, the literature in the Bulgarian language within the SFRY), while the contemporary literary Serbo-Croatian language, non-native to these inhabitants, holds the position of a macrolanguage with a broad functionality in all the fields, both in the local bilingual zone - administration, political life, secondary schooling, administration of justice, press, etc.), and more broadly, in SR Serbia and in Yugoslavia as a whole. This zone is with the picture complicated of the also Serbo-Croatian specific by the bilingual fact language that through (Bulgarian-Serbian) it a is in wide specific contact zone of the Serbo-Croatian language (Pirot, BabuSnica, Surdulica; the socalled old-Stokavian and the archaic dialects of the SerboCroatian language) the dialects of which (the Serbian according to the ethnos) language, and ethnically are thus different rather there emote from the literary Serbo-Croatian arises an unusual situation in which groups - speak a similar language both when the original dialect is involved and in the case of the (uncertain) Serbo-Croatian literary language acquired later. In this area, therefore, where the Serbo-Croatian and Bulgarian languages keep contact, a “mixed language ("langue mixte") is frequently used, both in the interpersonal communication and often also (unfortunately) in the language of administration, public communications, bilingualism offers also * Original: in the the and the denomination following like. of the of the example Serbo-Croatian 165 (A classic streets at denomination instance: Dimitrovgrad of the main Razprave in street gradivo, that is (Marshall Tito found the in Ljubljana, said to Street). be number of the School No.18 of - Ulica similar Marsala instances administration, extracts from birth registers, the firms in the town, public in other 1986, "bilingual" A language March Tita can be certificates, and the like, in the language of advertisements, prospectuses, and texts). and Bilingualism Legalized bilingualism in the area of the Bulgarian ethnic group, that is, the language equality rights (affirmed under the Constitution of the SFRY and under that of SR Serbia, upheld in numerous important political documents) has been developing since the year 1944, thus under the conditions of the new socialist community of the nationalities and ethnic groups of Yugoslavia. (A "bilingualism" of a special kind existed also before the War, starting in the year 1920 when this area had been annexed to the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. In pre-war Yugoslavia the Bulgarian ethnic group did not have a status of an ethnic group - national minority; they had no schools in their mother tongue and they had no right to use their native language in the social and cultural life either). Post-war bilingualism in the schools of the Bulgarian ethnic group has been realized by employing various methods. In the first decade after the War, elementary and secondary schools practiced a strict teaching in the Bulgarian language, and the Serbo-Croatian language was taught as a “state language." Later on, in the 1960s it was transformed into a more or less symmetrical “bilingual teaching" where elementary schools preserved the primacy of the Bulgarian language, and secondary ones (on account of the preparation for university) maintained the primacy of the Serbo-Croatian language. Today, Bosiljgrad keeps this model, and Dimitrovgrad is predominantly oriented towards the Serbo-Croatian teaching language while maintaining, of course, the compulsory learning of the Bulgarian language and literature (for the pupils of the Bulgarian and non-Bulgarian origin) from the preschool institutions goal has required to been by the final always the the life, grades same: and, on ideological-political The bilingualism desired the Bulgarian ethnic is the both other principles differently group, secondary master the fundamental of of to both in school. the hand, also of community. our implemented the The languages field in of by as the the area schools and in those of the social, economic, political and cultural life. This "ideal bilingualism," at least in principle, is most completely implemented in the schools (inclusive of extracurricular activities, cultural manifestations, and the like), in the mass media using the Bulgarian language (the weekly information paper Bratstvo; the bi-weekly paper for children Drugarice; the quarterly literary magazine Most, the transmission in the Bulgarian Bulgarian language language societies, ceremonials publishing (cultural spheres life the of street, in of (bi-weekly) and and shops, of Nis, the Television at formal political (interpersonal pubs, Radio Belgrade), of within public in the drama families, services, extracurricular communication between the pupils and so on) - the dominant part is played by the 166 in (official) meetings and ones). In all the other communication offices transmission in in the and teachers, local speech, Razprave in gradivo, enriched by new Croatian or context and Ljubljana, words and Bulgarian the March of No.18 phraseological languages, topic 1986, units depending from upon the the Serbo- situational conversation. The results of the bilingual teaching at Dimitrovgrad and Bosiljgrad have not been scrutinized. The grading which starts from the pupil's marks obtained at school is satisfactory. There is an unofficial opinion (elementary and secondary school teachers, publishers and editors) that the grading criterion is considerably lower than that in the corresponding all-Serbian environments or than that in the PR Bulgaria, respectively. Also, the results of some competitions for university enrollment or for the choice of the translator from Serbo-Croatian to Bulgarian (on the radio, in journalism, public services) confirm this opinion. To obtain accurate bilingualism, we indicators organized for the a small outline test in of four the level of our sections of the elementary and secondary schools of Dimitrovgrad (5 September 1985): the pupils were given three lexically and syntactically Simple sentences in the local dialect, with the task to edit, "translate" them into a) literary Bulgarian, b) literary SerboCroatian. The pupils reacted quickly and within 10 to 15 minutes produced the variants required (without using dictionaries, without consulting each other. The texts concerned were checked and the mistakes arranged in three categories: vocabulary, syntax, spelling. Statistically, the deviations from the literary standard (Bulgarian and Serbo-Croatian) appear as follows: ’ Bulgarian Vocabulary language Serbo-Croatian language There follows a by the users of Statistically, Syntax($) Spelling(%) 325 171 155 140 165 26 clear conclusion that the basic errors committed the Bulgarian language are in vocabulary. this in Serbo-Croatian. (the mother tongue made itself felt, living Bulgarian there is a (%) means 3.25 mistakes per person but only 1.40 Linguistically, this is something unexpected being involved), but the social context has i.e., the lack of a daily contact with the language daily is contact obvious, with the (television, radio, films, sports, comic strips, readings and other while on the other Serbo-Croatian hand, language entertainment and magazines, literary works, an increased number of the users of the Serbo-Croatian itself- border services, army personnel, language railway in the town employees, frequent visits of theatres, singers, sports groups, etc.). Perhaps, the psychological factor is at work here as well: the local word, i.e., “our word" is accepted easily also as a literary word of the Bulgarian language. Thus, the local word kavtor (in Serbo-Croatian it means peé, Stednjak, Sporet - oven, stove) remained in the tests of the majority of the participants, while in the Serbo-Croatian texts it was replaced by peé and Sporet, the word) but same was they root — did not peG¢ka. replaced in remember Similarly, the Serbian 167 the the Bulgarian adverb variants (Slavic) kod%a by mnogo (a word of Turkish and puno Razprave it was kept No.18 1986, March ana, Ljubi gradivo, . in in the Bulgarian one. In other difference the of vocabulary, sphere se n and dialects 15 greater, clearer than that (A language. à the literary Bulgarian Serbo-Croatia to it is necessary for the teaching practice: the (very much), wher ee words, at least in between between practical lesson the teaching in the grammar handbooks and this having already been the practice insist even more on ication should b e considered idered of of a readers, of the vocabulary: put the publication shou or tendency so far, jan School Bulgarian-Serbo-Croatia Dictionary, School used i Se rceqinntly words in In 5 the oy ie (here x eee Dictionary and a Serbo-Croatian- comprising at least both languages), was including almost thousand morphological the also ten identical (171 : 165%), Certain it. satisfied with the errors made concerning too, SE stier ton should be made here, Serbo-Croatian the in made errors The language. either in involve they cases 1m most tolerable, i.e., language are more are syntagmas while the corresponding word order in the sentence, and are In the Bulgarian languages). committed i.e., more serious, The greatest spelling in Serbo-Croatian. easier for spelling them to It suits write in is better the same was language) Bulgarian the 26% the and only in Bulgarian quite satisfied with (150% found to be the spelling mistakes we could be Thus, in Serbo-Croatian). Serbo-Croatian the errors syntagmas. language, Bulgarian just in constructing for (negative surprise local the of impact syntactical the involved is (there correct be should we that mean not Er natural our that pupils way as the tested, they phonetic for it pronounce. is The Bulgarian language has an etymological type of spelling, i.e., there are differences between the pronunciation and spelling. When these two types of spelling clash, of course, the losing party is the etymological one. However, the difference is great and unexpected. Future writers of grammars, readers and methodological instructions should pay more attention to it (There are lots of simple spelling mistakes, perhaps under the impact of Serbo-Croatian: thus, let us say, a number of the participants spell Bulgarian words in the Serbian way: cjala, noSt, etc. - i.e. they do not use the corresponding letters for St and ja. An example of a specific interference in the sphere of spelling! It would future Slavic be useful to compare Serbo-Croatian), and Bilingualism and Interference in both reform). Bilingualism (political addition these investigations with the data bilingualism in this country to life, the to make the press, the teaching of similar derived (Slovak, data and then television, the desired furnished by from other types of Czech, Ruthenian and corresponding radio, realization or in conclusions the social publishing), communication the life in and social integration, creates the conditions for interference on all the levels of the linguistic structure. In other words, the pupils, and later on the citizens, form specific variants of the Bulgarian or Serbo-Croatian languages, respectively, each with its specific elements (as to vocabulary, syntax, stress). The 168 Razprave small in gradivo, area present an Ljubljana, inhabited by opportunity This is, in journalism, the main, cultural March the for a 1986, Bulgarian larger implemented activities, No.18 ethnic number of group ideal in the sphere of in translation does not bilinguals. education, in and literary creations. The majority of ethnic group live and work language either ceases to the educated members of the Bulgarian in their homeland, where the Bulgarian be cultivated or is preserved in the consciousness Bulgarian as the "bad" language, while the Serbo- Croatian language is cultivated only to the extent required by the professional and social context. Thus, those living and working in the eastern part of Serbia will go on maintaining worse Serbo-Croatian (as the environment and profession do not require more), while those who work in the western part of Serbia or in Bosnia or Croatia will be forced to successfully build up their Serbo-Croatian, this being required by the new sociolinguistic context. It has been observed that those who ideally master the Serbo-Croatian language, preserve even better the literary Bulgarian language - learnt at school - because of the increased possibilities, differentiation between the two in that literary case, of The language of the Yugoslav Bulgarians (literary displays the following deviations from the contemporary language: - an increased use Serbo-Croatian aorist - a tense (a declining in - a decrease increased use — of the the the typical use - a decrease recent date; present of language), of and use the the of tense thereby feature participal the in of perfect of the (under a the and neologisms and of creation of a new socio-political expiratory cultivation the of the of the indirect phraseology speech; of a more tense; stress - vacillating use modifying adverbs; - use reduction of the unstressed vowels, and suffix -me in the first person plural, vocabulary and is an - a minimal use of the of the pronoun for each of language) Bulgarian language); for economic expressing system of the In the Serbo-Croatian language of the Yugoslav following deviations from the contemporary language have been observed; - better impact diminished Bulgarian forms a languages. eastern of of the variant expiratory infinitive person; the cases, ekavian of the one, and a reduced pronunciation Serbo-Croatian 169 are rare; strengthened use and substance Bulgarians, the Serbo-Croatian lengths somewhat the SFRY. of use of the the vocabulary language. verb- Razprave in gradivo, Biculturalism in In the area Dimitrovgrad Ljubljana, the Function March of 1986, No.18 Bilingualism of the Bulgarian and Bosiljgrad), ethnic group in addition (predominantly at to bilingualism, biculturalism is also being strengthened, being a peculiar symbiosis of the Yugoslav (or Serbian) and the Bulgarian cultures. This is mirrored in the school programmes (study of the Bulgarian literature, additional content in the art, music, history and geography lessons), in the cultural life, in the public information media, and in the publishing activities in the Bulgarian language. Yugoslav ones and origin, and in emphasis on of friendly (for For instance, theatre and Bulgarian repertoires, others) feature items of the cultivation societies of cultural history the creators having contributed relations between the Yugoslav instance, Svetozar Markovié, cultivate the public performances (school the Yugoslav and Bulgarian etc.) In there to the peoples the is an establishment and cultures vanguard of such a bicultural activity is the bilingually educated intelligensia (the post-war generation) in the fields of education, journalism, translation, and literary creation. It is to a considerable extent free from the traditional nationalistic predjudices and moves have within been a in rather the narrow recent space decades and interstate often relations unfavourable and that cool. The positive elements of the interstate bilculturalism, which have a positive impact on the maintenance of the equlibrium between the Serbo-Croatian and Bulgarian languages, are follows: the traditional border meetings of the Yugoslavs and Bulgarians, mutual visits to the cultural ensembles in frontier towns, more frequent crossings (tourists, family of the border between Yugoslavia and Bulgarian meetings), schooling at the University of Sofia, common professional meetings of Bulgarian teachers at Dimitrovgrad (Bosiljgrad), seminars for our in In Bulgaria the (refresher upholders bilinguals, (knowledge French), and of a but involved, and courses of many world we must that there in the mother tongue), are mostly biculturalism etc. competent among them also trilingual language: Russian, English, not are forget that in the only population one at language teachers persons German, stratum large (of middle generation) also uncertain bilinguals, and that users the local dialect are the most numerous. Thus, the tendency is the of of those who are prominent in the cultural activity, the tendency of the creators of the official programmes is towards an ideal bilingualism - i.e., to such a communication system in which the Serbo-Croatian and Bulgarian languages coexist - cannot exist in all the strata of society and be uniformly endorsed by all, and nor can it always The efficiency not depend linguistic the bilingual same favourable education of biculturalism does and cultural foundation of the population it has been for. This field requires a permanent research, which has not existed linguistics and culture has been raising and results. only upon well-conceived and progressively directed and cultural policies, but also upon a concrete socio- linguistic designed of yield of the material culture monitoring and an accurate so far; this sub-field of neglected on account of the of 170 this area that in economic Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 terms mainly belongs to the insufficiently developed regions of this country. The maintenance of the equilibrium in the use of the Bulgarian and Serbo-Croatian languages in the area of the Bulgarian ethnic group presents a manifold complicated task, for it should not be forgotten that (in our conditions) the SerboCroatian language is the prerequisite and the means of professional and social progress. On the other hand, the ideological motivation that the members of the Bulgarian ethnic group cultivate “their mother tongue” as an element “of their national individuality," has been rather weakened, in particular today when a substantial part of the people of this country declare themselves to be of the “Yugoslav nationality" (i.e. unaffilitated to the nationality). The motivation for learning the Bulgarian language as the mother tongue or as the language of the social environment (for the pupils of non-Bulgarian origin) must be built in a more concrete manner and must rely not only upon ideological bases, but above all upon the material, social, psychological and professional foundations. In this light, we should permanently analyze and consider the results of biculturalism, i.e., we should take into consideration not only in the Bulgarian activities, press, Bulgarian quality, language the form the quantity of the activities performed language (school teaching, extracurricular radio, television, literature written in the in of the the SFRY, and the cultural-artistic like), the acquired school knowledge in the function accepted bilingualism and biculturalism. 171 but also communication of and cultivating the of the Razprave Djordje Faculty Novi j : In gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1906, Djurié of Philosophy Sad, No.18 UDC 376.744(497.1):159.92 Yugoslavia QUELQUES ASPECTS SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGIQUES DU DEVELOPPEMENT D'IDENTITE ETHNIQUE DANS UNE COMMUNAUTE PLURINATIONALE* Le caractère démocratique, DE L'EDUCATION ET CULTURELLE féderal, socialiste EN FONCTION DES JEUNES et autogestion- naire de la communauté yougoslave plurinationale comporte - comme un de ses principes fondamentaux - la réalisation de l'égalité nationale et le droit des communautés de toutes les nations et nationalités de développé et de suvegarder leur propre identité nationale, compris la les valeurs le droit communauté les particularités plurinationale individus et acquis les et et à l'éducation membres des valeurs dans inclut groupes des leur autres de langue. aussi la culture, caractère nécessité ethniques nations leur Ce de et pour y de les connaître les nationalités qui vivent dans la même communauté locale ou dans une autre plus vaste; de développer une compréhension réciproque et la solidarité, la collectivité, le sentiment de la proximité et de la conscience de l'appartenance à une communauté plurinationale. Tous ces caractères de la communauté plurinationale ont leurs correlations historique, économique, politique, culturelle, éducative, psychologique et autres qui, pour leur sur le développement de l'identité personnelle part, influent et sociale de L'aspect socio-psychologique de l'étude de ces phénomènes part de la connaissance que la communauté plurinationale fournit un cadre plus large des activités et de la vie des membres des différents groupes ethniques et nationaux et qu'elle assure indispensablement les conditions économiques et sociales nécessaires pour le développement de tous les groupes ainsi que pour leur vie commune. La communauté plurinationale dans cette perspective influe aussi sur l'orientation et le caractère de l'éducation - le but et les tâches, le contenu, la structure et l'organisation ainsi que sur la formation d'un développement universel gens-en influe et de sur la la personnalité construisant une meilleure compréhension nationalités de leur et l'appartenance La uat commu e nauté : : sian exiatence. intégrative membres efforts de à un les création socialisation de la et réciproque, membres communauté des des culturelle; la autres conscience et jeunes elle coopération du nations et sentiment plurinationale. certain niveau nue Plurinationale représente plus tous une la ethnique connaissance avec la de plurinationale » parallèlement à la création des national du développement l'encouragement 1s communs * Original: sur et identité lea à French ss Sroupes 4 Passé aussi d'intégration elle forme nationaux une des réalise une communauté qui y vivent, et du présent, des conditions groupes une de son force globale des par des liés avec des buts communs Razprave pour in gradivo, l'avenir. Ljubljana, Les effets de March cette 1996, No.18 communauté sont négatifs si elle forme une communauté imposée de l'extérieur, opposant les tendances nationales. Alors les groupes nationaux jouent le réle de la communauté diminution ou globale à une qui par positive des membres des l'augementation de la barrière des attitudes opposition ethniques ouverte psychologiques parmi aussi à travers Une des ces groupes. qui l'éducation de divers sociale peut groupes entr'eux, et Les jeunes parfois gens dans une une ethniques, à au développement caractérisent des à réciproque même processus et qu'à et les réalise travers culturelle communauté une communauté conduite effet se et à sociaux la ainsi identité ethnique les autres nations. l'éducation conduire l'orientation des égards forgent la et de son groupe. Leur leur propre rapport avec tâches de défavorables dynamiques plurinationale à bien actions de l'individu processus de travers leur ailleurs interruption le et à plurinationale est aussi sa contribution à la préparation des jeunes gens pour la vie dans une telle communauté. Pour cela elle doit permettre aux jeunes gens de connaître la culture et les réalisations des autres nations dans divers domaines - au passé comme au présent et de contribuer au développement d'une orientation affective positive et à la d'une activité jeunes gens des vivent disponibilité des jeunes gens commune, les divers rapports autres nations et nationalités ensemble. L'éducation dans une à créer à l'aide sociaux avec avec lesquels communauté les ils plurinationale agit sur ces bases aussi bien sur le développement de l'identité personnelle et sociale, les attitudes ethniques, les valeurs des jeunes gens que sur leurs qualités permanentes structurodynamiques. Les mesures de la politique plurinationale de Voivodine favorisent - un des plurinationaux en Yougoslavie l'orientation complète place particulière les de l'éducation dans une communauté les processus mentionnés. Dans le cas milieux les plus spécifiquement - ces tâches de l'éducation dans facteurs suivants: se réalisent laquelle à travers occupent une - l'instruction dans la langue maternelle et la création des conditions pourque les jeunes gens puissent apprendre et développer la culture et les valeurs de leur propre groupe national, surtout à travers l'enseignement de la langue maternelle, de la littérature, de la culture musicale et artistique et de l'histoire nationale; - les programmes communs des domaines à travers lesquelles les jeunes gens font la connaissance des apports de la civilisation et de la culture de toutes les nations et surtout du développement et de l'interpénétration des cultures des nations et nationalités qui vivent ensemble à Voivodine et en Yougoslavie; - les manuels communs dans les langues des nations et nationalités avec les particularités provénant du développement national et culturel spécifique des nations et nationalités: - l'enseignement que moyen de connaissance; des langues des communication nations et nationalités en tant réciproque et de meilleure 173 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 - les formes et les contenus développés des activités communes d'enseignement et des activités libres (hors de l'enseignement) des élèves qui apprennent dans leur langue et fréquentent la même école; - les organisations sans réerence à la sociales communes des langue d'instruction; - directe la liaison plus entre élèves l'école et de la le même milieu école social local; - l'instruction systématique et le perfectionnement des instituteurs pour le travail dans les écoles où l'enseignement se dispense en plusieures langues des nations et langues; leur nationalités engouement ainsi qu'à à apprendre les travailler dans l'esprit d'une éducation multiculturelle des jeunes gens et de leur préparation pour la vie dans une communauté plurinationale; - l'equipement et l'enseignement se conformément Plusieurs sur le jeunes à le financement adéquats des écoles où dispense en deux ou plusieures langues, leurs facteurs tâches et activités complexes. agissent au niveau l'éducation développement de l'identité gens dans une communauté l'identité attitudes ethnique envers et les culturelle membres de des des systématique ethnique et culturelle des plurinationale. A savoir jeunes autres gens ainsi groupes se que leurs développent dans une communauté plurinationale à travers une interaction sociale réelle quotidienne dans laquelle se rencontrent les influences de diverses activités, organisées ou spontanées, et les efforts des individus et de leurs groupes. Même dans les études se rapportant au développement de l'identité ethnique et culturelle ainsi que dans l'interprétation de ce type de recherches, il y a beaucoup de difficultés et d'obstacles méthodiques et épistimologiques. En tenant compte de tout cela cette communication présentera les résultats de l'étude de certains aspects des attitudes ethniques et des formes de solidarité nationale en tant que tendances génerales de 1a conduite des jeunes gens et en tant qu'indicateurs indubitables de leur identité ethnique et culturelle. Ces dimensions structuro-dynamiques de la personnalité des jeunes gens peuvent être considérées partiellement aussi comme l'effet d'une éducation systématique dans un milieu plurinationale. Les attitudes ethniques et nationales sont déterminées par une série d'attitudes sociales qui expriment le rapport de l'individu vers le groupe nationale ou ethnique en tant qu'ensemble; vers les individus comme des membres des groupes nationaux ou vers les autres objets comme importants - que les individus pour la nation. Les ou les groupes considèrent jeunes gens adoptent les attitudes nationales comme une des composantes de l'identité nationale. D'une certaine manière ces attitudes reflètent aussi les attitudes de la famille, des instituteurs et du milieu social plus vaste, y compris le groupe ethnique. Les attitudes ethniques s'apprennent surtout les influencer par organisée. l'influence Puisque d'une quand on est intéressé et un climat social général ces attitudes motivation sont étudiées extérieure, 174 quand on cherche à et une influence surtout bien des sous fois Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March repressive, cela peut avoir une développement des jeunes gens, motivations intérieures du 1986, No.18 influence négative sur le surtout en diminuant les développement de ces attitudes ainsi que la domination des arguments affectifs - par rapport aux arguments rationnels - au vu des divers objets. Dans le processus de la création des attitudes sociales, les diverses influences sociales se heurtent à la personnalité d'un enfant, effets dépendent aussi bien du niveau du développement que de l'ensemble L'évaluation particulier des de attitudes la personnalité ethniques des des et leurs cognitif jeunes jeunes gens. gens de nationalité serbe et hongroise qui vivent ensemble à Vofvodine fut réalisé à l'aide de stéréotypes ethniques. L'analyse des observations des particularités des membres d'un même groupe ethnique et autres groupes ethniques se fit en s'appuyant Lippmann (1922), Katz et Braly (1932), Eysenck (1953) et et Frijda (1960). I1 convient d'étudier les attitudes à les stéréotypes ethniques puisque ce sont les sur Duijker travers formes les plus fréquentes de la description des membres des groupes nationaux et cela représente en même temps un cadre particulier d'observation et d'estimation des individus L'étude fut réalisé personnes interrogées A partir de particularités) de leur tant que membres de ces groupes. échantillon de 930 l'analyse du contenu des attributs (des que les personnes interrogées donnent aux membres propre catégories en sur la base d'un de 14 à 15 ans. groupe ethnique génerales: a) et les aux autres, attributs on a qui obtenu 3 expriment l'orientation hérofque-libérale des personnes interrogées qui décrivent leur propre et les autres groupes, comme p.ex.: courageux, combattant, fier, aimant la liberté, pacifique; b) les attributs qui servent à décrire les membres de deux groupes nationaux, cultivé, du caractère intelligent, culturel-normatif, progressiste, brave, surtout propre, attributs qui montrent la sincérité envers les caractéristiques des membres de deux groupes hospitalier, gai, france, bon, désintéressé. Les personnes certaines semblable même se interrogées spécifiques, en décrivant modèle de ressemble de La ressemblance de dans des la nationalités de deux groupes description modèles deux groupes aux processus partiellement l'appartenance les autres, comme des nationaux, p.ex.: en du dehors nationaux. propre nationale, de perception nationaux des de et de peut développement caractéristiques Le groupe et des autres, bien que dans une moindre mesure, à structure cognitive plus pauvre des stéréotypes groupe. membres p.ex.: c) de expriment au fond une orientation si leur propre groupe qu'on peut parler d'une description aussi deux poli; modèle nationale cause de la de l'autre description être de la de des attribuée conscience ces groupes de et des valeurs qu'une nation développe auprès de ses membres. La ressemblance de la description de deux groupes nationaux résulte aussi du fait que l'appartenance à une nation dans le sens d'un groupe, répond à certains besoins et peut avoir une valeur constructive pour les membres du groupe ou bien être une valueur en elle même. De plus, les trois tendances générales de la description des groupes ethniques correspondent à 3 domaines de la conduite humaine. L'orientation héroïque-libérale présente une 175 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 caractéristique importante du groupe humain en fonction sociale est importante, elle joue en méme général. Sa temps un réle protecteur aussi bien pour l'individu que pour le transmet aux les jeunes gens en tant que valeur groupe et sociale. tendance à mettre en évidence par les attributs du situer partiellement doute, parmi l'individu et l'identité caractère parmi les culturelle, se La exprimée culturel-normatif, pourrait se fonctions protectrices et, sans les conditions du développement général de du groupe en tant qu'l'ensemble. La franchise envers les autres gens comme une tendance de la description des membres au dgroupe ethnique, car caractéristique d'une interaction directe, comporte une valeur particulière, surtout dans des milieux plurinationaux où la coopération et l'information mutuelle sont une des conditions de la vie commune. Ca témoigne que les trois orientations générales de la description des membres des groupes ethniques ont une fonction psycologique et humaine générale et qu'elles représentent aussi des facteurs importants du développement de l'identité communauté une dans gens jeunes des sociale et personnelle plurinationale. Les conditions semblables de la vie, et les buts mutuelle, l'information l'enchaînement historique, les efforts communs ainsi que les conditions données pour un développement universel et égalitaire dans la société yougoslave plurinationale ont contribué au développement d'un modèle semblable nationaux. Les de cette résultats de description la recherche des des membres formes solidarité) confirment l'analogie perception et de la description des de de deux liens entre les membres du groupes nationaux modèles de même groupe (la la et d'autres groupes de nationalité serbe et hongroise qui vivent à Voivodine. En effet, la solidarité nationale peut être définie comme un système d'attitudes de l'individu envers sa nation, les autres nations soit au niveau nationale. ainsi qu'envers les autres objets importants — de la nation soit au niveau de l'appartenance Ils peuvent être perçus comme une dimension psychologique qui englobe le continuum de solidarité exclusive envers la propre nation à travers la solidarité considérable seulement pour son propre groupe - principalement du point de vue de l'idéalisation de la nation et de ses valeurs, ensuite à travers la solidarité nationale plus où moins partagée entre la propre et les autres nations jusqu'à l'aliénation nationale et la loyauté à l'humanité - comme la communauté humaine la plus générale. L'existance des formes de loyauté nationale différente confirment empiriques 1975; aussi les (Guetzkow, Persic, 1975; résultats 1955; des Rot, Lazaroski, recherches 1971; Havelka, psychologiques 1975; Djurié, 1975). Une telle recherche fut réalisée à Voïvodine sur la base d'un échantillon de 468 élèves de 14 à 15 ans, 469 élèves de 16 à 17 ans et 226 élèves de 18 à 19 ans. Chaque groupe de jeunes interrogés comprend hongroise, slovaque, Les résultats des jeunes roumaine principaux gens et de nationalité serbe, ruthène. peuvent être regroupés sous quelques constatations: Les élèves de l'instruction, trois groupes, montrent au sélectionnés fond la 176 tendance par à rapport avoir à l'âge et une réaction Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 semblable. nationale appartenir général;" La majorité accepte les manifestations de solidarité partagée (p.ex. "Je me sens de la même façcon à ma propre nation et à la communauté humaine en "bien que les gens soient différents entr'eux, puisqu'ils constitue appartiennent à des nations diverses, cela ne pas nécessairement un obstacle au respect et à l'égalité nationale récriproque...") et une affirmation de solidarité considérable, surtout de type déclaratif ("Chaque nation doit reproduire nationaux"), à ces jeunes En même et temps affirmations sont gens les acceptent Cependant solidarité sauvegarder les réponses les des propres personnes les plus homogènes: et seulement 3-6% les les réactions des nationale exlusive jeunes gens sont moins idéaux interrogées presque refusent. 90% des à l'affirmation de homogènes. Bien que prédomine le refus de ces affirmations ("Tous les membres de ma nation devraient toujours et partout estimer plus leur propre nation par rapport aux autres." "Je crois que les membres de ma nation qui glorifient leur propre nation plus que les autres ne font rien de mal parce qu'ils montrent de cette facçon simplement leur amour pour leur propre nation.") il y a un certain nombre des jeunes groupe, et 1/6 gens qui c'est-à-dire du troisième les les acceptent plus (à jeunes: groupe). Cela peu 1/4 près âu 1/3 groupe signifie que du premier intermédiaire les élèves les plus grands (plus âgés) acceptent moins les affirmations de solidarité nationale exclusive que les plus jeunes, ils les refusent beaucoup plus. Les attitudes de solidarité humaine et les attitudes de non solidarité envers sa propre nation ou envers la nation peu près. l'échelle en général sont acceptées en moyenne par 50% de cas à Ce qui mène à une analyse supplémentaire du contenu de des attitudes et à une sélection ultérieure des affirmations. Les différences interrogées, sélectionnés bien décrites. entre par les rapport Les résultats mentionnés mènent à personnes interrogées observées et groupes à la un leur des âge, personnes ne sont pas conclusion qu'avec niveau plus élevé les de l'éducation on n'arrive pas à des changements importants en ce qui concerne la domination de certaines formes de solidarité nationale. On n'a pas trouvé des différences plus expressives ni en ce qui concerne les diverses formes particulières de solidarité nationale: les liens partagés, qui avec les élèments des liens considérables et ceux de la loyauté humaine générale et avec un refus moindre des liens nationaux en général créent l'orientation nation et deuxième, à internationale l'appartenance c'est des jeunes nationale, l'orientation jeunes gens n'expriment pas comme par ethnocentrique, nationaux créé exclusivement des liens exprimée, les élèments des liens considérables. Les gens donc rapport prédominent une pas seule à la beaucoup. La beaucoup moins exclusifs avec de liens forme de phone affirmations les acceptent ils mais nationaux, de Ga peut signifier que les cinq formes formes de solidarité. genre jeunes des ce groupe sur étudiées nationaux, liens n'existent indispensablement mentionées se nationaux le refus des et certaines des formes complétement. différences sont rendues affirmations A séparées cété en des qui 8 oe tendances manifestant qui surtout celles évidentes, Le de la solidarité exclusive. 177 es g les touc fait sd es en que : Razprave les élèves montré être, La in un gradivo, plus Ljubljana, âgés refus prédominance de par et plus attribué la facteurs. attitudes rapport net probablement, plusieurs par plus March à aux leur solidarité à la No.18 élèves grand de plus elle plus solidarité exclusive, et aussi l'importance de l'appartenance plus ces maturité peut être provient extrême, par rapport nationale, du la nation n'exclue aient peut sociale. attribuée fait à que ces c'est-à-dire la au refus total de représentent une certaine tendance "modérée" intermédiaire quant l'attribution de l'appartenance nationale. Elle rapport de puisqu'elle jeunes affirmations grande partagée Partiellement rapport 1986, à l'importance présente aussi de le socialement désirable et souvent accentué, pas l'orientation internationale tout en ne la préposant pas à la précédente ni en rétablissant entr'elles le rapport de supériorité et de'infériorité. La manifestation de la solidarité nationale partagée provient probablement aussi du fait que chez un certain nombre des personnes interrogées chez lesquels prédominent les liens considérables, existe la tendance qu'ils s'aperçoivent d'une proximité dans les affirmations des liens partagés ou bien surtout les éléments de leur loyauté. Une même tendance lesquels probablement prédomine la existe aussi solidarité chez les humaine. La jeunes liens nationaux partagés provient probablement que dans notre communauté plurinationale existe particulière des conceptions et des opinions questions nationales ce que se reflète sur le surtout sur la manifestation de ces gens prédominance chez des surtout du fait une sensibilité extrêmes sur des développement et attitudes. Le fait d'accentuer les efforts sociaux positifs et la pratique d'une réalisation toujours plus èlaborée de l'égalité nationale dans tous les domaines ainsi que les efforts à dépasser certaines expériences négatives du passé concernant des rapports entres les nations, crée chez nous un climat social favorable au développement de l'orientation internationale des jeunes gens. Parallèlement à côté une énorme influence et de l'éducation et de l'instruction systématiques, la contribution de ces conditions à l'orientation des valeurs des jeunes gens est sans doute très grande. Les échantillons nationaux de beaucoup des modèles généraux. jeunes gens ne On a constaté diffèrent pas des tendances générales à adopter une réaction semblable aux attitudes individuelles envers diverses formes des liens nationaux. On a trouvé une différence un peu plus marquée du fait que les jeunes gens que de les nationalité jeunes gens serbe des et hongroise autres refusent nationalités exclusifs. Ici les différences jeunes que chez les plus âgés des sont plus grandes ce qui actualise facteur du développement et le comme des facteurs des attitudes niveau de ethniques. la Les résultats des recherches sur les attitudes formes de solidarité nationale entre les jeunes montrent aussi un développement uni et coordoné ethnique promimité plus fermement liens nationaux chez les plus de nouveau le maturité sociale ethniques et les gens à Voïvodine de leur identité et culturelle et de la conscience et aux autres nations et nationalités avec du sens de la lesquelles ils vivent ensemble dans une communauté plurinationale. La ressemblance des modèles de liens nationaux partagés chez les jeunes gens confirment leur orientation internationale. Ensuite, des que l'attitude témoignent de la recherche les résultats 178 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, jeunes gens envers attitude envers les patriotique ne peut dans une March 1986, leur propre nation autres nations. Par se développer chez communauté plurinationale No.18 influe beaucoup sur leur suite, une vraie attitude les jeunes gens, surtout basée sur l'égalité et la collectivité des nations et nationalités, si en même temps ne se développe aussi leur orientation internationale: c'est-à-dire leurs attitudes positives, les valeurs et la conduite, tout pour une meilleure connaissance réciproque, la compréhension, respect, le sens de la proximité et de collectivité ainsi l'attitude et de la constructive vie commune. dans La le développement prédominance de expressive la de le que coopération l'orientation internationale des jeunes gens à Vofvodine prouve non seulement que leur orientation mais aussi leur identité nationale et culturelle, ainsi que la conscience de l'appartenance à une communauté coordonés. La plurinationale se développent ensemble, G.W., Buchanan, 1954, W., 1951, international N.3, Paris The Nature Duijker, H.C.J. Stereotypes, and Djurié, Dj., 1980, FFK, Novi Sad of Stéréotypes organisée National par N.H. Prejudice, et tension l'Unesco, Frijda, Addison-Wesley que Bull. 1960, Psychologists of Katz, K. D. and Prejudice," in Klineberg, O., 40-46 National Lippmann, 1948, W., Social N., 1972, le de sondage scie. Character soc. and Amsterdam Psiholoëka Yugoslavia, Braly, Maccoby internationale, révéle inter. struktura etniékih Havelka, N., 1975, Kognitivna struktura macionalne vezanosti, Materials from Rot, et littérature Allport, PP. unis 1951, et pp. 1959, “Verbal al., Readings Etats Unesco, “Public Skopje, de stavova mladih, pojedinih oblika the Congress of 428-436 Stereotypes in Social tension et and Racial Psycology, pp. compréhension Paris Opinion" Psychology, Psiholoëke New (1922), York, osnove pp. in D. predrasuda, 673-658 179 Katz and Schanck, 78-92 Pregled, Sarajevo, Razprave Cedomir in B. gradivo, Ljubljana, Kuzmanovié : March 1986, UDC No.18 323.15(497.113):316.356.72 Provincial Committee for Education and Culture Novi Sad, CULTURAL PROVINCE Yugoslavia PLURALISM IN OF VOJVODINA* THE ETHNICALLY MIXED SOCIALIST AUTONOMOUS One of the important characteristics of the development of culture in SAP Vojvodina is the creation of political equality and equal rights in publishing activities in the languages of the nations and nationalities. This subfield of culture had consistent priority in the period from 1981 to 1965. As many as ten publishing organisations have publishing as their basic activity. They issue publications in Serbo-Croatian, Hungarian, Slovak, Rumanian and Ruthenian, Meanwhile, a spread of publishing activity has been evident. A further 120 work organisations have registered for publishing as a parallel activity. The Matica Srpska (founded for the creation, affirmation and development of Serbian culture, it traditionally propagates the culture of Serbian nationality, but in cooperation with the cultures of nationalities of SAP Vojvodina, SR Serbia and SFR Yugoslavia) realised numerous collective publishes the almanac Letopis newspapers in Europe. The publishing houses and Yugoslav projects. Matice Srpske, one other publishers annually publish more than 1,000 of the nations and nationalities works (titles) to a total of million works copies, as well as languages. Publishers often poets of all the nations and Dictionaries of 48 in and It regularly of the oldest SAP Vojvodina in the languages approximately 3.5 (titles) in bring out collected nationalities. self-management the the has the poems socio-political other of young terms and expressions (Serbo-Croatian/Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian/Slovak, Serbo-Croatian/Rumanian) have been published as well as 16 terminological five-language dictionaries for professional other interests in secondary vocationally oriented education. One the of the basic collective creativity the of the closeness hundred characteristics of publishing translation and publication of original nations and nationalities, these cultures works of and literature translated from approximately two the Liberation hundred and fifty translations Serbo-Croatian from thirteen books into Ruthenian. translated into into the Thirty-eight works of literature Hungarian into Serbo-Croatian, ten * Original: their Serbo-Croatian 180 (over in the Province is of the spiritual which mutual 140 makes possible permeation. authors) have to 1985, published volumes. The majority Hungarian Rumanian have been books each and and Slovak, language and Two been in are with five translated from from Slovak and Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Rumanian into Serbo-Croatian and six works Ruthenian into Serbo-Croatian. However, the of literature from overall translation of Vojvodina the literature of the nationalities of is still unsatisfactory. Important results have also been achieved in the publication of newspapers, with an annual output of approximately 8.5 million copies. Of 72 newspapers that are published in the languages of the nations and nationalities, 47 appear in Serbo-Croatian, 9 in Hungarian, 3 in Slovak, 4 in Rumanian and 4 in Ruthenian, one is multilingual and the remaining four are in other languages. The numerous newspapers make it possible for young authors-members of all the nations and nationalities to publish their literary and other works. The number of published original works of writers of literature of the nations and nationalities is constantly growing. Noticeable results have also been achieved in the publication of Marxist literature nations and With the the aim SIZ and of of buys one of our nationality) of promoting (self-managing Vojvodina important nationalities half works translation community or part of all languages into and distributes on the culture of the Vojvodina. of the and publishing interest) literature activities, for culture translated another (language of them among libraries. a of from nation or There are 43 national libraries in SAP Vojvodina with over 320 branches in the organisations of associated labour and town communities, whose stock of approximately 3,000,000 books in the languages of the nations and nationalities is used by over 220,000 readers. Of the total number of books, 73% are in SerboCroatian, 20% are in the languages of the nationalities of Vojvodina, 2% in other languages, while 5% are not classified by language. Although the composition of the library stock is being improved with regard to the languages, it is not yet with the national structure of the population. It has wanting especially in Ruthenian language-books. constantly in accord been found There is an exchange of library material with the respective institutions in the Socialist Republics and SAP Kosovo and with 211 institutions in 36 countries throughout the world. There are Vojvodina, 7 active professional theatres for adults in SAP of which 5 are in Serbo-Croatian and two in Hungarian; 4 theatres for children in Serbo-Croatian theatre for children in Slovak and one and Hungarian; puppet theatre one in Rumanian. Provincial cultural festivals and academies of collective interests for the nations and nationalities of Vojvodina are held regulary, such as meetings of amateur theatres in Vojvodina, the Festival of Little Scenes of Vojvodina, "May Games," Brankovo kolo, a review of reciters of Vojvodina, a review of amateur Slovak theatre in Vojvodina, Theatre Days of the Rumanians in Vojvodina, the Drama Memorial of Peter Riznié Djade (in Ruthenian). These cultural-artistic events contribute to the further development of amateur theatre societies and the 181 Razprave in gradivo, affirmation of nationalities the of Ljubljana, March creative potential Vojvodina 1986, throughout No.18 of our the nations and country. of the 40 amateur theatres, 10 hold their shows in Hungarian, 5 each in Slovak and Rumanian and 4 in Ruthenian. More than 2,200 theatrical shows with a total attendance of more than half a million spectators are given annually. The professional theatres give about 1,400 shows per year. The annual Yugoslav theatrical games, Sterijino pozorje, are held in Novi Sad, Vojvodina, in which 7 to 9 of the most important creations of the Yugoslav theatre in all the languages of the nations and nationalities of Yugoslavia are shown each year. Cinema production upholds the continuity of the themes which affirm and care for our unity and togetherness (Vojvodinan movies are filmed using the languages of the nations and nationalities living in the province), our revolutionary past and selfmanagement development and our present based on our equal-rights national community of the nationalities and nations, are realised in film. More than 8,500 films are shown every year in 220 cinemas. The art of the nations and nationalities is characterised by their collective development, mutual permeation and openness towards all types of creative expressiveness. The artists of all the nations and nationalities are organised within the framework of their professional associations. Between 1981 and 1984, the association of artists of SAP Vojvodina organised 66 individual exhibitions of Vojvodinan and other authors from SFR Yugoslavia and five exhibitions each year of its members to which 438 authors contributed 757 artistic works. The association of practical artists and designers has organised 50 individual and collective exhibitions of its members in which 209 authors have participated with 542 works of art. Eight Yugoslav art events have been held Yugoslavia are in Vojvodina in which 22 manifestations organised with 1,475 contributors. Artists from all over the country and permanent art colonies. The Centre of art in also from abroad come to 8 for the Art Education of Children and Young People of Vojvodina has organised over 40 exhibitions of children's work, travelling exhibitions in SAP Vojvodina and SFR Yugoslavia. workers, Atelje 61, has made authors. The exhibitions Vojvodinan years, 461 galleries. Cinema the field of traditional music, and contemporary of includes Vojvodina, various forms of and amateur programmes of the cultural heritage nationalities of Association for society, have become part of of the nations and nationalities professional development programme Photographic has of tapestry Vojvodinan organised 48 of various forms of artistic activity, in which 232 authors have shown 1,100 works. In the past five works of art have been bought for Vojvodinan In this way, these art works, through their acquisition inheritance In The labour association over 40 tapestries of the Vojvodina, the Music Vojvodina musical SR culture and are of SFR Vojvodina, Philharmonic 182 music realised which contribute and affirmation Serbia Centre the general cultural of Vojvodina. Youth the the the nations and Yugoslavia. The Opera in to of Musical with The Youth Ballet Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March (The Serbian National Theatre), the Serbian National Theatre), as well present (the their work Festival of in provincial Musical 1986, No.18 Vojvodina Philharmonic (The as amateur ensembles which revues, Societies of festivals and Vojvodina, the events Musical Festival of Children of Vojvodina, the Festival of Youth Choirs of Vojvodina, Brankovo kolo, the Festival of Folklore Traditions of Vojvodina, the Competition of Slovak Creativity, the Festival of Rumanian Musical and Folklore Creativity, Culture of Ruthenians and Ukrainians, etc.). the Festival of the More than 100 amateur and professional cultural events in all fields of creativity - drama, folklore, music, art, film, etc. are organised annually to present the manifold aspects of the cultural-artistic activity and the achievements in the development expansion underway. of of all all the the nations forms of and nationalities amateur cultural in Vojvodina. art is Of the 186 cultural-artistic societies, 139 work Croatian language, 56 in Hungarian, 24 in Rumanian, 5 in Ruthenian, 2 in Macedonian, 3 in Ukrainian other languages. There is equality of all nationalities which live cultural-artistic creativity. The the cultures in Vojvodina societies programmes as well of the of in as all the in An currently in the Serbo17 in Slovak, and 2 in the the nations and organisation of cultural-artistic cultural-artistic societies stress the achievements of the National Liberation War and socialist revolution and the positive cultural heritage of the nations and nationalities... The network developed in in the have a of cultural the country centres in SAP Vojvodina is the most (of the total number of cultural centres country, 33% are found in considerable role in the Individual centres the all concern Vojvodina). The cultural centres organisation of cultural life. themselves not only with the organisation of amateur cultural art activities and the creative work of the working people and citizens (musical plays, folklore, art, literature, etc.) but also with the libraries, educational and informational activities, as well as with the various top cultural-artistic events, concerts, organisation of celebrations, exhibitions, the showing of films and other forms of social life and entertainment. They have two organisations for folk heritage and 17 sports sections. We are not, however, satisfied with the standard of the locations and equipment of these organisations. The cultural centres pay special attention in their programme activity to an equal performance of individual forms of activity, depending on the national population makeup in the region in which they are active. Thus, for example, in the 1983/84 season, 709 theatrical shows were presented. Of the remaining amateur activities, there were 983 art performances were organised, people. There 446 were exhibitions 16,288 cinema were exhibitions. All together, 2,660 which were attended by 820,985 organised, performances with with the 135 cultural centres, 131 operate in Macedonian, 31 in Hungarian, 7 in Slovak, Ruthenian and one in Ukrainian. Ninety-two one language, languages. 37 in two languages 183 and 378,678 1,850,283 visitors. visitors. Serbo-Croatian, 10 in Rumanian, centres work in 8 centres in three and Of 2 in 3 in only more Ragprave There in gradivo, is a varied museums, 14 Ljubljana, and rich galleries, 2 March museum museum The museums have collected collection of ethnographic 1986, No.18 activity units and in 12 SAP Vojvodina; museum and now preserve material of the 13 collections. an important nations and nationalities of Vojvodina, which is studied and exhibited. The museums and galleries also collect contemporary works of creators of the nations and nationalities, all of whom have an equal opportunity to affirm themselves through art colonies throughout the Province and to exhibit their works at numerous art exhibitions. There are ten archives in existence on the territory of SAP Vojvodina. Valuable archival cultural material, encompassing the period from the 17th century to the present is kept, analyzed and cared for in the Vojvodinan archives. The publication and study of work based on this archival material of cultural heritage contribute to the knowledge of the characteristics and the mutual influence all our of the national cultures in Vojvodina, SR Serbia and of country. In the field organisations of conservation of cultural monuments, competent take care of those cultural monuments which are of importance for an nationalities of tablets, busts, understanding of the culture SAP Vojvodina. Similarly, etc. mark events and of the nations and various memorial personalities which have been of importance for the cultural history of the nations nationalities of Vojvodina. The thorough reconstruction of and the monastery at Fruska gora now underway is very important for the Serbian culture, Experts from SAP Vojvodina are taking part in work on four important cultural monuments in SAP Kosovo, and the province is contributing to this work with financial help. There are more than 600,000 museum exhibits registered in SAP Vojvodina, of which more than 260,000 are archeological. In accordance with the Statue which defines community relations, information bulletins, delegate heralds, newsletters, etc. are issued in several languages in 23 communes, while in 16 communes information for delegates and delegations and the working people and citizens is translated and issued on the basis of equal language rights of the nations and nationalities. The democratisation of cultural its content enriched. The artistic, socio-scientific which, in the spirit of In addition to its several 750 all and continuously writers, in the nationalities of Vojvodina. Despite notable szo the texts spread has a title by every cultural year workers authors television - and culturalHilato in in the nations and nationalities SAP Kosovo are published. employees, thousand theatre workers, of programmes these is brotherhood, field of culture from among all the socialist republics engages life newspaper Magyar supplement under from Novi film the of Sad and composers and singers - in the creation five languages of the nations and achievements and tendencies in the field of information, it is a fact that the information bulletins do not yet completely describe the multinational characteristics of the overall development of SAP Vojvodina, SR Serbia and SFR Yugoslavia. Individual editorial departments still close 184 Razprave in themselves their gradivo, within regional programme especially schemes on still Ljubljana, and and with 1986, national content television exist March No.18 confines orientation. Novi Sad very unsatisfactory with On the rough regard radio to and organisational interlinkages five editorial departments, which has a negative cultural values of the nations and nationalities between the impact on the of Vojvodina. The staff base is still limited, in spite of constant strengthening, especially in the languages of the nationalities since too little has been done in the planning, preparations and the provision of staff for work in this area, The use of two languages is regulated in 21 communes; three languages are officially used in 12 communes and four languages in 7. Only 4 communes have enacted the use of Serbo-Croatian only, but in practice more languages are also used in them. The communes Of Pancevo and Bela Crkva do regulate by statute and observe in practice the equal right to the use of Macedonian or Czech, which are not so sanctioned by the constitution of SAP Vojvodina. In 4 communes the assembly is provided with simultaneous translation service and in 21 communes this is done through service a translator. available in There 15 is communal no simultaneous translation assemblies. In the communal statutes, in the enactments of the organisations of associated labour and of local and self-managing communities of interest, as well as in other self-management communal acts, the equality of the nations and nationalities - and especially the equality of language and writing - increasingly figures as an integral part of social relations, and in the organised activity of all the subjective forces, this is ever more reinforced in the process of self-management decision-making, in the exercise of power and in cultural and public life. The use of national symbols, together with the flying of the flags of the nations and nationalities on the occasions of national holidays and other events and ceremonies, in addition to the country's flag and symbols and the flag and symbols of SR Serbia, has become a natural practice in the province and its communes. However, Vojvodina the are achievements flanked by the - there are too creative spirit - there is in the field of following negative many superficial of the workers; still not enough - limitation of staff cultural centres has events attention in paid culture aspects: culture to (this relatively most at its disposal too the and in SAP too little creative youth; complex network of few workers with university education; the province has only one Doctor of Ethnology, a total of two Masters degrees in the field of musicology, not a single Ph.D.-holder in the fields of art history and aesthetics, nor a sociologist of culture, etc.); - we have not yet met all of the collective cultural working people and citizens, members of all the nationalities of associated in the local communities labour; 185 and in the needs of the nations and organisations Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 - the financial means allocated for the development of culture are rather limited for objective reasons; furthermore, linear restrictions are being introduced; - there are the field In and still of not cultural nationalities fight for framework enough of jobs life SAP for and cultural the Vojvodina, activities. creativity organised of their humanist and socialist character of openness to the cultural values of the nationalities in SR Serbia and SFR the nations socialist Yugoslavia. This forces within nations the and is the also general direction of movement of the culture of the whole country, of which the basic starting point is that the national culture will only be developed in full measure when it creatively coincides with the general cultural creativity of mankind. Since we are aware that getting to know the cultural heritage of other nationalities is the prerequisite for our own openness, our orientation is towards a cultural opening up for the sake of an easier recognition that which is both of that which is collective to and culture of multinational In of all view of this, and the regions. further strengthening of the working people the socialisation of and their culture, cultural of heritage collective in culture of general interest for of thee influence delegations and delegates upon upon the Marxist view of the every nationality and their interpenetration, as well as upon the provision of personnel from among all our nations and nationalities, remains a very topical question. It must be made possible for the proven young cultural creators to participate more actively in the process of building the cultural they live. image of our province and of The foregoing achievements show that in of cultural integration or collective realised in province is numerous best nations awareness This, practice. the of then, a We and also say for toward the the such have historical commune in which SAP Vojvodina, the idea cultural influence is that place nationalities collective is could possible the territory an idea, developed a of the since our profound destiny. good of all, in that some people cannot close themselves within their ethnic barrier, nor can they shut themselves within their provinces or republics, although such tendencies are still present. The right and to a cultural to the equality of all the nations and nationalities free and autonomous development and enrichment of their life, with a maximal development of the individual creative potential of their cultural creators, is observed in SAP Vojvodina, thanks to the efforts of the organised socialist selfmanagement forces of the province. The conditions for cultural closeness and the interrelation of the nations and nationalities in the Province represent the freedom of everyone, especially in the development of his own cultural life, his ethnic self, on the basis of economic equality. Because of this, there will be still further the efforts Province culture on the to on the ensure basis of part of the organised the conditions the self-management 186 for socialist the forces in socialisation of pooling of labour and Razprave for the in gradivo, socialist Ljubljana, and humanist March 1986, content and No.18 character of culture and the cultural life of all our nations and nationalities. This activity will enrich the cultural pluralism of the ethnically composite SAP Vojvodina and effectively fight any attempts to impose spurious nationalist questions and of unitarianist "ethnic" cultural 187 schemes criteria. as well as the Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Radomir Babin Educational-Pedagogic Institute Subotica, UDC 376.744(497.113) Yugoslavia PRINCIPLES AND PROBLEMS OF BILINGUAL EDUCATION IN NORTHERN BACKA* The area of Northern Baëka with Subotica as its economic, cultural and educational centre, is known for its being inhabited, in approximately equal numbers, by members of the Yugoslav nationalities and of the Hungarian ethnic group. Accordingly, Serbo-Croatian and Hungarian appear equally to be the can standard languages be observed in the of the social environment concerned. This streets, squares, shops, public offices, cultural and educational institutions. A roughly equal number of the inhabitants speak as their mother tongues the Serbo-Croatian and Hungarian languages, respectively, along with the traditional natural bilingualism of a number of individuals; this has made possible in the educational organizations of this area a simpler, faster and fuller realization of the principles of the Yugoslav policy of education, the constitutional and statutory provisions concerning the implementation of the national equality of rights in the sphere of education and instruction than in other parts of SAP Vojvodina. The national map of this area is supplemented also by the data showing that, along with the Yugoslav nations and the Hungarian ethnic group, whose languages are also officially the languages of communication in all the communes of this area, members of the Macedonian nation also live here (0.44% out of the total number of pupils) as well as Slovenes (0.08%), those belonging to the Albanian ethnic group (0.07%), and a very small number of members of or the other nationalities. An ever-greater their parents declare themselves to be number of Yugoslavs the pupils (11.88% of pupils in the school year of 1982/83). Besides other developments in inter-nationality relations (i.e. the number of ethnically mixed marriages has been increasing steadily), all this demonstrates that the area of Northern Backa is interesting for the observation of the developments in inter-nationality relations, particularly so in the field of education. Therefore, in this paper, outline, the development of the Second fundamental pedagogical World arising not only to the theoretical * and Original: War up principles work as being problems equality we of in accept of the and shall try education to illustrate, in this area from present, so as formed and endorsed generally valid, and to actual pedagogical implement, assumptions the the to in bilingual but also underlying pedagogical Serbo-Croatian 188 to the enrich policy activity. explain the in bilingual point out some practice to a brief the end that tries creatively of national Razprave In the in gradivo, search for Ljubljana, adequate March 1986, pedagogical No.18 solutions in the schools with two languages of instruction, experiments were made in this field using a completely bilingual teaching, when the teaching in the same class was carried out, with different variants, in two languages, discussing technical terms in the language of the social and environment applying while bilingual teaching in teaching on the the pupils’ native principle of language, divergence. Of all these experiments the best results were obtained by the teaching method that was also longest in use, viz., that on the principle of divergence, broadly known as "the practice of Subotica." While the other experiments have been virtually forgotten, "the practice of Subotica," among its educational workers, securing by the still has its advocates, who underscore its the proficiency in the Serbo-Croatian language pupils purpose here Subotica," of to we the Hungarian offer shall a nationality. detailed mention its Though description main of it the value in attained is not "practice characteristic: the our of pupils of the Hungarian nationality who had completed their elementary schooling in their own language, were taught, after the enrollment in the first year of secondary school, again entirely in their own language, but in the second, third and fourth years, the number of the subjects taught in Serbo-Croatian was gradually increased, so that the final examination was taken in the Serbo- Croatian language. However, all these forms of bilingual teaching have been gradually abandoned with the dwindling of the democratization process in the society, when the society was also creating more and more favourable conditions for education in its mother tongue, thus increasing the ensurance of national equality of rights in the field of education. In this way, the development of education was such that it has attained the above-described Organization of the schools - that is, two languages of instruction wherever possible. This means that, in the realization of the principle of the equality of rights, the pupils have, first of all, the possibility of being educated in their native language, and that through the certain teaching contents and forms of common work the paths are sought towards the integration of children into the multinational community. As many schools classes. as 67.34% of the elementary schools and all the secondary conduct the teaching in either language, in separate In such schools, unless well thought-out and well- programmed work isolationism has may been organized, occur. This the phenomenon phenomenon is, of therefore, national prevented in various ways. Pedagogical practice is in the forefront in this respect, whereas the theory does not succeed in forming and giving going meaning to national to all enumerate the results some ways obtained of of the communicate public; - the social — one practice. the We emergence are of isolationism: - all the professional, self-management school are homogenous (in the commune of 66.67% in preventing school in the Pioneers' principals two and youth organizations annual languages programme at bilingual with the organizations, the of are school are schoolwork 189 and managing Subotica, for is and hence able pupils and the socio-political and parents, all bodies at instance, uniform; adopted; to Razgprave - the in gradivo, language - there are and pupils' societies; - the social beneficial practice, and however, March 1986, environment common sections interest groups, socially In of Ljubljana, No.18 is learned actively; of free (out-of-classroom) activities cultural-artistic and school sports production some work dilemmas solution to which the pedagogical significantly. We shall dwell upon is performed have been theory should some of these jointly. raised, the contribute issues. more 1. There are divergent views of the work of the other sections dealing with the cultivation of the literary language and and of the national culture: some are of the opinion that these sections, too, should comprise the pupils belonging to different nationalities and hence speaking different languages, while others maintain that these sections should work separately, according to the languages of instruction. There are also people advocating a third, compromise solution - that the sections should be common, with a common managing body, but within the sections the work should be performed separately, according to the languages. At the schools of Northern Backa, this third solution has generally prevailed: within the literary section, for instance, work is done, as a rule, in the Serbo-Croatian and Hungarian section languages are separately, preparing a but performance when the a literary or members of evening, the ata number of schools the work is performed jointly on bilingual recitals and the like. Yet the practice prevails of preparing separate recitations or recitals that are always performed at a common bilingual performance. 2. Among the dilemmas there is also the question of the status of the teaching subject, the language of the social environment.” In SAP. Vojvodina it is taught as an optional subject of instruction, the pupil is graded, overall achievement. some the think best that the one;“ but the Opinions existing others, marks do not influence his/her are divided on this matter too: solution however, is genuinely particularly democratic the and educational workers and teachers of the language of the social environment, want this subject to be compulsory and believe that the marks should be taken into consideration in establishing the pupil's overall achievement.” If the theory offered a many-sided consideration of this question, assist the pedagogical practice. it could without doubt greatly It should be emphasized that no one denies the need for learning the language of the social environment. On the contrary, everybody does his/her instruction to a higher best level, to raise the for there is efficiency of this widespread awareness that knowledge of the language and culture of the people one lives with represents a very important condition for a successful integration of every individual into the production work and social life. Subotica," nationality completed Ever since the abandonment of the "practice of which was such that members of the Hungarian were not on an equal footing with others, for they their secondary education in the language, the learning of the language of the is practically the most important element of 190 Serbo-Croatian social environment the preparation of Razprave in children school gradivo, for and Ljubljana, their March integration extracurricular into activities 1986, No.18 various whereby forms the of learning common of the language of the social environment is expanded, deepened and knowledge of it reinforced and put into practice, so that, among other things, the great functional value of this knowledge might also be recognized. The significance of the learning of the language of the social environment is even greater at a school operating in a nationally homogeneous environment or at a school where conducted in only one language. It is natural the teaching is that under such circumstances is less fully mastered in everday situations and that the language of the social environment as a subject of instruction is not in a position to compensate for this handicap by securing better knowledge of the language of the other nation or nationality. Such schools, therefore, organize a series of activities, events and performances aiming at the learning of the language of the social environment and closeness of the members of different nations and nationalities. Most frequently, these take the form of meetings of twin schools belonging to different environments, joint camping trips and holidays, joint publication ef school journals (for instance, Ada-Sabac), exchange of visits and sojourns of classes or groups of pupils, mutual correspondence of individual pupils or classes. A number of the schools from this area with Hungarian as the language of instruction, for instance, cherish brotherly relations with those from Serbia. The same aims are evident from sports events, the cycle race on the track of the Petôfi Brigade, etc. Notwithstanding all the efforts made, the efficiency of the learning of the language of the social environment, in particular at monolingual schools, is not satisfactory. According to the research carried out by the experts of the EducationalPedagogical Institute of Subotica, the percentage of the positive answers in the nationally homogeneous environments was 36.55 per cent in the fourth grade of the elementary school and 33.93 per cent in the eighth grade, while at the bilingual schools from the nationally mixed environments the result was somewhat better: 44.55 per cen£ in the fourth grade and 50.14 per cent in the eighth grade.* The theory and practice are faced with the exacting task of improving this performance, which is important, for poor knowledge of the language of the social environment leads to the isolation of the “language collective," which prevents the attainment of the desired educational effects. The language of the social environment in this area begins to be learnt in the pre-school institutions, more precisely, from the child's fifth year onwards; nowhere in this country, according to our knowledge, does this process start earlier. There have been a lot of expert discussions about the beginning of the learning of a second language. The experts have considered, investigated and tested the impact of second-language learning mother-tongue acquisition, and whether it negatively affects the mastering of the general educational contents, the stuttering of children, whether the the and like. It best for to what extent has been starting it puts a strain on the established that the age of 4 to learn the second-language. children, and to 5 years is “Accordingly, the learning of the Serbo-Croatian language should start already at the kindergarten level. This is important, given that the 191 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 children of this age acquire very easily and quickly the correct pronunciation and stress, a patural intonation and the idiomatic expressions of the language."” Thus, in this area, the dilemma of an early start of the learning of a second language was eliminated. The validity of such a solution has been confirmed by the practice, 3. One of the efficiency of problems learning is the in a direct language of connection the social with the environment; it refers to the phenomenon of language parallelism at all public meetings held in bilingual environments. The question emerges here of the justification of the practice at some schools, and also outside them, to hold, for instance at various performances and mettings, identical speeches or - more rarely - recitals and recitations, in two languages, or to publish in school journal identical articles in both languages. In our opinion, such practice is suitable in the schools having two separate collectives, but it is harmful, in many ways, to the realization of the educational goals, and also to the learning of the language of the social environment at schools with two languages of instruction. The variety of content in speech, recitals, recitations or written articles, on the contrary, stimulates and increases the pupils’ motivation for learning, enriching their aesthetic experiences, increasing information they receive and gives meaning to the efforts they make to master the language of the social environment. Even more senseless is the language parallelism sometimes resorted to by some self-managing and professional use. The bodies nature use one's own thought said by someone environment. 4. While the in order to satisfy of one's own native rather else, the formality language in in language communicating than in repeating what is most appropriate has already been in a bilingual of for cultivation one's own language the pupils of the ethnic groups attending instruction in the Serbo-Croatian language is organized in various parts of Vojvodina, in this area, where this form of work had been started, after the creation of partially language, this and conditions for the aspect and interest on of tradition, framework of function necessary higher the the cultivation has completely this should for of of one's the performed by away. is in pupils native dwindled it secondary education part environment, be complete university and In a the language Own parents language, social that of in culture broader considered and one's the this social environment, while the experts believe that, in view of the fact that, besides all the conditions for mother-tongue education, 13 per cent of cent of the not real attend need teaching the children of the Hungarian ethnic group and 4 per children of the Yugoslav nations and nationalities do instruction for of the the in their cultivation language of native of the one's social in terms of the curriculum or with tasks, and in particular in regard languages, native there language, environment cannot, their even motives of these pupils and difficult to explain, decision though it not is to attend available, either knowledge of However, the and of their parents are very especially concerning, first, instruction and 192 4 the respect to its objectives and to the actual possibilities, entirely compensate for the deficiencies in the one's own language and one's own national culture. subject complex exists since in secondly, their own their language, relatively Razprave in gradivo, slight interest in native language and 5. working The self-management instruction can Ljubljana, the March deepening of 1986, the No.18 knowledge of their own professional and culture. language used at the meetings of bodies at the schools with two languages be, according to normative provisions, each of of the two languages of instruction, or both at the same time. In practice, the Serbo-Croatian language is more frequently used, but there are schools where the working language is either Hungarian or both the languages alternately. 6. One of the dilemmas relates to the common Yugoslav programme core covering language and literature for the children of the Hungarian nationality. While the idea for the introduction of these common-core contents into the other curricular subjects has been accepted without reserve, in relation to the language and literature core some fear has been expressed that Hungarian as the mother tongue will not be sufficiently learned from the original works, but mostly from translations into Hungarian. The application of new curricula and educational programmes in school year 1985/86 will actually show whether and to what extent such fear is justified. So far, the educational programme in the Hungarian language has already contained 21 per cent of the texts to be analyzed from the Yugoslav and world literatures. We must add that the Hungarian children were able to acquaint themselves with the works of the most significant Yugoslav writers, especially in the secondary schools, during the lessons or by reading selected books in Serbo-Croatian as the language of the social environment. Thus, the content from the literatures of the Yugoslav nations and nationalities has already been well represented so far - and from now on this content appears ina somewhat different function and with a different arrangement, because from now on the language of the social environment as a subject by itself will focus on a functional training of the pupils for communication much more than on familiarizing them with the literary works. 7. Although there are within our community such institutions as are liable to follow the implementation of the curricula and of educational programmes, the appropriateness of textbooks and manuals, teaching aids, methods and procedures, and to help the teachers promote their teaching practice, we cannot be satisfied with the overall situation in this area. There is but little research work done whose wide-ranging effects might secure such an insight into the highly ramified bilingual pedagogical practice as enabled a theoretical synthesis of all the experiences gained, so that the theory would stimulate the practice to be infused with a new vigour, reaching new heights and conquering new areas. Without such a combination of theory and practice, which could enrich the teaching methodology of the language and provide organizing it with a the work in series of practice with an integrated of the social environment, instructions a bilingual and environment, suggestions not the provision of contemporary teaching aids for the the environment, it will be impossible to enhance level of this work. 193 for forgetting language of the quality Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Notes l. Formerly, this subject was labelled the non-mother tongue. Later, the name was changed because it was - and still is considered that the language spoken by the pupil in an ethnically mixed family often is not the native language of his/her mother, and that the environment” is 2. This denomination therefore more opinion is supported "the language appropriate. by the fact pupils and the youth in the communes language of the social environment: that of this members of almost of 3. they reasons are of a practical nature: social all the area learn the of the Yugoslav peoples learn the Hungarian language and members ethnic group the Serbo-Croatian language. Their the the Hungarian think that thereby the pupils' motivation for schoolwork could be increased (particularly in the case of the nations), which could in turn enhance the efficiency of work. As one of the reasons they point out that in five is compulsory. 4. See: Results Yugoslav republics the Mijana Burzan, Josip Buljovcié of the Testing of Knowledge learning of this subject and Ferenc Kuéera, "The of the Serbo-Croatian Language in the Fourth and Eighth Grades of the Elementary School in the Nationally Homogeneous Environments (With an Analysis of the Most Frequent Mistakes)," in No. 55, Szabadka, 1981 and 1984, 5. Plemer in the Brunet, First 1981, "Learning and Second the Language Hungarian as Pedagoëska stvarnost, No. Oktatas pp. 37-50 Grades 8, of pp. of of the the Serbo-Croatian Elementary Instruction 547-48. 194 és Nevelés, and 57-67. - An No. 40 and Language Schools with Experiment," in Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, Jon Muntean "Dr. A. Saboljev" Primary School Eéka, Yugoslavia UDC EDUCATION OF PUPILS OF PRIMARY-SCHOOL INSTRUCTION IN THE RURAL AREA OF MIDDLE The village of Eéka, with 5,200 No.18 376.744(497,113):802-07 AGE IN BANAT* TWO inhabitants, is LANGUAGES OF situated in Middle Banat, only 6 km from Zrenjanin beside the main road to Belgrade. In addition to the Serbs, Rumanians also live in this town community, together with other nations and nationalities of Yugoslavia. ECka is one of the oldest of Zrenjanin. It was founded before Banat in but it is not known which E¢ka is exactly mentioned date settlements the Turkish when. from The in the commune occupation of first known documents 1439. The ethnic structure of the population of Ecka has frequently changed. The original inhabitants of the village were Serbians and Rumanians. The Rumanian element was considerably increased after the settling of a large number of Rumanian families from Erdel in 1767 by order of Maria Theresa. At the end of the 17th century, Serbs from Bosnia and Germans came. After the Second World War, the Germans left Ecka, and Serbs as well as other nations and nationalities living in the territory of today's Yugoslavia came in their place. Such large and frequent migrations of the population of Ecka explained by the fact that these migrants never had their land but were always on a hire country and later by the feudal 1921 (partly) The basic farm land (343%) is sector. and that of 1945 basis, first with regard to the landlords. The agrarian reform of finally activity of the village is available is approximately in In industrial vegetables the the are own gave land to agriculture. 2,888 ha, of the settlers. The area which 982 of ha social sector and 1,906 ha (66%) in the private planting structure, grains represent 74.8%, plants 4.4%. (e.g. sunflower, sugar beet, etc.) 18.3% and There are a number of agricultural organisations in the village itself: a fishing economic unit, the basic organisation Kooperacija, and the agricultural organisation Pobeda. A large number of private Kooperacija, thus In the past few farmers are united in the basic organisation realising their interests directly. years, more of the inhabitants have worked in the city and lived in the village (18%). Being near Zrenjanin, Ecka is to a great extent under the influence of this large urban centre. A powerful agricultural and food-supply industry, a developed school system, numerous cultural institutions, a rich sports life - these are the characteristics Zrenjanin. * Original: Serbo-Croatian 195 of the city of Ra à . zprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 7e ty school was named after a well-known revolutionary, Or and scientist, member of the Physiological institutes of Sarajevo, Skopje and Novi Sad and inhabitant of our village, Dr. A. Sabovljeva. The primary school (four-year) was founded in 1821. In that distant past, teaching was carried out in Rumanian and German, and sometimes in Hungarian. After the Second World War, in 1958, the school became an eight-year one. The number and division of departments in the school and the number of pupils is shown in Table 1. and The structure of the administration school is given in Table 2. Based of principles the on and nations the of foundations the of equality the and and unity brotherhood provides the elementary school nationalities, education and upbringing. Table 1 No. Grade Serbo- Croatian I IL Ill IV Of No. Of No. Of No. of Dept. Rumanian Pupils Pupils Pupils 66 70 71 60 49 55 57 43 17 15 14 17 267 63 63 67 59 204 45 49 50 44 63 18 14 17 1 2 2 2 2 + + + + 1=3 1=3 1l=3 1=3 1-1IV v VI VII VIII 8 2 2 2 2 + + + + + 4=12 l= 3 1l= 3 l= 3 l= 3 V-VIII 8 + 4= 12 25 2 188 64 I-VIII 16 + B= 24 519 392 127 Total Total Table 2 Order No. ADMINISTRATIVE AND WORK TASKS tary I. DIRECTOR 2. PEDAGOGUE/EDUCATOR QUALIFICATIONS Elemen- Secon- College dary 3. TEACHER/CLASS LESSONS SUBJECT LESSONS 4. 5. ADMINISTRATIVE} 1 S a CAL ASSISTANT : STANT HELP TOTAL AND 00K a 1 6 6S 196 2 Univer- Total sity School ___ School k 12 18 À L 1 13: 19 3 1 1 6 32 1 31 the accessibility, democracy, unity, in tasks working Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, The complete educational activity of clearly defined by the tasks laid down No.18 the elementary school in the law on Education is in SAP Vojvodina, as well as in the acts of the SKJ (League of Communists of Yugoslavia) and the constitutional decisions on the role of education in the realisation of complete equality of the nations and nationalities of Yugoslavia. In the constitutional amendments of 1971, the obligations and responsibilities for the state and development of education were Placed in the hands of the Socialist Autonomous Province of Vojvodina. As in many other schools in Vojvodina, the lessons in eur school are bilingual: in the Serbo-Croatian and Rumanian languages. In the entire educational work, the teaching languages are equal and have a right to equal treatment. In SAP Vojvodina, elementary schools are organised principle of territory. They enroll all the pupils from a territory (village, local community), without national affiliation and language which they follows that in all towns and urban centres with composition of inhabitants, there are elementary or more languages. In the lessons community are taught of in regard to the use. From this a multi-national schools with two Zrenjanin, with 18 elementary schools, Serbo-Croatian in ten schools, in Serbo- Croatian and Hungarian in and Slovak in one school, our on the defined 6 schools, in Serbo-Croatian, Hungarian and in Serbo-Croatian and Rumanian in school, Elementary schools in one language do not differ much from bilingual schools in respect of the specifics of such schools. In the planning of work in the professional as well as in the selfmanagement organs of the operational programme of the work of the school, in the individual plans and programmes of the work of the teachers and in the normative acts, the needs and conditions for the realisation of the school tasks in two teaching languages have been clearly fixed. As a concrete example, we stress educational work in the plans, especially in the field of ethical education and the tasks which follow from this, such as "Socialist Humanism," “Yugoslav Socialist Patriotism,“ “Proletarian Internationalism," etc. Furthermore, special attention is paid to the staffing structure of the teaching personnel, or should we say, equal qualification and complete linguistic fluency in Serbo-Croatian and Rumanian. These questions are have accepted The two been regulated by by the the corresponding workers pedagogic documentation and languages. Both languages in the normative acts which school. administration are prepared in are used at meetings of the professional organs (departmental conferences) and at parentteacher meetings. One of the most important documents which regulate education Basic Education in forms in The of both teaching and non-teaching the "Plan and Programme of extent, tasks, content and activities are laid down it. specific pedagogic of in SAP Vojvodina is SAP Vojvodina." The the choice of estimation and school, as well activities the as is material on the 197 dependent and needs staffing of the on the social possibilities multinational Razprave in gradivo, areas. Through of school the The 1. this, and activity Ljubljana, of the more the March unique are 1986, social No.18 and educational functions guaranteed, school consists of the following: Lessons a) b) compulsory courses optional courses 2. 3. 4. 5. Complementary educational work Additional educational work Educational work of the department heads Activities of the collective department 6. Activities 7. Cultural and 8. Socially beneficial Regular program more outside the public lessons are and plan. In changes in subject of The basic two the the classroom activity work. carried out this kind of position educational factors by following the compulsory teaching, there are more and and role of the pupil; he becomes a process. of the teaching process, the teacher and the pupil, realise these important tasks of the teaching process through united, active work and a cooperative relationship. The optional lessons are performed in the same way as the regular lessons, through the plan and programme, which reflects the specific and cultural-educational structure and content. Our school is increasingly needs being built of as the an province integral in its school of the nations and nationalities which live in our regional community. It is particularly important for us that the children learn the language of the social community: Serbo-Croatian in the departments in which Rumanian in the Serbo-Croatian. in an organised the lessons are carried out in Rumanian and departments in which the lessons are conducted in The languages of the social community are learned way from the first to the eighth grades. With regard to the subject of lessons, it must be added that very important aims are achieved through the corresponding content and educational tasks of individual subjects. In what follows directly point we to shall how try the to level indicate of the those elements programme, aims of history contribute to the further strengthening concept of the collective education of the members of the nationalities. Of course, geography, practice There is history: the remaining programmes (Serbo-Croatian, nature and society, etc.) uphold the of unity (depending also the "The teacher this subject love towards for following must directing their on in take and homeland, nationalities, developing pride such a progressive society..." the the "nature" each methodological advantage educating towards that 198 of they of the all the and of the various Rumanian, ideas and subject). directions for suitability pupils, our belong which content nations to of developing a land and with Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, The need to learn the transcends the frame of subject, together and languages the lessons 1986, of or No.18 the social teacher who and becomes the concern of the whole of with the socio-political organisations beyond. In using introduction of we discovered departments children is much Rumanian received March a questionnaire Rumanian that a with in the as a language of certain number lessons in Serbo-Croatian environment teaches this our collective, in the village preparation the of for the social environment, children in the spoke Rumanian, If the of mixed marriages are taken into account, this number greater. In the preparations for the introduction of the language as a language of our social environment, we the full backing of the parents as well as the full support of the social community. Knowing the languages of the social environment contributes to a knowledge of the cultural values of the nations and nationalities, makes possible the togetherness and equal activity of the members of both nationalities, and influences the further development of brotherhood and unity as well as equality. The existing “language of principles the pupil" that ensure lessons are that school the conducted takes in the measures that the bilingual education be done systematically. Because of this, the teachers must make themselves familiar with bilingual pedagogic activity and receive in-service training through individual work as well as through seminars organised by the Educational Pedagogic Institute of Zrenjanin. In the past few years, there has been more and more literature dealing with this field. Textbooks, workbooks and other materials in both languages which are approved by the Educational Council of Vojvodina are used in direct lessons. The concept of unity is represented in the existing textbooks, especially in the textbooks of the mother language, nature and society (grades I-3), society (grade 4) and history (grades 5-8). In addition to texts about the national literature, contributions from authors from among our nations and nationalities, as well as texts from world literature are included in the textbooks in the mother language. All the textbooks in SAP Vojvodina; except for those about the national culture, they are completely identical in content and in artistic and technical arrangement. As a direct help to the teachers and pupils, the textbooks have become a source for the realisation of the Marxist-Leninist outlook on the world; they are inspired with Yugoslav socialist idea of brotherhood and unity and the idea internationalism. Additional educational work individual subjects provided for interest in those in pupils the who show and patriotism, the of proletarian educational exceptional scientific programme ability is and fields. This form of work the teaching year is organised through the regulations a for pupils from the fifth to the eighth grades. Lessons educational in contemporary ability the to school (physics, this literature. work plans It is independently about mathematics, 300 work are important through hours history), 199 each individual that = additional year 30 hours for ee work. a for each and oT ‘the eats In + work etek subject. The Razgprave in presence of gradivo, Ljubljana, members of March both 1986, No.18 nationalities educational work, especially when advantage that in this way the in nationalities of Vojvodina is illuminated becomes better known through the choice of rich cultural inheritance of the additional the subject is history, has history of the nations all, as well the and from all sides the subject of as by and the presenting the movements and people who have played a progressive role from a class perspective and who also have had an exceptional role in the plan of bringing together our nations and nationalities. Extracurricular educational extending activities work the which, in in educational our school addition activity to of form part performing the school the and of the task of stimulating individual interests, develop a collective consciousness and, order to enrich the social life, influence the togetherness the pupils and strengthen Pupils join not national by into in which activities the are unity. liberal activities affiliation or on the teaching mother tongue organised in the 2. 