ACTAGEOGRAPHICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK SLOVENICA 2019 59 2 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 59-2 • 2019 Contents Drago PERKO, Rok CIGLIČ, Mauro HRVATIN The usefulness of unsupervised classification methods for landscape typification: The case of Slovenia 7 Vladimir M. CVETKOVIĆ, Kevin RONAN, Rajib SHAW, Marina FILIPOVIĆ, Rita MANO,Jasmina GAČIĆ, Vladimir JAKOVLJEVIĆ Household earthquake preparedness in Serbia: A study of selected municipalities 27 Iwona CIEŚLAK Spatial conflicts: Analyzing a burden created by differing land use 43 Ivan PAUNOVIĆ, Verka JOVANOVIĆ Sustainable mountain tourism in word and deed: A comparative analysis in the macroregions of the Alps and the Dinarides 59 Nikola Darko VUKSANOVIĆ, Dragan TEŠANOVIĆ, Bojana KALENJUK, Milijanko PORTIĆ Gender, age and education differences in food consumption within a region: Case studies of Belgradeand Novi Sad (Serbia) 71 Special issue – Franciscean cadaster as a source of studying landscape changes Matej GABROVEC, Ivan BIČÍK, Blaž KOMAC Land registers as a source of studying long-term land-use changes 83 Ivan BIČÍK, Matej GABROVEC, Lucie KUPKOVÁ Long-term land-use changes: A comparison between Czechia and Slovenia 91 Lucie KUPKOVÁ, Ivan BIČÍK, Zdeněk BOUDNÝ Long-term land-use / land-cover changes in Czech border regions 107 Drago KLADNIK, Matjaž GERŠIČ, Primož PIPAN, Manca VOLK BAHUN Land-use changes in Slovenian terraced landscapes 119 Daniela RIBEIRO, Mateja ŠMID HRIBAR Assessment of land-use changes and their impacts on ecosystem services in two Slovenianrural landscapes 143 Mojca FOŠKI, Alma ZAVODNIK LAMOVŠEK Monitoring land-use change using selected indices 161 ISSN 1581-6613 9 771581 661010 ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA 2019 ISSN: 1581-6613 COBISS: 124775936 UDC/UDK: 91© 2019, ZRC SAZU, Geografski inštitut Antona Melika Internationaleditorialboard/mednarodniuredniškiodbor: DavidBole(Slovenia),MichaelBründl(Switzerland),RokCiglič(Slovenia), Matej Gabrovec (Slovenia), Matjaž Geršič (Slovenia), Peter Jordan (Austria), Drago Kladnik (Slovenia), BlažKomac (Slovenia), Andrej Kranjc (Slovenia), Dénes Lóczy (Hungary), Simon McCharty (United Kingdom), SlobodanMarković (Serbia), Janez Nared (Slovenia), Drago Perko (Slovenia), Marjan Ravbar (Slovenia), Nika Razpotnik Visković(Slovenia), Aleš Smrekar (Slovenia), Annett Steinführer (Germany), Mimi Urbanc (Slovenia), Matija Zorn (Slovenia) Editor-in-Chief/glavni urednik: Blaž Komac; blaz@zrc-sazu.si Executive editor/odgovorni urednik: Drago Perko; drago@zrc-sazu.si Chief editor for physical geography/glavni urednik za fizično geografijo: Matija Zorn; matija.zorn@zrc-sazu.siChief editor for human geography/glavna urednica za humano geografijo: Mimi Urbanc; mimi@zrc-sazu.si Chief editor for regional geography/glavni urednik za regionalno geografijo: Drago Kladnik; drago.kladnik@zrc-sazu.si Chief editor for spatial planning/glavni urednik za regionalno planiranje: Janez Nared; janez.nared@zrc-sazu.si Chiefeditorforruralgeography/glavnaurednicazageografijopodeželja:NikaRazpotnikVisković;nika.razpotnik@zrc-sazu.si Chief editor for urban geography/glavni urednik za urbano geografijo: David Bole; david.bole@zrc-sazu.si Chief editor for geographic information systems/glavni urednik za geografske informacijske sisteme: Rok Ciglič; rok.ciglic@zrc-sazu.siChief editor for environmental protection/glavni urednik za varstvo okolja: Aleš Smrekar; ales.smrekar@zrc-sazu.si Editorial assistant/uredniški pomočnik: Matjaž Geršič; matjaz.gersic@zrc-sazu.si Issued by/izdajatelj: Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZUPublished by/založnik: Založba ZRC Co-published by/sozaložnik: