International Journal of Euro-Mediterranean Studies VOLUME 10 I 2 017 I NUMBER 2 SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE A Research on Determining the Influence of HRM Practices on Increasing Organizational Commitment Esin Ertemsir, Yasemin Bal, Serdar Bozkurt SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE What Statistics Hide? Secondary Analysis of Unemployment in Spain Diana Amber, Jesús Domingo SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE Recontextualizing Terror: ISIS Narratives in the English Media Nael F. M. Hijjo, Surinderpal Kaur SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE Does the Mediterranean Exist in States Diplomatic Rituals?: A Comparison of the Mediterranean States' Préséance Jana Arbeiter, Boštjan Udovič Résumés Povzetki International Journal of Euro-Mediterranean Studies ISSN 1855-3362 (printed) ISSN 2232-6022 (online) The aim of the International Journal of Euro-Mediterranean Studies is to promote intercultural dialogue and exchanges between societies, develop human resources, and to assure greater mutual understanding in the Euro-Mediterranean region. 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International Journal of Euro-Mediterranean Studies Table of Contents 3 A Research on Determining the Influence of HRM Practices on Increasing Organizational Commitment Esin Ertemsir, Yasemin Bal, Serdar Bozkurt 29 What Statistics Hide? Secondary Analysis of Unemployment in Spain Diana Amber, Jesús Domingo 49 Recontextualizing Terror: ISIS Narratives in the English Media Nael F. M. Hijjo, Surinderpal Kaur 79 Does the Mediterranean Exist in States Diplomatic Rituals?: A Comparison of the Mediterranean States' Préséance Jana Arbeiter, Boštjan Udovič 107 Résumés 111 Povzetki 115 Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 A RESEARCH ON DETERMINING THE INFLUENCE OF HRM PRACTICES ON INCREASING ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT1 ESIN ERTEMSIR Yildiz Technical University, Turkey YASEMIN BAL Yildiz Technical University, Turkey SERDAR BOZKURT Yildiz Technical University, Turkey Human resources have become the key source of competitive advantage for the organizations that strive in challenging environments. In order to retain and satisfy their employees, organizations should design their human resource management (HRM) functions and practices consistent with the expectations of their employees. In this sense, organizational commitment of employees has become very important in order to retain the employees in the organization. Human resource managers can increase the organizational commitment levels of their employees by designing HRM functions and practices according to their expectations and by that way employees can feel that they are the most important assets of the organizations. The purpose of the research is to investigate the relationship between organizational commitment dimensions and HRM practices. Also determining the perceptions of employees for organizational commitment levels and HRM practices is another purpose of this research. According to the results of the research it will be possible to give insights to employers that 1 The earlier version of the study was presented at the 4th International Makelearn Conference, 25-27 June, 2014, Portorož, Slovenia Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Esin Ertemsir, Yasemin Bal, Serdar Bozkurt can contribute to develop organizational commitment by HRM practices in organizations. Key words: Human Resource Management, Organizational Commitment I 4 | Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 A Research on Determining the Influence of HRM Practices ... INTRODUCTION Human resources are considered as the most important asset of an organization and human resources management function plays a vital role for organizations to gain competitive advantage. Several studies have shown that human resources management (HRM) practices have an impact on performance and competitive strategies of organizations. Taking into account that human resource management (HRM) has a strategic role | 5 | for organizations; it is possible to say that the design of HRM functions and practices should also be aligned with the expectations of employees. Keeping employees committed to the organization is one of the most important priorities for many contemporary organizations. Especially in times of crises and job cuts, committing top performers to the organization becomes a challenge and organizations, which fail to accomplish this, will have reduced resources for the capability of competing in the future. Organizational commitment is one of the main reasons for these successful employees to stay in the organization (Neininger et. al. 2010, 567). Also the rapid change of factors such as globalization, economical and legal arrangements, technology has influence on organizational structures. These changes will have a positive impact on organizations only if the attitudes of employees to the organization are positive. Otherwise these changes may cause negative results such as job dissatisfaction, high turnover rate or absence of employees. In order to manage these change factors, organizations need to have and retain talented employees to work with high performance. In order to retain these employees, organizations should make efforts to increase the motivation and commitment of their employees. In this case HRM function of organizations has an important role on increasing the motivation and commitment of employees because the development of organizational commitment needs effective HRM practices. The aim of the research is to investigate whether there is a relationship between employees' perceptions on human resources management practices and their organizational commitment or not. In this sense, HRM practices and organizational Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Esin Ertemsir, Yasemin Bal, Serdar Bozkurt commitment literatures are reviewed in the paper and then an empirical research from Turkey is given in order to investigate the relationship between HRM practices and organizational commitment dimensions. It is found that there is a medium or strong level relationship between HRM practices and organizational commitment dimensions of employees. I 6 | ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT AND HRM PRACTICES ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT Organizational commitment emerged in 1970s and 1980s as a key factor of the relationship between individual and the organizations (Mowday et. al. 1982). Today organizational commitment is even more important since it is considered as the driving force behind organizational performance and a desirable quality which can reduce employee turnovers (Meyer et. al. 1989). The concept of commitment has been defined in different ways in the literature by various researchers (Kumar & Krishnaveni 2008). Organizational commitment as defined by Porter et al. (1974) has three major components; a strong belief in and acceptance of the organization's goals, a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization, and a definite desire to maintain organizational membership (Angle and Perry 1981; 0gaard, Marnburg and Larsen 2008). Commitment is a positive feeling toward the organization, which depends on what employees' experience on the job and how they perceive the organization (Mowday et al. 1982). Organizational commitment is the individual's psychological attachment to the organization. Commitment represents something beyond loyalty to an organization. It involves an active relationship with the organization such that individuals are willing to give something of them in order to contribute to the organization's well being (Lamba and Choudhary 2013). According to another definition, organizational commitment can be interpreted as the employee's long-term relationship and intention to stay in the workplace with a devoted effort to reach the goals and objectives of the organization (Steers 1977; Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 V^// A Research on Determining the Influence of HRM Practices ... Mowday, Steers and Porter 1979). Organizational commitment has been defined as a psychological link between the employee and the organization that makes it less likely the employee will voluntarily leave the organization (Allen and Meyer 1996). Porter and Steers (1973) offered a distinction as attitudinal and behavioral commitment. While attitudinal commitment refers a mindset in which individuals consider the congruency of their goals and values with those of their employing organizations, behavioral commitment identifies the process by which | 7 individuals' past behavior in an organization binds them to the organization (Prabhakar and Ram 2011; Porter, and Steers 1973). Among the organizational commitment studies, the three-component model of Allen and Meyer (1990) has gained substantial popularity since its inception. Allen and Meyer (1990) identified and developed measures of three forms of commitment; affective, continuance and normative. Affective commitment reflects an emotional attachment and involvement in the organization. It can be also defined as a desire to belong to the organization. It refers to a positive emotional connection between an employee and an organization. In other words, affective commitment is an indication that an individual is staying in a relationship because he/she feels as a part of the organization. From the organizational aspect, this is the preferred type of relationship with employees because an employee who is affectively committed wants to remain part of the organization and accept the organization's goals as his or her own. Continuance commitment is based on the perceived costs associated with discontinuing employment with the organization. It refers to a situation in which an employee recognizes the rewards and benefits associated with continuing to work in the organization and maintaining a relationship or not. (Khaldoon, et al. 2011) This choice does not result from the sense of connection with the organization but from the fact that remaining in the organization is more beneficial than leaving (Velickovic et. al. 2014,). The greater an individual's perceived chances of obtaining a different job, and the greater desirability of that Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Esin Ertemsir, Yasemin Bal, Serdar Bozkurt alternative position, the lower an individual's continuance organizational commitment tends to be (Bateman & Strasser 1984). Although this may seem like a negative aspect to the overall construct of organizational commitment, employees with strong continuance organizational commitment do experience a willingness to involve themselves with, and invest effort on behalf of, the organization (Bogler and Somech 2004). Since it refers to a psychological state in which the employee weighing to leave or stay in the organization chooses to stay, this dimension is also named ad "calculative commitment". Normative commitment reflects a sense of obligation on the part of the employee to maintain membership in the organization (Meyer and Smith 2000). It explains moral obligations, social norms and one's obligation to the other party in a relationship. (Allen and Meyer 1990) This component is based on feelings of loyalty, developed through experiences prior to, and following, entry into an organization (McCunn and Gifford, 2014 21; Meyer et al. 2002; Weiner 1982) According to Li, Browne and Chau (2006), normative commitment and its implications are more relevant to B-to-B relationships. In brief, the three components of organizational commitment are interrelated. Employees with strong affective commitment continue employment with the organization because they want to, those with strong continuance commitment remain because they need to and those with strong normative commitment because they feel they ought to do so (Meyer and Allen 1991). Meyer and Allen (1991) argued that the three components of commitment would develop in different ways and have different implications for job behavior. For example, continuance commitment was expected to develop in response to conditions (e.g. side bets) that increase the cost of leaving, whereas affective commitment was expected to be particularly sensitive to work experiences (e.g. job scope; organizational support). Normative commitment was believed to develop in response to social pressure. On the consequence side, affective commitment was expected to have the strongest positive effect on desirable work behaviors (e.g. attendance, performance, organizational citizenship behavior), followed by normative commitment. In Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 A Research on Determining the Influence of HRM Practices ... parallel, Bergman suggested that affective commitment, calcu-lative commitment, and normative commitment are distinct ways that an individual can bond to an organization (Bergman 2006). Continuance commitment was expected to have little, or even a negative, impact on these behaviors (Powell and Meyer 2004, 159). Affective, continuance, and normative commitment reflect distinguishable psychological states (Meyer and Allen 1991) and develop from different antecedents (Allen and Meyer 1990). In a latter study Meyer et al. (2002) conclude from their | 9 | meta-analysis that perceived organizational support constitutes the strongest antecedent of organizational commitment. It creates a relationship of proximity that fosters identification with the organization. Perceived organizational support appears to account for over 50% of variance in affective organizational commitment (Biétry et al. 2014; Riggle et al. 2009). It could be stressed that committed employees have a strong belief in and acceptance of the organization's goals, show a willingness to put effort on behalf of the organization and have a strong desire to maintain membership with the organization (Baptiste 2008). Fostering organizational commitment is a challenging issue both to the organization and the employee. In line with these changes, supervisor support may help organizations to maintain organizational commitment by enhancing the career development and employability of employees (Ito and Brotheridge 2005). Moreover, fair procedures, consideration, approval and respect conveyed by the direct line managers derive organizational commitment, as well as organizational rewards such as training and good-quality work conditions (Biétry et al. 2014; Rhoades and Eisenberger 2002). Two forms of research on organizational commitment appear in the literature such as antecedents of organizational commitment and outcomes of organizational commitment (Garg and Dhar 2014, 65). A large number of factors influencing organizational commitment have been recognized which consist of organizational aspects, job aspects and personal aspects (Mowday et al. 1979). Human resources management is one of the important factors that can affect the organizational commitment levels of employees. HRM functions and practices can increase the commitment of employees when Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Esin Ertemsir, Yasemin Bal, Serdar Bozkurt they are designed to meet the expectations of employees in the organization and satisfy them. The theoretical background for the relationship between HRM and organizational commitment literature is given below in the next section. HRM PRACTICES AND ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT It is important to highlight the point that HRM is not the prop-| 10 | erty of particular specialists. HRM should be seen as an aspect of all management levels. HRM is concerned with both the structure of work in a company and with all the related employment practices that are needed to carry out the work. HRM is not simply about HR or people practices; it is about the management of work and people in the company. HRM is concerned with managing people both individually and collectively (Boxall and Purcell 2003). In today's competitive business world both HR managers and line managers have become responsible for all HRM processes and practices in order to have an effective HR management in the organizations. HRM functions and practices are the infrastructure elements of strategic HRM process. Organizations should strategically utilize these infrastructure requirements to gain competitive advantage, particularly through their human resources and human resource management practices. Infrastructure requirements consist of those functions and activities are necessary for effective management of an organization's human resources. The major purposes of these activities traditionally have been to attract, retain, and motivate employees. They are referred as HRM practices and the key HRM practices include; human resource planning, staffing including recruitment, selection and socialization, appraising, compensation, training and development. The result of effectively managing human resources is an enhanced ability to attract and retain qualified employees who are motivated to perform, and the results of having the right employees motivated to perform are numerous. They include greater profitability, low employee turnover, high product quality, lower production costs, and more rapid acceptance and corporate strategy (Schuler and MacMillan 1984). Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 A Research on Determining the Influence of HRM Practices ... One of the most essential conditions for businesses to succeed is to have employees motivated by effective human resources practices and thus dedicated to running. In this sense, organizational commitment is the heart of HRM which help to explain a range of human attitudes and behaviors at work. It is the central feature that distinguishes HRM from traditional personnel management (Guest 1995). There are various studies in the literature which investigate the relationship between HR practices and organizational commitment (Delaney and Huselid 1996; Foster 2011; Meyer and Allen 1997; Meyer and Smith 2000; Biétry et al. 2014; Stewart and Brown 2011; Zaitouni, Sawalha and Sharif 2011; Shahnawaz and Juyal 2006; Kumar and Krishnaveni 2008; Prabhakar and Ram 2011; Koys 1988, 1991; Meyer, Becker and Vandenberghe 2004; Boon and Kalshoven 2014; Yu and Egri 2005; Kooij 2010; Mathieu and Zajac 1990; Kirkman and Rosen 1999). Organizational commitment is expected to be influenced by employees' perceptions of the intensity and consistency of HR practices aimed at employee discretion and skill enhancement based on the following assumptions. First, using HR practices strengthens the ability of employees to carry out their work and to be productive. Allowing employees to direct their work and use their skills are means through which organizations can fully benefit from the capabilities and skills of the workforce. Secondly, offering HR practices can be regarded as an investment from the part of the employer and which employees can reciprocate by being more committed to the organization and by being more productive. This expectation is based on the employees' willingness to contribute to the goals of the organization. And, thirdly, by applying the HR practices consistently, employers signal their expectations about the employees more clearly. This means that consistent practices enhance the knowledge of employees (Foster 2011). Delaney and Huselid (1996) empirically suggested that fair rewards, competence development, empowerment, recognition and information sharing all affect organizational commitment. Previous studies of the effects of HRM practices on commitment have typically measured affective commitment. Meyer and Allen (1997) suggested that HRM Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Esin Ertemsir, Yasemin Bal, Serdar Bozkurt practices might also influence continuance and normative commitment. Employees who get attractive benefits package might view the organization as supportive and therefore develop a stronger affective commitment. They also believe that loosing such a package would be costly and experience greater continuance commitment and/or feel indebted to the organization and develop a stronger normative commitment (Meyer and Smith, 2000). On the other hand uncommitted individuals tend to express a very low level of subjective career success and so they are detached from the organization due to their differentiated personal standards without including the necessarily restricted nature of the company (Biétry et al. 2014). Effective HRM acquires quality employees, motivates them to maximize performance and helps meet their psychological and social needs. This leads to long term relationships with skilled and happy employees (Stewart and Brown 2011). HRM focuses on people in organizations. People are a major component of any organizations so organizations with more productive employees tend to be more successful. Employee productivity increases when organizations hire and motivate employees effectively. In addition, good human resource practices create more satisfied employees (Ibid.). It is imperative that management retains its best employees and keeps them committed to the organization in order to attract other quality employees (Zaitouni, Sawalha and Sharif 2011). With the high costs involved in employee selection and recruitment, companies are increasingly concerned with retaining employees. Generating employee commitment is an important consideration for large and small organizations. Commitment is one of the factors of HRM policy for an effective organization (Shahnawaz and Juyal 2006). The commitment and motivation built through well-designed HR practices can lead high performance of employees. Especially innovative HR practices increase the commitment of employees and help them to achieve the goals of the organization. The satisfaction of employees with HR practices elicits the commitment of employees towards the organization (Kumar and Krishnaveni 2008). Organizational commitment is also an important factor for employee retention. Fitz-enz (1990) states Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 A Research on Determining the Influence of HRM Practices ... that employee retention is influenced by many factors training and development, recruitment and selection, which should be managed congruently, and it implies that both organizational factors and HR practices may influence retention of employees and their commitment. Employees have stronger commitment to their organizations when they perceive that their organizations are committed towards their wellbeing (Benson and Lawler 2003). Therefore, the extent to which employees positively perceive the HRM practices of their organization would determine the strength of their identification with and affiliation to the organization (Iles et al. 1990). Mathieu and Zajac (1990) added that employees who perceive they have more control and autonomy in their jobs tend to be more committed to their organizations. When employees perceive that their supervisors empower them, provide relevant information and training, and apprize and reward them fairly, they are likely to remain loyal and committed to their supervisors. Kirkman and Rosen (1999) noted that work teams vary in the degree they are empowered and this has an impact on their commitment, productivity, and other attitudinal and job outcomes. They found that highly empowered teams are more effective than less empowered teams. In this perspective; HR functions as employee selection and recruitment, training and development, performance evaluation, compensation management and investigating their relationships between organizational commitments have become very important. For instance, systematic job design can have a series of functional outcomes like job satisfaction, motivation and more importantly commitment (Prabhakar and Ram 2011). Compensation is one of the most critical issues when it comes to attracting and keeping talents. As a result, some leading edge firms use profit sharing and group-based incentive pay (Bassi and Van Buren 1999) in addition to pay premiums, stock options or bonuses (Chew and Chan 2007). Trevor, Gerhart and Boudreau (1997) indicate that there are views amongst employees that performance-based pricing is sometimes an unjust practice. Monetary compensation is important but not sufficient to keep employees. Non-monetary recognition such Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Esin Ertemsir, Yasemin Bal, Serdar Bozkurt as raise, appreciation and positive feedback from managers, peers and customers for a job well done is imperative to generate job satisfaction and commitment. Monetary compensation is important but not sufficient to keep employees. Praise, appreciation and positive feedback from managers and peers for a job well done is imperative to generate job satisfaction and commitment. The fundamentals of this thought are based on Frederich Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory. Recognition is con-14 | sidered as a main objective to maintain the feeling of high involvement (Zaitouni, Sawalha and Sharif 2011). Koys (1988, 1991) found that employees' commitment is related directly to their faith in the intention of the organization's HRM practices to keep skilled employees and treat them fairly. Employee's skill, training, personal development practices including job redesign/enrichment shows positive results in building employee's confidence level as a result of affective commitment (Meyer, Becker and Vandenberghe 2004). Also employees view attractive benefits package as a sign that the organization cares and supports its employees, resulting in the development of a strong affective commitment (Meyer and Allen 1997). From this point, it is possible to say that effective and well desgined HRM practice can improve commitment and efficiency in organizations by motivating employees. In the survey conducted by Boon and Kalshoven (2014) on 267 managers, it was seen that the low level of competence of HRM applications had an indirect effect on commitment. Saridakis, Torres and Johnston (2013) indicate that HRM practices are an important tool for increasing the commitment of employees and low job satisfaction in SMEs. According to Yu and Egri (2005) on 113 employees, HR practices that are in line with organizational strategies have been found to have an effect on affective commitment levels of employees. In the meta-anal-ysis carried out by Kooij et al. (2011); the relationships between HR practices perceived by employees and affective commitment and job satisfaction differed with age. Also in a study conducted by Triguero et al. (2012) in 102 firms in Spain; study conducted by Zaitouni, Sawalha and El-Sharif (2011) on 398 bank employees in Kuweit and in the survey conducted by Imran and Ahmad Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 A Research on Determining the Influence of HRM Practices ... (2012) on 600 employees in Pakistan, it is found that HRM practices have an impact on organizational commitment. In Chew and Chan's (2008) study, HRM practices except training and development activities were found to have an impact on organizational commitment. Paul and Anantharaman, 370 participants from 34 companies in India, found that HRM practices affected organizational commitment. In our country, Gurbuz's (2011) research on 241 executives shows that human resource applications have an effect on organizational commitment. There is also a lot of research on the relationship between organizational commitment and HR practices, as seen in the studies mentioned above. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The purpose of the study is to determine the relationship between HRM practices and organizational commitment of employees. Another purpose of the study is to reveal the relationship between the dimensions of organizational commitment and HRM practices. The study is important to reveal the HRM practices that can increase organizational commitment of employees. With the results of the research, it is possible to give valuable insights about the effect of HRM practices on organizational commitment. By considering the need of empirical studies in this field, it is obvious that both the theoretical and empirical results of this research will give an important contribution to the related literature. SAMPLE AND DATA COLLECTION As of May 2017, the number of employees working in Turkey has been determined to be 30.658.000 (https://biruni.tuik.gov. tr/gosterge/?locale=tr). This figure was determined as 180 persons with a margin of error of 7.3% (https://www.surveysys-tem.com/sscalc.htm). To this end, 400 employee questionnaires were sent in 2014 and 2017 in banking, insurance, tourism, textile, electronics, hospitality and software sectors in two different periods. Of Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Esin Ertemsir, Yasemin Bal, Serdar Bozkurt these surveys, 200 were returned, 18 of which were incorrectly populated and 182 were analyzed by questionnaires. Employees who are working in private companies from different sectors participated to the research (n = 182). The method of the research sampling is "convenience sampling". The method is also called as "accidental sampling". It is based on the inclusion of the person reached in the survey. It depends on the inclusion of the person reached. This approach allows the researcher to take samples from familiar surroundings (Balci 2005). Here the researcher begins to set up a sample to begin with the most accessible identifiers until reaching the sample size required (Buyukozturk et al. 2012). The research has been designed as a descriptive research, which aims to determine the relationship between HRM practices and organizational commitment of employees. When the researcher is interested in identifying important variables related to the problem, this study is called correlational study (Sekaran 2003). Descriptive research is a type that investigates the relationships and links between variables (Buyukozturk et al. 2012). Two scales were used in the questionnaires as measurement instrument of the research. The first scale developed by Demo, Neiva, Nunes and Rozzett (2012) has 6 dimensions (recruitment and selection; involvement; training, development and education; work conditions; performance appraisal and compensation and rewards) and 38 items that measure HRM practices. In the Turkish translation study of the scale; the first translation proposed by Brislin et al. (1973), the first translation evaluation, the back translation, the feedback evaluation and the expert opinion methods were used (Brislin, Lonner and Thorndike 1973). The scale was translated to Turkish by the researchers and an academic at Foreign Language Faculty and then the two translations were compared with each other. The second scale developed by Allen and Meyer (1990) has 3 dimensions and 17 items that measure organizational commitment and the scale was translated to Turkish by Boylu, Pelit and Guçer (2007). The questions about social demographic qualifications such as gender, education, seniority, position and age were included to the items and the questionnaire form Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 A Research on Determining the Influence of HRM Practices ... was developed. The questionnaires were sent to employees via e-mail and collected by the same way. Questionnaires were sent to employees who are working in different sectors. DATA ANALYSIS The items of HRM practices and organizational commitment scales were presented using a five-point Likert item as "1: strongly disagree" and "5: strongly agree. Data was analyzed by SPSS for Windows 18.0 package program. Cronbach alpha reliability value is computed in order to find the reliability of the scales. The reliability values are 0,960 for HRM practices scale and 0,869 for organizational commitment scale. The reliability values of both scales are very high for researches in social sciences (Kalayci 2005). Kolmogorov-Smirnov test is carried in order to determine the normality of data. It is shown that data has been distributed normally so parametric tests are used for data analysis. FINDINGS AND RESULTS Employees from different companies in various sectors participated to the research (n=182). The sample range due to the so-cio-demographic characteristics is shown in Table 1. When we examine the descriptive statistical analysis, the arithmetic mean of the human resources management practices scale is computed as 3,22 (std.dev.: 0,74). This score indicates that participants answered the HRM practices almost as "neutral-agree". According to the arithmetic means of the HRM practices" dimensions, the highest computed arithmetic mean is 3,50 (std dev.: 0,84) for the dimension of "recruitment and selection", besides the lowest mean is 2,65 (std dev.: 1,03) for "compensation and rewards". Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Esin Ertemsir, Yasemin Bal, Serdar Bozkurt Table 1: Demographic Characteristics I 18 | Variables Frequency Percentage (%) Gender Male 103 56,6 Female 79 43,4 Education Two year college or lower 20 11 Graduate school 74 40,7 Post graduate school 87 47,7 Unreplied 1 0,06 Age 18-25 38 21 26-35 115 63 36 and over 26 14 Unreplied 3 2 Marital status Single 116 63,7 Status 63 34,6 Unreplied 3 1,7 Organizational seniority Less than 1 year 44 24,2 Organizational seniority 98 53,8 Less than 4-7 years 22 12,1 More than 7 years 17 9,3 Unreplied 1 0,06 N=182 Source: Authors' own calculation. The arithmetic mean of the second scale which investigates organizational commitment is computed as 3,08 (std dev.: 0,67). According to this result, the participants answered the organizational commitment scale nearly to "neutral-agree" as well. The scores of organizational commitment dimensions indicate that the highest computed arithmetic mean is 3,29 (std dev.:0,97), for the dimension of "affective commitment", while the the lowest mean is 2,92 (std dev.: 0,80) for "continuance commitment". The following Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics results. Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 A Research on Determining the Influence of HRM Practices Table 2: Descriptive Statistics Results and Reliability Values Scales and Dimensions Mean Std. Dev. HRM Scale 3,22 ,74 Recruitment and Selection 3,50 ,84 Involvement 3,31 ,78 Training and Development 3,29 ,96 Work Conditions 3,28 ,93 Performance Appraisal 3,19 1,04 Compensation and Rewards 2,65 1,03 Organizational Commitment 3,08 ,67 Affective 3,29 ,97 Continuance 2,92 ,80 Normative 3,00 ,90 I 19 | Source: Authors' own calculation. Within the research, the relationship between employees' perceptions on the human resources management practices and the organizational commitment of the employees is investigated. In this context, the main hypothesizes of the research are given below: H1: There is a relationship between the perception of employees on human resources management practices and their organizational commitment. In order to investigate whether there is a relationship between employees' perceptions on HRM practices and their organizational commitment, Pearson Correlation Analysis is carried out. The results show that there exists a medium positive relationship (p<0,01; Pearson correlation (r) =0,535) between the variables and H1 is accepted. This finding shows that HRM practices are important factors and have the potential to foster the organizational commitment of employees for those who have positive perceptions about their companies. As the positive relationship has been proved using Pearson Correlation Analysis, also the relationship between the dimensions of HRM practices and organizational commitment are also investigated. Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Esin Ertemsir, Yasemin Bal, Serdar Bozkurt H2: There is a relationship between the perceptions of employees on the human resources management practices and the dimensions of organizational commitment. Table 3 includes the correlations between HRM practices and the dimensions of organizational commitment. According to the correlation analysis results, there is a strong or medium positive relationship between all HRM practices and three organizational commitment dimensions (affective, continuance & normative commitment). Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Table 3: Correlations Between HRM Practices & Organizational Commitment Dimensions HR Scale Recruitment Involvement Training and Work Performance Compensation Affective Continuance Normative Org. and Development Conditions Appraisal and Rewards Commit- Commit- Commit- Commit- Selection ment ment ment ment H R Scale 1 Recruitment and Selection ,765" 1 ,000 Involvement ,893" ,672" 1 ,000 ,000 Training and Development ,739" ,510" ,562" 1 ,000 ,000 ,000 Work Conditions ,855" ,657" ,689" ,509" 1 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 Performance Appraisal ,829" ,578" ,650" ,621" ,660" 1 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 Compensation and Rewards ,739" ,429" ,582" ,380" ,662" ,543" 1 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 Affective Commitment ,479" ,359" ,508" ,377" ,350" ,363" ,287" 1 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 Continuance Commitment ,241" ,137 ,141 ,192" ,254" ,242" ,234" ,054 1 ,001 ,064 ,057 ,009 ,001 ,001 ,001 ,471 Normative Commitment ,434" ,262" ,450" ,350" ,299" ,325" ,332" ,550" ,340" 1 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 Organizational commitment ,535" ,358" ,520" ,425" ,413" ,426" ,385" ,798" ,550" ,850" 1 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 z I **p< .01 *p< .05 Source: Authors' own calculation. NJ Esin Ertemsir, Yasemin Bal, Serdar Bozkurt CONCLUSION Human resources are the key competitive advantage factor for all organizations. In this sense; appealing and retaining the qualified workforce to the organizations can be seen as one of the most important factors in HRM. Organizational commitment is very important for retaining the employees in the organization because only committed employees can feel the organization as a part of their life and family. Effective HRM practices can increase the organizational commitment levels of employees. Functions such as recruitment, participation to decision making process, training and development, performance evaluation, working conditions and compensation management can help to improve organizational commitment. HR practices are one most important factors that affect the organzational commitment level and performance of employees which have been seen as the main competitive advantage source of all organizations. For example; the use of appropriate tests in the selection placement activity and effective interviewing process can provide recruitment of the right candidate. In this respect, it is possible to integrate the employee with the organization and then increase his commitment. Employees' participation in the decision-making process will also increase their loyalty. Organizing training development activities can also increase the development of the employee by increasing the knowledge and skills of the employee more quickly and can make the organization more active. Additionally, improving working conditions, the fairness of performance appraisal practices and wage and reward management practices can also contribute to the commitment increment. By considering these factors; it is aimed to investigate the relationship between HRM practices and organizational commitment levels of employees in the paper. According to the research results, a medium-strong level relationship has been found between HRM practices and organizational commitment levels of employees. Also it has been found that there is a strong relationship between "affective commitment" dimension of organizational commitment and "involvement" dimension of HRM and there is no relationship between "continuance commitment" Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 A Research on Determining the Influence of HRM Practices ... dimension of organizational commitment and "recruitment-selection and involvement" dimension of HRM. The results of the research can be seen as parallel with the related empirical studies, which are given above in the theoretical part. REFERENCES Allen, N. J. and J. P. Meyer. 1990. 'The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance and normative commitment to the organization.' Journal of Occupational Psychology 63 (1): 1-18. Allen, N. J. and J. P. Meyer. 1996. 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'The impact of human | 28 | resource management practices on organizational commitment in the banking sector in Kuwait.' International Journal of Business and Management 6 (6): 108-23. Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 WHAT STATISTICS HIDE? SECONDARY ANALYSIS OF UNEMPLOYMENT IN SPAIN DIANA AMBER University of Jaén, Spain I 29 | Official statistical sources report an alarming unemployment rate among people over 45 years old in Spain. However, much of the information is either silenced or requires previously nonexistent secondary analyses, that which facilitates the social lessening of the problems, making it a worthwhile endeavour to critically analyse both the data and their weaknesses and gaps. This study performs a secondary analysis of the data of the National Institute of Statistics on unemployment in this collective. The results provide: a general profile of unemployed people over 45 years old; an educational profile of unemployed people over 45 years old; and the silenced data by the sources. The study concludes that the information offered does not allow us to refine and identify all the indicators that determine employability. Nationality, educational level and sex are identified as main factors of employment. Key words: Secondary analysis, Over 45 years old, Unemployment, Statistics JESUS DOMINGO University of Granada, Spain Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Diana Amber, Jesús Domingo PRESENTATION AND JUSTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM1 Unemployment is currently a social scourge common to the countries of the Euro-Mediterranean region (Genaro and González 2014). In particular, it affects more than 5 million people in Spain, according to the data from the Active Population Survey (EPA) of the National Institute of Statistics for the first trimester of 2015 (INE 2015a). The high rates of unemployment point to the existence of a serious social problem, but they are just the "tip of the iceberg" (Martos and Domingo 2011) of a much more complex and profound problem that involves specific people and cases. The economic crisis and unemployment are especially cruel to some collectives. This is the case of people over 45 years old, whose rate of unemployment has quadrupled in recent years according to official statistical sources. For this reason, they are officially considered a high-priority group. However, the group of older people is not homogeneous, and not all of them experience employment to the same degree. Therefore, it is necessary to consider a set of contingencies that describe subprofiles with different degrees of vulnerability. Statistics allow us to have a general idea of the basic characteristics of the population with regard to each aspect being studied, organizing and synthesizing the information until reaching approachable values. Moreover, they are a tool that allows us to "quantify uncertainty" (Monleón-Getino 2010), predicting the probability that a certain event will occur. This predictive property of statistics can be useful in the study of unemployment, as it will determine which profiles are most likely to be excluded from the job market. Understanding the limitations of the statistics, the search for reality based on the complexity paradigm (Morin 2008) leads us, from one of its perspectives, to the secondary analysis of the data on unemployment of people over 45 years old as a part of the complex framework the situation creates. This collective is characterized by situations of economic and emotional 1 The study was finished in June 2015 Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 V^// What Statistics Hide? Secondary Analysis of Unemployment in Spain instability (McKee-Ryan, Song, Wanberg, and Kinicki 2005), which are increased by their stigmatization (Mazibuko 2014), the resistance of many companies to hire them, social deafness and lack of interest in their problem, even by research (Izquierdo and López 2013). By examining the information offered by the statistics on these individuals, this study contributes to clarifying the employment data and the profiles most affected by this situation. I 31 | LITERATURE REVIEW Large numbers and statistical data give readers a sense of security because they usually trust in their accuracy. However, the numbers can be used to conceal information (through omission, categorizing, generalizing, relativizing, etc.), which may not be noticed by innocent interpreters who accept them without question. This turns them into a tool with a great political and economic interest, as Brachinger (2007) confirms, who deliberates on the veracity of the statistical data and its usage's suitability, on account of the reductionism required which Statistics implies in contrast to the complexity of the social difficulties. With the purpose of simplify complex realities, statistics categorize the particular cases, which stay masked as cold numbers that show general data, leaving out the particular casuistries. This peculiarity proper to statistics and quantitative data, linked to the fact that they allow using strategies and artifices to their analysis and presentation, can mislead the population which interpret them or intentionally guide their interpretations, trying to find a way to lessen this problem. Although the statistical data are available on the Internet, interpreting and searching for information on the topic of our study is a complex process (Peset and Fernández-López 2014). This study focuses on interpreting the data on unemployed people over 45 years old presented by the Active Population Survey. Thus, in order to enhance the comprehension of the numbers analysed, it is necessary to start with the definition of the terminology used by this source. Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Diana Amber, Jesús Domingo The previously mentioned survey produces a system of population categories related to the job market, based on the employment situation of people over 16 years old. Thus, the population is divided into "active" and "inactive". On the one hand, the active population includes people who are working (for themselves or for others) and the unemployed, understood as those who do not have jobs, but are actively looking and available for work (INE 2015b). On the other hand, the inactive population consists of people who are not classified as unemployed or employed. People who find themselves in one of the following situations are included in this category: those who take care of their homes; students; retired or people or those with early retirement; people who receive a pension other than the one for retired or pre-retired people; people who perform voluntary social work, charity activities, etc.; those who are incapable of working; among others (INE 2015b). This terminological categorization leaves a lot of people who are unemployed or in precarious situations out of the unemployment statistics, that which helps to silence vulnerability (Barton 2008; Furedi 2004; Kihato 2007; Lopez-Fogues 2014; Luengo 2007). In this terminological framework, the collective of unemployed people over 45 years old has a lacking social visibility (Amber and Domingo 2015), even being one of the age ranges about which long-term unemployment affects with higher harshness (Rubio 2013). The prolonged unemployment situation, together with the fact that these people used to take responsibility for their families sustenance (Arnal, Finkel, and Parra 2013), affects negatively to their personal motivation, which in turn reduces the possibilities to access the labour market (Izquierdo 2012; Piqueras, Rodriguez, and Rueda 2008). The situation gets worse as for women, who find greater obstacles to access to the employment (Poveda 2006), despite the fact that they show a slightly higher tendency to continuous training than men (Pineda 2007). Training, as a key to access to employment (Nodaa and Kim 2013; Schomann 2011), goes against older unemployees, as their early training is away from the current requirements of an Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 What Statistics Hide? Secondary Analysis of Unemployment in Spain ever changing labour market. In addition, digital divide (Castells 1998) creates impassable virtual barriers to access employment. Within this demanding labour context, lifelong learning becomes a necessity (more than an alternative) for those who want to be part of the labour market. However, there is a clear tendency, on the part of the most trained, towards their training's improvement known as Mateo Effect (Bonitz 2005; Jiménez 2009), which is not habitually shared by the fewer trained, accentuating the lack of training as a labour exclusion factor (Subirats 2004). Facing this panorama, the study agrees with Touraine's proposals (2005) by looking for new ways to understand and relocate the different social or cultural realities from a perspective of the right to "be" with "dignity". METHODOLOGY This study is carried out using a quantitative approach with interpretative and hermeneutic nuances, in order to extract the essence contained in the statistical data on unemployment in people over 45 years old. However, from the moment when the informants are selected and the statistical data are presented, it is possible to mask or slant the information or make interpretation errors (Garavito 2012), so that other complementary approaches are needed. To this end, and based on the information offered by the EPA, a secondary analysis of the data is carried out (Thorne 2005), understood as "all the posterior analyses of a set of primary data that offer additional interpretations and conclusions or in a different way from the one presented in the original research report" (Sierra-Bravo 2003, 292). The baseline information is used to look for tendencies and profiles that define the probabilities of accessing the job market, based on the variables studied, and specify especially vulnerable profiles, in order to design specific job market insertion measures. Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Diana Amber, Jesús Domingo SELECTION OF THE STUDY SAMPLE I 34 | DATA COLLECTION AND INFORMATION ANALYSIS PROCESS We selected all the national results offered by the EPA on unemployed people that included the age variable, in relation to other variables, and showed the figures in absolute values. Based on this information, and with the help of the filtering and consultation tool offered by the INE on its website, the information was limited to the study sample, selecting only the data pertaining to unemployed people over 45 years old. All of the data collected were exported to Microsoft Excel software, where they were processed. The absolute unemployment values were divided into two age categories (unemployed people between 45 and 54 years old and those older than 55). These two categories, in turn, were divided into three others, based on sex (men, women and both). The age and sex variables were crossed with the other variables available in the data. Finally, an analysis is performed of the gaps found in the information and the categories not contemplated. To shed light This study is based on the national unemployment information presented by the National Institute of Statistics (INE) in the Survey of the Active Population (EPA). This source is chosen because it offers more specific and reliable data on unemployment than other official sources. In most of the analyses that contemplate age, it is possible to select the specific age range of interest and cross it with other variables. This survey is often used to make international comparisons because it strictly follows the unemployment measurement criteria established by the International Labour Organization (ILO). To guarantee the current validity of the study, the sample was limited to the information offered by the EPA for the first trimester of 2015. This was the latest information offered by this source at the time the analyses were performed. As this is a survey, the data presented by this source are estimations and, therefore, subject to errors related to sampling and other causes (INE 2012). Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 What Statistics Hide? Secondary Analysis of Unemployment in Spain on some of the grey areas found in the data on national unemployed people, the calculation of the difference between active and employed is used, thus finding the unemployment numbers for some cloudy categories. Through the process described above, three analyses are performed that make up the three blocks of results in this study: 1) General profile of unemployed people over 45 years old according to the statistics; 2) Educational profile of unemployed people over 45 years old according to the statistics; and 3) Gaps in the data: grey and concealed areas. RESULTS GENERAL PROFILE OF UNEMPLOYED PEOPLE OVER 45 YEARS OLD ACCORDING TO THE STATISTICS This first analysis starts with the total national number of unemployed people over 45 years old collected in the statistics of the Survey of the Active Population (EPA). The number of unemployed people in this age range is 1,841,700 at the national level. Using this number, the percentages in Table 1 are calculated, showing the percentage of unemployed older people by sex and age, and crossing it with the variables of marital status, previous employment, job search time, and type of timetable sought. The statistical data included in Table 1 show that the majority of the unemployed people over 45 years old are between 45 and 54 (67.49%), with a slightly higher number of women than men, specifically 33.78% and 33.71% of the total, respectively. The percentage of unemployed people over 55 years old declines considerably to less than half, 32.51% for both sexes together, with a greater number of men (18.83%) than women (13.68%). Higher percentages are maintained for all the variables in unemployed people between 45 and 54 years old. The results for the different variables studied are very similar in both age ranges, showing higher percentages on the same values in almost all cases. Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Diana Amber, Jesús Domingo Table 1: Percentage of unemployed by sex and age compared to the national total of unemployed people over 45 years old I 36 | Age 45-54 (%) Over 55 (%) Total Sex M W Both M W Both (%) General 33,71 33,78 67,49 18,83 13,68 32,51 100,00 Single 7,88 4,25 12,13 2,68 1,17 3,85 15,98 Marital Married 20,74 22,83 43,58 13,28 9,16 22,44 66,01 status Widowed 0,40 1,17 1,57 0,52 0,83 1,35 2,93 Divorced 4,68 5,53 10,21 2,35 2,52 4,87 15,08 Prior Have worked before 33,45 32,92 66,37 18,82 13,25 32,08 98,45 employment Looking for first job 0,26 0,86 1,12 0,01 0,43 0,43 1,55 Has already found work 1,70 1,32 3,02 0,57 0,17 0,74 3,76 Less than one month 1,17 0,68 1,85 0,41 0,17 0,58 2,43 From 1 month to less than 3 2,68 2,68 5,36 0,90 0,70 1,60 6,96 Job search time months From 3 months to less than 6 months 2,18 2,67 4,85 1,09 0,81 1,89 6,74 From 6 months to 1 year 3,03 2,96 5,99 1,59 1,07 2,66 8,65 From 1 year to less than 2 years 5,31 5,39 10,70 2,62 1,78 4,39 15,09 2 years or more 17,64 18,07 35,72 11,67 8,99 20,66 56,37 Full time but would accept 6,13 3,90 10,03 2,88 1,03 3,91 13,94 part-time Part-time 5,43 4,75 10,17 3,32 1,84 5,16 15,33 Type of timetable Part-time but would accept full time 0,35 2,44 2,79 0,17 1,11 1,28 4,07 sought Whatever he/ she can find 0,12 0,73 0,85 0,09 0,17 0,26 1,11 Doesn't know 20,75 21,29 42,05 11,90 9,43 21,33 63,38 0,16 0,23 0,39 0,09 0,03 0,12 0,50 Not classifiable 0,77 0,43 1,20 0,38 0,09 0,47 1,67 Source: Own elaboration based on INE data (2015a). Regarding marital status, more than half of the unemployed people, 66.01%, regardless of the age range or gender, are married, which shows that the majority have family responsibilities. Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 What Statistics Hide? Secondary Analysis of Unemployment in Spain While 1.55% is looking for their first job after the age of 45 (mostly women), 98.45% have worked before. Table 1 highlights the high percentage of unemployed people who have been unsuccessfully looking for work for two years or more, with 56.37% of the total in this situation. In addition, 63.38% of the unemployed people over 45 years old do not specify the type of timetable they are looking for, stating that they would accept whatever they can find. The fulltime schedule is requested more by men than women, while a | 37 greater number of women than men are seeking part-time work: in the age range from 45 to 54 years old, 2.44% are women and 0.35% are men. EDUCATIONAL PROFILE OF UNEMPLOYED PEOPLE OVER 45 YEARS OLD ACCORDING TO THE STATISTICS In this second analysis, we examined the unemployment and occupation data according to the subjects' educational level. Table 2 shows the percentage of the total number of unemployed people over 45 years old with regard to their educational level, indicated by the EPA data in the period studied. Table 2: Percentage of unemployed people according to their educational level compared to the total number of unemployed people over 45 years old 45-54 (%) Over 55 (%) Total M W Both M W Both (%) Illiterate 0,61 0,22 0,83 0,30 0,32 0,62 1,45 Incomplete primary studies 1,53 0,88 2,41 1,14 0,97 2,11 4,52 Primary Education 5,02 3,45 8,47 4,59 3,42 8,01 16,48 Lower secondary education and similar 15,14 14,4 29,54 6,78 5,34 10,12 41,66 Upper secondary education with a general focus 3,85 4,53 8,38 2,32 1,33 3,65 12,03 Upper secondary education with a professional focus 2,53 3,68 6,21 0,71 0,93 1,64 7,85 Higher education 5,04 6,61 11,65 2,99 1,37 5,29 16,01 Source: Own elaboration based on INE data (2015a). Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Diana Amber, Jesús Domingo The highest proportion of unemployed people (41.46%) have finished Lower Secondary Education. Next, 16.48% have only finished Primary Education. The number of unemployed people with Higher Education stands out, making up 16.01% of the unemployed people of this age. While the unemployment rate by educational level in most cases is lower in women over 55 years old than in men, it is surprising to observe that the tendency changes and follows a pattern in people from 45 to 54 years old. For this age range, the men have higher unemployment rates in the lower educational levels, but the number declines, compared to women, in the higher levels. Taking into account that the Spanish population has increased its educational level considerably, to bring out the real data on the probability of being unemployed depending on education, Table 3 is constructed. This table presents the unemployment data by educational levels based on the total percentage of the active population that currently has this training. Thus, the table shows that of the total number of illiterate unemployed people over 45 years old in Spain, 63.19% are unemployed. This number declines as the educational level increases, with 10.40% of people over 45 with Higher Education unemployed. Table 3: Percentage of unemployed people based on their educational level compared to the active population over 45 years old with this educational level 45-55 (%) Over 55 (%) M W Both M W Both Illiterate 52,34 60,61 54,29 61,54 64,84 63,19 Incomplete primary studies 46,92 48,50 47,49 33,49 31,56 32,58 Primary Education 37,95 36,74 37,45 28,43 28,37 28,40 Lower secondary education and similar 24,11 31,20 27,11 22,01 22,22 18,46 Upper secondary education with a general focus 15,26 21,37 18,05 15,52 13,13 14,55 Upper secondary education with a professional focus 16,93 24,43 20,70 15,56 16,44 16,05 Higher education 9,36 12,46 10,90 10,04 6,50 10,40 Source: Own elaboration based on INE data (2015a). Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 What Statistics Hide? Secondary Analysis of Unemployment in Spain The number of unemployed people participating in courses and training sessions to update their skills is another type of data offered by the EPA. These data indicate whether people are taking training courses or not in the first trimester of 2015. Table 4: Percentage of unemployed people over 45 years old according to whether they take courses and the type of courses taken I 39 | Take courses 45-55 (%) Over 55 (%) M W Both M W Both Total NO 31,51 30,47 61,97 18,24 12,92 31,16 93,13 YES 2,21 3,31 5,52 0,59 0,76 1,35 6,87 Only accredited 7,03 15,64 22,67 1,58 3,00 4,58 27,25 Only non-accredited 24,64 31,52 56,16 7,03 7,27 14,30 70,46 Both 0,47 1,03 1,50 0,00 0,79 0,79 2,29 Source: Own elaboration based on INE data (2015a) * In cursive, the percentages according to the population sector studied Table 4 shows that the majority of unemployed people (93.13%) are not taking courses during the trimester consulted. Only 6.87% (126,600 people in absolute values) of the unemployed people of this age are taking training courses. A 70.46% of the unemployed people who take courses, participate in non-accredited courses, while a 27.25% of them take accredited courses. The data reveal that women show higher percentages of participation in training activities in all cases than men, and this difference is especially pronounced in the case of accredited courses. Table 5 is elaborated for comparison purposes and shows the same values, but for the employed population over 45 years old. Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Diana Amber, Jesús Domingo Table 5: Percentage of employed people over 45 years old according to whether they take courses and the type of courses taken I 40 | Take courses 45-55 (%) Over 55 (%) M W Both M W Both Total NO 32,84 25,65 58,48 19,46 14,71 34,16 92,65 YES 2,52 2,80 5,32 0,95 1,08 2,04 7,35 Only accredited 5,90 7,77 13,67 1,28 1,97 3,25 16,92 Only non-accredited 28,14 29,48 57,61 11,63 12,65 24,28 81,90 Both 0,26 0,78 1,04 0,04 0,11 0,15 1,19 Source: Own elaboration based on INE data (2015a) . * In cursive, the percentages according to the population sector studied The data on the employed again confirm women's greater interest in carrying out training activities. The percentage of people who take courses increases, although only slightly, among those with jobs, to 7.35%. In order to show whether there is a relationship between taking courses to update skills and the educational level of the unemployed and employed, Table 6 crosses these two sets of data. Table 6: Percentage of unemployed and employed people over 45 years old who take courses, according to their educational level Educational level of those who take courses Over 45 years old Unemployed (%) Employed (%) Illiterate Incomplete primary studies Primary Education Lower secondary education and similar Upper secondary education, with a general focus Upper secondary education with a professional focus Higher education 0,87 0,15 3,08 0,19 6,15 1,76 29,02 12,29 19,16 13,85 8,83 6,95 32,89 64,81 Source: Own elaboration based on INE data (2015a). Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 What Statistics Hide? Secondary Analysis of Unemployment in Spain The higher percentages of updating skills are shown by people with Higher Education, representing 32.89% of unemployed and 64.81% of employed people over 45 years old who are taking training courses. People with lower Secondary Education make up the second group of unemployed people, based on education, who take courses, with 29.02%. Meanwhile -among the employed- second place in taking courses corresponds to upper Secondary Education with a general focus (13.85%). The information for | 41 | both the unemployed and employed coincides in assigning the lowest percentages of training courses to the groups of people with lower educational levels. GAPS IN THE DATA: GREY AND CONCEALED AREAS During the analysis of the information available on the Internet about unemployment in people over 45 years old, certain gaps were detected that limited the baseline data for this study. The first observation is the disproportionate amount of information offered about employed and unemployed people. While there are 113 databases with crossed information about employed people, there are only 38 about the unemployed. Sometimes the databases did not allow the information to be filtered by the age of the unemployed. A revealing example would be the case of information about the economic sectors of unemployed individuals. This information is shown by age, but with rigid previously established ranges (from 25 to 54 years old and 55 and up), which prohibits us from narrowing down specific information about the collective examined in this study. The data about people over 55 years old also exclude information about the economic sector of people who have been unemployed for more than one year. Therefore, they do not provide information about the sectors of 73.88% of these people. The services sector has more unemployed individuals in this age range (16.08% for both sexes), followed by construction, with 3.88% for men. Other variables are completely missing, such as the ethnic group or functional diversity of the unemployed. Through the Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Diana Amber, Jesús Domingo information about the active population and their differences compared to the employed population, Table 8 sheds some light on the nationality variable and its percentile representation for the total number of unemployed people over 45 years old. The same table includes the contrasted data for the percentage of unemployment by nationality based on the total active population for each nationality. 42 | Table 7: Percentage of unemployment of people over 45 years old by nationality Over 45 years old NATIONALITY Unemployed compared to the total (%) Unemployed compared to the active population by nationality (%) Spanish 84,49 18,84 Dual nationality 3,42 31,28 foreign: Total 12,09 31,12 Ext. European Union 31,46 23,90 Ext. Rest of Europe 7,32 30,35 Ext. Latin America 27,74 31,48 Ext. Rest of world and stateless 33,48 43,27 Source: Own elaboration based on INE data (2015a). * In cursive and in right column, the percentages for the population sector studied As Table 8 shows, 84.49% of unemployed people over 45 years old have Spanish nationality, while 12.09% have a foreign nationality. However, considering the percentage of unemployment compared to the total number of active people of each nationality, the percentages become inverted. Thus, unemployment affects 18.84% of Spaniards, while it is especially hard on people with dual nationality and foreigners (with 31.28% and 31.12%, respectively). Those most harmed by unemployment are foreigners catalogued by the EPA as being of foreign nationality from the "Rest of the world and stateless", with 43.27% of these people finding themselves unemployed and making up 33.48% of unemployed foreigners. Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 What Statistics Hide? Secondary Analysis of Unemployment in Spain CONCLUSIONS The official statistical data sketch a very general picture of unemployed people over 45 years old. Based on these data, it is not possible to establish a clear profile of all the factors and indicators that influence employability. This gap seriously interferes with the comprehension of the reality and the ability to establish appropriate and differentiated measures that can positively influence employability. However, the results show that nationality, educational level and, sometimes, sex is clearly conditioning factors. Analysing what exists and what is hidden, in the official Spanish statistics there is a lack of proportion between factors that influence employment and data on the unemployed. Furthermore, in this case it would seem that the most gruelling data about the social reality studied are ignored or disguised in generalities. An information gap that feeds the silencing of the problems and invites to social resignation. These data are scrutinized and visualized through the secondary analysis performed in this study. Having family responsibilities stands out, reflected in the predominant marital status of the unemployed in this age range (married). These are collectives that could traditionally maintain the family unit. The majority of people of this age have worked in the past, as very few (and mainly women) are seeking access to the job market for the first time. This fact may indicate that the economic crisis is causing women in families that now feel vulnerable to have to look for work for the first time. The most dramatic data show that more than half have been unemployed for more than 2 years, which produces lack of motivation, isolation and, consequently, less probability of accessing the job market. This situation is maintained in spite of the fact that the majority do not make any demands as far as the type of timetable is concerned. They are looking for work, any work, but they have lost faith in the system and its possibilities. The percentages of unemployment are higher in women between 45 and 54 years old; and they drop considerably in women over the age of 55 (compared to men's unemployment). This tendency shows the lower participation of women over 55 years Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Diana Amber, Jesús Domingo old in the world of work. They are excluded from the unemployment numbers offered by the INE, which places them in the category of "inactive" because they are not actively searching for employment. The data on education reveal that people with higher educational levels have a greater probability of finding a job, which shows the existence of a close relationship between education and employment. However, numerically there are more unem-44 | ployed professionals with higher studies than professionals without qualifications, although the latter find themselves in a more vulnerable situation. The increase in higher education in Spain in recent years, along with the economic crisis, may provide a possible explanation. Regarding skills updating, there is a greater participation of women than men in courses, and this is especially pronounced in accredited courses. With regard to non-accredited courses, the women's percentages of participation are only slightly higher than those of the men. This tendency shows women's greater interest in education. Another noteworthy result as far as education is concerned is that there is a direct proportional relationship between educational level and taking training courses. The well-known Mateo Effect is produced; that is, there is a greater tendency to continue studying in people with a higher educational level. Meanwhile, people with lower qualifications statistically show less inclination to take training courses. The information analysed in this study, reveals silences and gaps in the statistical data that conceal the reality. The unemployment data based on ethnic group and functional diversity are completely obscured due to their omission, which could respond to a culture of silencing vulnerability in complex times. In spite of this, this study manages to shed light on the hidden data about the nationality of unemployed people by rescuing and contrasting information about employed and active people. The information processed increases the variations in the unemployment rate that accompany the "nationality" factor, especially affecting people of non-European Union nationalities. In conclusion, the data found in the official statistics on unemployment in people over 45 years old define a general profile Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 What Statistics Hide? Secondary Analysis of Unemployment in Spain that is clearly not sufficient to comprehend the situation affecting these people. This informative gap impedes establishing priority indexes and reduces the possibility of designing specific actions to favour job insertion. The limited statistical data and their opacity, in addition to the silences and gaps found in the study, encourage us to advance in the analysis of the collective through other means, research alternatives and sources, in order to achieve a more exhaustive understanding and further examine the hidden details contained in this reality. | 45 REFERENCES Amber, D. and Domingo, J. 2015. "La presencia y representación del desempleo de los mayores de 45 años en la prensa española.' Observatorio (OBS*) Journal 9 (4): 85-91. Arnal, M., L. Finkel and P. Parra. 2013. "Crisis, desempleo y pobreza: análisis de trayectorias de vida y estrategias en el mercado laboral.' Cuadernos de relaciones laborales 31 (2): 281-311. Barton, L. 2008. "Estudios sobre discapacidad y la búsqueda de la inclusividad. Observaciones.' Revista de Educación 349 (1): 137-152. Bonitz, M. 2005. "Ten years Matthew effect for countries.' Scientometrics 64 (2): 375-79. Brachinger, H. W. 2007. 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Revista de Psicología del Trabajo y de las Organizaciones 24 (2): 129-151. Poveda, M. M. 2006. "«Los lunes al sol» o «los lunes en casa». Roles de género y vivencias del tiempo de desempleo.' Cuadernos de Relaciones Laborales 24 (2): 85-110. Rubio, F. J. 2013. "Tengo 50 años ¿y qué? Dificultades y estrategias en el retorno al mercado de trabajo.' Nómadas. Revista Crítica de Ciencias Sociales y Jurídicas 40 (4): 93-109. Schomann, K. 2011. "Ungenutzte Potenziale bei Übergangen zwischen Bildung und Arbeit: Ein internationaler Vergleich." Wirtschaftsdienst 91 (1): 10-14. Sierra-Bravo, R. 2003. Técnicas de Investigación Social. Teoría y ejercicios. Madrid: Thomson Editores. Subirats, J. 2004. Pobreza y exclusión social. Un análisis de la realidad española y europea. Barcelona: Fundación La Caixa. Thorne, S. 2005. El análisis secundario en la investigación cualitativa: asuntos e implicaciones. Medellín: Editoral Universidad de Antioquia. Touraine, A. 2005. Un nuevo paradigma para comprender el mundo de hoy. Barcelona: Paidós. Wanberg, C. R., R. Kanfer, and M. Rotundo. 1999. "Unemployed individuals: Motives, job-search competencies, and job-search constraints as predictors of job seeking and reemployment.' Journal of Applied Psychology 84 (6): 897-910. Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 RECONTEXTUALIZING TERROR: ISIS NARRATIVES IN THE ENGLISH MEDIA NAEL F. M. HIJJO University of Malaya, Malaysia I 49 | Drawing upon the interdisciplinary approach of Baker's (2006) narrative theory-informed analysis, this paper analyses the English translations of the Arabic editorials on Daesh which were published by the Middle East Media Research Institute (MEMRI) between the years 2013 and 2016. MEMRI is a Washington-based think tank that is largely quoted by the Western, mainly the US, prominent media outlets. This paper aims to investigate the role of the media in utilising translation as a vehicle of reconstructing and renegotiating the narratives in question. It also examines the effectiveness of contextual framing in altering narratives of the terrorist acts carried by Daesh (the Islamic State) which in turn communicates a distort image of Islam and Muslims to the Euro-Mediterranean officials and publics. The findings suggest that contextual framing is an effective device in redirecting the original narratives in media translations that function outside the immediate text. Reframing context is significant linguistic method in inserting particular ideologies and agendas in the target narrative in line with the meta-narrative of the 'War on Terror'. Thus there is a need to translate informatively and innovatively the contexts of unknown phenomena themselves due to the difference in culture of North-South and East-West publics of the Euro-Mediterranean. Key words: Contextual framing, English media, Euro-Mediterranean, ISIS, Translation SURINDERPAL KAUR University of Malaya, Malaysia Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Nael F. M. Hijjo, Surinderpal Kaur INTRODUCTION The phenomenon of the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) (or most preferably its Arabic acronym Daesh) as we argue elsewhere (Hijjo & Kaur, 2017) is international in nature. However, the terrorist acts carried by Daesh chiefly impacts on the Euro-Mediterranean region. In this regard, Daesh triggered direct instability in the countries of Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt, Turkey and Cyprus resulting from the displacement of millions of Syrians and Iraqis who run away from Daesh's killing. Other Euro-Mediterranean countries are indirectly affected by means of the refugees who successfully reached their territories. Daesh's criminal acts have also triggered much Islamophobia and criticism of Islam (Croucher et al., 2013) under the claim that Daesh is a 'true' representative of Islam and Muslims and that it follows the teachings of Al-Quran and Prophet Muhammad1. This in turn shifts the cultural and political discourse and communication especially in the West to either undermining or underlining some particularities of current rival narratives circulated about Daesh in line with the meta-narratives the 'War on Terror' and 'Terror and Islam'. In this regard, think tanks such as the Middle East Media Research Institute (MEMRI) contribute to such discourse (Hijjo, Forthcoming). To further explain the current issue, the original Arabic editorials target the Arabic reader who shares the same language and culture of the source authors. Nevertheless, the MEMRI's English translations target the Western officials and public who largely depend on these translations to be informed about the current conflict in the Middle East. On a daily basis, MEMRI "assists and lends support to all branches of the U.S. Armed Forces, including over 200 different units, in carrying out the War on Terror. MEMRI continues to support members of academia on a daily basis. To date, over 500 https://www.spectator.co.uk/2015/07/sorry-but-you-cant-take-the-is-lam-out-of-islamic-state/# (published on 4 July 2015, accessed on 3 May 2017). Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 V^// 1 Recontextualizing Terror: ISIS Narratives in the English Media college and universities, in the United States and worldwide, have utilized MEMRI material."2 Moreover, the notion of 'context' refers to the necessary elements required in understanding a word, a text or part of. The word 'context' is produced from the Latin 'contextus of the meaning "connection, coherence" (Meibauer, 2012). Context as a resource is "something that we selectively and strategically construct as we engage in any act of communication, including the act of translation" (Baker, 2006b p. 332). Context is largely essential to determine the 'intended' meanings of words and texts exemplifying in the use of the English word 'call' (verb: give a name vs. make a phone call vs. shout vs. noun: a phone call vs. an invitation vs. a sound)3. The Arabic media editorials are, therefore, addressed to the Arabic-speaking audience. English translations of these editorials are readdressed to the English-speaking audience. The difference in the target audience suggests that what makes sense it the Arabic context may not be understood in the English translations due to several factors including, cultural, religious, political (ideological), social, linguistic and educational backgrounds. In other words, in discussing value-charged concepts and texts, political, ideological, cultural and religious similarities and differences between the source and target should be examined. The "specificity of context" is, therefore, "essential to the very existence of meaning" (Davis, 2001 pp. 2-3) "where context is understood as temporal, spatial, historical, and linguistic in nature" (Tymoczko, 2007 p. 47) and illustrates the ideological goals and positions of participants. The importance of identifying the contexts of both the source and the target texts is well explained by Eugene Nida in his Preface to Contexts in Translating: "For a number of years I have been increasingly interested in the role of contexts in understanding and translating texts, because failure to consider the contexts of a text is largely responsible for the most serious mistakes in comprehending and reproducing the meaning of a discourse" (2001, p. ix). 2 http://www.memri.org/about-memri.html (Last accessed on 3 October 2016). 3 https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/call (Last accessed on 7 April 2017). V^/ Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Nael F. M. Hijjo, Surinderpal Kaur Contextual framings are context-based framings that take place in space outside the immediate text and "'implicitly' function as background for determining recipients' interpretation of a situation" (Al-Sharif, 2009 p. 66). These frames surround certain narratives and effectively shape their meanings and impacts. The difference in contexts between the source and the target texts does not only result from differences in cultural, historical, political, ideological, religious and educational backgrounds but also from the gap in time between the writing and publication of a text and those of its translation as Baker elaborates: "With the passage of time, a literary or scholarly text will have accumulated critical response and resonances, and both it and its translation(s) will be read and interpreted in a different context— politically, culturally, socially, aesthetically" (2006b, p. 332). RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: DATA AND DATA ANALYSIS The research corpus is 46 Arabic written political editorials on Daesh and their English translations in 25 articles. These translations were published by the Washington-based think tank the Middle East Media Research Institute (MEMRI) between the years 2013 and 2016. It is worth noting that MEMRI often compiles the translations of more than one Arabic editorial in a single article. This paper employs Baker's (2006) interdisciplinary approach narrative theory-informed analysis to investigate the role of mass media translations in the context of the contemporary ideologically-laden conflict in the Middle East, and to examine the effectiveness of contextual framings as significant devices in the processes of reconstructing and renegotiating the original narratives on Daesh. FINDINGS: CONTEXTUAL FRAMING There are mainly three types of contextual framings (1) thematic and episodic framings which represent in the author/ translator's choice of whether to embed or not particular information, events and happenings in a given text (selection vs. Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 V^// Recontextualizing Terror: ISIS Narratives in the English Media de-selection), (2) temporal and spatial framings which represent in the author/translator's recontextualizing of particular information, events and happenings in a given text which in turn invites the audience to build links among information and happenings thus redirect the interpretation of the whole narrative, and (3) relationality which overlaps with the first two types at points of selectivity, and also represents in the author's adoption/borrowing of a source word, along with its contextual settings, into the target text thus reframing the source context. THEMATIC AND EPISODIC FRAMINGS Thematic framings, following Baker (2006), refer to the coverage of an issue or event in a broader context rather than the presentation of a particular case (e.g. poverty vs. a given poor family). In other words, they are the zoom out picture. This type of framing largely cites sources especially interviews and analyses by experts and provides statistics on the subject-matter. It is represented in public narratives. Thematic framings appeal to the governmental policy and suggest future planning. They may be used by policy makers to frame the public opinion on a given subject-matter aiming to sway policy results (Crow and Lawlor, 2016). Episodic framings, on the other hand, refer to the coverage of an issue or event through a particular case (e.g. a given poor family vs. poverty). In other words, they are the zoom in picture. This type of framing relies more on the personal experiences and individual accounts rather than its general state. It is represented in personal narratives. Episodic framings attract the attention of human rights and activists and invite urgent actions. In this regard, human rights organisations may prompt an individual case in order to impose certain views or agendas on governments. In the context of the media and terrorism, recent studies found that the media employs both thematic and episodic framings in their attempts to encourage undesirable stereotypes and military actions (Falkheimer and Olsson, 2015). The choice of the media of one contextual framing type rather than the other is largely "driven by ideology and prejudice" (Entman, 1993 p. 232). For example, in its Special Dispatches, MEMRI attempts to utilize V^/ Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Nael F. M. Hijjo, Surinderpal Kaur the contextual thematic framings of titles to broadening the individual cases. In other words, MEMRI employs thematic framings in its translations of the Arabic narratives on Daesh in order to build links among irrelevant issues in terms of causes and effects such as refugees, terrorism, democracy, poverty and education in the Arab and Muslim worlds. The titles of MEMRI's Special Dispatches under analysis: "Saudi Journalist", "Jordanian Press", "Syrian Oppositionist", "Syrian Journalist", "Iraqi Ummah Party Leader", "'Al-Hayat' Editor", "Senior Saudi Salafi Cleric", "Editor Of Iraqi Daily", "Al-Jazeera TV Host", "Arab Liberal", "Iraqi Columnist", "Egyptian Columnists", "Egyptian Writer", "Former Imam Of Mecca's Grand Mosque", "Senior Sunni Cleric", "Saudi Press", "Saudi, Qatari Press", "Articles In Saudi Press", "Iraqi Journalist", and "Conspiracy Theories In Saudi Government Press" indicate general, national and institutional, views rather than personal views as the case when using the author's name. The generalizations serve two functions: either negative image of the author(s) or the author'(s') subject-matter (Daesh, Arabs, Islam and/or Muslims). The only exception was MEMRI's title "Sheikh Abu Muhammad Al-Maqdisi's Efforts To Arrange Prisoner Exchange Deal To Free Jordanian Pilot" in which MEMRI uses the subject's name instead of his nationality or religious affiliation. This usage of the subject's name is meant by MEMRI to avoid the generalization of the positive narrative represented in 'the subject's good efforts to free the Jordanian pilot' to others i.e. Arabs, Muslims and Islam. Furthermore, titles are the initial framing devices that signal to the reframed narrative to come as Baker argues "The use of titles to reframe narratives in translation is often accompanied by subtle shifts in the texts themselves, in line with the narrative position signalled in the new title" (2006a p. 130). For example MEMRI's Special Dispatch No. 5955; "Jordanian Press Reacts To ISIS Execution Of Jordanian Pilot: 'Now All Jordanians Feel Need For Vengeance"'. Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 V^// Recontextualizing Terror: ISIS Narratives in the English Media Table 1: SD 5955 - Contextual analysis Item MEMRI Translations (thematic) Arabic editorials (episodic) Titles "Jordanian Press" "a (ltd ijfj ..a^" jZ** irj'ni ff1 (Literally: The reckoning is open with you., oh kiDers), "d^f^O^ (Literally: Original Jordanian) and " ¿W ¿^j'" (literally: Muath is a Jordanian Introductions/ Prefaces "the Jordanian public' "In an official statement, Jordanian King Abdullah" "all Jordanian men and w omen" "the Jordanian press" "all-out war against ISIS " No introductions/prefaces Image and Captures " We are all Muadh" No images and captures Selected excerpts Full text Text Muath - 8 times Muath - 21 times ISIS killers, criminal gang, terrorists Editorial In Official JordanianDaily: We Will Not Be Silent And Will Not Rest Until We Have Vengeance No headings Headings Former Jordanian Minister: No Room For Mercy With ISIS; Execute All Its Members Who Were Sentenced To Death 'Al-Ghad' Editor: Muadhs Death Will Only Strengthen The Jordanian Front Endnotes References to Arabic source texts including an additional source elsewhere than the original texts. No references I 55 | Source: Authors' own analysis. In this Special Dispatch, MEMRI shifts from the episodic framing of the Arabic source texts into thematic framing. The selected excerpts that MEMRI translated here are mainly read as public and official agreement on the revenge from Daesh. However, reading the full source texts shows that the main focus is on the case of killing Muath Al-Kassasba and its negative impact on the Jordanians' feelings. By selecting some passages to translate rather than others, MEMRI reframe the V^/ Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Nael F. M. Hijjo, Surinderpal Kaur I 56 | 1. In its editorial, the official Jordanian daily Al-Rai threatened ISIS, warning that its members would pay a heavy price wherever they were, and adding that the Jordanians are now united around their regime. While the Arabic source article threatens 'the killers' of Muath Al-Kassasba, it does not name Daesh (ISIS) as indicated in MEMRI's introduction. 2. Samih Al-Ma'aita, head of the official Al-Rai daily's board of directors and former Jordanian communications minister, stressed that Jordanians were entitled to demand the blood of ISIS activists in revenge for the murder of the pilot, and called for executing terrorists condemned to death in Jordan so that ISIS could taste the pain that they had inflicted on the Jordanians. This introduction names Daesh (ISIS) twice while Daesh was not named in the Arabic source article. Muath Al-Kassasba the Arabic source texts from episodic framing that shows sympathy with Muath to thematic framing that seeks to illustrate general agreement by the Jordanian public and officials on the revenge from Daesh. Muath was indicated directly by name in the Arabic source texts 21 times; however, he was indicated in MEMRI's translations 8 times only. The extensive repetition of the name 'Muath' in the Arabic source narratives grants more weight to the individual and earns more sympathy as a humanity case. MEMRI's reduction of this large repetition of the name 'Muath' grants the case less sympathy and steers the case to be a representative of official public policy and planning. The contextual reframing made here by MEMRI is well established in its preface where it cites official sources "In an official statement, Jordanian King Abdullah" and expresses public agreements "shocked the Jordanian public" "The following day's editorials and columns in the Jordanian press... Many called for all-out war against ISIS". In addition to the general introduction/preface placed before the translations, MEMRI introduces each translation of the selected passages of each of the three Arabic source articles with a sentence (see the translations of the first and third articles) or a paragraph (see the translation of the second article) as follows. Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 V^// Recontextualizing Terror: ISIS Narratives in the English Media subject of the Arabic source article was not called by his name, MEMRI rather calls him "the pilot" in an attempt to shift the readers' attention from Muath to Daesh. 3. Jumana Ghunaimat, editor-in-chief of the Jordanian daily Al-Ghad, also called for executing the terrorists incarcerated in Jordan, and emphasized that the pilot's death had united the Jordanian public and given all Jordanians the right to demand revenge. Table 2: Special Dispatch No. 6067; Saudi, Qatari Press: U.S. To Blame For ISIS Capturing Al-Ramadi- Contextual analysis I 57 | Item MEMRI Translations (thematic) Arabic editorials (episodic) Titles Saudi, Qatari Press: U.S. To Blame For ISIS Capturing Al-Ramadi " isjj^J.^Jc- tf&yn jLfjyi J^j jJUJt ¿Pj'JfT (Literally: Ramadi and the danger of the collapse of Amer.ca on Saudi Arabia and Jordan), " ¿jL*jS> (Literally: Beneficiaries of the collapse of Ramadi) and"' ¿i1 (Literally: Bxit the whole region is a barrel of "airstrikes by the U.S-led international coalition" No introductions/prefaces Introductions/ Prefaces "the Islamic State (ISIS) won another strategic victory" "the American efforts to sign a nuclear agreement with Iran in the near future" "causes Saudi Arabia and the Gulf states to fear" Image and Captures ISIS fighters in Ramadi(image: the-newkhalij.com, June 4, 2015) No images and captures Text Selected excerpts Full text 'Al-Quds Al-Arabi': The Fall Of Al -Ramadi Has Proven That Continuing To Rely On The U.S. Is Suicidal No headings Headings Former 'Al-Sharq Al-Awsat' Editor: U.S. Has Given Iran Free Reign In Iraq 'Al-Hayat' Columnist: U.S. Recognizes Iranian Role In Iraq Endnotes Three references to the Arabic source texts No references Source: Authors' own analysis. V^/ Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Nael F. M. Hijjo, Surinderpal Kaur In the Arabic source article, the emphasis is on the inhumanely killing of Muath Al-Kassasba rather than MEMRI's emphasis on the unity of Jordanian on revenge. It is noticed that MEMRI's introductions zooms out from the focus picture of the humanitarian case of burning to death the Jordanian pilot Muath Al-Kassasba to a ideologically-framed bigger picture that illustrates an agreement status of the Jordanian official and public on taking a quick reaction by revenging from Daesh and executing its prisoners in the Jordan. The narrative reported in MEMRI's translations depends largely on thematic framings in contrast to the original Arabic authors who episodically frame their narratives. MEMRI's thematic framings begin with its titles as discussed earlier. In SD 6067 title, a thematic framing is illustrated in the generalisation of the three editorials as "Saudi, Qatari Press". According to this SD, Al-Quds Al-Arabi is "the London-based Qatari daily", Al-Sharq Al-Awsat is "the London-based Saudi daily" and Al-Hayat is "the London-based Saudi daily". However, Al-Quds Al-Arabi is "an independent pan-Arab daily newspaper"4, Al-Sharq Al-Awsat is "the world's premier pan-Arab daily newspaper"5, and Al-Hayat is "the world's independent political pan-Arab daily newspaper"6. It is noticed then that none of these newspapers acknowledge being a Saudi or Qatari. They rather emphasise of being pan-Arab and independent. MEMRI, therefore, attempts to convey a different massage than the original by steering the attention from the fall of Al-Ramadi city under Daesh control to the Saudi and Qatari official views as claimed to be represented in these three articles. Al-Ramadi is thus placed last word in MEMRI's title. MEMRI continues applying its thematic framing in its general introduction to the translations to come. It started by illustrating a wider picture of the scene: "despite airstrikes by the U.S.-led international coalition, the Islamic State (ISIS) won another strategic victory when it captured the city of Al-Ramadi, the capital of 4 http://www.alquds.co.uk/?page_id=521704 (last accessed on 18 April 2017). 5 http://english.aawsat.com/about-us (last accessed on 18 April 2017). 6 http://www.alhayat.com/AboutWebsite (last accessed on 18 April 2017). Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 V^// Recontextualizing Terror: ISIS Narratives in the English Media Al-Anbargovernorate, which is home to a Sunni majority". MEMRI also challenges the Arabic narratives especially when the U.S. is accused and calls the readers to thematically read its narrative as follows: "Al-Quds Al-Arabi claimed that the reason for ISIS's appearance in Iraq was the country's occupation by the U.S.", "The reason for this, he claimed, was the U.S.'s hesitance" and "Al-Hayat, claimed that Iraq faces a dual danger from ISIS and from Iran, which seeks to take it over with American backing". In the context of thematic and episodic framings, MEMRI's | 59 | overall delivery of its translations of the Arabic narratives on Daesh tends to apply thematic framing by adding extra details from external sources, calling readers to doubt the Arabic narratives under translation and decontextualizing the Arabic narratives through selection/deselection of passages to translate. This thematic framing aims to shift the readers' attention and links the happenings to larger narratives i.e. the 'War on Terror' and 'Jihad and Terrorism' which were not linked in the original narratives. TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL FRAMINGS Temporality, of time, and spatially, of space, are integrated parts rather than independent. They are significant framing devices of context that operate without the translators' direct intervention in the text. The sequence of narrative elements either temporally or spatially represents its contextual framing that guides the audience to the preferred interpretation. This type of contextual framings is constructed by selecting a story or a part of from a particular context in a given time and place and relocated it in new settings of different time and place. Following Baker's (2006), this study understands that the sequence of placing elements of narratives is more significant in the presentation of temporality than the correct order of chronological 'real' time of events. Thus spatiality is an integrated feature within temporality. Temporality achieves its framing effects through the insertion of some events in "a sequential context and in a specific temporal and spatial configuration that renders them intelligible" (Baker, 2006 p. 51). For examples, MEMRI employs V^/ Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Nael F. M. Hijjo, Surinderpal Kaur (de)selective translation of particular articles, passages and sentences, and assembles its (de)selective translations of more than one article which are usually of a different storyline in achieving temporality effects as follows: Table 3: Special Dispatch No. 6239; Egyptian Columnists: Egypt Needs To Fight ISIS In Libya - Unilaterally If Necessary- Contextual analysis I 60 | Item Source Narrative 1 Source Narrative 2 MEMRI's Narrative Events 1. Increasing pressures on Daesh in Iraq and Syria. As of ST 1. As of ST 1. 2. Daesh attempts to control Libya. As of ST 1. As of ST 1. 3. Daesh fully control the Libyan city of Sirte. As of ST 1. As of ST 1. 4. Daesh is trying to control the Libyan city of Ajdabiya. As of ST 1, the city of Benghazi. As of ST 1. 5. United Nation warns the international community of Daesh's attempts in controlling Libya. As of ST 1. 6. Egypt warns the international community of the dangerous situation in Libya. As of ST 1. 7. France Minister of Defence warns the Europeans of Daesh in Libya. Deselected. 8. Europeans limited their military response in Libya. As of ST1. As of ST 1. 9. Western and American refusal of arming the Haftar, the authorized Libyan commander of army. As of ST1. As of ST 1. 10. Call for official Egyptian strategic planning of defence against Daesh in Libya. As of ST1. As of ST 1. Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 V^// Recontextualizing Terror: ISIS Narratives in the English Media Justification 1. Russian attacks against Daesh in Syria and Iraq. 2. (a) To use Libya as a base of its attacks against Egypt and other neighbouring countries of north Africa and Mediterranean Europe, as well as it's the best alternative to be its headquarter. (b) Daesh was encouraged to control Libya by the unstable situation raised after the NATO's ending of Al-Gadhafi's ruling in 2011 that left Libya to the vandalism of some military gangs. 3. (a) Sirte is a strategic city designed by Al-Gadhafi in a hope to be the capital for the African Union after the hope of Arabian Union faded. (b) Sirte has the port and the largest air base as well as convention centres which were built by Al-Gadhafi as the potential capital of the African Union. 4. Ajdabiya is Libya's largest petroleum resource. Daesh lost 75% of its petroleum in Syria due to the Russian attacks which was sold in the black markets of Turkey. 