3. 4. Sports of of content (except is concerned). following fields No. Cultural-artistic - literature recitation, folklore and orchestra Scientific subjects Work-technical basis language Pield 1. in of in and cases Extracurricular and areas: Sections 6 10 3 activities 5 Extracurricular activities are organised in the school from the first grade through the eighth. They offer the possibility for each pupil to enroll into one section on the basis of individual choice, Pupils without those or two sections if the second is the are enrolled in all the forms of regard to their language or national which deal with the native language sports section. liberal activities affiliation, except of the pupil, and both languages are used in the work. If a large number of pupils are enrolled in one section, it is divided into smaller groups according to the pupils' national affiliation but on the basis of other criteria: age, special interest, etc, We are of the opinion that liberal pupil activities are very beneficial for learning the non-mother tongue. Experience has shown us that the children very quickly and easily learn the texts in the non-mother tongue while preparing the culturalartistic programme. using both languages even closer together; to this each is one Such events of a cultural-artistic nature, equally, achieve the aim that the pupils get other of the through nicest friendly and best games conditions performed to be met with a view to achieving the unity and equality of the nations and nationalities within the multinational structure of the inhabitants of Ecka. The folklore very active perform the section, as well as the choir and the orchestra, is in our school. The children of both nationalities dances of the nations and nationalities of Vojvodina 200 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 and Yugoslavia. When there is a dance, there is also singing. In addition to participation in festivals and ceremonies at the school and in the village community, the choir, orchestra and folklore group also take part every year in various events in the community of Zrenjanin as well as throughout Vojvodina. The performance of selected works of the nations and nationalities of Yugoslavia and other nations makes it possible for the pupils to get to know the cultural traditions and achievements of contemporary musical life of the nations and nationalities, and influences their interregional togetherness and education in the spirit of unity. The folklore group, choir and orchestra contribute to the affirmation of the school in the social environment with their achievements at contests and competitions and realise the aims of the school in the framework of its cultural and public activity. As already mentioned, textbooks and workbooks in both languages are used in the direct teaching activities. However, because of the small number of the editions in the Rumanian language, their price is very high. The difference in price is covered by the social community. In addition to the textbooks and workbooks, the Bucuria pionierilor is used in departments in which lessons are in the Rumanian language, as well as the children's newspaper Tribuna tineretului. Books printed in Yugoslavia are used for schoolwork in grades Teachers Misao in 1-8. use the Vojvodina, the newspapers Lumina and Biltenul five languages of the nations and for and practice. The school the most library successful contains 5,000 the Rumanian language. The town of books in both languages. Teaching staff institutions intended and which teaching trained at the are seats Novi to elementary books, community meet schools of of which also has secondary Zrenjanin, 1,500 a are rich needs of and of departments the the Rumanian language and in library the pre-school literature in elementary nationality level Vrsc, mastering school, continue their pupils our in their native Alibunar, Uzdin of of further language. Such and elsewhere. Serbo-Croatian as the in mainly These Belgrade and knowledge faster of the integration spheres of life Serbo-Croatian of members and work of in the our 201 language Rumanian broader school education at schools exist language environment is invaluable for quicker and education of pupils of Rumanian nationality faculties in Vojvodina and Yugoslavia. all theory is performed in the Rumanian language, are Teacher Training Junior College in Vrsac. finishing Rumanian A pedagogic Sad. After The of progress and the newspaper nationalities of of the of the in social more effective in colleges and makes possible nationality community. That a into this Razprave is of in gradivo, so is proven by the Rumanian organisations Banat. At the end of of Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 the greater and greater employment nationality in the economy and the this city of Zrenjanin contribution, and we the may of in region members social of conclude Middle that the conditions for the achievement of the education in Serbo-Croatian and Rumanian as teaching languages are given great significance in our school. We are making most possible every effort to find the best solution for the realisation of the educational tasks multinational community. This contribution towards this aim. 202 paper is only one making in our modest Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, Ferenc Bagi Institute for the Hungarian Language and Literature and Hungarian Studies Faculty of Arts Novi Sad, Yugoslavia SOME TOPICAL QUESTIONS OF HUNGARIAN LANGUAGE AS THE March UDC 1986, No.18 376.7(497.12=945,11): 809.451.1:372.880 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING LANGUAGE OF THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT THE The tasks and objectives of teaching the language of the social environment can be summarized by the fact that the teaching of this subject of instruction ought to contribute to the desideratum that students belonging to various peoples and nationalities of Yugoslavia get acquainted understand one another as fully as possible. with one A closer another and description and the definition of the notion of achieving command of the language that is being learned, i.e. of the notion of linguistic and communicative competence - which is very interesting in our case as well - have been supplied by Dezs6 Laszlé, who quotes the widely accepted definition of S.P. Corder, according to whom in the course of teaching "the learner must develop the ability to produce and understand grammatical utterances; he must be able to distinguish grammatical from ungrammatical sequences, but he must also know when to select a particular grammatical sequence, the one which is appropriate to the context, both linguistic and situational, His utterance must be situation-related. Or, to put it another way, he must not only learn to talk grammatically in the target language, he must also talk coherently and to the point." requires Defined a linguistic in good this way, command competence cannot of knowledge the of given after all be language language, equated with certainly yet this knowledge of the mother tongue. If the teaching of a foreign language and of the language of the social environment is to attain the abovedefined level of language proficiency on the part of students, it must first solve a number of different problems, and solve them both theoretically and practically. One of these problems can be formulated as follows: What language sequences should be used at the start of the teaching of a foreign language/language of the social environment, if this beginning is really to stand for the starting-point in acquiring command of such an integral whole as language? The answer is not simple, especially because the goal is clear: after student should accordance with described above. a reasonable time spent acquire command the requirements of of and the efforts made, the the given language in the level of proficiency The efforts of experts in this field aimed at establishing successful teaching methods that would be also easy and acceptable for the student, reflect very accurately the solutions adopted by directions * Original: individual schools and championed by various in foreign-language teaching. For instance, in a Serbo-Croatian 203 Razprave in gradivo, grammar school Ljubljana, March foreign-language 1986, teaching No.18 was started in the pronunciation of the phonemes making question; the instruction thus began with the by exercises up the language in smallest sequence - the sound. On the contrary, the direct method began the process of teaching by concentrating on the sentence which, according to linguistic views of the time, was the largest and the most complete language unit. The proponents of this method firmly rejected all the solutions previously used by the grammar method in its Even teaching if we language the case attention language can help are practice. unable to identify, in the practice of scientific foreign-language Arthar/Artur Sendjerdjvari/ points out question of language teaching state history of foreign- teaching, more instances of such conflicting views as in of the two foregoing methods, we must nevertheless pay to the views and observations relating to foreignteaching as a branch of applied linguistics, because it us pinpoint the weaknesses in the present-day theory and of all, that of the autonomy pedagogy. incessant In his agitation teaching. Szentgyérgyvari perhaps the most topical and view, and specificity “it turmoil is a of fact within foreign- that the the “basic disciplines" does not make foreign-language teaching methodology very suitable for furthering a systematic consideration of problems related to foreign languages. Next, it is well known that foreign-language teaching does not make up the core of either psychology or linguistics. Foreign-language pedagogy seems to be a child of fashion: at one time the emphasis is laid on new methods in language analysis, while at other times new views 0 learning processes are also being harmonized. The pendulum swings between these two points, so that the history of pedagogy emerges a a cyclic change of, new linguistics and in the theory of learning." foreign-language directions in Dezsb his Läszl6, reproaches Republic whom we have already foreign-language for the failure which cited, teaching is in reflected in work Hungarian already (1977) People's in the goal stressed and in the formulation of the tasks of this teaching. To quote: "The major defect of foreign-language teaching in this country is mirrored also in the erroneously set teaching goals, the teaching being concentrated on the sentence and requiring correct wording of sentences rather than text production, even though it is well known that speech is realized through dialogues and texts and not through unconnected sentences.” Another teaching problem is highlighted by Fésiis Andras, who analyzes the teaching of vocabulary. He believes that "both the contents and the course of teaching and learning a foreign- language vocabulary represent that instruction which has been worked component of foreign-language out least consciously.” Fur- ther, "foreign-language instruction solves the problems of pronunciation and of the teaching of grammar of the given language, whereas questions of vocabulary teaching are put off until the time when the language learner is leaving school, i.e. leaving the site of organized teaching, so that the theory and practice of foreign-language teaching place these questions beyond their framework, thus seemingly not encountering them at all." On of the the basis theory of these and facts practice we can conclude that the main feature teaching up to now of foreign-language 204 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 has been its incompleteness. The reason for this state of affairs should be sought primarily in the very fact that this scientific branch of linguistics and of pedagogy belongs in a group of applied social sciences, and that the theory of foreign-language teaching has either been too imprecise or has failed to be exhaustive enough in describing and defining those scientifically characteristic elements of theory and practice which emphasize the specificities of this branch of science. In default of such landmarks, those active in the field have tried to improve and promote both its theory and practice by analyzing both weighty and. less weighty problems; approach to questions of foreign-language state of affairs in this field as scientifically unfortunately, teaching (due described above) their to the has been fragmentary, so that e.g. questions of pronunciation and questions of the teaching of grammar were discussed as separate wholes, each in its own right, and the same was true of the other questions too. Instead, all the questions relating to foreignlanguage teaching should have been analyzed as component parts of the all-inclusive grammar within foreign-language teaching, Naturally permeating enough, since the questions were ignored, the did not converge. interdependencies in this field of and interrelations scientific research results of research studies and practical work Had they converged, however, it would not be possible now to conclude that scientific investigations associated with the teaching of foreign languages virtually passed over a major and significant component, that of the teaching of the vocabulary of the language being learned. The existing opposition can also be perceived between the objectives of this instruction and the volume of language materials which should help the student master the language concerned. That is to say, according to the practice that still prevails in the field of foreign-language teaching, the learner is taught to form sentences in the target language while being expected to have full competence in terms of writing as well as speaking. I believe that a both theoretical definition way and ought to out of this situation could be sought on practical planes. As to theory, a closer be devised of the specific features of foreign-language teaching as a scientific subfield of applied linguistics, while the practice of teaching itself should not be restricted to elements and sequences of language, but should rather start the teaching process with language at large, i.e. with the text, thus qualifying the student for the creation of spoken and written texts in the target language. I am using the notion Deme of “text" Laszlé: substance, presented in the and/or in "Text which in given accordance is has that the been informative - and/or the definition of the objectivized extensiveness situation with sequence to and in language formedness create, which while inflyential provided individual's role, form enables playing also a the by mental and it - general impression of integrity and completeness."” He ascertains and describes also the features in terms of which texts can be categorized. Here we cannot go into the presentation and evaluation of the elements which the author draws on for setting up those criteria with the aid of which it is possible to establish very clearly and precisely differences between and levels of the individual categories which are: text, constructed text, literary text, and poetic text. From the point of view 205 of the teaching of foreign Razprave in languages/ cation of of the such made Ljubljana, divergent learning, after views while that of the the on student Hill the 1986, No.18 has application hand must achieved that points out in it a literary Lado, of of in "...there example, instruction language question which not unlike the that for subject level texts literary text can be of foreign-language Robert become of the culture to experience also of some views, a earlier phase other "Literature of the grasp for him/her A.A. March the language of the social environment, this classifitexts is very interesting and useful not least because teaching. According to use of already in the believes and ble gradivo, proficiency makes native exists a it possireader." very real difficulty in the application of literature, because the literary language in many instances represents a departure from the linguistic structure bejng taught. It can be archaic, as in Shakespeare's poetry."’ For this reason, he suggests "...that literature used in language teaching be: (1) contemporary or almost contemporary, language, and cultural values tions have should - or written such of been be (2) (3) the as foreign fulfilled, perhaps without to deviations a culture. I even offer think can be When that - from genuine our everyday insight all of these selection restricted to into condi- of texts only those which are of great esthetic value."I believe that we need not go into the question of whether there are any opposite elements in the criteria proposed by individual authors. However, there are conflicting views related to such questions, the reason in my opinion being that the authors cited above as well as many others employ the term literature - like a terminological unit - as an expression of the concept of integrality and oneness, as though they were oblivious of the fact that the literature of each nation at the same time stands also for diversity, even in the case of the expression “contemporary literature of today. The quandaries texts and types language of the ting the thesis and ity that will Taking other of text in the teaching of foreign languages/the social environment, can be resolved by our accepthat there exist different categories of texts, therefore texts of a pedagogically appropriate complexbe used in various stages of language instruction. due - literature" denoting the about the utilization of account perhaps of less the foregoing important - questions, unsolved as well problems in as of some the theory and practice of the contemporary teaching of foreign languages and of languages of the social porivonment in Yugoslavia, I have adopted certain novel solutions® in my teaching of the Hungarian language as an optional subject at the Faculty of Arts in Novi Sad. In principle, the most salient points are the following ones: (1) that I start and conclude each lecture with a text; (2) that during the lecture the student participates actively the work, encountering as she/he does texts of varying degree sophistication; (3) that all of practice, of in of the categories of text are utilized in the process acquisition, i.e. in furthering the student's skills mastering comprehension); the language (pronunciation, and 206 writing, reading, Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, (4) that the system of exercises makes appearing in the texts, and successively of the texts. Because of language the is semesters brevity taught in all), the following (a) text (b) constructed (c) the the the the on text two deal Laslo songs, use of follows teaching first students categories (children's materials, covering a of in No.18 the the period study with Deme's vocabulary complexity (the years, with texts Hungarian i.e. four belonging to scale: ditties) (reading matter folk songs of love, variety of topics and from mimeographed folk tales, genres) and newspaper Literary text (selections from the Hungarian 19th century and of the beginning of the 20th course reports lyric poetry century). of My course in Hungarian begins with the text used for mastering the pronunciation of the phonemes making up the Hungarian phonological system, and for presenting the alphabet. I teach this by using children's songs accompanied by clapping (tapSalice), one song for each sound of Hungarian (except for the sounds dz and dzs [d2]j as well as ly [1j]). I have selected the songs in such a way that each contains many instances of the sound being practised. After this practice, mimeographed course materials are used where a string of words are given in which the same sound appears in various positions (initial, intervocalic, final). Practice lessons in the case of any given sound usually end with one or several sentences featuring prominently the sound being practiced. Naturally, in learning and practicing the pronunciation of the Hungarian phonemes by way of these texts, the learner acquires also the prosodic features of the language. Since the words of these children's songs are on the elementary level, the learner finds it easier to have to pronounce, in the initial phase of the process of language acquisition, short and simple words that are also basic, than having to cope with more complex texts with strings of words and more lengthy sentences containing more complicated and derived words. It is on this simple word stock that practice texts are based intended to present the system of noun endings (case endings), conjugation of verbs, and learner's comparison knowledge difficult texts, there the is of adjectives. represents mainly short vocabulary 145). in Hungarian Work formation word stock are is on these The broadening prerequisite news for learner “acquires those communicate in the context P. a reports. The communication, for work of on vocabulary and the the more found language concepts which she/he needs to of universal communication." (R. Lado, texts word-formation. is performed Examples furnished by the texts, supplied by the vocabulary together for and the of referred to above (tapSalice), and of the sentences included in the first part of with exercises chapters in word- corresponding basic the children's songs strings of words and mimeographed course materials, i.e. in the exercises designed for the acquisition of the Hungarian phonological system. In this manner, knowledge of words already acquired is further strengthened; what's more, the learner's vocabulary in Hungarian is enriched thanks to the practice in the word-formational process latter is achieved in a comparatively easy 207 of suffixation. The way, because suffixal Razprave in gradivo, derivatives e.g. that of Ljubljana, mostly preserve March some 1986, sense No.18 components of base stol - stoLAR (table - carpenter). It is by way of the student is gradually trained to undertake the syntagms, simple sentences, compound sentences, words, exercises formation segments of the dialogue, and even the creation of shorter texts. In ‘dealing with these - more difficult - texts, the learner adds to the elements of pronunciation, reading, writing, and comprehension that she/he has acquired previously. A many-sided treatment of texts belonging to the subsequent category, that of literary texts, should increase the level of these skills, achieving the degree of proficiency that already approaches that of the average native The speaker didactic of Hungarian. gradualness not only enables one to apply in the course of teaching texts of different categories/levels, but also epitomized the possibility of placing at the learner's disposal many-sided information about the nation/nationality whose native language she/he has been learning. In this way, the goal of bringing together the nations/nationalities through instruction is implemented. This paper could not even touch on all the topical questions of the theory and practice of teaching a foreign language and the language of the social environment today. Neither have I been able to outline all the elements of the solutions that I make use of in my everyday practice. I do hope, however, that I have succeeded in highlighting some of the most topical questions of such teaching. I have discussed my work because by presenting my practice-tested solutions, I have wished to underscore the compactness languages and and complexity languages of of the the question social of teaching foreign environments in this country. Notes 1. Dezso, L., 1979, A nyelvtudomd4ny szerepe az idegennyelvoktat4s komplex megkSzelitésében (The Role of Linguistics in its Complex Process of Approaching Foreign-Language Instruction), A TIT 54; Idegennyelv-oktatdsi Corder, 1973, p. 93. Csoportjdnak kiadvdanyai, 2. Szentgyôrgyvéri, A., 1968, "Jeziéna komunikacije?" (Language Instruction Communication?), pomagala u in nastavi R. Pilipovié, stranih jezika. Budapest, P- nastava ili pedagogija or the Pedagogy of ed.,Aktivne Predavanja metode i i moderna referati odrZani na 10. kongresu and Modern Aids FIPLV u Zagrebu, 5-9 April, 1968 (Active Methods in the Teaching of Foreign Languages. Papers from knjiga, 1971. the 10th FIPLV Zagreb, 3. Dezsdé, 4. Féstis, Congress, Ibid., A., 1977, p. Zagreb, 5-9 April, 1968), Skolska 96 A székincs tanitdsdnak médszertani az idegennyelv-oktatdsban (Educative Questions Teaching in Foreign-Language Instruction), Modern kérdései of Vocabulary Nyelvoktatäs. À felnétt-oktat4s taékoztatéja. À TIT Idegennyelv-oktatäsi Kôzpontajänak Kiadvényai. Tudoményos Ismeretterjesztb Térsulat, 208 Razprave in gradivo, Budapest, 1977, 5. L., Deme, Ljubljana, p. 55. 1979, "A sziveg March 1986, No.18 alaptermészetérél” (On the Basic Nature of Text) in I. Szathm4ri and I. Vdrkonyi, eds.,SzSvegtan a kutat4sban és az oktatdsban, Kiadja a Magyar Nyelvtudomdnyi Târsasäg, Budapest, 1979, p. 64. 6. Lado, (Foreign R., 1968, Language Svijetlost, Nastava stranih jezika - Nauëni pristup Instruction: A Scientific Approach), Sarajevo, p. 173. 7. Hill, A.A., 1971, "KnjiZevni tekstovi u jeziénoj nastavi" (Literary Texts in Language Teaching), in Predavanja i referati odrZani na 10. kongresu FIPLV, Zagreb, 1971, pp. 399-400. 8. They Madjarski appear jezik in the (The following Hungarian publication: Language). Bagi, Parts Ferenc, 1 and 2. Mimeographed course materials. Novi Sad, 1983. Published by the Institute for the Hungarian Language and Literature and for the Hungarian Studies, with the financial support of the selfmanaging community of interest for higher education of the Socialist Autonomous Province of Vojvodina. 209 Razprave Fatmir in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Fehmiu Pristina, UDC 376.744(497.115) Law of Kosovo Faculty of University Yugoslavia EQUALITY OF LANGUAGE, ORAL AND WRITTEN, OF THE NATIONALITIES IN THE SOCIALIST AUTONOMOUS PROVINCE THE FIELD OF EDUCATION NATIONS AND OF KOSOVO IN In December 1944, immediately after the Liberation, had a 90% illiteracy rate.~ The Albanian nationality worst position since, of the entire population, SAP Kosovo was in the 90% were illiterate. This was the result of the centuries of Ottoman-Osman occupation, of the of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and of the fascist occupation, of which dictated inequality, socio-national discrimination oppression. heavy social wound to the nationality of SAP Kosovo rule all and In opposition to this, the new revolutionary government of the working people of Yugoslavia gave their attention to the education of the wider masses in their own language. This is confirmed by the organised social battle against illiteracy, various the forms working of education people activities, and Albanian, which for in the occupation, in The Romany, Serbo-Croatian, which organised the professional needs of the creation of did not exist Yugoslavia, fascist and the was in activity which in of was qualification economy schools during Turkish, begun the or the was of social departments in period of old forbidden which and at begun the time in 1951,~ and the of and 1984. the revolutionary forces first results in the field of literacy for the inhabitants of SAP Kosovo in the lamguages of the nations and nationalities date from December 1944, when the first literacy courses were organised.” They were attended by an increasing number of citizens of all mationalities. The work and its results in the field of attaiming literacy illustrated by the fact that the of the wide masses is best number of illiterate inhabitants of SAP Kosovo in 1981 had decreased over the 1945 figure and with a eradication The of illiterate illiteracy in the next inhabitants of SAP to 18%,° a reduction of 72% tendency towards complete short-term Kosovo social evident in plan. the 1981 population census were mainly those from the more remote rural regions, which would indicate that this burdensome social inheritance will soon be conquered, 7. °e great eres Shortage has backwardness of * Original: meant expext in the economic, staff in all that SAP Serbo—Croatian, Kosovo 26 has fields. pages 210 cultural and inherited Such a a educational considerable situation has Razprave in gradivo, caused great organisations, health, March 1986, No.18 difficulties in the work of the economic the institutions for social services (education, culture, therefore Ljubljana, also etc.) in the and the affirmed organs of strategy government, for the renewal and of our country. So the responsible organs of the new government acted thoughtfully and created the necessary concepts which were urgently needed for the creation of expert staffing capable of being in the forefront of economic and social development. With this aim in mind, a whole network of courses were created for conducting general and expert education in the languages of the nations and nationalities, which played an important role in spreading education to the masses, especially in the expert training of workers in the fields of economics and the social services. Specifically, pedagogic courses for the training of teachers for work in elementary schools, courses for army officers in secondary schools, courses for teachers of literacy courses and for general education in which expert subjects were taught for tractor drivers, for agronomists, for administrators, health workers, disinfectors and workers in sanitary control, for finance and founded and The ef journalism, courses, course, forestry workers, drivers, etc., were them were, run. and of the great thousands of importance people for the who completed socio-economic development of SAP Kosovo and for the affirmation of the national languages in the period immediately following the National Liberation War. Thus, for example, the pedagogic courses in the Albanian language alone, in 1946, in addition to the professional improvement of Older teachers, trained 122 new teachers of Albanian nationality, with the result that it was possible to open 122 new departments in elementary schools in the Albanian language. The application of the equality of language and script in the courses, as a special point of education, created the basis for as massive as possible a training of citizens for particular professions and thereby for active participation in fre economic and social currents of the development in SAP Kosovo. After the creation of the revolutionary national SAP Kosovo opened a new page in its history, regular schooling began to be built. a) Parallel to the spread of the urgent education of the various courses, there was a regular schooling nationalities. attention to education for in the government, when a new system of literacy amongst the population and working people and citizens through visible need for the organisation of languages of all the nations and The national government therefore gave special elementary education and compulsory elementary all citizens; as to its duration, at first four years, then seven and then eight, was legally affirmed. With this aim, elementary schools were opened throughout SAP Kosovo and an optimal network tendency to economic and The a of institutions continual cultural development of elementary to education in one's this in development characterised by a spread equal national languages, right at spreading, of level was accordance SAP schools Kosovo after created with in the the language, 211 and by a SFRY. liberation of the process of education that is, by the realisation own with social, an to of increase is the the in 1986, _HO.X8 . BBE pazprave in gradivo, Ljubljane rave Raz and a very fast increase in the number of that the results achieved may be seen 15 the number of inpupiorder NON A UE AOC EE UN SR 1984/85. Turkish Serbian Albanian Total Depart- School Pupils ments Year 1944/45 432 27,400 11,573 15,827 - 1984/85 9,642 345,651 296,182 47,717 1,752 In addition to development was LCY (League of the objective conditions, such also influenced by the correct Communists of Yugoslavia) on a tempo of politics of the the question of language and the changed attitude of the citizens towards schooling. All this indicates that, on the territory of SAP Kosovo, and the that schools educational a high is map degree being of is the realised. This processes, in administration of the schools. b) Parallel to a general compulsory education in nationalities, that being is, transformed equality is also and right to Because of the elmentary urgency of and in social fields in SAP Kosovo, lower professional the professional with 1,109 schools necessary schools in had in crafts, in the more script the in teaching complete work creation of equal the nations and education in one's own the organs of government expert training. national workers. on the languages Until agronomy operated and and staffing needs of the economy it was necessary to establish the expert for pupils reflected striving for the the languages of the more language therefore language affirmed by the Constitution, paid special attention to regular lower preparing of June and capable 1946, other territory 16 of lower interests, of SAP Kosovo. In October 1946 two more schools of agronomy were founded and some others were transformed into one-year professional schools aisle te step towards becoming secondary professional It is important to mention alongside these facts that addition to the one-year schools, there were professional schgols, Serbo-Croatian. of c) development The socio-economic possible and in in the the great pupils their own December completely of which increase in of the SAP in Albanian Kosovo number Albanian who and in made schools lessons in them prepared secondary six that is, 3 were partially in of and attended one nationalities worked language. Immediately after the Liberation, 1944, nine secondary schools, of which and all five in 1950, in 11 lower and the remainder in Serbo-Croatian, began the work. These were general education, which had 3, 884 pupils in really schools of December 1945; this number pupils increased to 4,441 by June 212 1946. The who attended Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 this level of schooling were actually pupils who completed a particular course in the earlier period. had earlier It is especially important to point out that of the pupils attending instruction in June, 1946, 1,062 were of the Albanian nationality ang 3,379 of Serbian, Montenegrin and other nationalities, with an increasing tendency to growth in the following years. This, together with the number of pupils in the secondary professional schools, represents a definable degree of realised rights to education in the national languages in SAP Kosovo. Parallel to the secondary schools, as institutions of general education, secondary professional schools were developed. This can be seen from the fact that on 31 December 1945, there was only one professional school in the Serbo-Croatian language recorded, in Pristina, and it is recorded that in October 1946 there were other professional schools working throughout the Province, such as the Albanian Pedagogic School, the Secondary Technical School with 3 departments and 117 pupils, the Trade Academy yith 70 pupils, and the Secondary Agronomy School with 50 pupils.l A notable schools was the fact increase observed that by 30 in the number of secondary professional in the following years. This is confirmed by September 1950, 11 professional schools were operating, , of which one was in Albanian and ,10 in SerboCroatian, and by 9 January 1951, the total enrollment in secondary schools was 2,169. It is similarly necessary to note that, on 25 August 1952, there existed a specific network of secondary school education composed of schools for teachers, technical medicine, interests, agronomy, musical etc. education, art, economic interests, 1,548 pupils were enrolled in the secondary professional schools, not counting the Albanian Pedagogic School, at which 60 pupils were of the Albanian nationality. On the basis of an analysis of those days of the work of secondary professional schools, which was made by the competent organs, the reason for such a state of affairs is found to be, on the one hand, the lack of popularisation of the professional schools, incorrect politics in relation to scholarships and a lack of knowledge of Serbo-Croatian, in which language the lessons were done and, on the other hand, too few pupils from all the nationalities, and especially the Albanian, with completed half-matriculation. Meanwhile, further intensive socio-economic development of the country on the basis of self-management, based on the correct politics of the LCY, created the conditions for the possibility of a greater realisation of the language and equal national rights in the sphere of education in SAP Kosovo, especially after the Brioni Plenum of the Central Committee of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia of July, 1966, when the unitarianist- bureaucratic limitations were shattered. During this period there was a socialisation and further democratisation of relations in the field of education, which were realised through the institutionalised forms of the liberal exchange of work on the 213 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 basis of self-management interests and the activities of the self-management organs inside the educational organisations of associated labour themselves. With the introduction of new programme contents which more the needs of associated labour, the structure of education was significantly changed and, through this, conditions national for a equality more complete were realisation of reflected secondary the basic language and created. Institutions of secondary education were transformed into selfmanagement vocationally-oriented educational organisations, brought together in educational centres with a common foundation and professional directions. Thus, in the school year 1984/85, there were 47 school centres of vocationally oriented education, 2 with a total of 2,650 departments operating, of which 2,050 were in Albanian, 562 in Serbo-Croatian and 18 in Turkish. 2 All 47 together, school there was centres in a total of 85,472 of whom 1984/85, pupils enrolled 68,538 were in taught the in Albanian, 16,543 in Serbo-Croatian and 394 in Turkish, 2 which is indicated by the language map of schooling in SAP Kosovo. If we add to this the fact that the collective pedagogic documentation and process of work in the schools is done in the languages of instruction, then we have before us a clear picture of the level of the achieved education. d) Deriving equality from the of language politics of and script the LCY on at this the level of question of language, there has recently been an intensive preparation for the introduction of Romany into the educational process of the schools in SAP Kosovo. This was concretised in the school year of 1984/85 in instruction, completely that Romany was introduced whereby children of Romany guaranteed learning in their own as a language of groups ,are more language. e) Under the conditions of the building of management socio-economic relations, university been founded on the territory of SAP Kosovo. 4 socialist selfinstitutions have These have been opened in Pristina for the first time in the history of this region: Teacher-Training Junior College (1958), the LawAdministration Junior College (1959) and the Faculty of Arts (1960). The training process was at first conducted in Serbo- Croatian, except for the Department of Albanian Studies, in which lectures on individual professional subjects were also held in the the high face national language. community to plan schools also of the still education and institutions. The reason for this lay in and open (junior) colleges, the failure of faculties and in the languages of the nationalities in the centralistic-statist planning of university the administrative way of locating Meanwhile, during the more recent periods, the democratisation and socialisation of university when the process of education has been intensified on the principles of socialist self-management, the status of the languages of the nations and nationalities in the teaching process and the work of the university institutions in SAP Kosovo has been improving. This 214 was achieved particularly Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 after the amendments I-XIX of 1967-68 to the Constitution of SFRY of 1963, when the legal and other conditions were created for the foundation of the University of Pristina (1970). From then on, the regulation has been in force for colleges, high schools and faculties, or provision for Serbo-Croatian departments in teaching the and in Turkish in the institutions mothey, languages. These qualitiative changes, situation of the languages nationalities these field tongue, Total Year No. of Students guarantee Albanian, which were made in relation to and scripts of the nations of education Alban- Serbs __ians to the 5 contributed to the fact that the language of the students improved, of which. the survey for the school years 1961/62 and School or Montene- grins after 1968, the and undoubtedly and national structure following comparative 1984/85 speaks best. Turks Muslims Roms Other 1961/62 1,542 435 727 333 8 = = __39 1984/85 37,594 29,659 4,338 1,053 162 1,845 50 487 Regular Part-time 22,702 _14,892 18,094 11,565 2,390 1,948 587 466 % 66 1,234 611 38 12 263 224 On the basis of the statistical indicators presented above, it can be seen that the language or national makeup of the students who study at the University of Kosovo has been gradually getting closer, year, by year which SAP Kosovo, national equality language the to and population structure of and the high degree of linguistic of university education. demonstrates in the field The rapid development of education, science and culture in SAP Kosovo has created a basis on which publishing activities could be equally developed in the languages of the nations and nationalities. In order that the results achieved may be seen more clearly, at least in terms of the basic indicators, it is necessary to liberation 1. SAP A present until chronological Kosovo shows the developments survey that such of the this bibliography a publishing when the first primer was published 20,000 gopies. By the end of 1984, copies? had been published and the under preparation. The and in field from the today. bibiliography of school books in quality, publishing for the of activity school books began in in 1945, in the Albanian language, in 3,084 titles in 30,947,200 publishing plan for 1985 was shows needs that, both in of schools has quantity improved considerably. a) Between 1945 and 1961, the publishing Kosovo published 364 titles, 355 language and 9 in Serbo-Croatian, b) From 1962 to 1969, the organisations of SAP of which were in the Albanian a total of 3,252,700 copies. publishing needs of schools in SAP Kosovo were met by a department of the Institute for the Publication of Textbooks and Teaching Materials of SR Serbia in 215 Razprave in PriStina. gradivo, In this Ljubljana, period, they were in Albanian, 29 were making a total of 5,942, 200 March 1986, published No.18 584 titles, in Serbo-Croatian copies. of an 3 which in 552 Turkish, c) In the period from 1970 to 1985, school literature for the needs of the Province was published by the newly formed Institute for the Publication of Textbooks and Teaching Materials of SAP Kosovo as a specialised organisation. In this period, the institute published 2,136 titles, of which 1960 were in Albanian, 160 in Serbo-Croatian and 16 in Turkish. In 1984 alone, the Institute of the Province published 198 titles, of which 172 were in Albanian, with 62 being translated into Serbo-Croatian, 22 were in Serbo-Croatian and 3 in Turkish, making a total of 1,909,700 copies. It should be emphasised that textbooks published by the Institute for publishing Textbooks and Teaching Materials of SR Serbia other organisations in the Serbo-Croatian area are used for remainder of the teaching needs in Serbo-Croatian, schoolbooks published in the Turkish language in SR Macedgpia in the Republic of Turkey, for teaching needs in Turkish. Recently the publication of also been under preparation. books in the Romany language and the and and have Other organisations are also involved in publishing activities in the languages of the nations and nationalities of SAP Kosovo. Specifically, the Organisation of Associated Labour (OAL) Rilindja has published 3,200 titles up to 1985 in the Albanian language; the OAL Jedinstvo has published 339 titles in Serbo- Croatian; of the and plan the for OAL 1985 TAN is 51 in titles in Turkish. The realisation progress. In addition to the publishing activity intended for schools, the above organisations of associated labour also prepare and publish scientific books and literature in all three languages. Thus, in addition to the works of Albanian authors, the OAL Rilindja has also presented 972 classical and contemporary works of authors of the nations and nationalities of Yugoslavia and 700 titles of world literature, in the Albanian language. OAL Jedinstvo has published 34 titles of Albanian and 6 titles of Turkish authors in Serbo-Croatian, Montenegrin and other in addition authors. TAN, nationality, published in A the has Turkish good deal Rilind jg and also 7 to the Besides Albanian work of Serbian, authors of Turkish and 5 Serbian authors Turkey through language. of material Tana for the has been needs of bought the from Turkish nationality in SAP Kosovo.°° The cooperation and contribution of the publishing organisations of SAP Kosovo, SR Serbia and SR Macedonia has been very important in the affirmation of the creativity of all the nationalities and in creating the basic conditions for the consistent use of the Albanian, processes generally. Serbo-Croatian and and in the fields In this way, inter-nationality the mutual understanding, the Turkish languages in the teaching of education, science and culture communication in contributes which is enhanced, cultures consideration and togetherness. value to 216 of spiritual Razprave The in data gradivo, Ljubljana, presented, March although published each day, clearly progress in the realisation 1986, No.18 imperfect, since new show the absolute of the equality of titles and the are relative national languages and scripts in the sphere of publishing since the liberation of SAP Kosovo, from its publication of the primer down to the present, when a great number of textbooks and other literature are being published in the Albanian, Serbo-Croatian and Turkish languages. Notes 1.K@éshilli 53 - 2. Ibid., 3. The popullor Materiale taken decision the p. 62). 4. Rilindja, 5. See 6. EKS: 7. on l, p. under l, etc., also: Fatmir pér arsim Pérparimi, 9.Kosovi 1963. No. i 5, pp. in Pokrajinski Kosovu, Pristina, the March Turkish 1951. 1943- p. 31. language (See also Op.cit., under 12. Ibid., pp. 13. Ibid., p. 14. Ibid., pp. 15. Ibid., p. 103 16. Ibid., p. 62 17. Ibid., p. 136 136, of work “Rregullimi 1982, note poëetku 1, 1984, p. pp. i was note 1, 102. 136-137 511 28 and 103 217 17. 175, courses Té dhénat Prishtink, 203, is 287, widely kushtetues-jurikik né KSA i té té Kosovés," Skolstvo, Priétina, 630-632. i vaspitanja: Skolske pp. 174, all saj Prosveta obrazovanja November i banesat. Buletini 101-102, 1943-1963, na dhe the realizimi Prishtiné&é, studenata 11. shtpiake 62, which dhe SIZ i in 25 pérfundimtare. Fehmiu, Metohija uGenika of ekonomike, note 309, 355, 420, discussed. 10. 1955, 38 Rezultatet p.21. 8. See t®& Kosové-Metohis@, Prishtin#, p.5 Popullsia drejtés Autonome sesionet, schools Council 2.9.85, note See nga opening National komunave. 1982, Krahinés p.29. by sipas i themelore 6-7. Izvestaj 1984/85. godine o upisu u SAP Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, 18. Ibid., p. 511 19. Ibid., p. 528 20. Ibid., p. 121 21. op.cit. 22. Ibid., pp. 32-33 23. Ibid., pp. 25-29 under note 33, p. March 1986, No.18 35. 24. Compare: a)Predsedniétvo PKSK Kosova: Ostvarivanje nacionalne ravnopravnosti naroda i narodnosti u oblasti pisama List i dalji zadaci Rilindija, Saveza 2.9.85, 25.Constitutional Law p. of komunista, 27. PSZ: 28. “Visoke 59, i viSe Pristina, Compare: a) p. May, SAPK,"SI.list Skole SAPK",No. Privredni u SAPK, Studenti i 6/69, 30. Ibid., under Bibliografia note b) skolske 71. razvoj 1984/85," 1l. e librit 14. op.cit. Art. drustveni shkollor né Prishtiné, 1985, pp. 5-258; b) "Libri skollor,” Buletin t® Teksteve dhe Mjetéve Mésimore t@& KSAK, 1. Prishtiné, 29. 1985; 5. 26. PSZ: XI Konferencija SK Kosova, SAPK 1947-1972, Pristina, p.126. Bilten Pristina, politike jezika i 24 (a), pp. pp.29-30. 216 28-29. Kosove, i Entit 1984, p. Razprave Dali in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Emrulahu University (College upc 376.744(497.115) of of Pristina, ET Kosovo Pedagogics) Yugoslavia EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION IN THE SPIRIT WITHIN EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES OF THE SOCIALIST AUTONOMOUS PROVINCE OF KOSOVO* OF BROTHERHOOD AND UNITY PUPILS AT SCHOOLS IN THE It should be noted that extracurricular (free) activities of the pupils should not be equated with merely leisure time or recreation. These pupils' activities should be also considered “an integral part of the integrated programmatic-methodological and organizational structure"* of the education system, And for this very reason "schools and other educational institutions have to, on the one hand, life, development and the young generation, forms and contents assume the social responsibility for the socialist education in the leisure time of developing and promoting the noy-Compul sory of the educational activities..." Some studies published in the industrially developed countries confirm that it is possible to shorten, through so-called emancipative didactics or through a more efficient and more successful utilization of the leisure time of the pupils, the time for an efficient mastering of the compulsory educational Z programmes , The free, they are even i.e. up 40 per cent. extracurricular, organized individual to according psycho-physical pedagogical-social import. pupils' to their and character, their disposition, imagined within the framework the pupils process of properties (insofar according capabilities), Namely, conditions with respect to the freely manifest themselves, The social schools of activities age have in the gained knowledge in as their great changed standard education, of their will and cannot be activities of the pupils in the on account of their specificity of their multinational or multicultural (above all, and ideological-educational socio-political strong most suitably the pupils these activities, Through their a new, gift and talent (which of standard education). extracurricular SAP Kosovo have, to course the their of standard a aspect), character. supplement education, their mutual acquaintance and and materialize concretize deepen, brotherhood and unity of our peoples and togetherness, respect, It is known that the goal of the entire system and nationalities. is the formation of a eee in this country of education process the formation ofa scienti te manifold socialist personality, a = ee the view, world dialectical-materialist nee 2 preparation the contemporary general education and e __—. generation integration for professional into the social work and life and etc. * Original: Serbo-Croatian, 10 pages 219 for an active and self-management pro ’ Razprave Within in gradivo, this organized Ljubljana, context, form of March standard education 1986, regular offers No.18 instruction to the as pupils the most planned and systematized indispensable knowledge for a correct attitude to both human and inter-nationality relationships, while developing also the care and respect for as well as tolerance of man independent of his national, religious, social and racial affiliation. The overall free social activities of the pupils offer an unique opportunity for materializing the above-mentioned humanitarian goals of education. "These educational activities are carried out on the basis of the principles of the self-management organizing, social engagement, satisfying the interests, individual inclinations and creativity, life, the games science, needs and of the recreation technology, pupils for the varjous in arts and independent fields of work, social sports." There exist a large number of forms and aspects of extracurricular activities of the pupils. In essence, free, extracurricular activities of the pupils can have a scientific, cultural-artistic, socio-political, technical and production, sporting-recreational character, etc. "The work of the sections, circles, groups, associations, and clubs as basic organizational forms of free activities, is organized upon the proposal made by the pupils' community, the Socialist Youth League, the Teachers’ Board and professional sections, and on the basis of the autonomous and free decision-making on the part of the pupils a to the kind of activity they want to participate in actively." Of course, the contents and programmes of these activities must be realistic and based upon the specific circumstances of the school in qugstion, and open to the pupils of all the nationalities.’ This means that in these activities the pupils of all our peoples and nationalities are associated, socialized and enriched friendly in terms of their interpersonal relationships, and collective), as they cultivate their common (both life, work, learning, entertainment, and recreation, and strengthening the conscious socialist discipline (a positive attitude to work and social property). All of this inevitably influences the pupils' further development of the idea of brotherhood and unity of our peoples and nationalities. Through their free activities of the cultural-artistic character the pupils get acquainted with the past, cultural heritage and progressive achievements of all our peoples and nationalities. In this context, a special place has been given to the achievements of our National Liberation Movement and the Socialist Revolution, brotherhood and unity, equality of rights and equity, and the like. All this without doubt exerts a strong influence upon mutual respect, tolerance, solidarity, compassion, and helps develop love for socialist self-management of today and for a happier common future. The experiences rights and equity of our peoples and spheres of education brotherhood Through the and their character in social of various the life, young form the gained so far, nationalities, groundwork generations in the of spirit equality of in all the a more of efficient togetherness, unity. free pupils sports activities associate, disciplines. of the engage Here, 220 in too, sporting-recreational recreation correctness, and compete decent and Razprave in civilized gradivo, behaviour Ljubljana, are March fostered and 1986, the No.18 spirit of co-operation and tolerance is developed. It is essential that, in these competitive disciplines, the competitors are first of all considered collaborators, where, of course, the winners are those who (have trained most) possess the strongest will and other such characteristics. Finally, we must emphasize the great significance of the freetime activities of the technical and production kind in the education of the young generations in the spirit of brotherhood and unity, co-operation and common living. In the production and other socially beneficial work of the pupils, performed also through the free activities of the pupils, one can observe, among other things, a very efficient implementation of our Marxist and self-management ideology. Given our present socio-economic level, there is more and more socially and pedagogically imperative that Marxism and self-management be studied within the province of praxis, i.e. no longer solely through textbooks, but prevailingly through direct integration of the pupils into the process of production and social self-management. Essentially, the linkage and integration of education with production and with associated labour as a whole are not merely our general strategy within this important social activity, but, at the same time, also our ideological-political and class conception of the entire socialist self-management transformation of education. In other words, in order to successfully realize the Marxist ideological-political education of the young generations (in the spirit of our socialist self-management and proletarian internationalism), we must organize social practice, such as production work (and practice) within the organizations of associated labour, production and other socially beneficial work at schools, local communities, and the like. Thus, these activities, along with their greater technical extent a human and and professional social character; have to a character. The great pedagogic role of work has been emphasized by classical pedagogues; in particular, by the socialist (Soviet) pedagogue, A. Makarenko, who proved it both theoretically and practically. He even established that a youth collective can be most efficiently formed and maintained if based upon the principles of working education. However, he also pointed out, at the same time, that work in itself, not planned and spontaneous work, without a parallel socio-political education does not yield any educational advantage. "You may press, as much as you like, a man to work," Makarenko has stated, “but if, at the same time, you do not educate him politically and morally, if he does not participate in social and political life, his work will be merely a neutral process not yielding any positive result. Thus, the offer great work and production possibilities for (and a free) activities successful of the realization pupils of the goals of our socialist self-management education and for the education of the young generation in the spirit of selfmanagement, common life and work, brotherhood and unity, mutual respect, solidarity, and the like. These activities enable the cultivation of the conscious socialist discipline, in particular, 221 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 a positive attitude towards work and towards social property, which are the preconditions of the development and cultivation of humanism, altruism, and brotherhood and unity. From the above account the conclusion can be made that the activities of the pupils of the technical and production character have a manifold import for the realization of the goals of our socialist education. Yet, no one form of the pupils‘ free activities should be fetishized. The multitude and variety of the forms of the free activities of the pupils offer more opportunities for their mutual acquaintance, “cultivation of their mutual confidence, sincerity, companionship, friendship, collaboration in learning, work, games and entertainment, and for training the pupils to use part of their leisure time foy, games, entertainment, new knowledge, joys of life and optimism." Notes 1. Divna Markovié-Lebl, "The Self-Managing Socialist Leisure Time," in: Leisure Time in the Function Self-Management Transformation of Education and School and of the Socialist Instruction, p. 68. 2. See: conclusions of the Educational Council of SR Croatia concerning the development of the educational-instructional activities in the leisure time of the youth as an integral part of the education system, in: Leisure Time in the Function of the Socialist Self-Management Transformation of Education and Instruction, p. 248. 3. Martin Time," Petancic, in:Leisure Management 4. S. "The 5. Ivanovié, See: in in the Transformation 1976, of "The curricular activities Belgrade, p. 5. Work System Time of the "Uniform the Elementary Approach to Function of Education Pupils," Curriculum and Schools," the and Pedagogical the Education Instruction, Function Prosvetni Programme 1977, and Leisure Socialist of Pristina, of Self- pp. 24-25. the Extra- pregled, the p. No. Educational 307. 6. See: the "Curriculum and Educational Programme of the Phase of Secondary and Vocationally-Oriented Education," Pristina, p. 378. 7. Ibid., p. 370. 8. Stevan Associated Bezdanov, Labour: Qualification for for "The Secure Integration Principle Self-Management," Self-Management, 9. Stipe Suvar, Zagreb, p. 175. 1976, 1977, 10. A.S. Makerenko, (Educational Methods), Novi The Sad, School p. in: of of the First 1977, Pupils Education Education 39, of the into and Youth 3l. and the 1957, Selected Sarajevo, p. 21. Factory, Skolska Pedagogical knjiga, Papers 11. See: the "Uniform Curricula and Programme of the Educational Work in the Elementary Schools," 1977, Pristina, p. 308. 222 Razprave Riza in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, Brada No.18 UDC Provincial Institute for Advancement of Education Child Care, SAP Kosovo Pristina, Yugoslavia EDUCATION AND MULTINATIONAL 376.744(497.115) the and INSTRUCTION ENVIRONMENT: FOR THE COMMUBITY THE EXPERIENCE OF AS AN ATTRIBUTE KOSOVO* OF A The common educational-instructional work or the common curriculum and programme of the educational-instructional work in Kosovo consists of two dialectically interlocking components: teaching and common educational-instructional activities. The teaching is carried out according to an established curriculum and programme in the given language of instruction. The precondition of the implementation of teaching is knowledge of the language of instruction. The teaching is carried out, in the main, by the teachers of a determined nationality. All the teachers teaching in the languages of instruction form a common teachers' Council and the other bodies of management. While the teaching is carried out in a certain language, the other educational-instructional activities, such as social activities of the Pioneers and the youth, socially beneficial work, public and cultural activity of the school, protection and promotion of the living and working environments, and the like, are carried Out in the languages of instruction used in the school. On such occasions, there mostly occurs "the disintegration of the classical class-lesson system." The sections "merge" into a class, so that all the pupils of the section which form the class work at common activities and communicate in the languages of the nationalities and ethnic groups freely and spontaneously. This means that everything that cannot be fully offered by the teaching is offered by the rest of the educational-instructional activities, and this is directly a coaction and interaction, Similar to the coaction and interaction in the actual social, working-living conditions. A special aspect of the educational-instructional work in the teaching contributing to education and instruction and to a common life and work of the children and youngsters in the multicultural school or social environments, respectively, is the learning of non-native languages or of the languages social environment, respectively. In Kosovo the Albanian, and the the of the Turkish Romany (Gypsy) children learn the Serbo-Croatian language, or children of the other nationalities and ethnic groups learn Albanian and Turkish languages. At the beginning of their schooling the children voluntarily decide (consulting the parents or guardians) on their learning a non-native language. After their decision, the non-vernacular language becomes a compulsory one like all the other subjects of instruction. * Original: Serbo-Croatian, ll pages 223 Razprave Basic in gradivo, Ljubljana, Principles of the March 1986, Organization No.18 of the Education and Instruction Education is in multicultural organized common life on the and environments basis work of of the - including established nationalities and SAP Kosovo principles ethnic of groups - the within the course of their historical development, and especially in the course of the building up of the socialist self-managing society. These include: the principle of the historical existence and the perspective of the self-assertion of the nations and ethnic groups, and the principle of democratism, many-sidedness and permanence. These principles have not been laid down arbitrarily under the provisions, but confirmed by the revolutionary action, so that they have the force of moral norms an the features of the building up and development of the socialist self-managing relationships. Any deviation from them means a deviation from the ideals of the socialist revolution, The principle of the historical existence and of the perspective of the self-assertion of the nations and ethnic groups represents a fundamental principle of organization of education and instruction in and the work of the conditioned fact governments and life and only that did parties, work, governments multinational nationalities having and individuals not but and ethnic the even There small are in is common a the to no the provisions and the of needs of establishment of aggressive within life historically conditions prior groups The groups originate under arisen parties. environments. and peoples, party. As but a rule, almost all the peoples want a peaceful development, peaceful cooperation and mutual respect and solidarity. This need expressed as a and wish presents life, method, a basic asserting means and and their education complete ethnic assertion of of groups and force and condition nationalities common driving education the achieving in their see qualities, common as a this common instruction human behind instruction goal. life the work science, and The work, possibility freedom, in of brotherhood a and unity of the peoples with respect to their origin and not their colour, nationality, social and other background. Thus, the education and instruction for the community is asserted as an attribute of a multinational environment. The principle of democratism is determined by the need for a free development of the individual as a precondition of a free development manifested in his of by the the mother tongue respectively; by to their organize languages, as society as individual's the they or in right of his whole. to principle instruction teaching language, and ethnic instruction develop is and nationalities and and This education chosen the education organize a right their in groups their entire own spiritual and material life together with the other nationalities and ethnic groups. In relation to the society this principle means the obligation on the part of the society to create the organizational and material conditions for organizing education in the languages of the nationalities and ethnic groups. As the education and instruction under our circumstances, environments, securing have been but education formed also and in represent not only those of instruction having but a the in small 224 the in attribute of (undeveloped) towns, the for mother number the purposes tongue, (1-3) freedom, village of sections pupils. This Razprave rule is Not in gradivo, applied only is Ljubljana, to all the education March nations 1986, and organized No.18 ethnic and groups the in Kosovo. teaching method (textbooks and other school literature) in the mother tongue secured for Romanies, Turks, Serbs and Montenegrins, representing, in certain areas, a smaller group of the population as to their number, butealso for the Albanians, who represent a smaller group living among the Serbs and Montenegrins. The principle of many-sidedness is determined by the need for the development of many-sided man, or of a many-sided assertion of the history and culture of the nationalities and ethnic group in education and instruction. In the programmes of the educationalinstructional work there are selected contents covering the spheres of sciences, health, language, art, mathematics, as well as the social industrial defence and arts, and social physical and natural education self-protection, and and other educational-instructional activities having a special character. These programmes comprise contents of the histories and cultures of all the nationalities and ethnic groups, not neglecting the national history and culture. In this way the formation of national consciousness and of national tolerance is secured, as well as respect and solidarity in relation to the other nationalities and ethnic groups. This indicates that selfmanaging socialism does not practise the assimilation of nationalities, but, on the contrary, asserts their national existence in the spirit of socialist internationalism and patriotism. The assertion of a real national consciousness always leads to internationalism, existence of The principle enabling each principle has the other to love and respect of the national nationalities. of permanence is manifested in the sense of and every individual a lifelong education, This been asserted entirely in our Province, in particular where is in a position the to University of Kosovo Sciences and Arts in Albanian develop and its ethnic group its history within mother is involved, since it and culture at the the framework tongue. of the Academy of To prevent the exercise of the equality of rights of the nationalities and ethnic groups in education and instruction, anti-self-management forces try to incorporate into the common contents more history, literature and musical creations of their nationalities, or “of the great nationalities," under the assumption that therein lie "the actual educational values.’ These forces tend to assert "their mother tongue" as the language of the "majority" and make it compulsory for the others, especially for the ethnic groups. These forces are bothered by the cultivation of national traditions, the continuous learning of national history, literature, and musical and visual-arts of the ethnic groups. The of of next problem causing certain difficulties greater results in education and the nationalities and ethnic in instruction groups is the for the achievement the community insufficient theoretical development of pedagogy of educational work schools teaching in the languages of nationalities and groups. Teachers intuition, of the work "tried more on the practice." 225 basis The lack of of the at the ethnic pedagogical theoretical and Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, practical considerations causes a number always efficient in the educational work. No.18 of teachers to be not It is therefore necessary to develop the pedagogical science parallel with the development of the society, its material base and superstructure. In our case, the pedagogical science as a part of the social superstructure is not developed, nor does it sufficiently management, equality of reflect the the development revolutionary rights of the gains nations in and of our the legal ethnic of education. Among other things, many a accounted by this insufficient development. socialist exercise groups mistake in the made selfof the field can be References The Constitution of the SFRY The Constitution of the SAP The Act on Pre-School Education (1978) The Act on Elementary Education (1980) The Act on Secondary The Act on Higher and (1974) Kosovo Vocationally-Oriented University Education Education (1980) (1979) Curricula and Programmes of the Educational Work (for Pre-School, Elementary, Secondary, Higher and University Education. 226 Razprave Mirko in gradivo, Ljubljana, 1986, Djuranovié THE DEVELOPMENT AND ALBANIAN ETHNIC GROUP developmet Montenegro schools in No.18 UDC Republican Institute for Advancement of Education SR Montenegro Titograd, Yugoslavia The March of 376.744(497.16=919.83) the RESULTS OF EDUCATION AND IN THE SR OF MONTENEGRO* education in the CULTURE Albanian ethnic OF THE group in started with the establishment of the state elementary bicultural environments (Ulcinj) in the last decades of the past century. In the Principality of Montenegro children of all ethnic groups and religions were equally entitled to education as the children of the Montenegrin nationality.“ Small in area and in economic power, Montenegro, following the liberation wars of 1876 to 1878, through great renunciations and efforts, started setting in ordinary schools. Croatian language for to other causes, viz. the region and foundations religious prejudices education of the children In the period between the Kingdom of Yugoslavia for an belonging First and members of all - a great to the Second The schooling to in the ethnic education the non-mother groups on nationalities to and teaching for placed the tongue the obstacle mass Albanian ethnic group. World Wars, within the groups were entitled to education, but the conducted in the Serbo-Croatian language. belonging organized The teaching was conducted in the Serboall the pupils, representing - in addition the economic and cultural backwardness of footing of ethnic all was pupils inequality in relation to the pupils whose mother tongue was Serbo-Croatian. On account of the fact that teaching was conducted in a non-mother tongue, a great number of the children of the Albanian ethnic group did not attend even the four-year compulsory elementary school, and very few children and youngsters attended the secondary schools and studied at junior colleges and universities. Thus, at the end of the Second World War, in the year 1945, the illiteracy rate among members of the Albanian ethnic group in SR Montenegro was as high as 95 per cent). The first elementary schools teaching either in the Albanian language or bilingually within the bicultural environments in SR Montenegro were established immediately after the Second World War in the wake of the victory of the socialist revolution, whereas year in the 1965. the schools first In this such area Serbo-Croatian teaching in secondary there school were language Albanian no was either. as launched secondary the The only schools inauguration mother tongue in the teaching of was the a significant realization of the aims and achievements of the national liberation struggle - of the brotherhood and unity and equality of rights of the peoples and nationalities. From the year 1945 on, there has been a continuous dynamic development of * Original: Serbo-Croatian 227 Razprave in gradivo, education and Ljubljana, culture of the Montenegro, conducted in education and schoolwork language very of instruction unfavourable March 1986, Albanian its mother at schoools and material at ethnic group staffing schools, went conditions, difficulties arising from the SR organizing of on the the under neither the conditions more favourable at schools teaching Croatian language, owing to the consequences of the Many in tongue. At first, with Albanian as bilingual and No.18 in the War. were Serbo- education and schoolwork in the schools teaching either bilingually or in the Albanian language, were overcome through hard work and enthusiasm of the few education staffs and through special efforts made by the society to create the indispensable foundations of work. New school buildings were built also according to pedagogical requirements and equipped with up-to-date teaching aids. All the schools, including the four-grade primary schools in the villages, now have their school libraries consisting of books in the Albanian language, in conformity with the standards of school libraries in SR Montenegro. The network of pre-school and school institutions with bilingual teaching and with the teaching in Albanian has developed ‘considerably. In the five communes populated by the members of the Albanian with about eight-year divisions ethnic group there are 200 children of the elementary schools in the village four pre-school institutions Albanian ethnic group, eleven consisting of 42 subsidiary areas, attended by about 5,000 pupils, and three secondary-school centres with 1,143 pupils. The subsidiary divisions in the village areas offer four-year instruction, the upper grades of the elementary school being available at the main school. In the four most attended eight- year elementary centres, the conducted in schools teaching the located is, on in the account Serbo-Croatian and of communal and the population, Albanian mixed languages. village The same is true of all the three school centres. In the subsidiary divisions of the elementary school in the village areas, the teaching is carried out only in the Albanian language; the pupils in these schools do learn Serbo-Croatian as a compulsory subject. In SR Montenegro, there are no junior colleges, colleges or universities teaching in the Albanian language, as there hardly exist favourable material or staffing conditions, nor the necessary number of students. Students from the Albanian ethnic group choose various professions and can be found studying at all the universities in the country, but mostly at the University of Pristina Junior 500 where colleges students of the teaching is in and universities the Albanian the have ethnic Albanian an group. language. enrollment Most of of more these have received scholarships or student loans. Most of at the teacher-training faculties: philological, than students them study faculty of sciences and mathematics, and arts, followed by the faculties of law, of economics, medicine, agriculture and technology. A number of these students study at the University of Titograd. they are more favourably treated regarding the enrollment and accommodation in the halls of residence than are the students of Montenegrin and other nationalities. 228 Razprave The gradivo, organization either time in in the legally schools of the Albanian in Republic 1986, educational under the of March language regulated teaching People's Ljubljana, or the No.18 work at schools bilingually Act on of an language Montenegro, the was the first organization ethnic passed teaching for in of minority the year based upon the General Schools Act.” Under this down that the schools and their divisions where Act the ig 1960,” the the and it was laid teaching is conducted in the language of a national minority form part of the uniform education system in SR Montenegro and in the SPRY, and that these institutions implement the common and special aims of educating and schooling. Under this Act the teaching of the pupils belonging to the Albanian ethnic group was carried out in their mother tongue, yet the pupils were obliged to learn the Serbo-Croatian language as a special subject of instruction in the elementary and secondary schools, starting from the third grade of the elementary school "for the purpose of an active participation of the members of the ethnic minority in the life of the SFRY and of the PR of Montenegro." In this Act the emphasis is laid upon the role played by the educational work through extracurricular activities "giving incentive to, and developing, the approaching and mutual acqyaintance of the pupils of various nationalities or ethnic groups. The pedagogical those where the the mother documentation in bilingual schools as well as teaching is conducted in Albanian, is issued tongue, and only documents are kept in both elementary and specialized retained all schools At the for the the main and main of official book and school languages. The new Act regulating training at the secondary level” provisions members elementary the the secondary of national schools the special Act in in the has on the carried out minorities. education is according to the uniform curriculum and educational programme for all the pupils, excepting the mother tongue and literature which additionally contain, for the pupils of the Albanian ethnic group, specific contents from the national literature. The history so that programme is uniform for all the pupils it includes also the contents specific in the Republic, to the Albanian ethnic group. In the elementary school, since the school year 1984/85, the new educational programme yith the built-in common educational-instructional core courses has been implemented; these core courses are included in the educational programmes of most of the Republics and of the Socialist Autonomous Province of Vojvodina. The new curricula and educational programmes, with the built-in core courses, secure, more so than up to the present, Mutual acquaintance of the cultures and achievements in all the spheres of the nations and ethnic groups of Yugoslavia. The new curricula language literature and and educational literature represent programmes and for a considerable preceding ones as there language and literature, the for the Serbo-Croatian Albanian progress is, in the programme much more content from in language relation for the to and the the Albanian literature of the Yugoslav peoples and ethnic groups, while in the programme for the Serbo-Croatian language and literature, the Albanian literature is represented more fully. The implementation as to quality of these programmes will considerably contribute to a better knowledge of the national literatures and cultures of the peoples and ethnic groups, and facilitate and improve mutual understanding and respect. 229 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, For a successful performance of the educational programmes, a professional methodically qualified teaching staff No.18 curricula and of and pedagogically is urgently the and needed. Immediately after the War there was no professional staff for teaching the Albanian language, and special efforts were made to educate, as soon as possible, teachers for the needs of the elementary and secondary specialized education at schools with the teaching in the Albanian language and at schools teaching bilingually. The teachers compensated for their insufficient qualifications and pedagogical unpreparedness by their assiduous work in school and through their in-service professional and pedagogical training. There were organized courses and seminars to qualify them for the teaching profession. A considerable number of the persons having completed elementary school were directed towards the teaching profession by being granted schyolarships and student loans. Most of them were trained at the teaching-training schools and at the faculties in SAP Kosovo. This situation has gradually improved, so that at present, the instruction at elementary schools with teaching in the Albanian language and at bilingual schools is completely professional. At the secondary schools, however, there is still a lack of teachers of mathematics and specialized subjects of instruction. The number of educational workers of the Albanian ethnic group has considerably increased, so that at present there are 140 teachers working at the elementary schools, 116 of whom have twoyear post-secondary education and 22 have university education. In the developed environments, the schools are fully provided with teaching staff, and now a considerable number of students are being trained for teachers, too. At present there are 69 teachers with university education, 14 teachers with two-year post-secondary education, and 3 students who have complete course requirements working at the three school centres of specialized education. For a successful fulfillment of the instructional-educational tasks and better quality of teaching, there are very important, in addition to material conditions and teaching staff, also textbooks and textbook literature. The schools with the Albanian as the language of instruction have so far used mainly textbooks published in SAP Kosovo and textbooks written in the SerboCroatian language. In recent years, the Republican Board of Education - its BOAL for the publishing of textbooks and textbook literature has started publishing textbooks - manuals and readers in the Albanian language. Over 30 titles ahve been printed: a primer, readers for all the grades of the elementary and secondary specialized-education schools, and some home readers. The publication of new textbooks and readers has been planned. The question of textbooks and textbook literature was, and still is, a very urgent problem, in particular because new educational programmes are being introduced. So far, there has also existed a discrepancy between the curricula and educational programmes adopted in SR Montenegro and the textbooks and manuals prepared according to the curricular and educational programmes of SAP Kosovo. On account of the small number of copies printed, ti will not be possible to publish textbooks for the mathematics and sciences group of subjects nor for specialized subjects of instruction; thus, the textbooks from SAP Kosovo and SR Macedonia will be used. 230 Razprave in Through gradivo, joint Ljubljana, efforts of the March 1986, Society No.18 and of equality of th educational organizations in the pi Cultural e instructionalenvironments, considerable results have been achie to the of children and youngsters of “te jpospect enrollment group and education realization a whole. the practice ti educational-pedagogical regions with giving bilingual ethnic group an teaching, are nevertheless, all-round able that the have service 8 within pupils among of of ethnic eee in ee are esnatancle im rovem ntly phovement:.of Repub the the belonging 22 as not and at these schools a lot also to the choose number site eue results professional the to and instructional] the of of teaching contributing the quality and increasing, thus the of The organization the that the as acbae locenéede to the vocations. specializations It at Albanian is true schools with the Serbo-Croatian as the medium of instruction is considerably larger, so that a number of pupils of the Albanian ethnic group continue their schooling in of instruction, language the the or schools with in SAP Kosovo, Serbo-Croatian as It is characteristic that the interest of the parents and pupils of the Albanian ethnic group in a more thorough learning of the Serbo-Croatian language has been very much increased. In some environments the parents require to increase the number of the lessons of the Serbo-Croatian language, beyond the legally prescribed norm, for the purposes of enabling the children to master the Serbo-Croatian language as perfectly as possible, thereby enabling them to be undisturbedly employed at all places in Yugoslavia. At the individual elementary schools (the eightyear school Ostros) the number of lessons for learning the SerboCroatian language have been increased. In the same way there has been an also an increased interest to learn the Albanian language in the mixed environments (Ulcinj), where 161 pupils of the Montengrin and Muslim nationality learn the Albanian language. It is evident that the interest in a greater mutual acquaintance and the knowledge of the cultures has been increased, At the school centre of Ulcinj, the pupils publish a paper written in the Serbo-Croatian and Albanian languages, being given the Opportunity for a better acquaintance with the non-mother tongue. Very sound and rewarding is the co-operation of both teachers and pupils within the framework of professional bodies - teachers' councils, class boards, professional active groups, as well as within self-management bodies, school councils, and pupils’ communities. In the pupils' organizations and associations there co-operate the pupils belonging to and the Montenegrin nationality. Parallel with raising of the ethnic group, well. The through educational the Albanian ethnic group the economic growth and social development and the educational level of the members of the Albanian a significant cultural activity has developed as cultural the both climate existence workers and in bicultural and activity experts in environments of various a has large fields - changed number of physicians, engineers, economists, lawyers, as well as secondary-school and university students of the Albanian ethnic group. In the communal centres, libraries, bookshops, and cinemas have been opened. The libraries stock numerous books written in the Albanian language. Booksellers have their prominent selling points in the town centres. Books have become accessible 231 to lots of users, including Razprave the in gradivo, citizens Ljubljana, belonging to March the 1986, No.18 Albanian ethnic group. School libraries have enviable stocks of books exceeding 40,000 books written in the Albanian language, meeting the needs of both the teachers and the pupils. , The publishing actitity in the Albanian language has been started. Besides the Republic Institute for the Promotion of Education and Instruction, and the publication of textbooks, manuals and school readers, the publishing house Pobjeda issues books written number has have been in the Albanian language. Admittedly, not been impressive, but a number planned. At present, there is insufficient number of qualified translators covering Croatian and Albanian languages; therefore, the translators from the SAP Kosovo has been There and is also social Koha, the problems. review for Published the far their the Serbo- collaboration established. literature, since so of new publication in Montenegro an science, year 1978, with culture it is a bi- monthly review publishing works of the Albanian writers from Montenegro (there are eight) and from elsewhere, as well as translations from the Yugoslav and world literatures. The publishing Promotion who of belong to Significant house Pobjeda Education the and Albanian creations have and the Republic Instruction ethnic been employ recognition - cultural and The those the achieved where prestigious they activity live also Thirteenth in only both the the in Educational workers, the the editors July members visual individual won the and bicultural group, is performed within the framework artistic societies, existing in all villages. for of group. The artists of Albanian nationality organize exhibitions, among them those who have Awards. Institute a number of the arts. and group greatest the October environments Albanian ethnic of the amateur culturalthe local centres and students and pupils are in the vanguard of these cultural activities. Most attention is paid to folklore and folk songs. The amateur cultural-artistic societies take part in revues and guest performances within the Republic and throughout Yugoslavia; some of them have been on tours abroad, too (the U.S.A.). The Montenegrin Academy of Sciences has started research in the field of the language and literture of the Albanian ethnic group, as well,as the interaction with the Serbo-Croatian language and literature. Members of the Albanian ethnic group are also collaborating with a number of cultural institutions in SR Montenegro: the Institute Montenegrin People's Theatre, "Veljko Vlahovié" working in and and scientific of History, the University, etc. Distinguished educational workers of the Albanian ethnic background work as educational advisers and editors at the Republic Institute for the Promotion of Education and Instruction and at the Inter-Communal Institutes. Within the information services journalists who are members Titograd Radio Station daily there are employed a number of the Albanian ethnic group. broadcasts two transmissions in 232 of The the Razprave in gradivo, Albanian language Ljubljana, and the weekly Titograd Tribune), published the Albanian language. The postwar development March and 1986, paper at No.18 Titogradska Titograd, the results has a Tribuna regular obtained in (The page education in and culture of the Albanian ethnic group in Montenegro so far present an obvious confirmation of the materialization of the goals of the socialist revolution and of its basic principles: brotherhood and unity and the equality of rights of the peoples and ethnic groups. The results obtained and the experiences gained in the work done so far are even greater in the light of the fact that they have been achieved economic mixed in an basis social realized within a relatively short environment which initially had a and a low level of cultural life. By environments (inhabited by the time and very now, low the members of the Albanian ethnic group and by the Montenegrin and Muslim nationalities) have already reached, in terms of the network of school institutions and the conditions of life, the level attained by the other environments in Montenegro. The general progress made in all the spheres of social and cultural life and its rapid growth are obvious, and all this contributes to the development: of brotherhood and unity, and to a better understanding and collaboration of the members of the Albanian ethnic group with the members of the nations living in Montenegro. Notes 1. Rade Gori: Delibasié, 1830 do 1918 1980, (The Razvoj &kolske Development i of Thought in Montenegro: 1830-1918), Promotion of Education, Titograd. 2. For information about language of instruction in used in these Education, 3. The Act language PRM, 4. No. 5. No. The schools, Culture of and on the an ethnic 22/60. General see: the Science, minority, Act, School Republic Crnoj Board on the Secretariat for teaching in the Gazette of the 1981. of the schools see: The Official The u Pedagogic using Albanian as the and about the textbooks Titograd, see: misli and Republic the schools SR Montenegro organization Schools pedago&ke the Official Gazette of SFRY, 28/58. Ibid. 6. The Act Specialized on Elementary Education in SR of SRM, 22/83. 