Slovenska akademija znanosti in umetnosti Address/Naslov: Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU, Gosposka ulica 13, SI – 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija The papers are available on-line/prispevki so dostopni na medmrežju: http://ags.zrc-sazu.si (ISSN: 1581–8314) Ordering/naročanje: Založba ZRC, Novi trg 2, p. p. 306, SI – 1001 Ljubljana, Slovenija; zalozba@zrc-sazu.si Annual subscription/letna naročnina: 20 € for individuals/za posameznike, 28 € for institutions/za ustanove. Single issue/cena posamezne številke: 12,50 € for individuals/za posameznike, 16 € for institutions/za ustanove. Cartography/kartografija: Geografski inštitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU Translations/prevodi: DEKS, d. o. o. DTP/prelom: SYNCOMP, d. o. o. Printed by/tiskarna: Tiskarna Present, d. o. o. Print run/naklada: 450 copies/izvodov The journal is subsidized by the Slovenian Research Agency and is issued in the framework of the Geography of Slovenia coreresearchprogramme(P6-0101)/revijaizhajaspodporoJavneagencijezaraziskovalnodejavnostRepublikeSlovenijein nastajav okviru raziskovalnega programa Geografija Slovenije (P6-0101). The journal is indexed also in/revija je vključena tudi v: SCIE – Science Citation Index Expanded, Scopus, JCR – Journal Citation Report/Science Edition, ERIH PLUS, GEOBASE Journals, Current geographical publications, EBSCOhost,Geoscience e-Journals, Georef, FRANCIS, SJR (SCImago Journal & Country Rank), OCLC WorldCat, Google scholar,and CrossRef. Oblikovanje/Design by: Matjaž Vipotnik Front cover photography: Exploration of the collapse dolines, such as the one at the Small Natural Bridge in RakovŠkocjan, has enabled a deeper understanding of karst processes in recent years (photograph: Matej Lipar).Fotografija na naslovnici: Raziskave udornice, kot je ta pri Malem Naravnem mostu v Rakovem Škocjanu, so v zadnjihletih omogočile globlje razumevanje kraških procesov (fotografija: Matej Lipar). LONG-TERMLAND-USE/LAND-COVERCHANGESINCZECHBORDERREGIONS Lucie Kupková, Ivan Bičík, Zdeněk Boudný Čížov (German: Zaisa), Moravia: the only remaining part of the Iron Curtain in Czechia. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/AGS.7191 UDC: 913:711.14(437.3)«1845/2012« COBISS: 1.02 Long-term land-use / land-cover changes in Czech border regions ABSTRACT:Thisarticledescribesthelong-termdevelopmentoflanduseandlandcoverinCzechborder regionsfrom1845to2015.ItprovidesanoverviewofthemainworksinvolvingCzechborderregionsand findingsbytheFacultyofScienceatCharlesUniversity.ThestudyusedtheLandUse/LandCoverChanges Czechia (LUCC Czechia 2018) database with six time horizons (1845, 1896, 1948, 1990, 2000, and 2010) andeightcategoriesoflanduseforapproximatelyninethousandterritorialunits,andCORINELandCover datafor1990,2000,and2006.Italsopresentsadetailedanalysisofland-useandland-coverchangeinone locality in the eastern part of the Krkonoše (Giant Mountains) range, based on land-registry and field-surveydata.DevelopmentoftheLUCCwasinfluencedbytheexpulsionofethnicGermansalongthewestern border after the Second World War. The natural conditions in the Czech border areas were identified as another significant factor influencing changes. Changes influenced by these two factors, in combination with several other drivers, are reflected in changes in proportions of land-use and land-cover categories. In the communist period (1948–1990), a significant increase in forests and grasslands accompanied by an extreme decrease in arable land was documented, and the trend of extensification also continued in the transition period from 1990 to 2010. KEY WORDS: land-use / land-cover change, border regions, driving forces, Czechia