5. 800 fighters of Daesh have reached Libya to enhance the military attempts in controlling Ajdabiya. 6. Daesh's increasing power in Libya threatens the security of Egypt including Daesh's attempts to control Sinai. 7. There is high possibility of Daesh establishing a terrorist base in Libya. 8. To give support to the United Nation Envoy efforts in structuring a Libyan unity government. 9. Implicitly, to preserve Daesh in Libya. 10. Daesh possible attacks against Egypt and controlling Sinai from Libya. As of ST1. As of ST1. As of ST1. As of ST1, the city of Benghazi. As of ST1. As of ST1. As of ST1. Deselected. As of ST1. Deselected. Deselected. Deselected. Deselected. Deselected. Deselected. Deselected. As of ST1. Deselected. As of ST1. I 61 | Source: Authors own analysis. V^/ Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Nael F. M. Hijjo, Surinderpal Kaur In supporting its narrative signalled in its title "Egyptian Columnists" rather than MEMRI's norm of generalization as "Press" that elaborated in the first introductory paragraph, "... two columnists for the Egyptian daily Al-Watan have called for Egypt to launch a preemptive offensive against the Islamic State (ISIS) in Libya..." (italics in original, bold added), and in the second introductory paragraph where it cities a source7 elsewhere not included in the originals ".the Fatwa Monitoring Observatory... has recently issued a report warning of the influx of foreign ISIS fighters to the city of Sirte in Libya. The report likewise warned of ISIS expansion in Libya and its use as a base for attacks on neighboring countries" (italics in original, bold added), MEMRI deselects a large text to translate in the two original articles and the other supporting citation elsewhere. These deselected texts function as temporal configuration of the text and their deselection illustrates a different causal-effect relationship (causal emplotment) than suggested in the originals by reframing the morality of the source narratives. In this SD, MEMRI deselects extensively any justification of action against Daesh in Libya including its potential and serious threat represented in the connections with Boko Haram in Africa and Ansar Al-Maqdis in Sinai and Gaza. MEMRI also deselects the text of the European intervention in this story as well as the story of Al-Gadhafi who tried to establish the Arabian Union and the African Union which faded by the NATO attack against Al-Gadhafi regime in 2011 leaving Libya to some gangs. MEMRI also deselects Daesh's major intention of controlling the petroleum in Libya as well as the Russian role in eliminating Daesh power in Syria and Iraq. Through this major deselection of justification of events, MEMRI attempts to reframe the temporal configuration of the Arabic narratives illustrating that the call of the two columnists does not represent the official view in Egypt and that any action against Daesh in Libya is 'offensive' and baseless. http://aawsat.com/home/article/518506/ (Last accessed on 23 April 2017). Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 V^// 7 Recontextualizing Terror: ISIS Narratives in the English Media Another example that illustrates temporal and spatial framing is MEMRI's Special Dispatch No. 5970. In this SD, MEMRI compiles selective translations of four Arabic editorials, the following sequence follows MEMRI's presentation. SOURCE NARRATIVE 1 (SN 1) The first selectively translated Arabic editorial entitled ■ ¿ül¿yi jLuaJr. jL)Scü jijmU* (Literally: The continuous of Daesh is a smirch on humanity forehead) was published on 4 February 2015. The editorial states that the execution of the Jordanian pilot by burning to death is inhumane, unreligious and unethical, and it is merely an episode in Daesh series that claimed to apply Islamic law but its crimes are at variance proof. Therefore, it is necessary to eliminate Daesh at all levels. The continuous of Daesh represents a serious danger that requires the confrontation of Daesh and suing its supports at the international courts as well as the requirement of the United Nation to find ways to eliminate the organisation. It is also necessary to locate a ground military force particularly in Syria to remove all causes of Daesh establishment. SN1 AS NARRATED BY MEMRI "An editorial published in the government daily Al-Sharq on February 4, 2015, one day after the burning of the Jordanian pilot, stated that this event was "further proof of the need to eliminate this organization [ISIS], militarily and ideologically." It also stated that "placing troops on the ground, especially in Syria, has now become a pressing necessity, in order to eliminate [ISIS] along with all the elements that caused it to emerge and to spread."" MEMRI SD states that this editorial represents the government of Saudi Arabia a member of the international coalition to counter Daesh, as suggested in its introductory paragraph. However, the daily Al-Sharq is not a government daily8. MEMRI 8 http://www.alsharq.net.sa/2017/03/18/1660009 (Last accessed on 25 April 2017). V^/ Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Nael F. M. Hijjo, Surinderpal Kaur also selected only two sentences out of five to translate in any attempt to reframe the Arabic narrative into its own Daesh burned the Jordanian pilot to death thus the Saudi government calls upon a ground forces to eliminate Daesh, rather than "the continuous of Daesh represents a serious danger that requires the confrontation of Daesh and suing its supports at the international courts as well as the requirement of the United Nation to find ways to eliminate the organisation". To further reframe the temporal configuration of the Arabic editorial, MEMRI states "An editorial published in the government daily Al-Sharq on February 4, 2015, one day after the burning of the Jordanian pilot, stated that...". SOURCE NARRATIVE 2 (SN 2) The second selectively translated Arabic editorial entitled " ^Jc eLáíIl y íj^JI cjIjUJI " (Literally: Air strikes are not enough to end Daesh) was published on 10 February 2015 and states that the international coalition to counter Daesh performed nine airstrikes against Daesh, and that in a response to the killing of its pilot, the Jordanian forces alone performed 56 air raids against Daesh killing tens of Daesh members and destroying their weapon stores. The international coalition announced its supports to the Iraqi forces ground attack against Daesh. However, the Syrian regime refuses any intervention by foreign forces in Syria believing that the elimination of Daesh means the end of the illegitimate regime and the reveal of its crimes. The problem of Daesh is unsolvable but with military ground intervention that is in parallel to the airstrikes. This thought was perceived by the international coalition realized in its support to the Iraqi forces. Since Daesh members hide among the civilians who the international coalition avoids to strike. The Syrian regime attracted extremist and terrorist organizations that are against all including the international community and neighbouring countries and that are too difficult to eliminate due to the failure of reaching real solutions to eliminate these organisations on the ground. Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 V^// Recontextualizing Terror: ISIS Narratives in the English Media SN2 AS NARRATED BY MEMRI "An editorial published one week later, on February 10, in the government daily Al-Watan, also complained that the numerous airstrikes against ISIS were ineffective and called for boots on the ground: "The predicament of ISIS's presence and expansion cannot be solved without a military ground intervention, accompanied by ongoing airstrikes... ISIS members have managed to infiltrate cities and regions and hide among the residents of the areas they control. Airstrikes alone are useless in eliminating this organization, since the coalition tries to avoid [harming] unarmed civilians in these areas, and [therefore] makes do with attacking key [ISIS] targets. That is not enough in a war of this sort..."" It is noticed that MEMRI tries to reframe the temporal configuration of the Arabic editorial by deselecting the following parts: "the Jordanian forces alone performed 56 air raids against Daesh killing tens of Daesh members and destroying their weapon stores", "The international coalition announced its supports to the Iraqi forces ground attack against Daesh", and "the Syrian regime refuses any intervention by foreign forces in Syria believing that the elimination of Daesh means the end of the illegitimate regime". These deselected parts set the Arabic narrative in a temporality of an average success of the air strikes as understood in the killing of tens of Daesh members by the Jordanian air forces, in the existing of a ground attack against Daesh, and in the rejection of such by the Syrian regime. MEMRI's narrative, on the other hand, suggests a strong links between the calling of a ground attack - which already exists - and the burning to death of the Jordanian pilot as stated in its framed temporal settings "An editorial published one week later", and compiled under the subheading "Saudi Editorials: Airstrikes Alone Are Ineffective, A Ground Campaign Is Necessary" (emphasis added). SOURCE NARRATIVE 3 (SN 3) The third selectively quoted Arab editorial entitled "We need Arab boots on the ground to defeat ISIS" was published in English on 10 February 2015. A large part of the editorial was paraphrased by MEMRI removing some events. The sequence of events of the V^/ Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Nael F. M. Hijjo, Surinderpal Kaur Arab editorial that represents its temporal configuration, therefore, was reframed in MEMRI's translation. Here is an excerpt of the original narrative followed by its reframed version in MEMRI's translation. "After the burning alive of Jordanian fighter pilot Moaz Al-Kasasbeh by the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS), a strong response— international in nature, but Arab at its core—is needed, not as retaliation for this abominable crime, but to finally defeat ISIS and rein in the other evil forces wreaking havoc in Syria and Iraq, namely Bashar Al-Assad and Iran. Months ago I wrote in this paper that the fight against ISIS was at heart a Sunni one, and I believe recent events now prove this to be true. There are a number of reasons as to why I conceive this as a Sunni battle. One is that the lack of a prominent Sunni presence fighting ISIS will leave the door open for Iran and sect-based militias to fill the vacuum in Syria and Iraq. This will seriously threaten the unity of these countries, helping Assad to turn Syria into a country of militias, or bringing about more Nuri Al-Maliki-style sectarian politics in Iraq—or a scenario in either country along the lines of the Houthi takeover of Yemen. The international anti-ISIS coalition now needs to shift gear and put Arab boots on the ground in Syria and Iraq, bolstering these forces with aerial bombardment. This is the only way to contain and eventually destroy ISIS". SN3 AS NARRATED BY MEMRI "Some Arab writers presented more detailed proposals for a ground campaign against ISIS. For example, Tariq Alhomayed, formerly the editor of the London-based Saudi daily Al-Sharq Al-Awsat and now a columnist for the daily, wrote that the war against ISIS must be a Sunni Arab one, and called to form a coalition of Sunni Arab ground troops to fight this organization in Syria and Iraq. He added that the war must be aimed not only at eliminating this organization but also at preventing Iran and Bashar Al-Assad from taking over the areas from which ISIS is expelled. After establishing a connection between the Arab editorials call for a ground troops and the burning to death of the Jordanian Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 V^// Recontextualizing Terror: ISIS Narratives in the English Media pilot in its introductory and translations of SN1 and SN2, MEMRI disregarded the SN3 "After the burning alive of Jordanian fighter pilot Moaz Al-Kasasbeh by the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS), a strong response— international in nature, but Arab at its core—is needed". This skip illustrates MEMRI's intention behind the translations under analysis i.e. a mandatory and public and official request of "a ground campaign against ISIS [(in) Syria]". It is also noticed that MEMRI's reframed temporal configuration removes the reason behind the call for Sunni Arab | 67 | ground troops that is the fearing of "more Nuri Al-Maliki-style sectarian politics in Iraq—or a scenario in either country along the lines of the Houthi takeover of Yemen". This temporal reframing of the events of the original narrative shifts in turn the sequence of events. This shift is represented as follows. Table 4a: SD 5970 - Contextual analysis SN3 SN3 as narrated in MEMRI 1.The burning alive of Jordanian fighter pilot". 2. A suggestion for "a strong response — international in nature, but Arab at its core". 3. A serious threat by Iran and Bashar Al-Assad of sectarian scenario in Syria following the Iraqi and Yemeni. "seriously threaten the unity of these countries... bringing about more Nuri Al-Maliki-style sectarian politics in Iraq—or a scenario in either country along the lines of the Houthi takeover of Yemen". 4. A suggestion of "a prominent Sunni presence fighting ISIS" 5. The necessity of "containing and eventually destroying Daesh. 6. A suggestion to "put Arab boots on the ground in Syria and Iraq". 1. "The war against ISIS must be a Sunni Arab one". 2. "And called to form a coalition of Sunni Arab ground troops to fight this organization in Syria and Iraq". 3. "Eliminating this organization [Da-esh] but [and] also at preventing Iran and Bashar Al-Assad from taking over". Source: Authors' own analysis. SOURCE NARRATIVE 4 (SN 4) The fourth selectively translated Arabic editorial entitled JJà ^Jj^l jjJaii ó1 j»'" Literally : Burning the Jordanian V^/ Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Nael F. M. Hijjo, Surinderpal Kaur pilot will light the end wick) was published on 6 February 2015. Similar to the SN3, MEMRI eliminated some events of the Arabic original narrative and reframed its temporal configuration by re-sequencing its events as follows. Table 4b: SD 5970 - Contextual analysis I 68 | SN4 SN4 as narrated by MEMRI Change 1. "The killing of the Jordanian pilot by Daesh". 2. "The international coalition against Daesh... achieved so little". 3. "Daesh is a threat on Islam, Muslims and mankind". 4. "airstrikes alone are insufficient... similar to the liberation of Kuwait". 5. "the American does not acknowledge such. instead it supports the Iraqi army that is unable to achieve this difficult mission [eliminating Daesh]". 6. "The Kurdish army... may contribute in a solution and confrontation on the ground. but the case is greater. The Syrian opposition. is one reason of enabling Daesh.". 7. "There is no solution but a ground confrontation.". 8. The Jordanian example of confronting the extremist ideologies and groups in Jordan. 9. In conclusion, this crime [burning to death of the Jordanian pilot by Daesh] is a strategic turning point that requires a [military] ground confrontation eliminating its ideological and financial resources. 1. "called to form a coalition of armies similar to the one formed in 1990 to expel Saddam Hussein from Kuwait". 2. "the war against ISIS must take place not only in Syria and Iraq but also in Egypt, Libya and Yemen". 3. "criticized Obama's plan to rely primarily on the Iraqi army to defeat ISIS". 4. "The international coalition against ISIS and its ilk. very few achievements on the ground". 5. "ISIS is a threat not only to Islam and the Muslims but to all of mankind". 6. "Clearly, airstrikes alone are insufficient, and there is no choice... but to fight [ISIS] on the ground with a coalition of armies, like the coalition that liberated Kuwait". 7. "But the Americans, who are leading the [present] coalition, do not want to recognize this... Instead, he [the American] is trying to support the Iraqi military, arm it and train it. looking for a political solution. But clearly, the Iraqi army, which is fragmented and exhausted". 8. "There is no solution but a ground war, not only in Syria and Iraq, but also in Egypt, Libya and Yemen, and in every place where the Salafi-jihadi movement is present and its culture has spread". 1. Omission of SN4-1. 2. Re-sequence of the SN4-2 into MEMRI-4. 3. Re-sequence of the SN4-3 into MEMRI-5. 4. Re-sequence of the SN4-4 into MEMRI-1 and 6. 5. Re-sequence of the SN4-5 into MEMRI-3 and 7. 6. Omission of SN4-6. 7. Re-sequence of the SN4-7 into MEMRI- 2 and 8. 