7. The No. common programme Education Montenegro, core courses and see: the The contain Act on Secondary Official Gazette the contents from all the subjects of instruction for the elementary and secondary school that should be, or are, built in the educational programmes of the Republics and Provinces; they represent from 50 per cent defence (mother and social tongue) up to self-protection) 233 100 of per the cent (total programme national content. Razprave Tase in gradivo, Stojanovski & Ljubljana, Feim Republican Institute Advancement of Child and Education Skopje, Yugoslavia March 1986, No.18 Isai UDC L'EGALITE DANS LE TRAVAIL NATIONS ET NATIONALITES MACEDOINE* EDUCATIF VIVANT AVEC LES ELEVES EN REPUBLIQUE Les passées ont activités des 376.744(497.17) for the Care années une DE DIFFERENTES SOCIALISTE DE grande importance pour la vie et le travail des écoles. On peut dire que, dans les derniéres années, en réalisant les programmes des différentes disciplines, on a fait toutes les nations et des efforts afin de mettre minorités nationales dans les éléves les groupes de et sections des activités libres et d'affirmer, ainsi, la fraternité, l'égalité parmi les éléves, comme un des éléments inséparables de la vie de l'école. Les activités libres ont donné de grandes possibilités de développer et d'affirmer la collectivité des écoles et la culture nationale. A partir des réponses de l'enquête, nous pouvons les activités libres sont organisées dans toutes plus souvent se sont des sections de jeunes constater que les écoles. Le jouralistes, de récitateurs, la section dramatique, etc. Ces sections sont organisées d'après la langue maternelle des élèves dans 9 écoles (sur 26 qui ont répondu à l'enquête), dans 14 écoles les sections sont organisées pour les élèves de toutes les nationalités. Les activités libres des élèves, basées sur le programme d'histoire et de géographie, sont très souvent organisées pour les élèves de toutes les nationalités. Dans les sections on élabore des minorités sujets du passé nationales, des historique événements de et nos des nations et personnages importants de notre pays. Les élèves font ensemble des albums historiques, organisent des visites collectives aux expositions, aux organisations de travail, aux monuments historiques et culturels. Dans les musicales chorale écoles bilingues ou et artistiques sont des toutes les façon sont élèves. Le chorale, multilingues, les activités très développées, surtout la qui est composée des élèves de nationalités a une très grande importance. De la même organisés les groupes qui ont moins de membres que le chorale-l'orchestre, les groupes de jeunes danseurs, les groupes folkloriques, etc. Le programme de ces activités comprend des oeuvres nations La vie des auteurs macédoniens et minorités nationales. et le travail de ainsi ces que écoles des auteurs sont des enrichis autres par l'organisation des différentes expositions où on peut trouver des travaux des élèves sur le thème de l'esprit et des acquis * Original: French 234 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, communautaires. Le plus le cadre dans scolaire. de la Beaucoup qui l'école. on IL y Les d'une sont a n'arrive minorités souvent des pas école organisées élèves de toujours 4 nationales. écoles ces sont obligées organisations la récolle, ils font No 18 os on de le travail participe connaissances Dans un certain Les membres de or Vacole. oi nationalités . les la à pe St : à Jeunes filles d'or ganiser des des Ê actions des ensei gnants les éléves y où les élèves travaillent dans aide les boisement avec leg programme (on au à toutes organiser par organisées de l'année sont fin ae ee prennent soit de travail. Et, d'après l'opinion sont très actifs. Il y a des jours les ex i Seer. de fête 1986, a d'élèves sportives March organisations des foréts, etc.) et, production. nombre d'écoles il ces coopératives pendant ainsi y a des coopératives d'élèves. sont des élèves macédoniens albanais, turcs, qui, en travaillant ensemble ont des possibilités de se connaître mieux et de former chez eux un attitude positive envers les biens et le travail commun. Les excursions formes les de (scientifiques travail enquêtes, La éducatif on les collaboration associé, On peut ou de organise des récréatives) l'école. écoles sont D'après encore Les toujours pour avec organisations des tous une réponses les des dans élèves. de travail c'est aussi une des activités prévues dans le programme. dire qu'il y a assez de difficultés dans ce domaine et qu'il faut faire des efforts pou établir une collaboration plus éfficace. En ce qui concerne le travail pratique dans le cadre de l'école, ici, aussi, il y a trop de difficultés (manque de salles, ainsi que de supports et d'outils). La participation Pour avoir libres élèves entre une dans élèves dans plus réelle de bilingues ou image les qui les des y écoles prennent membres, le part, les le niveau et activités l'organisation multilingues type le libres des (le d'activité, caractère de activités nombre des les la relations collaboration) nous avons fait une enquête parmi les élèves de la Ville classe des écoles primaires et les élèves de la lère et la IIle classe des écoles secondaires où l'enseignement se réalise dans les langues des questions réalisait et des nations groupes les rapports turcs. 438 et élèves dans des de la le Ville et ruraux répondu aux questions réponses écoles l'école minorités nous primaires et cadre élèves urbains Les des nationales. de l'enquête concernant la langue dans la communication parmi les élèves-membres classe et 503 de font et résolvent des activités macédoniens des élèves et des écoles des libres, élèves primaires écoles Certaines laquelle se des sections et d'autres albanais des et milieux secondaires ont l'enquête. savoir qu'un secondaires pas mal de 235 grand prennent nombre part problèmes, d'élèves au travail comme par des de ex.: Razprave in gradivo, l'organisation des Ljubljana, excursions. March 1986, No.18 l'amélioration des résultats, la discipline et le travail dans la classe, la récréation, les activités sportives, etc. Mais, il y a des domaines (la planification dans les activités organisées par la Ligue de jeunesse de Macédoine et la Ligue des pionniers) où les élèves sont moins actifs. On peut dire, aussi, qu'au niveau des activités libres, la participation des élèves des nations et des minorités nationales est presque égale dans les écoles primaires, tandis que dans moins actifs. Moins de la différentes les écoles moitié des sections participation au secondaires, élèves et dans ces respecter et qu'ils le travail, le devoir, ont la possibilité de Mais, disent, is aussi, d'accepter L'intérêt avec ou lequel albanais au disent sont travail que ils des grâce ont à la appris à qu'ils ont trouvé de bons amis montrer ce qu'ils ont appris. ont refuser ils Ils activités qu'ils de élèves s'intéressent organisations. travail proposer, les très quelque travaillent peu de liberté de chose. dans les sections est presque équilibré chez les élèves macédoniens, albanais et turcs. D'après les réponses des élèves, beaucoup d'entre eux ont trouvé leurs meilleurs amis grâce à la participation aux activités. Le travail collectif, l'autogestion, la responsabilité qu'ils ont contribuent à la créativité et à l'indépendance des élèves, fortifient l'amitié et l'esprit collectif des élèves, les encouragent et élèves écoles des l'autogestion, les la rendent plus pensent responsabilité ont l'organisation des réponses des élèves Les que réponses activités la les langue malgré amitié Dans élèves des libres élèves pour collaboration nous acquérir maternelle acquérir de de des des tous nouvelles les des aussi. écoles actifs que C'est élèves montrent de aussi nouvelles élèves. Mais, qu'on d'après leur dans a aux des organise connaissances il faut les d'après souligner que, une élèves les de élèves différentes nationalités culturelles, les actions moins de collaboration et dans les activités libres de de pour aussi en communautés de classe. Dans ce communautés sont les plus actifs. Les de la classe et les bons élèves sont Mais, des élèves les des élèves écoles primaires albanais sont et moins macédoniens. Les élèves sont informés que les communautés délégués dans la communauté de l'école. délégués sont en classe, mais il y importante il y a une riche collaboration et élèves de différentes nationalités. l'opinion secondaires. les des connaîssances. Les élèves sont organisés cadre, les présidents des enseignants responsables actifs place plupart collectivité, la même opinion. Mais, en réalité, sont moins actifs dans certaines compétitions, les manifestations travail sont prédominantes. 11 y a participation une La la macédoniens. cela, très souvent profonde entre les la que activités des élèves. On pense ici macédoniens, albanais, turcs. Les élèves écoles secondaires ont presque les élèves albanais et turcs sections responsables. primaires de La classe ont leurs plupart de ces contact permanent avec leur communauté de aussi des délégués qui proposent et décident propre opinion, sans 236 consulter la communauté de Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 classe qu'ils représentent, ou bien qui ne participent pas à la discussion. Il y a un tout petit nombre d'élèves qui répondent que dans leur école la communauté de l'école ne fonctionne pas. Les des enseignants-responsables communautés de avec les élèves communauté. Les résultats, de des sections, classe de et classe y sont prennent très sur les questions de élèves sont surtout part actifs. au Ils travail discutent la vie et du travail de la actifs si on discute des la discipline, de l'absence en des sanctions pédagogiques, des classe, actions du de travail travail, etc. La une communauté grande l'opinion pensent de classe importance des qu'il élèves, faut met l'accent dans cela mieux les élèves reproches, réçoivent interdits, des sur vie n'est analyser sévère envers les élèves qui ne la communauté. Jusqu'à présent, où la pas tous les questions scolaire. Mais, suffisant. les problèmes Les et qui ont d'après élèves être plus respectent pas les résolutions de dans la pratique, il y a des cas sanctions etc.). 237 pénales (conseils, Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, SOME March THEORETICAL 1986, ASPECTS No.18 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, M. Albert Verdoodt Université Catholique de Louvain Brussels, No.18 UDC 323.15:37:316.356.72 Belgium THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF EDUCATION RELATING ETHNIC IDENTITY, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO IN MULTICULTURAL SOCIETIES* TO THE MAINTENANCE OF INTER-ETHNIC RELATIONS Introduction I note, after having read the tional a long series Research and period of of reports Innovation attentive interest issued by the Centre (CERI/CD(81)1, and for after Educa- CERI/CD(82)5 and CERI/ECALP/84.02), that progress is slow in elucidating the concepts embodied in the above title. They may be understood in various ways - the notion of culture being a good example. Does a universally accepted definition of the word exist? In the report CERI/ECALP/84.02, we reality, an apparatus find that culture is “...an instrumental allowing the satisfaction of fundamental needs, i.e,, organic survival, adjustment to the environment and continuity in the biological sense" (after B. Malinowsky). It is a starting point, as this other somewhat similar definition, taken from Linton, shows: “Culture is the configuration of acquired behaviour and of the results of human activity whose elements are transmitted and shared by the members of a particular group" (Verdoodt, 1977, p.10). The difficulties arise when one tries to apply one of the definitions to real situations. At what point do acquired behaviour and the results of human activity in a given society differ enough to enable two or more cultures to be distinguished? The dividing lines are as vague as those between language and dialect (Verdoodt, 1977, p.9). Listening to earlier contributions convinces me that authors too often assume that two cultures imply two languages. Nobody appears to imagine that this is not necessarily so. There can be two very different languages used in a single region to express one and the same culture - this is notably the case of Finnish and Swedish in Finland, and it is very likely the case of English and French in Canada. This would explain why no major problem arises for English-speaking children in the French-speaking school be the system. found in Conversely, several use of French a single different language cultures. is everywhere tied Who toa - French, would single dare say argue culture? - can that This is why I say that there is no necessary link between the multicultural and the multilingual, even though they often go together. We have the examples, in Canada, of the Inuits (Eskimos) and, in Swedish vis-a-vis Finland, language the English- and French-speaking inhabitants the Samis (Laplanders) vis-à-vis the Finnish and groups. An Arabic or Turkish speaking group of migrants may even found significantly different a culture in their host country which is from the culture of their homeland, even though use they * Original: continue to their English 241 own language. Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, Having made these points, I shall theoretical issue with which this paper factors involved in the preservation of Linguistic No.18 go on to the broader is concerned, namely, the identity. Theories This would normally be the place to mention the research done on contact between languages, but this would not help us very much. Most linguists tend to consider the contact between two languages as nothing more than a reflection of the interaction between two clearly distinct groups, rather than as a structure internalized by one and the same group. Modern linguists thus generally enquire which lexical, grammatical or phonetic structures of language A have interacted with those of language B (Mikes, 1965). I perceive a new trend, however. Some linguists now believe that a bilingual person may possess a single system containing two or more registers (Van Overbeke, 1976). They therefore study a bilingual person's grammar of a unilingual subject. In the light of differential or contrasting linguistics, possibly take a turn towards closer respect Psychological and Most theories, of these Neurological when as they would that this, linguistics in particular - may of social reality. Theories they deal with bilingualism, concern the pace of the bilingual subject's intellectual development and the ease with which the person expresses himself in two or more languages. The rate of mental development, however, and the degree of ease in expression are usually measured in artificial situations. Certain studies show a positive relationship between bilingualism and the rate of development (Cummins, 1985, p.8)> Other, usually earlier, research discovers a negative relation (International Yet other Conference on investigations contradictory findings psychologists to are neglect Bilingualism fail to find doubtless the due social and any to class Education, the or 1928). connection. tendency background These of of many their subjects and, particularly, the circumstances in which they use language A rather than language B, while, contrarily, quite a number of psychologists put forward the idea of interlingual equilibrium his - a bilingual languages is This concept of very useful one, usually in most results function. Any wanting example. as subject a individual for the from to Nor a which can each aimed good as not of survive seem in stable serves producing both equilingual. to bilingualism, language at command or does reason: norms, if expressing themselves as in language B would no of has bilingual equilingualism only society who balanced following social individuals capable of language A reality, same set known a bilingual me a which fashion separate persons on any matter just as well soon cease turning them out. in In society requires two languages for expressing the functions. This does not stop certain persons from become or remain does it stop equilingual linguistic - interpreters, groups demanding for and obtaining equal treatment for their languages on a regional (Europe) or national (Yugoslavia) scale, or even economic and political equality. But the fact remains that the people of the region or country express themselves better and more fluently in their own language A than in languages B or C. 242 Razprave in gradivo, Sociological To say the Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 not shown much Theories least, sociology has interest in the use of language in a given context. The work of Fishman and a few others is an exception, Sociologists generally work from largescale quick samplings, and their studies are often studded with self-evaluated data (language surveys) or statistical analyses of very broad categories (English-speakers, German-speakers, etc.). Methodological problems to do with the frequent differences between self-evaluation and social reality tend to be overlooked (Khubchandani, 1974). Recently, however, the sociology of language stature and has uncovered a certain number theoretical concepts. - Sociolinguistic are sociological analysis of shall Situations. constructs clearly relationships obligations We (or consider favourable moment" (role, place among of culture when it teachers long as (Fishman, and time) members 1971, this of in gives of these. All mutual the same time in and the three way "favourable and sociocultural the desired role rights determined right place When the a of socially need the p.61). coincide concerned, five circumstances. systems group) need a suitable location and order to function. “Lovers generally right least taken on new fundamental These "situations," or life areas, derived from a careful study and recognised existing at has of factors for the situation." type Thus, is seen that language A establishes contact between and pupils in classrooms and corridors, etc., for as the contact involves educational techniques and specialities, it may be surmised belong to a single field, namely, observers claim that language A that all of these situations schooling. When, moreover, the is suitable Situation in the field of schooling but situations belonging to a different field - for every is for unsuitable for example, family imaginable or neighbourhood - a clear link is established between language A and a particular life field. One fact seems beyond dispute: in any society, languages or dialects they are used for certain remarked even in Iceland, regularly used in certain - Diglossia. This complementary, term can fields rather where English situations. designates non-conflicting the exist side by side, but than others. This can (as, formerly, Danish) possession languages (or of two or dialects, be is more or a language and a dialect) used for communicating within a single group. Diglossia exists when some functions are usually carried out in language A and others in one or more other languages. It is thus a sociological notion, as distinct from bilingualism, which is a personal aptitude. When the aptitude is widespread in a given society, it may or alongside of bilingualism may not coexist diglossia. Diglossia without widespread bilingualism can be found, for It is in rural or recently urbanised African societies. example, a structure typical of populations where the opposite ends of the social scale such cases, in certain a cause or cohabit the élite, maintain and operate bilingual not social in (e.g., in the separate language French-Kirundi) mass tensions. 243 of the are population. frames. found This In only may Razprave More in or gradivo, less widespread diglossia when, answer such to Ljubljana, in With whom? among children immigrants. individual a given questions used? To an may exist context, there is should what? occupied No.18 bilingualism When about children 1986, social as: talk in These March a The case country become certain be particularly the at clear language arises or bilingual without no children an early of age and introduce into the home the language learned outside. Often, the habitual or mother tongue is buried and supplanted. We may note here that most psychological studies of bilingualism and school performance have been carried out in a context of bilingualism without diglossia. The latter is typified by subtractive bilingualism, even when the mother tongue (used by a social minority) is taught as a means of transition towards the target language. As a result, the handicaps brought to light by this research are often extended to all bilingualism, whereas they occur genuninely only when diglossia is absent. Diglossia societies roles and learning and general bilingualism exist side by side in where easy access may be had to the various social the corresponding languages. Each generation begins by its habitual or mother tongue. Then, through education, it rapidly acquires one or more other languages. This occurs, for instance, in Switzerland and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, where the population is trilingual (Luxembourgian, French, German), each language corresponding to precise spheres of experience. is perhaps worth noting that both Luxembourg and Switzerland unarguably happy and prosperous countries. - Linguistic Community. where the members of community is speaking one and formed out possibility of of language may bilingualism linguistic Such a community have at least one language not to be understood as the same language; it is exists, in our a certain "density" of communication mutual comprehension, even though more for by contrast jealously example) conserve different with their from - Sociolinguistic Surveys. These generally commissioned in the wake order to see and than the one be involved (Gumperz, 1962). Countries where general exists (e.g., Luxembourg) thus usually form communities, few (French, view, in common. This kind a group of people rather a community nations characterised diglossia without social bilingualism (e.g., Burundi). case of the latter, the masses are mostly unilingual, select It are whether it can somehow knowledge the popular of a by In the while a language tongue. are few in number. They are of an educational decision in be implemented. I have come across hardly any surveys preceding the choice of languages to be taught or used in education. These choices would benefit, however, from respecting the contexts to which they are applied. I readily admit in most cases, that the post-school usefulness a difficult thing to measure. of a language I have made is, the attempt for my own country (Verdoodt, 1981, 1982, 1983). Usually, the most one can do is to establish an "ordinal" usefulness which makes it possible to list a group's needs and preferences in a certain order. Sometimes the basic criterion is more than just usefulness (an asset for business, the diplomatic service, scientific and technical contacts, etc.), and is also cultural. - Ethnic Group. After it is fair to ask just the methodological questions raised above, what the concept of ethnic group means in 244 Razprave in gradivo, present-day anthropology. March At 1986, least No.18 three definitions may than more represents usually group ethnic The quoted. Ljubljana, be the village. In most cases, it corresponds with the tribe. Even in Europe, ethnic distribution today reflects the divisions of the continent's determining cartography. ethnological being the early history. The most efficient method for ethnic boundaries is small-scale ethnological At the present time, several continental atlases are being prepared, the furthest advanced atlas of Europe. Cartography does not, however, dispense the ethnologist from thoroughly investigating the situations of which the map is but the spatial representation (de Rohan-Csermak, 1980, p.675). Another definition, which is more common in political science than in ethnology, identifies the ethnic group with the linguistic community. When not only bilinguals but also those who, by force of circumstances, have given up their language while remaining true to their origins are included in this community, we are led to a third definition, that of M. Weber CERI/ECALP/84.02 (in (1971, p.416) French original, quoted in document p.4): "We call ‘ethnic’ those human groups, when they do not represent ‘kin' groups, that nurture a subjective belief in a common origin founded on similarities of customs or outward behaviour patterns, or both, or on memories of colonisation or migration, in such a way that this belief becomes important for ease of communication, whether or not a community of blood ties exists objectively." In view of the ambiguity of the concept of ethnic groups, I shall not be using it in the rest of my contribution. Cultural Theories I have already referred to these in my introduction. For them to become operative, they require an accurate inventory of a culture's most characteristic indicators and of the place of language within We should unilingual culture (Smolicz, 1983). at this point mention the studies made of apparently national situations (England, France) in which notable differences classes that exist (cf between Bernstein, the lingusitic Bourdieu, usage 1970, of the various Snyders). These differences (commonly termed "deficits" by certain authorities) between speakers of what is generally considered to be a common language may, in fact, correspond to distinct cultures (middle class and working class culture). Economic front fit of this of to Thornburn outputs more of concerning education bilingual therefore have education, a Clear Oppon- field in A Swedish of adapt economist, devised1971) a ee bilingual educationhowever, (Thorburn, eS to French in the Americas (Verdoodt, }, two (teacher costs and pupil Coca Gath * (familiarity with a minority local language ane we”) 8 posits widely tration theories kind them. analysis tried such no are There ents Theories of two employed education; inputs language), business and and seven mr diplomacy; nical and cultural contacts; national unity; cultural development; living standards of those 245 scien co rie " RS tech- uality; ’ Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 This would be the right place to situate research findings on the potential for more or better paid jobs open to the bilinguals or multilinguals in any given country, but so far we have not come across any with the requisite sweep, Political Theories These are legion (for example, published a work on the safeguard States (Verdoodt, 1973). I adapted structure from that used during societies organised in Ljubljana advisory services in the field Verdoodt). These are the elements Kloss, 1962), and I myself human rights in multilingual my conceptual and theoretical the seminar on multinational in 1965 by the United Nations of human rights (Mackey and which I borrowed: of A. Measures taken to safeguard freedoms without discrimination. B. Measures taken preserving separate to safeguard identity: 1. The right of groups to use courts of law, in public and this right as pertaining to Lemieux). The German Swiss human rights specific and rights the basic essential for their language in everyday life, in in certain assemblies. I consider "sociable" objectives (Meisel and find it adequate for their regional speech. 2. The right learning of linguistic establishments groups and to to set up safeguard or the obtain independent development own traditions and distinctive characteristics. right as pertaining to educational objectives. Frisians in the Netherlands and Germany. I of their consider this satisfies the It 3. Equal economic and political treatment for the linguistic groups within a single country. I consider that this equality is obtained through the pursuit of utilitarian objectives by the lingusitic groups. This seems to be the case with Yugoslavia. 4. Freedom Linguistic objectives, with not this political in with Italy of freedom usually political the Jura in national by to split objectives. objectives generally levels Lemieux and the creates for this communication, messages This from representation, and the also canton in of difficulties, is point with The a to simple another. orders involving identifying first and the 246 of the case these question Switzerland, Next V. Lemieux these five between these their pursuit four structural levels of comes directives, respective determined in the case Berne. Quebec political economist, for the classification of purpose, one Canada, from external is Slovenia. also established a relation structural level at which which concerned in off frontiers. pursuing nature. respect parties canton 1 am indebted to the (publication pending), more irrespective exercise right to secede. It is associated with the of external political objectives. We find it certain where association Slovenians 5. The pursuit of of groups is that of transmitting co-ordination, followed numbers by of Razprave in gradivo, representatives Ljubljana, of the March 1986, linguistic No.18 groups on the umbrella directorial bodies, their relative influence and representativeness. Finally, we arrive at the "plenary" level, association, where groups unite more or less completely in one or two national organisations. Lemieux then situates the levels at which particular problems occur. They can be shown as follows: Objectives Pursued 1. Relations from these “SOCIABLE” (everyday resulting objectives Levels at which problems occur Few life) COMMUNICATION (ASSOCIATION) 2. EDUCATIONAL Few COMMUNICATION CO-ORDINATION ASSOCIATION 3. ECONOMIC/POLITICAL ("utilitarian") Many COMMUNICATION 4. 5. EXTERNAL, EXTERNAL, Many Many COMMUNICATION CO-ORDINATION REPRESENTATION ASSOCIATION In NON-POLITICAL POLITICAL short, those who pursue "sociable" ordinarily encounter difficulties whereas those who pursue external inevitably important inclined embroiled level, that to conclude in of with conflict at association Lemieux objectives except in political do not communication, objectives are the highest itself. I am and most therefore that: (a) It is important that linguistic groups establish the type of relational structures among themselves that match the objectives pursued. For example, a fairly loose type of co-ordination could be imagined where educational objectives (if these are markedly different) are Ordination objectives (b) being could be (if they When one of pursued, whereas a envisaged in the case are closely related), the groups tighter of modifies form of co- economic/political its objectives, the relational modes must be altered accordingly. If, for example, the external, non-political objectives take on more importance that the common utilitarian objectives, the mode of association must be loosened, while leaving the possibility open of retightening it if the common utilitarian objectives once again come to the fore, (c) The arises sought most at at a a important thing to remember is that, when a problem low structural level, the solution must generally be higher structural level. According to Lemieux,these levels extend from communication at the bottom to association, where the solution frequently lies, at the top. It is thus a mistake to try to remedy every problem at the level of the language one of of communication, co-ordination, As for my personal the best way since, in representation, to research protect leads the me to 247 many or cases, the association rights prefer of trouble is itself. linguistic favourable groups, national Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, custom to national international law. or March regional 1986, No.18 law, and Favourable national custom, example - at least as far as as it exists in the traditional country sure the are concerned - German-speaking convictions As I can majority rather see it, group, ingredient connection, than these are in the here is is a majority by in sign that Switzerland) externally convictions, a vital - imposed the latter to Switzerland, languages of for the the majority is (e.g., swayed legal by its obligations. particularly when held by the though often inadequate - respect of linguistic a short excerpt from the rights. In this speech delivered on 15th July 1937 by the Swiss Chairman, Mr. Calonder, at the solemn closing session of the Joint (German-Polish) Commission for Upper Silesia: "I shall sum up the above-mentioned practical experiments by stating my deeply-held conviction that nothing, not even the most precisely defined contractual stipulations, can take the place of the determining and essential moral factor, that is to say, goodwill and comes protecting to This spirit both training collaboration is training using In the matter position that the the in in fruit of schools all of a spirit minorites" of education, and reconciliation, (Kaeckenbeek, in spiritual 1942, the broadest communities the modern techniques national as against when it sense of p.851). and ongoing of communication. international law, my is no different from that of most jurists, who consider protection of human rights by international instruments must always come second to protection at the national internal possibilities of redress must be exhausted appeal is made to supranational organisations. This is not to say that international pressure no purpose. The fact remains that the problems linguistic groups have always formed a threat level; before the any and treaties serve posed by aggrieved to world peace, as testified by two European examples: that of Cyprus - the source of war between Greece and Turkey - and that of the Aaland Islands - which, at an earlier date, brought Sweden and Finland to the verge of armed conflict. The League of Nations took little time to find a satisfactory solution for the Aaland Islands (Verdoodt, 1973, pp.97-101), but the same cannot be said for the United Nations which thousands in sight. of Educational It may come has men on maintained Cyprus for a peace-keeping decades without and police any force solution of being Considerations as a surprise that these constitute rather than the central framework justification for this procedure is that potential, which flows from all that has of this education been said the conclusion paper. The has unlimited above. It may even be said that "cultural claims ... do not necessarily include the involvement of the school. And in a number of cases, especially with regional features, it would not be very difficult to show that the pressures on the school are stronger where the regional ... language p.19, (CERI/ECALP/84.02, [is] already dead or nearly so" that say to is This 60). para. 248 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 education, and more especially language learning, are inconceivable outside of or in opposition to the linguistic community in which they operate. If we assume that certain linguistic communities are bi- diglossic), it will be these spontaneously or by law in languages are employed, in or multilingual (and, preferably, communities that determine either which fields their two or more education particularly. Educationists may well wish to change the pattern of language use. If so, they should prelude their effort with an information campaign to win over public opinion because, otherwise, they will have no guarantee that their teaching will succeed. The the quantity of work dealing field into five subtopics: with education leads me to divide - The Local Community. In a bior multilingual country, the educational programme does not necessarily have to be decided in the capital city. Its main outlines may be democratically determined at the government level, but its execution is impossible community. they have language. alone or to imagine without the mobilisation of each local It is not simply a matter of involving the parents a strong tendency to back teaching of the dominant Other still communities active members of the unmarried, must also where diglossia exists without it will be extraordinarily difficult the opposite extremes of the local regularly in a hall or around a table education - is worth Preliminary this local community, living be involved. Lastly, in general bilingualism, to get representatives of social hierarchy to meet but, I believe, success in effort. Empirical Research. When such research is contemplated, linguists and psychologists are often the only persons approached. They naturally have this role to play, but sociologists should also be consulted, as their help is vital in defining the local linguistic and social landscape, particularly the place held by dialects. Will they be included or, at least, admitted in education? A large number of choices depend on the answer to this question, notably teacher training with respect to the dialects, and local teaching materials. These problems recur in connection with evaluation. I am reasonable refusal to take account of linguistic variety variants dropouts is the cause of (Labov, 1978). significantly slower certain that and/or local learning and of may - Teachers. Teachers are obviously the cornerstone of any educational programme in a bilingual situation. They are entitled to special training, one of whose aims is to teach linguistic tolerance and to avoid establishing incommunicability. Language separation is always difficult to achieve in primary education and even, because of the small number of pupils involved, at secondary level. training teachers some cases, of Everything is to be who are living examples language, the languages the one in by in biculturalism). - The Curriculum. Many authors today in which pupils have some lessons in another gained, therefore, of bilingualism (or, not including themselves. Lendava/Lendva Some in call for a form of education one language and others in lessons specifically schools Slovenia 249 in - Yugoslavia go even devoted - further, to notably since Razprave they in gradivo, regularly (Hungarian) in Ljubljana, skip the from friendliness to to in one course range of intermediate curricula provide for are weak in the second it is contrary to the March of 1986, language the same No.18 (Slovenian) lesson, Of to another course, a wide solutions can be imagined (Gaarder). Some separate classes for school beginners who language. Most experts feel, however, that principles of understanding, tolerance and a bilingual organize completely university. (or, separate it may be, schools bicultural) from society kindergarten through Too few syllabuses, to my way of thinking, include classes on the attitudes (local, regional, national) that the languages under study, the people who speak them, and bilingualism (or biand multiculturalism in general) provoke. They too rarely include specific and well-documented courses on the individual advantages of bilingualism (advancement in trade, industry and administration) culture, and the preservation collective of advantages (open-mindedness, identity). - Evaluation. It is important to carry out regular, accurate assessments of the progress made towards stated objectives. Linguistic and psychological tests are usually applied to this effect. But, as the issue involves more than the individual, these are not enough. Our conclusion, then, is: it is important regularly to take stock with the local community or, if it is too big, with delegates who represent it. References Bernstein, B., 1975, Langue sociolinguistiques et (collection of articles Bordieu, sociale, P., 1970, Centre de Conférence 1928, classes sociales, social, Minuit, from English) codes 352 pp. Reproduction culturelle et reproduction Sociologie Européenne, Paris, 41 pp. internationale Luxembourg, et contrôle translated sur le International bilinguisme Bureau of et l'éducation, Education, Geneva, 189 PPCummins, J., 1985, Theory and Policy in Bilingual National Seminar on Education in Multicultural Ljubljana, 26 pp. Education and Secretariat), distribution) Education and Cultural OECD, Paris, Minorities, doc. 20 pp. Cultural ref. and the Cultural Secretariat), distribution, Paris, and OECD, Linguistic 19 by the (restricted Pluralism (ECALP) - - A Critical Analysis, 1984, (restricted distribution), 49 Linguistic doc. (Notes CERI/CD(81)17 Multicultural Education Policies OECD, doc. ref. CERI/ECALP/84.02 PPEducational, 1981, Education, Societies, ref. pp. 250 Pluralism, 1982, CERI/CD(82)5 (Note by (restricted Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, De Rohan-Csermak, G., Universalis, pp. 674-675 Fishman, J., Gumperz, 1970, J., 1980, 1986, "Types of Linguistics 4, No.18 “Ethnie", Sociolinguistique, 1962, Anthropological March in Labor, Bruxelles, Linguistic No 1, pp. Encyclopedia Communities," Experiment Khubchandani, Tongue pp. L., 1974, “Fluidity Sociolinguistics, A. in Mother Verdoodt (Ed.), H., 1969, Braumüller, Grundfragen Vienna, 624 der Ethnopolitik Mackey, Society W. - in in Upper 20 in Heidelberg, Jahrhundert, pp. Labov, W., 1978, Language in the as Le Parler Ordinaire, Minuit, Lemieux, V., volontaires," im of Identity," Groos, 81-102 Kloss, pp. 26-40 Kaeckenbeek, G., 1942, The International Silesia, Oxford University Press, 859 pp. Applied 160 Inner Paris, City, published 420 pp. “Le biculturalisme et les Revue d'études canadiennes (in and A. Verdoodt, (Eds.), 1975, Papers of the Ljubljana Seminar, in French organisations preparation). The Multinational Rowley, Newsbury, 388 PP: Malinowski, B., 1944, A Scientific Theory of Culture. Meisel, J. and V. Lemieux, 1972, Ethnic Relations Voluntary Associations, Information Canada, Ottawa, in 354 Canadian pp. Mikes, M., 1965, “Interferencija u procesu jednovremenog usvajanja madjarskog i srpskohrvatskog vokalizma," Prilozi proucavanju jezika, Vol 1, Belgrade, pp. 185-203 Smolicz, J., 1983, "Cultural Alternatives in Separatism or Multiculturalism?” in Journal Studies, Vol. 4, No. Snyders, G., 1976, relecture critique Illich, PUF, Paris, Thornburn, Planning," Planned? Nations, T., in J. 3, Verdoodt, 1971, Rubin Verdoodt, moins “Cost-Benefit and B.H. Jernudd Sociolinguistic University À., 1973, plurilingues, A., 1976, le Québec: 47-68 Ecole, classe et lutte des classes: une de Baudelot-Establet, Bourdieu-Passeron et 379 pp of Van Overbeek, M., linguistique, Fragua, états pp. Plural Societies: of Intercultural Theory Hawaii and Press, Analysis in Language (Eds.), Can Language Be Practice Honolulu, 1976, Mécanismes Madrid, 374 pp. La protection Labor, "Le maintien problèmes des Bruxelles, du 210 Developing 253-262 l'interférence de l'homme dans les pp. français d'utilité," 251 de droits for pp. dans in H. Runte les Amériques and A. Valdman Razprave (Eds.), Indiana in gradivo, A., Multicultural No. 204, Verdoodt, dans A., 1977, 1986, "Education Context," 1981, Intérét Bureau 204 Pol., Louvain-La-Neuve, 163 Multilingual and Geneva, 53 langues modernes pour Faculté (also and Amériques, Education, manifesté pp. a les and Verdoodt, A., 1982, Les besoins en entreprises et les services publics, et No.18 Documentation of secondaire, Louvain-La-Neuve, in Educational International l'enseignement Pol., March Identité culturelle et francophonie dans University Press, Bloomington, pp. 19-28 Verdoodt, 51, Ljubljana, 224 in les des Econ., pp. Soc. et Dutch) langues Faculté pp. Sc. Information modernes dans des Sc. Econ., (also in les Soc. Dutch) Verdoodt, A., 1983, Enquête auprès du personnel académique et scientifique et des étudiants des universités à propos de leur intérêt pour les langues modernes, Faculté des Sc. Econ., Soc. et Pol., Louvain-La-Neuve, 250 pp. (also 252 in Dutch). Razprave Guy in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Héraud UDC University France of Pau LE RAPPORT DE “PEUPLE" A Le concept de "peuple" et "LANGUE", celui A L'EXEMPLE de "langue" 323.15(4):800.8 DE sont L'EUROPE* dans un rapport ambigu. En fait, les Etats se veulent tous plus ou moins porteurs d'un message de culture spécifique, et celui-ci est le plus souvent en rapport avec une langue particulière. Exemple: la France ne propose pas juridiquement d'elle-même une définition linguistique; il n'y a même dans sa Constitution - à la différence de beaucoup d'autres - aucune stipulation concernant la langue. Cependant la France (gouvernment, administration, population) est tellement consciente d'être le berceau, le sanctuaire, le centre de rayonnement de la langue et de la culture françaises qu'elle en oublie que d'autres Etats (Belgique, Suisse), en sont, à leur echelle plus modeste, mais à titre originaire France réelle, fragcais. À partir sur la de cet exemple, situation restreindra diversité degré de De eux-aussi, à les foyers "sociologique," des on et Etats. où les supports. étroitement comprendra autres l'Europe, fait qu'une Pour règnent, la à Ainsi, la avec le corps enquête mener à travers s'impose bien, une on se grande d'ethnies, des situations comparables d'histoire, de développement, d'homogénéité raciale, de religion, etc. manière générale, ce qui caractérise l'Europe par rapport au reste du monde, c'est l'absence de clivage racial et la dégénérescence du critère religieux, celui-ci ne jouant qu'un rôle finité et mineur, à l'exception bien connue de l'Irlande du Nord. Une vue synthétique typologie suivante: Etats se (1) qui Etats veulent unilingues: sur les Etats européens linguistiquement Islande, permet de dresser la homogènes Portugal. (2) Etats volontairement unilingues mais effectivement plurilingues (plurilingues par juxtaposition): Grèce, France, Suède.” Par Etats “plurilingues par juxtaposition" nous entendons les Etats ou chaque langue a son territoire propre. Le “plurilinguisme" de l'Etat résulte de ce qu'il est constitué de plusieurs aires linguistiques différentes. Il est vrai que, par l'assimilation des minorités, la langue de l'Etat est également parlée dans leurs zones traditionnelles respectives, de telle sorte Etats, * qu'au à "plurilinguisme l'heure Original: actuelle, par un juxtaposition" "plurilinguisme French 253 s'ajoute, par dans ces superposition." Razprave (3) in gradivo, Etats Ljubljana, plurilingues Luxembourg. Dans le pluralisme March “par "par 1986, No.18 superposition": superposition," deux ou Irlande, Malte, plusieurs langues sont parlées dans tout l'étendue du territoire; chacune d'elles n'a pas une aire déterminée particulière mais est pratiquée dans tout l'Etat. Le pluralisme (a) ow bien les territoire partition. Cette qui par deux ethnies considéré: situation ne superposition sont est pas lui-même cohabitent tel surtout revêt était mais dans le répandue étatiques, deux cas dans formes: toute de des l'étendue Chypre aires intérieures à avant du la territoriales certains Etats. Dans les Etats bilingues (ou plurilingues) par juxtaposition, il ‘est rare en effet qu'une ethnie n'empiète pas sur l'autre (et vice-versa), ce qui engendre des parties de territoire bilingues par superposition. Tel est le cas de presque toutes les minorités, reconnues ou pas, (reconnues: le Tyrol du Sud, le Val d'Aoste, les peuples d'Espagne dans les Communautés autonomes, etc; non-reconnues: minorités font appartenant au France). Les aires en effet l'objet d'une peuple dominant. Citons territoriales de ces immigration de sujets comme exemples typiques: Bruxelles (les 19 communes formant l'arrondissement de BruxellesCapitale et la Région bruxelloise), ville autrefois purement flamande, devenue française à 80%; Bienne, autrefois alémanique, devenue romande (= Tyrol du Sud, allemand à 97% en 1918, aux (b) ou dont Tel bien les le territoire membres est précisément Luxembourg. En du le peuplé deux, cas République langue nationale seconde qualité: parties est pratiquent de Suisse, ville francophone) au 2/3 aujourd'hui. tiers; d'une voire seule trois l'Irlande, d'Irande, en et même ethnie idiomes. de Malte l'irlandais, ou et celui gaélique, du est et officielle, partageant avec l'anglais cette la langue d'usage est l'anglais sauf en sept territoire (surtout à l'ouest), ou le gaélique est pratiqué par environ 40,000 personnes. À Malte, la Constitution (art. 5, alinea 1) fait du maltais (dérivé de l'arabe, mais écrit en caractères latins) la langue nationale unique et l'une des deux langues officielles, à parité avec l'anglais; la situation ressemble à celle de l'Irlande, à ceci près que la population maltaise tout entière pratique le maltais, sa langue ethnique; en outre, la Constitution prévoit l'introduction par le Parlement, aux 2/3, d'autres langues officielles (on a dû songer à l'italien, aboli en 1934, et à l'arabe): mais cette possibilité n'a pas été utilisée. Au Luxembourg, une loi du 24 février 1984 érige le luxembourgeois (dialecte culturel allemand) nationale," cependant que le français est la langue et des lois, le luxembourgeois et l'allemand (avec en "langue des traitées le français d'ailleurs) les langues de l'administration et de la justice. Avant la guerre, le Grand-Duché avait deux langues officielles: l'allemand et le français. Tout Luxembourgeois apprend et pratique plus typique dans les trois employé la de vie dans idiomes, la vie triglossie,° des habitants le luxembourgeois courante. chaque et le parler Le ayant sa fonctionnement 254 étant Luxembourg place des de loin est un le cas spécifique institutions. Razprave in gradivo, Etats qui prioritaire (1) Etats se Ljubljana, veulent qui qu'à officielle: Espagne 1986, plurilingues reconnaissent n‘attribuent March mais plusieurs certaines d'entre (quatre No.18 avec langues elles langues le une langue nationales, caractère mais de nationales, langue une langue officielle: le castillan); Suisse (quatre langues nationales, trois langues officielles.” En Belgique, la situation est plus incertaine. Il n'y a pas en effet de disposition légale qui énumère les langues nationales et officielles; et la n'est pas faite explicitement. On peut simplement l'existence de trois “régions française, la néerlandaise et linguistiques" unilingues (la l'allemande) que le Royaume reconnaît trois langues nationales. Mais trois officielles au niveau de l'Etat? "pour" (publications mentions allemandes); Belgique le langue de lois mais en il y allemande distinction inférer de sont-elles IL y a des allemand, a aussi (66,000 toutes les arguments timbres-poste des argument habitants)° se voit par la constitution le bilinguisme allemand-français; l'allemand au niveau étatique n'est pas systématique en va pour le français et le néerlandais - avec "contre": - la imposer l'usage comme de il mais simplement langues régionales: sporadique. (2) Etats qui connaissent la catégorie des Espagne (basque dans les Communautés autonomes; CA d'Euskadi et de Navarez: catalan - sous ses divgrses formes - en CA de Catalogne, au Valence, aux Baléares;’ galicien dans la CA de Galice. Italie (français en Vallée d'Aoste; allemand et ladin au Tyrol du Sud; slovène dans la province de Trieste et, de facto, celle de Gorizia); Yougoslavie, pour l'albanais dans le Kosovo, le hongrois en Voïvodine;* républiques fédérées, arrondissements langues des parifiées tel des nationaux 14 en républiques avec le russe; est aussi républiques URSS. le cas des et En fédérées autonomes, théorie cependant autres Grande-Bretagne: langues régions le que la Russie gallois au des des les sont Cymru. (3) Etats qui connaissent la catégories des langues de minorités: A la difference du cas (2), la portée géographique de la langue seconde la n'est pas Yougoslavie pour les aussi (en langues l'italien en strictement dehors dites Slovénie et des délimitée. situations Tel "langues de minorités"; Croatie; le hongrois l'ukrainien, hongrois; en RDA, le Etats en sorabe; qui langues Tchécoslovaquie: l'allemand: Allemagne, se en en le Norvège, veulent le le en par en langues mineures de Voîvodine; en Roumanie, sont hongrois et l'allemand; en Hongrie: l'allemand, serbo-croate; est signalées cas cas exemple, Slovénie; dans ce cas: le slovaque, hongrois, le Finlande, plurilingues avec le same égalité les le le polonais, Autriche: le slovène, le croate, danois; au Danemark, l'allemand; Suède, de (2) le en (lapon). des diverses reconnues (1) Etats fédéralistes-ethniques: la Tchécoslovaquie (avec les deux Etats fédérés de Tchéquie et de Slovaquie; la Yougoslavie, avec ses slovène l'Inde) le par quatre républiques de langue serbo-croate, la République et la République macédonienne. La Yougoslavie (comme est une variante de fédéralisme ethnique, caractérisée la de Inde, (en dominante l'ethnie de morcellement 255 Razprave in gradivo, Communauté Ljubljana, hindie) en March plusieurs 1986, No.18 Etats-membres. Théoriquemnt, l'URSS. (2) Etats de fédéralisme personnel: (3) Etats non-fédéralistes linguistique: Il y a parmi Chypre avant la partition. personnels à base de parification eux des Etats fédéraux, d'origine historique, comme la Suisse; parlant, n'est pas formée de cantons dont certains sont la Suisse, constituionnellement quatre ethnies, mais de vingt-six bilingues et un (les Grisons), trilingue. Ce n'est donc pas une fédération ethnique, mais elle met néanmoins à égalité juridique trois de ses quatre langues (les trois officielles). angues Il y à droit finnois. qui sont aussi des à la fois nationales et Etats unitaires: la Belgique (laquelle est en passe de devenir une fédération ethnique, et l'est déjà pour partie,ll ou la Finlande, où le suédois, bien que parlé par 6,2% seulement de la population jouit de l'égalité de avec le À partir de cette typologie, on peut rechercher dans est en présence d'un peuple, et dans lesquels on qu'un à simple population Pour abréger, rudimentaire: A. Etats B. se Etats I (1), I catégories C. Etats et III (2) II ici I (3)b de d'un sous-ensembles (2) II constitués de seul peuple: les typologie. comme et classificatiion d'un la constitutés caractérisée. d'une constitutés et officiellement reconnaissant les contentera officiellement catégories mais on linguistiquement quels cas on n'a à faire seul des peuple-support, peuples distincts: (3). plusieurs peuples-support: I (3)a, III (1) (2). D. Etats faits de populations linguistiques diverses juridiquement parifiées: III (3). Pour la Suisse, cette qualification linguistique est indubitable, “populations” et non incontestablement un es ethnies formant des des peuples. Pour la Belgique, il peuple flamand, qui comprend aussi y a les Flamands de Bruxelles. Mais il n'y a pas de “peuple francophone”, les Bruxellois francophones se sentant différents du peuple wallon. En Suède, la question reste ouverte: les suèdophones se perçoivent-ils comme peuple suédois de Finlande ou comme Finlandais de langue suédiuse? - La question mériterait d'être creusée. On voit en tout cas la différence entre la catégorie III (3) on et se la catégorie trouve en I (3)b. présence Dans d'un I seul (3)b, il n'y a pas de doute, peuple. Notes 1. La dant, des Répubique socialiste reconnaît l'existence (orthodoxes) Serbes supports de cette et fédérée d'un des république, de Croates de Bosnie-Herzégovine, "peuple langue 256 musulman". (catholiques) serbo-croate. C'est un des cepen- à côté trois Razprave 2. in Ces trois comportent les gradivo, Etats chacun Macédoniens (100,000), Ljubljana, March a des sont Albanais France: les Flamands les F Aromounes (i (100,000). Alsaciens-Lorrains, et , autoche op urilingues, On Arméniens. (Source: R. Grulich et Minderheiten in Europa, Heggen-Verlag, Corses, No.18 effective minorités (150,000), les 1986, doi il est Car sont, ils en Gréce, 50,000), les Turcs p . Y ajouter 30,000 Opindan vy Hationale Basques Occitans; Ce Nice 75, difficile ae p.208. En acne! chiffres, parce que ces minorités sont assimilées de re des de langue et que les brassages de population ont lavyewent cc aires ethniques. Les langues subsistent chez un certain none ae mais dans un contexte de biling re de dans chaque ethnie, sujets, Indiquons, comme ordre de grandeur, que l'aire occitane eres 96), (sur départements de trentaine une sur la a sur bretonne l'alsacienne-lorraine sur trois, la corse sur deux. En suéde oe compte 10,000 Sames (Lapons) et 40,000 Finnois, ces derniers x l'embouchure du fleuve Torne, dans le nord-est du pays. 3. cf Johanes Luxembourg, Verlag, 4. Kramer, revue Vienne, basque, 5. article 116 de français, l'italien Suisse"; situation Grand-Duché de Constitution, alinea 1: “L’'allemand, le romanche sont les langues nationales le de Ethnica, linguistique 4/1983; au p.195-202, Braumiiller 1983. castillan, la La Europa alinea catalan, la et 2: galicien. “l'allemand, déclarés langues officielles de Grundlagen des Sprachenrechts, le français et l'italien la Confédération"; cf R. Schulthess, Zürich, 1979. sont Viletta, 6. À noter que la Belgique officiellement reconnue "de langue allemande" n'abrite que la moitié des Belges usant de dialectes allemands. L'autre moitié, qui fait partie de la Belgique depuis sa fondation en 1830, est considérée comme francophone (territoire de arrondissement Welkenraedt, d'Arlon de la dans la province province de de Liège; Luxembourg). 7. La CA de Catalogne reconnaît valeur officielle à l'aranais (sous-dialecte gascon de la langue occitane dans le Val d'Aran orienté géographiquement vers la France). Mais l'aranais ne saurait être de minorité" 8. Trois considéré (11-[3]). autres slovaque autonome comme langues de "langue régionale" minorités: le c'est une “langue le rusine et roumain, le sont également utilisées au niveau de la Province (p. ex. à la radio de Novi-Sad). Les autres langues de minorités (bulgare, tohéque, ukrainienne, etc.) ont cours dans les communes; leur statut, à notre avis, n'est pas celui d'une langue "régionale," mais (voir [3]) de “langue de minorité". 9. Cymru ou Pays de Galles (y compris des quatre nations du Royaume-Uni. le 10. l'allemand Le dans 11. canton Voir Nice), 240, romanche le la revue numéro nov. est des déc. co-officiel (avec Monmouthshire), et l'une l'italien) Grisons. L'Europe spécial en Belique formation 1980; 1980. 257 (4 bd la réforme Carabacel, de l'Etat, F 06 000 Numéro Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Les trois "Communautés" (française, jouissent d'une pleine autonomie dans néerlandaise, allemande) les matières culturelles et "personnalisables": le elles ont même droit de conclure des accords internationaux dans leur sphère de compétence interne; de même, les régions flamande et wallonne (dans le domaine économique). Ce qui manque - outre l'emploi du mot - pour transformer, la Belquique en fédération, c'est l'absence de participation au niveau une confédération 12. Voir Tore central. que vers une Modeen, "Die Lage La Belgique évolve plutot der schwedischen Volksgruppe Finnland aus juritischer Sicht", Revue Plural Societies, vpm m3, p. 3-24, NL 2501 Den Haag, P.O. Box 13566. 13. en Il y a très Romandie peuples romands; au de pouvoirs présent, francophones les une considérer certaine les tendance, ethnies Populaires à ériger la in 1982; comme et d'un Suisse des Parti en une ethnies. française. dans à d'un Mouvement Maspoli tendant quatre Bruxellois Communauté jusqu'à Tessin, (création postulat fédération 14. marginale et vers fédératiion. et Wallons Celle-ci, matières on constituent l'a dit, culturelles ensemble dispose et de la vastes "personnalisables". Mais il lui manque pour être un "peuple", outre la conscience d'en former un les compétences économiques, dévolues séparément à la Région bruxelloise et à la Région wallonne. Courte bibliographie Bailleux, Faculté Falch, en Aymeric, de droit Jean, Europe, 1976, de L'Etat Toulon, 1973, CIRB, générale et Tome I Contribution à Presses de Heraud, Etats, Language automne, Guy, Guy, et en 1966, Popoli e "Le statut 1980, particulier Planning, p. 195-223. en minorités, l'étude l'Université Grulich, Rudolf et Peter Pulte, Hampel, Nationale Minderheiten in Heraud, les des Europe," University of 258 statut Laval, 1975, Europa, lingue du langues Austin des de la langues Québec "Préface" de Heggen-Verlag, d'Europa, Revue Annales Ferro, dans Language Press, ed., les Johannes Opladen Milan différents Problems vol. 4, and No.3, Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Vera RaSkovié-Zec Yugoslavia UDC OUR ATTITUDE BICULTURALISM* TOWARD The attitude American different from the THE AMERICAN toward Yugoslav TYPE OF bilingualism one. Formerly, BILINGUALISM is the 376.744(73) fundamentally immigrant children living in the United States had only the alternatives “drowning and swimming," that is, either learning English American schools or facing a downright existential downfall. the mid-1960s the ethnic groups in America AND (including a of in In sizable group of Yugoslavs) originated the idea that every single American was of a given extraction and that he/she had to be proud of his/her second identity. New groups of incoming immigrants could therefore make a decision about whether their children would be educated in their first language and learn about their original culture, or whether they would immediately enter English-language schools and start learning about the American culture. The bilingual program enabled the separation of grades comprising those students who called for the use of their mother tongue, i.e. the language of their extraction, but only until the possibility of a transfer to English-language grades was attained, that is, until their command of English was such that they could follow easiiy the classes conducted in the English language. In other words, the function o the teaching and learning of the language of extraction was ultimately the mastery of English. The proportion of the classes conducted in English to those conducted in the language of extraction varies from program to program. Some bilingual programs use the language of students’ extraction 90% of the time, others have a ratio of 50:50%, while still others begin by using the language of extraction in all the classes, “advancing” English. Since the gradually children are toward quick the to complete learn use English in authentic English-speaking environment, this transitional of teaching conducted in the language of extraction lasts few of the period only a years. Today, 287,000 children born outside the United States of America attend American schools; of these, 76% are from the Spanishspeaking areas. The preceding number of the children of foreign extraction incorporates, in addition, about 70 different languages bilingual and dialects. The basic idea underlying the American programs is to adapt immigrant children to the American society, that is, to socialize them. The bilingual programs have been severely criticized as low-quality unsuccessful programs, the main objection being that foreign bilingual teachers who have received a thorough professional and pedagogic training are too scarce and indeed Students educated only never their be language able technologically * Original: difficult to find. Such critics claim that the in the language of extraction who also speak to of extraction learn advanced English American Serbo-Croatian 259 within well society. their enough families, to enter will the Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 The fact remains that in New York's China Town only Chinese can be heard, that only Italian resounds nearby, in Little Italy, and that only Spanish can be heard in Spanish Harlem. The prospects of these humerous people can be best illustrated immigrant population, viz., that areas. There which equals are 19 million 9% of the total by of the the data on the most Spanish-speaking such people in the United States, population of the U.S.A. Of these, only 4% have completed any type of secondary school, while as many as 85% of those who have dropped out of school live in large urban districts. American investigations indicate that 27% of Spanish families are poor people, earning as they do less than 7,000 dollars a year. precisely such people children; that is, their children a well as a better Thus who they more job. it is call hardly for want the successful a surprising better bilingual and more that education programs prosperous to teach indispensable Answers to bilingual successfully for this class the achieving question says the skills success are of in using the different. following: “The to ensure English The as bilingual pride, are American that is society. teacher bilingual is their existence The central question that remains is whether the programs, which underline the cultural and national able it of of schools a help the children born outside the United States gain the feeling of being welcome in the American society, and they keep them in the school, thus preventing them from wandering in the streets. They learn better in the case of a gradual transition to English, in which process they use their mother tongue in learning English and in learning the basics of such subjects as mathematics other sciences, They begin to attend standard schools they learn to speak English fluently. Unfortunately, cases where this aim is never The immigrant parent gives child to forget all about feel proud of speaking the achieved.” a different answer: "I do not want my his/her cultural origin. He/she must language of his/her ancestors and of being familiar with the traditions he/she must speak English too, but be deprived of one's ethnic The researcher in the following manner: the and as soon as there are of his/her people. Of course, that does not mean having to identity." field of "We have education answers monitored 150 this question schools and in 11,500 students of many nationalities. It has been found that the bilingual programs do help children to learn subjects such as mathematics. Well, for example, children from the Spanishspeaking areas that attended the bilingual program have not, generally speaking, made better progress in learning English than those who speak government Congress Spanish official insist argues that in as the monolingual follows: "The non-English-speaking Supreme children classes." Court be The and the offered the same educational possibilities as the others. Both teachers and parents believe that the best way of doing it is through bilingual schools. This may well be very expensive and not always successful, but do we have ant choice?” Among the preceding answers, it is the view of the immigrant parent that comes closest to our own attitude toward bilingualism, because its effectively simple and parental phrasing points to the big truth, 260 namely, that it is easier to be Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 bilingual than bicultural. A number of arguments supporting this view have been advanced in the fields of linguistics and sociology that have recently been integrated into sociolinguistics. This fact has been observed, among others, by Christina Paulson in her book Teaching English as a Second Language (p.58), citing as examples very uncomfortable situations she herself experienced in Sweden - her homeland, where she was born and where she grew up, yet representing a social milieu from which she felt separated after living many years in America. In spite of her excellent command of spoken Swedish, she often even fell into disgrace in those situations where linguistic constructions connoted specific Swedish interpersonal relationships. For language is an aspect of man's overall behavior and of man's orientation in life, That is why no book on sociolinguistics can of bilingualism. In be found in American that excludes questions the contemporary world, bilingualism is an important, vital part of bilingual problems by means of the of is linguistics. The sociological background today metaphorically symbolized in words expression "the boiling pot." A question that often arises in the context of socio-bilingual discussions is that of assimilation or separatism, which subsumes the dilemma as to whether bilingual education unites or separates the people involved. Each of these two opposite poles has its fervent advocates both within linguistics them advancing their arguments. They can classes as follows: For Bilingual (1) The (2) The use The who cannot Against Bilingual (1) foreign English is unable to in regular classes. tongue ethnic pride. (3) Education student speak study of the helps identity separation mother maintain and ethnic of children Transitional classes are (2) . in their mother transfer tongue to child (student) to learn survive in the Americansociety. The use of the mother tongue prevents the students from becoming assimilated an d from becoming full- dimensionalmembersofthe society. (3) Segregated classes make the children feel “different” from the others, i.e. from the majority. (4) useful because the children first learn lessons then The Education must be urged English so as to in special-teacher and special -program classes contributes to an improved attitude toward teaching material and fosters the development of interest. (4) and outside it, all of be polarized into two Practice not the and schooling English. good of this type should be encouraged, because students complete their without command of having English, a and it is on account of secondrate education that they have difficulties in getting jobs. 261 Razpr (5) (6) ee ae hd regular classes. They are expensive and unnecessary. national eT de in (6) orga- their | a nized for political the cost classes Bilingual Government twice as much as (5) in students 000 Almost 300, t speak Encanno the U.S. ment must+ ern Gov The . lish resour l ona iti add cedure ion. cat edu ir the for ces No.18 1986, March Ljubljana; gradivos in ave Encouraging minority rights to to fight strive and for obtain may result in the of the unity of the States of America. rights. groups political them breakup United Those in the United States who favor bilingual education adduce the immigrant parents who instinctively feel that their children attending without possibilities hardly have any educational classes in which teaching is conducted in their mother tongue, point persistently education of bilingual the opponents whereas out its second-ratedness. The latter claim that the students trained in languages other than English cannot gain the appropriate American education, because it is impossible to learn the language well without adopting the values and ideas of the culture that the language embodies. This is, in fact, also the reason adduced by the immigrant parents who do not want their children to become alienated from the culture of their original homeland. Thus the "boiling pot" is increasingly agitated and more and more represent dangerous, a distinct they are children national According advantage, to while one view, according bilingual to the schools other view but a detriment to culture and education offered to the from immigrant families. In America, the absence of commitment and the subculture of those who cannot speak English have been increasingly discussed. Given that considerable linguistic diversity can be found in many countries of the world, bilingualism is to be considered a political problem of worldwide proportions. We can conclude “instrumentally” - that as a find a better job - or of an instrument of immigrant parents are cultural life. the study English tool or language as a means is for taught trying to "integratively," that is, in the function integration, whereby the children of integrated into the American social and There is in this respect an important linguistic question: what are the differences between learning the first and the second language? According to the science of psycholinguistics, a child learning simultaneously and logical strategies. two first through languages. before two languages draws on similar linguistic Such a process is in fact the learning of This starting to is the phase attend our foreign children nurseries abroad and pass day-care centers; following this phase, the mother tongue is stagnant because of the influence of the other language, i.e. the language of the environment in which the child lives, the language which is sociolinguistically completely dominant during his/her future life. This happens in the period when the child's personality in hence formed, fully becomes gradually It is identification. to personality central 262 period the here right that that is the Razprave in gradivo, greatest for danger the loss Children extent - from Ljubljana, lurks, of and national it March is also identity in of the early preschool age the skill of differentiating that of the other language: they 1986, this our No.18 process children which accounts living abroad. display - to a surprising the context of one language distinguish them perfectly and hence do not mix them up. Nevertheless, the process of acquiring two languages is somewhat slower than that of acquiring only one language, viz., the first language or the mother tongue. Wallace Lambert has proved that the learning of two languages at the same time does not cause the retardation of children or language, nor does it affect intelligence (Lambert, 1967, pp. 91- 109). Moreover, such children even have an advantage because, as Lambert says, "They have language property, form their thoughts much more easily, and possess greater mental flexibility." The foregoing account gives us grounds to offer a logical conclusion, namely, that the processes associated with secondlanguage learning resemble the processes of first-language learning to an increasing extent with diminishing temporal “removal" to learn of the two types of processes. Thus, if a child begins the second language very early (during the third or fourth year of life), the process of learning will be similar to that of first-language learning, which means natural, rapid, and automatized. The greater the gap between firstand secondlanguage learning, the more difficult the barriers to successful learning. As early as the tenth year of life, great psychological difficulties arise in the process of second-language learning. A number of investigations (Ravem, 1968; Milon, 1971; Dulay and Burt, 1972; Ervin-Tripp, 1974; 1974; Natalicio, and Hansen-Bede, 1975) processes have learning shown of two that interlingual strategy later it years, linguistic languages and invariably only in disappears. early For cognitive give rise childhood; example, to the in the Hansen-Bede in the so-called course (1975) of has investigated such linguistic matters as gender, word order, the formation of verbal forms, questions and negatives in three-yearold children from the English-speaking area who learned Urdu after settling in Pakistan. Even though the differences between English and Urdu are great, no first-language interference was observed. Similar strategies and rules were at work in both languages. this means that the first language and the second language are learned by children through a creative process. Interference does not occur because the children have not yet acquired the logically constructed first-language repertoire to affect the second language. The more a person approaches adulthood, the fuller the first-language repertoire and the more inevitable the emergence of interference. The strongly consolidated nature of adults' first language is responsible for the very strong interference appearing in the course of their second-language learning. Another fundamental language. They are language, following language question factor firmly is the relation between interrelated. Thought clarifies arises from thought. the logical In respect, this point though and stimulates of view: the Does bilingual's mind comprise one or two systems? In all probability, it is not made up of two systems, because the special thought mechanism "sorts out” new meanings in relation to the old ones, 263 a Razprave in gradivo, automatically each with distinguishing is similar but the a new not system wholly theories of 1986, meanings, However, to we No.18 thoughts, and coming the process differs identical with education of with back only) conceptualization concepts in not identical What in fact consisting of two for the systems. in the U.S.A. search first language in the learning, as soon as as the basis for existence in the U.S.A. Yugoslavia reintegrate children (often in of parallel bilingualism ways of utilizing the possible, of English how March of the two languages. These automatisms are each other, though they are largely alike. emerges All Ljubljana, are our home language interested linguistic from is all other totally from that the practice we the children and M.K. - in over than the and the of the process environment world their whose mother in America; have been members reverse social — our first tongue. This in principle, it is developing in the nationalities. References Dulay, H.C. Burt, 1972, Children's Second Language Learning 22, pp. 235-252 Dulay, Second H.C. and Language Dulay, H.C. Second Language "Goofing: Learning An Indicator Strategies," of Language M.K. Burt, 1974, "Errors and Strategies in Child Acquisition," TESOL Quarterly, 8, pp. 129-136 and M.K. Burt, 1974, Acquisition," “Natural Language Sequences Learning 24, in pp. Child 87093 Dulay, -H.C. and M.K. Burt, 1976, "Creative Construction in Second Language Learning and Teaching," Language Learning, Special Issue No. 4, pp. 65-79 Dulay, H.C. and Hernandez, Ch.E., 1975, Bilingual Measure, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York Ervin-Tripp, S., 1974, Quarterly pp. 111-127 8, "Is Second Language Like the First?" Hansen-Bede, L., 1975, "A Child's Creation of a Second Working Papers on Bilingualism 6, pp. 103-126 Lambert, Wallace, E., Bilingualism," Journal of Milon, Second 1967, "A Social Social Issues 23, pp. D.S. and L.F.S. Natalicio, 1971, "A Language," in English 137-43 Comparative of English Pluralization by Native and Non-Native Speakers," Child Development 42, pp. 1302-1306 Ravem, R., 1968, Environment," IRAL “Language 6: Acquisition 1975-1985. 264 in TESOL Psychology 91-109 J., 1974, "The Development of Negation Language Learner," TESOL Quarterly 8, pp. Natalicio, Synatax a Second of by a Study English Language Razprave in gradivo, Inka Strukelj Institute of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 UDC 376.744:316.356.72 Sociology Yugoslavia BILINGUAL/BICULTURAL EDUCATION: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS* Introduction Since the deal up only and theme with of this some maintenance of of paper the covers major such factors bilingual a vast area, influencing For reasons as will setting education, Bilingual education, or better, language education multilingual societies, has become a central concern societies. we the varied as they are complex, policy in in modern educational Planners, educators, and linguists worldwide are today involved in developing and carrying out an array of problems which often have little more in common that the fact that they make use of two or more languages in the formal education of children. Bilingual education is not a unitary thing and no assessment of its influence can be made, because such influence may vary with the variety of conditions of its occurrence. Bilingual programs, on the other hand, have such a multitude of forms, embedded in such diverse political and socioeconomical contexts, interacting with such distinct “bilingual consequences education" obfuscation than of by different persons perception with (Cziko make (Kjolseth, potential Troike, of 1984). the designation frequently many things even likely to mean the and to more enlightenment “bilingual schools" means and in any discussion is or as itself a term 1972). The of term in the same country, different things to conflict either Differences in in orientation, organization and content as well as variations micro and macro environments frequently reflect differences the reason Fishman and Public for which they were established (MacKey, Lovas, 1972; Mackey and Beebe, 1978). education is political realities. between the dominant mostly a reflection education, more than educational in complex historical, political, Psychological contexts, many of obvious. attempting to individual * Original: 1972a; socioeconomic and arrive at a program can better to isolation from immediate context is actually there. the can All enterprises, is deeply embedded economic, social, cultural and which may not be immediately Phenomenon of bilingual education, made and interpreted with caution each in in As the institutions of education stand institutions of politics and the economy, to focus upon any education program in surrounding social forces which form its only produce a misleading picture of what In of fact program some English 265 understanding of the complex careful generalization may be since each social setting and extent be unique. Bilingual Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 education partakes of social and ethnic structure, economic development, cultural capital, cognitive behaviour, pedagogical practice and so on (Spolsky and Cooper, 1977). Although it partakes of many aspects of language planning, it cannot be reduced merely to a facet of that field, or even treated as a technical question of applied linguistics, but it should treated as an educational enterprise and institutional deeply embedded in a sociocultural context. be process We may be misled by the slogan of modern linguistics that anything can be said in any language, as this slogan refers to the potential equality of languages, as expressions of human nature, while as expressions of historical, political and social experience, languages are not equivalent. The natural acquisition and formal learning of language in multinational societies is determined by the correlation between ethnic groups and social classes and type of language, the effects of social awareness and of possibilities of social mobility, the allocation by the community of different functional roles to different languages, and the language attitudes that provide the basis for that allocation (Savard and Vigneault, 1975; Giles, Bourhis and Taylor, 1977). Non-reciprocal political economy produces non reciprocal and intra-group forms of bilingualism. For the majority intergroup bilingualism to is additive and in no way presents a threat language maintenance. For the minority bilingualism tends in many surrounding displacive or replacive and presents a threat towards language shift. This difference is a clear its to be major basic reflection of the distinct effects of a particular economy on two speech communities including school programs and their effects. There is considerable literature on bilingualism covering a wide range of aspects of language competence at the level of individual abilities (Paradis, 1978; Spolsky and Cooper, 1978; Hornby, 1977; Swain and Cummins, 1979) and descriptions of societal (Fishman, situations at 1976; Simoes, recently the the level of 1976; Spolsky researchers’ attention community interaction and Cooper, 1977). Only has the features characteristic of societal factors which promote shifted community. They turned their attention opportunities and social emancipation of is not controlled factors bilingual that by the linguistic, long programs was term - and but goal still majority language, not language bilingualism. They also began to be policies actually stating as their official confining bilingualism and without any attempt without changing the monocultural society. Multiculturalism The and analysis by of to the fact that minority/migrant political the remains great and Bilingual of to the equal groups economic majority - proficiency in of the maintenance and societal deeply concerned with those goal social pluralism, but biculturalism to the school to effect upon community diglossia nature of a basically monolingual and and Education multiculturalism movement, ethnic for recognition public from individual bilingualism or threaten it within as a political movement, the of part as groups 266 seeks total Razprave in society. gradivo, The Ljubljana, ideology set March 1986, forth by being not No.18 the proponents of multiculturalism takes seriously the idea of unity and diversity and articulates the notion that people are different even though they are some alike, are the difference superior multiculturalism and is of superiority where cultural respected. not other related of one's own differences intended inferior. to be the old culture but are seen as to The mean that ideology nationalistic of idea as a plural ideology good, and all to be We are witnessing a revival of interest in the area of study variously called intergroup relations, majority-minority relations, and ethnic studies. While the "why" of this revival is an important question for the sociology of science, and more so, for the sociology of knowledge, the current revival in ethnic group studies seems to be something more than just a rekindling of intellectual conceptual diverse and social interest, but theoretical tools groups, the and a reformation with which societies in of the the basic interactions which they of live, are understood. As the result of this current way of thought, we are experiencing the emergence of what Kuhn (1962) for the sciences generaliy, and Friedrichs (1970) for sociology in particular, have called a new "paradigm," fundamentally new perspectives about intergroup relations Multiculturalism is an may resulting in the from which theory be conducted essentially and formation of and research applied generalized in life. tolerance for ethnic diversity in one's society and requires ethnic group affirmation and consolidation, maintained and improved tolerance levels generally in the society, and the dissemination of the multicultural point of view through community programs. Multiculturalism is a situation other-group cultures are valued, and where and political institutions are developed to Multiculturalism individuals implies living in value to maintain one's characteristics? 2) Is positive relationships society? benefits and from three plural questions societies: and school where own-group and major common social tie all together. 1) of Is importance it to considered of distinctive identity and cultural group it considered of value to maintain among the cultural groups within the 3) Which group, the majority or a multicultural policy, or do both? the minority, The policy of multiculturalism within a bilingual framework encourages the retention, development and sharing of the cultural heritage by all groups in a country, intergroup harmony, and this is to be achieved by improving and by sharing cultures among biculturalism are accepted as multicultural the policy, educational it system is for confidence in one's all groups. When value objectives necessary both the to change majority own identity, bilingualism and resulting from a the structure the minority. and of As social diversity rather than uniformity characterizes modern a relevant the social management of diversity becomes society, question in considering integration or separation of minority groups from obviously transmit the mainstream instrumental some of the in symbols society. Patterns of managing of cultural 267 diversity unity. schooling just as are they Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March Education is basically a process the individual internalizes the his culture. With this material frame of reference and organizes prevalent the social help common of patterns. verbal frames The communication which codify provides basic cues (Berger and Luckman, cultural unity. 