Dolgoročne spremembe rabe/pokrovnosti tal na čeških obmejnih območjih POVZETEK:Včlankujeopisandolgoročnirazvojrabeinpokrovnostizemljiščnačeškihobmejnihobmočjih med letoma 1845 in 2015. Predstavljen je pregled glavnih del o čeških obmejnih območjih in izsledkov, do katerih so prišli na Naravoslovni fakulteti Karlove univerze v Pragi. Avtorji so uporabili podatkovno zbirkoospremembahrabe/pokrovnostitalnaČeškem(LUCCCzechia2018),kivključujepodatkezašest različnihlet(1845,1896,1948,1990,2000in2010)inosemkategorijrabetalzapribližno9000teritorialnih enot,polegtegapasoproučilitudipodatkeizpodatkovnezbirkeCORINELandCoverzaleta1990,2000 in2006. Predstavljenajepodrobnaanalizaspremembrabeinpokrovnostizemljiščnaobmočjuvzhodnih Krkonošev,izvedenanapodlagipodatkovzemljiškegakatastrainizsledkovterenskeraziskave.Naspremembe rabeinpokrovnostizemljiščnaČeškemjevplivalizgončeškihNemcevzobmočijobzahodnimejipodrugi svetovnivojni.Drugpomembendejavnik,kijevplivalnatespremembe,sobilenaravnerazmerenačeških obmejnihobmočjih.Spremembe,nakaterestatadvadejavnikavplivalavkombinacijizvečdrugimidejavniki, seodražajovspremembideležaposameznihkategorijrabeinpokrovnostizemljišč.Vobdobjumedletoma 1948 in 1990 se je močno povečal delež gozdov in travnatih površin, hkrati pa se je precej zmanjšal delež njiv. Ekstenzifikacija se je nadaljevala tudi v obdobju preobrazbe med letoma 1990 in 2010. KLJUČNE BESEDE: spremembe rabe/pokrovnosti tal, obmejna območja, gonilne sile, Češka Lucie Kupková CharlesUniversityinPrague,FacultyofScience,DepartmentofAppliedGeoinformaticsandCartography lucie.kupkova@natur.cuni.cz Ivan Bičík, Zdeněk Boudný CharlesUniversityinPrague,FacultyofScience,DepartmentofSocialGeographyandRegionalDevelopment bicik@natur.cuni.cz, boudnyz @natur.cuni.cz The paper was submitted for publication on October 17th, 2018. Uredništvo je prejelo prispevek 17. oktobra 2018. 1 Introduction The article deals with Czech border areas with Austria and Germany where the Iron Curtain was built aftertheSecondWorldWar.TheIronCurtainwasastrictlyguardedborderbetweenthedemocraticcoun­tries of western Europe and the communist states of eastern Europe. The protection of the border also includedmeasuresthatfundamentallyinfluencedthelivesofpeopleonbothsidesoftheborder.Thefall of the Iron Curtain in 1990 created initial conditions for human migration and cross-border coopera­tion.Thesechangestriggeredeconomicdevelopmentintheborderregions.Consequently,land-usechanges occurred in the border landscape straddling the Iron Curtain. These changes were analyzed along the entire line of the Iron Curtain in Europe by Kupková, Bičík, and Najman (2013). In the Czech lands, the changesrelatingtoIronCurtainwerecombinedwiththoseresultingfromtheexpulsionofroughlythreemillionethnicGermansbetween1945and1946(BičíkandKabrda2007;BičíkandŠtěpánek1994;Rašín andChromý2010;Mares,RasinandPipan2013). Studiesof landscapechangesintheCzech borderland can be divided into two groups. The first ones are based on land-registry data. Differences in land-use changes on both sides of the Iron Curtain are presented in the timespan between 1845 and 2000 (Bičík et al. 2010; BičíkandKabrda2007;Bičík and Štěpánek 1994;Štěpánek1992; Kučeraand Kučerová 2012; Rašín and Chromý 2010). The second ones are based on CORINE Land Cover data and deal with land-cover changes after the removal of the Iron Curtain (Najman 2008; Kupková, Bičík and Najman 2013). This article presents spatial transformation of the borderland using both methods and data. Based on an overview of the studies mentioned above, this article describes specific aspects of land-use change in the unique area of Czech border regions that were affected by several distinctive driving forces over the last two centuries. 