1972). "It the best that No.18 of communication through which symbolic frame of reference of he builds up his own internal his behaviour according to the languages and is axiomatic 1986, Language to is medium is the organize thus for performed symbolic the of behaviour basic teaching with system tool a child of is his mother tongue. Psychologically, it is the system of meaningful signs that in his mind works automatically for expression and understanding. Sociologically, it is a means of identification among the members of the community to which he belongs. Educationally, he learns more quickly through it than through an unfamiliar linguistic medium" (UNESCO, 1953:11). The aims of bilingual/bicultural education are as diverse as the aims of the society itself, for in the final analysis they are determined by the values accepted by the society. Equal partnership in education implies equal educational opportunities for majority and minority children. For a minority group, equal partnership also means the possibility of preserving its ethnic and cultural identity. The usually of power is able response to its own needs to its special needs but multicultural access to an policy majority orientation educational system of the which in which that is necessary society. The force of for majority reflects A major goal in bilingual education, should be the students’ acquisition skills by number and to develop its educational system in while the minority can draw attention it must rely on the understanding and as of of all a body successful development of if its it is to have needs. formal education, of knowledge and performance as an adult language/communicative competence in the first and second language should be stimulated in a meaningful context and designed to support the rest of the curriculum, and to assure that the language experiences of the child are education, meaningful like all and comprehensible. education, has the Besides, power to bilingual transform, but only if it transcends contextual factors inside and outside the school and creates a context of its own which will enable the child to make the most of whatever educational experience is available. Bicultural education is most essential for the development of a value system, and education for attitudes of acceptance, openness, and equality and concomitant behaviour. There are some prerequisites for bicultural education if the child is to develop a value system which allow him to greet the fellow children, individually or as members of a group, on equal terms with himself express or his group, and administer seems to us that an individual, and based on a justice in all sense of equality to both his human interactions. It three basic conditions are necessary: first, as the child must be freed of the crippling, ungratified need for security, for membership, and for selfesteem, which prevents the growth of the democratic, tolerant personality; second, he must be exposed to content, experiences, and models which teach these values 268 to him and from which he may Razprave in gradivo, March 1986, No.18 necessarily not does knowledge increased as third, and learn; Ljubljana, imply increased respect, understanding, or acceptance, he must be and not only allows but encourages which in an environment rewards the situational expression of the values he has learned. All children need knowledge of human behaviour which cuts across two or more groups, interpersonal sharpened ambiguity of meaning this knowledge and interaction. The acquisition of confident to variations in patterns of behaviour generalized which The stance assessment languages closely the of the intellectual communication permits of and depends choice on for use where and and human easy openmindedness values, in short a and and emotional transaction language/communicative the decisions skill is a commonplace, and attitudes which permit these skills to be utilized in productive the and of the standard policies receptivitiy to occur. competence in bilingual/bicultural demanded made by by the its community social both program and on institutions (Mackey, 1977a). In this context, definitions and descriptions of individual and societal bilingualism, have to undergo considerable revision, in the light of different policies, which in turn promote, tolerate or disdain language and cultural diversity and pluralism and cultural aspirations Issues The of past decades education have Bilingual settings. have witnessed the concerned The the political, economic, social overall society (UNESCO, 1977). Education throughout been within of the world. with research a remarkable A considerable language literature growth teaching was faced in number in bilingual of studies multilingual with a complex of societal questions and educational problems of interdisciplinary nature. One common objective of these research studies was the improvement of academic performance of children of minority and migrant populations. Their school failure brought to the general attention a number of social, economic and cultural problems, and in particular their education being provided to them in a medium different from their native language and from that of their community life. There was a growing awareness that the assessment Of language competence as well as the choice of bilingualism depend on the standards required by the was therefore inherent in monolingual/compensatory and site the U.S.A., In the on bilingualism of level and and and bilingual educational the discussion their culture alternatives was one of the The and processes education, education and on measures. these the on most massive pense in the mid-1960s massive discussion education developed level. focused carrying goals bilingual of outcomes shifts in the world history, sociological the maintenance educational and social the on and institutions. attention partial/transitional focused community social its by made decisions and policies on minority nature to the assimilative at While in a the an Snare nypothesis, pee teat phe socio ipeKing for cac lonal at et rated by the winnctty ses level the effectiveness of compensatory PURE majority group was questioned as it Se ee adapt them to children's linguistic repertoire and attempt ty. The discussion the socio-cultural was concentrated model on the of the state dominant of 269 socie » i minority languages Sa he Razprave in community gradivo, and bilingual Ljubljana, their use education as March media of required 1986, No.18 instruction, to realise on the typologies of objectives of societal multilingualism and multiculturalism. The role of Ll and L2 in the curriculum and the impact of minority language maintenance in the wider socio-cultural context were identified as two major aspects of bilingual/bicultural programs. At the same discussed: time 1) two aspects of the use of the minority language subjects until adequate skills developed. The transitional minority bilingual compensatory/transitional outcome of this bilingualism groups; 2) for in the education education which were favours to enable the child to master in the second language are imposed the child and absorptive and assimilation maintenance model model the is for the minority language is used as a more stable medium of instruction and the majority language is gradually introduced until both become media of instruction for all subjects. The outcome is believed to be balanced bilingual competence in the child and cultural pluralism in the community. It was especially stressed that if the minority wants to preserve its own language, it should become diglossic for compartmentalised intragroup in intergroup purposes (Fishman, 1967, 1980). Several large-scale evaluations of the effectiveness of bilingual education in the U.S.A. (largely introduced in 1968 after the Bilingual Education bilingual programs de Kanter, backward in Act had 1981). school, had not been been approved) shown to be concluded effective that (Baker Bilingual children were, it was they scored poorly in intelligence and believed, tests and appeared to be socially maladjusted. Some language handicaps, some spoke of mental mental development reduced by half. But all researchers detected confusion, and found of these studies used definitions vague of bilingualism which were too and did not take into consideration the significant factors such as socio-economic status, the'‘cultural level, and the degree of linguistic proficiency and linguistic dominance of the children studied. These studies have met serious criticism from other researchers as to poor quality and partly because of their evident against bilingual education (Fishman, 1977; Dulay and Burt, bias 1978; Troike, that 1978). bilingualism, intellectual An recent from research being demonstrated detrimental, can enhance development. important bilingual More far context education to for be considered in majority-language this discussion children. By this is is meant children whose native language is that of the majority of the country and also the official language of the country. Examples of this context are the French "immersion" programs for the teaching of Spanish, French, or German in the U.S.A. and various binational and international schools found in the major cities of many countries (Lambert and Tucker, 1972; Mackey, 1972b; Titone, programs of the purpose is 1979). that dominant of What they are language developing is common provided and ethnic proficiency to these primarily group in a bilingual for of the second education children who are country for the language which (usually) enjoys high status. The most thoroughly researched and best known programs of this type are the Canadian immersion programs which have recently spread throughout all the provinces and major cities of Canada (Cziko, 270 et al., 1979, 1980; Swain and Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Lapkin, 1982; Lambert, 1982). The well documented and replicated findings regarding language learning in immersion programs have important implications for theories of language learning, and bilingualism and for the potential use and bilingual education programs in other contexts. reading advantages Research findings are consistent in showing that bilingual education has never been a problem. Privileged from the dominant group do well academically whether of elitist children they are educated in their mother tongue or in a second language. In comparing the context of language immersion programs for majority children with other bilingual education settings it is necessary to stress that the success of the immersion model is likely due at least in part to the fact that these children for the most part come from middle-class families which provide a rich native language environment at home, that the children are enrolled in these programs at parental request, and that the programs themselves have often developed as a result of a parental initiative. It is also necessary to point out that after an initial period of immersion in the second language, the two languages are expanded until they develop parity in the school curriculum. Besides they do not present any threat to the pupils’ native language primarily because of the school program design itself. In the resulting additive bilingualism, each of the two linguistic and cultural entities contribute complementary and constructive elements to the development of the child. In contrast, when minority children are placed in monolingual majority language educational settings, their native language skills often rapidly decline, which was termed “subtractive” bilingualism (Lambert, 1977). Subtractive bilingualism is said to exist if the contribution of the two linguistic and cultural entities are not complementary but competitive and therefore represent These a threat factors critics of are to of bilingual the children's crucial importance education likewise successful submerged) with no school. An two the the in schools the alternative second if they majority provision in made for minority or is minority practiced this language were survival but it social context, to keep use children some of in mind, minority a proficiency immersed language their education extent is of similarly official the separation to since ethnic the successful results of minority and migrant children separate educational systems with language of instruction in one and language of instruction in the separation the develop in identity. (especially groups) have erroneously taken immersion programs as evidence that could cultural of the native is the the majority the minority other. Such in various potential aid and country, language at provision of language as language as linguistic countries. to be (actually For linguistic also poses difficult problems connected with as such separation can result in linguistic the and ethnic segregation. A separate educational system for the minority offers apparent linguistic equality, but it may not provide equivalent educational opportunities. The emphasis on the linguistic and cultural needs of the minority must not obscure the importance of other aspects of education. If educational Opportunities are limited, students may not have the chance to 271 Razprave develop only to as in gradivo, March 1986, No.18 their talents and skills. This will involve a loss not the individual child but also to his/her minority group a whole. When Ljubljana, we (Fishman, talk 1979). specifically different economic and economic and political about Europe, we political entities situations within refer to with a which several variety of individual linguistic conditions show different patterns of orientation. Apart from language diversity resulting from the presence of autochthonous ethnic minorities, individual countries' sociolinguistic situation also varies considerably between multidialectism involving similar and mutual intelligible or dissimilar social varieties (dialects). Growing rapidly since the Second World War, language diversity in Europe has largely resulted from migration movements which involved several thousand hundreds unemployed or developed European areas normally country from (e.g. underemployed labourers (mainly from Mediterranean one country to another, South-North of Italy and from less countries) but also within Yugoslavia). the same Until the end of the 60's bilingual education resulting from educational policies could be reduced to six basic models: 1) monolingual schooling in the national official languages for speakers of schooling either of other national varieties authochthonous the elsewhere minority national languages; languages speakers; 4) bilingual schooling Switzerland or in countries with of high (dialects); 2) monolingual in the national official language for minority low status but elsewhere national languages status languages speakers and for 3) monolingual schooling in for autochthonous minority in mulinational countries like autochthonous minority speakers protected by international treatises (like French and German in Italy); 5) bilingual education for middle upper class children in highly privileged private or international schools and 6) schooling in one or two of the official languages of the receiving countries for children of migrant populations. This covers also those primary and secondary school curricula which may has long include the migrant child's national language. Although research been involved in various aspects of the educational advantages of bilingual schooling in multinational countries, bilingual education in international schools and of the possible disadvantages of monolingual schooling discussion was and in the and national research official on language, bilingualism and a major impetus bilingual provided by studies of the linguistic segregation of monolingual schooling for their children. to education of migrants The education of immigrant groups represents the most widespread context for bilingual education in most European industrialized countries like West Germany, Sweden and the United (Bhatnagar, 1981). The objectives of bilingual programs Kingdom found in these contexts may vary to some degree, but most have the same basic rationale of using the native language of the children to ease the transition to the usual language of instruction in the school (usually the national language of the receiving and at the same time to prevent academic retardation by the children to learn some of the school curriculum native language while proficiency 272 in the second country) allowing in their language is Razprave in gradivo, developing. intended Although to language, students Ljubljana, the develop most being March 1986, so-called students’ No.18 maintenance proficiency programs in their programs are in fact transitional in moved out of bilingual classes into second language classrooms deemed adequate (Tosi, as soon as their are native nature with regular all second language is 1982). The language situation of migrant children is to a great extent characterized by an official policy that has failed to integrate the bilingual needs of the children and their families. Migrant children experience the pressures and conflicts of maintaining the cultures and languages of their parents in a predominantly unilingual receiving country. Unable to preserve an authentic model of their of succumbing original culture, immigrant children are to a process of deculturation different transculturation process that they are in their own culture. two cultures can only native is give culture always rise to for affects While a rewarding, the difficulties that of the in danger from the their parents, rooted as confrontation between the loss and of the native conflicts. receiving country culture Forging is likely the to cause psychological disturbances, since the obligation from the individual to appropriate values which might conflict with those of his home culture is a source of anxiety. The concept of anomie explains this conflict (Beardsmore, 1977). The child who has to switch from one cultural group patterns of behaviour to the new with an incoherent frame bewilderment and anxiety (rejection and refusion of to another must readjust his standards. He himself is faced of reference, leading to isolation, as well as pathological reactions the receiving country culture). Since the mid-70's debate, research has seemed to be equally concerned with the teaching of the receiving country's language, the maintenance of the native language and also with the children's linguistic and academic problems in case of return. The migrant children's education largely depends on the different political and economic situations in different countries and their the language submersion national the programs model language; timetable for with 2) the the for migrant extra children remedial compound practice model of native can classes with a be in small language traced: the 1) country’s portion skills of while the receiving country national language remains the predominant medium of instruction and 3) the bilingual model where instruction is offered mainly through the native language with an increasing portion of the timetable in the receiving country language taught as a second language in migrant children classes. The first model could be labelled as assimilationist, the second transitional, while the third maintenance to bilingualism T. and P. Toukomaa, 1976). In the notion research studies of semilingualism is and oriented through biculturalism connected with language has been used as a term language (Skutnabb-Kangas, competence to describe the the type of faulty linguistic competence which has been observed in children who have since early childhood had contact with two languages without sufficient or adequate training and stimulation in either of the two languages. The notion of semilingualism and its critical appraisals within the sociopolitical framework have about brought of inadequacy discussion monolingual that research and in and L2 education 273 indicates supporting the the Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March hypothesis that instruction and the negative effects of double Skutnabb-Toukomaa, 1976; 1986, No.18 literacy in Ll semilingualism Cummins, 1976; could counteract (Paulston, 1975; Brent, 1979). It was also noted that the origin of the children's low academic achievement and worse social opportunities was the inadequacy of the language education offered by schools. It was argued that the notion of semilingualism from a social conflict perspective aims to integrate and evaluate the concept within a sociological framework of community relations and that the factors as economic, power conflict and social into language behaviour at the micro social accounting for the low performance of different (Skutnabb-Kangas, 1978; Cummins, macro social class translate level and thus migrant children 1979). Knowing the context of bilingual education it is obvious that the implications of linguistic theories to different contexts where social and educational change take place is not sufficient to evaluate language policies, educational measures and language competence. While applied linguistics has provided valuable contributions to theory and research, other social disciplines should be included and the problems of bilingual education in the study of the socio-political reality minority/migrant children. In the last decade began to be viewed not only as an autonomous area of research where linguistic attainment and academic results could be assessed and compared only on pedagogical grounds but as a field of interdisciplinary research oriented towards macro socio-economic factors which lead to different types of bilingual education and inter-ethnic relations. Most bilingual programs on a large scale about background characteristics, have done little assessment of outcomes of measures, leaving us without information mediating variables such as child and family language use in the home, native language, literacy level, affective factors, teacher allocation of time by language, community involvement, and so on. As far as research on bilingualism and bilingual education is considered a crucial task, it is necessary to move from normative descriptions to analysis of actual occurrences and outcomes. We urgently need more contextualized accounts which will identify the macro socio— economic and geopolitical coordinates that impinge upon bilingual program designs and outcomes as well as studies capable of discovering what actually goes on in specific bilingual programs. We also need to know the actual social, academic and linguistic differences the programs sociolinguistic categories make for carefully of children. differentiated No feature of bilingual education can be considered in itself either assimilationist or pluralist as it is only within the and socio-economic feature program specific any that direction. A realistic economic, political, attempt said to relate that the on social context political relevance takes evaluation linguistic, of ethnic relations another or one of in bilingual education psychological, religious and cultural factors are not only should sociological, factors. It important understanding of bilingual education but that they powerful forces governing the success or failure of could for be the represent bilingual education. Only considering macro social factors which have rons e oa education form of mono- or bilingual to a particular educational and not only the linguistic 274 outcome be evaluated and Razprave in gradivo, the long-term assessed, Ljubljana, implications March of that 1986, No.18 language and minority policy While for a long time research on bilingual education has been under a strong influence of the functional structural theory of social change which seeks the solution of educational problems in terms of pedagogical efficiency within the curriculum, adopting the alternative model, the conflict theory, and treating bilingual education as the result of certain social factors rather than as the cause of certain behaviours in the children, adequate solutions to educational problems outside the programs could be foreseen. Concluding Comments Even a superficial review of the literature shows that there exists today a confrontation between two powerful theoretical perspectives for the analysis of ethnic group relations (i.e. the long established theory of assimilation and the recently emerged theories of social pluralism) which in turn may have deep consequences not only for social theory but also for social policies regarding ethnic groups. One of the main problems of all modern centralized societies, with scientific-technological development rapidly changing the environment, behavioural patterns and lifestyle of the preceding generations, is how the different ethnic groups can retain their cultural identity in a way that guarantees the existence of their traditional values, languages, norms and conceptions of reality. Social unity and cohesion needed for peaceful coexistence and common of societal minorities motivate their goals a own should giving therefore up of the socio-cultural not presuppose ways they the part understand on and existence. The language of the dominant majority has been and continues to be the language of power and social mobility subjecting the dominated minorities to assimilative pressures. In multiethnic and multilingual countries the use of the language of various population groups in the educational system is a crucial test in determining the ability of these groups to develop and maintain their own characteristics, their own culture and their own traditions. If ethnic groups wish to maintain their identity in a pluralistic society, they need to pass on their distinctiveness to their offspring. In the process of individual development, the child needs to adopt a set of motivations, attitudes, and personality traits moulded within the context of his ingroup and society. Early childhood seems to be an important stage of development if the child is to identify with his heritage and ingroups. The language of a minority group being an essential element of its culture, its capacity of survival as a cultural group, is in jeopardy, if no instruction is given in that language. Therefore, the efficiency of measures concerning the Cultural life of groups is open to question. The minority language lack of control over subordinate position deprived of instruction in their language group is usually definable by virtue of its the levels of power in the society. This in which ethnic groups are placed is the 275 Razprave in central gradivo, criterion 1978). The goals Ljubljana, which of March defines the 1986, them minority No.18 as are “minorities” rarely (Tajfel, considered in the development of educational programs: the goals of most educational programs are explicitly or implicitly predefined for the minority by the majority. Dominant groups are not likely to tolerate minority goals which are too far at variance from their own level of power and control over their lives. As success in school and the larger society is defined by those alternative potential measures of success in the minority group are usually ignored in favour of the While bilingual education in its narrowest sense in power, terms of former. takes the place in the classroom, its most significant consequences take place in society where wealth, work, identity, status, power and language are so intricately intertwined. It is a general tendency to regard bilingual education as a major influence on the maintenance of language and considerable overemphasis cultural pluralism. There is on the role of the school potential factor in social change. led by the prevailing society than often as a The school tends more to be to be its vanguard, and this is especially so in language matters. Consequently, such important issues as bilingual and bicultural education, language and identity maintenance, and the bettering of relations between minority and majority groups may be seen as being served to a large degree by the school, while in fact, their success is dependent mainly upon forces within the larger community. If the community is apathetic or opposed and if all of the interest in bilingual education comes from the minority, bilingual education finds itself conflicts, it is not in a context of pressures, tensions, grievances, and cleavages. Where conflict or divisiveness the fault of bilingual education but of results, lack of appreciation for the diversity of the community and of the world. When bilingual education is given the community support, the diversity will be unifying and gratifying, not only cognitively, but We emotionally may and parallel bilingualism an and culturally additive stress as well. biculturalism that one's to Lambert's identity will not additive be lost by learning other cultures and languages (Triandis, 1976). Desirable Pluralism permits everyone to have additive multicultural experiences and switch from one cultural system to another and get a feeling of accomplishment. A balanced bilingual/bicultural person behaves in a way monolingual/monocultural be limited strongly choose the to to minority related learn minority to the group the minority will Bilingual education scope relevant that requires care strictly scientific is simply But multiculturalism members. question group aspirations through community life. for that persons. able reinforcing is and an area Language whether language be the and to its which worthwhile not available its culture its political offers work, the but and thoughtfulness that orientation. To conclude: group or is is will whether rights and position and researcher it to not maintenance majority enforce should also an great area extends beyond a we are aware that the "politicisation" of bilingualism/biculturalism and education is more attractive for those minority/migrant groups that still seek power and that those researchers that help them forces. political into important promoting these movements 276 are Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 References Bhatnagar, J. (ed.), 1981, Educating Immigrants, Croom Helm, London Beardsmore, H.B., Multilingual Beker, K.A. and Education: Education, D.C. Berger, A.A. and de T. 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Kanter Review: Paris Yates, J.R. and Inappropriate Education,” A.A. Ortiz, Conclusions MABE Journal 1983, on 7(3), “Baker the pp. - de Efficiency 75-84 of Bilingual Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Jim Cummins Ontario Institute for Studies in Education Toronto, THEORY 1. UDC 376.744.001/.002 Canada AND POLICY IN BILINGUAL EDUCATION* Introduction 1.1. Goals This in of paper order the Paper addresses to the institute issue of what educational policy-makers programs that need to promote know high levels of academic achievement and a secure cultural identity for students in multi-ethnic societies. Specifically, what cognitive, academic and personal consequences can be expected from various forms of bilingual education instituted in different sociopolitical contexts? These contexts vary enormously and thus the language planning issues are highly complex. As pointed out in the Introductory Document to this National Seminar, “There is no consensus among scientists, educators, government officals and politicians, or in the eyes of public opinion, concerning the new directions to be adopted. These divergencies are hardly surprising. The social, historical, cultural and institutional contexts vary so greatly that differences of opinion are inevitable" (OECD, 1985, p.2). In a paper prepared earlier for the OECD, Glazer (1985) makes a similar point with respect to the debate in the United States regarding the effectiveness of bilingual education in promoting academic achievement for linguistic minority groups. He notes that there is no consensus among policy-makers, educators, or the general public regarding the educational validity of bilingual programs. Because there is no decisive answer in the research, he argues, "political and social judgements, which will in any case tend to prevail, should prevail" (p.31). The final conclusion of Glazer's paper is worth quoting because it is diametrically Opposed to the conclusion in the present paper: "In the favored middle the approaches use 1970's of making use national native of the policy languages [in and distinctive the even culture United of of States} distinctive each group. But the results of our efforts to overcome differences in educational achievement using such approaches are not encouraging. Majority and minority alike, in part for different reasons, in part for the same reasons, now come together in agreement on traditional approaches to education as the most effective means of raising the educational achievement of minority groups of different language and cultural background" (p.38). * Original: English 281 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 In other words, because both minority and majority groups now agree that improved academic achievement should be the primary educational goal for minority groups, traditional instructional approaches using the majority language (English) are favoured over those that make use of the minority group's language and culture. A major goal of this paper is to argue, contrary to public opinion in many countries and to Glazer's analysis, that there is an empirical and theoretical basis for educational policydecisions in this area. In other words, a psycho-educational knowledge base exists whereby policy-makers can predict, with considerable accuracy, at least some of the outcomes of different types of bilingual education programs in a wide variety of contexts. The present paper will make this psycho-educational knowledge base explicit and will also examine the sociological conditions 1.2. under which different of Paper Organization the outcomes can be predicted. It is first necessary to clarify the role of theory in the policy-making process. In the United States, for example, the wide-spread confusion about the effects of bilingual education programs for minority students is largely due to an almost total absence of concern for theory in the formation of educational policy. Political and social judgements prevail not, as Glazer suggests, because there is little consistent research evidence, but because the relationship between research, theory and policy has been ignored. This is followed by a brief outline of a logical sequence that might be followed in the planning and implementation of bilingual programs. The importance of both theory and research in addition to political considerations is emphasized. Three psycho-educational principles, considerable evidence, are then reviewed for bilingual education policy discussed. applicable to including virtually programs minority students Sweden) as well educational class students However, in (e.g. as whose many must aimed in order all at forms programs that to are is language understand bilingual educational language development second of reversing home for which there is and their implications These principles appear programs intended not in immersion the for to (L2) of among Finns in enrich students (e.g. middle- jeopardy causes education failure programs). school failure for minority students, much more than just linguistic factors be taken into account. The sociological context of dominant dominated group educational order to students, students relationships program must (Mullard, be 1985). examined It will in be relation argued to the that in promote academic and personal development for minority the patterns of interaction between educators and in the school must reverse the established pattern of dominant-dominated group relations Active incorporation of within the program school the language is in and just the society culture one of interventions that are required to empower rather minority students within the school context. 282 of at the a than large. minority number to of disable Razprave 2. in gradivo, Research, 2.1. The Theory Relation Ljubljana, and March Policy Between in 1986, No.18 Bilingual Theory and Education Policy A major reason why many policy-makers and educators regard the research basis for bilingual education as minimal or even nonexistent is that they have failed to realize that data or “facts” from bilingual programs become interpretable for policy purposes only within the context of a coherent theory. It is the theory rather than the individual research findings that permits predictions about program outcomes under different conditions to be generated. Research findings themselves cannot be directly applied across contexts. For example, the fact that kindergarten and grade 1 Punjabi-background students in a bilingual program in Bradford, England, learned English just as successfully as a control group in a traditional English-only program (Rees, 1981) tells us very little about what might happen in the case of Greek-background students in Bradford or Hispanic students in the United States. Similarly, the findings of French immersion programs for majority students in Canada cannot be directly applied to policy-decisions regarding programs for minority students in the United States. Yet clearly the accumulation of research findings does have relevance for policy. This relevance is achieved by means coherent theory under different In short, across across is of the from which conditions although integration research findings contexts, theories contexts in that the assessed precisely by Theory and the U.S. the findings cannot be within a program outcomes applied directly are almost by definition applicable validity of any theoretical principle how well it can findings in a variety of contexts. If a a particular set of research findings, or incomplete theory. 2.2. of predictions regarding can be generated. Bilingual account for the research theory cannot account for then it is an inadequate Education Policy Debate Two opposing theoretical assumptions have dominated the U.S. policy debate regarding the effectiveness of bilingual education in promoting minority students' academic achievement. These assumptions are essentially hypotheses regarding the causes of minority students' academic failure and each is associated with a particular form of educational intervention designed to reverse this failure. In support of transitional bilingual where some initial instruction is given language (Ll), it is argued that sudents education in students’ cannot learn first in a language they do not understand; thus, a home-school language switch will almost inevitably result in academic retardation unless initial content is taught through Ll while students are acquiring English. difficulties home The in and In other attributed words, to a minority "linguistic students’ mismatch" academic between school. opposing English, possible. are argument then Students' insufficient is they exposure that if need as academic to minority much students exposure difficulties English 283 in the home are to are and deficient English as attributed to environment. Razprave Thus, even seem in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 bilingual programs which reduce this exposure to English further appear illogical and counterproductive in that they to imply that less exposure to English will lead to more English achievement. editorial (October The 10, following 1981) is passage from a New York Times typical: “The Department of Education is analyzing new evidence that expensive bilingual education programs don't work.... Teaching non-English speaking children in their native language during much of their school day constructs a roadblock on their journey into English. A language is best learned through immersion in it, particularly by children....Neither society nor its children will be well served if bilingualism continues to be used to keep thousands of children from quickly learning the one language needed to succeed in America." Viewed as program theoretical outcomes principles can be from derived, which the predictions "linguistic regarding mismatch" and "insufficient exposure" hypotheses are each patently inadequate. The former is refuted by the French immersion data which clearly demonstrate that for English-background students in Canada a home-school language switch results in no academic retardation. The success of a considerable number of minority students under home-school language switch conditions similarly refutes the linguistic mismatch hypothesis. The "insufficient exposure" hypothesis fares no better. Virtually every bilingual program that has ever been evaluated (including French immersion programs) shows that students instructed through a minority language for all or part of the school day perform, over time, at least as well in the majority language (e.g. English in North America) as students instructed exclusively through the majority language. The fact that two such patently inadequate theoretical assumptions have dominated the bilingual education policy debate in the United States illustrates the power of politics over logic. It also shows the necessity of integrating theory explicity into the decision-making process. One possible decision-making respect to bilingual education presented 2.3. A in the next Framework Bilingual Any language problem (e.g. sequence or "flow-chart" with policy in different contexts 15 section. for Theoretically-Based Decision-Making in Education planning process will first identify a particular the underachievement of certain groups of minority students) and then focus upon solutions to this problem. these solutions will involve either explicit or implicit hypotheses about the causes of the problem (e.g. "linguistic mismatch" or “insufficient exposure" to the school language) followed by the identification of alternative goals and means to resolve the problem. An idealized (and undoubtedly over-simplified) sequence for this The decision-making highly Canada less type of successful during the successful decision-making process can is be presented illustrated in Figure by l. comparing the implementation of French immersion programs in late 1960's and 1970's with the generally much implementation 284 of bilingual programs for Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 linguistic minority students in the United States during the same period. (Recent implementation of bilingual programs in California represents an exception to the general picture of U.S. bilingual programs described here in that it conforms to the sequence outlined in Figure 1.) In both situations the general perceived problem was similar, namely, lack of student proficiency in a socially-valued language (French in Canada and English in the United States). A major difference, however, was that in the United States situation, a poor academic achievement in English was the major identified problem. FIGURE 1 SEQUENCE FOR ANALYSING LANGUAGE PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION 1. 2. EXAMINE PERCEIVED PROBLEMS GENERATE HYPOTHESES ABOUT RESEARCH 3. PLAN 4. 5. IMPLEMENT INTERVENTIONS TO RESOLVE PROBLEM MONITOR (OR INITIATE) RESEARCH RELEVANT TO THEORY ABOUT CAUSES OF PROBLEM EVALUATE SUCCESS OR FAILURE OF INTERVENTION COMMUNICATE INTERVENTION RESULTS TO POLICY-MAKERS, EDUCATORS AND PUBLIC 6. 7. SOLUTIONS With respect considerations However, as TO to have PROBLEMS: CAUSES IN IDENTIFY LIGHT GOALS OF AND THEORY AND MEANS causes of the problem, sociopolitical been largely ignored in the policy debates. Paulston (1985) has frequently pointed out, the major causes of the most language planning problems are sociopolitical in nature with psychoeducational and linguistic factors acting as intervening variables. By the same token, the effects of educational interventions aimed at resolving such problems can usually be understood only in terms of their interaction with sociopolitical factors. In other words, interventions based on linguistic or psychoeducational hypotheses in isolation from the context of inter-ethnic group relations will frequently fail to Produce later the predicted section. Here making process States situations. as outcomes. we are it has This primarily evolved issue is concerned in the considered with Canadian the ina policy- and United In the Canadian situation, the writings of the Montreal neurosurgeon Wilbur Penfield were influential. Penfield (1965) had speculated (partly on the basis of neuropsychological evidence) that acquiring an this period; taught by L2 he what there he called used as a medium of children to acquire acquired hypotheses is an optimal prepubertal period for and our language learning capacity declines after also suggested that second languages should be their Ll. gave rise "the mother's communication their L2 in It to is early not method" difficult French 285 by which he meant in the classroom to permit much the same way as they immersion to see how programs. these Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March In the United States situation, linguistic hypotheses ("linguistic exposure") linguistic Mismatch 1986, No.18 as discussed previously, mismatch" and "insufficient have tended to dominate the debate regarding causes of minority students' underachievement. The linguistic hypothesis tends to give rise to "“quick-exit" transitional bilingual programs, whereas the insufficient exposure hypothesis justified English-only programs, often with some English-as-a-second-language (ESL) instruction, It is at this point that the planning process begins to break down in the United States context since neither of these hypotheses is consistent with the research data. Thus, it is not surprising that programs implemented on the basis of these hypotheses have not At were the been the particularly third successful. stage, the goals and means of immersion programs clearly defined and non-problematic. This, however, was case with bilingual education in the United States. parties agreed with the goal of but many minority advocates further the development of improved English academic also desired bilingual a pluralistic society not All skills programs through to an emphasis on native culture and language maintenance. This goal was vehemently resisted by many "mainstream" educators and policy-makers. During the bilingual programs were Hispanic political la Quebec) under language skills. and the Thus, late 1970's, the suspicion grew that in reality intended only to promote economic goals (even Hispanic separatism 4 guise of developing students' English lack of consensus on goals and means compounded difficulties created by questionable psychoeducational assumptions used to justify bililingual education, Problems of implementation followed naturally psychoeducational rationale and disputed education in the United States. An enormous resulted, ranging from considerable to virtually no use of Ll. extremely well, others much use Some less of from the confused goals of bilingual variety of programs Ll in the early grades programs appeared to work so. By contrast, immersion programs started off on a very small scale with the St. Lambert program in the Montreal area (Lambert & Tucker, 1972) and a team of researchers monitored the progress of students through the grades. No further implementation was carried out until the initial results of this evaluation were available. In both the United States and Canadian contexts, a considerable amount of evaluative research was carried out to assess the effects of the bilingual programs. In the case of the immersion programs, the initial St. Lambert program was thoroughly evaluated over a period of seven years and students were also followed through high school and beyond. As the immersion program spread to other areas, large-scale evaluations were also carried out to assess the consistency of findings with those of the St. Lambert program (e.g. Swain & Lapkin, 1982). One of the reasons for this was continued doubts among educators and parents that children could spend so much instructional time through French with no negative consequences for their English academic skills. Although some problematic issues have emerged (Cummins, 1984), the weight of research evidence has overwhelmingly confirmed the initial St. Lambert findings. Over time, theoretical principles emerged on which English could academic account skills for the absence (Cummins, 286 1984 of negative and below). effects It is Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 interesting to note that, with respect to the initial theoretical assumptions underlying immersion, the research has refuted Penfield's hypothesis of an optimal age for language learning in that students grade 7 - in age late 12-13) immersion also programs succeed very (usually beginning at well. The story has been very different in the evaluations of bilingual programs in the United States. Much of the research carried out was poorly designed (Baker & de Kanter, 1981), in part because of the much more complicated sociopolitical and educational context. For example, students were frequently exited from bilingual programs at very early stages (e.g. after one year) with the result that if students continued to perform poorly in English academic skills it was unclear whether this was due to premature exit to an all-English program or to the lack of effectiveness of bilingual education. Evaluations predictions Thus, also tended to be atheoretical regarding outcomes were seldom evaluators attempted to assess in that theory-based generated and tested. the "effectiveness" of bilingual education without any well-articulated hypotheses regarding how long it would take minority students to acquire age-appropriate levels of English academic skills and under what sociopolitical and instructional conditions - e.g. length and intensity of Ll instruction. (One consistent finding of the research is worth noting, namely that, on average, students’ Ll tended to be used for considerably less time - approximately 5%- 25% - than most media [Tikunoff, 1983]). and political commentators believed The overall conclusion of immersion program evaluations is that the programs have been a resounding success and this has been effectively communicated to policy-makers, parents and educators. The result has been a huge increase in parental demand for French immersion programs which now have an enrolment of more than 120,000 students and are offered in every Canadian province, Sociopolitical and administrative problems have emerged as a result of the increased demand for immersion programs (e.g., concerns by minority francophones of increased competition for bilingual jobs, layoff of teachers who do not speak French, etc.). However, these problems have not slowed the momentum of bilingual programs in immersion. By contrast, the United makers and research as Glazer (1985) indicates, States are perceived much more equivocally by educators. This perception was reinforced review conducted by Baker and de Kanter (1981) policyby the which concluded that transitional bilingual programs overall were not much more successful than English-only programs in promoting minority students' achievement. This review reflects the major problems of transitional bilingual education in that it is almost completely atheoretical patterns that do emerge In the summary, area of a and consequently ignores in the research data (see framework bilingual has been education presented (and other for areas the consistent below). policy-making of in educational language planning). The importance of generating and evaluating predictions from a coherent theory has been emphasized as a central, but frequently neglected, aspect of rational policy- 287 Razprave in gradivo, making. Ljubljana, Particularly in March the involving minority groups, psychoeducational influences is educational policy or 1986, case of No.18 academic difficulties sociopolitical rather than unlikely to result in effective intervention. With respect to the effects of bilingual education on students' cognitive and academic development, some consistent theoretical principles do in the 3. Principles 3.1. In next emerge of past of many monolingual children and these are considered Development on from in on development. period between caused language Some research Academic students difficulties suffered research Bilingualism experienced literacy the Bilingual The Effects Development the from section, minority school verbal These Intellectual and have I.Q. and led Academic backgrounds performed tests findings and on have worse than measures researchers of in the 1920 and 1960 to speculate that bilingualism handicaps and cognitive confusion among children. studies also reported that bilingual children emotional conflicts more frequently than monolingual children. Thus, in the early part of this century bilingualism acquired a doubtful reputation among educators, and many schools redoubled their efforts to eradicate language on the grounds that this children's academic difficulties. minority language children's was the first source of However, virtually all of the early research involved minority students who were in the process of replacing their Ll with the majority language, usually with strong encouragement from the school. Many minority students in North America were physically punished for speaking their Ll in school. Thus, these students usually failed to develop adequate literacy skills in this language and many also experienced academic and emotional difficulty in school. This, however, was not because of bilingualism but rather because of the treatment they received in schools which essentially amounted to an assault on their personal identities. More recent studies suggest that far from being a negative force in children's personal and academic development, bilingualism can positively affect both intellectual and linguistic progress. A large number of studies have reported that bilingual children exhibit a greater more flexible in (Cummins, 1984a). eS Souler problem ec literature namely, ’ thinking ones studies have ee ets oe “metalinguisti clarify sensitivity their this the Das and than and these evelopment" Coa - are meanings ee lingual a and may be children investigated aspects of children's in other words, children's explicit Structure se to linguistic Ryan is functions studies not (1985) yet of language that clearly the underlying of itself. notion defined recently have of two in terms knowledge otion child ren’ s analysed 288 is language in attempted A of the to dimensions: and their Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 control over language. They predicted that bilingualism would enhance children's control over and ability to manipulate language but not their analysed knowledge of language. These predictions regarding the likely consequences of bilingualism for metalinguistic development have generally number of studies (Bialystok, 1984). In general, it is not surprising that been borne bilingual out children in a should be more adept at certain aspects of linguistic processing. In gaining control over two language systems, the bilingual child has had to decipher much more language input than the monolingual child who has been exposed to only one language system. Thus, the bilingual child has had considerably more practice in analysing meanings than the monolingual child. The evidence is not conclusive as to whether this linguistic advantage transfers to more general cognitive skills; McLaughlin's review of the literature, for example, concludes that: “It seems clear that the child who has mastered two languages has a linguistic advantage over the monolingual child. Bilingual children become aware that there are two ways of saying the same thing. But does this sensitivity to the lexical and formal aspects of language generalize to cognitive functioning? There is no conclusive answer to this question - mainly because it has proven so difficult to apply the necessary controls in research" (1984, p.44). Hakuta and Diaz (1985) and Diaz (in press) have recently reported evidence that bilingualism may positively affect general cognitive abilities in addition to metalinguistic skills. Rather than examining bilingual-monolingual differences, Hakuta and Diaz employed a longitudinal within-group design in which Hispanic primary school related to controlled. respect to children's developing L2 (English) skills were cognitive abilities with the effect of Ll abilities The sample was relatively homogeneous both with socio-economic status (SES) and educational experience (all were in Significantly bilingual programs). related to cognitive L2 and skills were found to be metalinguistic abilities. The positive relationship was particularly strong for Raven's Progressive Matrices - a non-verbal intelligence test; further analyses suggested that if bilingualism and intelligence are causally related, bilingualism is most likely the causal factor. An important characteristic of the bilingual recent studies (conducted since the early children in the more 1960's) is that, for the most additive has been termed an in other words, they part, they were form bilingualism were adding a cost to development the second language these children were level of fluency both developing what (Lambert, 1975); in of to their their the process and literacy repertory first of attaining in of language. their a two skills at no Consequently, relatively languages. high The children in these studies tended to come either from majority language groups whose first language was strongly reinforced in the society (e.g. English-speakers in French immersion programs) Or from minority groups whose first languages were reinforced by bilingual programs in the school. Minority children who lack this educational support for literacy development in Ll frequently 289 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 develop a subtractive form of bilingualism in which Ll] skills are replaced by L2. Under certain sociopolitical conditions (see below) in these either children fail to develop adequate This pattern of findings suggested that the attained by bilingual students in their two important influence on their academic development threshold must and and levels of literacy language. (Cummins, level attain of in 1979). Specifically, proficiency order to level of proficiency languages may be an and intellectual in avoid both any there languages negative academic a second, higher, threshold necessary intellectual benefits of bilingualism to and may which be a students consequences reap the linguistic biliteracy. Diaz (in press) has questioned the threshold hypothesis on the grounds that the effects of bilingualism on cognitive abilities in his data were stronger for children of relatively low L2 proficiency (non-balanced bilinguals). This suggests that the positive effects are related to the initial struggles and experiences of the interpretation does beginning second-language learner. This not appear to be incompatible with the threshold since that hypothesis for positive the effects to major point manifest of this themselves, hypothesis children is must be in the process of developing high levels of bilingual skills. If beginning L2 learners do not continue to develop both their languages, any initial positive effects are likely to be counteracted by the negative consequences of subtractive bilingualism. In summary, the conclusion that emerges from the research on academic, linguistic and intellectual effects of bilingualism be stated thus: the development of additive bilingual biliteracy skills entails no negative consequences for the can and children's academic, linguistic, or intellectual development. On the contrary, although not conclusive, the evidence points in the direction of subtle metalinguistic, academic and intellectual benefits for bilingual children. 3.2. The The fact Linguistic that Interdependence there is little Principle relationship between amount of instructional time through the majority language and academic achievement in that language strongly suggests that first and second language academic skills manifestations of a common interdependence principle has (Cummins, 1984a, "To the extent proficiency in provided is and interdependent, i.@-, proficiency. the formally as follows p.143): that instruction in Lx, transfer of this there environment) are underlying been stated adequate adequate Lx is effective proficiency to exposure motivation to to Ly (either learn in promoting Ly will occur in school or Ly."- In concrete terms, what this principle means is that in, for example, a Gaelic-English bilingual program in Ireland, Gaelic instruction which develops Gaelic reading and writing skills (for either Gaelic Ll or L2 speakers) is not just developing Gaelic skills, it is also developing a deeper 290 conceptual and linguistic Razprave in gradivo, proficiency literacy which in the Ljubljana, is March strongly majority 1986, related language No.18 to the development (English). In other of words, although the surface aspects (e.g. pronunciation, fluency, etc.) of different languages are clearly separate, there is an underlying cognitive/academic proficiency which is common across languages. This "common underlying proficiency" makes possible the transfer of cognitive/academic or literacy-related skills across languages. Transfer is much more likely to occur from minority to majority language because of the greater exposure to literacy in the majority language outside of school and the strong social pressure to learn it. The interdependence principle is depicted in Figure 2. FIGURE THE 2 LINGUISTIC Surface of A INTERDEPENDENCE MODEL Features Ll considerable principle and Swain has (in Surface of amount of evidence supporting the been reviewed by Cummins (1983, press). The results of virtually Features L2 interdependence 1984a) and Cummins all evaluations of bilingual programs for both majority and minority students are consistent with predictions derived from the interdependence principle (see Cummins, 1983). The interdependence principle is also capable of accounting for data on immigrant acquisition (e.g. Cummins, 1981); Hoover, Matluck 1981) as well as from home (e.g. Bhatnagar, also consistently interdependence Recent Kemp studies (1984), studies 1980; reveal across cognitive/academic bilingual 1985). strong degree language use Correlational of in the studies cognitive/academic languages. continue for a of Dolson, students‘ L2 & Dominguez, to support example, abilities the interdependence reported accounted 291 for that 48% of principle. Hebrew the (L1) variance in | English ic GD) eS skills wena among (1984) No.18 1986, March Ljubljana, in gradivo, Razprave 196 seventh reported SEHOMIES: 18 petweel Ll and English reading relations colin among both Hispanic and by cloze te a be al i students in level grade above 1 inal Visas Se enrolled in Spanish and factor over (1985) with increasing skills over correlation Boston. first In Israeli positive abilities (measured Chinese-background other language reading words, students also tended to reading. English for studies also provide strong support for the interdependence. Ramirez (1985) followed 75 Jersey, New Newark, in students school elementary Hispanic in their grade significant bilingual programs for three years. It was found that English academic language scores loaded on one single the three years of data collection. Hakuta and Diaz a similar sample of Hispanic students found an correlation between English and Spanish academic time. Between Kindergarten and third grade the between English and Spanish went from 0 to .68. The low cross-lingual relationship at the Kindergarten level is likely due to the varied length of residence of the students and their parents in the United States which would result levels of English proficiency at the start of school. in varying An on-going study of five schools attempting to implement the Theoretical Framework developed by the California State Department of Education (1981) showed consistently higher correlations between English and Spanish reading skills (range r= .60-.74) than between English reading and oral language skills (range r= .36-.59) (California State Department of Education, 1985). In these analyses scores were broken down by months in the program (1-12 months relation between oral communicative Students through L1 and skills in the highest 73-84). It L2 reading grew category was became stronger of English pions)" Cummins, Allen, Harley and Swain Mees cae CAE language cobrete, English (2) correlations Sociolinguistic Portuguese for skills grade principie neers in shows that as (r=.71, skills). (1985) have reported (Ll) Toronto. were for grammatical, Portuguese in the English N=190 oral 7 students evidence found written significant . Thi € ations for oral skills same pattern of linguistic also been reported in other Guerra, 1984; Kat i saiti, 1983), 07€ In conc i the also stronger and Cross- generally interdependence has A ns consistent not br support for investigating &@ vari Anguistic interdependence in studies Te functioni Fer of issues (e.g. bilingual education, earning, bili ; 1s, age and second language methodologies, mutt, reading variety of sociopolitiens ” Of support indicate be made on the pasts cal of skills, has etc.) also been and using carried out different in a wide contexts, The consistency and strength ey reliable policy predictions can 8 principle. 3.3. Most The Sufficient second la ngu Comprehens > ible Schacter, 1993; Wong Finerists more, Input - Principl —— (e.g- Krashen, 1983) 292 currently 1981; Long, 1983; endorse some form Razprave in gradivo, of the “input” acquisition of a the language modified the in but on of instruction, “Wherever have to to to it 1986, second make comprehensible is it No.18 language on states that exposure to input comprehensible. input of language function of is the obvious which is Underlying fact that a use is meaningful communication; language is ignored in classroom likely motivation. this for their exercises repeated. ways learning extrinsic expressed access various principle March hypothesis which essentially second language depends not just central function when this central by Ljubljana, to be Wong by rote Fillmore and supported (1983) only has clearly be imparted point: is felt that points of language need to own sake, teachers are likely to make use of drills and where these linguistic points are emphasized and And when this happens the language on which students base potential their learning functions, namely of English those that is separated allow language from its learners to make the appropriate connections between form and communicative functions. Without such connections language is simply not learnable" (1983, p.170). It is important to note that input also characterizes children rarely focus on acquisition; instead, communicated and use they of the principle focus language on for the a "negotiators of meaning" of this pointed for L2 and they of that is contact with children are acquire being functions, language such others, active almost as a meaningful interaction with adults. As Swain out, the term "negotiation of meaning" (Wells, 1982) is preferable meaningful use of critical comprehensible meaning variety as finding out about things, maintaining etc. In Gordon Wells' (1982) phrase, by-product (1984) has of first language acquisition. Young language itself in the process of in many ways to “comprehensible input" language (comprehensible output) is acquisition (and L2 literacy since also acquisition). One important link between the principles of sufficient comprehensible input and the common underlying proficiency is that knowledge (e.g. subject matter content, literacy skills, etc.) acquired in one language plays a major role in making input in the other language comprehensible (Cummins, 1984a; Krashen, 1981). For example, an immigrant concept of "justice" is his considerably less input in student who already term to acquire its meaning than will a student who already know the concept. In the same way the first conceptual knowledge developed in bilingual programs for Students subject 3.4. greatly matter facilitates has the or her first language will require the second language containing the the acquisition of L2 does not language minority literacy and content. Conclusion This review of psychoeducational data regarding bilingual academic development shows that, contrary to the opinions of some researchers and educators, a theoretical basis for at least some policy decisions does exist. In other words, policy-makers can predict with considerable reliability the probable effects of bilingual programs implemented in very different sociopolitical contexts. 293 nios Razprave_in_gradiv can be confident that No.18 1986, March Ljubljana, radivo, if the program is effective in both in skills academic students' develop to continuing in result, will handicap or confusion no cognitive ait a ages, v udents may benefit in subtle ways from access to two First, they systems. linguistic time they can be confident that spending instructional of the minority language will not result in lower levels of Second, through provided, language majority in the performance academic in developing is effective that the instructional Program course, at because is This . language y minorit the in skills academic is there functioning, and academic deeper levels of conceptual languages. across interdependence Or overlap considerable make to helps language in one developed knowledge Conceptual comprehensible. input in the other language to the respect with conditions involve principles Both these language skills. effectiveness of the instruction in developing issue. this addresses principle pyschoeducational third The Specifically, policy-makers need to realize that modifications to learning. language the input are necessary for effective second Students need to have sufficient input that they can make sense of in both languages. If one language is used predominantly outside school, then instruction can be delivered primarily in the other Three language. psychoeducational possibilities for the principles planning of open bilingual up programs significant by showing that, when programs are well-implemented, students will not suffer academically either as a result of bilingualism per se or as a result of spending less instructional time through one of their two (or more) languages. In sociopolitical situations which are not characterized by persistent school failure by certain minority groups, these principles by themselves provide a reliable basis for the prediction of program outcomes (e.g. immersion programs for majority students). However, these principles do not attempt to account for the variability in academic performance educational among programs (see minority for groups example Ogbu, exposed 1978) to and similar thus, do not constitute a fully adequate basis for policy and planning in the case of minority students experiencing persistent academic difficulties. In order outcomes to of generate accurate school predictions programs for regarding such the probable students, the psychoeducational principles must be placed in the context of a broader theoretical framework that incorporates interactions between sociopolitical and psychoeducational factors. This framework is outlined in the next section. 4. Empowering Minority Students: A Theoretical Framework A major issue for theory and policy is to explain the variability minority in the pattern of school success and failure among students. As outlined earlier, the two conventional wisdoms (the linguistic mismatch and insufficient exposure hypotheses) that currently dominate the policy debate 294 in the Unites States are Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 each patently inadequate to account for the research data. It is hardly surprising that this should be so since each of these conventional wisdoms involves only a unidimensional linguistic explanation. Consideration of the variability of minority Students’ academic performance under different social and educational conditions (see Ogbu, 1978; Wong Fillmore, 1983) indicates that multidimensional and interactive causal factors are at work. In particular, sociological and anthropological research (for example, Fishman, 1976; Ogbu, 1978; Paulston, 1980) suggests that factors related to status and power relations between groups must be invoked as part of any comprehensive account of minority students' school failure. However, a variety of factors related to educational quality and cultural mismatch also appear to be important in mediating minority students' academic progress (see for example, Cummins, 1984; Wong fillmore, 1983). The framework outlined below attempts to integrate these hypothesized explanatory factors in such a way that the changes required to reverse minority student failure are clearly indicated. The proposed theoretical framework incorporates sets of constructs that operate at three levels: (a) the societal context of inter-group power relations, (b) the context of the school as an institution reflecting the values and priorities of the dominant societal group in its interactions with minority communities, and (c) the context of classroom interactions between teachers and minority students which represent the immediate determinants of students" success or failure. As outlined in Figure 3, the central tenet of the framework is that students from what Mullard (1985) has termed “dominated" societal groups are “empowered" or alternately, "disabled" as a direct result of their interactions with educators in the school context. Students who are empowered by their schooling experiences develop the ability, confidence and motivation to succeed academically. They participate competently in instruction (Cummins, 1983b; Tikunoff, 1983) as a result of having developed a confident cultural identity as well as appropriate school-based knowledge and interactional structures. Students who are disempowered or "disabled" by their school experiences do not develop this type of cognitive/academic foundation. Thus, student empowerment mediating construct influencing academic an outcome variable itself. and social/emotional is regarded as performance and both a also as These student-educator interactions are mediated by the implicit (or explicit) role definitions that educators assume in relation to four institutional characteristics of schools. These characteristics reflect - the extent incorporated -the extent encouraged as -the extent to which within to an to the minority school students' language and culture which minority community participation integral component of children's education; which the is program; pedagogy on the part of students to use generate their own knowledge; promotes language 295 intrinsic actively is motivation in order to 1986, March Ljubljana, in gradivo. Razprave No.18 the extent to which professionals involved -and finally, e advocates for minority students as opposed becom assessment the student. legitimizing FIGURE the "problem" the of location in to within 3 EMPOWERMENT MINORITY OF A STUDENTS: SOCIETAL THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK CONTEXT Dominant Group Î Dominated Group SCHOOL CONTEXT Educator Role Definitions Cultural/Linguistic Incorporation Additive --- Subtractive Community Participation Collaborative --- Exclusionary Reciprocal InteractionOriented --- TransmissionOriented Assessment Advocacy- Legitimization- Oriented --- Oriented EMPOWERED STUDENTS DISABLED STUDENTS For each of these dimensions of school organization, the role definitions of educators can be described in terms of a continuum with one end of the continuum promoting the empowerment of students students. The three while the levels majority-minority other contributes analysed societal in the group to present relations, the disabling framework of (i.e. school-minority community relations, educator-minority student relations) are clearly not the only ones that could be discussed. The choice of these levels, however, is dictated by hypotheses regarding the relative ineffectiveness of previous educational reforms, and directions required to reverse minority students' school failure. 296 Razprave The in gradivo, relative Ljubljana, ineffectiveness March of 1986, previous No.18 attempts at reform (e.g. education" and “bilingual education" in the United “compensatory largely to the fact that the individual is attributed States) role definitions of educators and the institutional role definitions of schools have remained largely unchanged despite “new in and improved" Figure 3 redefinitions 4.1. programs sketches required Inter-Group to Power and the policies. The individual reverse that framework and outlined institutional pattern. Relations When the patterns of minority student school failure are examined within an international perspective, it becomes evident that power and status relations between minority and majority groups exert a failure status major influence. Examples frequently of Finnish students in Sweden (where group) where Finns compared are Similarly, Ogbu perform poorly students in the to regarded their as (1978) reports in Japan but Unites States. academic high status that low as well given are they are a success (see status as any in Australia Troike, Buraku other the low 1978); outcasts Japanese In accounting for the empirical data, theorists have employed several related constructs to describe characteristics of minority groups that tend to experience school failure. Cummins (1984), for example, discusses the “bicultural ambivalence" (or lack of cultural identification) of students in relation to both the home and schoo] cultures; similarly, Ogbu (1978) discusses the "caste" status of minorities with the internalization of the inferior status attributed to them by the dominant group. Feuerstein (1979) attributes academic failure to the disruption of intergenerational transmission processes caused by the alienation of a group from its own culture. In all three conceptions, minority groups that are positively oriented towards their own and the dominant culture (Cummins), have not internalized the dominant group attribution of inferiority (Ogbu) and are not alienated from their own cultural values (Feuerstein) tend to achieve academic success despite Extensive analyses of consequences for minority a home-school language switch. inter-groups relations and their students’ educational development have been carried out (e.g. Mullard, 1985; Ogbu & Matute-Bianchi, in 1980, 1985; Skutnabb-Kangas, 1984, 1985). These press; Paulston, analyses go beyond the scope of this paper. It is sufficient to agreement with respect to the is general there note that in determining minority and power relations of status importance anses few analyses have However, in school. success students' pis sociopolitical between interactions the closely slenants in ete psyChoeducational factors. The four structural extent | oo organization of Schooling that contribute to arethe descri . minority students are empowered or disabled 4.2. Cultural/Linguistic Considera exten? the inCOrporated minorities r dominated is ure cult and Sie lang + students' which a significant utes stit the school program con esearch ES into Incoporation data suggest 297 t Razprave in predictor gradivo, of Ljubljana, academic success March (for 1986, No.18 example, Campos & Keatinge, 1983; Cummins,1983; Rosier & Holm, 1980). As outlined earlier, students’ school success appears to reflect both the more solid cognitive/academic foundation developed through intensive Ll instruction and also the reinforcement of their cultural identity. Included under incorporation of minority group cultural features is the adjustment of instructional patterns to take account of culturally-conditioned learning styles. The Kamehameha Early Education Program in Hawaii provides strong evidence of the importance of this type of cultural incorporation (see e.g. Au & Jordan, 1981). With respect to the incorporation of minority students' language and culture, educators' role definitions can be characterized along an "additive-subtractive" dimension. Educators who see their role as adding as second language and cultural affiliation to students' repertoire are likely to empower students those who see their role as replacing or subtacting primary language and culture to the dominant culture. in the process of more than students’ assimilating them It should be noted that an additive orientation is not dependent upon actual teaching of the minority language. In many cases this may not be possible for a variety of reasons (e.g. low concentration of particular groups of minority students). However, educators communicate to students and parents in a variety of ways the extent to which students' language and culture is valued within the context of the school. Even within a monolingual school to students development. 4.3. context, regarding Community powerful the messages validity and can be communicated advantages of language Participation Students from dominated communities will be empowered in the school context to the extent that the communities themselves are empowered through their interactions with the school. When educators involve minority parents as partners in their children's education, parents appear to develop a sense of efficacy that communicates itself to children with positive academic consequences (see for example the “Haringey Project" in Britain [Tizard, Hewison and Schoefield, 1983]). The teacher tion can role be definitions associated characterized along a with community participa- collaborative-exclusionary dimension. Teachers operating at the collaborative end of the continuum actively encourage minority parents to participate in promoting their children's academic progress both in the home and through involvement orientation to work may closely communicate minority the other likely to with classroom a tongue and Teachers activities. willingness mother effectively parents. irrelevant in require in with on the teachers a an actually detrimental 298 or collaborative of aides non-condescending the in teacher order way to with exclusionary orientation, to progress. hand, tend to regard teaching as view collaboration with minority or A part on their job and are parents as either children's Razprave in Clearly, making gradivo, Ljubljana, initiatives process for can come March 1986, collaboration from the No.18 or for community a as shared well school. Under these conditions, maintenance of an orientation by the school can lead communities challenge the institutional power structure. This with the school strike organized by Finnish decision- as from the exclusionary to directly was the case parents and their children at Bredby school in Rinkeby, Sweden. In response to a plan by the headmistress to reduce the amount of Finnish instruction in the school, the Finnish community withdrew their children from the school. Eventually (after eight weeks) most of their demands were met. According to Skutnabb-Kangas (1985), the strike had the effect of generating a new sense of efficacy among the community and making them more aware of the role of dominantgroup controlled (i.e. exclusionary) education in reproducing the powerless status present efficacy among 4.4, of framework would minority minority groups. generates lead to students is higher levels in type this A that hypothesis this of of that renewed academic sense the of achievement situation. Pedagogy Several investigators have suggested that the learning difficulties of minority students are often pedagogically-induced in that children designated “at risk" frequently receive intensive instruction that confines them to a passive role and induces a form of “learned helplessness" (e.g. Beers & Beers, 1980; Coles, 1978; Cummins, 1984). Instruction that empowers students, on the other hand, will aim to liberate students from dependence on instruction in the sense of encouraging them to become active generators of their own knowledge. Two major orientations can be distinguished with respect to pedagogy. These differ in the extent to which the teacher retains exclusive control over classroom interaction as opposed to sharing some of this control with the students. The dominant instructional model in most Western industrial societies has been termed a "transmission" model Barnes, 1976; Wells, 1982); this will be contrasted pedagogy. The basic premise with of the a “reciprocal transmission interaction" model is that model the of teacher's task is to impart knowlege or skills that she/he possesses to students who do not yet have these skills. This implies that the teacher initiates and controls the interaction, constantly orienting it towards the achievement of instructional objectives. The instructional primarily from the content internal in this structure type of program derives of the language or subject matter; consequently, it frequently involves a predominant focus on surface features of language or literacy (e.g. handwriting, spelling, decoding, etc.) and emphasizes correct recall of content taught. Content is usually transmitted. by means of highly structured drills and workbook exercises, although in many cases the and It drills are motivating has been contravenes acquisition disguised in to students. argued central and that that order a to make transmission principles of a model allowing 299 them more model attractive of teaching language and literacy for reciprocal interaction Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 between teachers and students represents a more appropriate alternative (Cummins, 1984; Wells, 1982). This “reciprocal interaction" model incorporates proposals about the relation between language and learning made by a variety of investigators, most notably in the Bullock Report (1975), and by Barnes (1976), Lindfors (1981) and Wells (1982). Its applications with respect to the promotion of literacy conform closely to psycholinguistic approaches 1979; to reading Smith, 1978) (e.g. and Goodman to the & expressive writing from the earliest Giacobbe, 1982; Graves, 1983; Temple, A central "talking 1975, tenet and p.50). Its transmission - genuine written of the writing model means characteristics follows: between student model is (Bullock in that Report, comparison teacher in both to oral a and modalities; -guidance and facilitation learning by the teacher; -encouragement of learning context; -encouragement correctness of of meaningful surface forms; integration curricular content content isolated as rather student-student -conscious of presentation language language rather than than control talk in use use by a of collaborative students and student rather development teaching language than with and all other subjects; -a focus on developing factual recall; -task and Holdaway, encouraging (e.g. Chomsky, 1981; & Burris, 1982). learning" are dialogue on interaction to major as 1977; emphasis grades Nathan reciprocal are Goodman, recent higher that level generates cognitive intrinsic skills rather rather than than extrinsic students encourage motivation. In short, them to pedagogical assume approaches greater control that over empower setting their own learning goals and to collaborate actively with each other in achieving these goals. The development of a sense of efficacy and innerdirection in the classroom is especially important for students from dominated groups whose experiences so often orient them in the opposite direction. In support of this, Wong Fillmore (1983) has reported that Hispanic students learned considerably more English in classrooms interaction 4.5. with that teachers provided and opportunties for reciprocal peers. Assessment Historically, assessment has played the role of legitimizing the previous disabling of minority students. In some cases, assessment itself may play the primary role but usually its role has been to locate the "problem" within the minority student thereby screening from critical scrutiny the subtractive nature of the school program, the exclusionary orientation of teachers towards minority communities, and transmission models of teaching that inhibit students from active participation in learning. 300 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 This process is virtually inevitable when the conceptual base for the assessment process is purely psycho-educational. If the psychologist's task (or role definition) is to discover the causes Of a minority student's academic difficulties and the only tools at her disposal are psychological tests (in either Ll or L2), then it is hardly will be attributed bilingual handicaps generated in surprising that the child's difficulties to psychological dysfunctions. The myth of that still influences educational policy was exactly this way during the 1920's and 1930's. Recent studies suggest that despite the appearance of change with respect to nondiscriminatory assessment, the underlying structure has remained essentially intact. Mehan, Hertweck and Meihls (in press), for example, report that psychologists continued to test children until they "found" the disability that could be invoked to "explain" the student's apparent academic difficulties. A similar conclusion emerged from the analysis of more than 400 psychological assessments of minority students conducted by Cummins (1984). Although no diagnostic conclusions were logically possible in the majority of assessments, psychologists were most reluctant to admit this fact to teachers and parents. In short, the data suggest that the structure within which psychological assessment takes place orients the psychologist to locate the cause of the academic problem within the minority student herself. The alternative role definition that is required to reverse the traditional “legitimizing" function of assessment can be termed an "advocacy" or "“delegitimization" role (see Mullard, 1985, for discussion of delegitimization strategies in anti-racist education). The psychologist's or special educator's task must be to "delegitimize" the traditional function of psychological assessment in the educational disabling of minority students; in other words, them must be prepared to become advocates for the child (Cazden, 1985) in critically srutinizing the societal and educational context within which the child has developed. This involves locating the pathology within the societal power relations between dominant and dominated groups, in the reflection of these power relations between school and communities, and in the mental and cultural disabling of minority students that takes place in classrooms. These conditions are the cause of the 300% overrepresentation of Texas Hispanic students in the “learning disabled" category (Oriz & Yates, 1983) rather than any intrinsic Clearly, and processing and special for deficit obvious educators unique reasons, does not to Hispanic the training prepare them for children. of psychologists this advocacy or delegitimization role. However, from the present perspective, it must be emphasized that discriminatory assessment is carried out by (well-intentioned) individuals. Rather than challenging a socio-educational system that tends to disable minority students, these individuals have accepted a role definition and an educational structure virtually inevitable. 5. I that makes discriminatory assessment Conclusion have suggested that in most Western 301 industrialized countries Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 the planning of educational interventions to promote academic success for minority students has not been characterized by a particularly rational process. Two major reasons can be suggested for this. First, sociopolitical considerations have often been rationalized in psychoeducational terms, and second, the crucial role of theory in the policy-making process has been ignored, Consequently, there is considerable confusion among policy-makers about appropriate educational options for different sociopolitical conditions. A minority students under recent example is the characterization of bilingual education in the United States as "a failed path" by the U.S. Secretary of Education. William Bennett (see Time, October 7, 1985). As has been suggested, the failure in the United States context is not the path of bilingual education which has scarcely been tried, but rather the path of a policy-making process that has failed to take account of the theoretical basis that exists for predicting minority student outcomes under different educational and social conditions. In this regard, certain psychoeducational have considerable predictive power with principles appear to respect to student outcomes. We can be confident, for example, that bilingualism itself will not impede students' academic development and may, fact, enhance continue to academic academic develop skills and linguistic throughout and growth schooling. knowledge are when It is both in in languages also clear that in that interdependent effective instruction through a minority language will not in any educational deficits in the majority language, result given adequate motivation and exposure to the majority language. A major reason for this is that the development of conceptual skills in one language helps to make input in the other language comprehensible. Sufficient comprehensible input in both languages also appears to be necessary for adequate academic development; however, input involves more than just exposure and students’ Ll abilities are academic input Thus, of there bilingual a major in is a the factor in helping students assimilate L2. psychoeducational education. However, basis these for policy in psychoeducational the area factors do not address all the questions of policy-makers concerned with the educational difficulties of some minority groups. For example, they do not account for the variability in academic performance among different groups nor do they adequately explain why certain forms of bilingual education appear particularly effective in reversing these difficulties (see e.g. Campos & Keatinge, 1984). In order to address these issues, a theoretical framework was proposed for analysing minority students' academic failure and for predicting the effects of educational interventions. Educational failure among minority students was analysed as a function of the extent to which schools reflect, or alternatively, counteract the power relations that exist within the broader society. Specifically, language minority students’ educational progress will be strongly influenced by the extent to which individual educators become advocates for the promotion of students’ linguistic talents, actively encourage community participation in developing students' academic and cultural resources, and implement pedagogical approaches that succeed in liberating students from instructional 302 dependence. Razprave The end in gradivo, Ljubljana, educator-student of the proposed March 1986, No.18 interactions characteristic of the disabling continua reflect the typical patterns of interaction that dominated societal groups have experienced ‘in relation to dominant groups. Students’ language and cultural values are denied, their communities are excluded from participation in educational decisions and activities and they are confined to passive roles within the classroom. The failure of minority attributed on cognitive or In order failure, personal redefine broader students under the of basis linguistic these conditions "objective" test is scores frequently to deficient abilities. to reverse the pattern of minority group educational educators and policy-makers are faced with both a and a political challenge. Personally, they must their roles within the classroom, the community and the society so that these role definitions result in interactions that empower rather than disable students. 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Wong, 1984, "The Relationship Between Native and Second Language Reading Comprehension and Second Language Oral Ability," in: C. Rivera (Ed.), Placement Procedures in Bilingual Education: Education and Policy Issues, Multilingual Matters, Clevedon, England Troike, R., 1978, "Research Evidence Bilingual Education," NABE Journal, 3, Wells, G., 1982, "Language, Learning 307 for pp. and the Effectiveness 13-24 the Curriculum," in: of G. Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, Wells, Language, Learning and Education, Language and Communication, University of Fillmore, Wong, of Implications Teacher," in: 1983, L., Research M.A. Clarke Pacific Perspectives Washington, D.C. on No.18 Centre for the Study Bristol, Bristol as an Learner "The Language on individual differences and J. Handscombe Language Learning 308 (Eds.), and On of Individual: for the ESL TESOL Teaching, '82: TESOL, Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, non 376.744:316.356.72 UDC Neéak-Lük Albina No.18 for Educational Institute Research at the University Kardelj Edvard Yugoslavia Ljubljana, EDUCATION IN Maintenance MULTICULTURAL and SOCIETIES promotion of AND ethnic ITS SOCIAL (national) IMPLICATIONS* characteristics individuals and groups is considered to be one of the human rights. It is evident that attention should only to the unhindered development characteristics but also to the supports the realization of these of cultural and socio-economic rights. of fundamental be paid not linguistic policy that Such an approach to relations among groups in a multicultural society is based on the assumption that members of national minorities should have the possibility to participate in social and production relations on equal terms with members of the (national) majority population. When we speak of the access to social and economic activities on equal terms, the possibility to preserve and manifest their specific ethnic (national) features, language and culture being the most outstanding, is implied. A close investigation into the national minorities' situations, however, reveals the fact that the use of the mother tongue and the demonstration of the cultural distinction of national minorities is at least tolerated in most societies, while the development of the social structure of the minority groups and their economic prosperity are usually neglected. Therefore a substantial number of national minority groups (as well as other ethnic that and have linguistic strong groups), economic with sources very few whereby exceptions their (those possibility of participating in policy making is strengthened, are not minorities only in number but also in terms of their social status, being socially disadvantaged groups. The surplus labour and the surplus values produced by members of national minorities are namely collected in the production and the reserve funds of (the state). Thus in reality the scope of rights of the majority national minorities as well as the possibilities for their of the practical application depend upon democratic principles society and upon the good sufficient financial support The paves system the of way education for groups of different for the maintenance the entity in first development are a society is the social allocate that level institutional based constituent whole. * Original: of to structure The educational policy nha’ a cultural and social needs of once a multicultural minorities the the majority purpose. = ethnic origin in multicultural society cic and development of their specific linguis a and cultural features. account the linguistic, national is will of for this English 309 part upon of =e the s a ue t that as a Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 It goes without saying that the education and socialization ina multilingual setting is not only the matter and the task of scholarly institutions alone. The concept of permanent education implying also personality formation is of primary importance. Besides schools, other societal institutions should pay attention to it to an appropriate extent, so that cultural and linguistic development of national minorities is promoted and the atmosphere of coexistence and understanding among social groups of different ethnic (national) origin is created. The results of the educational activities of schools, the products of their work, i.e. socialization and cognitive achievement of young generations, can grow as long-term values only if all institutions of socialization in a multicultural society pursue the same goal. The awareness of ethnic difference and of linguistic, cultural and social needs of groups constituting a multicultural society should be transferred also to the young generations of the majority. Of course, the effects of primary socialization should not be overlooked, the first experiences about cultural distinctions and language appropriateness in multilingual and multicultural environment being transmitted by the family. Education in multicultural societies, as we see it, should fulfill two basic and unseverable needs discussed above: participation of all ethnic (national) groups in socio-political decisions unhindered (national) and in socio-economic promotion of characteristics, development their specific which on equal cultural implies also the terms and and ethnic right to use their language in all spheres of private and social life. It depends upon specific traits of social environment, including ethnodemographic, social, numerical, historical and cultural factors, all of which influence and determine the relations between different ethnic (national) groups that live together, and the forms of organisation of educational activities to be chosen for each ethnic (national) group. The variety of concrete forms of organisation of instruction where mother tongue national minorities figures as the language of instruction or the subject of instruction, is the consequence of the variety multilingual and multicultural societies in the world. Yugoslavia advocates the joint different national origins in due to different conditions education of children and ethnically-mixed regions. under which this joint of as of youth of However, education in Yugoslavia takes place, the forms of instruction and education vary. The concept of joint education does not necessitate, but neither does it exclude, joint school attendance; what it primarily signifies is an educational process taking place in educational institutions where two or more languages (Mikes, 1976). In principle, children and youth of both are used national (ethnic) groups (the nationality and the nation) are taught the second language, the language of the social environment, in order to achieve a certain level of communicative competence in the language of their schoolfellows. They also learn the basic facts about each other's history and culture, whereby mutual understanding can be expected. Such solutions in education lead towards the realization equality of languages which is judged in Yugoslavia by the 310 of the social Razprave in gradivo, function these tendencies, and Ljubljana, languages mechanisms March 1986, No.18 are involved in. All processes, decreasing the communicative value of a language draw resistance from members of group affected (Lük, 1977). Therefore, the the aim ethnic of the (national) education in nationally-mixed regions is, among other things, to develop motivation for equal use of the languages, so that the language of nationalities (national minorities) becomes an appropriate instrument for communication also in public and social life and is not restricted only to private life usage. The task educational institutions is to stimulate the socialization in bilingual developing ethnic nationally-mixed constructive and (national) young people setting groups are which is environment, by positive attitudes that live prepared possible for together. creative owing to Thus, life knowledge (national) groups and owing to the not burdened by language barriers. social creating towards of the and both children in a about and bilingual both intercourse ethnic which is In ethnically mixed areas members of the Yugoslav nations increasingly learn nationality languages. The need to master these languages stems from the shared interests of all working people and citizens of a given region, who realize these interests at work and in the process of self-management decision- making and agreements. Added to this is one's natural need to gain at least some passive knowledge of the language spoken by one's close associates. As a result of democratic relations among nations and nationalities, the population in ethnically mixed areas is getting bilingual. Owing to constitutional guarantees and owing to the growing bilingualism in ethnically mixed areas supported by institutional facilities the social status of nationality languages is likely to grow. This kind of bilingualism, with bilinguals found in a given area not only among nationality members but also among members of the broader community, can be called bilateral, functional bilingualism (Necak-Liik, 1979). The phenomenon can be described as follows: nationality members are able to use their mother tongue in all kinds of speech situations, both formal and informal, for communication inside and outside their own group; at the formal level, the use of their mother tongue is made possible system; passive members The by concept nations equal some the bilingual organisation of the institutional at the informal level it is made possible knowledge of nationality languages on the of the nation they live with. and of the footing demands sociolinguistic In dealing with in case two of self-management nationalities, together theoretical terms, such diglossia, different we ethnic socialist with their by at least part of the coexistence languages, of on an examination of the contents of as diglossia and bilingualism. proceed from communities socio-political system the functional 1976) of their respective languages is the proposition living under differentiation based on social the that same (Fishman, (and often legal) inferiority of the language used by one of them, a status resulting from the community's social, economic, cultural and political inequality. the inferior social status of the language of a minority community restricts the mobility of its members and prevents them from becoming involved, as equal partners, in economic, social and cultural activities, and from making 311 Razprave in progress language, The gradivo, diglossic situation minority community could its 1986, be highly summed these (national) its are members kept the as No.18 by way of their time reduced. relation follows: separate those a in group of two perform both as of language standard, minority and the to up codified the ethnic involving language functions; between March within the broader community whose prospects are at the same (national) having Ljubljana, the of the the own ethnic broader languages, each different social communication within and in communication majority people; the language of the ethnic minority is the medium of communication for its members in informal speech situations; the language of the broader social community is the medium of communication in formal speech situations and is used in discussing topics related to general social, political, cultural and economic development. The function of the minority language is thus limited to communication within the ethnic group. The members of minorities are not able to participate by using their native language in socio-political, economic and cultural activities; consequently, their mobility depends on their proficiency in the language of the broader social community. We hold the assumption of the necessity of functional differentiation of two lariguages to be open to question where an ethnic (national) minority is able to get involved by way of its mother tongue in socio-economic activities of the sociopolitical community, there for renouncing is good reason to believe that it will not the language as a comprehensive medium communication in multicultural (national) minorities all over the society. Demands world prove it. of opt of ethnic The absence of functional differentiation among the values of languages of the Yugoslav nations and nationalities living together in ethnically mixed areas is to be achieved by imparting appropriate social and legal status to their speakers. The language of any of these groups enjoys the same status in the group's area of residence as the language of the broader community. Both are official languages, and the activitiy of social, political, economic and educational institutions is regulated in such a way as to enable members of both ethnic groups to communicate, as a rule, in their own language. The nationality language, as mentioned above, is guaranteed institutional possibilities to attain the same social status as that enjoyed by the language of the broader community. Bilingualism, members than however, is still more frequent among nationality among members of the broader community. It can be understood if historical aspects of relations among the nations and nationalities on the territory of present-day Yugoslavia are analysed. Through history the majority and minority position of individual ethnic groups was changed. Once dominant nations (Italians, Hungarians) became minorities after the First World War, to give an example, in Slovenia. What happened in history ~ the succession of different forms of ownership and changes in the social living conditions, both reflected in inter-nationality relations in what is today Yugoslavia, and thus in the use and status of the various languages 312 - constitutes a psychological Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 legacy that must be taken into account when the functional (bilateral) bilingualism is discussed. The visibility of growing attendance functional of members development bilingualism is borne of the Yugoslav nations of out by the in optional courses in nationality languages. The function of education in ethnically mixed areas is, among other things, to provide pupils with communicative competence in languages of both ethnic (national) communities, so that the vertical stratification of the nationality language might gradually disappear. Thus the destiny of speech nets of the nationality languages for, concentration of speakers of the individual multilingual setting being one of the outstanding the development of functional bilingualism. is provided language in a problems for Besides schools, all other institutions whose task it is to develop permanent education should take part in endeavours to promote functional bilingualism. Mass media is among the most powerful and influential means in this field. It goes without saying that a vivid contact with the parent nation of a nationality provides for the development of language and culture of the nationality. Therefore such contacts are stipulated by the law. Educational institutions in ethnically mixed areas take advantage of it by organizing common activities of schools from both sides of the border. These contacts are stimulative regarding the promotion of the nationality language and culture as well as the development of the awareness of coexistence among nations in young generations. Bibliography Fishman, Joshua, A.