2 Methods and data Theanalysisismainlybasedonaland-usedatabasepreparedatthegeographicdepartmentsoftheFaculty ofScienceatCharlesUniversityinPrague(LUCCCzechia2018).Thedatabaseisbasedonacadaster(Jeleček 2006) and comprises eight land-use categories for roughly nine thousand stable territorial units (STUs; Bičík et al. 2015). The data are available for crucial time horizons that depict land use in specific, impor­tant periods of Czech social and economic development: • 1845: the landscape at the onset of a market economy; • 1896: the culmination of extensive development of agricultural land use, a horizon with an increasing role played by intensification of farming; • 1948: the end of the market economy and onset of a centrally planned economy; • 1990: the end of the centrally planned economy and return to a market economy; • 2000: the first decade of a market economy in Czechia; • 2010: twenty years of a market economy, influenced by admission into the European Union. These data make it possible to survey long time sequences that provide vital information on trends inthedevelopment of individual landcategories andthe total land-usestructurein eachcadastralunit. In this database, however, it is not possible to capture the changes within a cadastral unit at the parcel level. Inordertoconductdetailedresearchinsidethecadastersatthelevelofparcelsorecosystems,weemploy geoecologicalmethods,fieldwork(surveysandmapping)insmallmodelareas,anddatasetsderivedfrom remote sensing data such as the CORINE Land Cover dataset (Corine Land Cover 2018). The results of theevaluation oftrends in land-use changesare astartingpoint for examiningthe driving forces of these changes and their impact on local and regional development. Similar approaches suitable for analyses of long-term land-use changes and utilizing the land registry data were applied in Slovenia (Gabrovec, Petek and Kladnik 2001; Gabrovec and Petek 2003; Gabrovecand Kumer2019) andAustria(Haberl, BatterburyandMoran2001;Krausmann 2001;Haberl et al. 2003). 3 Results 3.1 Land-use changes in Czech border regions based on land-registry data Bičík and Štěpánek (1994) published one of the first studies focused on land-use changes in the border­land using the LUCC Czechia database. They used three time horizons (between 1845, 1948, and 1990) andeightland-usecategories,documentingasignificantdecreaseinthe agricultural function inthebor­derland.Thedecreasewasmostsignificantinwesternborderregions,especiallyincomparisonwithinterior regions.BičíkandKabrda(2007)conductedananalysisoftheindividualsectionsoftheCzechborderusing the LUCC database. They examined the differencesin land-use changes in fourtimehorizons inrelation totheirdistancefromtheborder.TheydelineatedthreezonesofSTUsneartheborder(thefirstzoneincludes STUstouchingtheborder:»atborderzone«;thesecondincludesSTUsadjoiningthefirstonezone:»inter­mediatezone«;andthethirdzoneincludesSTUsadjoiningthesecondzone:»atinteriorzone«;seeFigures 1and2).TheycomparedthesethreezonestoeachotherandwithallotherSTUsinCzechia,orthe»inte­rior.«Asanticipated,theintensityofchangewasstronglyinfluencedbydifferencesinelevation,inclination, andsoilfertilityinindividualsets,andalsobytheethnicstructureofthepopulation.Inborderzoneswith apredominantlyethnicCzechpopulation,thetotalintensityofchangesinthelandscapewassmallerthan in the areas primarily or fully inhabited by ethnic Germans, who were expelled after the Second World War. Figures 1 and 2 document changes in arable land and forest areas in the borderland zone compared with the interior. The share of arable land was lower in border regions compared to interior regions. In addition, it decreased significantly in the first »at border« zone, especially between 1948 and 1990. The percentageofforestareaswassignificantlylowerintheinteriorandexperiencedlittlechangeintheyears studied,whereasintheborderzones,especiallyinthe»atborder«zone,forestareasincreasedpermanently and covered more than 50% of the territory in 1990 and 2000. 