-, 1976, "Bilingualism With and Without Diglossia; Diglossia With and Without Bilingualism," Journal of Social Lik, Issues, Albina, No. 1977, 2, pp. "“Jezik manjina" (Language as National Minorities), an 29-38 kao sredstvo Instrument Pregled, 7-8, diskriminacije for nacionalnih Discrimination Sarajevo, pp. Against 956-970 Mikes, Melanija, 1976, "“Jugoslovenski model visejeziënosti" Yugoslav Model of Multilingualism), Odjek, No. 17, Sarajevo Mikes, No. 1, Lili, Junger, Sarajevo, Neéak-Lik, 1979, pp. Albina, "On Bilingualism in Yugoslavia," (The Survey, 34-48 1984, "Od dvojeziénosti v Soli dvojeziénosti v Zivljenju in ob delu" (From Bilingualism Education to Bilingualism in Everyday Life and Work), Bilingualism - Individual and Societal Issues, Ljubljana, pp. 38. 313 do in in 33- Razprave in Dietmar gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Larcher UDC 323.15(436=863) PRESENT DAY PROBLEMS OF all complexities of the bilingual Carinthian school system briefly because it is comparable with any other multilingual system that I know of. most important organisational feature is its integration not Its of Institute for Education at Distance the University of Klagenfurt Austria IN DEFENCE OF SCHOOL SYSTEM It is pupils next THE INTEGRATION MODEL: IN BILINGUAL CARINTHIA* to of impossible both ethnic to describe groups. This objective: the integration of German speaking majority, and has, the of course, Slovene speaking at the same time, an THE educational pupils into the the development of their Slovene identity. having it, but it is an old This sounds like eating your cake and compromise dating back to the Austro- Hungarian national Empire integrative and and its educational monolingual objective is policy. In reached Carinthia by mixing this bilingual pupils. Let me drop in a short comment on the Carinthian usage of the terms "Bilingual" and "Monolingual," as far as the Carinthian elementary school is concerned. "Bilingual" does not mean that a pupil is by definition fluent in German and Slovene; some bilingual pupils are, some are not. It simply means that the pupil is enrolled for both languages, German and Slovene, irrespective of his command of either of these two languages. Some do not speak a word in the second language when they begin their school career. "Monolingual," on the other hand, also does not mean that to learn any and German when are not as monolingual to a he mode is enrolled Slovene. Some they for begin their easy as they seem and bilingual do not of German only “monolinguals” school and are is career. at first refer to not fluent You supposed in see, Slovene things glance. So remember, a person's quality, but instruction. As mentioned above, monolingual and bilingual children enrolled for monolingual or bilingual instruction) get purposes of instruction. In one and the same classroom (=children mixed for there are side by side those and those who have who have enrolled for bilingual instruction enrolled for monolingual instruction (which is always in instruction German). One and both groups at the same time and in the to teach one group - the bilingual one instruction time in instruction time in supposed to teach hundred percent of Slovene, German. the other group instruction time to handle this difficult fifty percent while only education expert at doing * some Original: and the However, the other at teacher teaches fifty the same percent of time is he - the monolingual one - a in German. In order for him task of having to teach a hundred and being human he must resort to group In so as to make both ends meet. such group education as he must meaningful same same room. He is supposed - about fifty percent of work on its English 314 own fact, keep while he he should one group is be an busy explaining Razprave something in gradivo, to the Ljubljana, other group. March While 1986, he is No.18 doing his fifty percent of Slovene speaking, the group of the only-German monolinguals must be engaged in worthwhile activities that help them improve their language competence on their own. On the other hand, when attending to the monolinguals, it is the bilinguals who have to manage on their own. What makes the teacher's situation even worse is the fact that among the bilinguals he usually has three proficiency levels: children who have never heard a word of Slovene; children who have a stammering knowledge of Slovene, because in their family Slovene is rarely used; and some children whose first language is Slovene. Also with the monolingual group there are different levels of proficiency. Some of these children speak Slovene at home, but their parents want them to receive a German-only education for one reason or another. In class, such children sometimes have problems with their German but understand more of what the teacher says in Slovene to the bilinguals than any of the pupils who have enrolled for Slovene while, on the other hand, their bilingual classmates may be a lot better at German. In one word, the situation is confusing not only for the reader, but also for the children. In my paper on the history and present situation of the Slovene ethnic group in Carinthia, I have tried to give some idea of why things have become so complicated. In spite of all Slovenes insist on this this confusion system for and difficulty, Carinthian a number of reasons. First of all, they can prove with the help of statistics that the results of this weird combination of bilingual and monolingual instruction are just as good as those of monolingual German instruction. Second, they claim that the majority of Carinthian Slovenes would not want to send their children to a school providing instruction in Slovene only because they want their children to be fluent in both languages, so that they can advance socially and economically in a country where power and business are conducted in German, but that they can at the same time keep in touch with their native culture and language. At the best of cases, they wish for their children to choose freely which of the two languages and cultures should be dominant in their later life. Third, they insist bilingual and monolingual that by keeping this combination of education going there is at least some chance for monolinguals in Southern Carinthia Slovene even when they are not enrolled for it: considerable number of Slovene speaking to pick up some there is quitea Carinthians who do not enroll their children for bilingual instruction because of a deep feeling of social stigma attached to their language; yet, on the other hand, they feel badly about altogether abandoning their native tongue; there are families agree on the language group for sending him to the mixed school; their neighbours might not Slovene. For all these people where approve of their the rather chaotic monolinguals and bilinguals at the chance of allowing their children language of their origin. So far, this education has the economic system of worked well and ethnic husband and wife do not their child and compromise by there are still others who fear combined child learning way of teaching same time provides at least a glimpse bilingual and the only into the monolingual enough for the children to survive in reality of Southern Carinthia. With 315 Razprave in gradivo, teachers who are Ljubljana, highly March motivated 1986, and No.18 have learned their job as group educators, it has even been a good system. A year ago, however, German nationalists started an initiative to replace this system by one that would separate monolingual and bilingual children. They should no longer be together in one room and should no longer be taught by the same teacher. Their main point of criticism with the bilingual/monolingual system was that monolingual children had only fifty percent attention whereas bilingual children would percent of it. that a teacher percent of They who, his said it was simple according to the time to the Slovene of the teacher's have one hundred mathematics law, had to speaking to figure out devote fifty children had only half of his time left for German; this, they said, was all right with the bilinguals, but not with the monolinguals, who were entitled to one hundred percent of a German speaking teacher. As a consequence, they imputed, German speaking children only got half of the teacher's attention while Slovene and German speaking children got all his attention. Consequently, their propaganda focused on this disproportionate allotment of teacher attention. They declared in public that the poor German children were underprivileged because they received only half of the education they were supposed to receive at school. They also claimed that the parents of monolingual children had no alternative to the existing system even if they did not want their children to passively take part in bilingual instruction. This was, according to them, sheer neglect of parents' rights. The Slovenes and a lot of German speaking Carinthians have criticised this German nationalist move towards the abolition of the existing co-education of both ethnic groups as an attempt to destroy common schooling of Slovene and German speaking pupils. They have blamed the nationalists for appealing to secret fears of parents and for manipulating public opinion with wrong information about the quality of ethnic co-education in the combined bilingual/monolingual schools. They have suspected that the real purpose behind all the propaganda was a German nationalist attempt to isolate and discriminate those who opted for bilingual education and to create an apartheid Southern Carinthia. they have suggested Instead of separating the two to improve the existing school it the and would so suit that speakers of both it would both way, appreciating other. needs help languages each of the foster would other's bilinguals and an integrated live together differences and situation ethnic system in groups, so that monolinguals; society in where a democratic learning from each Bilingual teachers, school authorities, sub-committees of the Socialist Party and university project groups have worked out solutions that have in common that they preserve the overall idea of ethnic co-education and of common instruction for both monolinguals and bilinguals. Each of the solutions worked out far is based on a team-teaching system which provides teachers for one class and one classroom. They differ in how when and Meanwhile, for what the the German second teacher nationalists should have not be so two and employed. been idle. They have repeated their demand for separate instruction over and over again, using the catchwords, “Equal chances for German children!", "German teachers for German children!" and “Respect 316 Razprave parents' and have one that in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, rights!" They have attacked the announced that they would fight was instruction. education is based on separation Some of them even detrimental for the of No.18 team teaching solution any other solution than monolingual and claim publicly that mind and for identity. bilingual bilingual It seems that a lot of people lend them their ears. This is not because they are German nationalists. In fact, most of them are not but still believe in the propaganda slogans because they fear for their children to lose life chances when they stay on in bilingual schools. Most of the population, teachers included, have no idea what team teaching and modern group instruction is and can do; but they know very well that they want their children to succeed in life. It is much easier for them to understand the simple appeal of propaganda than the complex arguments of intercultural educationists. I do not know what will become of intercultural co-education and of bilingual schools in Southern Carinthia. But I do know that it is the duty of socially responsible researchers to support those with arguments who fight for its survival and improvement. 317 Razprave in gradivo,Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Peter Klinar Faculty of Sociology, Political Science and Journalism Ljubljana, Yugoslavia UDC 323.15.316.356.72 SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF MULTICULTURALISM: THE CONCEPT PLURALISM (MULTICULTURALISM) AND ITS DEVELOPMENT* OF CULTURAL The discussion about education in multicultural societies is based on the theoretical groundwork of inter-ethnic relations, of which multiculturalism - or cultural pluralism - is an important part. The processes of differentiation in the modern world create scores of types of pluralism: political, ideological, cultural, structural, institutional, etec., pluralism. The processes of differentiation are undoubtedly associated with the development of democratism, decentralization of tolerance, with the attempts aiming to reduce the extent of various aspects of social inequality. It is also true that processes of cultural pluralism arise also in critical developmental stages. Refugees and migrant workers who, for instance, immigrate in critical periods, break down the traditional ethnic homogeneity of the autochthonous population that may in due course react against them for reasons of competition and their endangered status (problems of unemployment), by adopting various discriminatory measures, etc. Yet it is in this very manner that multi-ethnic social communities are in fact created. Sooner or later, such societies have to begin fighting xenophobia and discrimination, which viewed from the long-term perspective - does not preclude the development of elements of the policy of multiculturalism associated with the reduction of centralization, emergence of social inequality, and alienation. Pluralistic developments exercise an influence not only on diverse facets of social life but also on its diverse levels. These phenomena can be found on the local regional level, just as they can also concern the national and international levels. Phenomena relating to cultural pluralism are especially important on the level of various ethnic communities, countries, and of the international community. If we equate cultural Pluralism investigate the relations To: ( interested in regional, environment in changes in and (processes) national, or multiculturalism, between different international then we ethnic communities and geographical space). We these relations (processes). are also Multiculturalism can be characterized as the universally acknowledged progressive theoretical basis of inter-ethnic relations, oo represents a denial of controversial views concerning e withering * Original: Slovene, 23 away and pages 318 the disappearance of nations, Razprave in gradivo,Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 or their coercive assimilation. Multiculturalism means the ethnic identity to ethnic groups, recognizing and their specific culture, which is the conceding fostering groundwork for the participation and joining of ethnic groups. conjunctive processes between ethnic groups without the presence of cultural pluralism. In other words, cannot develop Cultural and pluralism stands for the maintenance promotion of ethnic specificities. It calls for mutual tolerance between ethnic groups, their autonomous activities, and their equality. It leaves no room for the domination of ethnic groups over other ethnic groups, and opposes any kind of domination of one culture over other cultures. In other words, phenomena of cultural pluralism can stratification majority and only and develop the by division transcending of underprivileged society ethnic into the ethnic the privileged minorities. Cultural pluralism stimulates the cumulative union of identities and complementarities of differences, which means that society at large, which consists of the plurality of ethnic groups, attains to internal cohesion and integration. The existence of multifarious cultures breeds various - including conflicting interests that clash and harmonize with each other. Since cultural ethnic phenomena are collective in nature, we must add that one should call for the development of such ethnic collectives as are not set above the individual or pitted against him. Only those ethnic groups which do not dominate their own members, but rather cultivate their values on the basis of dialectical interests, according interactions are to in the fact between able to principles concrete further of and more inter-ethnic cultural general relations pluralism. Cultural pluralism in the relations between ethnic groups can be reached, provided that the ethnic culture unites its members to form a group according to the principles that have been referred to here as the principles of cultural pluralism in the relations between ethnic groups. It may not be superfluous to add that cultural pluralism as a phenomenon that can develop fully only in the context of non-hierarchical social relations or in the context of markedly restricted instances of social inequality, stimulates participation or even self-management of individuals and groups. Participation, establishment of friendly relations, and even dynamic confrontation of different cultures, can all be achieved on the level of the activities of free, informed, active, interested subjects that establish their interrelationships for reasons other than constraint, hierarchical subordination, and the like. Hindrances to the Development There is no ideal type of any processes acting in opposition cultural pluralism are of Real Cultural Pluralism existing cultural pluralism. The to the widespread establishment of diverse: a variety of phenomena originating in social inequality, among them ethnic stratification, deep-rooted differences and contrasts between cultures based on tradition, instances of prejudices and negative stereotypes, xenophobia, regressive nationalism, ethnocentrism, ethnic distance, activities, numerous communication well-developed discriminatory barriers, monisms. 319 unitarian and segregative tendencies, and relationship, inter-ethnic of its initial stage of a forms conceptual the to nearer is practice social that remains fact The nucleus. the in but exists OF appearance, matter-of-fact a in only be seen can as of conceived pluralism, cultural Today, No.18 1986, March gradivo, Ljubljana, in Razprave ethnic | stratification social of relations actual which in our Case — and it is this stratification stratification, when cultures, of the domination and subordination about brings policy the surviving cannot of be course, of development the on effect a beneficial have to expected cultures. of pluralism with face to policy, a Such measures, assimilative face brought is stratification ethnic of the The activities of subordinated ethnic groups or of ethnic the encounter We slight. too been likewise have minorities that are not minorities ethnic inferior passivity of numerically themselves isolate consequently that and enough aggressive segregation tendency to secessionism. fail minorities this way, a number of existing inequalities in inter-ethnic relations. Also, not ignore the assimilationist segments of the ethnic the ethnic alter to effort concerted a make to even In opting encounter also We thus space, living accord. own their of their of confines the within inactively for the one should minorities that were subjected to forced assimilation; nor should one overlook the minorities which passively acknowledge their minority status and remain conformable to the majority rule in order to get the possibility of getting underprivileged ethnicity and thereby to majority, hoping that this would also social status. themselves in whose efforts There exist also trying to get fail to result such rid join the improve ethnic of their dominant ethnic their overall groups rid of their minority in ethnic pluralism. as engage status, but The efforts of ethnic minorities at shedding their minority status by effecting no revolutionary alteration of the relations of social inequality, indicate that in such cases these very minorities assume the role of the dominant majority, and that the relations of ethnic stratification are hence prolonged indefinitely. Lower and middle classes and strata making up the contemporary refugees and other migrants, encounter social environment existential problems as well as forms of discrimination day recession temporarily and and xenophobia, majority of in their new a variety of particularly circumstances. Quite often, they are thus geographically dispersed. in present~- settle down The situation being such, it is easy to understand why they do not insist on the appreciation of their culture. They are quick to understand that their culture, representing as it does the origin of their dissimilarity, is the stumbling block preventing their integration with the new social environment. Depression or similar conditions reduce the possibility of free expression of culture even on the part of contemporary migrant workers. Emigrants receive less help and scant attention from their original emigrant indisposed to majority population settled immigrants becoming societies, associate grows feel assimilated. integration of with immigrant immigrant more that and more they can Declarations immigrants on this 320 societies cultures, of basis, while the become native xenophobic. Permanently alter their status by multiculturalism quite widespread and in Razprave in immigrant gradivo,Ljubljana, societies, and hushing up immigrants. It is migrants March represent 1986, attempts No.18 at securing social peace the economic and social discrimination of therefore hardly surprising that contemporary advocate a number of conflicting views. Being equal to the majority native population spells assimilation, whereas remaining different means keeping a lower social status and living in considerable isolation, viz. within one's immigrant ethnic community. We may conclude that ways to factual cultural pluralism can be traced via mitigating the minority status of ethnic minorities, improving their social status, and bettering their social security. Since, however, in the case of immigrants this is frequently only a second-generation development, it is crucial for them to preserve their culture and not to submit to assimilative forces. Simultaneous Cultures and Successive Socialization Processes in Diverse Cultural pluralism is the basic element of inter-ethnic relations. Linguistic pluralism in turn represents a salient component of cultural pluralism. The problem of multilingualism is connected with the processes of socialization, with the simultaneous learning of the mother tongue and of the second language or other languages as well as with the simultaneous integration into two or more cultures, or with successive learning: the learning of the mother tongue and of corresponding culture is followed by acculturative processes, learning of another language and culture. the the The first case is simpler, and both cultures get firmly anchored in a uniform socialization process. The important point here is that acculturative processes are not required, since bilingual and muliticultural socialization occurs at the same time as the process of primary socialization or enculturation, which goes on and intensifies the process of school education. It is during this process that fundamental multicultural values and specificities of various cultures are acquired that become deeprooted, which allows for a more integrated identification on the multicultural level. The parallel enculturation in two languages creates the dynamic possibilities of a simultaneous incorporation into several cultures; socialized in such a manner and thus enriched, the personality in question must draw on competitive comparison and cooperative rivalry between the two cultures in order each to ferret communication one out culture, acquires the This and a positive, in turn progressive stimulates open-mindedness sense of characteristics creativity, to diversity. pluralistic thinking In this and manner, behavior. However, given the present reality of ethnic stratification, individuals who undergo such a parallel socialization in cultures, cannot conflicting between values, ethnic avoid a number disparate minorities of conflicts valuation and of arising cultures, majority of wider the two from conflicts populations. Multiculturally enculturated individuals do face and experience phenomena of marginality; they are affected by the ambivalence of values and suffer from a double identification of some kind, or no identification at all, vacillation, counteracted by the phenomena of social present conditions of ethinic inequality 321 all of which can be pathology. Under the and ethnocentrism it is Razprave in gradivo,Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 quite possible that a multiculturally enculturated personality is affected by prominent cases of the emergence of social disorganization. Multiculturalism developing on a parallel with enculturation in two or more cultures is a complex phenomenon. It has without doubt yet to develop on a large scale because of the numerous hindrances mentioned above; moreover, it necessitates a certain intellectual level of the population, whereby its positive effects may be asserted. Peaceful coexistence among in the course, context of multiculturalism acquired that individuals enculturated in such ethnic identity according to the ethnic groups abreast means, of a way accept their principles of inborn status, which in many ways depends on the primary out within the original family. However, socialization carried this ethnic identity does to not stand for their ethnic superiority another culture or other cultures in the sense of the relations of ethnic stratification. Additionally, such a social disposition can in particular mean that the ethnic groups that can use their own language in public are few in number, which is to be understood as eradication of diglossia. Diglossia used to enable ethnic minorities to use their languages in primary family and friendly relations, while in secondary relations of jobs, etc., they were forced to employ dominant ethnic minority. public life, in their the language of the The preceding proposal can be implemented in culturally and linguistically mixed areas, where various ethnic groups live having the status of autochthonous populations. An open problem, nevertheless, can be observed with respect to multiculturalism of the societies into which different ethnic groups have been penetrating and in which parallel multicultural enculturation of second- and third-generation immigrants takes place. The processes of successive socialization in two or more cultures occur together with double processes of enculturation. of enculturation in the original parents’ culture are such processes of enculturation in the culture of the society as occur in corresponding peer groups. Along processes of turation are secondary Processes joined by immigrant with the single or double enculturation, processes of acculstarted at the same time - these are processes of socialization in the new culture of the immigrant society. Acculturative processes occurring in one’s early youth are of paramount importance, because they restrict the processes of enculturation in the original culture. In this must be aware that acculturative processes take context of the immigrant-culture domination, respect, place in which is one the not conducive to the assertion of cultural pluralism, We can safely state that the categories of second-generation immigrants that are enculturated in two cultures or which are enculturated in one culture and acculturated in the other, often waver between two cultures, the prevailing culture being either that of the parents or that of the immigrant society. The culture of the immigrant society can prevail because of the parallel occurrence of the processes society of and enculturation of the processes in of the culture acculturation of that the kept immigrant modifying the original parents' culture. Such a development transforms the beginnings of cultural pluralism into the assimilation of secondgeneration immigrants. The intermediate 322 phase, during which mem- Razprave in March 1986, No.18 the between poised themselves find generation second the of bers gradivo,Ljubljana, two cultures, is especially complicated. In such a case, marginsemi-literate knowledge of as well as insufficient, ality occurs one's native language and of the language of the immigrant society; conflicts arise between the two cultures and their values, split personalities disorganization social are and brought pathology into being, be observed, can instances of In order that second-generation immigrants might avoid the intermediate cultural situation that may be labeled semicultural, so that chances might materialize of favoring the growth of cultural pluralism, supplementary parents. The processes processes of Social is of exceedingly in the in important language enculturation acculturation processes of observed also The it schooling in the the second for and them culture mother language, to have of tongue as their and well double enculturation and acculturation, in autonomous ethnic minorities. Status of Class and of the as the can be Ethnicity Cultural pluralism cannot be generated in the context of ethnic stratification that is based upon deep-set phenomena of social inequality, in particular class inequality. Since ethnic minorities and immigrants have a lower social status and for the most part represent lower social classes and strata than members of the dominant ethnic minority or native population, their cultures do not stand a chance of achieving the status on a par with the culture of the autochthonous majority population. Ifa large number of the members of ethnic minorities and immigrants have to concern themselves with questions of survival, they certainly have fewer possibilities of asserting their ethnicity and their deeper ethnic identification, and of furthering successfully cultural pluralism. In this case, class and ethnic lines overlap. The preponderant segment of the underprivileged ethnic minority forms part of lower other hand, pluralism are the prospects more favorable there emerge members which is overlap, meaning to that within that say of social and underprivileged middle their classes strata. for the development when ethnic and class and higher ethnic minorities classes and strata, that approaches structure social On the of cultural lines do not of one has to concen~ In this case, ethnic majority. the dominant trate on the task of limiting discriminatory measures whereby e to lower the social status of aaa wants majority dominant members or of stratal the given membership, In this manner, privileged ethnic ethnic minority, because the dominant that status, of irrespective of their very ethnic their ace € aaa acca majority tries to Ric is, the relations of et es nial In a society that sanctions various, S0rne ality in tification. ét ion inequality in general and various types of ethnic heer that ae opines foundations is on these it particular, oie open to outec pluralism cultural which prevents arises, theless, a well-developed ethnic community t x of its internal side activities and that encourages the oer assertion of its mobility, is able to enter the fight for ovis with the other culture in competitors dealings including with even others, numerically 323 on a super Lee ethnic groups. Razprave Under in the gradivo,Ljubljana, existing March conditions, it 1986, is No.18 quite inappropriate to hold a discussion about the existence of the phenomena of social and ethnic inequality without referring to the principal hindrances to the growth of cultural pluralism, namely global conflicts between the developed and the developing societies and ethnic communities. In times underdeveloped emigrant of crisis, societies and counterparts larger. The only grows technological development and the their the gap between the developed immigrant development of social structure in underdeveloped areas lag behind. The social status of immigrants and underprivileged ethnic minorities is emphatically low and can be designated sub-proletarian; large percentages of unemployment among them represent a commonplace reality. In this manner, assimilation as a prerequisite for attaining social promotion is even more prominent. These, then, are to be regarded as major clear-cut implementation of multiculturalism. Processes of hindrances to the Adaptation There are several basic social processes that are related cultural pluralism, adaptation being the one that must mentioned first. The theoretical when different cultures come into to be essence of adaptation is that contact with one another, one's own original culture is being preserved and fostered, while at the same time the new culture is being absorbed as well. Essentially, this process involves the preservation of what is original mutual and the acceptance adaptation. pluralism can adaptation be can In labeled be of short, the what the process defined also is new content of as in fuller that the processes inherent in adaptation. mutual of cultural Fuller adaptation of ethnic groups which is to be understood as the voluntary adoption of what is both common and new, and the preservation of what is particular (ethnic). The social development that has taken social crisis of today testify to place the undeveloped, can incomplete adaptation. One up to now existence observe a one-sided adaptation to the dominant culture cultures. We encounter cases of diglossia (which and of the an instances or we of to majority have already explained). Ethnic minorities succeed in transmitting to the broader social environment only fragments of their original culture-bound features, while at the same time they themselves also find it difficult to maintain their original culture. The processes of incomplete adaptation are limited to secondary social relations; their nature is essentially involuntary because of not the imposition at all of incomplete adaptation of cultural pluralism. Processes In of surveying the difficult elements to do of the ascertain not ensure dominant that the chance the of culture. It processes the is of existence Acculturation the processes bearing on cultural pluralism, on must not overlook the processes of acculturation. During such processes elements of the new culture are adopted, which, 324 Razprave in however, can be gradivo,Ljubljana, entails no deeper conveniently March 1986, changes. related to No.18 Processes those of of acculturation adaptation that, as have seen, also signify the adoption of the elements of the culture. Acculturative processes are normally equated with processes The of secondary processes of we new the socialization. acculturation relate to the categories by which cultural pluralism starts with the successive second-language learning, i.e. subsequently to the mother-tongue acquisition. This occurs in migration situations as well as in certain ethnic- minority A situations. more developed voluntary type of acculturation; acculturation it occurs is under the process democratic of social conditions and is bidirectional (transculturation), which means that the minority's culture or the culture of the immigrant ethnic communities radiates its features in the direction of the cultural environment of the majority (numerically superior) ethnic culture or of the environment of the culture of the immigrant society concerned. In short, a more developed type of acculturation relates to the processes of adaptation, the latter being comprehended as phenomena of cultural pluralism. Contemporary of crisis social conditions situations bring that into display being the developed, one-sided acculturation. This kind involuntary and one-sided on account of the culture the of the privileged processes of features particularly typical the less of acculturation is domination of the ethnic group, which also transculturation hardly ever appear. implies that Processes of acculturation remain for the most part embryonic, since no intensified linkage of them and of processes of adaptation - i.e. of cultural pluralism - can be perceived. Embryonic acculturation means insufficient acculturating, which together with the insufficient enculturation in the original culture leads to semicultural situations to to semiliteracy in the mother tongue and in the foreign (second) language. Parallel foreign processes of enculturation (the other/the second) acculturation, thus preclude in the original and in cultures, supported the by shift the overall development to assimilation and the emergence of the phenomena of cultural Pluralism. Processes of Integrative Oppositions and Conflicts When different cultures meet in the processes of multiculturalism, the encounter only rarely, if ever, takes place without oppositions and conflicts. These processes are present in both parallel and successive socialization in the other culture. They are evident as concomitants of undeveloped, one-sided processes of adaptation and acculturation, when we witness the transformation of adaptation into accommodation and of acculturation into assimilation at higher levels. At the same time, the contemporary inter-ethnic and hence also intercultural relations are built on elements of ethnic stratification, discrimination, segregation, ethnic aloofness, xenophobia, cases of negative nationalism, unitarianism, etc., which testifies to 325 Razprave in gradivo,Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 the existence of manifold disjunctive relations among ethnic groups. Even the more developed relations of cultural pluralism do not provide the necessary grounds for us to be able to expect realistically the withering away - even in such relations - of inter-ethnic and intercultural oppositions and conflicts, because in that case our conception of inter-ethnic relations would be one-sided, viewing them merely as processes of mutual adaptation whereby the foreign is acquired and the original preserved. Such conceptions could be criticized for their one-sided outlook, for their harmonization of internal - particularly inter-ethnic - structures. They might also be castigated for playing up the unity and ignoring the dialectics, the principle of development. That is why any theoretical substantiation of the mutual encounter and mutual participation of ethnic groups, as well as furtherance of multiculturalism, must take due account of the processes of integrative conflicts and oppositions. These conflicts and oppositions in essence stand for the struggle between cultures, values, norms, etc. of a dissimilar ethnic background, whereby inter-ethnic intensities are let loose and the possibilities are created of transforming latent conflicts into full-blown conflicts, whereby the ideas engage the opposing ideas in battle, which brings about the alteration and development of the inter-ethnic relations as well as the growth of multiculturalism. The immediate action taken in solving each problem of multiculturalism, which is ensured by integrative conflicts, is - naturally enoughkept within its limits which from the viewpoint of the broader global society reside in the requirement that such conflicts of the global society solidify the internal conflicts can be attained horizontal, groups and and not destroy when they occur under non-hierarchical differences their cultures. On the contrary, multiculturalism inequality must and ethnic by the values cannot develop in the conditions of between the ethnic integrative conflicts the context of social such that we can conclude in inter-ethnic relations yet to attain to a satisfactory level of developed are destructive conflicts and such supported basic stratification. Present-day social conditions are the integrative conflicts existing discrimination, the and that they must at the same time cohesion of ethnic groups. Integrative processes segregation of of ethnic prejudices that have development. More oppositions as are stratification, and stereotypes, xenophobia of negative nationalisms, domination of cultures on the basis of ethnocentrism, and the like. The contemporary social crisis in particular expands and deepens diverse disjunctive processes emerging in the relations among ethnic groups, its ultimate offshoot being the protective discriminatory measures applied by the dominant ethnic majority to the detriment of the underprivileged ethnic minority. We witness a variety of phenomena related to social disorganization (anomie, alienation) and to pathology as well as the conditions of being imperiled and of social insecurity that are mirrored in the inter-ethnic relations. In this way ethnic distances intensify too. Such an overall state of affairs represents a formidable hindrance to the growth of multiculturalism. One must not ignore mere regression of the processes of adaptation and resulting in the involuntary one-sided lower levels the fact that acculturation, of adaptation and acculturation, together with the presence of assimilation, already stimulates in itself processes of conflicts and 326 Razprave in gradivo,Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 oppositions. The intensities created between any two cultures are transformed into conflicts to an insufficient extent only; likewise, latent conflicts are too slow in becoming full-blown conflicts. Too few inter-ethnic and intercultural conflicts are actually resolved, as many are merely swept under the carpet, while marginal conflicts are brought to the foreground or artificial conflicts are fabricated in order that the basic conflicts might be kept aside. The expedients and procedures for easing and effectively solving inter-ethnic/intercultural conflicts have not reached an adequate level of development. The criteria for differentiating between disintegrative and integrative conflicts are not clear enough. The linkage of interethnic/intercultural conflicts and the basic antagonistic social conflicts represents and inadequately developed type of research. Disintegrative and infrequently abused basic values of the inter-ethnic/intercultural conflicts are not by being employed as a means of attacking the global society and destroying its cohesion. Concluding Remarks Multiculturalism on the Social Processes and on In closing this discussion about the social processes that concern the development of multiculturalism, we can say that the processes listed above are strongly interrelated, while their development depends on stratification and other the degree key phenomena of of restricting ethnic social inequality. It is only by way of greater social equality that we can ensure more developed processes of adaptation, processes of acculturation linked with the adaptation, and processes of integrative conflicts and oppositions. The existence of horizontal social and ethnic differences is related to the development of cultural pluralism. Processes more developed associated with of the ethnic social new of cultural processes processes of culture are being adopted differences. Under the equality, processes oppositions can evolve pluralism are identical with of adaptation that are acculturation, whenever the along in the context the in turn elements of horizontal conditions of a greater extent of of integrative conflicts and with the processes of an advanced- level adaptation and of the acculturation interconnected with the adaptation; in this case, we witness the confrontation between the relatively autonomous elements of culture, the values used in resolving the existing opposition, just as we also witness actual social progress. Thanks to these factors, the presence of the phenomena of cultural pluralism is assured. Furthermore, what we witness in this case is also the interlinkage of the processes of the more developed adaptation as well as of acculturation and the processes of integrative conflicts. The acceptance of the common and of the novel particular and resulting the preservation from the and interaction furtherance between of the different cultures, hardly ever take place without the emergence of oppositions and conflicts. Mutual adaptation and cooperation is a process associated with a number of oppositions that can efforts. be resolved by taking on integrative A more developed type of adaptation tensions are conflicts global lessened turn society into which and their manifest persist thrust conflicts. and 327 moderated, Those develop and conflicts effects through is generated if basic through and if values our the latent of the confrontation Razprave in gradivo,Ljubljana, and struggle the global are The concluding more firm March and 1986, hence No.18 ensure the cohesion within society. conditions thought of may social be formulated inequality as follows: demonstrated under by the ethnic stratification, undeveloped processes of adaptation, processes of acculturation dissociated from the adaptation, discrepancies between enculturation and acculturation, numerous disjunctive processes (disintegrative conflicts, discrimination, regressive nationalism, coercive realistically assimilation, hope for multiculturalism. Factual conditions greater of a stratification transcends the and the multiculturalism social its like), factual can flourish equality, own limits we cannot development when and the begins of under to the ethnic represent social differences on the horizontal level, when processes of a fuller adaptation emerge, when processes of acculturation tie in with the more developed processes of adaptation, when processes of transculturation are brought in, when processes of enculturation when two with each are coordinated enculturative other oppositions and are when in with processes processes full in processes two of of acculturation, cultures run integrative or parallel conflicts and swing. Bibliography Dvojeziënost - individualne in dru#bene razse#nosti ism: Individual and Social Dimensions), 1984, Drustvo jezikoslovje SRS, Ljubljana Jaakkola, M., 1976, "“Diglossia Minorities in Sweden," Language, Vol. 10, pp. Klinar, P., socioloska Among 1984, Ethnic razse#nosti, 1984, pp. Klinar, Groups in P., Klinar, P., Migrations), Drustvo odnosov Theoretical za the upborabno Among of skupinami (Social in SRS, - Processes Groundwork individualne jezikoslovje Two Sociology etnicnimi Sociological - P., 1981, "Evolution P., P., med of Cultural Identity Migrants," European Science 28 September to 30 October 1981 1976, Obzorja, 1985, for druzbene Ljubljana, 1983, 1985, on Migration Migration, "“Perspektive k in the kulturnega teoretiénim (Contribution 328 to the the Second Sophia - (International Past Dubrovnik, (Perspectives of Cultural Ziherlovi dnevi, 20 October "Prispevek narodi" Path ISA, of Foundation, (Mimeo) Mednarodne migracije Maribor, 1976, pp. 188-93 "New nacionalni odnosi" National Relations), Klinar, - med of dvojezicnosti" Dvojezi¢énost Research Committee Mimeo (35 pages) Klinar, procesi izhodisca Bilingualism Journal 3-11 Generation Antipolis, Klinar, “Druzbeni teoreticna Bilingualism), and International 67-84 (Bilingualza uporabno Decade," June 14 - 16, pluralizma in Pluralism 1983 (Mimeo) and izhodiséem Theoretical © razvoju Foundations Razprave in gradivo,Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 of the Development of the Relations razgledi, 19 April 1985, pp. 229-30 Klinar, P., identificacije Socialization Migrants), Klinar, in and Nations), Mabi “Procesi Socializacije in etniéne generacije migrantov" (Processes of Ethnic Identification Teorija in praksa, 1985, "Remigracije P., Crisis 1980, druge Among in 17 Vol. v kriznih Conditions),Migracije the Second-Generation razmerah" bilten, Vol. 33, (Remigrations RI - FSPN, p. 55 Magnusson, K., 1979, "Between Two Cultures." Symposium on the Position of the Second Generation of Yugoslav Immigrants in Sweden, Split, 30 October - 1 November 1979, pp. 27-30 “Multiculturalism: Committee (Mimeo) Oriol, on M., Is It an Migration, 1981, “Report Aspects of Migration Science Foundation, Effect ISA, on in on the Studies Western Strasbourg, on pp. Schrader, A, Centar za (Their istraZivanje D., International Vest, L., Minority Vuk 1979, 1969, Karadic, is Ethnic Ethnic “The - Belgrade, Teorije 1969, 17, No. pp. of 1-2, manjinskih o drustvu, pp. 329 1985. and Cultural 1979." European "Njihova Stratification, Vol. 16, Relations, Razprave Zagreb, Preservation “Problem in 1979, Uncertain), migracija, Migration, Groups), Human 1918 Research - 100-104 and H. Griese, Future Shibutani, T., 1969, pp. 572-78, 451-500 Storer, 1985, 14 1967, "Minorities," in Minorities in Barron, A. Knopf, New York, 1967, pp. B. Nikles neizvjesna" June the Europe Scharmerhorn, A., 1970, Comparative House, New York, 1970, pp. 1- 6, 122 Schammenhom, R., World, ed. by M. Crisis?" Dubrovnik, 299-304. o a Changing 5-14 buducnost je migracijama, 80-88 Macmillan, Immigrants' pp. T. (The Toronto, Culture," 230-41 grupa" ed. Random Problem Parsons, et. of al., Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, Eugenia Koutsouvanou General Secretariat for Greeks Abroad Ministry of Culture and Athens, Greece March UDC 1986, No.18 376.744:325.2(73):316.356.72 Sciences THE ROLE OF CULTURAL FACTORS IN IMMIGRANT CHILDREN OF GREEK AND THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS ITALIAN BACKGROUND* OF RECENT Introduction I prepared this paper in 1983, as a resource educator for the bilingual Greek programme in the Public Elementary Schools in New York City. One of my responsibilities was to act as mediator and liaison between parents and teachers, in cases where children of Greek parentage are considered by teachers to have problems. Teachers in the bilingual Italian programme indicated that there were also specific problems with recent Italian immigrant children in the schools which seem to interfere with their learning. All the case studies were concentrated in a school where the percentage of immigrant children was significant. The schools were in neighbourhoods of upper lower to lower-middle socio- economic class, and included recent immigrants (in total accounted for approximately was approximately 20% and Italian children for 17%; the total District Foreign Pupil Population 60%). Background Much many children whose families were school population, Greek children has of been the Problem written about the reasons why ethnic minority groups fail in school. Many theories have been advanced concerning possible causes of academic and social failure. In general, external factors, such as language problems, social and economic pressures and cultural assimilation, have been held accountable. Undeniably, such forces have been at work. However, it seems logical that one must study the ethnic groups themselves, in order to determine possible additional factors which might contribute to the overall problem. The examination of cultural sources of strain in the family plays a significant role in the formation of character. Therefore, as Spiegel (1971) stated, in order to understand a person it is imperative to understand as much as possible about the family. To appreciate the makeup and function of the family, it is essential to understand its cultural determinants, which are of utmost importance in assessing the degree of integration and conflict within the family. Cultural values and characteristics are deeprooted, influential, and constant, and do not change easily. * Original: English, 34 pages 330 Children from think, believe because minority groups, and act according their cultural The assumption that well as a subculture the child nie No.18 1986, March Ljubljana, in_gradivo, Razprave like any other children, and to certain patterns, in part, background is unique. membership in an ethnic minority group low in socioeconomic status, seriously, is substantiated in research group, a8 handicaps studies. Arnold and Wist (1970) offered supporting evidence in their study relating to problems in auditory discrimination among American middle-class children. They stated that, although individuals from low socioeconomic groups experience difficulty in attaining the skills necessary for reading achievement, members of ethnic groups have a higher incidence of such problems. Wakefield and Silvaroil (1969) patterns among ethnic minority where the linguistic pointed out, in their studies of language low socioeconomic groups, that children from groups are at a distinct disadvantage in schools middle-class English-speaking American is superior in skills. Smith (1974) discussed the characteristics that are common among many children of low socioeconomic groups, maintaining that low self-esteem, poverty and poor health constitute factors that are conducive to failure in school. In his study, minority necessary In Feitleson order to imperative affect I the take into ability indicated that children consideration to following immigrant adapt to procedures many disadvantaged the self-confidence school environment. some better, cultural a different to collect it factors is that culture. the data relative to the problems of study: 1. What data recent Greek 2. understand to their used this (1968) children entering school lack for successful adjustment to the What can and does I find in the school to describe Italian immigrant children? the literature say about recent immigrant children of Greek and Italian background that may throw some light on their problems and strengths; which teachers might use to work more effectively with these children? Information The Related information to Recent about Immigrant recent collected from school recoräs, comments and case studies. Empirical In Greek Greek “Problem” immigrant teachers' and Children pen specla ne Data working with "problem" Greek elementary school pect recent noted immigrants between the ages of seven and weary? mable 1). The common elements in all of their histories Fes teachers 45 of majority the were boys by described pee whose peer underachievers and aggressive FON TO ee iawers considered relationships were poor. The teachers and inte ne basis, but them to be lacking peer and in amiable the social social and responsive skills relations. On necessary They 331 were a one-to-0 to develop à 1s0 52 regarded tisfactory Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 motivated and failing to work up to their potential. The teachers and interviewers did not have any complaints about the girls and indicated that the girls were well-adjusted. My screening of their school records indicated that they were born in Greece and came from families that are intact, but not extended. They had been in this country less than five years. Their level of tested achievement was within grade norms, although their teachers were convinced they were not working up to their potential and were poorly Table motivated. 1 Profile of Greek Students Considered as "Problem" Children Characteristic No. Percent Total number of Greek students Number of "problem" children 500 30 100 6 Sex Years in the U.S. Description of "problem" by teachers Male 1-5 children 1. 2. 3. Underachievers Aggressive Poor peer relationships 4. 5. Poorly motivated Prolonged problems Note: Percentages Information Children The - are information several based Related to on n = Recent about recent The that, 80 60 90 29 15 97 50 30 Immigrant Italian Italian immigrant teachers’ "Problem" children and was specialists’ Data bilingual in Italian working background, categorized teachers and the withelementary school specialists school boys they have noted many similarities as "problem" children (see Table indicated that these lacking in motivation teachers 24 18 27 years collected from school records, comments and case studies. Empirical = = frequently children's and poor voiced teachers in social discontent of stated Italian among students 2). They also described them as adjustment. Their over these children's failure to achieve in accordance with their abilities. teachers and interviewers did not express dissatisfaction The with the girls and stated that the girls were well-adjusted. My screening of their school records revealed that they were born in southern Italy and came from extended families. They had been in this country less than five years. Their level of tested achievement was within indicated that they were were poorly motivated. grade not norms, working 332 although up to their their teachers potential and Razprave Table in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 as "Problem" 2 Profile of Italian Students Considered Characteristic Children No. Percent Total number of Italian students Number of "problem" children Sex 350 120 Male Years 1-5 = in the Description U.S. of "problem" 100 34 = children by teachers 1. Underachievers 100 83 2. 3. 4. 5. Aggressive Poor peer relationships Poorly motivated Prolonged problems - several 60 110 110 60 50 91 91 50 Mote: Percentages Review of the First, some presented, Italian are based years on n = 120 Literature general and then information some on culture cultural and development information about Greek is and children. Abrahams (1972) maintained that the culture of a people includes all of the systems, techniques and tools that make up their way of life. Material culture encompasses all of the physical artifacts produced by the society. Non-material or expressive and institutional culture includes all of the systems used to regulate the relationships between persons, between a person and the supernatural, and between a person and the environment, as well as all the customs, beliefs and values related to these. This dimension of culture concerns the “manners” of the group, their life styles and their more abstract systems of family, religion, government, and so forth. Members of different cultures cannot live in the same objective world; the whole organization of knowledge, perception and behaviour is strongly determined by the individual's culture. Fielder (1977) defined culture in the anthropological sense, referring to the traditional, accepted customs and ways of doing things of a group of people who have lived together for several generations.A culture provides its members with directives and prohibitions, justifications and explanations, and methods and techniques for almost all of the situations they are likely to encounter. According patterns elders to and are person's essential human pass personality each Singer that (1971), beings on to culture in the inextricably identity. experience a next woven Cultural of and 333 it beliefs is of learn generation. together as all society identity oneself view, value system, attitudes, such elements are shared. includes given in the the life their Culture the group and gestalt symbol incorporates of the from of the with of one's world whom Razprave Peter in gradivo, Adler biology, Ljubljana, (1974) stated: universally individuals in all March “All human limited races and by biology is a cultural biological patterns healthy human beings are No.18 beings the cultures phases on a similar schedule: birth, age, old age, and death ... Yet the human human 1986, share rhythms must move infancy, ultimate reproduce, and similar life. through All life's adolescence, middle interpretation of phenomenon; that is, the are culturally derived. born, a of die, meanings of Though all it is culture which dictates the meanings of sexuality, the ceremonials of -birth, the transitions of life, and the rituals of death" (p.26). Thus, culture is learned, shared and transmitted. Each child is born into a society whose members practice a way of life, ora culture. The child really has no choice. His/her cultural learning will be limited only by inherent intellectual capacities and cultural exposure and experience. People's behaviour is controlled far more by their cultural heritage than they are aware. Hall maintained that, "There is a growing accumulation of evidence to indicate that man has no direct contact with experience per se but there is an intervening set of patterns which channel his senses and his thoughts, causing him to reach one way when someone else with different underlying patterns will react as his experience dictates" (p.113). Alfred Adler (1927) achievement needs may behavior. protest” as His and social According social concepts "striving order, development of to has suggested that the fulfillment of be one of the most important goals of human determine their “inferiority superiority," behavioral complex," and other patterns "masculine factors, such of children and broad cultural and personality. Grandall influences of for have (1963), at least been found to three affect the development the child's achievement and behaviour. These are the cultural milieu into which the child is born, his religious, and ethnic background, and the socioeconomic which his family belongs. 334 of general racial, class to Razprave Theodor in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, UDC 323.15.342.7:376.744 Veiter University Austria No.18 Innsbruck of THE RIGHTS OF NATIONALITIES AND ETHNIC GROUPS TO THEIR ANCESTRAL SOIL AND BILINGUAL EDUCATION: A STUDY IN INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC LAW* Introduction The term “nationality” 1s not absolutely clear, because in Western Europe, especially in France, in the U.K., and perhaps also in Italy and the U.S.A., “nationality” means citizenship (in the singular) and only in the plural can the term also be used for so-called “national,” that is, ethnic groups. On the other hand, in Spain the "nacionalidades" (as Catalunya or Euzkadi) is the usual denomination for regional communities with an ethnic background. In Eastern and Central Europe the term "nationality" has for centuries been usual for ethnic communities, both in former imperial Russia as well as now in the Soviet Union (this also after the new federal constitution of 1974),“ and the expression “nationalities,” in German "Nationalitdten," can be found everywhere, even in many more or less official books,” applied to the greater ethnic communities. We can quote the expression “nationalities' politics" (Nationalitätenpolitik}). Only the smaller ethnic (and linguistic) groups are called “ethnic group” ("“etniceskaja grup") In former Austria-Hungary "nationalities" were the peoples (ethnically seen) and therefore it was spoken about "Nationalitdten" in German, and about the Right of the nationalities (Nationalitätenrecht}).* In our time also in regard to Yugoslavia the term "nationalities" is, not only in the SerboCroat, Slovene or Macedonian language-, but also in the En lishlanguage books, usual for greater ethnic groups.” The "nationalities" are, therefore, in Eastern and Central Europe, but casually also in other parts of the other continents spoken of in the sense of African Charter It is preferable dominant ethnic Golias groups, of Human to speak of of and in ethnic Rights and groups, Here we quote minorities. of Ljubljana going in this and in Peoples and certain within or, also for rae the plurilingual direction. the UN also dictionary The term "ethnie," used for the first time in Francê, ee also in Italy ("etnia"), means approximately the group or ethnic minority. It is not yet generally usec recently * become Original: more widely known. English 335 states Fourth worlds, ane quote the Rights. communities of ethnic ethnic Europe the Third and groups. We can os © ar inic ack ee Razprave in The “Ancestral Term gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Soil" The notion "ancestral soil” or “native soil," which is the same, has existed for centuries, especially in Eastern and in Central Europe. There are terms such as “Heimat" in German, “domowina” in Sorbian, “domovina" in Croatian, Serbian and Bulgarian (in Serbian and Croatian also "zavicaj"), in Slovene "“domovje" (but also "domovina” and in certain connections "domacnost"); while in Russian the expressions "rodina," "otecestvo," “rodnaja zemlja," “rodnaja storona" to be born), but are usual, meaning the land of birth (roditi also the native soil. In English there can be found the expression "homeland" or also "habitat," but expressions are not as exact as “ancestral soil" or "native and the word "homeland" has been recently also utilized these soil" in an abusive manner by the Republic of South Africa for the so-called “homelands."” Formerly it was said that the German word "Heimat" cannot be translated in Latin-Romance languages, but this is an error. One can refer to the French notion "pays des ancêtres" and also "patrimoine," the Italian term "paese degli ancestori" (land of the ancestors) “pais natal." the or "suolo natale" (soil of birth), in Spanish often heard word "patria" cannot be accepted, because in it means Italian, in French ("patrie"), in Spanish, etc., the State (état-nation) and not the ethnic communities as it was said by Charles de Gualle in his "L'Europe des Patries," which was not a "Europe of Peoples," or "Europe of Regions" or "L'Europe des ethnies" (Guy Héraud). 0 In various Slavic languages we find the term in connection with "home" - domov ("domov" in Czech and Slovak), "domowina," "“domovje" or “domovina" as quoted above. Also in the Scandinavian languages we find the relation land," in Danish Norweigian to "Heimat" "hjemstavn" "hjemsted,” in or or Faeroese "Domov" as "hjemland" in or “hejma;" Dutch in is more readily applied "geboortegrond” or Polish expression "ojczyzna" has no relation the other Slavic languages. In all Swedish "“hem"hjemmet," in native soil “geboortestreek." The to the expression in cases there exists a near- relation to the "land," the soil of the ancestors or (as in German) to "home." In the English literature the expression “ancestral soil" is to be found scarcely; anyway, the literature in western, northern, southern and Central Europe notion "Heimat" or "native soil" is very remarkable in important languages. Also more in the usual, their thinking ancestors. Europe, the and It U.S.A. the because of to And in because notion “ancestral soil" becomes the immigration of ethnic groups the ancestral Canada we in Canada find the is possible of that the what is word is "Heimat" The soil closer ethnicity, beings, here. the situation so-called German meant soil, a ethnic background of all human more and more widely known. explanation about nearly more and bound in of to their that in connected to very well gives the connotative the all developed most clear significance of "Heimat," filled with emotion ("Heimatgefiil"), developed by Johann Gottfried Herder in the 19th century and also in our times estimated on the by ideas the of so-called Othmar peoples, especially Palacky. It not so also generally has universalistic Spann), within been recognized the Czech recently in school certainly people, observed Western 336 of exists Europe since Vienna also in the time in China,?4 or in the (based Slavic of put F. is Americas. Razprave But no it in gradivo, exists also ancestral (Eskimoes, founded. as also Berbers The Ljubljana, there. soil, And as Kalaallit) 1986, one asserts if the or March Roma the No.18 that (Gypsies, Sami the Sinti) (Lapps), this nomads the Inuit is not well- Only the space of this ancestral soil is wider, it is in regard to the Beduins, the Tuaregs in the Saharan Regions. Juridical Significance of "Ancestral have or greater, and the Soil” Before the beginning of the modern mass-migrations (tourist traffic, migrant workers, refugees) - only in the four main immigration States withip the EEC there live at present about 14 million foreign workers 6 _ the native soil (“Heimat") was the most significant the sense Rights of community a quality of the ethnic communities (peoples in of Art. 1 of the two ternational Convenants on Human 16th December 1966). The peoples living ina social were and are also today bound to such a native soil as heritage of their ancestors. In the German, Austrian and the Swiss doctrine one can read often "Heimatrecht" or “Recht auf Heimat." But this leads to certain errors. “Heimatrecht“ means in Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and in South Tyrol denizenship especially for foreigners, who got the “nationality” in the French or Anglo-Saxon meaning of the word, i.e. citizenship (nationalité, nationality, nazionalita, Staatsblirger- schaft) of a certain State with a social and legalized right to domicile in a certain town or commune or municipality (in Austria and Switzerland: Heimatzuständigkeit, in Italy: pertinenza), this for social protection. In Austria this was abolished by the Third Reich in 1939 without a revival after the Second World War, and also in South Tyrol this institution does not exist any longer. It exists today only in Switzerland (one must be “Bürger" of a certain commune) and in the Principality of Liechtenstein. In these cases the expression "right to a homeland" (habitat) does not mean the right to the languages where definite Italian, use the French; native soil or the articles exist, as ancestral soil. In in German, Greek, French, Dutch, Spanish, Portuguese, it is indefinite article (ein, eine in German; uno, ancestral una soil. in All Italian, men and have so on) in traditionally soil. A definite article is here German: Recht auf die Heimat; in leur foyer natal (sol ancestral, il diritto dei popoli al suo degli ancestori); in Spanish: not right un, une connection a certain with the ancestral absolutely necessary; thus, in French: Le Droit des peuples a pays des ancétres); in Italian: suolo natale (o ancestrale, paese El derecho de autodelimitaciôn de los pueblos y el derecho a el pais natal. Certainly, in Slavic languages grammatical articles generally do not exist from their Greenland, etc.) have indefinite, background Inuit no but in many Canada and grammatical there are other languages Labrador, articles, no to in (Kalaallit Chinese, Urdu, neither definite difficulties in the and knowing in Ivrit, or what is meant. The right to the ancestral (native) soil of peoples is, juridically, always the right to the innate (hereditary, ancestral) soil, generations. À new where the ancestors were domicile (for migrant workers, settled refugees, for etc.) is not "the" innate soil (in German: Neue Heimat, Zweite Heimat), but this new domicile can become after a certain period also the native soil in the sense of the French notion “Patrimoine"). 337 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 All the peoples have the right to live unmolested on their ancestral soil, i.e. in a certain limited region. This is a purely juridical category, but also a social category, belonging to the science of politics. It implies the following rules: 1. Everybody has the right to liberty of movement within the framework of laws and conventions protecting linguistic and ethnic communities and to return to his native soil (European Convention on Human Rights and fundamental freedoms, in value only for the Member-States of the Council of Europe and the EC); 2. The right to retain the lawfully acquired domicile without molestation and as long as this is freely so desired, is recognized in principle as inviolable to each person and to each ethnic group 3. Domicile a) by (people, is ethnic deemed a national: if to be community) lawfully acquisition is as an ens socialé; acquired: realized by choice, in the free exercise of a right to freedom of movement within the framework of laws or conventions for the protection of locally established linguistic or ethnic communities (domicile of choice). The occupation of a territory by war or warlike events does not constitute a right to a new residence of the soliders or of the civilians of the aggressor-power within the territory of a people or an ethnic community, neither by individuals nor by invading groups (the settlement of Germans by the Third Reich in Poland, in the Ukraine, in southern Styria and in northern Slovenia or also in the parts of Carinthia with Slovene inhabitants, etc., or of Italians under the fascist regime ig certain parts of Dalmatia or in Fiume/Rijeka and in South Tyrol was therefore illicit and has not created a right to a new (second) ancestral soil); b) By derivation, residence (domicile at the of “angestammte in the domicile origin, Heimat;" free of exercise the native in soil, French of parents also a or right the ancestral to continued legal guardians soil, “patrimoine"), in German provided that the aforesaid parents or guardians have lawfully acquired such domicile either by choice or by derivation (ex injuria jus non oritur); ¢) By ethnic groups and ethnic communities (peoples) when they live for a longer time in a certain territory. They live lawfully in this territory. What means "a longer time” is not absolutely clear. Generally a settlement of almost 25 years is presupposed, but there are also authors as Guy Héraud demanding three generations (90 years) or, for Western jureope; the domicile on this ancestral soil since 1900 or 1910.2 4. The notion of "unmolested." Lawfully acquired domicile is deemed unmolested (without discrimination), if the free exercise of the rights set forth in the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights of 10 December 1948, and in the Covenant of Civil and Political Rights of 16 December 1966, and in comparable other international instruments is secured in law and in fact. To these rights belong also the basic principles of education in family and elementary school in the mother tongue. 338 Razprave The in Right gradivo, to the Ljubljana, Ancestral March Soil in 1986, Public No.18 International Law The right of peoples (ethnic communities) and also of the individuals belonging to those ethnic communities, to their native soil is also recognized by public international law through the following instruments: 1. Inhibition of expulsion of ethnic groups: In Art. 3 of the Fourth Protocol to the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Liberties (only for the Member-States of the Council of Europe and recently adopted also by the EEC) it is said: “No one shall be exiled from the State of which he is a national.” The enforced mass migration and the expulsion of ethnic groups (and whole peoples) from their ancestral soil as was practiced by Adolf Hitler and Stalin in Eastern Europe (by Hitler alsg in regard to the South and the Baltic Germans),** was condemned (International Military Tribunal of Nuremberg) in expulsions realized by the Third Reich. Tyroleans by the IMT regard to the Not only did the IMT condemn the expulsion of ethnic groups, but also in the above quoted pyptocol No. 4 to the European Convention for Human Rights the expulsion and therefore generally enforced mass (e)migration not only of individuals, but also of (social and ethnic) groups is prohibited with the following words: "No one shall be expelled, by means either of an individual or of a collective measure, from the territory of the State of which he is a national. No one shall be deprived of the right to enter the territory of the State of which he is a national" (Art. 3). And aliens is prohibited." exoduses are condemned, Certainly, States of (EEC). Art. 4 says: And within especially the European Convention the Council of Europe, But it corresponds to “Collective expulsion the UN the massive in regard to racial is valid only for and recently also Public International of (enforcg4) groups. the Memberfor the EC Law and its provisions. If one would consider that mass migrations, if enforced, could be legalized in wars or warlike events, one must recognize the fact that in these cases the Convention of the Hague on the laws of the War on Land of 18 October 19072° is valid with the amendment of the Geneva Convention of 12 August 1949, on the Protection of Civilians in War-Times. During an occupation in war-times the occupant power is not occupied State to ethnic identity. allowed change The right of peoples and connected also is soil to their force domicile the or subjects to renounce to their ethnic communities peoples of right the with of the their ancestral to self- “Le determination, more clearly formulated in the French doctrine Many international droit des peuples à disposer d'eux-mêmes. (“all the right of each people stipulated instruments legal peoples" in the two Art. 1) to decide liberty") without international its any political influence convenants on human rights, status freely (that means or immixtion from abroad. “in The Covenant of 27 of the International have the right - Art. peoples the with “in community - to pursue Rights Civil and Political 339 Razprave other in gradivo, members of Ljubljana, their group” development. This means of the children of the mother tongue, Art.1 also of the Art. two 27 of March their Convenant No.18 economic, especially members of International the 1986, Convenants of Civil 1 of the Convenants, the of and and United Human (XXV), defining that this is this connection to the Aureliu Cristescu (ius about the contents of Nations right (and Rights) gave an authentic interpretation in the UN Declaration on the friendly and the cooperation between the States of 24 October, 2625 cultural education in their Rights Political binding international law and we refer in two UN Reports of Héctor Gros Espiell and cogens). If there should be any doubts Art. social also the right to an an ethnic community of relations 1970, No. (recte: to) self- determination includes the right “to constitute a sovereign and independent State, become immerged in another State or toa union with or it, to if the have people another decides political in this sense with its free will, status." This is said also, as a principle, in basket 1, principle VIII, of the Conclusion Act of the European Conference on Security and Cooperation of Helsinki, 1975, giving to all peoples, and therefore to all ethnic minorities and communities the right almost to cultural autonomy, based on their ethnic character and their linguistic One can also (Londonski heritage. remember sporazum) the of 5 Italian-Yugoslav October 1954, Memorandum confirmed of also Osimo Treaty of 1975, after which (Art. 4) the ethnic of the two zones of Trieste must be safeguarded, prohibited to alter this ethnic character. The Right Generally (Eire), to - the not Brittany, Ancestral Soil everywhere, Poland, and as it Scotland, the is London by the character and it is Education demonstrated etc. - the use in of Ireland a mother tongue belongs also to the native soil, and the, Ammoun Report demonstrates this right in regard to education. If the State impedes the education of the children of an ethnic group in the mother tongue, it commits the crime of cultural genocide. The question of bilingual education can or must be considered in the same manner as the education in the mother tongue. this can be possible if an ethnic minority group has two (or three) working languages, i.e. the mother tongue and the language of other ethnic groups on the same ancestral soil (as in Bratislava, in Brussels, in Eastern Brittany, in Ireland and so on); also, the official language within the State can be bilingualism ("notre avenir est bilingue" je bolje" in Southern Carinthia). But differences for each ethnic community. judged as an element of in Alsace, "dvojezicni this is a question with Notes 1. La Constitucién Gobierno Secretaria 1978; L. Lépez Rodé, (Aguilar), 1980. Española de 1978, Madrid (Presidencia del General Técnica, Nim. 80, extraordinario) La autonomias, encrucijada de España, Madrid 340 Razprave in 2. from Apart gradivo, the Ljubljana, Soviet March literature, 1986, the No.18 best documented Paolo Biscaretti di Ruffia, Gabriele Crespi Reghizzi, costituzione sovietica del 1977, A. Guyffré, Milano. 3. See for Financi i Fängelse, lag), example: V.I. statistika, Kozlov, Moskva; 1982, see Nationalitetspolitiken is: La Macionalnosti also: i Stcckholm. book 1979, Olo Ignats, Sovjetunionen, SSSR, Folkens Ordfrontsfér- 4. For details see: Theodor Veiter, 1984, Nationalit&tenkonflikt und volksgruppenrecht im ausgehenden 20. Jahrhundert, 2 vols., Intereg, Munich; and Braumliller, Vienna, with further literature. 5. Zev Katz, Rosemarie Rogers, Frederic Harned, 1976, Handbook of Major Soviet Nationalities, Collier Macmillan, London, with book references, 6. African Charter by the in in OAU "The Geneva, Review" No. 27, Alain Fenet, PUF, Paris. 7. Janko on of al., Golias, 8. Roland quarterly the Rights June and 1981. Peoples' Text International December, et SPRJ, 1976, Slovenije s Ljubljana. Human Nairobi,.28 1981; 1982, in Petjeziténi alia with de L'Homme glosar ustave adopted in Commission French, Droits Rights, inter of English Jurists, commentary, Droits in des in: Peuples, samoupravljanja Drustvo znanstvenih in tehniénih prevajalcev sofinanciranjem Kulturne skupnosti Slovenije, Breton, 1981, Etnie, Milano, Les ethnies, PUF, Paris; published since 1978. see also the 9. William Petersen, 1979, The Background to Ethnic Conflict, E.J. Brill, Leiden; Hans 0. Staub, 1975, Südafrika Report. Rassentrennung, Wunschtraum, Wahn und Wirklichkeit, europaverlag, Wien; Jost F. Noller, 1977, Theorie und Praxis der Apartheid, Peter Lang, Bern; Felix Ermacora, 1983, Menschenrechte in der sich wandelnden Welt, Vol. 2: Africa, Verlag der Osterr. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien; International Anti-Apartheid Year,21 March 1978 - 20 March 1979, UNO-Doc. OPI/E 601-25.000, February 1978. 10. Guy Héraud, d'Europe, 1974, L'Europe des ethnies, ll. Marc Lengereau, 1970, Le droit à la (Université des Sciences sociales de Grenoble, juridiques; Ernest Petric, 1964, "Das pojem mednarodnega prava," 2 Vols., (also Recht a book separately auf die Heimat im at the University Euskirchen (Verlag Theodor Veiter, et à leur foyer di Manlio Osmipress, 2nd ed., Presses Paris. Udina); Bonn. of ftir Recht auf die Heimat. Kot (dissertation), Ljubljana published; F.H.E.W. du Buy, 1975, "Das historisch-politischen Prozess," (thesis Utrecht; also published as a book in zeitgendssische Dokumentation, 1974); 1975, Le droit des peuples natal, À. Giuffrè, Milano Otto Heimat, Grenoble U.E.R. de sciences Kimminich, 341 1978, Das à disposer d'eux-mêmes (in: Scritti in onore Recht auf die Heimat, Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 12. Anthony D. Smith, 1981, World, Cambridge University Daniel P. Moynihan, 13. Walter No.18 The Ethnic Revival Press, Cambridge; 1975, Harvard University Grigulevich, S. Ya. National Problems Moscow. 1986, Ethnicity: Theory in the Modern Nathan Glazer, and Experience, Press, Cambridge, Mass. and London.; I.R. Kozlov, 1979, Ethnocultural Processes and in the Modern World, Progress Publishers, Becher, 1985, Der Blick aufs Ganze. Dans Weltbild Othmar Spanns. Munchen. About Gedanken zur Jahrtausendwende, Universitas Verlag, the philosophic ideas of Othmar Spann there exist many books. was 14. See: He also China's criticized Minority very often. Nationalities, Beijing (China Reconstructs - Great Wall Books), 1984; Yin Ming, 1977, United and Equal. The Progress of China's Minority Nationalities, Foreign Language Press, Peking. 15. Tony Hodges, 1982, Historical Dictionary of Western Sahara, The Scarecrow Press, Metuchen, N.J., and London; Wolfgang Neumann, 1983, Die Berber. Vielfalt und Einheit einer alten nordafrikanischen Kultur, DuMont, Kéln. 16. Vittorio umani," in: Gazerro, 1985, AWR-Bulleti, No. 17. See: Menschenrechte. UNESCO-Kommission, Bonn; International Law, Staatsdruckerei, 18. José A. See also: stranieri (with many e diritti figures). Internationale Dokumente, 1981, Deutsche Klaus Berchtold, 1978, Human Rights in College Obieta Chalbaud, de Texts, Verlag d. Osterr. los 1985, pueblos, El derecho Tecnos, humano Madrid (a de la fundamental Volgger, 1984, Mit Siidtirol am Scheideweg. Erlebte Haymon, Innsbruck; Antony Evelyn Alcock, 1970, The the South Tyrol Question, Michael Joseph Ltd., London; Theodor 1945-1983, Vienna Vienna. autodeterminacién work). 19. Friedl Geschichte, History of “Lavoratori 3, Veiter, 1984, Braumüller, Stuhlpfarrer, Vienna. 1985, Bibliographie Vienna Umsiedlung (about Südtirol zur 300 1939-40, Siidtirolfrage pages); 2 Vols., Karl Licker, 20. See note 10; Guy Héraud, 1984, Les communautés linguistiques en quête d'un statut, édition Tradition et progrès, Aosta/Aoste. 21. See the official internationaux 22. Jürgen Deutschen, Dietrich de van Hehn, Johann A. French 1982, Loeber, 1972, Herbert Convention Miehsler, on Human 1946, Die Gottfried Deutschbalten aus Estland Wachholtz, Neumtinster. 23. publication: populations, Les Umsiedlung Diktierte Option. Lettland Herbert 2 342 Die der Carl baltischen Marburg/Lahn; Umsiedlung 1939-1941, Petzold, Vols., transferts Paris. Herder-Institut, und Rights, PUF, 1978/1980, Heymanns, der Dokumentation, European Cologne. Razprave 24. in gradivo, Sadruddin Exoduses, Aga Doc. Ljubljana, Khan, March 1981, E/CN.4/1503, Study 31 1986, on No.18 Human Rights and Massive December. 25. Martens NRG, 3lst tome, ed. 3, p. 1967, Vülkerrecht. Dokumentensammlung, C.H. Beck, Munich. 461; Band Priedrich Berber, II Konfliktsrecht, 26. Héctor Gros Espiell, 1960, The Right to Self-Determination: Implementation of United Nations Resolutions, UN-Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/405/Rev.l ex; Aureliu Cristescu, 1981, The Right to Self-Determination: Historical and Current Development on the Basis of United /Sub.2/404/Rev. 1. Nations 27. J.E.S. Fawcett, Law," in Revue belge 1977, “The Helsinki Act and International de droit international, No. 1-2, Bruxelles; Hannes Tretter, (ed.), Instruments, 1984, Die UN-Doc. E/CN.4 Abschlussdokumente der Konferenz fiir Sicherheit und Zusammenarbeit in Europa von Helsinki 1975 und der Nachfolgekonferenzen Belgrad 1978 und Madrid 1983, Bôhlau, Vienna; Sicherheit und freidliche Zusammenarbeit in Europa, Dokumente 1954-1975, (4 Vols.), 19681976, Staatsverlag der DDR, East Berlin. 28. Memorandum LXXVIII; d'Intesa. Manilio Udina, Senato 1979, della Gli Repubblica accordi di Osimo, 1954, Ed. No. W LINT, Trieste; Ernest Petric, 1982, “Osnutki zakonov o pravicah Slovencev v Italiji v luci osimske pogodbe," in Razprave in gradivo, Vol. 15, Institut za narodnostna In regard to the linguistic groups in Joncié, 1982, Nationalities in Yugoslavia, Belgrade; and Jure Petricevié, Jugoslavije, CH-5200, 29. D. Charles Adria, Ammoun, 1983, Brugg 1976, Nacionalnost (very Study vprasanja, Ljubljana. Yugoslavia see: Koca Medjunarodna Politika, stanovistva important). of Discrimination in Education, UN-Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/181/Rev.1; Herndn Santa Cruz, 1978, Racial Discrimination, UN-Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/370/Rev.1. 343 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, DIFFERENT WAYS AND DIFFERENT AN ANSWER TO THE QUESTION OF March 1986, No.18 CIRCUMSTANCES “HOW TO LIVE PROVIDING TOGETHER" Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, Giusseppe Francescato Universita di Trieste Istituto Italy die No.18 UDC 323.15(450=863):376.7 Glottologia BILINGUALISM OF YOUNG PEOPLE IN THE SLOVENIAN MINORITY IN ITALY & The purpose are of engaged this in at Glottologia), with of young bilingual is a well known paper is the to give special reference speakers belonging fact that in the is usually idea of of the Trieste to to the the Province certain limits, in the town itself, whose mother tongue is Slovenian. Slovenian an University research we (Istituto di linguistic problems Slovene minority. It of Trieste and, within there are groups of speakers However, their knowledge of accompanied by the acquisition of the Italian language, mostly in the course of their second socialization. More precisely, the global range of languages in the repertoire of the Slovene bilingual speakers in Trieste comprises: 1) Slovenian dialect (there are many different local dialects); 2) standard Slovenian by a colloquial variant); 3) (formal language, often replaced dialetto triestino (the local variant of dialectal Italian); 4) standard Italian (literary language, usually based on a sub-standard regional model). Of course, different speakers display a diversified control of these various types. Bilingualism is more or less balanced, according with the cultural schooling, territorial This from of paper refers particularly the sixth year of age on, (teenagers). age few level limit years the speakers, their economic and working distribution, and so on. The reasons for their conditions, level their of sex, to the younger speakers, children pre-adolescents and adolescents restricting depend upon the particular for the development and the our observations interest shown characteristics in of to this the last language acquisition after infancy. This range of age falls entirely within the limits of the so-called “second socialization," which is, by definition, dominated by the influence of the school - on the one side - and of the peer-group, on the other side. To stress the role of school influence, one has to consider that all children of Slovenian mother tongue, by entering the school at elementary level, begin learning both Slovenian and Italian in their written (and "formal") form. But for most of the children contact with regular education in two languages starts already by their entering in the "“scuola-materna" research moves from this level. The data back to a number of dissertations (tesi students who dissertations materials, typically are themselves is to illustrate, some particular reflect the sociolinguistic behaviour English 347 of the situations, Slovenian Our can be traced elaborated by bilingual. The aim of with a suitable analysis Trieste, * Original: (kindergarten). we possess di laurea) these of the which minority in Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 A group of such "tesi" examines the linguistic and social behaviour of children who are enrolled ina "kindergarten" for Slovenian-speaking pupils. In fact, a careful inspection of the attitudes start and their reactions second of such children socialization, at uncovers the children. These depend upon linguistic education, and the the moment many when differences they among the influence of their previous difficulties which face the subjects when they meet this new situation. A considerable weight in determining such difficulties goes back to the complexity of the linguistic repertoire we have shown above, In her dissertation, M. Ivasié takes account of three significant circumstances operating in the process of linguistic and social adaptation of her subjects: a) choice of code on the basis of other children's attitudes; b) choice of code on the basis of the other general communicative intentions. The results of her analyses show how, and in spite of which difficulties, the children are able to gain control over two, or more, linguistic codes, i.e., how they establish their linguistic competence, and in particular how they learn to control the use of different codes according to different situations and different interlocutors competence). According already (i.e. to Ivasié's having Italian code children how some is they remarks, notion able establish of from (bilingual as the a at child least their who one beginning well as communicative enters kindergarten Slovenian to code interact monolingual). In children learn to use their codes alternatively, and keep this ability alive. On the contrary, children beginning, were able to communicate make exclusive use of this code. The the ones they are of the various codes in the case tend to at the tend to the fact the conditions for a distinction between who know and the ones who do not know even able to identify some aspects distribution one other this they who, in one code only, author underlines that children react very early to bilingualism, and that they not only make and with a language, but of the social community. In a parallel research V. Krizmancié examines similar cases of children who have been born in so-called "bilingual families," i.e. families where the parents do not speak as a mother tongue the same language. One would expect, in such a situation, greater difficulties and this Another lexical is for what the prepositions) dissertation the and adaptation of the subjects, happens. group of dissertations investigates the capacity and grammatical comprehension developed by children Slovenian and Italian on the comprehension of integration actually with shows prepositions respectively. M. Poropat's work of certain syntactic structures children how the from 3 cognitive develop in both to 7 aspects years languages is centered (the use of of bound of in age. with along the Her use parallel lines. There are, however, some more complicated situations, when the semantic "content" of Slovenian and Italian prepositions, respectively, do not entirely overlap. Three dissertations (by N. Bizjak, I. Stare and L. Leghissa) are devoted to the problems of lexical comprehension by students of the "scuola media." Subjects from 10 to 18 years of age are enrolled in schools for young people with Slovenian mother 348 Razprave tongue. in gradivo, For these Ljubljana, studies a March number 1986, of No.18 tests have been developed, especially in order of taking account of the age level and of the process of maturation acquired in the school. By means of a multiple-choice test, comprehension of lexical items is measured. One of the major difficulties in this research has been the elaboration of a set of questions, to be used in the test, and offering a similar range of difficulty in both languages. In Leghissa's dissertation even orthographic difficulties have been put to proof. The results of these studies have been evaluated with reference to a number of variables, such as social group, socio-cultural status of the family, sex, schooling level, place of residence. An evaluation of the objective results of tests in comparison with the subject's opinions has been traced with the help of a test for self-evaluation. Language comprehension in In the particular setting be some connection general of the between appears Province to be related Trieste there bilingualism and place of with age. seems to residence, in the sense that in the villages situated on the bilingualism is more common, as against the villages interior, where monolingualism (and the use of Slovenian) rule. In the group of young people submitted to coast in the is the investigation there appeared to be a tendency to develop bilingualism, in spite of the fact that the activity in the schools takes place almost exclusively in Slovenian. With references to differences among sex groups, it appears that girls prefer to choose a bilingual behaviour, while young men are easily oriented towards monolingualism in either one of the two languages, Slovenian or Italian. These results underline the importance of the socio-cultural variables with reference to the linguistic competence and general linguistic ability of bilingual speakers. As a consequence of the research conducted by means of tests, it has been possible to elaborate a sort of "index" for the evaluation of "orientation" of subjects towards either bilingualism or monolingualism. Comparing the results obtained by the subjects in both languages, it has been established that, when the number of errors remains within a certain range, it has to be taken as an indication of the subjects’ tendency to develop a good control of both languages (bilingualism); when, on the contrary, the number of errors is very small in either one of the two languages, it has to be taken as an indication of the of the subjects to become by preference a monolingual language. This "index" was used with good results in undertaken with the aim of classifying individual and the collective performances of groups of pupils The data on self-evaluation, on the other hand, all leaning in that research performances as well. have shown how of their characteristics peculiar the perceive people young linguistic experience, and how they feel as members of a minority group and experience the special difficulties inherent in their situation. In the self-evaluation data there appeared to be some homogeneity, in so far as the majority of the subjects declared to have some difficulties in the sue of the Italian language. On the other hand, while they estimated to possess a much better command of the Slovenian language,a majority of them declared to have trouble with both languages, 349 and to be dissatisfied with Razprave in gradivo, their competence, of having a good Ljubljana, March 1986, especially of Italian. access to the language No.18 They emphasized of the majority. the need One significant point is made by the differences between various schools. To interpret these data, one has to take into account the various aspects of the local socio-economic situation. For example, in the families of lower social level there is a tendency to enroll their children in schools of lower prestige, where linguistic performances are usually less appreciated. Somewhat surprising comprehension of the is the fact that, in absolute terms, the Italian section of the test appeared to be slightly the better than comprehension of the Slovenian section. In order to explain this apparently contradictory fact, it has to be remarked that in general the knowledge of Italian is the result of a scholastic process, so that Italian is normally acquired in its standard form, while Slovenian is usually known first in its “diglossia," outside the situation of because communication in the family as well school goes on in the Slovene dialect (the number "dialectical" form. This leads to a as of those families where standard or colloquial Slovenian is used is relatively limited, but increasing). The use of dialect has some negative influence upon the control of the standard language, and this is a reason for some concern in an environment like the one of the minority, where puristic tendencies are obviously prevailing. There are some other problems of some significance in order to assess the conditions of the bilingual minority. One could consider, for example, the problem of balance in bilingualism. A number of young people acquires, through the school, but also by direct experience, a balanced knowledge Italian, usually at a high level. this bilingual of the their speakers "national" linguistic at large, feelings however. of experience. the A There young short at present underway, which all complexity their will and help in it to the can face final be the future. 