3.2 Evaluation of land-use changes in Czech borderland using remote sensing data Najman(2008)analyzedland-coverchangesusingCorinelandcoverdatafor1990and2000alongthewhole oftheformerIronCurtaininCzechia.Analyzingland-coverchangesintheareastraddlingtheborderbetween those years, he delineated a belt with a width of about 15km along both sides of the Czech border with GermanyandAustria.Kupková,Bičík,andNajman(2013)extendedthedatasetbyusingthe2006Corine Land Cover data. Changes in land cover in two periods (1990–2000 and 2000–2006) were evaluated. Theresults(Table1)documentedaconsiderablylowerintensityofthetransformationofthelandscape ontheAustriansideoftheborder(west)incomparisonwithlargerchangesthatoccurredontheCzechside (east) in both periods under observation. This result reflects the fact that land use has not been influenced by the border on the Austrian side, whereas the situation was different on the Czech side. Only state farms (notagriculturalcooperativesorprivatefarmers)couldfarmintheproximityoftheIronCurtain.Theyhad specially trained employees, many of whom were members of the auxiliary corps of the border guard. For thisreason,farmingintensitywassubstantiallylowerontheCzechsideoftheIronCurtain,wheretheland previouslydesignatedforagriculturewasabandoned,oftengivingwaytonewwilderness(Lipský1995,2010). The results confirm a varying representation of individual land-cover categories in 1990 in the area totheeastand west of theIronCurtain, andtheirdifferingchanges between1990and2006. Before1990, the centrally planned economyand subsidy system pressuredfarms to use theland to the east of the Iron Curtainforagriculture,evenunderunfavorableconditions.Tothewest,themarketeconomymadeinten­sive agriculture untenable under unfavorable conditions, even when high subsidies were provided. The land cover was very diverse, and the land use respected more natural conditions. The analysis also con­firmed a varying intensity of changes in the individual border sections examined and more intensive land-cover changes to the east of the Iron Curtain after 1990. Between 1990 and 2000, changes occurred on 3.96% of the area under study to the east of the Iron Curtain; in the west similar changes only occurred on0.52%oftheareastudied.From2000to2006,changesoccurredon0.61%oftheareaontheeastsideand on 0.16% of the area on the west side. The biggest changes were recorded in Czech border sections, which sawrelatively large-scaleagriculturalextensificationandreforestation. The changesoccurredinover8%of theareafrom1990to2000.ThiscontrastswiththebordersectioninAustria,whichwasverystablethrough­outtheperiodunderobservation(changesinbothperiodsonlyoccurredon0.13%oftheAustrianregion). (%) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1845 1948 1990 2000 0–interior C–at interior B–intermediate A–at border Figure 1: Percentage of arable land in various Czech border zones (Bičík and Kabrda 2007). 