350 is Slovenian the rule then people, stress the fact that research on sociolinguistic aspects of the Slovenian premises, of both is not the largely comment can be and for problem based on made to the linguistic and minority in Trieste is said to problems state of the some good minority in Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, UDC376.744(450.365-86356 Clavora Ferruccio No.18 Cedad/Cividale SLORI, Italy L'ENSEIGNEMENT BILINGUE EDUCATIVE DESALIENANTE* EN BENECIA, OPTION POUR UNE POLITIQUE De nombreux documents indiquent comment, dans un passé récent, le slovéne était la langue universellement utilisée agns la “Slavia fruilana” (ou "Slavia veneta" ou encore "“Benecia")* comme moyen de communication spontané à l'intérieur de la communauté. Une récente la recherche“ population familiaux et que des qu'encore actuellement régulièrement le slovène plus dans de les 90% de rapports sociaux. L'effort des l'annexion à eu confirme utilise institutions de l'Etat, depuis 1866, date l'Italie, d'assimiler les slovènes de la Benecia effets très limités compacte numérique; une tranches d'âge; cohésion une tant que distribution ancestrales et une culture relativement pauvre mais la communauté normale interne de fondée la est restée population sur les de n'a par traditions particulière; une civilisation autosuffisante et pour cette rurale, raison mieux protégée de l'agressivité de la culture dominante; un système d'interrelations qui exaltait la solidarité et le sens d'appartenance qui trouvait profondément chrétienne de la ses racines culture locale. dans l'essence Ce peuple aurait trouvé en lui la force de s'adapter aux exigences des temps systématiquement privé de ce qui a caractérisé son histoire: sa culture et son autodétermination. Aux slovènes de la Benecia ne font certes pas défaut ni l'intelligence (entendue comme capacité d'adaptation aux conditions réelles pour les modifier) ni la capacité d'entreprendre; mais en tant que groupe social il s'est développé jusqu'au moment où il a pu gérer son autodétermination et rester maître de sa culture. La complexité des problèmes économiques, culturels fortement pesé sur ces et des processus historiques, et politiques des derniers slovènes. Confinés dans un cent ans a cul-de-sac, sans nom, possibilités réelles de développer une vie ils ont cherché à en sortir: et les meilleurs digne de ce sont partis les premiers. aujourd'hui partout, Les slovènes disséminés, Il serait l'histoire en une important de des slovénes de la diaspora pouvoir de la Benecia sans sont limites géographiques. consacrer plus d'espace a Benecia pour fournir plus d'éléments de compréhension, pour mieux évaluer la situation actuelle, mais cela mériterait un “paper” à part, et ce n'est pas possible dans le à fournir conséquent cadre une de brève ce Séminaire. mais sujet. * Original: French 351 suffisante Je limite par bibliographie me à ce Razprave Le in gradivo, problème langue de Ljubljana, March 1986, l'institutionalisation slovène est ressenti observe l'évolution la Benecia, du comme processus No.18 de l'enseignement essentiel pour d'assimilation de la quiconque des slovènes de Une fois disparu, ou pour le moins, fortement limité, le rôle du clergé, qui pendant de nombreuses décennies a été l'unique véhicule de transmission, promotion et renouvellement linguistique, tout le linguistique est Tant famille que la s'orientaient poids retombé vers de sur la restait les pays la continuité unie ou que européens et langage restait intégrale et répondait de communication locale. Même l'école, n'influençait’ que partiellement le mode de la population. restait le moyen Le de culturelle et famille. slovène, dans communication sa les flux d'outre migratoires mer, l'unité du pleinement aux exigences maternelle et primaire, d'expression traditionnel forme dialectale locale universellement utilisé; l'italien étant ressenti comme une valeur étrangère à la communauté, utile pour les rapports externes. Même celui qui rentrait après de longues périodes d'absences et avait tendance à s'exprimer dans un code linguistique italianisant se retrouvait en nette minorité et était par conséquent tenu à s'adapter à la forme d'expression dominante, qui restait le slovène. Dans les dernières 15-20 années, la situation s'est radicalement transformée, et non seulement par l'effet de la diffusion de masse de la radio et de la télévision (italienne). C'est à cette période que se développe brusquement l'économie du Frioul attirant dans ses entreprises la main-d'oeuvre restée disponible dans la montagne "navette" Ce qui slovène. concerne nouveau mode de Naît plus et de vie, se développe 40% de cette la le phénomène main-d'oeuvre adaptation ultérieure exigences de survie, font assumer aux phénomènes des processus évolutifs bien différents de ceux vérifiés précédemment. La première Un nombre grande transformation système endogame, tradition Un pourcentage croissant de la majorité italienne. considérable frioulaine, pas loin de Ce sont ces familles, les qui locaux, aux linguistiques qui s'étaient l'entrée jeunes s'installe communauté d'origine maintiennent de fréquents rapports, contractent constituent des familles culturellement mixtes, pour ne pas dire s'imposent, la langue italienne pratiquement la en crise du séculaire des slovènes de la Benecia. familles s'apparente à des membres de de la est de locale. à avec l'occasion lesquels de leurs ils dans avec la plaine laquelle ils des mariages et où prédominent, ou le frioulan. visites entrent en obligent contact, à parler la langue de la majorité. C'est ainsi que de plus en plus, dans les familles slovènes on parle l'italien mal, avec de fortes inflexion et l'intonation dues à la matrice locale, mais italien. En outre, il craintif que ne le faut pas sous-évaluer slovène de la Benecia le fait que le porte vers son instauré un mécanisme de prudence préventive qui l'amene s'exprimer automatiquement en italien en présence d'une peu ou pas connue. respect hôte, a porte à personne Razprave A ces in gradivo, phénoménes Ljubljana, d'ordre March 1986, psychologique No.18 vont s'ajouter ceux de nature plus proprement linguistique qui concernent l'évolution la langue locale due à l'italianisation forcée à l'école, à de la pénalisation au des dépérissement la langue enfants du qui langage italienne parlent quotiden les le qui vocables qui dialecte de plus en lui font 4 l'école, plus emprunte défaut. Dans à cette phase, le caractère inadéquat du dialecte slovène local (langage hautement spécialisé et extrêmement riche dans le domaine de la vie domestique et rurale) à garantir, à l'intérieur même de La communauté un et prise cette niveau de communication de conscience ultérieurement aux yeux même principaux utilisateurs. de suffisant, contribue ceux qui en devient à sont le les évident, dévaluer porteurs et Face au désastre démographique et linguistique qui tend à l'anéantir, confrontée à l'ignorance subjective et objective des racines historiques de sa culture et de ses traditions, la communauté de La Benecia pose et se pose la question fondamentale du rapport entre la langue et son identité. Toutes aux les structures slovénes de qui la pendant Benecia de plus d'un maintenir siècle leur avaient langue permis ont été anéanties par la pression de la politique assimilatrice du nationalisme italien. Les slovènes sentent aujourd'hui qu'il est urgent de remplacer ces structures par d'autres qui, soulevant la communauté de la pitoyable situation dans laquelle elle se trouve, éliminent établissant gratifient un le l'usage expressives sentiment rapport du valables d'infériorité enrichissant slovène et en avec lui universellement la qui la frappe langue garantissant et standard, des formes praticables. Cette structure ne peut être qu'une institution qui opère profondeur et durablement, c'est l'école. Une école qui tout étant l'expression du pouvoir reconnaisse à La langue slovène la De l'école s'agit de maternelle réaliser de la dignité en en culture dominante, qui lui revient. aux plus hauts degrés de l'instruction, il une école qui valorise les réelles potentialités de la culture locale, les transcende dans leur rapport avec la culture du monde slovéne plus vaste, concrétisant ainsi le dépassement de la dichotomie psychologique dans laquelle se trouvent les jeunes et plus encore les adultes de cette communauté. Le réle du langage processus mentaux. est fondamental dans l'organisation des Le degré de perfection et d'organisation, la quantité et la qualité du langage donnent la capacité de comprendre le monde, mesurent la capacité de communication et déterminent le degré de la demande et de la Le langage est à la rapport directement premier définit le satisfaction des propres besoins et désirs. base de la maturation de l'homme, dans proportionnel, où le niveau atteint par degré de l'autre. 353 un le Razprave A ce in gradivo, propos se Ljubljana, posent toute March une 1986, série de No.18 problémes qui touchent au domaine de l'acquisition du langage en général, mais se spécifient particuliérement dans un milieu bilingue (plurilingue) par rapport au contexte social dans lequel vit l'enfant, depuis la naissance. Quels problémes interagissent Quelles système Quels posent ou lorsque plusieurs dans codes la période effets produit, dans général langue sur de évolutive, linguistiques? sont les conditions d'acquisition du d'égalité de deux ou plusieurs codes? développement d'une se deux l'acquisition la personne, du langage langage l'oppression dans un dans le et linguistique l'autre? Quelles sortes de mécanismes psychologiques suffocation progressive de la langue maternelle dominante, particulierement en absence institutionnalisées de valorisation de la instaure la par la langue de formes première? La connaissance de deux codes linguistiques reste-t-elle un avantage objectif, en présence de phénomènes sociaux de discrimination où la connotation linguistique minoritaire assume des valeurs sociales négatives? La civilisation langue un rôle occidentale sélectif l'instruction scolaire. défavorisés fournissent des enfants des et attribue ce, non à la connaissance seulement dans le de la cadre de Que les jeunes des milieux sociaux plus un rendement scolaire inférieur à celui classes sociales aisées est un fait acquis. 11 s'agit du rapport entre la réussite scolaire et la stratification sociale. Rendement scolaire insuffisant, répétition, absentéisme, échecs, abandon prématuré de l'école ... sont des aspects différents d'un seul et même phénomène qui semble être l'apanage des enfants des classes défavorisées et qui se traduit très souvent dans ‘un syndrome plus ample et omni-comprehensif: la désadaptation. Dans de toutes la les sensiblement marginales supérieurs généralement, insuffisante C'est zones désadaptation à la et scolaire à la sous-développées atteint moyenne conséquence de la langue, de travers le langage que et la part des l'enfant phénomène pourcentages d'une connaissance l'echèc directe le des scolaire est, élèves. entre en rapport avec le milieu et s'approprie des expériences, des valeurs de la culture dont il est membre. Apprendre à parler d'une façon plutôt que d'une code autre ne signifie linguistique et donc pas seulement d'une certaine s'approprier structure d'un certain mentale, cela signifie aussi acquérir des modèles déterminés de référence dont l'incidence sur l'adaptation à la vie scolaire d'abord, à celle professionnelle ensuite est sensible. Les difficultés de communication et le sens d'extranéité qui en dérive, finissent par se traduire en un manque d'intérêt pour tout ce qui touche au monde de l'école. D'un côté, le milieu dans lequel vit et grandit l'enfant, lié à la culture rurale, ot le moyen d'expression traditionnel est 354 mystifié, présenté comme une Razprave in gradivo, non-valeur, est Ljubljana, vécu comme March un 1986, symptôme No.18 de retard culturel, de l'autre, une structure scolaire qui, loin d'activer les qualités linguistiques et psychologiques de chacun, comme expression authentique de la vie du groupe, impose ses modéles, désapprouvant et punissant ceux qui s'en distancient. La qualité du langage de l'enfant slovène de la Benecia n'est pas reconnue par le système éducatif qui impose au contraire une connaissance abstraite, impersonnelle, froide et non participée, tout à l'opposé relations, de de ce qui culture, constitue de vie de le bagage l'enfant. La émotif langue de et la culture italienne s'abattent sur l'élève avec tout le poids que peut leur donner l'institution de l'instruction obligatoire. Cette pratique anti-éducative ne peut avoir qu'un seul, inévitable effet: celui de l'aliénation ethnique qui se transforme en aliénation, tout court. * I1 en faut, 1982 à ce par problèmes sur Le une temps point, me le SLORI, à ma * référer aux études réalisées en 1979 et et déjà indiquées au début, sur les d'identification hypothèse * des d'école enfants slovènes de la Benecia et de communication ne désaliénante. disposition dans le cadre cette me permet de fournir que quelques indications général sur les résultats de ces études limitées, la situation scolaire en Benecia. a) Ecole Les sélective données d'échecs et sélection relatives à sensiblement de caractère je le répète à occulte l'echèc scolaire supérieur au révèlent pourcentage un pourcentage national: pour l'année scolaire 1979-1980, le pourcentage de “non admis" à la classe supérieure pour les écoles moyennes inférieures de San Pietro al Natisone a été de 27,5%, et pour l'année scolaire 19801981, de 28,2% avec Classes. La D'autres données des moyenne pointes pour de 38,1% l'ensemble intéressantes d'échecs de l'Italie nous sont pour est certaines de 8,54. fournies par le Recensement Général de la Population de 1981. Pour la Benecia nous trouvons un licencié universitaire sur 106 personnes et un analphabéte rapport b) est Politique sur 110 personnes. respectivement scolaire de Pour 1 sur 47 la et province de 1 sur de Udine le 137. illégale Les considérations exposées ce-dessus sur l'évaluation négative d'un pourcentage élevé de la population sur la connaissance et l'usage du dialecte slovène sont confirmées par ces recherches. Malgré les circulaires ministérielles sur la nécessité du lien pédagogique milieu-enfant, l'école en Benecia continue à transmettre un message sur la qualité de la culture locale la présentant comme un handicap réel pour la promotion culturelle et sociale de l'élève. Il n'est pas rare, encore aujourd'hui, de voir des enseignants infliger des punitions aux enfants qui se laissent échapper un mot en slovène 355 durant l'horaire scolaire. Razprave c) En Langue gradivo, et Ljubljana, culture Benecia et le l'identification social. Pour mécanisme de March minoritaire d'infériorité gique que in 1986, comme ethnique s'affranchir No.18 handicap comporte de cette l'indentification un et coût situation avec sentiment psycholo- il ne l'agresseur. reste Ainsi, l'insécurité produite par la conscience de la diversité ethnique est compensée par le sens de sécurité qui provient de l'adaptation aux modèles de la majorité. L'adaptation à tout prix, comme exigence de survie, en définitive se révèle irréversible d'autodestruction: chercher de ce que l'on est, c'est-à-dire se nier L'école en loin d'être Benecia un instrument l'élément d'anéantissement des promotion déterminant valeurs l'assimilation des anticonstitutionnelle. de et * une * processus humaine, primordial culturelles slovénes: comme ou accepter d'être comme sujet. autre devient du projet autochtones école et de légalement * Si le langage est non seulement l'instrument pour parler de la realité mais aussi pour la transformer et la construire et si les caractères sémantiques et grammaticaux d'une langue modèlent la vision du monde de celui qui la parle, l'on pourrait conclure que le slovène de historiques et malmenée, Il n'est la Benecia, politiques, sa construit une réalité pas étonnant, par conséquent, Seulement ceux du dans motivations l'institution Le programme slovènes des qu'il social expérience d'une de de ces leur conditions maternelle refuse cette école ainsi en du sens de alternatif Benecia éducative maternelle réalité accepte, conditionnements, comportement ils vivent, décident porteurs d'un projet changement une les sub-normale. s'affranchissent les société dans laquelle action et deviennent du changement social. acteurs par langue à s'identifier avec l'agresseur, qu'il libération, son aliénation ethnique. qui approfondissent Ces contraint travers se et qu'il cherche enfin, comme une engagés au sont alternative, privée, et qui de depuis deux originale la langue standard slovène et permettra une insertion aisée slovènes de l'Etat de Gorizia bilingue. réelles des enfants à une connaissance de de la langue italienne. Ce système de ces enfants tant dans les écoles que dans les écoles italiennes de la Benecia, et ce en attendant la loi de tutèlle des slovènes Italie que le Parlement italien approuvera tôt ou tard. Les activités suivent grosso pour les écoles maternelles l'usage et du dialecte informelles) des langues guidées). ans avec qui est différent de celui des écoles maternelles provinces de Trieste et Gorizia, se propose de partir des connaissances linguistiques (dialecte slovène et italien) pour arriver libres la leur propre et acteurs slovène slovène et en modo les indications ministérielles de l'Etat, et se développent avec à partir (prédominant duquel italienne 356 on dans procède (dominantes dans les activités à l'acquisition les activités Razprave Les in gradivo, enfants Ljubljana, (actuellement enseignantes diplomées March une qui 1986, quinzaine) s'alternent matin, l'autre l'après-midi, avec simultanée, dans la période centrale Pour donner aux enseignantes slovène, l'autre utilisant le prédominance des points de qui ne peut définitive pour de repères des par une italien; enfants des langue les une considérée des le présence en garantir deux une précis, en à être scolarisation de activités celles évidemment la suivis trois heures de la journée. exclusivement exclusivement sont hebdomadairement, dialecte local de manière du slovène sur l'italien, L'initiative, solution enfants s'occupe No.18 deux légère comme une slovènes de la Benecia, est actuellement auto-financée et par conséquent gravement limitée dans ses potentialités de développement. L'expérience, au-delà de sa valeur pédagogique expérimentale, représente de toute façon une démonstration de la possibilité de mettre en pratique ce genre d'éducation, même dans une société gravement handicapée expérience constitue comme l'est la de toute façon Benecia d'aujourd'hui. Cette un message d'espoir et une invitation concrète aux autorités à résoudre, pour le mieux et dans le plus bref délai, toute la problématique des slovènes en Italie et en particulier de ceux de la province de Udine. Notes 1. Les slovénes d'Italie habitent aujourd'hui 35 communes des provinces de Trieste, Gorizia et Udine de la Region Autonome Friuli-Venezia Giulia: les 6 communes de la province de Trieste, 8 communes Doberdé del province Valbruna, Tarcento, Grimacco, Stregna, Alors (Dolengna del Lago, Ronchi Collio, Gorizia, Savogna d'Isonzo, dei Legionari, Monfalcone) de la de Gorizia et 21 communes (Pontebba, MalborghettoTarvisio, Resia, Lusevera, Taipana, Montenars, Nimis, Attimis, Faedis, Torreano, Pulfero, Savogna, Drenchia, San Pietro al Natisone, San Leonardo, Prepotto, Cividale) de la province de Udine. que les slovénes des provinces de Trieste et Gorizia sont reconnus et protégés, en vertu de traités internationaux, la province de Udine ne bénéficient d'aucune tutéle ceux de puisque l'Italie en ne veut que communauté Les termes pas encore ethnique "Slavia et reconnaître linguistique italiana," "Slavia leur existence tant slovène. veneta," "Slavia friulana” ou "Benecia" désignent les slovénes des vallées du Natisone, du Torre et de Resia qui,-ont eu un commun destin historique sous. le Patriarcato autrichienne slovènes entrent de d'Aquileia, pour la à faire Val la enfin République passer Canale, partie de comme l'Italie de Venise, sous ceux en l'Italie de 1920 la domination en Trieste suite 1866. et Les Gorizia au Traité de Rapallo. Pour traiter des problèmes identiques des slovènes des Vallées du Natisone, Torre, Resia et la Val Canale on utilise généralement l'expression slovènes de la province de Udine. Lorsqu'on parle de Benecia on se réfère généralement aux slovènes des autres vallées Resia) même s'il arrive souvent que sous le Torre, (Natisone, terme "Slavia" on s'en tient strictement aux slovènes des Vallées 357 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 du Natisone, (voir Carlo Podrecca qui sous le terme Slavia = Schiavonia se référe aux sept communes de ces vallées). La politique italienne envers les slovénes de la Slavia a été définie par le "Giornale di Udine" du 22 novembre 1866: "Questi il faut les éliminer." Slavi bisogna eliminarli - ces Slaves, 2. Voir Ruttar, Riccardo, sloveni della provincia 1979. 3. in bambini psicologia Quale Benecia; in scuola Quale 1982. Cividale, SLORI, Benecia, in scuola Torino, evolutiva, dell'età Problemi di identificazione di Udine; tesi di laurea in Popolazione residente 1871-1984 Communi 1871 1881 1901 1911 1921 1931 1936 1951 1961 1971 1991 1984 Drenchla 1.036 1.278 1.389 1.424 1.562 1458 1.285 1.392 1128 590 397 335 Grimacco 1.324 1.560 1.570 1.678 1.780 1,621 1.543 1737 1645 929 766 720 Puitero 3.256 3.492 3.779 3.991 4066 3854 3681 3735 3.306 2.237 1.832 1693 8. Leonardo 2188 2382 2639 2623 2637 2424 2222 2283 2077 1.375 1.236 1196 $. Pietro al Mat. 2811 3182 3313 3525 3544 3.039 3077 3.088 2842 2331 2060 2099 Savogna 1820 2.017 2078 2.026 2143 2.044 1.867 2077 1741 1.226 1,029 945 Stregna 1616 1.710 1.805 2.000 1908 1908 1.722 1883 1.554 952 731 681 14.051 15.621 16.573 16.195 14.293 8.849 6.051 17.267 17.840 18.359 15.397 7.669 POPOLAZIONE TALIA 273300 28953420 12965506 35 SAS BE AAS OOD 41651617 42993602 47515537 506270 SA VIABME SE 556 811 4. 1) Carlo Cividale, 2) Podrecca, 1884. Carlo Editore, Podrecca, Cividale, La Slavia La Slavia italiana, Fulvio italiana:Polemica, valli del Natisone, 4) Olinto Marinelli, Guida delle Prealpi Giulie, Atesa Editrice, Bologna, 1977. 5) Autori vari, La storia della Slavia italiana, Stampa Trieste, 1978. 6) Autori vari, Slavia Linee per friulana, la tutela? Clavora, Società larinascita Editoriale 7) Autori vari, Cattolici Udine, Societa Cooperativa 8) Ferruccio Fulvio 1884. 3) Pasquale Guion, La gente delle Grafiche Friulane, Udine, 1974. della 1980. Editore, ed Stampa un ristampa diverso sviluppo Triestina, Trieste, e questione slovena in Editrice DOM, Pulfero, Editrice 358 DOM, da Editoriale provincia 1984. Sloveni della provincia di Udine: Coop. Arti Pulfero, 1985. di perché Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 9) Perruccio Clavora e Riccardo Ruttar, La gente non vuole, alcune note per una miglior conoscenza della situazione degli sloveni della provincia di Udine, Soc.Coop. Editrice DOM, Pulfero, 1985. 10) Autori sviluppo, 11) vari, La Benecia Editoriale Ferruccio Stampa Clavora emigrazione: il izseljencev, Cividale, 12. Paolo slovena caso ad una svola: Triestina, e delle Riccardo Valli del emarginazione Trieste, Ruttar, Natisone, o 1985. Sloveni ed Zveza beneëkih 1985. Petricig e Valentino 2. Simonitti, La comunita del Friuli, Editoriale Stampa Triestina, Trieste, 1974. 13. Simon Ljubljana, Rutar, Bene&Ska Slovenija, 1899. 359 Blasnikova Tiskarna, Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Darko Bratina SLORI, Trieste Italy BILINGUISME ETHNIQUEMENT UDC ET DUALISME MIXTES* La présence linguistiques LINGUISTIQUE 376.744(45=863) DANS DES CONTEXTES simultanée de nombreux et différents codes dans la méme aire géographique ainsi que la pratique individuelle et quotidienne de duex ou plusieurs langues, dialectes ou langages caractérisent toujours plus le mode de vie contemporain. Dans cette seconde moitié du siècle, nous assistons à une véritable explosion des connaissances qui, non seulement offrent et multiplient les occasions d'échanges à des niveaux et codes linguistiques différents, mais produisent aussi de nouveaux - même si artificiels - langages: il aux processus d'informatisation et l'expression et de la connaissance suffit de penser d'autre part individuelle. à d'une part l'expansion de Paradoxalement, et peut-être stimulés par ces nouveaux langages artificiels, les langues traitionnelles retrouvent leur force et se développent, tandis que les expressions et les écritures considérées comme de simples dialectes ou en voie d'extinction acquièrent On le pourrait statut dire de que langue. ce processus linguistique complexe conduit toujours plus à la construction de l'homme “être multilingue qui interagit de manière permanente dans les contextes plurilinguistiques. Au même moment il est possible de constater que -niant les trends mondiaux - au niveau politique continue de dominer la tendance à contrarier un développement bilingue ou plurilingue surtout là où sont en contact deux ou plusieurs nationalités (groupes ethniques) différents par langue et par culture, comme c'est le cas pour les slovènes en Italie. Dans ces situations, ce ne sont pas tellement des préoccupations d'ordre éducatif et des paramètres culturels qui sont en jeu, mais plutôt des logiques qui tendent à imposer et à perpétuer des dominations qui Kilani: proposer "Se découlent d'une sont loin d'être d'étudier relation de les innocentes. rapports domination, Comme observe linguistiques revient à décrire qui un phénomène économique, social et politique - la domination d'une société par une autre - à travers les rapports linguistiques qui constitutent à la fois l'une de ses conséquences et l'un de ses productions. même champ temps En que effet, des une champs linguistique qui situation économique, est le de domination politique lieu où se et produit, social, en un traduisent linguistiquement les rapports de domination. Et ce champs linguistique s'exprime dans l'opposition langue dominante/langue dominée, qui reproduit l'opposition plus générale de structure * Original: French 360 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 4 la une relation de domination, Dans dominée. dominante/structure structure dominante institue d'une part un champ d'exclusion linguistique: exclusion d'une langue (la langue dominée) des sphères du pouvoir (économique, par une seule d'exclusion langue et de politique, etc.) (la langue dépossession et dominante). impliquent exclusion et du pouvoir, le champ sphères du ces mêmes linguistique de tout de la parlent ceux qui part, l'investissement une Ces de d'autre pouvoir mécanismes dévaluation de la langue des dominés et une majoration de la langue dominante; ceci se traduit le plus souvent par la dichotomie langue-dialecte. La constitution d'un champ linguistique dominé par une langue au détriment d'une autre traduit donc les rapports de force économique et politique constitutifs d'un rapport de domination." Le problème étant posé en ces termes, il en découle que l'étude et l'analyse des contextes dans lesquels sont simultanéments présents deux ou plus codes linguistiques ne concernent pas exclusivement les disciplines linguistiques, ou les points de vue de la linguistique. Comme cela a été scientifiques amplement des trente démontré, derniéres le travil années des et la réflexion disciplines comme la psychologie, la sociologie, l'anthropologie culturelle et méme l'éthologie, fournissent des contributions décisives pour une connaissance plus répondante à la réalité de ce qui se passe effectivement - ou peut se passer - là où les hommes interagissent en différenciés A l'état affrontant entre actuel des niveaux linguistiques divers des connaissances, il semble l'aspect strictement linguistique de la pointe de l'iceberg, la partie La problématique qui nécessite seulement pour attribuer désormais établi question n'est plus visible que que la d'une une approche multidisciplinaire, non solidité scientifique en termes explicatifs, mais aussi pour fournir de base adéquate correcte politique d'intervention, en premier lieu en ce concerne hypotèses et instruments dans les secteurs l'éducation et et eux. de la une qui de formation. Dans le cadre de ce séminaire je n'ai pas l'intention ‘de parcourir la vaste littérature sur le bilinguisme et ses implications. Il existe en la matière suffisament d'études et de répertoires. Je pourrais éventuellement être tenté d'établir une analyse historico-sociologique de cette production pour comprendre la raison des changements - pour le dire avec Kuhn - des paradigmes scientifiques, comme par Opinions relatives a l'influence développement de l'intelligence redéfinition des “biculturalisme." concepts Laissant 4 d'autres thèmes et conscient le du est me incertain, possibilités nationalement Le Pur, je de à limiterai pratique à l'état considérer tels pur, des la révision bilinguisme l'importance que sur de “diglossie" des le la et d'approfondir et de développer ces que le terme même de "bilinguisme" (ethniquement) monolinguisme sont la soin fait exemple du où à des observations bilingue dans des sur les contextes mixtes. ainsi simples 361 que le bilinguisme abstractions. Dans à l'état la vie Razprave in concréte, gradivo, il Ljubljana, n'existe monolingue; de pas méme il complètement bilingue. “entraver" la formation résultat d'un certain conséquence d'un normal March de 1986, personne est qui difficile de lorsque les soit exclusivement trouver une personne Nous avons cependant que "favoriser" ou d'individus bilingues est souvent plus le contexte politique et social que la choix personnel; en particulier dans des aires où un déterminé code linguistique une connotation nationale. Ce mécanisme évident No.18 attitudes renvoie résulte négatives immédiatement à particulièrement envers la langue - généralement minoritaire - sont en réalité des attitudes négatives vis à vis de ceux qui utilisent et pratiquent cette langue. Sur le plan de la politique éäucative par conséquent, de “soustraire" le maximum bilinguisme avec la conséquence "naturels" d'assimilation. avec une forte conscience sont Il en état faut, à de ce résister point, de la produire des Dans ces cas, seules - plus nationale que et de se maintenir ultérieurement tendance est, d'occasions de processus les personnes linguistique - bilingues. préciser le terme "bilingue". Souvent, en effet, l'on confond le niveau individuel social ou d'une façon plus générale avec l'environnement. Les oppositions au bilinguisme, mixtes, sont presque toujours des du statut de langue dans les aires oppositions à la officielle ou avec le géographiques reconnaissance paritaire d la langue minoritaire, par son exclusion des assemblées publiques, des bureaux, des enseignes publiques, de la dénomination officielle des lieux, etc. En outre, la langue minoritaire n'est d'habitude pas enseignée dans les écolesà langue majoritaire. Un tel état de fait porte à la nécessaire et nette distinction entre la situation individuelle et toutes les autres avis on ne peut parler de personnes qui pratiquent deux Le bilinguisme mental et est quelque intériorisé dans situations, puisque bilinguisme que dans codes linguistiques. chose la qui tête existe des le seulement au personnes, à notre cas de niveau comme il résulte, explicitement et implicitement, des recherches sur l'argument. Par conséquent, lorsque nous nous référons à la dimension linguistique du monde externe, ou de l'environnement, il serait plus correct de parler, dans les cas de présence de deux langues, de dualisme linguistique. Celui-ci peut être plus ou moins présent, ou même tout à fait absent dans les lieux où convivent des communautés. En effet, c'est justement en partant de la constatation que dans une certaine aire géographique convivent des communautés distinctes du point de vue ethnique et linguistique que les thèmes du (personne) sens nous dualisme linguistique assument qui est à la estimons que sens en (environnement) termes sociaux et et du bilinguisme civils. C'est un fois scientifique et politique. Si, en effet, la coexistance de deux ou plus ethnies. langues est une et cultures, personnes qui vivent un choix de valeurs lieu la question linguistiquement un les pour positive richesse ou une ressource ces situations - ce qui est évidemment aussi - alors nous devons nous poser en premier de savoir comment ce équipé pour permettre 362 déterminé territoire au bilinguisme latent est des Razprave in personnes plénitude. Cela gradivo, de s'exprimer comporte évolutions dans le milieu Ljubljana, avec évidemment sur le milieu. "parle" degré En les March toutes des 1986, ses potentialités opérations de d'explicitation d'autres deux termes, langues au No.18 du il toute reconnaissance dualisme s'agit travers et de de de linguistique vérifier ses et sa si le institutions et de ses ervices; s'il se présente à l'individu comme paysage dans toute sa "physicité" et socialité linguistiquement complexe, où est normale la simultanée présence publique des deux langues. Nous sommes en effet convaincus que seulement en présence d'une explicitation intégrale du dualisme linguistique sur le terrain se créent les conditions réelles pour que puisse vivre et se développer une population prémisse pour un effectif - de type culturel. Dans les cas où le dualisme même absent du milieu, de pratiques bilingues impossible. Le bilinguisme avec et par des efficace compétences échange linguistique - et résulte bilingues, confrontation être carent ou il est fort probable que l'appropriation devienne fort précaire, difficile, voire excellence, c'est-à-dire la présence simultanée de deux distincts codes linguistiques chez le même individu - comme le définit Hymes - devient socialement possible seulement si le milieu à l'intérieur duquel l'individu vit concrétise son bilinguisme par l'extension à tous les niveaux du dualisme linguistique. Celle de qui vient difficile d'être définie réalisation. Elle est peut peut-être cependant, une à hypothèse notre avis, idéale être prise comme élément de comparaison, tant au niveau de l'analyse qu'à celui de la praticabilité politique, là où bien entendu existe une volonté politique capable de valoriser et utiliser les ressources ethniques et linguistico-culturelles dont elle dispose. 363 Razprave Antonio in gradivo, Giunta National La Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Spada UDC 323.15(45):342.722 Delegate Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione della Rome, Italy Repubblica Italiana LA TUTELA DELLE MINORANZE LINGUISTICHE IN ITALIA: POTENZIALITA' E RUOLO DELL' EDUCAZIONE NELL' ATTUAZIONE DEL PRINCIPIO COSTITUZIONALE* La tutela prevista dalla Costituzione Il principio che prescrive la tutela è stato introdotto nell'ordinamento l'art. gennaio 6 della Costituzione delle minoranze costituzionale repubblicana entrata linguistiche italiano con in vigore il 1 1948. In sede di interpretazione sono contrapposte. dell'art. 6 due principali tendenze si La prima concepisce il principio della tutela delle minoranze come aspetto particolare attualizzante il principio di nazionalità, per cui risulterebbe applicabile soltanto alle situazioni in cui si realizza una divaricazione fra lo "Stato" e la “nazione". E' questo il caso dei gruppi appartenenti ad una determinata comunità nazionale che si trovano a vivere confini di uno stato diverso da quello che la cumunità tutelanda riconosce come proprio "stato-patria." Il secondo orientamento considera un'applicazione del principio del la tutela pluralismo entro i tutelata o delle minoranze istituzionale. come In tale ipotesi un qualsiasi gruppo avente distintivi e un "animus comunitario"” sarebbe propri caratteri riconoscibile di tutela, ai una tutela volta a favorire comunita statale anche quelli "“formazioni sociali" intermedie La prima interpretazione linguistiche," letta gruppi come impiegata riferibile francese, alle sloveno, accanto delle tra il implica nell'art. sole comunità cittadino che la 6 della minoranze diritti della locali o delle e lo stato. formula “minoranze Costituzione, "nazionali," vada cioé ai sudtirolese. La tutela minoritaria si identificherebbe sostanzialmente con quella stabilita dagli ordinamenti delle regioni a statuto speciale per i gruppi sopra ricordati. Il secondo inteso in orientamento senso si sostanziale, ricollega cosi come al principio previsto di eguaglianza dall'art. 3 della Costituzione, ove viene espressamente richiamato quale compito della Repubblica il rimuovere gli ostacoli che limitano di fatto la libertad e la uguaglianza dei cittadini. * Original: Italian 364 Razprave La in tutela gradivo, Ljubljana, consisterebbe, al March 1986, riguardo, No.18 non solo discriminazioni ma nello sviluppo di differenziazioni del trattamento normativo singole situazioni di fatto. Questo secondo orientamento consente di nel divieto di un sistema di da applicare alle includere nella nazione di minoranze linguistiche non solo i gruppi che si considerano espressione di una nazionalità diversa da quella italiana ma anche quelle comunità che aspirano peculiarità etniche a linguistiche, a L'influenza della internazionale orientamenti Non va trascurata l'evoluzione sede evoluzione l'influenza degli che dell'orientamento ha valorizzare avuto prevalso sul su le loro in sede dibattito tale interno problematica in internazionale, Occorre osservare che nell'immediato dopoguerra il problema in questione fu sempre considerato - specialmente in sede ONU - come momento della lotta contro le discriminazioni che privavano gli individui dei diritti l'uguaglianza di primari di libertà o che comunque ledevano diritto. Solo successivamente si affiancô all'esigenza di tutela individuale quella di tutela delle minoranze etniche linguistiche e religiose contro discriminazioni e attacchi portati allo loro identità collettiva. Questo orientamento, a suo tempo recepito dall'art. 27 del patto internazionale per i diritti politici e sociali approvato dall'Assamblea Generale dell'ONU il 15 dicembre 1966, è stato reso esecutivo nell'ordinamento italiano con la legge n.881 del 25 ottobre 1977. La tutela in sostanza investe i gruppi in quanto tali più che i singoli individui appartenenti ai gruppi. Ne deriva che presupposto per l'individuazione di una minoranza è l'esistenza di una comunita. Tralascio qui la disamina scaturiscono ai fini della dei problemi di natura giuridica che determinazione delle forme di tutela che investono - oltre alla sfera e gli interessi configurantesi “diffusi" dei nonché soggetti L'esigenza La di quelli misura Questo unica di non tali diritti una legge quadro di formale, tutela delle una ma alla ed parita di sostanziale che sia normativa situazioni giustoo diritti possibile a va imputabili. intesa fissare tutte interventi 365 identificazione siano e accompagnata, applicabile esige corretta interessi "positiva." implica disciplina Giversita relativi a cui realizzazione uguaglianza giuridica soggettiva - i diritti come interessi “collettivi" ° non una sola le minoranze. specifici come pertanto, e da ed La distinti. Razprave Ma la in gradivo, nonostante Ljubljana, questo possibilità andrebbe di March 1986, sostenuta ricondurre e rigorosamente tutte minoritaria, pur nella loro diversitad, attuazione dell'art. 6 che individui No.18 le an i norme studiata di una legge principi tutela generale generali tutela, suscettibili di ulteriore sviluppo tramite specifiche correlate alla varietd delle situazioni locali. La previsione di una serie di garanzie minimali di di leggi estensibili a qualunque gruppo minoritario; la determinazione di parametri generali di riconoscimento delle minoranze linguistiche ai fini @ell'applicazione nei loro confronti delle chiara indicazione dei limiti di delega relative entro i garanzie; la quali siano innestabili ulteriori pit specifiche iniziative del legislatore regionale: sono questi alcuni punti che potrebbero sostanziare una legge quadro di tutela. Nel corso della scorsa legislatura sono stati presentati alcuni progetti di legge tendenti a fissare i principi generali di attuazione Camere Camera tema dell'art. ha di tra 6, ma lo sciogliamento impedito alla Commissione portare a conclusione il le varie forze anticipato delle affari costituzionali della confronto avviato su questo politiche. Attualmente, sulla base dei numerosi disegni di legge presentati, su iniziativa del relatore On.le Loris Fortuna, é€ stata deliberata la costituzione di due comitati ristretti: uno per le proposte di legge costituzionali, l'altro per le proposte di legge ordinarie, con il compito di elaborare una proposta in materia. Contemporaneamente a livello regionale e culturale delle si @ volte sviluppata a tutta valorizzare comunita presenti una il nelle serie di patrimonio varie realtd iniziative linguistico locali. Tale intervento regionale si fonda sui poteri riconosciuti alle regioni in materia di beni culturali e di attivita di promozione educativa (artt. 47, 48 e 49 D.P.R. n.616 del 1977). Va peraltro sottolineato che le iniziative regionali hanno spesso incontrato l'opposizione da parte del Governo considerata la richiamata riserva statale in materia di tutela minoritaria. Il ruolo dell'educazione Al momento dell'unita politica lo Stato Italiano si è trovato nella necessità di costruire l'unità linguistica e culturale del Paese. Questa esigenza ha giustificato agli inizi una politica scolastica incentrata I nuovi programmi nuovi interessanti Nelle indicazioni su un rigido monolinguismo. della scuola media approvati nel 1979 aprono spazi anche se di per sè non risolutivi. metodologiche relative all'insegnamento dell'Italiano viene precisato che "la particolare condizione linguistica della società italiana, con la presenza di dialett2 diversi e di altri idiomi e con effetti di vasti fenomeni richiede che la scuola non prescinda da tale varieta migratori, di tradizioni e di realtà linguistiche. Queste vanno pertanto 366 Razprave in gradivo, considerate, dove Ljubljana, esistono, March come 1986, No.18 riferimento per processi dell'educazione linguistica anche per pratica ed espressiva, come aspetti di cultura confronto linguistico. Questo vale tanto sviluppare i la loro funzione ed occasione di pid per gli idiomi alloglotti." Ulteriore riferimento si ha i dialetti e le lingue espressamente passata che menzionati nelle delle con indicazioni minoranze riferimento programmatiche ove etniche vengono alla loro funzione sia presente. In realtà la potenzialità che i nuovi programmi della scuola media offrivano per favorire lo sviluppo di una educazione realmente bilingua solo in parte sono state utilizzate con il D.P.R. 30. 3. 1982 n.420 che ha adattato i programmi generali alle esigenze delle scuole medie con lingua di insegnamento sloveno. In questo quadro della scuola quali prevedono straniera evolutivo elementare, gia situano l'introduzione nel espressamente si approvati primo ciclo sottolineato al Paese dove il plurilinguismo lingua straniera non potra anche con i nuovi D.P.R. 12. generalizzata di della scuola riguardo che programmi 2. 1985, una dell'obbligo. nelle zone é condizione storica non tenere conto di i lingua Viene del nostro la scelta della tale carattere distintivo. Sara possibile introdurre pertanto nella dove queste non istituzionali. Una nel futuro didattica godono politica le di usufruire lingue riforme scolastica delle di di questo spazio minoranze, riconoscimento impostata sulla per sopratutto e tutela didattica del plurilinguismo e del multiculturalismo permetterebbe non solo di mantenere e valorizzare il patrimonio linguistico e culturale del gruppo minoritario ma consentirebbe il suo inserimento in-un processo dinamico di arricchimento comunicativo teso alla padronanza della lingua maggioritaria. Il si rispetto in sostanza della lingua inserisce in una prospettiva tesa entrambe le comunità reciproche culture, Un altro spazio che si e a della cultura realizzare lo arricchiscono istituzionale da degli utilizzare à minoritaria sviluppo di elementi delle quello della sperimentazione. Questo strumento innovativo introdotto nell'ordinamento scolastico italiano nel 1974 non @ stato mai attivato per la realizzazione di iniziative .volte alla valorizzazione delle culture minoritarie. La sperimentazione metodologico-didattica, alcuni casi la sola più semplice autorizzazione da attuare del perchè collegio dei prevede in docenti, ma soprattutto la sperimentazione innovativa degli ordinamenti e delle strutture, la cui approvazione finale spetta al Ministero della non tese Pubblica su esclusivo alla Istruzione, tutela impulso del dovrebbero delle loro essere minoranze patrimonio proposte linguistiche e delle ed attuate giustamente loro identita culturali. E' importante che tale azione sia inclusa nell'attività promozionale e propositiva dei Consigli distrettuali e trovi riscontro concreto nella programmazione 367 Razprave in didattica deve gradivo, degli Ljubljana, istituti arrestarsi al solo March 1986, No.18 scolastici. Questa campo educazione della programmazione non linguistica ma deve estendersi all'teducazione religiosa, civico-sociale, storica, geografica, artistica e tecnico-scientifica. Perché quello che va sottolineato & il riconoscimento dell'importanza della programmazione e realizzazione di attività didattiche specifiche al di là del pur legittimo interesse delle culture locali. ' Anche il Consiglio Nazionale della P.I., con parere espresso nella seduta del 4 luglio 1980 a proposito del nuovo programma di educazione linguistica nella scuola media ha affermato che:il recupero a la valorizzazione della cultura locale contribuiscono positivamente alla cultura e all'unità essere concepita sotto l'aspetto uniformita imposta, bensi come attraverso l'educazione comprensione e di egualmente ricche Possibilita di della scuola, arricchimento di valori." nuove nazionale di una vitale di reciproci prospettive in sede che "non pud piatta e scolorita maturazione, anche un'armonica capacità di tra diverse, ma culture legislativa In-questo spirito e con prospettive fortemente innovative é stato recentemente presentato un disegno di legge approvato ‘il 17 aprile 1985 presso la Commissione Affari Costituzionali della Camera’ che dovra essere presentata all'Assamblea parlamentare: : Il testo di legge prevede nelle scuole materne ed elementari dei Comuni indicati con apposito decreto del Presidente della giunta regionale che l'educazione linguistica comprenda l'apprendimento della lingua locale e l'uso della stessa, in via strumentale, al fine della migliore cognizione delle materie, nonché l'insegnamento delle forme espressive dell'infanzia, la lettura le esercitazioni relative agli argomenti concernenti gli usi, costumi e le tradizioni Nelle scuole medie l'insegnamento della interessati. delle comunità degli stessi lingua locale locali. € «a : comuni &è invece previsto ma solo a richiesta degli Sia nelle scuole elementari sia nelle scuole medie la cultura € le tradizioni locali costituiscono materia di insegnamento obbligatorio nell'ambito degli insegnamenti di storia, geografia, educazione musicale, artistica e tecnica. n Con riferimento all'utilizzazione televisivi regionali sono previste popolazioni di minoranza in base a la RAI-TV e le regioni dei programmi radiofonici.e trasmissioni destinate,alle convenzioni da stipularsi tra interessate. In più ogni regione in cui siano presenti gruppi linguistici minoritari pud stanziare finanziamenti per gli organi di stampa € per le emittenti radiotelevisive a carattere privato che utilizzano una cio ancor che provvede è alla delle pill lingue ammesse interessante copertura del 75% a sottolineare delle 368 tutela. spese é che sostenute lo dagli: Stato enti In di > or intervento di Priorita al momento maggioranza individuare interventi seri e quella i maggiori specifici studi di paralleli minoranza punti della di la ricerca, la che analogia educazione Questo ruolo di coordinamento e dovrebbe essere prioritariamente per delle - e quella di di quelli di bisognosi e l'aggiornamento in (IRRSAE) collaborazione : con le mice di formazione dei docenti vanno attivate possono favorire la conoscenza delle presa | di coscienza del problema senza 2 di sensibilizzazione .e di sollecitazione ‘alla al rispetto del valore delle culture diverse da quella di appartenenza generazioni. L'attuazione - sollecitazione degli interventi assunto dagli Istituti regionali sperimentazione realta minoritarie e la distorsioni strumentali. Quest'azione comprensione lingue permetterebbero linguistica. mediante appositi corsi e soprattutto instituzioni universitarie. Contestualmente ai piani tutte. le iniziative che e re formazione di piano un tale prospettiva diventa essenziale aggiornamento dei docenti. Mancano Legg > dalla previsti obblighi degli l'assolvimento ler locali citata. oH ia No.18 1986, March Ljubljana, gradivo, in Razprave di va indirizzata soprattutto verso le ! programmi finalizzati a scambi di ‘nuove ds studenti in particolare zone con presenza di minoranze alloglotte; © pud senz'altro facilitare un processo di arricchimento reciprocoe contribuire a raffbrzare il ruolo potenziale ‘del gruppo minoritario come nuovo soggetto di interscambio e di sviluppo.E' questo il convincimento espresso anche della ) à minoranza posizione dai rappresentanti italiana in Iugoslavia. L'accordo Italia e culturale, firmato Iugoslavia, che iniziative volte rispettive minoranze, possibile perd contribuire comportamenti istituzioni, 1. Cfr. Atti ee favorire é@ promuovere istituzionalmente Spetta a. si maggio fra lo scorso l'altro sviluppo esempio Convegno per la alle degli di a Belgrado culturale di come cooperazione propria Friuli sfera indicazioni uomini Trieste, interscambio del di Italia e ” tra l'attuazione di tangibile proficua prese in tra delle sia Paesi . che coerenti esperienza 24 recenti slovena diversi. far e un una à ciascuno a il prevede, con e le cod 14/15 culturale Venezia 369 di responsibilità normative risposte 3 giugno nelle Giulia." seguano concrete 1985 zone su di i delle Cot "Minoranze confine: Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Serena Tiella & Daniela Ceschi Veronesi Responsable UDC 376.744(45) secteur minorités et situations spéciales Syndicat CGIL Ecole Nationale Italy Rome, BDUCATION ET PLURALISME Considérations CULTUREL ET LINGUISTIQUES* préliminaires , Chaque pays est aujourd'hui beaucoup plus "multiculturel" dans le sens où la diffusion des apports culturels que par le passé, des informations et de niveaux technologiques différents (on entend par et de développement de la science culture tous les domaines de recherche des sociétés humaines) crée une superposition dominent. est de Le aussi cultures risque présent d'un où ce sont colonialisme dans des pays les et scientifique plus culturel fortes et politiquement qui linguistique indépendents: l'indépendance politique ne suffit pas à assurer une indépendance économique, scientifique, culturelle et "“donc" aussi linguistique. Là où la culture ne suit pas de prés le développement ou bien elle scientifique et technologique, est obligé d'absorber des mots créés dans d'autres langues automatiquement dominantes. importante intensité d'informations, indispensable "standards" la de des culture capacité (constitués 11 est donc échanges communiquer aujourd'hui grande diffusion planétaire) les risques qu'on a indiqués. nécessaire langue regresse des expressions qui, de cette manière, deviennent D'autre part, la nécessaire et scientifique de la et et d'arriver de et le marchandises, technologique, plus largement essentiellement en même à des de rend et langues à temps, par conséquent, solutions qui sauvegardent cet ensemble d'exigences qui semblent être entre contradictoires: on estime devoir souligner que les risques indiqués n'atteignent pas seulement de petites communautés minoritaires ou les pays grandes communautés nationales qui mais de ee aoe tels la et importants des états trés peuplés nipubiions i Italienne. (La langue italienne n'est pas à même, dde ui,. d'exprimer des dénominations et des notions dans de vastes sec : : de sciences et de technologies avancées et en mic, Valeur Nous de 8 situations : nous séminaire, ré sect P multiculturelles eee situations et réalité auxquelles italienne est dédié le Sens “historique” ire les situations multiculturelles dans le l'assimilation, us nstituées de communautés qui refusent 4Ni * Original: ne renoncent French 370 pas à leur propre identité Razprave in culturelle gradivo, et Ljubljana, linguistique, des groupes, culturellement March entendue vis-à-vis des plus fortes. 1986, comme No.18 droit communautés des individus linguistiquement et et Ce sont des situations dont on doit aussi souligner la valeur sous l'aspect éducatif puisqu'on retrouve la tendance à la formation d'une mentalité ouverte à l'acceptation du "différent" à travers l'appropriation de (premièrement la langue) pour communication. Ce phénomène (en italienne) volonté est cependant d'accepter à ses instruments culturels favoriser avant tout la se référant à la situation sens n'existe pas unique, des c'est-à-dire deux côtés une grave carence culturelle de la societé italienne, l'affirmation d'une langue nationale qui (en outre) pas Cette pèse à être à la hauteur affirmation sur toutes des de la les que cette réciproque: voilà qui tend à ne réussit temps. “nation” unique et de la expressions de la vie langue unique culturelle, associative, politique de la République Italienne. Si cela a des raisons historiques en partie récentes, il n'est pas obligatoire qu'elles durent: mail il y a peu de signes que la tendance soit différente, étant donné que la plupart des habitants de ces territoires qui sont devenus progressivement et assez rapidement l'Etat italien, accepta ou fut obligée d'accepter, l'homogénéisation linguistique et culturelle. Excepté le peu d'"îilots" qui rèsistèrent, mais qui risquent de s'éteindre, si l'on exclut ceux à qui à été octroyé la tutelle après la deuxième guerre mondiale. Notamment la République Italienne a résolu en quelque sorte et pas toujours exigences dans ses zones de de façon satisfaisante, frontalières, mais elle quelques l'a fait exclusivement pour des motifs d'ordre politique, et non par respect des minorités et du pluralisme culturel (malgré l'article 6 de la Constitution; voir "Les normes spéciales de tutelle de la République sur les minorités linguistiques"). Il suffit de rappeler qu'il n'existe pas de tutelle trouvent en dehors des limites de (Valle d'Aosta, Tentino-Alto Adige, dans ces Regioni ou Province, il y tutelle ou ont une tutelle (Ladini de la Provincia francoprovenzali et Walser allemandes de la Provincia Validité des Yougoslaves exemples de de di pour les limitée par rapport Bolzano et de la Regione Valle Trento). - qui découlent groupes qui se quelques Regioni ou Province Gorizia et Trieste) et, même a des groupes qui n'ont aucune de aux autres: celle de Trento, d'Aosta, minorités la realité et expérience On n'estime pas qu'il existe une “transférabilité" parfaite des expériences verifiables et des solutions adoptées dans d'autres Situations, non seulement parce que, par exemple, l'Italie n'est pas une République fédérative, mais aussi parce que l'affirmation de l'homogénéité est un ao See anh Eat geisi linguistique de la plus grande majorité de la et difficilement réversible. phénoméne affermi qui humain a de un esprit ouvert l'histoire (ce et qui disponible est et rarement un sens présent hauts niveaux du pouvoir et de la responsabilité) peut ee aca la République dans adoptées -Tee solutions SSSETHOE Yougos1l uniquement, pour comprendre pas mais surtout, voisine ave uell q es sont les attentes de la minorité slovène en Italie. 371 Razprave Le in gradivo, Syndicat et Probablement les on organisations Ljubljana, situations n'a des pas est juste soient abordés pédagogie (qui politiques et que suffisamment aux problèmes No.18 peuvent considéré le avoir les dans rôle les problèmes contribuer des situations est les et de à la multilingues spécialistes de la linguistique et de la suggérer des solutions aux responsables à créer une culture dans Les reconnu), si les responsables des à différents niveaux ont une tâche qu'on que domaines l'éducation à la compréhension la parité des droits. par les doivent ils ont un rôle Administrations 1986, multilingues travilleurs la coexistence et de tolérance et surtout à S'il March en train de traiter, considérer les lieux, les occasions, réelles moins liées aux idéologies et les aux il sociétés où Partis et des incisive face est nécessaire de situations pratiques intérêts "extérieurs". Le Syndicat est par sa nature un lieu de rencontre entre personnes dont les différences sont secondaires par rapport aux valueurs d'égalité. L'organisation propose de défenûre des intérêts dire qu'en Italie, bien que les créée par les travailleurs se réellement communs. J'oserais idéologies (et comme mauvaise conséquence, le sectarisme) et l'habitude de se référer au centre (avec tout les risques d'homogénéisation forcée et de centralisme absolument inapte à des solutions égalitaires) aient pénétré (moins qu'ailleursi) même dans les organisations syndicales, et créent donc au Syndicat des difficultés à affronter les situations plurilingues, le Syndicat reste un lieu privilégie de l'approche correcte des problèmes des minorités et des situations multilingues. "Sindicato, ultima sponda della convivenza", voila le titre d'un numéro de la revue "Rassegna syndicale" de la CGIL dédié en grande partie a la Provincia di Bolzano (1984). Nous voulons espérer qu'il n'y a pas seulement "un dernier rivage" (ultima sponda). Cependant il est sûr que le rôle du Syndicat peut être extrèmement important. S'il est vrai que l'école doit jouer un rôle irremplaçable par rapport à la coéxistence (tout au moins parce qu'on y enseigne les langues et donc on donne aux élèves les instruments de base de la communication et de la compréhension), il est aussi vrai que ce n'est pas seulement à l'école qu'on crée la disponibilité à la coéxistence, ce qui est encore plus important Si autour des environnement l'école ne Qu'est-ce la langue-même. , écoles bilingues (ou multilingues) disponible ou un qui crée de la peut Le Syndicat que pas remplir est dans qu'il correctement ce sens fait et un élément que sa fonction. positif peut-il il n'y a pas un disponibilité, faire, dans La société concrètement, le Syndicat? Je parle brièvement de ce et le Syndicat CGIL-école, nationales italiennes qui problèmes, La CGIL a soit plus les autres vérifié dans au niveau d'adhérents organisations la Provincia qu'a fait, discuté, ou proposé la CGIL qui sont les organisations syndicales se sont intéressées davantage à ces national qui soit niveau appartiennent nationales, di au Bolzano 372 et et cela parmi à des peut les local. minorités être que surtout slovènes. À la Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March CGIL il y a des groupes spécifiques pas dans les autres organisations. syndicale italienne avec laquelle présents dans slovène ont pour qui a organisé parmi ce les travers le sviluppo le des la Valle plus de congrès, concerne initiatives della exemple très l'économie et a ouvert le Coop-Sind, d'Aosta, rapports. groupes les à Comunità Alto La No.18 de travail, qui n'existent La CGIL est l'organisation les syndicats "ethniques" des Adige CGIL a croata veux signaler, Je (Progetto integrato del la langue défendre, l'école documents, spécifiques, la Molise) aussi collaboration, qui intéressant d'initiative pour de la culture d'un petit groupe ce projet cependant, seulement des biens à dans des garantis. récentes, projet et produit conflits non plus un 1986, à per lo constitue un la survivance de minoritaire (selon et la culture mais aussi des ne sont pas ressources à utiliser). Le Syndicat-école participe à l'activité de la Conféderation CGIL et opêre, avec ses propres initiatives, dans son domaine spécifique. IL a soutenu, le premier, (par exemple), que dans les écoles prévues par la future loi pour les minorités pas encore défendues, les enseignants bureaucratique, Le est respect de mais la réalité extraordinairel peuvent correspondant Un avant le être aux embauchés exigences formalisme: changement dans la mentalité différente, comme nous avons indispensable afin que, même en Italie, la minorité non seulement coexistent, mais réciproquement. 373 non des ce qui de façon situations. en Italie direction d'une déja dit, est majorité et la s'enrichissent Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March Mauro De Luca No.18 UDC Institutrice, Ecole bilingue (Vallée 376.744(450.23:453.2) d'Aoste) Confédération Générale Travail (CGIL) Aoste, 1986, du Italie NOTES SUR Pour L'ORGANISATION aborder le problème multiculturelles, peut oublier homogène. Pour ou que l'Italie minorités, est on il de a du des VALLEE dans de parler affronter situations très du envers dits on en ne général problème des problèmes des différentes n'adopte sociétés pas les à cause de l'importance ou de aussi à cause de l'attitude que ces les culturel, n'est entité, soit minorités, et pas) D'AOSTE* pluralisme minorités plutôt des LA l'éducation difficile doit y DANS problème situation il car le la mais minorités, SCOLAIRE dans chaque la place de l'Etat adopte ces (ou groupes. La loi que le Parlement italien est en train de discuter concerne, et ceci n'est pas un hasard, les minorités sans tutelle, bien ce ou C'est le Vallée qui mal, laisse cas des d'Aoste, situations même l'une de Donc, selon même s'il y un certain On qu'il en si les de Trentino deux Alto réalités de des a encore beaucoup courant - on peut sont sont Adige assez de choses dire que ces groupes sont assez compétences qui leur ont peut, quand car même, on entrevoir est en des présence linguistiques qui doivent groupes sociaux, qui pour déjà, et de la différentes à revendiquer les risques de réduits à cause des été reconnus et qu'ils périls de On toute peut bien "l'autre" Evidemment de qui des faire Original: coexistence éthniques que majorité minorité le menace l'identité, n'est réactions en rôle des sorte pas mais acceptable contraires institutions avec le assez et principe French 374 cette et existe puisse attitude risque déchirantes. des de formes en ou d'autre la dite et que vouloir existence et son originalité en se basant la tendance poussée à se renfermer sur soi compréhensible provoquer comprendre la partager leur espace avec la plupart appartiennent à que cette défendre son séparatisme, pour groupes “majorité italienne (si on admet chacun puisse se reconnaitre). * qui conquis. civile, est existe l'autre. disparition pouvoirs et ont entendre sauvegardés. sur le contre bien que plus de démocratiques l'éducation conduise à Razprave in gradivo, la tolérance et appartienne à la minorité tout pas perpétuer minorités. March 1986, national et a suivre si les grandes on et cependant que dans cette situation, le la CGIL peut être délicat; il se situe souvent autoritaire et férments régionalistes qui emploient bâtir des barrières, plutôt que de communes, l'emploi. No.18 au respect de l'autre, quel qu'il soit, qu'il “Minorité majoritaire" ou qu'il appartienne à la court. C'est la seule voie les discriminations parmi 11 est évident, syndicat comme Etat Ljubljana, entre la défense des insensible, ne veut petites rôle d'un entre un et entre les parfois leurs énergies à construire des solutions travailleurs de l'école et Pourtant, dans la situation italienne, l'importance du syndicat ne peut être méconnue: il constitue un lieu de recontre pour les gens, il poursuit plusieurs objectifs, celui de l'unité des travailleurs et de l'égalité des hommes sur les problèmes essentiels du travail, celui des droits civiques, celui de la qualité de la vie, et celui du respect pour les choix et l'identité de C'est sur ce social, pour chacun. front qu'il le principe faudra de la x~ se battre, au coexistence. eke & niveau politique et & La situation de la Vallée d'Aoste est, par rapport aux risques entrevus, encore souple et “gestibile," même si on envisage parfois des tentatives, d'un coté ou et de l'autre, de radicaliser les données du problème. En réalité il n'existe pas dans la Région deux groupes éthniques. séparés. Le problème linguistique se pose plutôt comme la reconquête d'une langue qui a été, dans le passé, un moyen de communication culturelle et qui, pour des raisons qu'il serait trop long à résumer ici, a failli de disparaître. 11 est important de remarquer qu'aujourd'hui les habitants ne parlent pas, pour la plupart, plutôt l'italien dans les grands "patois" franco-provençal, en milieu centres rural. en Vallée d'Aoste le français mais et les différents L'objectif but que se pose, officiellement, le pouvoir régional, en accord avec l'Etat, est celui de réaliser une communauté bilingue, dans laquelle chacun puisse s'exprimer en langue italienne ou en langue française et où tout le monde puisse comprendre, facilement, les deux évidemment, de sauvegarder le traditions du milieu valdôtain. Le mouvement de l'Union langues, patrimoine Valdôtaine (force de avec majorité Parlement régional) et d'autres organisations Culturelles - notamment le SAVT, syndicat éthnique envisagent reste du plutôt la territoire séparation national même, avec la proposition l'école, une recrudescence aux postes de travail, par des surtout de et la de communauté la le culturel communauté souci, et les rélative au sociales et autonomiste — valdétaine locale du elle exemple de la double filière à examens de français pour l'accès dans 375 le secteur scolaire. Razprave Il in s'agit de solutions temps à données gradivo, Ljubljana, propositions définitives, March qui mais n'ont la 1986, pas eu, situation un régime similaire à celui sont absolument différentes. No.18 pour le pourrait de Alto moment, aboutir Adige, des dans même le si les Il est évident que travailler pour la construction d'une société bilingue, plutôt que sanctionner la séparation de groupes linguistiques, dans ce cas artificiellement défini, permettra d'aboutir à des résultats positifs pour l'intégration et l'enrichissement réciproque. RE Dans cette situation, essentiel, cette même tâche à s'il le faut l'école | rôle que l'école savoir que l'on doit ne peut jouer pas est confier uniquement. À la société toute entière, aux différentes "agenzia formative," aux mass-media, aux associations politiques et culturelles, on doit demander un engagement de manière à créer les conditions générales pour la réalisation de ce projet, afin de ne pas courir le risque, de l'instruction des comme se passe maintenant, - de la le moment associative sera necessaire de devra soutenir être et de il l'école séparer vie double tâche de donner la compétence linguistique et promouvoir une mentalité de tolérance, visant l'intégration. temps À de de la même interpersonnels. celui confié En rapports cela - éducation que l'on demande à l'école en adoptant une politique adéquate formation proféssionelle et linguistique des instituteurs. l'effort de Dans les écoles de la Vallée d'Aoste on enseigne, dès l'école maternelle, la langue française; à l'école primaire on commence à enseigner "en français;" dans les écoles secondaires on consacre le même qu'à Il nombre d'heures l'enseignement est évident, de à la l'enseignement langue cependant, de la langue que les compétences acquises possédées ne sont pas les mêmes, étant donné que les situés dans un contexte italophone, mais le choix bilingue permettra, l'extérieur, souhaite. de s'il est réaliser Les nouveaux programmes l'Etat en février 1985, bien ce française italienne. soutenu processus par des initiatives d'intégration de l'école primaire, fournissent le tissu et élèves sont de l'école que de l'on qui ont adopté par culturel approprié pour implanter un projet d'éducation ouvert où même les minorités peuvent trouver les conditions favorables pour la réalisation de leurs qui objectifs sont cités intérnationaux spécifiques. dans de Ce n'est l'introduction l'homme, les idées pas qui seulement se rattache d'égalité et les éléments aux droits de diversité et la citation intégrale de l'art. 3 de la "Costituzione" de la république italienne, pourtant "sulla pari dignita di fronte alla legge ... l'occasion elle méme senza pour et la distinzione di la réalisation modernisation razza, d'une des Il s'agira maintenant, pour la d'adapter selon les compétences 376 di lingua ...." école ouverte, qui mais offrent l'idée programmes. région de la qui lui sont Vallée d'Aoste, attribuées, en Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, collaboration avec les géographique, économique, forces March 1986, No.18 sociales et politiques, ces programmes à la situation locale, soit au niveau de l'aspect linguistique soit au niveau des particularités de la situation culturelle. Un des problèmes qui devra être affronté, et qui se rattache à l'enseignement multiculturel, est celui de l'enseignement de la langue étrangère. Comme ni l'italien, ni être considéré comme langue étrangère, il troisième langue dans l'école primaire, pourrait imaginer comme arguments démarche. 377 pour le français ne peuvent s'agit d'introduire une avec tout ce que l'on ou contre une telle Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Dietmar Larcher Institute for Distance Education at the University of Klagenfurt Austria THE SLOVENES IN UDC 376.744(436.6=863) AUSTRIA* In this paper I will discuss the present-day situation of a small ethnic group in Austria, the Slovenes in Carinthia, the southernmost Austrian province. I will refer to statistics in order to demonstrate certain tendencies in their development, and I will explain demographic and social processes. But data by making reference I will also analyze the to historical situation on the basis of research on questions of bilingualism and identity development which we are presently conducting at our department at Klagenfurt University. Finally, I will venture a prognosis about the future development of this ethnic group, which is based on the paper. The data Politics and of interpretations Identity Splitting Let me quote statistics first. National Census (pp. 56-7), we Total that - will An be presented In the 1981 Report of the may read about Carinthia: population 513,864 200 240 139 58 9,398 5,343 Czech and German Czech “Windisch” and German “windisch" Other 33 6 1,939 415 4,544 The categories bewildering. They in "Who than sixty German group employed in these statistics reflect a hard political fight general and exactly years. One is of nationalists in into "Slovenes" Slovene a * old dialect Original: word was identity Slovene?" the most has then 378 are over rather ethnic particular. an issue strategies for used The more by the splitting of the ethnic This was achieved by the word “Windisch,” which Slovene and/or Slavic origin. proposed English in been cunning Carinthia was the and "Windisch". borrowing an old dialect word, referred to persons and things of The Austrian 536,179 Slovene identity this Introduction German speaking Croatian and German Croatian Hungarian and German Hungarian Slovene and German question: in as a common denominator of Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March all those Carinthians with Slovene in assimilation, as compared with 1986, No.18 background "Slovenes" who who were were interested said to be hostile towards the German-speaking majority of Carinthia. By and by, the pan-Germanic nationalists managed to make successful politics with the word "Windisch," They suggested that "Windisch" was synonymous with "good-willing," "patriotic," “loyal to Carinthia," whereas "Slovene," according to their strategic interpretation, was synonymous with "dissident," “treacherous,” “hostile to Carinthia," "striving for political union with Yugoslavia." They managed to turn "Windisch" into the word referring to all those Carinthians who spoke Slovene but wanted to be German. The next step in this political strategy was to develop a theory that "Windisch" was a language in its own right that was more closely related to German than to Slovene. Although this theory has never found any support by any serious linguist, it has been accepted by a large number of people who from then on have preferred to call themselves and their language "“Windisch* rather than Slovene," thus showing the politically powerful German nationalists their willingness to they could not speak German. By adopting assimilate even though the category “Windisch they could be German without speaking German. their census in 1939, they were the first to their official statistics. Since When the Nazis made use this category in then, the word has not disappeared and still serves its purpose of confusing people, especially those of the Slovene background, who, over the years, have begun to believe in the reality of the ideological construct. Although a lot of people who go on using this word nowadays do not Austrian census of the Slovene category is in As may be seen national Census mean any political harm, and although the definitely does not want to minimize the figures ethnic group, the consequence of employing this fact harmful to Slovene identity and solidarity. from the statistics quoted above, the Austrian does adopt the category, thus splitting the total number of the Slovene-speaking people. the sub-categories (Slovene and German, Only if one adds up Slovene, “Windisch German," "“Windisch"), does one arrive at people using Slovene in their daily life. the total It amounts all and number of to 17,095 people. However, the category "Windisch" is more than a gimmick to disguise the identity of an ethnic group. Over the years it has turned out to be a most useful device for the encouragement of sake for the altogether to give up their Slovene heritage people of German. People who declare themselves “Windisch" tend to provide for their children an education in German-language schools or in German classes of bilingual schools, so that the second generation of the people who have "Windisch" have very little opportunity properly and tend to forget all about their declared themselves of learning Slovene ethnic origin. I do not suggest here that "Windisch" is the cause for largescale assimilation of Carinthian Slovenes, but it is a very efficient tool for fostering such assimilation, The various causes Some for more assimilation statistical will be discussed data: 379 later on in this paper. Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, Percentage of Slovenes from 1846 to 1981 out March of the 1986, total No.18 population of Carinthia Year Number Percentage 1846 1880 1890 1900 1910 1923 1934 103,000 85,051 84,667 75,136 66,463 34,650 24,292 30.08% 26.68% 25.5% 22.3% 18.3% 10.0% 6.6% 1939 43,179 10.4% 1951 1961 1971 42,095 24,911 20,972 8.9% 5.1% 4.0% 1981 17,095 3.2% Source: Slowenische Jahrbiicher 1985, hrsg. von Valentin SIMA, Vladimir WAKOUNIG and Peter WIESER, Drava Verlag, Klagenfurt/ Celovec, 1984, p. 196 These figures show the steadily diminishing number of Slovenes. Since there has never been any mass exodus disease nor any giant catastrophe that has stamped numbers of of Carinthian more will than refer know, one to Slovenes thousand later Slovene on couples (I do Slovenes in this have not by ignore the paper), not deportation Hitler-regime, and refrained married - or unmarried - life, explanation for the dwindling away the Carinthian nor major out large since, from which as the far pleasures there must be some of this ethnic group. I as I of other It has already been suggested century, diminished the that assimilation has, for more than a number of the Carinthian Slovenes. Their total remained number increased them to would if it have had not been assimilate among their tendency pressure, the fairly for stable this or strong German-speaking to remain would even pressure majority. faithful to have forcing With their this native ethnic group, their native culture and their native language has dramatically decreased: from 30% of the total population to only 3%. Statistics do Therefore, it will at laying bare not tell us be necessary the research which has this phenomenon of From cause Solidarity Towards Hierarchy Ethnic Let me briefly summarize question that help Slovenes. of in Carinthia Carinthian to such thrown some light assimilation. Two Groups for why such a change has to consulta discipline explaj Plain the a change. on the It - The Changing historical Slovenes. I will ; this tendency is social occurred. that aims historical background Relations research done focus only on the à ny of assimilation of of the on the events among The chief cause of a in the class system ssimilation is the low position of Slovenes and the low social of their group. The Slovenes had se ttled in Carinthia prestige long before any German settler turned up in that area. However, 380 their country - present- Razprave day in gradivo, Carinthia missionaries manifest - and its Ljubljana, was 1986, integrated German links March settlers with into were Bavaria. No.18 In Bavaria. called this into Christian the Medieval country time, to Slovenes lived peacefully with their German neighbours. As a matter of fact, when the feudal lords struggled for survival of their system towards the end of the Middle Ages, Slovene and German peasants fought side by side against their overlords. However, the restoration of the feudal system and the enforced reintroduction of Catholicism reduced Slovene to the status of a language language of the the for agricultural of administration system urban and labourers, while - was linked with spoken German the power in administrative areas. centers, being the structure that is, in Nothing much has changed since then. The rural population, being Catholic and conservative, has continued using Slovene as their chief means of communication while the upper class and the middle class have preferred German, thus demonstrating their identification with The Revolution German-speaking of 1848 brought about a dramatic change when the population began to emphasize their domination politically. equality the ruling Ironically, of national system. they groups did had this at officially the moment been when the established. As long as German- and Slovene-speaking Carinthians had suffered from feudal exploitation, they had fought their overlords in solidarity. But with the lack of a common enemy, the GermanSpeaking part of the population tried to establish a new social hierarchy with themselves at the top and the Slovene-speaking population at the bottom of the social pyramid. Belonging to the upper Class or the middle class was not only tied up with Property, income and education but with language use. You could only be part background as the From of was language that it when not so to time be on, a you spoke important used in social matter German. as Your as you original decided on ethnic German public. mobility of long language for community was ladder of they were social progress and enter the willing to abandon the culture members shift. They of the could Slovene climb the petite bourgeoisie if and language of their origin, For the very top of the Carinthian society, the power elite the big landowners, ethnic emancipation any was political amibitions of rules of according the "natural order;" the "natural order to their propaganda, the social superiority their propaganda German-speaking blamed and attempt of the Slovene community at a welcome opportunity to divert the the German-speaking Slovene community. petite emancipation They explained that for bourgeoisie: breaking the any being, of the attempt to Overthrow this order was a threat to the petite bourgeoisie's Privileges. Thus they succeeded in. blinding the petite bourgeoisie to their real privileges and made them believe that they themselves were members of the ruling class. The invention Of the "dangerous Slovene” and of the "Slovene threat" was a a useful ideology to stabilize the existing inequalities and socia injustices. People began to believe in one single cause for PRE social problems: this cause, they were led to believe, was the 381 Razprave in gradivo, self-conscious and Ljubljana, socially March 1986, ambitious No.18 Slovene population. of realizing the real causes for their social now turned against Slovene emancipation. In this this paper there conflict. prominent is little Therefore turning-points room we in for can the a detailed only shed constant they description light struggle ethnic, or rather, language groups. One the First World War and the Peace Treaty Instead disadvantages on the between of most the two of them was the end of of St. Germain, when the American President Wilson tried to reorganize Europe according to his concept of clear and distinct ethnic borders. The old AustroHungarian Empire was broken up present-day Austria being one Carinthia, the community matter to were very territory had settled, negotiate on. still battles into a number of them. The where most of was, of course, Although the war going on in that of small southern the states, part of Slovene-speaking a particularly delicate had ended in 1918, there part of the country as late as 1919: a self-recruited private army of war veterans, loyal to Austria, fought the regular South Slavic army (later the Yugoslav army) in order to defend the southernmost part of Carinthia against being taken away from the new Austrian State. This private army was defeated by the South Slavic army. But their fight had created a national mythology which is still celebrated today, despite the fact that historical research has found that it played a very small role in the St. Germain negotiations. The only reason why, after all, the southernmost part of Carinthia with its Slovene community remained Austrian was the result of a plebiscite under international auspices. It ended in a 60% : 40% victory for Austria, which means that the majority of Slovenes voted for Austria. Nevertheless, thanks to the although Southern Carinthia had remained Austrian vote of Slovenes, the politically powerful German nationalists now favoured and The Slovene revenge. a political community, strategy they of said, scape-goatism was a constant threat to the integrity of the Carinthian territory. Only if they could be Germanized, the Pan-Germans proclaimed, would the frontier between Austria and Yugoslavia become stabilized. As long as they remained faithful to their Slovene traditions and language, there territory to would be Yugoslavia, In fact, from that Carinthian Slovenes a constant they threat of losing this proclaimed. time on to keep it became up their even more difficult for cultural and linguistic identity. One of the chief mechanisms forcing them to a minority position was the introduction of the confession principle. In order to obtain basic rights such as schooling in their language they had confession a most to declare principle efficient majority for When Nazis the strategic - publicly let tool me in discouraging plans gained for their Slovene this the now hands people power the say from in - has of the Slovene Germany occupation of in the identity. ever settle in the began area to buy reliable land in people 382 Southern from (This been German-speaking loyalties. 1933 they Balkan Carinthia, especially the southern part along the border, played a vital part in these plans although at the Nazi regime had not yet occupied Austria. The Grezlandbank since Carinthia Northern developed peninsula. Yugoslav that time Deutsche in order Germany. It to was Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, their job to provide stable and reliable military operations of the German army. Soon after the Nazis had part of the Third Reich, Southern Carinthia into worked out by the Berlin of Carinthian origin. For No.18 bridge-heads for future annexed Austria in 1938 and had made it they openly declared they wanted to turn a German country. This strategy was not Government, but by the local authorities the Germanization of Carinthia they had several strategies at hand: offensive propaganda ("Karntner, sprich deutschl"), German schooling, open discrimination, deportation of stubborn Slovenes unwilling to change their national identity, mass evacuation of Slovenes and resettlement of this area by people of German origin, and the concentration camp for anybody who resisted this policy of ethnic extermination. In 1942 there were 1,217 Carinthian Slovenes in German camps. No to wonder the Carinthian Slovenes were among the first realize that the Nazi regime had to be fought Austrians with all possible means. A comparatively large number joined the Yugoslav partisans in order to fight the German army on their home territory. This partisan activity was quite successful on a local scale. However, the German army retaliated upon their every successful stroke with drastic measures against all those civilians who were suspected of having given the least support to the partisans. Among the were those most Slovene shot severely families. dead with In punished some machine by cases guns. the all German the However, when, of such measures, people were reluctant to go partisans, they had to fear partisan revenge. When the army marched war was over into and the German Southern army Carinthia army members as on a into a were family consequence supporting defeated, and again of the the Yugoslav Klagenfurt. An unknown number of Carinthians who had collaborated with the Nazis and inflicted harm on the Slovene population or refused support to the partisans were deported to Yugoslavia. Some were executed on the spot. Two weeks later the British army took over the Yugoslav-occupied zone of Southern Carinthia and remained in military charge of this area until 1955, the Year of Austria's State Treaty. The years have not of Nazi terror, yet been completely partisan war analyzed and by postwar deportations historical research. There is still insufficient knowledge about what exactly happened to whom and why and with what consequences. However, these years have left deep marks on the collective memory of all Carinthians, no matter which side they took. For the Slovenes the deportations were a manifestation of what they had always been afraid of: the pan-Germanic wish to exterminate the Slovenes altogether. They have ever since feared that this the end of the Hitler regime, but political plans German-speaking of the "new Carinthians wanted Southern to unite wish has is still right" politics it was a shock Carinthia with not disappeared with present in the hidden of our day. For many that the partisans Yugoslavia, thus correc- ting the results of the 1920 plebiscite. They were, and some still are, unable to see that any victory over fascism, be it in the name of Austria or Yugoslavia, would be all for the good of the resurrection of Austria. These 383 people have been panic- Razprave in gradivo, stricken ever Yugoslavia. Ljubljana, since On by the the March fear one of hand, 1986, No.18 losing this Southern has Carinthia developed to into an irrational phobia with many people in Carinthia, despite all state treaties and international guarantees for the present-day borders of Carinthia. On the other hand, it has become a demagogic tool in the hands of some neo-nationalist politicians of the right used to manipulate people by elaborating irrational fears and promising simple solutions and protective measures by a Carinthian The chief of the discrimination. policy of Slovene right-wing FPO, Jérg Haider, and the leaders of the right-wing organization Karntner Heimatdienst are experts at exploiting this irrational fear of people for their politics, for example when they insist on separating Slovene and German children at school. this Altogether, of for many just Carinthians, is Carinthia Southern losing fear nightmare present an ever- of being fear as the Carinnight- those These expelled from one's beloved native country is for thians who still insist on their Slovene heritage. ever being without in the subconscious are ever-present mares rational from banned are They in public. analyzed critically to the logic of the According discourse by defense-mechanisms. is this unconscious, more and more become they why reason the thus group, either of fantasies irrational the in powerful understanding. and intercultural encounters fruitful preventing flashback. let us return to complete our historical However, Modern Austria, that is, the Second Austrian Republic, has resrights the tored most important any for child of Slovene-speaking the make decisions was to in the area living population. bilingual of Southern of One the obligatory schools Carinthia. However, when the Austrian State Treaty was signed in 1955, this territorial principle was given up and the principle of confessing ethnicity was introduced. Instead of giving all the inhabitants of an the law area the protection of bilingual and bicultural areas, grants these rights only to those people who confess to Slovene identity. As I have problem mentioned for the above, Slovene this ethnic has turned policy. out More to than be a the greatest hundred years of hidden and open discrimination against the Slovene community by German nationalists in Carinthia, but especially the traumatic experience during the years of Nazi terror, have gradually undermined the Slovene self-consciousness and self-respect. More and more members of this ethnic group have changed sides and declared themselves German for understandable reasons. Some did so because they wanted to succeed in urban society; others, because they were afraid of group pressure in small rural communities dominated by the German-speaking intelligentsia; others were pressed by their employers; and still others did it for the sake of their children who in this way might have better chances in life than they themselves had had; and quite a number of those who found no jobs in their native places and became commuters gradually lost the links with their traditions. Anyway, when forced to confess national Often are enough quite most of these identity, than Slovene for respect in their fear of losing community. these real. At fears any may rate, be people status, sheer whether 384 would say German income, job, but fantasy, fantasy or rather property for real, oF some they they have Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, proven to be a powerful Slovene identity. The Austrian obligations State groups) the enjoy right language. schools in are their at districts signposts. bilingual official for Carinthian successful. Austria is is as their all and policy names has Slovenes. Austria's media of use including their be their In used secure this on all own secondary districts. to it, minority in to the to ethnic and to their According elementary Formally, to Austrians, and are been up defines other to own other residential topographic Austrian 7 of meetings language in to minorities. entitled own people members rights No.18 article (and also court The and same 1986, for ethnic organisations, They language her Austrians the to obstacle Treaty's towards Slovene-speaking March official these policy own these rights has been However, close inspection reveals that although trying to be faithful to its international obligations striving seriously to protect minority rights, the number of Slovenes is still diminishing. The present-day situation of the Slovene community is still hazardous despite government protection and good will. I will try to explain why this is so in the next chapter of this paper. Identification The problems with of the the Aggressor Slovene and Public community Silence in present-day Carinthia stem from the unresolved conflicts of the past; these conflicts, as we have seen, were socio-economic and socio-cultural. The way these conflicts have been dealt with by the majority suppression rather than fair discourse - makes the solution of present-day problems so difficult. One of the consequences of suppression is the fact that for Slovenes it is hard to develop much identity. As a matter of fact, intolerance and open hostility Germanic lobby has made lots of the majority of Carinthian of a collective and personal their long experience of on the part them change of a their powerful identity. panAs I have demonstrated with the help of statistics and pointed out by portraying their historical social role as underdogs, they have only had one possibility for better life chances: assimilation. Those who chose assimilation as a way had to pay a high price for their come to terms with this break in rather harmless, is of the one the social but most setting in fact, dramatic in which 18 controversial. Leaving and taking sides with the out changing one's experiences such an one's former of social deprivation social advancement. They had to their biography. This may sound collective identity of a person's life identity-shifting takes community for personal opponent involves deep when place benefit feelings of wrong-doing and moral evil. You are considered a traitor and, what is even worse, you consider yourself a traitor. Entering the other community is also precarious since you come from the opponent's first all sign the adopting side. that others the looked down upon with suspicion at the in new you your life-style are not likely not give to You are gives away and as not language to be accepted at all. yourself away being community. as a 385 of exactly If your you new the have same as problems community you So you have to be careful former member of the other Razprave in gradivo, community. You do Ljubljana, not want March to be members Of your new community, them. Therefore, you suppress your former identity and try 1986, No.18 hated and despised by the you want to be accepted as one of everything that might give away to be one of them. Even more so, you begin to share their hate and disgust of the other ethnic group, and consequently, you begin to hate all of your own deep-rooted habits of behaviour and speech dating back to your childhood and youth in the slightest something other community. You memory of the time before you cannot get rid of. lifetime business to suppress want to erase the change. Therefore all traces even the But childhood is it becomes your of this childhood identity. Yet all your efforts are in vain. Over and over again the old memories disturb you and must be warded off. They keep you busy fighting the old self. But you fight not only the old self within yourself. You fight also others who remind you of your old This perpetual self. By fighting defence your psychic life. energy others against and the leaves you fight old identity little of your it own childhood. consumes for a lot of communicative This is the very Carinthian tragedy. The Slovene community has not been strong enough to resist the dynamic challenge of German claims towards economic and social supremacy. It has accepted the role of the Slovene act socially community politically: inferior who were instead group. not of Many joining a with It is not surprising anti-Slovene organizations I trying am not now to have whitewash On the contrary, I am laying force by German nationalists since. sor" This and is mechanism is considered one that been called of responsible mass support: ful and for when strange strange such people and dangerous identify with This the destruction as are some phenomenon or confronted of the leaders in the aggres- mechan- out that this most probably that aggressive armament politics find an overwhelmingly identification kill them, them. with into ever defence nuclear with of Carinthia. was put by them with important enemy that threatens to what is going to destroy mechanism of psychology points the aggressor is fascism to themselves. nationalism most not organization "identification the the did whole ethnic group they a structural problem by becoming aggressors Slovenes German from role bare a mechanism which and has been exploited isms by psychoanalysis. Political mechanism of identification with of this Slovene fight for collective emancipation of the tried to find an individual solution for identifying with the aggressor and themselves. individuals satisfied the mass power- they aggressor panic also accounts for what is happening with the Slovene language in Carinthia. People who shift their identity have to give up their first language in order to make the shift perfect. As a matter of fact, it is People branded who on enough their very hard to get give up speaking the tongue. Their grammar give them rid of Slovene accent away. one's in and childhood language. favour of German are intonation and often Slovene as a first language has usually left a deep mark on the basis of articulation that does not disappear simply because you want it to disappear. SO when you speak German everybody will notice that German is not your mother tongue, but that’ Slovene is. The only chance you have to not hide your in public. linguistic origin is 386 not to speak at all, at least Razprave in A people lot of keep gradivo, their do Ljubljana, not mouths shut speak March in for 1986, public fear of No.18 for this giving very reason. themselves They away as Slovenes, no matter what they say. As a compensation they develop the ideology that speaking is private. In public you should listen rather than talk. Often enough this goes so far that people develop a split identity of private speakers of Slovene and public listeners of German with a private Slovene (or “Windisch") and a public German that this is not due to private outcome Sparks The of a of most hundred years of identity. Let me remind you again pathology of individuals but an anti-Slovene ideology. Hope significant factor in changing this situation for the better is an improvement of the socio-economic situation of the Slovene ethnic group. As long as they are dependent on employers who insist on their political obedience, which usually means that they are expected not to participate in Slovene politics nor to enroll their children in Slovene classes, they have no chance of emancipation. However, there are some new industrial plants and companies in Slovene hands that do business in Southern Carinthia and provide ample opportunity for their employees to engage in Slovene public life without the fear of getting the sack. Quite naturally, these companies are the target of German nationalist propaganda, although they bring work to a traditionally poor area. The nationalists seem to fear that once Carinthian Slovenes cannot be threatened with unemployment they will become unruly. Second, the for young the Austrian policy generation of - providing against nationalists, a Slovene grammar Klagenfurt/Celovec - has brought about new generation of consciousness and is prepared now better Slovene commitment than ground in the conflict nationalist lobby. better violent the any with education of German school was opened in very promising results: a intellectuals to Slovene protests cause of of their a diehard with Slovene ancestors political emancipation to stand conservative their German Third, regionalism, a new political movement in Europe counters the idea of national states is backing up resurrection of ethnic identities that for a long time have that the been submerged by the priority of the State. Nowadays there is a growing tendency among ethnic groups to look beyond state borders and to rediscover ethnic and linguistic affinities with people who live in the same region but are citizens of another state. This is not quite easy in the case of Slovenes in Carinthia and to very subscribe states respective the because Yugoslavia different political systems. However, in spite of ideological differences of their respective systems, there is a growing cultural exchange in the Slovene region across the borders. Finall I think it is worth mentioning that large-scale social the thus giving rather in favour of multiculturalism, change is incipient movement of Slovene emancipation in Carinthia a fair chance. As long as the capitalist society had a strong Sie one es and distribution by streamlinging in improving production there was system Communication abolition of minority languages. 387 an economic But with the e PA reason high technology Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 revolution this interest has become obsolete, although it still exists as an ideology in the hearts and minds of people. The new means of high technology communication rely on man-machine communication and allow a lot of diversity in personal communication. So even in terms of a profit-oriented economy demand for language unification is no longer functional for system. Final So Remarks far this dangerous to the the paper role infer of from has taken German this great pains nationalism. analysis an to However, overall underline it would be domination the wrong of this outdated ideology. Austria's historical mission since the days of the old Empire has consisted of a multicultural and multilingual concept major of State. political The Austrian force in the were the first political party concept as early as 1899. It since. Even in nationalism was socialists, country for who the have last been fifteen to formulate this has guided their the years, multicultural politics ever such difficult times as the year 1918, when at its climax in Carinthia, the representatives of the Carinthian Socialist Party publicly declared that they opposed any national suppression and persecution. Although nowadays there are differences of opinion over how certain issues concerning Slovene-speaking Carinthians should be settled, they feel obliged to the traditions of Austria and of their party which means that they try to negotiate difficult questions rather than dictate a national solution which favours one group. Summing up emphasize Carinthia the main arguments the danger which stems for from of the the my paper, I would like to Slovene-speaking community in historical conflicts with German nationalism and public lethargy to open discussion of the remaining sentiments. The ideology of anti-Slovenism has poisoned people's minds for a long time. discussion and education to free Mere recitations of not be for identity. to secure soin ssues for enough It will them the be errors the of take a lot minds from disasters of Slovenes importance economic for chances. past to Slovene But ethnic consciousness and group not AA schooling o nl will i there ————— 388 of patient prejudice. history regain be will their emancipation only improvements go hand in hand with a liberal such as bilingual this and Carinthian more better It will people's if these treatment a good of chance i Me Razprave Heinz in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Tichy UDC 376.744(436) The Office of the Federal Chancellor Austria THE AUSTRIAN The following legal system EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM presentation basis and practical for ethnic groups FOR ETHNIC contains a experiences in GROUPS* brief survey concerning of the the aims, educational Austria. Aims The aim of respective this educational system is to offer instruction in the languages of the ethnic groups as well as to provide sufficient knowledge in the official language (German). The learning of the German language is considered highly important by the ethnic groups in that it secures their members' social and professional career opportunities. Instruction, particularly in elementary schools, is conducted, however, exclusively in the language of the ethnic group. Another characteristic of the Austrian ethnic groups’ educational system is its easy access for practically everybody (as long as the basic requirements of age and level of education are fulfilled) without, e.g. any investigation of whether the pupil belongs to an ethnic group or not. In Carinthia, for example, it is possible and not unusual that German-speaking parents have their children enrolled for instruction in Slovene. Though the aifferences in the children's basic linguistic knowledge pose pedagogic problems for the teachers, this system also provides the possibility for the majority of the population to find access to the language and culture of the ethnic group. On the other hand, nobody is forced to participate in the instruction in the language of the ethnic group. The Different Levels of Education and Their Legal Basis Kindergartens have been established for all ethnic groups on a private level (by associations and religious societies). In these kindergartens the children are educated in the respective languages of their ethnic groups as well. A large number of these kindergartens are subsidized by the State. The legal basis for the elementary school level school varies: system of ethnic groups in Burgenland (Croatian at the ethnic group and Hungarian ethnic group) and in Carinthia (Slovene ethnic group) there are public bilingual elementary schools which have their legal basis in specific federal laws (for Carinthia the minority Vienna * there Original: School is a Law private of 1959). school. German 389 For the Czech ethnic group in Razprave in gradivo, According to the characteristic entire Ljubljana, Minority of the instruction during the Slovene first 1986, School Law bilingual years to is about e.g., provided the No.18 for elementary (including, 3 languages March is religious in same Carinthia school both the instruction) the extent the that German (from the and 4th the grade onwards, Slovene is only a compulsory subject of instruction. Only those children take part in the instruction in Slovene who have been enrolled by their parents or their legal guardians. Children who have been enrolled for this instruction, and those who have not, remain within the same class-formation and are taught (simultaneously) in the same classroom. This principle of enrollment corresponds to the above-mentioned legal rule, i.e., not to force anybody to take part in the instruction in a language of an ethnic group. During teh school year 1984/85 there were 81 elementary schools within the area of application of the Minority School Law for Carinthia. Among these enrollment for bilingual instruction was registered in 67 elementary schools. Out of a elementary total of approximately 5,000 pupils schools of Carinthia, about 1,000 were instruction in in bilingual enrolled for Slovene. With regard to Hauptschulen (secondary schools) the Minority School Law for Carinthia stipulates that Slovene has to be taught as a compulsory subject on all levels. The Slovene ethnic group organizations are not interested in the establishment of a school of that type with Slovene as the language of instruction, as would be permitted concerning an instruction). by the elementary Minority school with School Slovene Law as (as the well language as of At the Bundesgymnasium fiir Slowenen (Pederal High School for Slovenes) in Klagenfurt, which is also based on the Minority School Law, the language of all courses is Slovene; German is taught as a compulsory subject. The number of pupils in this high school Other has considerably minority Austria, in possibility, increased languages most can cases however to be as take since its studied in optional A-level foundation most high subjects, exams in in 1957. schools with in the them. Experiences Most of the criticism levelled at this educational system past was mainly concerned with its further expansion regarding kindergartens). Recently, the question has been in relation institutions to the quality whether these of the existing bilingual educational elementary Carinthia were successful in providing sufficient for those children who have not been enrolled in the (e.g., raised schools in education also for bilingual instruction. In fact, in a class which comprises (as explained above) pupils enrolled for bilingual instruction as well as pupils not enrolled for it, there are many different methods for a teacher to maximize the results of instruction for both of these groups. A statistical survey of specific cases has shown that the attendance of a bilingual school does not at all impede the children's further secondary education. Nevertheless, the school authorities pay close attention to modern pedagogic developments give support, concerning in case of bilingual need, to 390 education, teachers of so that bilingual they might classes. Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 UDC 376.744(436.6=863) Malle Augustin Scientific Slovenian Institute Klagenfurt/Celovec Austria ANNOTATIONS CONCERNING THE BILINGUAL SCHOOL SYSTEM IN CARINTHIA* The current public discussion concerning the continuation of the bilingual elementary school system in Carinthia reduces at first sight the critical situation of the many problems reduction with regard of to of the minority bring about the complete breakdown in Carinthia, and would constitute the Austrian State Treaty school system to one institutionalized education. Yet, any territory and contents would eventually issued of the minority school a violation of Article on 15 May system VII of 1955. In administrative as well as judicial areas of Slovene or mixed population, there exist bilingual, German-Slovene classes for the first three years of primary school for all those pupils who have been enrolled by their parents. Then again, all those pupils who have been enrolled by their parents are taught the Slovene language as a subject of instruction in all the remaining classes of compulsory education. The Slovene ethnic group in Carinthia has always accorded utmost importance to the educational formation of its members and still stresses the role of the compulsory elementary school - as it existed up to 1959 - as a mediator; this form of school had been established in the geographically clearly defined region of Carinthia and was created with the mutual consent of the three political parties that founded the second Austrian Republic as well as of the representation numerous or representatives of the memorandums, decrees, constructed the and for system of ethnic petitions necessity school development, and constant openness Slovene for an comments minority. has on organized its at the same time and willingness to the group The emphasized drafts and continued for in bills organically existence has given evidence discuss it. of and its The present, already historical, form of the compulsory bilingual elementary school was based on the wish to stabilize and enlarge the mastery of the respective mother tongues of the pupils and at the same time to introduce the second language. Circumstances which were of practically no importance 40 years ago, today influence the early bilingualism of minority in Carinthia. Firstly, there which are overwhelmingly in the hands members are mass of the of the Slovene communications, majority and are dominated by it linguistically and in terms of content. Secondly, the economic situation of the Southern Carinthian area and the concentration of places of work, which, due to planning, are located in the so-called Carinthian central area, bring about the fact * that Original: the Carinthian Slovenes Slovene 391 spend only a part of their Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 active time in linguistically familiar surroundings and are obliged to carry out a language switch, starting with their commuting to their places of work and most of all with their arrival higher there. This is true secondary schools, Bundesgymnasium fiir also not for most of the professional taking into consideration Slowenen. The Slovene particular the Slovene language have a Carinthia. The estimation of the language estimation of its range of application to that knowledge of its dialectal variety academic form unnecessary; sometimes it refusal, which culminated a few years ago it was the language of the enemy of a undivided Carinthia. In order to language, support it learning is it important the often that argument argued could language, a too otherwise world learning much be language. and in low social status in ranges from mere underthe attitude of saying is sufficient and its is even met with overt in the statement that free, independant and against that culture and the time the is Slovene invested spent learning a This argument can in more be questioned as there is no evidence for a qualitatively greater mastery of languages of the Carinthians in comparison with the rest of the Austrian population. In our opinion the low social status of the Slovene language has been affected by the actions taken by the legislative authorities and further aggravated by the territorial limitations on Slovene as an official language. Naturally this Now as ever it situation has can be argued Slovene-speaking children mother-tongue because by their parents. they its negative impact that a considerable have no are not access enrolled to on education, percentage of education in in bilingual their classes For a statistically surveyed part of the pupils, education in Slovene language ends when they reach the age of ten. About 2530% of the pupils who are taught in Slovene in the compulsory school, do have Slovene in different ways (as a compulsory subject, a language used in class) once they continue their schooling. The school system reforms to a system Almost has all in Austria considerable has extent. been The only insignificantly proposals made by the improved Carinthian and expanded minority by school taken part in this process. Carinthians were doomed to failure because of the missing political consent of the parties represented in Parliament and the Regional Assembly. Above all, the Carinthian Slovenes call for a regulation concerning the preparatory education, that is, the nursery school system; they call for organizational and pedagogical improvements within the bilingual elementary secondary schools well as in further school, for a In our opinion the Slovene ethnic group develop its educational situation on acknowledged pedagogical experiences criteria. necessary similar development and for improvements in teacher-training in-service training of bilingual teachers. Yet, because agreement with as could improve and further the basis of generally and the agreed-on legal of the missing political will, the representatives of the majority 392 in the does Razprave not in come system about. can unlikely desired be of the March 1986, development reached judicial consent from Ljubljana, The hardly that displayed Apart gradivo, through parties urgently of the legal authorities the No.18 should in bilingual steps as it decide school is highly against the Parliament. needed settlement of preparatory education, which is acknowledged also in semi-official documents as being an unresolved question, the situation in secondary education remains extremely unsatisfactory. Because of its type of school, the graduates of the Budesgymnasium fiir Slowenen are rather limited in their choice of a career. It can be observed that this fact was of no major. importance until recently, as the Carinthian Slovenes were considerably disadvantaged in all professions. This is especially true of teachers of compulsory schools, as Slovenes had been practically excluded from the teacher-training school in Klagenfurt from 1920 to 1945. In the meantime, the Slovene ethnic group has gained ground considerably in some professions, whereas it still lags behind in others. the reason must be seen also in the inadequate structure of the secondary school system for the Slovene ethnic group. This can also be regarded as an indicator of the degree of the emancipation claim of to the reached an adequate Austrian so far. school State The Slovene system on Treaty. The claim education in the Slovene language is secures the existence of the Slovene secondary education is to ensure its elementary whole school render possible. the Yet a as the bilingualism as well of functional ethnic bilingual school minority the is to the school members bilingualism system II of bases its Article VII elementary the very prerequisite which ethnic group. A structured development. The bilingual can if the greatest possible number of the region is taught both languages in school in everyday life. The group paragraph suitable of system the only grow population and is able for reducing on ethnic and the group develop of a mixed to use them the existing prejudices separating the majority and minority group and peoples. It serves well the international understanding. collective education helps to get them of to know school-age each children other and from a constitutes mixed the The region a supporting element for the strengthening and growth of mutual respect and amicable co-operation. Yet the bilingual elementary school in Carinthia fulfils the orders of paragraph II of Article VII of the Austrian State Treaty, which guarantees elementary education in the Slovene language to Austrian citizens of the Slovene minority In in Carinthia. bilingual instruction pupils do not learn the Slovene language as a "foreign" language. In the Southern parts of Carinthia it has been a means of communication from its earliest days on and considered attitude a "public" towards it language is as far as the Bilingual education promotes and develops competence of the pupils and introduces them heritage of two peoples. Some problems fundamental Firstly, minority: there are bilingual population's positive. those have to concerning education makes 393 be the linguistic to the cultural pointed the out majority greater briefly. and the qualitative and Razprave J financial In order requires at least eee in gradivo, gente Sy the to nd à ape inion of also 11 participants speande theoretical case, one commit needs ted and of made in the on it, most members formative bilingual organizational its . public a No.18 1986, March Ljubljana, basis. significant of the safeguard ethnic 3 against process, education Although, functions group any as is good form of infringement. I would like to Secondly, particularly concern the generally procedure draw your attention to problems which Carinthian Slovenes: apart from the existing concern for the must be found which enable school system, methods of both parents and pedagogues to take an active part in the development of the syllabus and to decide about the necessary reforms of the minority school system. It will be necessary to devote more attention to the students and graduates of intermediate and secondary schools. In recent years, the Slovene ethnic group has increasingly taken into account the experiences and findings of the educational sciences to underline its demands. In future, it will be necessary to take into account also the experiences of other ethnic groups to help in decisionmaking, despite the fact that the Slovene ethnic group has to decide about its school system in co-operation with the federal authorities. 394 Razprave in gradivo, Peter Gstettner, Ljubljana, March 1906, No.18 Dietmar Larcher, UDC Vladimir Wakounig, University of Klagenfurt, Austria Celovec, EXPERIMENTAL SYSTEM* SCHOOLING WITHIN THE 376.744(436.6=863) CARINTHIAN MINORITY SCHOOL The project has been arranged and organized by a group of committed teachers from the bilingual area and has been of University the from of education by professors supervised Klagenfurt. The Austrian minority reconstruction after reconciliation, the appeasement fact that of social this Austrian integration belonging to different experiences school of living system Second World and is War, a product based international on of the idea understanding. the of The type of school with an underlying notion (that is, the opportunity for children ethnic and groups to learning) share in actually school exists, the has apparently been forgotten. For more than ten years educational reforms have been based on concepts other than those of socialization at school and "peace instruction". The concept of academic achievement has become all-important. In Carinthia there have been for some time now many attempts to separate pupils according to their.ethnic origin and native language in order to teach them in segregated classes. This demand, brought forward with vehemence by "German-Carinthians" (that is especially from people belonging to FPO) in order to segregate Slovene-speaking the political party children and to put them together in their own classes, is now often disguised as the educational reform (with relation to external differentiation and separated advancement). As a result of the intentional misrepresentation of the "parental right", a wave of propaganda has been started Carinthian" Carinthian" is which children teachers. spreading and provokes parents to insist should be taught exclusively The fact that a dangerous form encouraging racist and that "German- by of "Germanapartheid hostile tendencies directed at ethnic minorities has induced a group of pedagogues of the bilingual educational system and the to develop structural improvements both in the in the school for minorities. The provision schooling (according to Art. 7 of the Austrian the essential point the following points - to reject all of of are the the proposed social committed university climate and for experimental Education Act) is improvements. In addition, educational measures recommended: hitherto proposed which show integrating efforts at advancement a segregational quality, and to replace them by measures. It is within this framework that the an intercultural education and a collective of mixed ethnic groups has to be seen. * Original: German 395 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, & to enlarge and institutions of intercultural improve integrating education March 1986, all can No.19 hitherto existing educational quality to such actually be guaranteed. an extent that For this reason the reforms proposed here are to be extended to the domains of nursery schools, preparatory schools, Hauptschulen (modern secondary schools) and vocational-training establishments. - together with the reform-accompanying measures intensified information, advice and scientific shall be undertaken and made available to all in the form of clarification ethnic groups. Only a sound basis of information and a broad public discussion can guarantee the effective utilization of the basic rights of selfand co-determination. In this connection "parental right" should carry more weight. Parents should be able to formulate and make the demand that: - all relevant information about children be available to them; and the learning that process of - there be a multitude of concrete possibilities for observe the learning events taking place at school, to them with the teacher, and to ameliorate them through their them to discuss a joint effort. Educational reform and “parental right" must not be played off against one another nor shall they hinder each other. Therefore "parental right" can only be enlarged and established in a way that transforms it into an instrument of internal school democracy. The project initiators are at the moment working on an educational experiment based on these principles; they are discussing its programme on a broad basis at conferences, meetings and seminars. The experimental programme is composed of individual "projects," which will be more clearly outlined during this "phase of development." Classes, respectively individual teachers and teaching staffs will then be free to "apply for" projects and arrange them according to their own needs and local requirements. allocated both such communities communities involved in The The in sites a of way with the that a educational - as far German-speaking with a Slovene-speaking the experiment. following considerations project as as possibilities to what the now experiment possible majority formed — a “ trial run instruction of language (from the — à trial run roti nee ar improve the proficiency language; games first - " . basis i be and population experiments — à . trial run of a € material-s individualization in bi SETAE lingual classes; of the should eventually population majority aspired - for are further could be: iation and RATER + “ gra de Po onwards); i Se le eee ious optional and compulsory measures to in the native language or in the second = à trial ru n of in newlanguage-t teaching -methods in teamwork (e.g. differentiat ion forms eaching using two teachers) of co “Operation with Pedagogues 396 who are flexible and new specialized in Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March other fields (e.g. nursery therapists, experts on language 1986, No.18 school teachers, play-group didactics, and so on); - a trial run of more intensive forms of parental participation and the integration of the educational system into the public culture; - a trial atmosphere relations with the run of different methods aiming to improve the within the educational system and the areas of social (by means of bilingual and multidisciplinary projects social network). The priority of a collective segregated advancement (that is the fundamental principle education which excludes any form of is, not even in individual subjects) of all these project proposals. All classes taking part in the project (and of course any others) may in addition take part in the so-called S7-experiments ("SCHOG", the Austrian Education Act, 1962). These experiments allow, among other things, the substitution of verbal reports for marks. With them the current practice of assessment, to use the same marks for linguistic performances in both German and Slovene (a fact which all teachers could be improved evaluation. in consider the course pedagogically of a senseless), differentiated text- The scientific supervision of the educational experiments (by the centre for experimental schooling and the university) would not only cover their evaluation (trial and guidance of the didactic innovations), but also offer advice and assistance in connection with all related problems (such as parental participation, public relations, documentation). At the present stage (April 1985) possible educational experiments projects have been formulated as meetings and conferences and have numerous of the Landesschulrat (The Carinthian Education Authority), Department of Education, the school inspectors, the centre experimental schooling and the teachers’ organizations. the for The are use - informative three domains as follows: The to reform comply with learning participation are to be put into the collective language classes in heterogeneous small groups and all the work 397 is the school correspond integration subjects is of “parental into harmony of advancement teacher's difficult didactic of educational experiment. here whereby be brought in opening-up proposed principle and the experiments experience could the non-segregation): collective the experiments international educational with project-teaching educational previous of which team-teaching system for internal differentiation - intercultural the community. as in talks, three different projects for are being favoured. These “rough drafts" after various been under discussion during the maintained supported with the right" and in such (or by the a manner principle concept so the to that of the programme Razprave Albert in F. gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Reiterer UDC 323.15(436.6=863) Expert Austria IDENTITY SOUTHERN AND INTEREST: CARINTHIA* AN A of tried number authors have INVESTIGATION to define nationality, and also ethnic group by ecriteria.* With this "lexical" method OF the THE SLOVENES concepts of OF nation, listing up to half a dozen (so called by me because it is especially favored by lexicographers), the factor "national consciousness"/national self-identification is one factor among various others such as language, culture, history, territory, etc., although it has been observed: "The subjective factor of consciousness issue of the is national It fruitful. But this the capture cannot which factor ultimate identity."“ eventually method real has not decides proved of interdependence the very the various dimensions forming a nation. A nation must always be (or strata) on the basis considered a union of different classes common a reinforce and to lead which interests common of (national) identity. NATION identity (or "cultural interest factors") (or political norms and (e.g. religion) values economic and income (e.g. “socio- factors") social system distribution) language territory history sovereignty/autonomy NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS (national Identity and want we if one of to analyze we have interest are the basic dimensions they are But identity. a national investigate to independent actually them identification) from the factors? Could other: either it not be possible interest from deduce to OT identity identity from interest?* The idea seems alluring because this it would provide would simplify the analysis very much. Moreover, pacifying explanation us with a very simple and, one must admit, of so many find in all tried to we can assimilation and national of ethnic processes authors have several Indeed, corners of the world. prove situation. identity Michael to Hechter be has one aspect stated: of “National the overall development class is a process which may be said to occur when the separate cultyral He significance."identities of regions begin to lose social the to contributes labour of division "Cultural continues: development * Original: of distinctive ethnic English 398 identification in the two Razprave in groups. to the gradivo, Ljubljana, March Actors came to categorize range of roles each may 1986, No.18 themselves and others according be expected to play.... To the extent that social stratification in the periphery observable cultural differences, there exists the that the their disadvantaged own culture relatively group as advantaged will, equal, in or time, is based on probability reactively superior, to core.' that assert of the Southern Carinthia would be a good example to prove or refute this hypothesis. There is a net cultural division of labour, as it is generally recognized, which I can show on the basis of recent census data, if one recognizes the mother tongue of persons belonging to the same group as the fundamental cultural trait. Unfortunately, things are not quite as simple as they appear to be. In Southern Carinthia it does not make any sense to use the term "mother labour along Slovene minority tongue," linguistic the if we analyze borderlines census has the the division statistically. character of For of the a plebiscite: They must "profess" themselves as Slovenes (or as Germanspeaking). So the language criteria can no longer be seen as a cultural factor - it is the conclusion of a political act of faith. Methodically we cannot survey the culturally distinctive function attributed to language (as mother-tongue) on the basis of census data; we can only consider the colloquial language a culturally important mark upon which a political decision has been made. But nevertheless we could draw far-reaching conclusions if we succeeded to gain statistical correlations between indices of socio-economic change (such as e.g. diminution of the agricultural sector) and the acceleration or the slowing down of the process of assimilation. Obviously, all cultural changes have conditioned by We are told and becomes have been Industrial modernize backward for the ethnic?) political consequences and their political structures and events. parts are that the Slovene minority of Carinthia assimilates “German" in a quite spontaneous and natural way. They farmers for many centuries. At Revolution the German-speaking their and economy stayed and society, while ancient farmers. This the beginning of the population started to the Slovenes process accelerated diminution of the Slovene minority - that is what we are toldl is remained responsible national (or First: there can be no doubt that social and economic changes have an impact on the attitude, individual as well as national, of persons trying to be better off than they could do in the past. But this does not answer the question: Why should a Germanspeaking Carinthian do better than a Slovene? Second: If it is true that the process of assimilation depends exclusively or largely on social developments and especially on changes in traditional sectors as it is considered to be predominantly in the primary sector (i.e. agriculture), there Must be a straight correlation in the technical sense between the rates of changes in both areas. Changes in (x) in the rate of the the rate of agricultural population to (y) changes Slovene population living in Carinthia: 399 > Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 1951-1961 54 communities in Southern Carinthia District of Vülkermarkt/Velikovec (19 communities) r r2 0.27 0.22 0.07 0.05 -0.02 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.18 0.03 0.52 0.27 1961-1971 52 communities in Southern Carinthia District of VSlkermarkt/Velikovec {17 communities) 1971-1981 36 communities District of in Southern Carinthia Vôlkermarkt/Velikovec (From 1951 to 1971 the so-called "Windischen" Slovene population; the figures for 1971-1981 who have including chosen the entry "“Slowenisch” the "Windischen." The reason calculation has been partly and partly difficulties communities having been many communities in this Changes in the (Manufacturing, the diminishing in for rate of population living Construction, Energy) vs. the census, not this different number in selecting the data, completely altered by period. 1971-1981 36 are included in the include only those of the the in the secondary sector the above changes: r communities in Southern Carinthia District of Vélkermarkt/Velikovec (12 communities) 36 0.05 0.41 0.17 (12 r communities District of ofSouthernCarinthia 0.09 tertiary Banking, x 0.01 Vékermarkt/Velikovec communities) 0.00 Multiple correlation: Changes in Secondary, primary and tertiary) the Slovene population: communities ofSouthernCarinthia District of Vékermarkt/Velikovec (12 communities) 400 0.00 two sectors (X) (Primary and to (y) changes in the rate of 1971-1981 36 r? 0.23 Changes in (x) the rate of population living in the sector (Services, Public Administration, Education, Communications) vs. the above changes (y): 1971-1981 Windischen areas of the fusion of so R.s,-a-1 R.s.-A+D 0.29 0.21 0.58 0.55 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March We will verbalize this: from dependence in the assimilation area. From 1961 reappeared to a correlation in strengthened. It must into be No.18 1951 to 1961 there was a weak on changes in the agricultural to 1971 the dependence disappeared completely; it low degree from 1971 to 1981, but this time the the district of Vôlkermarkt/Velikovec was noted account 1986, that the for total those who have “Windischen." said the of all they last 10 people speak years who we speak “Slovene," have not Slovene, not taken but only including the What does this imply? There is only a slight connection between the process of assimilation and socio-economic changes, if it exists at all! There is no such phenomenon as a spontaneous and "natural" assimilation on a large scale. If there is a problem or a crisis of modernization, this must be a problem not of the Slovene minority but of the German-speaking majority who does not want to tolerate a real and equitable participation of active and culturally vivid minority marked by the use language. Do not within misunderstand the mel minority. Of Of course course the there is process of a socially of another a problem of change assimilation cannot be isolated from the structural changes in the economic system. The results from the Vôlkermarkt/Velikovec district show, for instance, that the political choice of Slovene as the colloquial language must follow two routes. The nationally conscious young and better educated people chose Slovene, but their increase in number is not sufficient to counterbalance the decrease in the number of farmers who "confess" to be Slovenes in this still largely agricultural district. On the other hand, there seems to be no preference of the blue collar workers either for the Slovene Slovene or for the German language. In population the behaviour must there seem with other I would to result correlations directions. like “Windischen." a political and “bad they - it to end The word term guys" with was serving - the assimilation. Changes in percentage Slovene Again for the of the rate to we can prove of 54 communities (19 of in Slovenes the being this on the the 1920 minority the and the (including (without (including Southern remarks and sometimes so-called plebiscite into good “good ones, further Vélkermarkt/Velikovec. as guys because development “Windischen") of "Windischen") the (y) to total "Windischen"): 1951-1961 District values "Germans" although they speak Slovene for getting ripe for the definitive district of other after divide "Windischen" "Slovenes" population some invented hold themselves to be has become a storage numerically with the other districts with be quite deviant because Carinthia Vélkermarkt/Velikovec communities) 401 r r 2 -0.27 0.07 —0.79 0.48 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 1961-1971 52 communities in Southern Carinthia -0.26 0.07 0.16 0.03 0.03 0.00 0.13 0.02 District of Vôlkermarkt/Velikovec (17 communities) 1971-1981 36 communities District of in Southern Carinthia Vôlkermarkt/Velikovec We can observe the value diminish and finally German nationalists who invented the term do concept anymore. Nowadays they do not need good disappear. not need Slovenes, The this they want no Slovenes. The people who declared themselves “Windisch” in the 1981 census were those who had not succeeded in their assimilation. they real If we look at them prove to be marginalized problem connected with the from the structural viewpoint, in a sharply marked manner. The concept of the "Windischen" today - those whose origin is Slovene but who declare themselves to speak German only - therefore is not one of the 2,300 individuals in the census under the entry "Windisch" but one of 30,000 or 40,000 persons, as we can show by demographic surveys. But we cannot grasp them exactly in statistical terms, because they deny understanding Slovene. But the problem remains and is important both for themselves and for the Slovene minority as a group: Janizaries are always zealous to convince us of their new faith by attacking the old one, Hotes 1. See: Jaroslav Political Krecici Nations in and vitezslav Europe, Velimsky, Croom-Helm, 1981, London; Ethnic Philip L. and White, 1985, “What is a Nationality?" in Canadian Review of Studies in Nationality, Vol. XII, pp. 1-23; Charles R. Foster, (ed.), 1980, Nations Without Praeger Publishers, Grosses Universallexikon Institut, Italiano, p. e, 2. 3. a State: New Ethnic York. in Mannheim, Band 1958, Istituto 268; Grand p.676. Kreici Larosse and Henning nationale Banden, der in Western Europe, encyclopaedias: 1982, encyclopédique, Eichberg, in 15 for MEYERS Bibliographisches 9, pp. 626-27; Dizionario Enciclopedico Poligrafico dello Stato, Roma, Vol. III, Velimsky, Frage Minorities Examples p. 1963, Larousse, Paris, Tome Entfremdung und 45 Nationale Identität. Industriegesellshaft, 1978, Langen-Müller, München. 4. See: Junius, Josef Wien, Strasser, reprint; Der Tom Arbeiter Nairin, Eric und die Hobsbawm, Nation, Régis Michael Léwy, 1978, Nationalismus und notwendigen Debatte, Rotbuch, Berlin; Marxismus. Anstoss Orlando Patterson, and Theoretical Choice Caribbean (eds.), in Case 1976, University Ethnic Study," Allegiance: in Ethnicity: Press, Nathan A Glazer Theory Cambridge, and Mass., 402 and Daniel zu einer "Context Framework P. Experience, pp. 1982, Debray, 305-349: and Moynihan, Harvard “Ethnic Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 loyalties reflect, and are maintained by, the underlying socioeconomic interest of group members" (p. 305); Sheila Allan, Christopher Smith, “Race and Ethnicity in Class Formation: Comparison of Asian and West Indian Workers," in Frank Parkin, (ed.), 1974, The Social Analysis of Class Structure, Tavistock, pp. 5. in A 39-53. Michael Hechter, 1975, Internal Colonialism. British National Development, 1536-1966, California Internal History, Press, Colonial Vol. 26, 6. Hechter, l'Etat et la 7. Martin Forschungen Glantschnig, Kärnten. Die Berkley, Robert J. Comparative Hind, Studies 1975, pp. 9-10; Renaud Dulong, société locale, PUF, Paris. 1978, 1984, in Society Les “The and régions, Wutte, Kärntens Freiheitskampf, 1943, Kärntner I. Band I., Bôhlau, Weimar; Ralf Unkart, Gerold Alfred Ogris, 1984, Slowenische Volksgruppe 1979 - eine Dokumentation, Klagenfurt pp. 41-44. 8. Thomas M. Barker 1984, The Slovene Monographs, p-5; Concept," in pp.543-568. The Celtic Fringe University of Columbia Verlag des Zur und Lage der Slowenen in di Wahlkreiseinteilung Karntner Landesarchives, (with the collaboration of Andreas Minority of Carinthia, East University Press, 403 New York. Moritsch), European Razprave Yves in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Plasseraud Membre du bureau Groupement des Minorités Paris, France droits LE BILINGUISME REGIONALES* DANS En Ferry, 1883, Jules UDC 376.744(44) CAS DES du des L'ENSEIGNEMENT Ministre EN de FRANCE: LE l'Instruction LANGUES Publique (devenue depuis l'Education Nationale), instaure l'Ecole Publique laïque et obligatoire pour tous les enfants de France. C'est le début d'une offensive en faveur de l'apprentissage du français (on compare les instituteurs à des hussards noirs de la République) qui, en l'Abbé l'état Dans quelques décennies, réalisera les voeux Grégoire en réduisant les langues de vestiges en survie précaires. de durement telles conditions, ressenti voient dans précisément rien d'étonnant l'humiliation du les à ce “symbole” l'école le moyen quasi-magique a été détruit par elle. de de la lutte pour l'enseignement est ancienne et ...décevante. l'ardeur d'association comme l'Ecole) La première vote qui entre le 22 entrera les deux éclaircie, Décembre dans dans 1950, rien les des fut années malgré l'histoire ne sous une le à on “vache" ce qui citoyenneté langues régionales décennies, malgré Skol (le Breton à fait. opposition, de de qui la d'aprés-guerre, vive nom ceux de reconstruire Pendant bien des Ar Brezhoneg Er guerres, chers régionales que ou Ecoles de France et langues minoritaires, républicaine ou aliénation culturelle? L'histoire plus dites Loi est du le texte Deixonne. Ce document encore fort timide prévoit pour l'essentiel l'autorisation d'utiliser les langues énumérées par la loi’ à l'école primaire et secondaire, l'instauration d'une épreuve facultative de langue régionale au baccalauréat, l'organisation de stages pour les élèves des écoles normales, et enfin un enseignement en Faculté. Cependant, ce texte est truffé de restrictions et de garde-fous, une heure seulement d'enseignement par semaine dans le primaire, on parle de “parler local" pour minorer les langues en question par rapport à la langue nationale, etc. Malgré toutes ces insuffisances, la Loi Deixonne fut immédiatement exploitée au maximum par les miliants des langues base régionales légale à qui, leurs Une série de les textes suivants: années circulaires suivantes. * Original: grâce à elle, purent enfin donner cours des une revendications. Citons à en résultèrent titre d'exemples French 4o4 au de progrès trente ponctuels Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 - Circulaire du 24.10.1966 (No. 66 académiques appelées à conseiller - 361) créant des Commissions les Recteurs en la matière. - Circulaire 69 du 17.2.1969 consacrer une civilisations. - Décret langue 7433 du - 90) qui recommande l'enseignement 16.1.1974 qui étend la à l'étude Loi Deixonne de des à la Corse. - Loi qui No. (No. place dans générale prévoit régionales relative qu' peut "un 4 l'éducation enseignement être dispensé tout du 11.7.1975 des au (No. langues long Mais il y a aussi des retours en arrière pleine frond des vignerons langue-dociens, de la 75 et - 620) cultures scolarité." comme ce texte qui, en stipule que, en ce qui concerne "les langues d'Oc" (et non plus l'Occitani), il convient d'utiliser "la graphie la plus appropriée au lieu du dialecte de la langue." Bel aveu de la crainte d'un réveil politique de l'Occitanie! En Alsace, la pression (Réforme Holderith}) à la partir d'une des parents d'élèves aboutit en 1971 réintroduction de l'Allemand au CM1 à demi-heure dialectes qui des élèves. par constituent jour. Rien l'idiome n'est quotidien prévu d'une pour grand les partie Malgré ces timides progrès, l'Etat jacobin défend pied à pied ses positions et l'application des réformes décidées demeure toujours très imparfaite. Ainsi par exemple, les enseignements techniques courts et agricoles, qui sont précisément ceux où se concentre la grande masse des comme par hasard En outre, temps de entrepris souvent alloglottes de naissance, en dehors du systèmel l'insertion des l'élève est le pour modifier après les langues régionales plus souvent les horaires. classes restent-ils dans en général l'emploi du difficile, rien n'ayant été Par ailleurs, c'est le plus "normales" ou encore le mercredi que les élèves fatigués se verront proposer les cours facultatifs de Corse ou de Basque. De plus, bien souvent, le début de l'enseignement traine des semaines sinon des mois après la rentrée, les professeurs manquent ou ne sont pas payés, bref, les langues régionales sont de toute évidence les parents pauvres de l'éducation nationale. ce fait, second De degré Face à très en cette peu d'élèves 1980-1981 évidente en furent Bretagne mauvaise touchés par (1,88% dans le associations et exemple). volonté, les autres groupements (notamment D.P.L.F.: Défense et Langues de France) accentuent leur action volontariats, pétitions, d'associations, etc. création Citons: Occitanes d'Eté en Occitanie encore l'Université Catalane Et le mouvement l'arrivée de la continua Gauche au Skol de Ober (Arles, d'Eté à ainsi pouvoir. 405 cercles en culturels Bretagne, Villenneuve Prades. jusqu'en Promotion des militante: Mai sur 1981, Les et Ecoles Lot...)* date ou de Razprave Depuis Des in gradivo, 1981: des espoirs socialistes, espérer,” le slogans du Alain on Candidat les March 1986, No.18 décus attendait droit Savary, bientôt Ljubljana, a la beaucoup, tant différence ils avaient n'était-il pas laissé l'un des Mitterand? Ministre espoirs de en l'Education déclarant: "Tout Nationale, ce qui confirmait a été relégué, voire étouffé du passé, des cultures, de la langue des régions, doit reprendre ouvertment place dans un environnement familier dont l'école doit apprendre à reconnaître Les richesses pour la construction personnelle de chaque enfant." Après quelques consultations - et manifestations d'impatience intéressés - paraît enfin la circulaire sur "l'enseignement des des cultures et langues régionales dans le Service l'Education Nationale" (21.6.1982, No. 82 - 261). d'actions pour trois ans, ce texte se fonde sur trois Public de Programme principes: - en engagement - création Nationale, officiel pour - Volontariat Parmi les de elles tant l'Etat d'un des faveur statut élèves nouveautés, expérimentales en que on bilingues, dans des note des le langues cadre de l'Education maîtres. la l'extension création de de C'est là, du en seulement, nombre théorie, tunnel. car de à parler du Parti cultures Le les langues véritable du restrictions concernées "avancée." français demeurent n'est-il pas On paraît et entrevoit le entamé. importantes. modifié en (L.E.P.) et Entamé Ainsi, on le continue des "cultures et langues régionales" alors que le projet Socialiste utilisait, lui, l'expression de "langues et des peuples de France." Cette "période circulaire est “Donner un monopole classes l'enseignement question aux Lycées d'Enseignement Professionnel l'instauration d'un corps d'inspecteurs spécialisés. bout cause, et de purgatoire" décevante. On retenir ne de trois songe au ans mise en vieil adage place par français vaut." Aux dernières nouvelles, le bilan est effectivement bien mince. Bien sûr, un certain nombre de structures ont été mises en place, mais l'ardeur n'y est pas, l'argent, les maîtres, et surtout une ferme volonté politique, font défaut. Dans les faits, eu égard aux espérances, le bilan des associations portent l'avenir l'amertume est du Ministre de qu'il envisage Il la va sans même l'allemand est extraordinairement depuis souvent plus langues régionales mince, et au sein a’ un demi-siécle, a bout de bras, grande, d'autant plus que certaines déclarations l'Education Nationale Chevènement amènent à penser de sacrifier complètement les langues régionales. dire que pour et qui, des les le la situation langues est "hors flamand.), 406 malheureusement Loi Deixonne," sensiblement notamment Razprave Les in gradivo, résultats Ljubljana, “Il y effectués a 1986, No.18 pratiques Nous emprunterons içi rapport de M. Tozzi: été March l'essentiel incontestablement pour la des des points premiére conclusions positifs: fois en à des 1982-1983, l'excellent sondages révélant ont 64 instituteurs flamandophones (dont 10 volontaires pour enseigner). La rentrée 83 a officialisé le flamand, avec 300 inscrits en 6éme Les habilitations, la formation initiale et continue des personnels sont des acquis. La création de postes dans le primaire au Pays induit basque, Trois postes 1984, et une on dynamique: touche spécifiques dix avec 24 3h/semaine ont été supplémentaires itinérants 192 créés pour le classes pour au et le lieu non gallo de plus en 10 81. 1983- breton. Mais "l'effort sans précédent" reste modeste sur les besoins sont souvent estimés après la rentrée le terrain... sans être sûr d'avoir sur place un enseignant disponible. Ou bien l'administration annonce l'ouverture d'options, mais l'information des familles étant peu ou mal faite, on ne peut ensuite les ouvrir à cause du seuil d'effectif. Certains Conseillers dissuadent de prendre l'otion en 4ème, ne sachant pas Si les élèves pourront la continuer en seconde. Certains élèves Pourront la continuer en seconde. Certains élèves sont par ces conditions d'enseignement; que répondront ces deux collèges de Rennes où l'on a proposé les cours de mercredi Il faut et de samedi plus matin, sortir où il la problématique de n'y a aucun autre par refroidis élèves breton des les cours? établissement: 10 élèves demandent dans chacun des cinq collèges d'une ville à suivre l'heure de 6ème. Aucun établissement n'atteignant 15. 50 familles sont privées de ce choix ... et on en conclut à l'absence de demande sociale. ‘Le ministère a décidé, au moins pour les trois ans (Y. Boulenc). Mais qui viennent, on reste dans peu de possibilités proposées, celle-ci étant faible, on de ne répondre qu'aux besoins" le cercle vicieux: comme il ya la demande ne peut s'exprimer ne veut pas offrir plus et de possibilités.... Le nombre d'élèves concernés baisse dans Candidats au bac stagnent autour de 10,000. dégrade en Loire-Atlantique breton que dans discriminations où en 1982, il n'y les lycées. Les La situation se a trois établissements (7 en 1977). importantes entre les langues de plus de cours de Il subsiste des France; il n'est pas question pour le moment de stages de formation continue en flamand. 11 y a une licence d'enseignement en breton, pas en catalan. Celle de corse est une licence d'université, et non d'enseignement. Aucun des 67 premiers titulaires de la licence bretonne (400 inscrits) n'a trouvé de débouché, puisque les 18 postes ouverts à la rentrée 1983 ont été pourvus avec des “militants de la première heure... Deux mots aussi sur les ans, témoigne P. Martel, de l'occitan.... Mais le provoqué Cultures quechua), ‘immigrés de l'intérieur.' Ca fait dix qu'existe à Paris VIII un enseignement 10 Mai 1981 a servi d'accélérateur et en 1982 la constitution d'un département opprimées (basque, breton, catalan, mais Nous avons demandé un certificat 407 de des langues et aussi berbère, spécialité pour les Razprave futurs gradivo, Ljubljana, ennseignants. peut y région. Des in avoir C'est Le March ministére a 1986, rejeté d'enseignement des langues là un problème de fond.' problèmes pédagogiques No.18 notre demande: régionales hors il ne de la nouveaux Ceci étant, l'Education Nationale n'est pas la seule responsable, et, au plan pédagogique, l'expérience a montré que l'instrument n'était guère au point. Pendant des décennies. tous les efforts des militants enseignement brillantes matériel Le ont en été orientés langy¢ exceptions pédagogique manque de et livres, aucune avait les de été et une - fait Mais, “le en comme le présentatit pas et des élèves ce qui d'un certaines concerne le fiches, etc., entre n'avait menée fraqais soulinge part occasions de rencontres grande déperdition d'énergie. réflexion bilinguisme à d'enseignement. de lexiques, il sur des thèmes comme “l'enseignement France pour obtenir le bilinguisme à encore, l'instauration Peu techniques cartes, l'insuffisance des lieux enseignants aboutissent à Pratiquement vers régionale. - M. faut le dire été monolingue en langue la fin du primaire," langue Tozzi, de régionale cette à de et l'école." improvisation ne que des inconvénients: entre un maître militant passionnés, le courant passe bien, surtout si l'enseignement. est libéré des contraintes académiques habituelles. “Des élèves volontaires et d'établir une "convivialité" les Mais plus conscients de l'expérimentation leur des heures impossibles, ça permet avec les éjèves d'origine occitane spécificité. sauvage dans un interstice toléré, si elle autorise une transgression linguistique ou pédagogique, trouve ses propres limites sans les armes de la formation et du matériel support. D'où l'ambivalence: des pratiques individuelles diversifiées, souvent intéressantes, mais le sentiment de ne pas être reconnu et soutenu; et une incapacité à consolider et capitaliser collectivement les démarches, pour théoriser et améliorer sa pédagogie."l S'appuyer sur l'acquis linguistique de l'enfant comme la meilleure recette pour une pédagogie irréaliste d'enseigner l'occitan à des petits apparaît efficace. méridionaux souvent Il est - mème non dialectophones de naissance - comme s'il s'agissait pour eux d'une langue étrangère. L'accent, un certain vocabulaire familier, les expressions locales, tout est là pour rappeler un substrat C'est de langue linguistique, une “compétence enfouie" encore présente. ce substrat qu'il faut partir et d'ailleurs l'accueil en maternelle des tout petits donne généralement de bons résultats. Une autre règle sembe se dégager de ces quelques années t&tonnement: c'est l'enfant en tant qu'individu plus que connaissance linguistique préoccupations. L'échange qu'il oral à 408 faut partir mettre du au vécu centre familial de 1a des de Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 l'enfant importe plus que les connaissances grammaticales ou lexicologiques. L'essentiel, c'est la langue moyen d'expression. Combattre le statut abaissél8 de la langue (le "“patois") est également essentiel pour faire sauter les blocages psychologiques des enfants (ou petits enfants) de dialectophones. La conquête d'une dignité linguistique est aussi l'une des tâches d'un enseignement pédagogie En en (ou de) progressive outre, langue et adaptée. l'intégration de régionale. l'enseignement Ceci des demande langues une ethniques dans le cursus normal de l'élève fait perdre à celles-ci une partie de leur caractère attractif de fruit défendu et démobilise certains élèves. Voilà un nouveau défi à relever Ceci étant, par delà les questions d'enseignement des langues régionales, se pose un problème politique de fond. Une telle pratique pédagogique n'a, dans un pays de tradition jacobine comme la France, aucune chance de succès si elle n'est soutenue par une véritable décentralisation de l'administration culturelle. La décentralisation politique est depuis la loi de 1982 une réalité en France. La décentralisation culturelle suit péniblement. Le transfert de compétences est effectif en matière de formation depuis le ler Juin 1983 et en matière de carte scolaire depuis le ler Janvier 1985. Récemment, deux mesures significatives ont été annoncées Ministres du 7 Août 1985): - La création auprès du par Premier le Gouvernement Ministre - qui en (Conseil des nommera les membres - d'un Conseil National des Langues et Cultures Régionales de France. Cet organisme consultatif correspond sensiblement à l'une des dispositions de la dernière proposition de loi du Groupe Socialiste à l'Assemblée Nationale. 2 - La création dès 1986 sous la responsabilité du Ministère l'Education Nationale d'un certificat de l'enseignement du second première percée devrait être autres Mais langues ce n'est enseignement en tout état culturel: de cause histoire, en langue qu'un Le Les monolinguisme Ikastola, Euskadi milieu 1969 en écoles Sud, notamment 1960. des années qu'est "promouvoir créée une l'éducation début, géographie, qui c'est écologie devrait à terme tout de la faire régionale En dehors de l'Education nationale développés se sont d'expériences dernières années. 1. de professorat (C.A.P.E.S.) de breton. Cette de mesures analogues pour les région d'origine ou de vie des enfants l'objet d'un enseignement régionalisé. Un au régionales. là l'environnement degré suivie d'aptitude langue régionale langue en dans la Au Pays à la basque Seaska la culture 409 deux autres types de ces au cours maternelle (Esquara), province de Basque nord association et "normale," en France existent en Guipuzkoa, depuis c'est (en France), le en (le de basque berceau) chez les afin enfants." Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 La première école maternelle en Esquara est créée à Bayonne la même année; elle comporte huit enfants. Depuis, à l'instar de ce qui s'est passé au sud, les "Abertsale" (militants de la cause basque) ont ouvert plus de 25 écoles (74 classes) représentant 800 éelèves de la maternelle à la seconde. L'idée de base des Ikastola du nord est que face au rouleau compresseur de l'Education Nationale "centrale," seul un enseignement exclusivement en langue régionale peut faire le poids. Ce statut d'établissement privé de Seaska (actuellement Fédération des Ecoles Basques) ne l'empêche pas de se considérer comme l'embryon Nationale. Le français est au ensuite jusqu'à sait début service inexistant au faire à en lire basque. mais il y a déjà semaine. 5 heures à le basque la fin du à En sixième, écrire français de programme Préparatoire et de La pédagogie pratiquée se L'épanouissement physique public dans Cours demi-journées n'apprend le futur introduit trois l'enfant d'un l'Education d'enseignement pour représenter primaire. le Pratiquement, français le et basque que lorsqu'il domine 3 heures encore, d'espagnol par veut active, collective et "autogérée." et psychique des élèves est pour les maîtres une préoccupation centrale. Les instituteurs (Eraskaldes ou Anderenos pour les institutrices) recrutés après le bac qui maîtrisent la langue et sa variante locale subissent ensuite deux ans de formation professionnelle notamment de stages. Ils sont actuellement soixante. Le financement représente un gros problème. 8 millions de francs en 1985 est - mal cotisation parentale subventions des budget) ex diverses. 4 surtout Chaque théorique collectivités élus écoles avec 2 un déficit En 1976, première Calendreta fut En 1983, de 25 En Bretagne La la et 80 millions 400 que écoles première de leur raison francs, élèves. 6 des 10% du a a été dû dialecte écoles limoger très une difficile. naissait la suivie d'une béarnais) à Pau. Puis Marie... représentant que la France 7 classes, comporte 8 près d'origine. constitue école quelque et autres recettes s'autofinancer. Les Seaska 1985 Sainte Rappelons d'Euzkadi, en quelques par une revenu), de (Roussillon) que berceau) bientôt (en Oloron d'occitans - qui encore de rentrée occitane Toulouse, fonctionnaient enseignants quelque et Catalogne nord (Bressola: le (apprenti) Béziers, budget $¢ assuré et les parents jouent dans le un rôle déterminant. Malheureusement, millions maîtres c'est en Bressole ce plus de de 3% (à des collectes, dons école doit en pricipe responsables sont fonctionnement des cinquantaine (de locales Un - langue Diwan l'étape du suivante Pays de maternelle (le - Galles l'exemple 33 venait, fonctionnent galloise. germe) s'ouvre à Lampaul- Ploudalmezeau au printemps 1977. La pédagogie s'inspire ici aussi de la méthode Freinet. Une école peut être ouverte lorsque 4 élèves sont demandeurs, et au delà de 15, on procède à un dédoublement quand cela est matériellement possible. Afin 410 Razprave in gradivo, d'éviter la coupure sont En donnés 1985, aux 20 Ljubljana, école-famille, parents écoles fonctionnent March qui (de le la regroupant des No.18 cours de langue bretonne souhaitent, maternelle 800 élèves enseignants. 1986, à sous la fin du primaire) la responsabilité de 39 En Corse, Scola Corsa créée en 1977 à Ajaccio démarre avec une classe de 25 élèves. Le développement stagne depuis. 11 est vrai qu'en Corse, la langue corse est encre très largement parlée par Ces expériencgs souvent psychologique largement sont loin é - population. la de couches les toutes réussies cependant au de plan faire pédagogique et l'unanimité. A droite, on leur reproche soit d'étre passéistes et de contrecarrer la vocation de progrès de l'école, soit au contraire d'être le prétexte à un “endoctrinement politique" de gauche.{? À gauche, on y a vu la parallèle récupéré existence même voulu y voir Mais, en ethnique la un - le l'avenir dans En et négociations associations plateforme création en le de La d'enseignement en cause public. par son Enfin, on a en langue séparatisme. écoles public solution d'intérêt maternelles la de s'engagèrent concernées d'Etablissements système mettant proclame service commun. et l'enseignement des le l'intégration 1983, des les cing de sournois comme d'un "privé" fonction germe réalité, est constitution par charte de l'Education Diwan - Nationale. enfin entre le Ministère qui avaient défini une offerte par l'Etat public ou, pour était celles la qui n'avaient encore jamais touché de subventions, entre le contrat type de l'enseignement privé et une convention ad hoc. Dans le premier cas, l'Etat prenait à son compte charges et salaires, dans le second une plus en matière d'effectif) couverture des frais. Après de rudes grande avait discussions, souplesse de création (notamment pour contrepartie une moindre l'une après l'autre, leg associations signèrent la convention proposée par l'Etat”, “évolution" du système par une commission spéciale avant tout renouvellement provisoire. 2. Les classes Malgré certains de la expérimentales convention. bilingues encouragements dans officiels, On le ces est mais une est prévue encore service classes dans le public demeurent encore rarissimes à l'heure actuelle en France. Pour le basque par exemple, on compte une trentaine d'enseignants itinérants qui enseignent le basque dans quelques 140 écoles à raison de trois heures par semaine à quelques 3,000 élèves. Pour une population basquophone estimée à environ 70,000 personnes, c'est notoirement insuffisant. Suite à connaître la des circulaire intentions Savary, le Ministère encourageantes “Des classes expérimentales bilingues, pourront être créées l'école publique, 411 fin faisait pourtant 1982. sous la responsabilité s'il existe un minimum de de Razprave huit in gradivo, élèves respectif défini sollicitant de manière et d'elles. élèves. I1 Le à à March 1986, en français éviter permettre la et Une passerelles l'apprentissage formation seront enseignement bilingue basque à pour bilingue à les un Le taux breton) sera d'une langue convenable de sur chacune moduler selon l'âge selon le principe complémentaire prévues ... (ou domination sera donc vraisemblablement personnel sera recruté volontariat. No.18 l'enseignement d'enseignement l'autre, d'un Ljubljana, enfants sera proposée... qui voudraient enseignement des du Des passer exclusivement en français, et vice-versa... Des cours renforcés dans l'une ou l'autre langue seront donnés ... La continuité sera assurée pour les enfants qui ces classes publiques le désireraient ... bilingues Il et y aura les articulation Ikastolaks (ou entre Diwans)." En fait, dans les rectorats de Bordeaux et de Rennes (les concernés à ce stade), la rentrée suivante se montre décevante. En Bretagne, une première ouverture se fait Rivoal 15 à dans élèves 40% le de en Finistère. deux I à dix breton, s'agit ans. mais d'une école L'enseignement l'apprentissage à de classe unique maternelle de la seuls très à St. se lecture de fait et de l'écriture se fait en français. Quelques rares autres tentatives ont eu lieu en Bretagne (Savidan de Lannion), puis en Gironde (La Teste). Les résultats connus apparaissent inégaux et de toute te les terrains d'essais sont si limités qu'il semble bien aléatoire de vouloir en généraliser les conclusions. Une chose paraît cependant manifeste, l'égalité des langues n'est pas vraiment assurée dans les faits. Le français domine nettement, et beaucoup pensent déjà, au vu des résultats de ces classes, que "l'Etat ne peut autoriser l'iptégration complète d'une école monolingue en langue régionale. En outre, éducation diglossique, même maître toutes nombreux à 50/50 comme parle chances francophone n'est sont pas les pédagogues adaptée pour des qui pensent enfants en qu'une situation le sont la plupart des élèves concernés. Si un alternativement breton et français, il y a pour répondent que en des enfants baignant dans un univers français. Conclusion 1986 marquera gouvernement de vraisemblablement gauche en France. la C'est fin de la l'heure du période bilan, sur de ce point il n'est guère brillant. Au lieu de la vaste réforme de réhabilitation et de réintroduction des “langues de France” dans l'Education Nationale, on a eu droit à de timides réformes. Il est vrai que les résistances étaient énormes! Au total, 1% seulement des élèves français suivent des cours de langue régionale et, malgré certaines avancées dans le supérieur, la tendance actuelle n'est pas 4 un accroissement de ce chiffre. Malgré une lutte sans relâche et depuis plus d'un siècle des militants culturels, les langues régionales de notre pays paraissent en fait en train de disparaître, laminées par la société moderne, l'indifférence du public et des autorités. C'est donc hélas un prognostic par les espoirs suscités pessimiste, même s'il par les expériences en 412 doit être nuancé cours, qu'il faut Razprave faire in gradivo, Ljubljana, actuellement sur la France. March survie 1986, des No.18 langues "périphériques" de Notes 1. M. de Certeau, La Révolution et F. D. Javelier, Fedeurop, Julia, frangaise J. et Ecole Revel, les patois, de France Une politique Gallimard, et de 1975; Minorités 2. Nous France. nous limterons Pour notamment: les ici aux langues langues Marie-Claude des Munoz, pédagogie interculturelle," 181 1984, Paris, l'Harmattan, des "ethnies" populations "De la dans: Gendre autochtones allogénes, pluralité La langue: C. Nationales, 1978. de la voir ethnique France au à la pluriel, p. 3. Marques - un sabot, morceau de bois - que l'élève parler “patois” devait porter au cou jusqu'à ce qu'il passer à un condisciple dans le même cas. surpris à puisse la 4. Peut-être on s'accorde loin. cette politique de la langue était-elle nécessaire, en général actuellement à penser qu'elle a été trop 5. Sauf Vichy. une dans certaine 6. No. 51-46 du dialectes locaux. 7. Breton, 8. J.P. en Oc," “C'est droit à Catalan et sa in Michel p. Occitane utilisé pour la 12. Cf. M. 13. Op. cit., p. langues Allemand, sont de Villeneuve et Corse, toatalment sur Lot: Voli “Démocratie Culturelle et droit Ministre de la Culture, La au et sa langue. (Discours de Lorient, Tozzi, plus Apprendre Ouvrage op.cit., profond et essentiel de p. cet de lui-même Nous 14 vivre que Mars sa nous que proclamons de le 1981). langue, avons Syros, beaucoup exposé. 119. 115 14. On peut citer breton où encore pour l'occitan. Roques de 1982. préparation Tozzi, des d'Oil peuple 110. Gouvernement seulement. dialectes culture différence" 1984, P. un dans du 14.9.1977. Française, blesser la Cité Paris, 15. et l'époque l'enseignement Voir notamment: Henri Giordan, la différence." Rapport au l'atteindre 11. Monde, à sur "L'Ecole Le Documentation 10. Occitan franco-provemal Richardot, parlar 9. à 11.1.1951 Basque, Flamand, ignorés. mesure cité par exemple les travaux de Roparz Hemon ceux de l'Institut d'Etudes Occitanes par M. Tozzi, op. 413 cit., p. 122. pour le (I.E.O.) Razprave 16. M. 17. in gradivo, Tozzi, op. Tout d'oil, ceci le Ljubljana, cit., vaut p. le 1986, No.18 122. également Gallo, March pour Normand, le les dialectes Percheron, de voire la Langue la Langue Picarde. 18. C. Duneton, Langue Paris, et Croquant, Langues Dire, Dominées, Stock 2, Ouvrage Notre 20. Loi 21. Le Monde, p. ouvrage, Une 133. No. 82-213 du 9 Août 2 et (in)divisible, Mars 1985, Nature Art. de J.P. 23. P. Etcheverry, "Les défenseurs à Latche, Le Monde, 20.8.1985. 24. Depuis 1981, l'Etat. 26. A. Le Lannion, 27. Corse: 28. S. 29. 22 et Edilig, IL les fallut Ikastola pour Calvez, 1970. Un cas "L'enjeu O'DY, cela de l'Ecole bénéficient bien des Les Trois Le de Le Figaro, 30: M: 31. J. 29 Août, Tozzi, Boulenc, Série "Langues 27.1. de Régionales, 1985. op. cits; p. 151: in L'Education, Juin 414 basque manifestent maigres subventions les Le pays Monde, Cobayes de l'Assemblée séance du 24 Mai regroupe Novembre 1980; et J. de Rosière, "Les Ecole," Le Monde, 8 Novembre 1980. au Bretagne, manifestations de bilinguisme: culturel," “Ecole, et Péroncel-Hugoz. 25. Une association Arrels (Racines) représentant 50 élèves et 6 maîtres. 8-14 font 1973; 1982. 22. No. 2157, Enregistrée à la Présidence Nationale le 17 Mai 1984. Annexe au P.V. de la 1984. de Paris, Collectif, 1982. 19. 1979, Parler Dominante 1983. de de 5 rue. bressoles Galles, Skol, 1982. Treglonou," Maternelles mythe L'Express, en Breton ou réalité," du Razprave Miguel Institut in gradivo, Siguan de Ljubljana, Ciencias March 1986, No.18 UDC de 376.744(46) l'Educacié Universitat de Barcelona Barcelona, Spain BILINGUAL A EDUCATION Multilingual IN SPAIN* Country Spanish or “Castilian” is the official language of Spain and the mother tongue of the greater part of its inhabitants. It is also the language through which the political and administrative unity of the Spanish state has been established. In spite of this fact, other languages continue to be the mother tongues of an important part of the population on the Spanish territory itself. Although there which some In are no I offer idea official figures concerning this phenomenon, here, though they are only approximate, can of the Catalonia (6,000,000 northeastern derived importance part from of Latin it. In Valencia, side, a variety to of these languages. inhabitants), the Iberian just spoken. Fifty percent its mother tongue and of as are those given a territory Peninsula, Spanish, French of the population another 30% speaks located Catalan or (a in the language Italian) is of Catalonia uses it as or at least understands the south of Catalonia Catalan is spoken. It on its Mediterranean is sometimes called Valenciano. other local In the Balearic Islands varieties of Catalan are between 50% Of Catalan and 70% of the population can be considered speakers as a native language. In the majority of cases, however, Catalan Galicia (3,000,000 is restricted to inhabitants), in (500,000 inhabitants) spoken. In both these a purely the colloquial northwestern still cases, usage. part of In the Iberian Peninsula, Galician, another neo-Latin language close to Portuguese, is spoken. Galician is spoken or understood by 80% of the population although its use is mainly rural and colloquial. Finally, Euskera) in the is Basque spoken. It Territory is perhaps (or the Euscadi), most ancient Basque language (or of those spoken today in Europe, and, in any case, it has no known affinity with any of the other European languages. Twenty-five percent of the 2,000,000 inhabitants of the Spanish Basque region currently speak Basque. And in neighbouring Navarre (45,000 inhabitants) 10% of the population Since the re-establishment of this linguistic plurality has which system mind. It can speaks Basque. a democratic government in Spain, been reflected in an educational has kept the different minority languages clearly in be considered extremely liberal and advanced. The description of this system is beginning this description, concerning the socio-cultural *Original: also historical factors. the aim of this I shall offer antecedents English 415 of this article. But before some information situation and its Razprave The in gradivo, occupation Ljubljana, of the March Iberian 1986, No.18 Peninsula by the Romans at the beginning of our era (second century B.C.) resulted in the substitution of Latin for the indigenous languages in the western part of the Pyrenees where Basque continued to be spoken. Centuries later, the disintegration and transformation of Latin into neo-Latin languages coincided with the invasion of the peninsula in by control coast of for five the of Arabs only (10th a century). narrow, This mountainous left the strip on Christians the northern the peninsula from which the reconquest, which lasted centuries, began. It was in this mountainous strip that various Latin-derived Galician, to and Catalan, languages were ultimately reduced to three: the west; Castilian or Spanish, in the central part; in the east. The development and later expansion of these three languages were determined by both the political fortune of the settlements of those who spoke them and their success in the battle to reclaim the territory from the Arabs. In the 13th century, the linguistic map of the Iberian Peninsula was already definitely determined. The Basque enclave did not constitute a political entity, and even though its language was maintained, the Galicia through south in it Balearic was not expanded. Islands and did not succeed in demographic pressure to the south, what is central today part extending Catalonia introduced the itself Valencia language into and them. establishing political power, its language was expanded toward Portugal. of conquered its The Castilian peninsula, advanced throughout the nucleus, firmly southern but the situated toward half the of the peninsula. From the 12th experienced an limited to the 14th centuries, the three languages important literary cultivation. Galician was practically However, during to the lyric 13th and poetry, 14th and to Galician inspired literary movements of the were among the most outstanding in Europe. In the 14th century The Kingdom of the Balearic this Aragon, balance which Islands, was the centuries, among the included united to Although its autonomy was respected, leadership. The discovery of America 12th both highest level languages Catalonia, the was and which broken. Valencia, Kingdom Aragon and the century. Catalan and of Castille. lost its imperial political forces of Carlos I and Felipe II strengthened the ascendancy of Castilian or Spanish. As a result of these events, Catalonian literature entered a abandoned. In the the period 18th centralized Throughout decadence, century, Spanish different their. use and rural of with throne, and the the 19th the public ascension French linguistically languages of declined and spheres. the and of model unified, use the of was the Romantic Catalan Bourbon state, kings was on strongly established. Castilian were actively was gradually limited to century, of The repressed, and only colloquial movement's exaltation of ancient culture and nationalities manifested itself. The movement had repercussions on the territories which conserved their own languages, but each with distinct characteristics, in the function of each economic situation. one's history 416 and especially its socio- Razprave In in gradivo, Catalonia the Ljubljana, reinstatement of occurred in conjunction with development which converted region of Spain: the joint promoted progress March political before the 1986, Catalan No.18 as a literary language an important economic, industrial Catalonia into the most advanced middle class of this development catalanismo as a form of defending central state. At the beginning of the this 20th century, Catalonia attained its political autonomy. Some years later, with the Republic, the experiment is repeated, directed this time from the left. In the meantime, a very important literary and cultural rebirth occurred, and the language itself was modernized (grammar, orthography, dictionary). In the remaining Catalan-speaking areas (Valencia and the Balearic Islands), which experienced neither industrial development nor a process of political consciousness-raising, the linguistic, cultural movement had effects in different ways. There were repercussions as much outside the Spanish borders as within them incorporated (in French into France Catalonia, in the for 18th example, which was century). There was an important industrial development in the Basque region, but the middle class which sprung from it identified itself only to a small degree with Basque nationalism. The lack of both a literary tradition and cultural institutions this fact literary and cultural rebirth. Therefore, that since the beginning of this century been active, region has will again population Finally, economic territory has that in Galicia development, emigrate. it and during achieved its become the are small. where The not exclusively a achieved rural The government War (1939), of era there has which is large rebirth the of the political autonomy, first language of of part Republic the the weakened in spite of nationalism the the has Basque hopes that Basque majority of the been neither industrial why it continues to be a of Galician political the has force, population been is forced exclusively and Galician nor poor to literary; remains an language. General exalted Franco, Spanish unity set and up at not the only end of the eliminated Civil the autonomous areas but also cut back on the use of languages other than Spanish. Although there was a clear evolution in this sense, from downright persecution in the first years to a broad tolerance in the final ones, the exaltation of Spanish unity was maintained and so was the distrust toward those who defended linguistic and national plurality. Naturally, these defenders were always found among the most active of anti-Franco activitsts. When the democratic government was instituted following the death The new the situation changed completely. Franco, of General (1978) affirmed that the Castilian language Spanish Constitution or Spanish was the official language of the state but that the Plurality of languages which existed on the Spanish territory was a common good which had to be preserved and promoted. At the same time, the Spanish state was organized into a group autonomous regions, each with a relatively broad statute the existence of a parliament, included which autonomy, 417 of of a Razprave in gradivo, government, and languages - - the Ljubljana, in the March 1986, autonomous possibility that No.18 regions their with languages their be own co-official with Spanish, the official state language. Consequently, since the autonomous regions were assured the administration of the educational system, the possibility that their own languages would occupy an important place in instruction also developed. In fact, even the Ministry legal before the statutes of autonomy went into effect, of Education of the Spanish government issued a document called the Decree on Bilingualism (1979), which established that on the territories with their own languages all levels and grades of Basic General Instruction (6 to 14 years old), should allocate to this language a minimum of 3 hours per week, and that this minimum could be increased in centers of instruction at their request. Throughout this constitution autonomy, linguistic transitional (1978) to the Decree changes in Afterwards (1981), on the when stage, the from the implementation promulgation of the Bilingualism was the educational system. the statutes of axis autonomy territories, issued some as quoted As has the Ministry of Education recommendations concerning of had put into effect and the regional governments assumed management of the educational system in of the statutes of all the already been had, their therefore, respective of the Spanish this subject, government which read below. already been stated, in the territories with their own languages, the school system must propose as its objective that students, upon completing their compulsory education program, possess a command of both languages, which means that they should be able to use both correctly and effectively, in any situation and for any purpose. To attain such an objective, it is necessary: 1. That the programs, at languages in the measure objective. 2. That, in instruction degree of instruction addition, all levels, include instruction needed to assure the attainment both languages be used as of of both this languages of in the school curriculum. The beginning and the utilization of each language as a language of ought to be determined in each case according to a set of factors which influence both learning and linguistic knowledge, as for example, the degree of each one's use and the environment or domain in which it is used. The diversity of these factors that calls the for final a great objective flexibility of full on command this of point, both provided languages be maintained. 3. If, might would as a exist be result schools able to of this with choose flexibility, different between in language them as some territory models, far as then this there parents might be possible. 4. in In the beginning, the initiation of the student's mother tongue for introduction of instruction in the 418 instruction will be done the sake of a gradual other language. However, in Razprave cases in gradivo, that are Ljubljana, feasible mother tongue can the very beginning be of March and with 5. The attention paid of a the to the double No.18 parents’ used to introduce schooling. In this familiarized with both languages Basic General Education. establishment 1986, already mother approval, the the other language from case, students should be by the tongue educational second should year not system of mean based the on the language origin of the students. Any first-level school should be prepared to admit children no matter what their mother tongue might be. 6. Bilingual of their is should to undertake evaluation 8. In areas in is is this tact which the different a part, bilingualism as that during this period a addition, in acquire, to experimental studies which of different teaching Organizational approaches used languages, studies which should life situations. population which it forget need legislated, as necessary objective not students the language, foreign 7. It permit education schooling the for attaining be adapted to language will and a command of both the specific real- spoken by the indigenous from that of the autonomous community of a democratic principle demands that final objective be kept in mind, and that if objective is to be achieved, it is necessary to act with and flexibility through both long- and short-term planning. Catalonia I have already indicated Catalan a singular minority languages Supported by tradition, an is vocabulary, and in old fully grammar Furthermore, at which assures This extremely this its some of the and important normalized and is language time it public use favorable simply side In the of official greater because Spain spite is of the much the can rely situation, language number greater of of the culture of Catalan favor in the volume of written media, Catalonia in consumed and newspapers, Produced In has the and addition radio, to its films) TV, consumed in a system strong with of Spanish the and make rules dispute. political support. have its Spanish and the occurs not only the state economic speakers number autonomous of and in limits greater because therefore powers, but Spain Catalan government - backing popular does of is academic of without wide however, and than literary on with This which within the panorama is a language that - accepted together political efforts with orthography with regard to its co-existence weight of the Spanish language. Spanish characteristics privileged case Europe. Catalan and the also out- speakers. of Catalonia communications the mass through and audiovisual products produced journals, magazines, (books, in greater Spanish is economic development, those than Catalan. industrial and Catalonia attracted immigrants from other regions and ee south of Spain in such quantity that currently nearly 419 ha ar ° Razprave the in gradivo, inhabitants of Moreover, the great Spanish-speaking. It is well known Ljubljana, Catalonia majority that when, March 1986, were of these in the No.18 born outside immigrants same Catalonia. are, territory, of there course, exist both a politically and socially strong language and a correspondingly weaker minority language, a hierarchy is usually produced. This phenomenon is known as diglossia. In Catalonia, however, the social stratification of the two languages is unique. In relation to Spanish, Catalan is a minority language and therefore weak and in a subordinate situation. But at the same time, Catalan is the language of a large part of the bourgeoisie and of the intellectual middle class, and also the language of local political power, while spanish is the language of the immigrants and of the lower strata of the population. Consequently, even if language, from certain less in principle perspectives prestige. 420 Spanish is the stronger it is also the language of Razprave Maria in gradivo, Eugenica Ljubljana, Of No.18 UDC 376.744(46) the Catalonia THE PROCESS The normalization still 1986, Cuenca Secretary General of the Ministry of Education of Government March OF LINGUISTIC constitutes of the one of NORMALIZATION Catalan the IN TEACHING language priority has IN CATALONIA* constituted objectives of the and cultural educational policies of the Generalitat of Catalonia since re-establishment with provisional character in 1977, and and its with fully 1979. year the in Statute Autonomous the of approval the ‘ The Spanish Constitution, in force since 29 December 1978, proclaims the will to “protect all Spaniards and peoples of Spain in the exercise of human rights, their cultures and traditions, languages and institutions" right to the autonomy of the and “recognises and guarantees the nationalities and regions forming it and all." solidarity grants full among them competence in The matters of statute teaching of to the the Autonomy Generalitat and establishes Catalan as the language of Catalonia Catalan language is the official one of Catalonia, Spanish, which Until then, educational is official throughout the State of since as is Spain." the Catalan language had been eliminated from the system and from all public life in Catalonia. With the General Education Law of 1970, the first sign of appeared, since it provided for the “revival languages." the the and the Catalonia. such Later on, in 1975, teaching, with optional State of Spain. Timidly tion of as a decree character, was of passed the permission of native that native regulated languages of slowly, these measures were to permit the introducteaching of the Catalan language in the schools of Several the Rosa institutions Sensat School set of at the Teachers up or the Teaching of Catalan of Cultural Omnium, this legal opening to promote the teaching of Starting with the of task "the also the re-establishment Catalanization was of the resumed priority. A policy of linguistic the transfer of teaching matters jurisdiction in January 1981. as end the of the of took advantage Catalan. of Generalitat an 1960s, Delegation in 1977, institutionalized normalization was launched with from the State Administration's With the introduction of Catalan as a compulsory subject in all elementary schools, secondary schools and first level industrial schools by the Royal Decree in 1978 as well as the approval of the Law on framework the Linguistic has education * Original: been Normalization evolved, increasing system. English 421 in the April 1983, presence of the legal Catalan in Razprave in gradivo, Currently, the Ljubljana, milestone to March reach 1986, is No.18 that all the children Catalonia, whatever their home language before entering habitually and correctly use Catalan and Spanish by the their elementary-level studies. The the principal following: legal provisions approved in this of school, end of period concern - The extension of the teaching of the Catalan language to courses for Senior School, second-level Industrial Schools and University Entrance, and a new regulation and increase in lessons of - Catalan The at establishment different - different The of of the 2nd phase programmes in the Catalan language for levels. the subjects the launching of 1982-83 a minimum levels. of educational regulation different educational use and of Catalan different the was programmes set for the of the elementary as levels the vehicle-language and courses. of Catalan was use of Catalan education; and At in first, voluntary; in in one subject with the law on Linguistic Normalization it was established that Catalan was the language used in teaching, and as such, was to be used progressively and universally at all levels and in all grades and course non-university instruction; at the same time, the right to use the habitual language in elementary education was regulated. - The incorporation of specific tests of Catalan for the competitive examinations for prospective teachers of elementary, intermediate and industrial schools. - The regulation of account the schools systems of mobility of which teach in Catalan. - The refresher - The for regulation introduction Parallel to - the the for the the Catalan introduction policy activities principal - of courses in in Catalan university for entrance taking into teachers. examinations Catalonia. measures, the of teachers, of of the of the linguistic Department norms and normalization of Education administrative in teaching have taken and four directions: training of material and teachers; human technical support in schools intended teachers; - campaigns of - the of study Teacher sensitization and and Catalanization; experimentation with new teaching methods. Training One of the greatest difficulties that had to be faced at the beginning of the process of linguistic normalization in schools was the lack of the training of teachers. 