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1845 1948 1990 2000 0–interior C–at interior B–intermediate A–at border (%) Figure 2: Percentage of forest areas in various Czech border zones (Bičík and Kabrda 2007). TheresultsarepresentedinFigure3,capturingtheextentofthechangesinmappingunitslargerthan 25 hectares. There is substantially higher transformation on the Czech side, especially in the first period after the fall of the Iron Curtain. Table 1: Land cover in the Czech–Austrian borderland in 1990 and land-cover changes for 1990–2000 and 2000–2006 (15km along both sides of the border; east = 15km border section in Czechia; west = 15km border section in Austria; Kupková, Bičík and Najman 2013). Category Share of category Decrease/increase Decrease/increase 1990 (%) in area of category, in area of category, 1990–2000 (%) 1990–2006 (%) East West East West East West Urban fabric 2.65 3.28 0.90 0.42 1.33 0.61 Industrial, commercial, and transport units 0.36 0.01 3.11 0.00 3.75 9.51 Mine, dump, and construction sites 0.13 0.00 -39.52 0.00 -20.98 + Artificial, non-agricultural vegetated areas 0.14 0.00 0.00 + 21.79 + Arable land 43.06 31.96 -12.87 -0.01 -15.97 -0.06 Permanent crops 1.47 3.10 5.04 -0.06 36.06 -0.27 Pastures 4.18 3.47 127.43 -0.77 146.03 -1.15 Heterogeneous agricultural areas 6.88 25.16 1.98 -0.08 1.93 -0.20 Forests 34.41 32.86 5.83 -0.20 5.74 -0.36 Scrub and/or herbaceous vegetation 0.40 0.01 -2.60 69.67 -1.62 39.70 Transitional woodland/shrubs 2.85 0.04 -69.56 127.55 -67.63 217.82 Inland wetlands 0.48 0.05 3.17 0.00 2.19 0.00 Inland waters 2.98 0.05 -0.35 0.00 0.01 0.00 Note: The sign + means that the initial area in 1990 was 0 and the share of the category increased during the period (the share of the total area in the second year was lower than 0.1% of the total area). Figure 3: Land-cover changes between 1990 and 2000 (left), and 2000 and 2006 (right; adapted from Kupková, Bičík and Najman 2013). 3.3 A case study of Chvaleč and Petříkovice: a combination of land-registry data and a field survey The area studied is in northeastern Bohemia in the Krkonoše foothills. The selectionof this area wasdue toitspositionintheCzech–Polishborderland,whichhadnotyetbeenanalyzedforland-use/land-cover development. BoththeLUCCCzechia(2018)databaseandfieldsurvey(in2015)wereusedtoanalyzethisarea.The datashowed(Table2)thatthemajorchangesintheChvalečregionoccurredaftertheSecondWorldWar andinthelastthirtyyears,whenitsfunctionchangedfromagriculturaltorecreational.Table2showsthe differentiation of land use in six time horizons, with a visible trend of decreasing size in arable and agri­culturallandandanincreaseofforestfromone-thirdtohalf.SimilarprocesseswereobservedinSlovenian borderlands close to the Croatian border (Ribeiro, Burnet and Torkar 2013). The political and economic drivingforcesbetween1845and1948andtheforcednationalizationoflocalagricultureinfluencedchanges in landscape functions after 1945 without the installation of the Iron Curtain there. The expulsion of eth­nicGermansandthedeclineofcoalmininginthevicinity(inthe1960s)wereimportantfactorsresponsible for transforming the landscape into an economic and settlement periphery (Boudný 2018). Figures 4 and 5 show the conversion of arable land into permanent grassland and forest areas from 1845 to 2015. These changes primarily occurred after the Second World War as a result of the expulsion oftheethnicGermans,andagainafter1990duetotheabandonmentofagriculturallandunderlessfavor­able conditions for agriculture and its subsequent grassing over. 4 Discussion and conclusions ThisselectionoflandscapechangeintheCzechborderlandhasdemonstratedaclearresult.Althoughthey are variously delineated, the regions were influenced by a number of similar driving forces after 1990. Nevertheless,itisstrikingthatthecrucialdrivingforceswerethepoliticalchangesthatoccurredafterthe SecondWorldWar,aswellasbetween1989and1990.ThelandscapechangesinCzechiaweregreaterthan those detected on the other side of the western border between 1990 and 2012 (Najman 2008; Kupková, Bičík and Najman 2013; Rašín and Chromý 2010). Table 2: Overview of land use development in Chvaleč through six time horizons (Boudný 