422 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Since the year 1978-79, courses in the Catalan language and culture have been carried out for teachers. These were called "Recycling in Catalan” and were organised by the Institutes of Educational Sciences and co-ordinated by the Department of Education. These courses aimed at providing the teacher with knowledge of the language of the Catalan culture. and its teaching The importance of these courses can 1978-79, 387 courses were given participation largest of 7,700 attendance attendance attendance of has teachers; 923 - well as shown by some data: in 47 places with the 1981-92 were courses be in methodology as was in given the year of the an with places 83 year, this from Starting teachers, 18,150 been decreasing slightly; in 1984-85 there were as Recycling is absolutely normal This enrolled. teachers 13,300 deficits covering of function temporary the has Catalan in suffered by the teachers due to a personal and pedagogic lack of of training initial the Currently, language. the in training attention pays colleges in teacher-training teachers prospective aspect. to this As a complement to the courses of Recycling in Catalan, some stronger recycling actions were carried out in some areas with a higher percentage of Spanish-speaking people, and where the teachers were in need of a more specific linguistic training. Support Actions in School To allow the accomplishment of the minimums established by the regulations in some cases, and in others to strengthen the projects for Catalanization that have been made on the initiative of the schools themselves - parents and teachers - a set of actions for material and human technical support have been carried out. In some centres the linguistic compostion of the teaching staff - with a majority of Catalan-speaking teachers - did not allow the fulfillment of even the minimum established by the law regarding the subject of Catalan. In these cases teachers specialised in Catalan were contracted to give lessons of the Catalan language. In the year 1978-79 there were 383 teachers implementing this task, while in 1984-85 there were 907. As school teachers were little by little trained, the function of Catalan specialists taken on a more global task of Catalanizing the centre, above has all strengthening the pre-school courses and the first years of the elementary school, from which most teaching processes in Catalan have been started. the are teachers-educators, to support pedagogic As responsible for the Catalan language programmes seminars for advising in teaching teachers the providing of instruments for their task. reflected in the were organised places. results: and in in 1984-85 methodology with specialists carrying out the objective didactic appropriate the with The number of these seminars 15 1980-81, there 423 609 were sessions 1,896 in 87 sessions places in 171 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 For the schools that have begun Catalanization projects, coordination was established in order to bring them into contact, to facilitate exchange of experiences, to supply didactic support and supervise the quality of teaching. The co-ordination consists of periodical workshops; locations around Catalonia; 23 New different in 1981-82, in 1984-5 63 were arranged in there were 69 sessions 21 in places. Didactic Methods and Experimental Plans The differences in the linguistic situations schools call for the use of different techniques Catalan language, especially for those pupils language is Spanish. in the Catalan in learning the whose habitual Based on research and experimentation, several proposals for methods have been worked out, two of which we mention here: the linguistic immersion programme and the contextual discourse method. The linguistic immersion programme is one of the methods which have been applied in a number of schools located in the industrial belt of Barcelona since 1983-84. The programme consists of having Catalan-speaking schooling, the Spanish-speaking environment which enables him right to start pupil from the sound basis of the spoken language. schools started immersion programmes, classes and 20,000 pupils. immersed the start elmentary In 1984-85 encompassing in of school a his with more than a total of a 180 617 With the contextual discourse method the basic learning language is Spanish, while Catalan is introduced as a second language, based on a set of didactic units each of which creates a situation to be experienced by the children in the most active way possible. It concerns provoking in some way the need Catalan based on stimulating activities for the child, so Catalan naturally becomes the instrument of communication the pupil adopts in an easy and pleasant way. 1,600 classes this method (role-playing) during the year 1984-85. Also, in the framework of the Law on governs the experimentation with new teaching was methods given specific to in teaching assist the socio-linguistic centres quantitative aspects, methods and and classroom situations, research studies have in Centres which techniques and Catalonia, experimentation with financial new methods aid in areas. To have an idea of the impact schools, and its evolution in different Experimental educational for that that used of the introduction of Catalan in regard to both its qualitative and to processes evaluate and the their a set of surveys been carried out, application results has two in of the different been completed and of which should be mentioned here: one on the pupils of the 4th grade in 1981-82 and another on the pupils of the lst Upper Secondary School and Industrial School at the beginning of the year 1982-83. The first of these studies was published under the title Four Years of Catalan in Schools. To summarize, y24 these two works have proved Razprave in that all but that the pupils in Catalonia are capable of learning Catalan, this language, which is environmentally less favoured, gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 is the one which requires more energetic support from the point of view of its use on the part of the school if satisfactory results are to be achieved in Catalan. And this does not necessarily mean a decline in the knowledge of Spanish, a result evident from the former of the two above-mentioned studies. Catalanization Campaigns Parallel to the actions described hitherto and mainly directed to the nuclei of population with a larger percentage of Spanishspeakers, campaigns of entertainment were carried out - cinema, theatre, cartoons, marionettes, etc., in the schools themselves, the aim being to motivate the pupils and Catalan teachers, to facilitate immersion in Catalan culture and, through entertainment, to provide collective experience and living contact with the Catalan language. There is also a campaign called "the press in schools” consisting of sending newspapers in Catalan to schools - AVUI and PUNT DIARI for the area of Gerona - which periodically include sections on learning. The objective of this campaign is twofold: on the one hand, to collaborate in the normalization of the language, and on the other, to promote the knowledge and understanding of this medium in writing and reading. The economic resources available for described above have increased year carrying by year. maintenance in the of teachers Catalanization which was increased “recycling" specialized programme to (in-service was of The result of that application Catalonia it is now the use of Schools Spanish). belonged where In to the this - Schools that Catalan on all of the total. - Schools 34.3% - in Schools in all year of this are 22.1% taught of the policy had can in the Catalan in the effect a speak schools to the set school of four (except Catalonia group. have launched the levels. In 1984-85 the We For were establish language. for 1982-83, pesetas has to budget for normalization educational possible activities aside the 1984-85. and situations the subjects 1984-85, for teachers 1,470,500,000 1984-85. school typology regarding school types: - in the socio-linguistic the pesetas pesetas training) of the use of Catalan in 1982-83, aside and 1,803,800,000 pesetas in different Catalan, 24,000,000 87,000,000 out the Leaving areas of progressive implementation of these schools represented 33.2% Catalan and Spanish; these totalled 1984-85. that only use Catalan language. 425 for the teaching of this Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1996, No.18 Teaching in Catalan = Catalonia Total 1980-81 1981-82 1984-85 4.578 8.91% 22.18 6.51% 11.44% 33.2% 3.29% 34.3% Progressive project Partially (subjects) Linguistic Situation of Elementary School Pupils 1978-79 Catalan-speaking 1981-82 Understand Catalan Do not understand 24% 42% JAE Catalan-speaking Understand Catalan 59.5% Linguistic Situation of Elementary-School 24.4% Catalan- Barcelona Gerona a Lerida 74% 15.6% Teachers 1977-78 “Speaking Do not understand Catalan 1981-82 Under- stand Catalan Do not understand 26% 70% 30% Catalonia 52% ot Under- Do not stand Catalan understand Catalan Catalan oo Tarragona Catalan- speaking 62.98 37.0% 9.08 90.5% 9.5% 0.88 82.08 17.9% 1.4% 67.78 32.38 7.4% 90.5% (208) 426 9.5% 0.88% Razprave Johan in gradivo, Hendrik Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 Poulsen UDC Faeroensis Academia Islands Paroe 323.15(491.2):80 Norway ON THE FAROESE LANGUAGE* Faroese is the vernacular of a tiny nation counting only about 45,000 inhabitants of the Faroe Islands, situated between the Faroe Islands and Scotlands. For our livelihood we rely exclusively on fisheries. the of language Norse Our language There is evidence that in written language of the Lutheran Reformation in introduced as the the Middle Islanders, the middle language of from to came the Ages but by of the Church, of form written based etymologically our of creation descended who the the Old islands to related closely therefore for the was the model which is of and century, ninth the in the orthography Icelandic, is settlers Age Viking Old 1846. was the the introduction of 16th century Danish Faroese the was Court whole. As a dependency of Norway the Faroe come under Danish rule together with Norway. and culture Islands had But Faroese as a in 1380 was not abolished as the spoken everyday language of the people, as well as the bearer of a rich tradition of Medieval ballads and tales. So in due time, when the people in the nineteenth century woke up to national self-knowledge, the language, though roughly by Danish influence, nevertheless was still so sound in that it was possible to embark upon the ambitious restoring it and developing it to the demands of modern times. This process, from which is still conservative Danish as the going Faroese, "high become a has been on. who language," had and It language fit to meet a long and difficult often got met used from treated its core task of resistance to the Danish both position officials who of in the progress of the Faroese language saw a threat to the old ruling position of Danish. But after a long and laborious struggle, eventually by the Home Rule Act of 1948 Faroese was recognised as the main language of the Islands. According to that Faroese is now the official fields administered by the Faroese Home Rule last century has seen an ever increasing language in authorities. publishing the Faroese language, now about 100 book titles is the language of instruction in all schools, of newspapers, area, our the so and is population of still radio and course an it is television, obstacle toa to lean necessary case for historical reasons, third year of school as the compact severe presence of a threat to the But fast to the activity Original: in a year. Faroese the Church, the smallness of development another in language, the this in Danish, which is now taught from first foreign language. But the a foreign language is in many respects integrity of the Faroese language and therefore demands both vigilance and an active language Much has been achieved, but there is no reason to give * all The English 427 planning. up in our Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 time of increasing influence from the “international culture" and its main language, English. The most recent step taken to strengthen the position of Faroese is the establishing of an official elected language the committee, first of which I have the honour of being Chairman. We who are concerned with vivid interest in all that the languages and cultures the welfare of our language take a is done to strengthen and cultivate of all small nationalities - and are proud some example in The topic of your seminar is in our eyes an important one. wish that your seminar will be a success, and look forward reading the proceedings in order to get inspiration from them our continued efforts. We to in our and glad struggle to to note that preserve and have develop 428 already our seen an language. Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 =~ ypc 32315 (429) 1621-397 E.0. Williams BBC Cardiff United Kingdom A TELEVISION EXPERIENCE* SERVICE FOR SMALL LINGUISTIC COMMUNITIES: THE WELSH I will begin with a fable; a fable of our times. It is set in a small village nestling in a valley in North Wales. The Second World War is its youthful over and the village has lost four of its sons. But population has increased and the school is bubbling and thriving with an influx of evacuees from Liverpool. Aggressive young children, confused and homeless, temporarily orphaned. Welsh Children was the leisure and shopkeepers ministers, who were language sucked of culture. It was and merchants, a doctor and a into existence a a rural and community survival as where well as village of quarrymen and farmers, six teachers, two non-conformist vicar. Life was structured and ordered. Socially it centred around the chapels and school. There you found culture. And on the football field over the river you'd find recreation on Saturdays. It was tight, oppressive and selfsufficient. Transport evening, and a taxi had twenty cars to the outside world. around. was three buses a day, morning, noon and run by the garage. The village of 500 people be used sparingly for keeping in touch with And there were eighteen telephones spread But the seeds of a new community had been sown before the war and the six years of darkness from 1939 to 1945 had nurtured the seeds of change. The quarrying of slate was no longer viable even where the slate itself could be moved quickly to the point of sale, The green hillsides had become a darker shade after the The aspirations by the Forestry Commission. of conifers planting had become an avaricious greed for their children's of parents of beast The education. rural to go on the about was depopulation in the desire fora better education implicit the children would get a better education was a ns ee get 4 better life would children Because rampage. was a belief that the that belief Pie There was no expectation that children who wie village. ee i the way to college would ever return to enrich the villag for i : fice to the gods demand the S sacri supreme the making was village The Progress education and its sending and care in young Liverpool, to fee Birmingham and talent a London. It is against this background that chee Eon: adolescence. They were called Elwyn, Garet t existed rew up to Up to the for them. enerated by life outside the village had no age of ten, ho went to bed at eight other than tha electricity, Without the village street machinery owned by two eccentric sisters i fter the and who didn't believe in machines on Sunday: ; ight years lighting obeyed blackout instructions 07na 8 mueee intensity and À end of the * Original: war. Not, of 2 English 429 Razprave in activity village didn't gradivo, Ljubljana, which are necessary life and getting a seem to be worth the March 1986, No.18 for progress had disappeared reliable electricity supply effort. There were a few from just wet-battery driven radios (or wireless sets, then) that kept the news and Radio Luxembourg beaming in, but it all seemed so very distant, so very far away. Elwyn, in fact, was taken by his mother and father to his cousin in Chester to see the coronation on television in 1952. That was the first time he'd seen it and he had amazing tales to tell his friends about this wondrous machine that people had at home in the cities. The development of the three boys from children to adulthood is interesting but, regrettably, not relevant to the fable we have to tell. We need now to move thirty years on and see the three boys as men before we return to that village and see the process of change that took place - the process which is fundamental to our attitudes as broadcasters and educationalists during the 1980s if we have a concern for the quality of life in sparsely populated areas. Our fable in the in the moves to the present. Welsh language which suburbia of Cardiff, Elwyn is a producer graduates who create and plan a television sparsely populated areas that sent them away now lives in competitive Tom lives fulfilled as an active it is outside when he technology of of programmes are transmitted on S4C. He is based part of an elite band of University hard-working service for those to be educated. He community that is as creative. London. His developed an engineering. inclination outstanding He has developed and education career in the equipment were high which has made it possible to transmit and receive television pictures at the same instant throughout Europe. And he's not finished yet. His command of digital technology is such that the quality of picture and sound that can be distributed to communities all over Europe, including the small village of his childhood, will reach unimaginable heights of sophistication just as the hardware gets cheaper and cheaper. The totality of the new leisure available to the unemployed television viewer is the high technology revolution which one leaders. of its is now contracting this small world and Tom is Gareth stayed at home. He, too, is a leader. But in the small community which nurtured him. He failed to reach the educational heights of his two friends and took over his father's business. He now runs work there. the only shop in the village. Apart from looking after the There isn't any other cottages now owned by city dwellers and used as bolt-holes for weekends and summer holidays. Most of the native community is unemployed. They speak Welsh together and have a television service to educate, inform and entertain them. They have a radio service which does the same and both together span the whole day from 6:00 a.m. to 11:00 p.m. They have the world at their fingertips through the instant media in their first language. But their second language is English and their favourite newspaper is the Sun. Gareth is a leader in that community but finds that when he watches television Dallas and Dynasty are infinitely more exciting than programmes in Welsh. In fact, on S4C, he hasn't seen any of his friend Elwyn's programmes. There was one series, 430 however, that really grabbed Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 him - "Minafon" - a tough realistic portrait of a little village just like his own. In fact his village is a familiar location for film-makers for the channel and one drama shot there has been sold to to six the European bubbling populated corner Under sad and the its countries cauldron of of North decrepit by S4C. this But small Wales. veneer which these are village in romantic poets, incidental a sparsely folk singers politicians have bemoaned in their songs, poems and speeches, village lives again. Rejection had become a way of life for them. They had turned too many cheeks. So much of what was pumped through the media was patronising, an educational elite was speaking from ivory towers. A community needs a morality, needs a structure, that The needs community garden a culture. and of But blossom the this through fifties was must its left grow from the guts of talents. without the gardener. Nature in the wild took over carefully manicured lawns and a jungle of weeds was a new environment. Weeds are more robust, more able to adapt to the chill winds of the economic climate. The traditional culture was not sturdy enough without the tender care of the gardeners. A new sub-culture is being born. The chapels are silent. The reality of music is in the carburetor of a jalopy racer, painstakingly tuned in the long leisure hours of unemployment. The exhausts blow raspberries around narrow roads and farm the destructive fields, where traditional pleasures of moralities alcohol In his study in Cardiff suburbia does he create better programmes like the village of his birth. and hard cannot withstand drugs. Elwyn ponders‘the problem. How for sparsely populated areas In his workshop in London's suburbia Tom is feeding the computer with more information which will develop the technology still further to bring more choice and better pictures to those communities that moulded his youth. kr * There some ends of Tom's the the fable truths Truth. The technology-led, sophistication satellite can technology of life. Straight our times. were bring. with in which are we consumer has never fibre optic cable and And bring Technology lines. It Come contained revolution The that could of that yet for sparsely television me it. now to Let's all examine begin involved with in is demanded the sort Direct Broadcasting of by populated services to areas enhance the the DBS quality is simplistic in that sense. It travels in equates improvement and enrichment with proliferation. It moves on the basis that progress with technology equals civilisation. Often that is the case but it is not necessarily so. It was that particular equation which started areas depopulating rural which de-humanising If side is you of now actually the hill believe because find never you will home even greener. the in the the that they way first place. industrial the have to of is greener grass found making that is It valleys a new the equation South on the fertilizer green green Wales. other then grass of a sense in which DBS is the answer to the problem. There in tion to restore con fidence discrimina be a positive i imi i iti There needs is to rural areas. It was seeing other 431 places with better amenities Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 that sucked the life-blood of rural areas in the first place and the footprint of the monster in the sky goes some way to restoring the balance. DBS does not differentiate between one community and another on any grounds. But therein lies the problem. It is the most potent destroyer of culture and individuality since the Roman Empire. American culture and the English language dominate the programming. The economics of television and film production make it a commercial necessity to seek large markets and DBS transmission has that power. So does Fibre Optic Cable, but the installation costs would be prohibitive for sparsely populated areas, and the proliferation of choice offered would need to be counterbalanced funding to allow native cultures, particularly based on lesser-known languages, to be carefully competitive base in with the the main languages that have by enough where they are developed to be a better economic market-place, In many ways the British broadcasting structure is to be admired and perhaps in this particular respect to be emulated by other countries. This brings me to S4C. Whilst its autonomy to provide a television service is guaranteed by Act of Parliament its programmes are funded from the two sources of revenue in the British system. The BBC, funded by licence, provides ten hours of programming per week from its resources in Wales, including a comprehensive international news service. The other 13 1/4 hours per week are produced by small. ITV company Producers the the country running (particularly in North Wales). of the service are funded by a the profitable ITV - the Independent system (as companies is for Wales situated Channel in (HTV) all and parts of These programmes and subscription made on 4 outside Wales). This is a civilised way of dealing with minorities that cannot find a high enough budget to compete with the popular networks with large audiences. Once the present balance is disturbed it is this service, and any other minority service, which will be destroyed. There is a debate at the moment centred on the notion that the BBC should take advertising. Whatever benefits might ensue (and no-one is clear whether there would be) the destruction of S4C would certainly be an television in Wales is a English and a Fourth undesirable four-channel Channel with consequence. system - three its peaktime Broadcast channels in programmes in Welsh for 23 1/4 hours per week and the other fifty hours are the programmes of Channel 4. This subscription, which reduces the taxable profits of ITV companies, is in fact based on their profitability, and although they do not like to part with 32 million a true pounds public annually service. there Is it is a worth sense the in which money? In this truth makes it ITV cannot be done for less. You cannot provide a service under 22 hours per week and it must contain music, drama, animation, sport and all the other expensive ingredients which have made the Englishlanguage services so popular. With S4C now selling its programmes to over sixty countries throughout the world I think we can say that the talent programmes But the that exists have programme will appeal to the living in Wales. appeal, future then will that need in Wales universal maker's among as first well role Welsh as is speakers particular to immediate constituency If the quality of the create to create appeal. material that - the Welsh product has speakers a wider is a bonus. It is now becoming clearer a greater pooling of resources on a that the European 432 Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March 1986, No.18 scale so that quality can be maintained and enhanced without the escalating cost of production, S4C must prepare its Welsh speaking viewers for a direct link-up with mainland Europe in drama, documentary and light entertainment so that co-productions can be developed communities where possible The the is infinite problem arts and theologian which will it is spoken. in its enrich the language and the The technology that makes this possibilities. is that educational sciences over many and poet have systems have tended generations and the a deep ignorance of to separate philosopher, technology, and vice versa. As a result of this division there is a chasm between the concepts and demands of different kinds of society on the one hand, and the natural development of technology on the other. It is every moment) the (at field communication the in view my the by set aren't problems the If surmountable. is problem philosopher and poet then technology will run wild and instead of realising its potential as the ultimate civilising force of the the society which it could end up destroying century twentieth to it. gave birth There is a vortex on the for society where the relationships of people horizon of our raw materials in a awareness. A black hole of civilisation - the community - will run dry and not be replaced because a new breed of man, a creative elite, will Produce all entertainment, education and information, and the technologist will communicate this so effectively that no-one will see the need to replenish the raw materials. It's a bit like planting a forest and not phasing and replanting. Elwyn and Tom in our fable share this problem, but, unfortunately, they will never understand it without Gareth. Gareth, who stayed at home. No matter how sophisticated our measuring techniques gauging audience size and audience appreciation us to understand the undercurrents of what become for they do not help is happening in sparsely populated areas. Any measuring technique needs centres of population; small villages in rural areas can have behavioural patterns which are quite different from the urban conurbations which control the responses to a television service. The responses may or may not be the same but it needs an understanding of the psychological and emotional state of a community to be able to break through any barriers which build up when a group feels deprived of certain things. And these areas have been made to feel deprived. The older generation already had its base when the technological revolution started but younger generation living and growing in these areas today been made to twenty years to this the much feel second class as the harsh economics of the last has demanded larger, more centralised units. It is generation, programmers the channel To do patronising, from The positive, has had anglicised increased the age need to turn their and work with them community. attitudes the has this too programme indeed communities good its effect usage. we much on The between must accept that romanticising makers aggressive of group South in the and and 30 of Wales to learners 433 there a has lack that them life been of to in too positive past. marketing East attitudes Welsh 16 attention and to attract to improve the quality of the are the during the language in the period Welsh committed same language and ambassadors Razprave on the seen in gradivo, frontiers a lack political Ljubljana, of of two cultures. awareness activity March of connected 1986, But the with the No.18 rural state its of communities the protection have language. has And tended to be negative and narrow. The majority of people under 35 have been alienated by this approach. It lacks the charisma of the language movement of the sixties and early seventies and has a certai Puritan seriousness which is not appealing to the mass. . The fact is that it can also be counter-productive. By associating the language with intense commitment a large proportion of young people have escaped to other forms of entertainment which are not language-based. The proportion who have followed a more formal higher education will still retain the commitment to the language whilst enjoying themselves but even Welsh rock music is not as powerful as it was in providing the identity which the others need. Alcoholism is increasing in these areas as is, tragically, the use and abuse of hard drugs. The trafficking of drugs through the North Wales corridor is a horrific phenomenon of the eighties which we have featured in current How affairs does the background, programmes. programme maker, communicate educated effectively? and alienated from this the three and entertain must, above all there else, I believe aims of broadcasting - to educate, inform is now a clear priority for our times. We that, of entertain. That is the base line. We are well able to educate inform - after all that is how our education moulded us. there is a distinct lack of style and lack of pizazz in approach are to entertainment. responsive to the choice they will captivated by what will not wait. When other people are elements. being With a entertained you may believe they proliferation not wait to be educated. If they see those who do not have Although and But our that of they are not the commitment this is a Welsh issue, I can assure you from viewing many, many hours of European programmes geared towards small communities and minorities, that the problem is The long-term universal problem be the medium of the civilisation generation to and is is this: certainly if broadcast increase in view, the five immediate concern. television ceases then by the turn use of households video have of cassette one. the century film. This may well be And a it and understanding the U.K. there has in cannot recorders; nearly of village passing be or any other been a rapid the van comes around once a week to replenish the represent the talents of film-makers, significantly, expressing themselves in the horror to the people and a unifying force which develops of communities; if it ceases to attract this used to create a climate for peace laudable reason to the future, In every of our two fable in a viewing. The tapes many of them, nastiest kind of phase, but it shows a lack of rapport with the needs of the audience at this particular moment in history. The strains and stresses of our changing world have made monsters and perverts more attractive than reality. The consequence, denying that and some believe, is a destruction it is a factor in changing the of society. traditional No-one is attitudes morality. We are beginning to understand the problem. As yet we have no answers, but as time passes the programme makers will reconnect to their roots. They will cease to believe that people have a 434 Razprave duty of to in gradivo, understand public Ljubljana, them service and March begin 1986, to television. No.18 take literally Returning to the the meaning fable for a moment, Elwyn and Tom have to take on the attitude of the servant before they can once again communicate with Gareth. They must accept that their education does not given them a right to patronise those who did not move to the centre of influence, There is an institutional arrogance about broadcasters which has created a gulf with the viewer. When imported American material If we we must take notice. than home-produced, effective is more are talking about Upstairs/Downstairs in society, the broadcaster must go down below very soon before he can function properly and to the benefit of society. position use the privileged So there areas we is no are. A longer television a problem service for for technology. sparsely It is an populated exercise in understanding the nature of the communities that are to be served. An exercise which will have the profoundest effect on the future of language throughout Europe. An exercise which makes the S4C experience in the early eighties significant. Technology can take us one of two ways - centralised and standardised or to service guided. but the individuality This guidance it is a problem that will not communities of Europe. No-one from playing a part the fundamentals of next and differences. is beyond the five years, But either way it must be scope of political dogma. go away and is common should see themselves to all exempt in the debate about and the consideration of the future of civilisation. We need, over the to arrive provide anarchy a framework for is loosed upon timidly or negatively. at a vision of society which technology in communications before the world." But it should not be It is our privilege revolution that is taking place. As Wordsworth Revolution: "Bliss was it in that dawn to be young was very heaven.’ 435 to be part can "mere faced of the said of the French alive / But to be 1 , mars ay v . ee , - , . ' = 2 2 ‘ + ; . 3 © , . . . 4% , " < = s ~ 2 et L ‘ , . ét e “oo “ ; 5 . et a i . * 4°” oo . ’ à! * » . gi . e . . 1 . 7 ‘ a . Ce , . a OF . er … ; 3 i . * wee £ ; Le ‘ me “ , . . . . yb r > 3 a : nn ? « à wt . ‘€ ‘ . = . Razprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, March APPENDIX 1986, No.18 Razprave LIST OF BASIC in gradivo, WORKING Ljubljana, 1986, No.18 PAPERS PAPER EMS/85/BP: Some Yugoslav Experiences in the Achievement of the Equality of the Nations and Nationalities in the Field Education. of Prepared by Ljubljana WORKING March the Institute for (Yugoslavia) Ethnic Studies, PAPERS EMS/85/P-1: Guy Héraud: l'exemple EMS/85/P-2: Euryn de Ogwen Linguistic EMS/85/P-3: EMS/85/P-4: Le Rapport s “peuple à langue," à l'Europe. Williams: À Television Communities: Serena Tiella, et situations les de Daniela The Service Welsh Ceschi for Small Experience. Veronesi: Le Syndicat multilingues. Nelida Milani-Kruljac: Région Istro-Quarnerienne. Ecole et bilinguisme dans la EMS/85/P-6: Theodor Veiter: Ethnic Groups to Education. ENS/85/P-7: Yves Plasseraud: Le bilinguisme dans l'enseignement en France: le cas des langues régionales. EMS/85/P-8: Lucija Cok: L'Education transculturalisme dans les Littoral The Rights of their Ancestral Slovène Nationalities and Soil and Bilingual au bilinguisme et écoles majoritaires particularités de au du l'orientation didactique. EMS/85/P-9: Vera Glavinié: L'Enseignement de les écoles des territoires biAnalyse d'un EMS/85/P-10: Dietmar Larcher: EMS/85/P-12: Vera Type EMS/85/P-14: The Austrian Educational Short Survey) Prepared by the Federal et programme The Slovenes littérature dans pluriculturels. d'enseignement. in Austria. Raskovié-Zec: Our Attitude Toward of Bilingualism and Biculturalism. Republic EMS/85/P-16: plan la et of System for the Ethnic Chancellor's American Groups Office of (A the Austria. Peter Klinar: Multiculturalism. Sociological 439 Aspects of Ragprave in gradivo, Ljubljana, EMS/85/P-17: Ferenc Bagi: and Practice the Language EMS/85/P-21: Janez March 1986, No.18 Some Topical Questions of the Theory of Teaching the Hungarian Language as of Social Environment. Dular: Theory and Practice in Bilingual Schools. EMS/85/P-22: Cedomir B. Kuzmanovié: Ethnically of EMS/85/P-27: EMS/85/P-28: Composite Cultural Socialist Pluralism Autonomous in Province Vojvodina. Slavic Pavlic: in Slovenia. Ciril Educational Zlobec: Unity in Work in Partisan Diversity Schools (Reflections of Writer). EMS/85/P-29: Jakov Kisjuhas, Secondary of Stevan Upbringing Nations and Micié: and Pre-School Education in Nationalities Primary Five in and Languages the SAP of Vojvodina. EMS/85/P-30: EMS/85/P-31: Ludvik Horvat: The Role of Pre-School Education and Preparatory Classes in a Bilingual Environment and the Child's Cognitive and Socio-Emotional Development. Fatmir Fehmiu: Equality of Language, Written, of the Nationalities and Kosovo in the Field of Education. Oral Nations EMS/85/P-33: Janez Kercmar: The Bilingual Education System to Preserve and Develop National Feeling. EMS/85/P-34: Marin Mladenov: Bilingualism Group EMS/85/P-34: in SR at Socio-Linguistic the Schools of the SAP - Aspects Bulgarian and in Aid of Ethnic Serbia. Mirko Djuranovié: The Development and Results in Education and Culture of the Albanian Ethnic Group in SR Montenegro. EMS/85/P-36 Riza Brada: Education and Instruction for the Community as an Attribute of a Multinational Environment (Experience of Kosovo). EMS/85/P-37: Ruza Petrovié and Marina Blagojevié: The Structure of Ethnic Groups in Yugoslavia the Census of 1981). EMS/85/P-38: Jon Muntean: Education and Upbringing of Pupils of Primary School Age in Two Teaching Languages in the Rural Area of Middle Banat. EMS/85/P-39: Antonio Giunta linguistiche in La Spada: Italia: educazione nell' costituzionale. La tutela attuazione 440 delle potenziolità dell Educational (Results of minoranze e ruolo dell' principio a Razprave in NATIONAL REPORTS gradivo, CERI/ECALP/83.03: Ljubljana, Country Surveys: The Swedish Finland. CERI/ECALP/83.04: Country Country New CERI/ECALP/03.06: Examen CERI/ECALP/84.05: Country par Surveys: Education Languages. and CERI/ECALP/84.06: Examen pays: CERI/ECALP/84.08: Country par Instruction New Education Bilingual Policies in Zealand Education Policy, Greece Yugoslavia Pluralism Surveys: in Australia Multicultural pays: No.18 Finland Multicultural Schools. Surveys: Zeland 1986, Speaking Surveys: Review of Australian CERI/ECALP/83.05: March of Cultures and Portugal Italy INFORMATION EMS/85/1: Visit The to Lendava/Lendva Commune Elementary of Prekmur je Lendava School Drago Lugaric Lendava Equality of Rights of the Hungarian Nationality in the Socialist Republic of Slovenia in the Social and Political System. Education Mass media and in 44y Instruction. the language of the nationality. WOK 376,744(497,1):800,7 ZABJEK-SCUTER] Sa¥a, Inftitut za narodnostna vpraïanja, YU60CO UK 376.744 (497.1) :800.7 Ljubljana NOVAK-LUKENOVIC Sonja, Jugoslovanski kulturni pluralizes Razprave in gradivo ~ Treatises and Docusents, InStitut za narodnostna vprasanja, Ljubljana 1986, St. 18, s.17-19 Sa(sn, an) Nekatere jugoslovanske izkugnje pri uresnitevanju enakopravnosti rarodnosti na podrotju vagoje in izobrazevanja Razprave in gradivo ~ Treatises and Documents, Ljubljena 1986, St. 18, s. 32-89 rarcdoy in inftitut za sarodncsina vprasanja, Sn(sn, an) Jugoslovanska in InStitut za narodeostna vpraSanja, YU-61000 Ljubljana enakosti druzZba med je narodi zgrajena in na samoupravnih narodnostmi. Vsa oënosih zakonodeja te- melji na kulturnem pluralizm. Ker so se kulture jugoslovanskih narodov in narodnosti razvijale v razlicnih socio-ekonomskih okoljih, so dosegle razlitne razvojne Stopnje, ki pa se postopoma izenaéujejo. U.0 V prispevku avtor izobrazevanje za prikeZe razvejene pripadnike ki vzgoje so se in kljub enotnim temeljem, v skladu s tradicijami in specifi¢nimi potrebami Zivijenja in razvoja razvili v posameznih republikah in rokrajinah v Jugoslaviji. Prav tako ps so v prispevku Stevilne tabele, ki prikazujejo Stevilëno stanje uéencev Vv posameznih tipih vego jnsizobrazevalnih organizacij. U.0. UGK 323,15,00:008 ZLOBEC Cirtl,pisatelj,precsednik natine neroënosti, uox 376.744 (497.1) OruStva pisateljev Jugoslavi fe, YU-61000 PETROVIE Ruza, BLAGOJSVIÉ Marina, VC CK SK Srbija, YU~11003 Beograd Ljubljana Izobrazbens struktura narodnasti v Jugeslavi jf Unity in Diversity(Reflections of a Writer) Enotnost v razlitnosti ( Razprave in gradive = Treatises and Doeusants , InStitut za naroonestna vpraSanja, Razprave in gradivo = Treatises and Documents, InStitut za narodnostna vpraSanja, Ljubljana 1986, $t.13, 3.20-31 Sn( sn, an) Avtor izraZa lizacijo zaskrbljenost tehnoloékega nad tSedalje in polititnega vetjo razvoja ju, v veënacionelnih saj je za v razliënosti". sozitje dréavah potrebno so v posebno doseéi univerza- Razvoj v svetu, tezken nekakSno Srhan,sn,an) V referatu niénih sku hkrati pa ugotavija, da samosvojih individualnih teZenj, ki so v élovekovi naravi in 80 njegova pravica, tak totalitaren razvoj ne more povsem zatreti. Narodi in manj- ÿine Ljubljana 1986, #t.18,s.90-101 poloza- "enotnost DOS predstavijena izobrazbena strukture je lete a ; Jugoslaviji, rezultat rue izobraëevalnega sistema v Jugoslaviji et1981. je bolj sledil izobrazevalni politiki kot dejanskim potreban. Fosledica tega je, da vrstni red etuiënih skupin Slede nepismenosti in nedokonéane osnovne Sole iz leta v leto ostaja isti, v nadaljnjem izobrazevanju pa 50 zna- éilne razlike v vrstnem redu skupin. EH eve UXL 5/6,1441#97,17 WC 323,15,00:008 ZLOBEC Cirfl, ton Lee post, President of the J Yugoslay ugoslay A Association of PETROVIC Ru%a, BLAGOJEVIÉ Marina, Centra] Connittee ef the League of Communists Righters of Serbiz,YU-. 11000 Beegrad The Educational Structure ef Ethnic Greups in Yugeslavia Unity in Diversity (Reflections of a triter) Razprave Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Documents, Institute for Ethnie Studfes, Ljubljana 1986, 40.18, pp.20-31 Srh(En, Sn(En, sn)" The author expresses concern about the ever greater universality of technological and political development in the world but, neverthelessm concludes that the independent tendencies of the individual, which ere a part of man’s nature and are his right, cannot be completely suppressed by such totalitarian developments. The nations and minorities in multi-nationel states are in an especially difficult position, since co-existence demands the achi- evement of some kind of "unity in difference". in gradive = Treatises and Decunents, Institute fer Ethnic Studfes, Ljubljana 1986, We.18, pp.90-101 5B so Sr, En) The educetional structure of ethnic groups in YugoslaTi presented in the paper, besed on the census of 1 ° The development of the educationel system in Yugoslavia has followed more the peth of educational policies than actual needs. As a consequence, the order of the ethnic groups with respect to literacy and completed primary school remains the same year after year. In further education, there are characteristic differences in the order of the etnic groups. 5.8 At e WOC 376,744(497,1):800.7 . UOC 376,744(497,1):8000,7 TABJEK-SCUTER! SaSa, Institete for Ethnic Studles, YU-61000L jubl jana NOVAK-LUKANOVIE Sonja, Institute fer Etnic Studfes,YU-6100 Ljubljana Some Yugeslav Experiencess in Asserting Equality ef the Natiens and Nationalities Sone Reflections on Cultural Pluralisea in Yugoslavia in the Field of Education Razprave in gradivo = Treatises and Documents., Institute Ljubljana 1986, No.18 , pp.17-19 for Ethnic Studies, DO Sor eee is built on self-management relations and the equality of all the nations and nationalities. All the most important legal acts derive from the principles of national and cultural pluralism.The cultures of the Yugoslav nations and nationalities have developed over the centuries in different socio-economic environments and have achieved different levels of development. all these differences are diminishing. Institute fer Ethnic Studies, Ljubljana 1986,Ne.18, pp.32-89 Sn(En, Sn) Sn(Sn, En) However, Razprave in gradive ~ Treatises and Oocunents, E,B In the paper the author discusses the multifarious educational methods which have been developed for the benefit of the members of the peoples and nationalities in Yugoslevia. These methods have been designed in conformity with the tradition or specific needs of the lives and developmentel aspects in question in the individual republics and provinces of Yugoslavia. In the paper there are also numerous tables presenting the number of pupils frequenting different models of educational organizations. 2.8 we . UOK 376,744(497.12) VERNE Etienne, Expert of OECD, WK 376.7442159.922.7 HORVAT Ludvik, INSP, Paris, France Dvojezitna vzgoja in izobraïevanje v SR Sloveniji Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Documents, Ljubljana Filozofska fakulteta, YU 61000 , Ljubljana Vlaga pred*olske vzgoje v dvojeziënes okolju fn otrakov kognitivni socialr.o-emocionalni razvoj In3titut za narodnostna vpraSonja, 1986, St. 18, s, 102-113 Razprave in gradivo - Ireatises and Documents, InStitut za narodnastna vprasanja, Ljubljana 1986, $t. 18, s. 121-124 Fr(sa, fr) Sn(sn, an) Polozaj dvojezitne vzgoje in izobrazevanja v SR Sloveniji: prikaz studije V prispevku avtor pode najbolj znatilne posebnosti dvojezicnega izobraZevanja, ki se uporablja na dveh obmoéjih: na po éju obale in v Prekmurju, nekaze elemente za enalizo ter probleme, ki so povezani s tekim izobrazZevanjen. u,0, Obravnayane raziskava se vkljuéuje v vesto S5tudij o vplivih dvojezitne vzgoje na otrokov govorni in sploëno intelektualni razvoj. kezultati raziskave kezejo, da je kognitivni in socialno-emocionslni rezvoj otrok v dvoletni dvojezicni pripravi na Solo na narodnostno meSenem todrocju v Frekmurju enak kot je psihosocialni rezvoj otrok v podobnih enojeziënih okoljih v Sloveniji. U.O. WK 376.744 (497.12=945.11) UK 37:939,712"1941/1945" PAVLIE Slavica, direktor euzeja, Slovenski Solski mezej, YU -61000, Ljubljana KERCHAR Janez, Zavod za Solstvo, organizacijska enota Murska Sobota, YU 69000, Murska Sobota lzobratevalne dele v partizanskih Solah v Sloveni jf Dvojezitno £olstvo ohranja in razvija narodnosti Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Docusents, Razprave {n gradivo - Treatises and Documents, InStitut za narodnostna vprasanja, In3titut za narodnostna vprakanja, Ljubljana 1986, 3t. 18, s. 125-128 Ljubljana 1986, §t.18, s, 114-120 Sn(sn, an) Sn(an) Sestavek opisuje razvoj Solstva na osvobojenih ozenljih Slovenije. Delovalo je v okviru, ki ga je zaërtal Izobragevalni naért osvobdodilne fronte leta 1942 in se je prilagajal vojnim razmeram in razliënix podroëjem Slovenije. Pouderek je na demokratizaciji isobraievalneca procesa. Dvojeziéno Solstvo na narodnostno meSanem obmoëju ob meji z MadZarsko ohranja in rezvija narodnost. Pri njegovem razvoju je potrebno upoStevati mnogo vidikov. Uëno vzgojno delo je zastavljeno tako, da se utenci nautijo svoj materni jezik kot obvezo, z moznostjo, da si obenem ie pridobijo aktivno znanje drugega jezika. . U.0. . UUL 510, 149491, 1€e%49,11] KERÜMAR Janez, Institute for Scooling, Organisation unit Rurska Sobota, YU 69000, Murska Sobota PAYLIÉ Slavica, Museus Ofrector, Slovene Schoo) Museu, YU- GICCO, Ljubljana Educational Work in Partisan Schools in Slovenfa Thu Bilingual Education System - An Addin Maintaining and Developing National Consciousness Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Docusents, Institute for Ethnic Studies, L§ubljana 1986, No. 18, pp 114-120 Razprave in gradivo ~ Treatises and Documents, Institute for Ethnic Studies, Ljubljana 1986, Ne. 18, pp. 125-128 Sn(Sn, En) Sn( En) The paper liberated Bilingual schooling in the nationally mixed regions on the border with Hungary preserves and develops nationality. It is necessary to take a number of espects into cousideration with its development. The educationalupbringing work is so arranged that the pupils learn their mother tongue as compulsory with the possibility of simultaneously acquiring en active knowledge of the second language. gulatory outlines tne development territories of Slovenia. framework of education of It which schooling in presents the was initiated the re- by the £ducation Act passed by the Liberation Front in 1942, and the practical problems of education under war conditions in the specific areas of Slovenia. Emphasis is placed on the democratisation of the education process waich took place and the involvement of wider sections of society in the educationel decision-making process. 5.8. E.B. (OC 376,744(497.12) UDC 376.744:159,922,7 VERHE Etienne, Exsert of OECD, INSP, Paris, France La situation de l'enseignement HORVIT Ludvik, bilingue dans la République de Slovente:une étude cas Faculty of Philosophy, YU- 61000. Ljubljana The Role of Pre-School Education and Preparatory Classes in a 84}ingual Environsent and the Child's Cogniteve and Socio-faotional Deve lopment Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Documents, Institute for Ethnic Studies, Ljubljana 1986, No. 18, pp. 102-113 Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Document, Ljubljana 1986, No. 18, pp 121-124 Institute for Ethnic Studies Fr( Sa,fr) Sa(Sn,En) Dans cette communication l'auteur presente informations plus descriptive et les plus de L enseignement bilingue, les elements les significatives d analyse et les problemes dans les deux regions: une zone geographique située sur le littoral adriatique Slovène, et une autre situéeon Prekmurje. Bo Be The reseerch discussed is pert of e series of studies on the influence of bilingual education on a child’s speech and general intellectual development. The results of the survey demonstrate that the cognative and socio-emotionel development of children in a two-yeer bilingual preparation for school in the nationally nixed region of Frekmurje is the same as the psycho-social development of chilerer in similar monolingual regions in Slovenia. c B © . UOK WOK 376, 744(497,1) :82 376, 744(497.12-50) COK Luci ja,pedago3ka svetewks za {talijanski jezik, Zavod SRS za Solstvo-organt- GLAVINIC Vera, izredni profesor za italijansko literaturo PedagoBka fakulteta, zacijska enota Koper, YU-66000 Koper/ Cypodistria YU-52000 Izobraïevanje in dvojezicnost ter pretenanje kultur v veïinskih Solah na slovenski obali-s posebnis oziror na didaktiëne aspekte Poutevanje Institut Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Docusents, Ljubljana 1986, 3t.18, 5129-134 za narodnosina vprasanja, Pula literature v Solah na dve ali votjezignih obaotjih (analiza planov in prograsov) Razprave in gradive - Troatisos and Dccursnts, Institut za narodnosina voraSanja, Ljubljana 1986, St.19,5.144-149 Srh(fr, an, sn) Fr(sn, fr) Ugenje drugege jezika mora biti sestavni del izobrazevenja teko vetinskege naroda kot nerodnostne skupnosti. Didaktiéne usmeritve in pedagoSke izvejanje izhajajo iz tradicionelnih pedegoSkih natel. Vzgojiti mlacino na avojeziénem in dvokulturnem poäroëju pe je kompleksen proces, ki zahteva od vseh pripadnikov aktivno sodelovenje U.0. Avtorica poudari pomen souks literature v Soleh nae évo eli veéjeziénih ozemljih. Anealizire plan in uéni proGram na teritoriju istre in keke - dokument je bil sprejet maja 1083. Funkcijea pouka ne dvo ali veéjezitnem pocroéju je ta, da se s Studijem literernih del, pisenih v jeziku_manjSine (italijanséini), mleaim ljudem dvige trenskulturalnoi nivo in se jih teko pripravi ne skupno Zivljenje z naroëom in nacionalnostjo, ki ima Grug jezik in drugo kulturo. U.0 . UOK 376.744(497,1~50) MILANI -KRULJAC Nelida, znanstveni asistent za soderni Pedagotki fakulteti vy Puli, YU-52000 Pula italijanski UOK jezik na GUDELJ-VELAGA Zdenka, 376,744:316:80 fakulteti, YU-51000 Rijeka Sociolingvistiéni pogoji in rezultati utenja drugega jezika Dvojeziénost in Lola v istrsko-kvarnerski regiji Razprave Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Jocuments, profesor na Pedageski Institut za narodnostna vpraganja, Ljubljana 1986, St. 18, s.135-143 In gradivo - Treatisas and Docussnts » Wndtitut za narodnestna vprosanja, Ljubljana 1986, 4t.18,5.150-157 Fr(sn, fr) Srh(fr, sn, an) Predstavljen je sumerex opis itelijauske skupnosti ne istrsko-kvernersken podrocju. Ilustrirane s0 razlike v sociolingvistitna pogojeV referatu je pres nost ter sociolingvistiéne posledice utenja drugega pousevanja v jezijezika v osnovnih Solah na QUES kih narodnosti v SR Hrvatski. U.0. uéenju drugege jezika na Soleh e narodov in narodnosti. U.0. UDC 376,744(497,1+50) UUV VIVet Trev iveew HILANI-KRULJAC Nelida, Scientific Assistant for Contemporary |talian Linguistics, YU-52000 Pula GUDELJ-VELAGK Zdenka, Doctor of Science, Professor of Faculty of Pedagogics, L’Ecole et bilinguisee dans la région |stro-Quarnerienne Socfolingufstic Conditioning and Sociolinguistic Consoquences of Seccnd Language Learning Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Documants, Ljubljana 1986, No, 18, pp.135-143 Institute for Ethnic Studies Razprave in gradivo - Treatisos and Documents, Institute for Ethnic Studies Ljubljana 1986, No. 18, pp. 150-157 Srh(Fr, Sn, Sn) Fr(Sn, Fr) Cette de communication la communauté fournit une italienne dans quarnerienne et elle illustre du dans l'enseignement peuple et de la langue l'école gasertot ion la région sommaire The paper presents the socio-linguistic conditions end socio-linguistic consequences of the learning of a second language in primary schools, using the example of the teaching in the languages of the nationalities in SR Croatia. E.B istro- les différences daus deuxième de la (L2) dans l'école nationalité, 5 . YU-51000 Ki jeka ° . UDE 376, 744(497.1) 282 OC 376, 744(497. 1250) COK Luci ja, Professor, Pecagogic Advisor tor the Italian Lanjuage, for Schooling - Organisational Unit, YU-66000 Koper / Capodistria SRS Institute L'Education bilingue et transculturelle dans les écoles du Littoral Slovène - Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Documents, Institute for Ethnic Studies Ljubljana 1986, No. 18, pp. 123-134 L'Enseignesent de la littérature dans les écoles des territoires bi - et plus Analyse d'un plan et prograrse d'enseignement Kazprave in gradivo - Treatses and Documents, Institute for Ethnic Studies Ljubljana 1986, Ho. 18, pp. 144-149 orh(Fr, En, Sn) Fr(Sn, Fr) L'enseignement partie nation GLAVINIC Yara, Doctor of Science, Associate Fro‘essor for Italian Literature, YU-52000 Pula ricuiturels. particularités de l'orientation didactique . de la second logue doit être The author stresses the significance of literature lessons in schools in bi- or multi-lingual areas. She analyses the plan and the teaching programme in the ieee of Istrie and Reka - a document eccepted in May, une complementaire de l*education soit de la majoritaire que celle du groupe national. l'orientation didactique de cette education 1985. doit surpasser les strategies et les procédes pedsscet cuss traditionnels. Former des jeunes gens bilingues et In a bistudy of participants the young and thus to prepare them for collective with netions and nationelities having a different fuage and culture to their own. biculturels @ un procés une complex colaboration et impose active. a tous les = BeBe rity or multi-lingual region, the function literature written in the language of (Italian) is to raise the transcultural of the the nino- level of life lanBeBe WH UX 376,744 (497,1):316,356,72 BUDIMLIJA Anka, Republizki DJURIC Djordje,Filozofska fakulteta,YU+21000 Novi Sad zavod za napredek vzgoje in {zobraïevanja SR Srbije, YU-11000 Beograd Nekater{ pstholoëki Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Docusents, Institut za narodnostna vpraSanja, Ljubljana 1986, 3t.18, s,172~179 InStitut za narodnostna vpraëanja, Ljubljana 1986, 5t,18, s. 158-164 Seh(an, an,an) Srh{an, sn, an) V referatu so predstevljeni nekateri socialno-psiholoSki aspekti izobrazevanja v razvoju in izpopolnjevanju etnicne in kulturne identitete ter skupnosti mladih v veénacionalni skupnosti. Kot primer je prredstavljena ena od najizrazitejSih veénacionalnih skupnosti v Jugoslaviji SAF Vojvodina. U.0 Avtorica govori o nekaterih aspektih negovanja jezikovne in kulturne identitete uéencev v Solah narocnosti ter o njihovem vplivu na rezvijanje bratstva in enakopravnosti v vecénacionalni SR Srbiji brez pokrejin. U.0 . aspekti ¥ vzgoje in | :obrazevanja v vlog! vmpedbujanja etnit ne in kulturne identitete {n s0Z1tja med nladini v veënacionalni druxbl Vloga Sole v ohranjanju jezikowne in kulturne identitete utencey in njen vpliv na razvoj bratstva , sofitja in enakopravnost{ eed narodi in narodnostal v R Srbi ji Razprave in gradive - Treatises and Docusents, * . KUZHANOVIÉ Cadomir, Pokrajinsk! konîte MLADENOY Marin, Filozofska fakulteta, YU-11000 Beograd aspekti dvojezitnosti YU-21000 Novi Sad v Solah bolgarske narodnosti v SR Srbiji Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Docunents, InStitut za narodnostna vpraSanja, Ljubljana 1986, St. 11, 8165-171 . UK 323.15(497.113)2316,356,72 UOK 376.744 (497,11=867):316:80 Socielingvistiéni JDM We tpererenn Kulturni {zobratevanje in kulture, pleral{iren v SW Vojvodini Razprave in gradivo - 'reatises and Documents, Institut za narodnostna vprakanja, Ljubljana 1986, 3t. 18, s. 180-187 Srh(an, sn, an) Seh(an, sa, an) vtor pide > socielno lingvisticnih espektibh bilingvizne v Solah bolgarske narodnosti v SR Srbiji. Razëleni jeziSolstvo in bilingvizem, bilingvizem in kovno situacijo, interferenco ter bikulturelizem v funkciji bilingvizme. U.0. Prispevek prikaze kulturni pluralizem v etniéno "pisani" SAP Vojvodini, v katerem se dosledno uresnicuje enakopravnost narodov in narodnosti na vodroéju vzgoje in izobrazevenjia. Le na osnovi enakoprevnosti tako v izobrazevanju kot kulturi se lehko gradi skupnost enakopravnih narodov in narodnosti. ke o zaloznidtvu, deligéih, likovni Avtor predstavi kinematografiji, dejavnosti itd. konkretne knjizniéarstvu, podat- gleU.0 . . DUAL PIRE CIRE LCLIS ENTER" NLADENOV Marin,Faculty ef Philesenhy, YU-11000Bengrad KUZMANOVI4 Cedeatr, Provincial Committee fer Educatien and Culture Nevi Sad, YU-21000 Nov Sad Secte-Linguistic Aspacts of Bilingwalisn at the Scheels ef the Bul Ethnic Group In R Serbia a Razprave in gradive - Treatises and Decuments, Institute fer Ethnic Studies, Ljubljana 1986, Ne,18, pp.165-171 Cultural Pluralisa in the Ethnically Mixed Secialfst Autenseurs Prevince ef Vejvedina Razprave in gradive - Treatises and Oscuments, Ljubljane 1986, Ne.18, pp, 180-187 Institute fer Ethnic Studies, Srh(En, Sn, En) Srh(£n, Sn, En) The suthor discusses the socio-linguistic aspects of bilingualism in schools for the Bulgarian nationality in SR Serbia. He analyses the language situation, scho- oling ving and and bilingualism, the function bilingualism of and bicultiralism in community The contribution illustrates the cultural pluralism in ethnically “colourful” SAF Vojvodina, in whicn the equal rights of the nations and netionalities in the fiels of upbringing and education ere consistently reelised. 4 community of nations and nationalities with equal rights li- bilingualism. EAB. cen only tion from and the atre and be built on a foundation art BUOIMLIJA Aexa, Republican Institute fer the Advancement ef Education and Child The Rele ef School in Maintatning and Devalesing Cultural and Language |dentity of Pupils in SR Serbia and ite Influence on the Deve lopaent of Bretherheed, and Equality of the Peeples and Nationalities fn SR Serbia Srh(En, Sn, En) The paper discusses the role of the school in the preservation of tne cultural end linguistic identity of pupils and its influence on the development of brotherhood, equality and eoual rights for the nations and of SR Serbia. in educa~ dete tne- E.B. UDC 376.744(497,1)159,92 DJURIÉ Djerdje, Faculty ef Philesephy Nevi Sad, YU-21000 Hevi Sad Quelques aspects seeie-psychelegiques de 1 education on fenctien du deve loppensnt de identite ethnique et culture)le des jeunes dans une connunaute plurinationale Unity Razprave in gradive - Treatises and Decunents, Institute fer Ethnic Studies, Ljubljana 1986, No.8, pp. 153-164 nationalities equality activities. UDC 376,744(497,1):376.356.72 Cars SR Serbia, YU-11000 Besgrad of in culture. Tne euthor presents concrete fields of publishing, cinema, livraries, À Phe author discusses some aspects of the attention given to the linguistic and cultural identity of pupils in schools for nationalities, and their influence on the development of brotherhood anc equal rights in » B AR multi-national 52 Serbia witnout its provinces. Razprave in gradive - Treatises and Decurants, Ljubljana 1986, Ne. 18, pp.172-179 Institute fer Ethnic Studies, Srh(En, Sn, En) The paper education and presents some socio-psychological aspects of in the development end improvement of ethnic cultural young vided in of munities identity, as well es communities of the multi-national communities. The example is pro~ one of the most pronounced multi-national conm- in Yugoslavia - SaP Vojvodina. 23 ~e L2 UK 376,744(497.113) WOK 376,7(497,12-945.11):609,451.1:372,880 BAG! Ferenc,. BABIN Radonir, Pedago3ki in3titut, YU-24000 Subotica InStitut za mad¥arski jezik in literature ter Studij madzardti- ne, YU-21000 Novi Sad Matela in dileme y dvojezitnea vzgojno-{zobratevalnen delu v severni Batki Nekatera osnovna vpratanja teorije in prakse pouka eadiarskega jezika kot jezika Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Documents, Intitut Ljubljana 1986, 3¢.18, s.188-194 za narodnostna vpraSanja, druzbenega okolja 3 Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Documents, In3titut za narodnostna vpraïanja, Ljubljana 1966, 3t.18, 3.203-209 Seh(an, sa, an) Frikazan je razvoj izobrazevanja na poaroëju severne Batke s Subotico od @ruge svetovne vojne do danes. Predstavljena so osnovna necela, ki so se uporabljala kot sploSna, pa tudi nedoslednosti, do katerih je prihajalo v pedagoSki praksi, ki skuSa sprejeti in ustvarjelno obogetiti teoretska iznodiSéa o politiki nacionalne enakopravnosti in dvojeziène pedagoëke aktivnosti. Sch(an, sn, an) V referatu so nakazani nekateri eaktualni probleni teorije in prakse pouéevanja tujege jezika, jezika druzbene sredine ter neketeri elementi reSevanja iz vsakocnevne prakse. U.0 L 2 U.0. UK 376,744(497,113) :802-07 RUXTEAN Jon, Osnovna 3ola "Dr.A.Saboljev", YU-23203 Etka Vzgoja in izobrafevanje v osnovni Soli in pouk jezikey srednjega Banata Razprave in gradive - Treatises and Docusents, Ljubljana 1986, 3.18, 3,195-202 UOK 376,744(497,115) FEHMIU Fateir,, na ruralnem podrotjy InStitut za narodnosina vpradanja, Univerza Koseve(pravna fakulteta), YU-38000 Priitina Enakopravnost jezikos narodov in narodnesti na Kosovu na podrotju vzgeje in ize braïevanja Razprave in gradive = Treatises and Documents, InStitut za narodnostna vpraïanja, Ljubljana 1986, 3t.18, 3,210-218 Sch(an, sn, an) Seh(an, sn, an) Avtor predstavi vzgojo in izobrazevanje v dveh enakopravnih uénih jezikih v osnowmmi Soli v ruralnem okolju Srednjega Banata. Zéka je eno od najstarejSib naselij v obéini Zrenjanin. Poleg Srbov Zivijo tu Romuni ter V referatu je pos razvoj ensakopravnosti jezikov in pisav narodov in narodnosti na podrotéju izobrazevanja v SAP Kosovu. Analiziran je proces uresniéevanja natel enakopravnosti jezikov in pisav narodov in narodnosti. drugi narodi in narodnosti Jugoslavije. Pouk na Soli je dvojeziéen. V celotnem vzgojnoizobrazevalnem procesu sta srbsko-hrvatski in romunski jezik enakopravna. u,0, U. 0. WC 376,744(497.115) NUNTEAN Jon, "Dr.A.Sabeljev® Prisary Scheel, Etka, YU-23203 Etka FEHMIU Fatair, University of Kosovo, Faculty of Lav, YU-38000 Education of Pupils ef Primary-Scheel Age in Twe Teaching Languages in the Rural Area of Middle Banat Razprave ir gradive - Îreat{ses and Decunents, Ljubljans 1986, Ne,18, pp.195-202 Institute fee Ethnic Studies, Srh(En, Sn, En) Equality ef Language, Oral and Written ef the Hatiens and Hationalities in SAP Koseve in the Field ef Education Razprave in gradive - Treatises and Decunents, Institute for Ethnic Studies, Ljub}jane 1986, Ne.18, pp.210-218 Srh(En, Sn, En) The author presents the upbringing and education in two equal-rights teaching languages in a primery school in the rural environment of Srednji Banat. Ecka is one of the oldest settlements in the commune of Zrenjenin. In addition to Serbians, Rumanians and other netions and nationalities of Yugoslavia live here. Lessons in the school in Ecka are bilingual. Serbo-Croat and Rumanian have eoual rights in the entire upbringing-educational process. The paper illustrates the development of equal rights of language and script in the field of education, of the nations end nationelities in SAP Kosova. The process of realising the principle of equality of language and script of the nations and nationalities is analysed. ER. E.R. LOC 376.744(497.113) BABIN Radomir, Educational Pedagegic Institute, YU-24000 Subetica in gradive - Treatises and Decurents, LOC 376.7(497,12-945,11) :809.451,1: ‘72,880 8461 Ferenc , Institute fer the Hungarian Language and Literature and Hungarian Studies , Faculty of Arts , YU-21000 Nevi Sad Principles and Prebleas ef 81 l{ngual Education in Northern Baëka Razprave Priitina Institute for Ethnic Studies, Ljubljana 1986, No.18, pp. 188-194 Sene Topical Questions ef the Theery and Practice as the Secial Envirenment Razprave in gracive - Ireatises and Decusents, Srh(En, Sn, En) of Teaching the Hungarian Languag Institute for Ethnic Studies Ljubljan 1986, We.18, pp.203-209 The development of education in the eree of iortn Backe in Subotica, from the Second World War to today, is illustrated. The basic principles which were used in general, as well as the inconsistencies which appeared in pedagogic practice, are presexted. The attempt has been made to accept end creatively enrich the basic policies too National rights end bi-lingual pedagogic acti- vity. Ee Be Seh(En, Sn, En) The paper Giscusses some ectual problems in the theory and practice of teaching a foreign language end the language of the social median, end some elements of their =.B resolution in everyday practice. — . UOK 376.744(497.115) EMRULAHU Dall, Univerza Koseve(vidja pedageska Sola), YU-38000 UOK 376,744(497,16+919.83) Pridtina Vzgoja in izobra¥evanje v duhu beatstva in enotnost! v izvenSolskih dejavnestih Selarjev v SW Kesevw Razprave in oradivo ~ Treatises and Documents, In3titut za narodnostna vprasanja, Ljubljana 1986, 5t,18, s.219-222 DJURANOVIÉ Mirke,Republiski Titegrad indtitut za napredek vzgeje v R trai gert, YU-81000 Razvo} in rezultat! {zobrazevanja fn kulture albanske narodnestt v Cent gerd Razprave in gradive - Treatises and Decusents, Institut za narednostna vpraganja, Ljubljana 1986, 5t.18, 8.227-233 Seh(an, sn, an) Avtor analizira pomen anteresnih dejavnosti ucencev, ki nzej bi bile sestavni del integrelne rrogramsko-netodoloSke in organizacijske strukture. Ze uspeëno organizacijo vzgojno-izobrezevalnih aktivnosti morajo biti angazirani vsi subjekti Sole, strokovni in samouprevni organi, druzbeno-polititne organizacije na Soli in zunaj nije. Us. Srh(an, sn, an) Po drugi svetovni vojni so v SR Crni gori v osnovne in srednje Sole uvedli pouéevanje otrok v njihovem naterinem jeziku. Poleg uénega programa, ki je enoten za u¢ence obeh narodnosti,vobstajajo posebni programi pri pouku knjizevnosti in zgodovine. Njihov namen je pomagati pri spoznavanju Ses li toit kultur. Dvojezièna dosegla vzgoja spodbudne in izobrazevanje v SR Crni gori sta rezultate. U0 ° WOK 376,744(497,17) UOK 376,744(497,115) BRADA Riza, = In3titut za napredek vzgoje in etoskega varstva, YU-38000 Pristine Vzgoja in izebratevanje za sotitje nzoredek wzgoje in izobrateve Enakopravnost v {zobraïevalnen delu z udenci razlitaih narodnesti, ki Hvijo v Hakedoniji Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Dogusents, Institut za narodnostna vpradanja, Ljubljana 1986, 5t,18, s.234-238 Srh(an, on, an) V pokrejini Kosovo obstajajo oddelki z veéini uénimi jece PRES srbohrvaski, turski, v zadnjem éasu tudi romski. Vzgoja in izobrazevanje v takih vetkulturnih sredinah je organizirana na osnovi naëel o skupnem #ivljenju narodov in narodnosti v Jugoslaviji (natelo zgodovinske pogojeposti, naéelo demokratiénosti, natelo vsestranskosti in permanentnosti). STQUANOVSK! TaSe, ISAl Fete, Republik? zavod za nja SR Makedoni je, YU-91000 Skopje ket atribut vetnarednestnega okolja Razprave in gradive - Treatises and Decusents, InStitut za narodnestna vprasanja, Ljubljana 1986, 3t,18, ».223-226 natelo . U.0. Srhfr, sn,an) Avtorja nostno vita ar SS obravnavata meSanem cree vzgojno-izobrazevalno obmoéju SR Makedonije. vzgo jno-izobrazevalnega ere ee a podatkov cee Se o izven OR ib delo Natenéno dela 2 veé uénimi akti ivnostih na narod- predsta- interesnih je jeziki. ter dobljenih i U.0. Se eT Or iy wey BRADA Riza, Previngial Institute for the Advancement ef Education and Child im tint Care SP Keseve, YU- 38000 PriStina STOJANOVSK| TaSe, 1SAÏ Fete Republican and Edusation, Skepje, YU-91000 Skepje Education and Instruction fer the Community as an Attribute of 2 Multinational Envirenment:The Experience of Keseve L'Egalité dans Je travail éducatif avec les élèves de differentes nations ot Razprave in cradive ~ Treatises and Decuments, Ljubljana 1986, Ne.18, pp.223-226 Razprave Institute fer Ethnic Studies, Departments exist in the province of Kosove with e number of teaching languages: Albanian, Serbo-Croat, Turkish and recently also Romany. and education in such nationalités vivant en In République sesialiste de Macedeine in oraifive - Treatises and Decunents, Institute fer Ethnic Studtes, Ljubljana 1986, No. 18, pp. 234-238 Srh(£n, Sn, En) Upbringing Institute fer the Advancement ef Child Care multi-cultural surroun- dings is organised on the basic of the principles of the collective life of the nations and nationalities in Yugoslavia (the principle of historic circumstances, the principle of universality and the principle of carEpneceey. E.B. Srh(Fr, Sn, En) The authors discuss upbringing-educational work in the nationally mixed region of SR Macedonia. They provide a precise presentation of the progremme of upbringing- educational tivities in work, the interests and external scnool acschools with more than one teaching language. The majority of the data on externel have been received on the basic of 2 school activities questionnaire. Ee. UOC 376.744(497.16-919.83) OC 376.744(497.115) EMRULAHU Dali, University of Keseve, College ef Pedagegics, YU-38000 Pristina OJURANOVIÉ Mirke, Republican Institute fer the Advancement of Education SR Mentanagre, YU-81000 Titegrad Education and Instructien in the Spirit ef dretherheed and Unity Within Extracurricular Activities ef Pupils at Scheels in SAP Kesove Razprave in yradive - Treatises and Documents, B. : The Development and Results ef Education and Culture of the Albanaian Ethnic Group in R Hentenegre Institute for Ethnic Studies, Ljubljana 1986, Ne,18, pp.219-222 Srh(En, Sn, En) The author analyses the significance of the interest ectivities of pupils, which should be an integral part of the composite programme-nethodological and orgenisationel structure. Successful organisetion of the upbringing-educationel activity requires the involvement of ell participants, including the profesional and self-management organs and socio-political organisations both within end outside the school. EB _ Razprave in gradive - Treatises and Deguaents, Institute for Ethnic Studies, Ljubljana 1986, No.18, pp. 227-233 Srh(En, Sn, En) After the Second World Wer, education in the mother tonsue was introduced in primary and secondary schools in Nontenegro. In eddition to the educational programme, which is tne same for both nationalities, special programmes of classes in history end literature exist to help provide a knowledge of the various cultures. Bi-lingual upbringing and education in SR Montenegro has achieved encouraging results. E.B, WOK 323, 15:37:316,356.72 WOK 323.15(4):800.8 VEROOOOT Albert, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Selgiue HÉRAUD Guy, Université de Pau, France Teoretitni pogled na razmerje wed vzgojo in izobratevanjea ter ohranjanjee Poroëi lo o narodih fn jezikih - primer Evrove etnitne identitete s posebnis coudarkoe na medetnitnih odnosih v vetkulturnth Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Docusents, druëbah Razprave in gradivo = Treatises and Docusents, InStitut za naroïdnostna vpraanja, Ljubljana 1986, St. 18, s, 253-258 InStitut za narodnostna vpra3anja, Ljubljana 1986, Xt. 18, s. 241-252 Fr(sn, an) V An(sn, an) referatu meru Evrope. lingvistiéno Avtor predstavi teoretiéne aspekte vzgoje, ki si prizadeva ohraniti etnièno identiteto v veckulturnih druZbab. Omenja lingvistiène, psiholoëke ter socioloëke teorije, predstavi sociolingvistiène ankete, razvija teorije o kulturi, ekonomske ter politiëne teorije, razéleni pedagoëke aspekte. je prikazano razmerje ljudstvo-jezik na pri- Avtor razlikuje drzave, ki ho¢ejo biti (so) homogene, tiste, ki so veéjeziéne, pa ima en jezik prioriteto most vecih jezikov. ter drZave, ki priznavajo enakoprav- U.0, U.0. WK 376,744(73) UK 376, 744:316.356,72 RASKOVIC-ZEC Vera, YU STRUKELJ Inka, SocioloSki inStitut, YU-61000 Ljubljana Maz odnos do smerifkega tipa bilingvizma in bikulturalizea Dvojeziéna bikulturna vzgoja in izobeatavanje Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Docusents, Ljubljana 1986, St. 18, s. 259-264 Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Documents, In3titut za narodnostna vpraganja, Ljubljana 1986, 3t. 18, s, 265-280 frh(an, sn, an) An(sn, an) InStitut za narodnostna vpraSanja, Y referatu ge obravnavan jugoslovanski odnos do tipa amerigkega bilingvizma in b lturalizma. V Z2DA tezijo vse teorije o bilingvizm k temu, kako izkoristiti prvi jezik za éim hitrejSe uéenje angleëCine kot eksistentne osnove. Za Jugoslavijo je zanimiv obratni proces; kako nade otroke, ki se vraéajo in jim prvi ezik, ki ga govore, ni materin, reintegrirati v najezikovno in socialno sredino. U.O, (probleai in perspektive) Dvojeziëni izobrazevalni programi kaïejo razliëne oblike glede na specifiène razmere, v katerih se po javljajo. Avtor navaja razliënost ciljev, ki jih ima jezikovna izobraevalna politika v veënacionalnih druëbah poudar- jajoë pomembnost dominantnih politiénih in go spodarskih institucij re formiranju tin politike. Eden od zakljuékov je tudi, da ni zadosti samo pouéevanje v manjSinskem jeziku. Potrebno je spoznati tudi kulturo in s tem veékulturna politika ne bo odvisna sa- mo notre od izobrazevalnega G& programa ampak tudi od Sirge U.0. LDC 376.744:316,356,72 WC 376,744(73) STRIKELJ Inka, Institute of Sosiolegy,YU-61000 Ljubljana RASKOVIC-2EC Vera,YU Bilinqual/Bieultural Education: Problens and Prospects Dur Attitude toward the American Type of Bilingualism and Gicultwraliss Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Decusents, Institute fer Ethnie Studies, Ljubljona 1986, No,18, pp.259-264 Srh(En, Sa, En) The paper discusses the relation that Yugoslavia has to the American e of bilingualism and biculturalisn. In the USA, all theories of bilingualism are directed at how to take advantage of the first language in order to learn English as fast as possible. In Yugoslavia, the reverse process is of interest: how returning children whose first language is mother tongue, how to reintegrate into our and social environment. to teach not his linguistic Se Be Razprave in gradive - Treatfses and Decusents, Institute for Ethnic Studies, Ljubljana 1986, Ne.18, pp .265-280 En(Sn, En) Bi-lingual programs of education show a multiplicity of forms which relate to the specific circumstances in which they are applied. The author discusses the variety of goals which language education polities may have io multilingual societies, stressing the importance of the dominant institutions of politics and the economy in the formation of such policies. Problems associated with different approaches are examined and the conclusion drawn that yee in minority languages is not in itself sufficient. It is also necessary to recognise the cultures associated with each language and the success of multicultural policies will depend not only on factors within the education system but also on forces within the wider community. E,B. WC 323,15:37:316.356,72 VERDOOOT Albert, Universite catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium HERAUO Guy, Universite’ de Pau, France Theoretical Aspects of Edueation Relating to the Maintenanes of Ethnic Identity with Spesial Reference te Inter-Ethnic Relations in Multicultural WC 323.15(4):800,8 + Seeleties Razprave in gradive - Treatises and Oocusents, Institute fer Ethnic Studies, Ljubljana 1986, Ne.18, pp.241-252 Le rapport de "peuple" à "langue®,à l'exemple de 1’ Europe Razprave in gradive - Treatises and Documents, Ljubljana 1986, Wo.18, pp.253-258 Institute fer Ethnic Studies, Fr(Sa, En) En(sn, En) The author presents the theoretical aspects of education which strives to preserve ethnic identity in a mlticultural society. He mentions the linguistic, psychological and sociological theories, presents socio-linguistic questionnaires, develops theories about culture and economic and political theories, and analyses the pedagogic aspects. HB. The peper illustrates the relationship between population and language in the case of Europe. The author distinguishes states which want to be (are) linguistically homogeneous, those that are multilinguistic but have one language which is dominant, and states which acknowledge the equality of more than one language. E.B. UOK 376.744:316.356.72 UOK 376, 744 .001/ 002 CUMMINS Jim, expert of OECD, Ontario Institute of Sciences of Education, Toronto, Canada Teorija in praksa dvojezitne vzgoje Razprave {n gradivo ~ Treatises and Documents, InStitut za narodnostna vpraSanja, Ljubljana 1986, St, 18, s. 281-208 NECAK-LIK Albina, Pedago3ki in3titut, YU-61000 Ljubljana Druibene razseznosti vzgoje in {zobrafevanja v vetkulturnih skupnostih Razprave {1 gradivo - Treatises and Documents, InStitut za narodnostna vpraSanja, Ljubljana 1986, 3t, 18, s. 309-313 An(sn, an) An(sn, an) y referatu avtor daje razlago o vlogi teorije v politicnem procesu. Foudari pomen, ki ga imata teorija in raziskovanje na politiène odloëitve. Obravnava tri psihoizobrazevalne principe in njihovo implikacijo v dvojeziéno izobraZevalno politiko. Vkljuéenost jezika in kulture manjSin v Solske programe pomeni samo enega od Stevilnih faktorjev, ki je potreben, da uéenci - pripadniki manjSin v okviru Sole pridobivajo, ne pa da nazadujejo. Socioekonomska politika, v okviru katere narodne manjSine uresnigujejo svoje kulturne in eer eco je zelo pomembna. Ceprav so kulturne razlike velikokrat tolerirane znotraj druzbe, so manjSine pogostoma socialno in ekonomsko v neenakopravnem polozaju zaradi odsotnosti zavedanja pomembnosti uporabe svojega jezika v socio-politiénih, ekonomskih in kulturnih aktivnostih vecinskega naroda. U. 0. U.0. UOK 323.15:316,356,72 WOK 323.15(436-863) LARCHER Distear, Institute for Distance Education at the University of Klagonfurt, Celovec, Austria V obranbo modela intecraci je Ingtitut za narodnostna vpraÿanja, uka po ji Ljubljana Soctoloëkt vidiki aultikulturalizaa Ljubljana InStitut za narodnostna vpraïanja, 1986, 3t. 18, s. 318-329 Sn(an, sn, an) An(sn, an) Referat predstavi FSPN, YU-61000 Razprave fn gradivo - Treatises and Documents, Razprave in gradivo = Treatises and Documents, Ljubljana 1986, St. 18, 8, 314-317 be KLINAR Peter, V referatu so analizirani druëbeni procesi, ki razvoj multikulture. Stvarni multikulturalizem nekaj problemov metodike dvojeziénega ee koroëkih Slovencih v Avstriji. Poudari potredoslednejSi dvojeziénosti ter interkulturni vzgo- in izobraéevanju, odklanja politiko segregacije. U. 0. razvijati v razmerah veéje na stratifikacija preradéa like, ko se razvijejo procesi se procesi akulturacije Si tacijskimi procesi, ko delujejo Je, ko so procesi enkulturacije ad tivnih as Raga aoe ve konfliktov in mg 2 zadevajo se more druzZbene enakosti, ko etniév horizontalne druibene raz- nasprotij. polnejSe adaptacije, ko 0 3 Pasvitesdini adapprocesi transkulturacivsklajeni s procesi jee elujejo REI? enkulturacijska = AROSRES RE U.O. WY WC 323,15(436-863) LARCHER Dietwar, Institute fer Distance Edveation at the University of Klagenfurt, Celevec, Austria 365, 1925 10,500,172 KLINAR Pater, Faculty of Sesielegy, Political Selence and Jewrnaliss, YU-61000 Ljubljana Sostelegical Aspects of Multiculteralisa in Defence ef the Integratien Mode] Razprave in gradive = Treatises and Dosuments, Institute fer Ethnic Studies, Razprave in gradive - Treatises and Decuments, Institute for Ethnic Studies, Ljubljana 1986, No.18, pp.314-317 En(Sa, En) The paper presents some of the problems faced by educationalists in pursuing bilingual teaching methods for Carinthian Slovenes in Austria. He urges the need to continue and strengthen bilingual and intercultural education and to resist segregational policies. EB. Ljubljana 1986, No.18, p».318-329 Sn(En, Sn, En) The paver analyses the social cesses concerned in the development of mal tiaeulonxelion, The conclusion is reached that, under conditions of social inequality of etbnio stratification, undeveloped pane of adaptation Turisatioa with adaptation, lack of harmony between enculturisation and Eu risation, à cuaber of disruptive poses seteteneer es ve conflict, discrimination, eoive cationalian, forced assimilation, etd.), it is cot possible to expect a development of ml tur: mlticulturaPp +10 ty, when ethnic stratification develops into borizoctal social differentiation, when processes of better adaptation are developed, when processes of aculturisation are linked with the core developed adaptive processes, vtec processes of trausculturisation are active, when procesSeo of eaculturisation are harconised with processes of aculturisation or when enculturisastion processes proceed im parallel in two cultures and when processes of integrative conflict and opposition are active. oc 376,744 ,001/ .002 CUMMINS Jie, Expert of (ECD, Ontaria Institute ef Canada E 41, Scriences of Education, Terente, HECAK-LUK Albina, Institute fer Educational Research at the Edvard Kardelj University, YU-61C00 Ljubljana Education in Multicultural Secieties and its Secial Implications Razprave in gradive - Treatises and Decusents, Ljubljana 1986, he.18, pp.281-308 Razprave in oradive ~ Treatises and Documents, Institute for Ethnie Studies, the paper the of theory emphasised in addition the author in the gives the policy-making importance to political of both explanation process. theory consideration. and Three about It the is research psycho-edu- cational principles are reviewed and their implications for bilingual education policy discussed. Active incorporationof the language and culture of the minority within the school program is just one of a nomber of interventi- ons Institute for Ethnic Studies, Ljubljana 1986, No.18, »p,309-313 En(Sn, En) En(Sn, En) In 7, UOC 376,744:316.356,72 Theory and Polley in Bilingual Education role B à thet minority are required students to empower within the rather school than to disable context, E. Be The author discusses the importance of socio-economic policies in providing the framework by which netional minorities are able to realise their cultural and linguistic rights. Although cultural differences are very often tolerated within a society, minority groups are Saga socially and economically disadvantaged because of a failure to recognise the importance of the por of using their own language in the socio-political, economic and cultural activities of the broader social community. E.B, WOK 376,144:325.2(73) 316,356, 12 KOUTSOUVAMOU Eugenia, UK 323, 15,942, 75376, 744 General Secretariat for Greeks Abroad Ministry of Culture and Sciences, Athens, Greece VEITER Theodor, Presidant of the Sefantific Advisory Counci president of the AIOLCK, Feldkirch, Austria Vioga kulturnth faktorjev v {zobrazevelnem proce su pri nedavno priseljenih otrocih or8kega in italijanskega izvora v Hew Yorku (City) Fravice narodnih in etnitnth skupnosti do ohranjanja samobitnosti ter dvojezitna vzgoja {n {zobratevanje ( Studija o sednarodnen pravnes aspektu) Razprave {n gradivo - Treatises and Documents, InStitut za narodnostna vprasanja, Ljubljana 1986, 3t. 18, s. 330-334 Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Documents, Ljubljana 1986, St. 18, s. 335-344 An(sn, an) An( sn, an) Avtorica predstavi probleme priseljenih grSkih in italijanskih otrok v Solah New York-City. Predlaga, da je poleg sploSnih faktorjev, kot so jezikovni problemi, socialni in gospodarski pritiski in kulturna asimilacija, potrebno prouèiti tucdi karakteristike posameznih etnicnih skupin. Pomembna je vloga uéiteljev, ki lahko vere vedo na razvoj stosobnosti otrok, ki prihajajo iz razliénih kulturnih Avtor razlage razliéne zgodovinske in sodobne izraze, povezane z nacionalnostjo in nadaljuje z diskusijo o pravnem pomenu teh izrazov v narodnem in mednarodnen prevu. Zakljuèek sestavka govori o rezmerju "ancestral soil” in pravico do izobrazevanja v materinem jeziku. okolij. Intitut of IMTEREG, Vice~ za narodnostna vpraëanja, U.0. U,0, WOK 323,15 (456-863) :376.7 UOX 376.744 (450.365-868) FRANCESCATO Giussappe,Prefessor, Univesita di Trieste, istitute di Glottologta, Italy CLAVORA Feruccio, direkter SLURI v Cedadu, Cedad/Cividale, Italy Dvojezitna problematika v slovenski SpleSen oris; bilingvizen sed aladimi pripadniki slevenske eanj3ine v |taliji Razprave in gradive = Treatises and Decuments, InStitut za narodnostna vprasarja, Ljubljana 1986, St. 18, s.347-350 Bensëiji Razprave in gradive - Ireatises and Documents, Ljubljana 1985, 3t. 18, s.351-359 Inëtitut za narednost San si Fr(sn, an) An(sn, an) Namen tega referata je bil,na novo raziskati na tréaëki univerzi zaëeto delo, s posebnim poudarkom na jezikovnih problemih mladih, dvojeziéno govoreéih ljudi med slovensko manjéino. V referatu so predstavljeni vidiki dvojeziénega Solstva Van kjer bi bilo potrebno upoStevati spect fizne oko ne. U. U.0, 0. WL FRANCESCATO Giusseppe, Professor, Italy Universit® di Trieste, 929, 1917908009) 5919, 1 Istitute di Glottologia, CLAVORA Feruccio, Professor, Director, SLORI in Cedad ; Cividale, Italy L’Ensaignesent bilingue en Banecia, option pour une politique Sducative desaliénante Bilingualism of Young People in the Slovenian Minority in |taly Rezprave in gradivo - Treatises and Documents, Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Documents, Ljubljana 1986, No. 18, pp. 347-350 Institute lustitute for Ethnic Studies, Ljubljana 1986, Ko. 18, pp. 351-359 for Ethnic Studies, Fr(Sn, En) En(Sn, En) The purpose of this paper is to give an idea of the research we are engaged in at the University of Trieste, with special reference to the linguistic problems of young bilingual speakers belonging to the Slovene minority. The author presents different aspects of bilingual schools in Benecia, where the specific characteristics have to be into account. E.B, EB. VOC 323,15, H2.1:376.744 UDC 376.744:325.2(73):376,356.72 KOUTSOUVANGU Eugenia, General Secretariat fer Grasks Abread Ministry ef Culture and Sefeces, Athens, Greece The Role of the Cultural Facters in the Educational Precess of Recent Children ef Greek and |talian Backgreund lamigrant 1NTEREG, The Rights of Natienalities and Ethnie Groups te their Ancestral Soil and Bilingual Education (A Study in International Public Lav) Razprave in gradive - Treatises and Decueents, Institute for Ethnis Studies, Ljubljana 1986, Ne.18,pp.335-344 Razprave in gradive - Treatises and Gecunents, Institute fer Ethnic Studies, Ljubljana VEITER Theeder, President ef the Scientific Advisory Counc] ef Vice president sf the AIOLCK, Feldkirch, Austria 1986, Ne.18, pp.330-334 En(Sn, En) En(Sn, En) The author presents data on "problem" children of recent immigrant Greek and Italian background in a New York City school. She mens that, although general factors such as language problems, social and economic pressures and problems of cultural assimilation undoubtedly play an important role in contributing to academic and social failure, it is also necessary to study the characteristics of the ethnic group itself to determine additional contributory factors. The paper examines the various historical and current meanings which have been attached to the terms "nationality" and "ancestral soil", and continues with a discussion of the juridical significance of "ancestral soil" in both national and international law. The author concludes with a brief discussion of the relation between ancestrsl soil and the right to education in the mother tongue. E.B. E.B, WOK 323,15(45):342,722 UK 376.744 (45-863) BRATINA Uarke,direkter SLORI, Trst, Italy La SPADA Antonio Giunta, National delegate, Ministero della publica {strurions della republica Italiana, Rona, italy Dvejeziënost ter jezikovni dualizen v narednestne meSanen okolju Razprave In gradivo - Treatises and Decunents, InStitut za narednostna vpraSanja, Ljubljana 1986, 3t. 18, s.360-363 Za3&ita jezikoynih sanjsin v \taliji; vloga {zobratevanja v {eplementaci{i ustavnih nace} Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Docunents, Fr(sn, fr) InSt{tut za narodnostna vpraïanja, Ljubljana 1986, 3t, 18, s.364~369 [t(sn, an) Avtor ugotavlja,da kompleksni jezikovni procesi vedno bolj vplivajo na oblikovanje ëloveka kot "vecjezicne osebnosti". Na politiënem podroëju pa se kaëe tendenca nasprotovanja takemu RAR nea een tam, kjer se stika veé razliénih nacionalnosti. U.0. ZaSéita jezikovnih manjSin ziveéih v Italiji je zajeta v élenu 3 italijanske ustave. Foleg tega so se razvile iniciative za zakone na regionalnem nivoju, ki naj bi ovrednostile posamezne jezikovme in kulturne skupnosti. Na podroéju Solstva je Vv programih za Sole predvideno uéenje dodatnega jezika - jezika manjSine. Nakazujejo se moZnosti za nadaljnji razvoj jezikov manjSin. U. 0. uk 376.744(45) UD 376, 744(450,23:453.2) TIELLA Serena, CESCHI VERONESI Daniela, Responsable secteur ninorites et situations speciales, Syndicat CGIL Ecole Nationale, Rone, Italy fie LUCA Mauro, Nouveaux Frocraeess pour l’ecele primaire italienne et ecole bilingue de lz Regione Valle d’Aosta, Aoste, Italy Sindikat v vetjezitnem okelju Zapis o vet-jezitnem eziroma vet-kulturnes izebratevanju (primer Alto Adige in Vallee d’ Aosta) Razprave in gradive - Treatises and Docuwents, vpraganja, Ljubljana 1986, §t. 18, s. 370-373 Inititut za narodnostna Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Uocusents, vpraSanja, Ljubljana 1986, St. 18, s. 374-377 Fr(sn, an) Inätitut za narcdnostna Fr(sn, an) Tekst ni specifiéen, vezan Avtorici razmiëljata o: v veéjeziénih druzbah. pa je na temo preliminarnih o koeksistenci ugotovitvah, o po- menu multikulturnih situacijah, o primerih, ki izhajaio iz jugoslovanske realnosti in izku si ter o vlogi sindikata na podroéju vetéjezitnega ozemlja. U,0. Nanizane so beleZke za predstavitev problemov, ki bi jih bilo potrebno Non in poglobljeno obravnavati in prouëiti. Predstavljeno je stanje v Vallee d'Aoste, predvsem podroéje Solstva. U.0. WC 376.744(45) TIELLA Serena, CESCHI VERONES! Daniela, Responsable secteur WOC 376,744(450,23:453.2) ainorites et De LUCA Mauro, Nouveaux Programmes pour l’ecole primaire italienne et ecole bilingue de la Regione Valle d’Aosta, Aosta, Italy situations speciales, Syndicat CGIL Ecole Nationale, Rome, Italy Notes sur l’organisation scolaire dans 1a Vallee d ’Aoste Education et pluralisme culturel at linguistiques Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Documents, Ljubljana 1986, No. 18, pp. 370-373 Institute for Etonic Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Documents, Ljubljana 1986, No, 18, op, 374-377 Studies Institute for Ethnic Stedies Fr(Sn, En) Fr(Sn, En) The text is not specific but is associated with the theme of coexistence in multi-lingual societies. The authors consider the preliminary assumptions concerning the significance of multi-cultural situations, examples which arise from the Yugoslav reality and experiences, and the role of trade unions in multi-lingual areas. Be The author summarises the problems which need to be discussed in depth, studied and resolved. He presents the situation in Vallee d’Aoste, primarily in the field of education. : BeBe B. USC 276.744 (45-863) BRATINA Darko, Director SLORI, Trieste, UDC 323.15(45):342,722 Italy La SPADA Antonio Giunta, National delegate, Hinistero della publi¢a istruzione della republica Italfana,Rowa, Italy Bilinquisee et dualisae linguistique dans des contextes athniquement eixtes La tutela della minoranze Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Documents, Ljubljana 3986, No. 18, pp. 360-363 Institute for Ethric Studies, Razpraye in gradive - Treatisas and Documants, Institute for Ethnic Studies Ljubljana 7986, 34, 18,5.364-369 it(Sn, En) Fr(Sn, Sr) L'auteur constate que les processes linguistique com— plex conduit toujours plus 4 la construction de l'homme comme "être multilingue". Au niveau politique continue de dominer la tendence à contramier un dévesurtout 1à où sont loppement bilingue ou plurilingue en Vinguistiche in Italiazpotenziolita e ruolc dell’ educazione nell! attuazione dell prinzipio costituzionale contact plusieurs nationalités differénts. E.R. The security of linguistic minorities living in Italy is protected by Article 6 of the Italian Constitution. In addition, initiatives have been made on the regional level to evaluate the individual languages and cultural communities. In the field of éducation, the schools programme envisages the teaching of an additional language - the language of the minority. Possibilities are appearing for the further progress of the language of the minorities. DB “0 De WOK 376,744 (+36, 66863) LARCHER UK 376, 744(426) Dietsar, Institute for Distance Education at the University of Klagenfurt / Calovec, Austria TICHY Heinz, national delegate, The Offiee ‘ustria Slovenci Kratek prikaz avstrijskega izobraïovalnega sistema za etnitne v Avstrifi Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Documents, InStitut za narodnostna vprasanja, of the Foseral Cancellor, Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Socuments, xien, skupina Institut za narodnostna vpraSanja, Ljubljana 1986, 3t. 18, s. 389-390 Ljubljana 1986, St. 18, s. 378-388 Ce(sn An(sn, an) an; a Avtor razpravlja o sedanji situaciji KoroSkih Slovencev v Avstriji. RazloZi demografsko statistiko z ozirom na zgodovinske in socialne procese in analizira sedanje stanje na podlagi raziskav o dvojeziénosti in razvoju identitete, ki potekajo na Univerzi v Klagenfurtu. Zakljuéuje s prognozo prihodnjega razvoja te etniéne grupe na podlagi statistitnih podatkov, ki jih navaja v sestavku. Podan je kratek peser o urejenosti, pravnem polozaju in praktiënih izkusnjah v izobrazevanju avstrijske narodne skupine - koroSkih Slovencev. U.0. U.0. UOK 376.744(436.6-863) VALLE AuguStin, Slovenski znanstveni inStitut, Celovec / Klagenfurt, WOK Austria 376,744(830. 6853) OSTETTNER Petar, LARCHER Diotear, #SKGUNIG Vladinir, Univerza Celovec / Klagenfurt, Austria ZabeleZke o dvojeziënes 3olstvu na Koroëkes Eksperinentalno 3olstvo v okviru koroëkega sisteea Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and documents, Intitut za narodnostna vpra$anja, Ljubljana 1986, St. 18, s, 391-394 Razprave in gradivo - Trestises and Jocusents, Ljubljana 1986, £t, 18, s. 395-397 Inftitut za narodnosina vpraïanjs, Sn{sn, an) De(sn, an) Avtor govori o pomembnosti izpopolnitve dvojeziénega izobrazevanja Slovencev na avstrijskem KoroSkem. Zaradi koncentracije zaposlitvenih mest v gospodarstvu v t. i. centralnih koroëkih podroëjih, Slovenci preZivijo éino ëase izven slovenskega jezikovnega okolja. ve- U.O. Predstavljen je projekt v organizaciji utiteljev z dvojeziénih podro¢ij na avstrijskem KoroSkem, ki se zavzema za integrativne izobrazevalne moZnosti v naspre iu 8 segregacijskimi. Zelo pomembna je udelezba starsev. U.0, WC 375,744(436.60863) UOC 376.744(436,6«863) MALLE AugeStin, Slovenian Scientific Institute, Klagenfurt / Celovec, GSTETTNER Peter, LARCHER Dietear, WAKOUNIG Vladimir, Univ. Prof. fir Allgemeine Austria Erzishungswissenschaft Klagenfurt / Celovec, Austria Annotation Concerning the Bilingual Schoo) System in Carinthia Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Documents, Institute for Ethnic Experimental Schooling within the Carinthian Binority School Systea Studies Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Documents, Ljubljana 1986, No. 18, pp. 391-394 Institute for Ethnic Studies Ljubljana 1986, No. 18, pp. 395-397 Sn(Sn, En) De(Sn, En) The author discusses the need for improvements in the bilingual educational possibilities for Slovenes in Austria Carinthia, particularly in view of the majority domination of the means of mass communication and the concentration of economic employment in the so-called Carinthian central area so that Carinthian Slovenes spend the majority of their active time away from linguistically familiar surroundings. The contribution describes a project which has been organised by group of committed teachers in the bilingual Carinthian area of Austria, to provide integrative educational possibilities in place of those with a segregational effect. The importance of parental involvement is stressed. E.B ele BeBe UC 376.744(436) UDC 376,744 (436.6.863) Klagenfurt / Celovec, Austria TICHY Heinz, National Delegate, Austria The Slovenes in Austria The Austrian Educational LARCHER Cietmar, Institute for Distance Education at the University of Razprave in gradivo - Treatises and Documents, Ljubljana 1986, No. 18, pp. 378-385 Institute the Offige of the Federal Cancollor, Kien, System for