2018). Category 1845 1896 1948 1990 2000 2010 ha % ha % ha % ha % ha % ha % Arable land 833.8 48.6 885.0 51.6 834.3 48.7 363.2 21.09 358.5 20.8 358.1 20.8 Permanent cultures 3.1 0.18 2.9 0.17 7.2 0.42 26.1 1.52 23.7 1.38 23.4 1.36 Permanent grasslands Agricultural land 224.5 1061.4 13.1 61.9 234.0 1121.9 13.65 65.5 219.3 1060.8 12.8 61.9 295.0 684.3 17.1 39.74 306.0 688.2 17.8 39.9 303.2 684.7 17.6 39.8 Forest areas 591.3 34.4 559.0 32.6 599.9 35.0 881.6 51.2 882.1 51.2 893.0 51.9 Water bodies 3.5 0.2 – – 3.5 0.2 5.9 0.3 5.9 0.3 6.6 0.38 Built-up areas Other areas 5.3 54.0 0.3 3.2 – – – – 12.6 36.3 0.7 2.12 13.7 136.4 0,8 7.9 13.8 132.0 0.8 7.7 13.3 124.6 0.8 7.2 Remaining areas 62.8 3.7 33.1 1.93 52.4 3.1 156.0 9.1 151.7 8.8 144.5 8.4 Figure 4: Land use in Chvaleč and Petříkovice near Trutnov in 1845 (Boudný 2018). p p. 114 Figure 5: Land use in Chvaleč and Petříkovice in 2015 (Boudný 2018). p p. 115 113 Arable landPermanent culturesPermanent grassland Forest areasWater bodiesBuilt–up areasRemaining areas 0 2 km 1 : 15 000 Arable landPermanent culturesPermanentgrassland Forest areasWaterbodiesBuilt–upareasRemaining areas 0 2 km 1 :15000 Thesecondbasicfindinghighlightsadramaticlossofarablelandontheperipheryandstrongdepop­ulation. Thenatural conditionsthat weakenorprevent economicactivityinsuch localitiesaremagnified bythesignificantshortageofmanpowerinthepresentday,primarilyinmanufacturingandservices.Czechs andSlovaksfromCzechoslovakia’sinterior,aswellaspeoplerepatriatedfromabroadafter1945,oftenreset­tledthefoothillsandmountainareasandlackedthenecessaryexperienceforfarminginthisdifficultterrain (Čapka, Slezák and Vaculík 2005; Vaishar 1992). Then, after the 1949 establishment of the Iron Curtain, many of them were forced to move further into the interior of the country. This resulted in a significant loss of agricultural land in these areas. Between 1948 and 1963, approximately 15% of agricultural land was lost (Bičík et al. 2010). Hampl and Müller (2011) warned of the differing timing and also the duration of individual social processes.AccordingtoHamplandMüller(2011),asarule,politicalprocessestakeplaceindaysorweeks afterasituationchanges.Economicprocessesmaylastmonthsoryears,anddemographicandsocialprocess­eslast severalyears. Complex geographicalprocessesthat include landscapechanges startlast andevolve over a longer period of time. This has been confirmed twice in the Czech lands. After the Second World War,thecommunistcouplastedafewweeksbuttransformedthepoliticalsystemforforty-twoyears.The second change followed in 1989, when the Velvet Revolution implemented a fundamental political changewithinamonth,reintroducingCzechoslovakiatothewesternmarketeconomy(Bičíket al.2015). Anexaminationofthelandscapetransformationshowsthattheseabruptpoliticalchangesinitiatedaper-ceptibleimpactontheentireCzechlandscape.Thesechangestooknearlyfifteenyearstorealize,andtheir duration is substantially longer than their political triggers. These results further prove the higher intensity of land-use changes in border areas compared to the intensityoflandscapechangesincoreareasoftheCzechlandsandthecountryside.Infact,mostsemi-periph­ eral areas and a large part of peripheral areas did not experience any major landscape changes after 1948. The future development of border areas will be influenced by many drivers, especially by the EU and national subsidy programs, nature preservation, creation of new job opportunities, and so on; however, the land-use / land-cover changes will most likely be less intensive than in the majority of other Czech regions because border regions are usually marginal when there is no political change. 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