8. Omission of SN4-8. 9. Omission of SN4-9. Source: Authors' own analysis. Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 V^// Recontextualizing Terror: ISIS Narratives in the English Media I 69 I To further demonstrate the significance of temporality here, consider the effect of placing the shared storyline of the four original editorials at once and compare it with their translations by MEMRI. In this case, a different narrative would emerge resulting from the temporal framing of the sequence of events as follows. A. THE SHARED STORYLINE OF THE FOUR ORIGINAL EDITORIALS: 1. Daesh burned to death the Jordanian pilot. 2. Daesh does not represent Islam and Muslim and it is a terrorist group that threatens the world. 3. There is a necessity to eliminate Daesh at military, ideological and financial levels. 4. The international coalition against Daesh does so little in eliminating Daesh. 5. The airstrikes are not enough alone to eliminate Daesh. 6. A ground operation is suggested to support the efforts of eliminating Daesh. 7. A rejection of this suggestion by Obama's administration and the Syrian regime. It is noticed that MEMRI attempts to eliminate any part of the narrative that signals or proposes to any alternatives of a military ground intervention in Syria such as the Jordanian example in uniting against the ideology of Daesh in Jordan, the support of Kurdish army against Daesh and/or the elimination of the ideological and financial supports to Daesh. This attempt in turn explains the intention behind MEMRI's temporal framing of the Arabic narrative. In re-sequencing the events of the original articles, MEMRI employs the tactic of salience in which it "mak[es] a piece of information more noticeable, meaningful, or memorable to audiences" (Entman, 1993 p. 53). The following equation illustrates the full picture of the narrative elaborated in MEMRI's SD under analysis: Daesh's burning to death of the Jordanian pilot = Saudi official call for a ground force V^/ Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Nael F. M. Hijjo, Surinderpal Kaur 8. There is already a ground operation against by the Iraqi Army, the Kurdish army and the Syrian opposition with limited success. 9. A military ground operation would not be effective without the elimination of Daesh's ideology, culture and financial resources not only in Syria but elsewhere. B. MEMRI'S STORYLINE IN ITS TRANSLATIONS OF THE FOUR EDITORIALS: I 70 I „ 1. "ISIS's execution of the Jordanian pilot". 2. "Saudi Arabia and Qatar, have questioned the effectiveness of airstrikes in defeating this organization". 3. "articles in the Saudi press, which attacked the coalition's policy and called upon it to dispatch ground forces". 4. "Some articles also slammed the Middle East policy of U.S. President Barack Obama". 5. "the need to eliminate this organization [ISIS], militarily and ideologically". 6. "funding and arming the Free Syrian Army (FSA)". 7. "ISIS is a threat not only to Islam and the Muslims but to all of mankind". 8. "U.S. President Obama... is trying to support the Iraqi military". 9. "There is no solution but a ground war, not only in Syria and Iraq, but also in Egypt, Libya and Yemen, and in every place where the Salafi-jihadi movement is present and its culture has spread...". It is noticed that MEMRI places additional events as in points 2, 3 and 4 in a temporal reframing of the originals as understood in "questioned, attacked and slammed". The effectiveness of air-strikes and the need to a ground operation were prioritized in MEMRI's narrative and placed in points 2 and 3 while they are placed in points 5 and 6 of the original. RELATIONALITY Contemporary, newspapers and TV channels among other media outlets are employed as sites not only for negotiating Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 V^// Recontextualizing Terror: ISIS Narratives in the English Media ideologically-loaded political concepts and views but also for negotiating and assessing socially, culturally and religiously-loaded terminologies. Following the examples of racism and discrimination, circulated narratives of Islam and Muslims and their relations to terrorism are marketed by some media outlets and undermined by others. In their efforts to undermine or market this idea, media outlets draw their narratives largely using the narrativity feature relationality. Recalling the functionality of relationality as discussed by Baker, relationality is | 71 used "to inject a target text or discourse with implicit meanings derived from the way a particular item functions in the public or meta-narratives circulating in the target context, thus obscuring or downplaying its relational load in the source environment" (2006 p.66). In translating Islamic concepts, relationality is mainly drawn though the borrowing of the ST term in the TT. Two issues, therefore, emerge in leaving value-laden terms of the ST untranslated. These issues are the background knowledge of the reader of the ST versus of the TT, and the intention of using such terms by the original author versus the translator. In other words, as Friedman puts it: a text is "a site for negotiating meanings that might well function both regressively and progressively, depending on who is doing the reading and for what purpose" (1995 p. 27) (italics added). An interesting example that illustrates the effectiveness of framing relationality in translation is presented in MEMRI's borrowing of the Arabic word (jihad) in its translations of the Arabic editorials on Daesh. In the context of the current research data, the Arabic word (jihad) was left untranslated in MEMRISD Nos. 5575, 5718, 6159, 5969, 5970, 6288 and 5911. Special Dispatch No. 5575; Saudi Journalist: The Notion Of Jihad In Syria Is Not Wrong, But Has Been Twisted By Al-Qaeda The notion of 'jihad presented in the original Arabic narrative entitled " Vjj^ ^ 'frM' u^'J1 <0*f» j a*j*-» O* 4-1'" ([there] should be 'another address' and 'security' for whom willing to fight in Syria) and in its English translation by MEMRI entitled 'Saudi Journalist: The Notion Of Jihad In Syria Is Not Wrong, But Has Been Twisted By Al-Qaeda is of difference. MEMRI adopts the Arabic word 'Jihad in its translation as an equivalent suggesting V^/ Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Nael F. M. Hijjo, Surinderpal Kaur that both the Arabic and the English semantic sense of 'jihad is the same, although jihad has several meaning depending on the context including struggling and striving. According to Oxford Dictionaries, 'Jihad' is defined as "(Among Muslims) a war or struggle against unbelievers"9. However, according to the Islamic Supreme Council of America, the Arabic world Jihad is not an equivalent to the English 'war' which has the Arabic equivalent '<-jjaJ' (al-harb). The Council further explains that "Jihad is not a violent concept" and "Jihad is not a declaration of war against other religions". The Council elaborates as follows10: "In a religious sense, as described by the Quran and teachings of the Prophet Muhammad (s), "jihad" has many meanings. It can refer to internal as well as external efforts to be a good Muslims or believer, as well as working to inform people about the faith of Islam. If military jihad is required to protect the faith against others, it can be performed using anything from legal, diplomatic and economic to political means. If there is no peaceful alternative, Islam also allows the use of force, but there are strict rules of engagement. Innocents - such as women, children, or invalids - must never be harmed, and any peaceful overtures from the enemy must be accepted". Nevertheless, the well-established meta-narrative on 'Jihad' across nations especially in the West, links the concept 'jihad' to 'terror acts' by individual Muslims as seen in the Oxford Dictionaries definition of 'Jihad' and MEMRI's project "Jihad and Terrorism (JTTM)11". This narrative promotes a completely different narrative of the concept 'Jihad' based on the Quran and the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad (Baker 2010). Accordingly, the English concept 'Jihad' is not the equivalent of 9 https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/jihad (accessed on 23 February 2016). 10 http://islamicsupremecouncil.org/understanding-islam/legal-rulings/5-jihad-a-misunderstood-concept-from-islam.html?start=9 (accessed on 23 February 2016). 11 https://www.memri.org/jttm (MEMRI's project of Jihad and Terrorism Threat Monitor, accessed 29 March 2017). Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 V^// Recontextualizing Terror: ISIS Narratives in the English Media the Arabic ' j(jihad) but a misleading concept. By utilizing the narrativity feature of relationality, MEMRI reconstitutes the source narrative by the ideologically loaded concept of 'jihad in the target society i.e. the West whom its translations are dedicated to. Special Dispatch No. 6159; Iraqi Columnist: Why Aren't Muslim Clerics Calling For Jihad Against ISIS? Another example of the strategic use of framing relationality in MEMRI's translations of the Arabic editorials on Daesh is its borrowing of the Arabic ' (sheikh) as in its SD Nos. 5575, 5846, 5872, 5969, 6063, 6159 and 6288. MEMRI attempts to suggest links between the Arabic word (sheikh) and what it calls 'Islamist/Salafi-extremists' such as its SD Nos. 5575, 5846 and 5872. In addition, MEMRI also attempts to draw a relation between the Arabic word sheikh and 'terrorists' representing in Daesh's leader Abu-Baker Al-Baghdadi in SD No. 5969 and Al-Qaeda then leader Osama Bin Laden in SD No. 6288. The Arabic word sheikh was not defined and/or explained in any of MEMRI's translations under analysis, rather it was left ambiguously untranslated. In the Arabic dictionary, sheikh, plural sheiukh, means "A venerable old man. A man above fifty years of age. A man of authority" (Al-Khudrawi, 2004 p. 281) and sheikh fani is translated to "very old man" (Alkhuli, 1989 p. 61). Shaykh or Sheikh or Sheik , according to the Glossary of Islamic terms in Arabic12 of The Federation of Islamic Associations of New Zealand (FIANZ), is: "A honorific term in the Arabic language that literally means "elder". It is commonly used to designate an elder of a tribe, a revered wise man, or an Islamic scholar. It also refers to a person when they have completed their undergraduate university studies in Islamic studies and are trained in giving lectures". I 73 | 12 http://www.iman.co.nz/glossary_of_islamic_terms_in_arabic.php (last accessed on 29 April 2017). V^/ Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Nael F. M. Hijjo, Surinderpal Kaur Shaykh (plural shuyukh) is a general term that is called for "someone who is over fifty, or the patriarch of the tribe or family, a title of respect" (Bewley, 1998 p.21). Sheikh, therefore, as an honour title especially for ruling family members in the Arabian Gulf countries is commonly preferred to be transliterated rather than translated following other titles such as Dato, Datuk, Dato Seri, among others13, in Malaysia, Hari and Datu, among others14, in the Philippines, 74 | and Sir and Dame/Lady, among others15, in England. However, sheikh when refers to an elder man over fifty is suggested to be translated into 'old', as in the translation of Ernest Hemingway's (1952) the Old Man and the Sea. The Arabic sheikh is also suggested by Oxford English Dictionary16 to be translated into 'senior' or 'leader' when it refers to a man with degree in Islamic studies in the Muslim community as well as to a patriarch of the tribe or family. In the Arabic article under analysis, the Arabic word ' (sheikh) is used in its plural form ' '£Jf* (sheiukh) in a genitive case to the word 'Islam' suggesting the meaning 'leaders of Islam' as follows: -tij-J ¡y> ¿y^yi ^ s^ jst jtisiij ¿jj^uidr (Secularists and non-believers of Islam are more zealous for Islam than its leaders), ¿>* ^ Jj-'^j j£(J tfjF (we notice that leaders of Islam and its men live in a state of psychological calmness), "(o1 j* jc jj Li' (what is surprising is that some of leaders of Islam), " £jffM i Vjt j* U*J¿i jc-^j U/ (what also is surprising is that part of those leaders), and "slit* organisation. Les responsables des ressources humaines peuvent augmenter le niveau de Rengagement organisationnel de leurs employés en réalisant des fonctions et des pratiques de GRH en fonction de leurs attentes et, de cette manière, les employés peuvent sentir qu>ils sont les atouts les plus importants des organisations. Le but de cette recherche est d>étudier la relation entre les dimensions de Rengagement organisationnel et les pratiques de GRH. Aussi déterminer les perceptions des employés quant au niveau d>engagement organisationnel et aux pratiques de GRH, représente le deuxième objectif de cette recherche. Selon les résultats de la recherche, il sera possible de donner aux employeurs un aperçu de la réalité, susceptible de contribuer à développer un engagement organisationnel par les pratiques de GRH au sein des organisations. | 107 | Mots clés: Gestion des Ressources Humaines, Engagement Organisationnel. IJEMS 10 (2) : pp.3-28 QUE CACHENT LES STATISTIQUES ? ANALYSE SECONDAIRE DU CHÔMAGE EN ESPAGNE Diana Amber, Jesús Domingo Les sources statistiques officielles font état d'un taux de chômage alarmant chez les personnes de plus de 45 ans en Espagne. Cependant, une grande partie de l'information est soit réduite au silence, soit nécessite auparavant des analyses secondaires inexistantes, ce qui facilite la Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Résumés réduction sociale des problèmes et rend utile l>analyse critique des données et de leurs faiblesses et lacunes. Cette étude effectue une analyse secondaire des données de l>Institut national de la statistique sur le chômage dans ce groupe. Les résultats fournissent : le profil général des chômeurs de plus de 45 ans ; le profil éducatif des chômeurs de plus de 45 ans ; et les données réduites au silence par les sources. L>étude conclut que l>information offerte ne nous permet pas d>affiner et d>identifier tous les indicateurs qui déterminent l>employabilité. La nationalité, le niveau d>éducation et le sexe sont identifiés comme les | 108 | principaux facteurs liés à l'embauche. Mots clés: Analyse secondaire, plus de 45 ans, Chômage, Statistiques. IJEMS 10 (2) : pp. 29-47 RECONTEXTUALISER LA TERREUR : PRESENTATION DE DEACH DANS LES MÉDIAS ANGLAIS Nael F. M. Hijjo, Surinderpal Kaur S'inspirant de l'approche interdisciplinaire de l'analyse du récit fondée sur la théorie (Baker 2006 - narrative theory-informed analysis), cet article analyse les traductions anglaises des éditoriaux arabes concernant Daech qui ont été publiées par l'Institut de recherche sur les médias du Moyen-Orient (Middle East Media Research Institute - MEMRI) entre 2013 et 2016. MEMRI est un groupe de réflexion basé à Washington qui est largement cité par les principaux médias occidentaux, surtout les États-Unis. Cet article a pour but d'étudier le rôle des médias en utilisant la traduction comme moyen de reconstruction et de renégociation de la présentation du récit en question. Il examine également l'efficacité du cadrage contextuel dans la modification des récits des actes terroristes commis par Daesh (l'État islamique) ce qui, à son tour, communique une image déformée de l'islam et des musulmans aux fonctionnaires et aux publics de l'espace Euro-méditerranéen. Les résultats suggèrent que le cadrage contextuel représente un moyen efficace de rediriger des récits originaux au sein les traductions des médias qui, elles, fonctionnent en dehors du texte immédiat. Le recadrage de contexte est une méthode linguistique significative pour insérer des idéologies et des agendas particuliers dans le récit cible, conformément au métarécit de la «guerre contre la terreur». Il y a donc un besoin de traduire de manière efficace et innovante les contextes de phénomènes, qui sont eux-mêmes inconnus, en Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Résumés raison de la différence culturelle des publics Nord-Sud et Est-Ouest de l'espace Euro-méditerranéen. Mots clés: cadrage contextuel, médias anglais, Euro-méditerranéen, Deach, traduction. IJEMS 10 (2) : pp. 49-77 LA MÉDITERRANÉE EXISTE-T-ELLE DANS LES RITUELS DIPLOMATIQUES DES ÉTATS ? : COMPARAISON ENTRE LA | 109 | PRÉSENCE DES ÉTATS MÉDITERRANÉENS Jana Arbeiter, Boštjan Udovič La diplomatie est au cœur des relations internationales et représente l'un des principaux éléments et instruments du pouvoir de l'État. Tous les acteurs de la communauté internationale sont attachés à des règles communes de comportement dans les relations mutuelles et ne peuvent pas fonctionner sans hiérarchie. Dans la diplomatie, cette hiérarchie se voit le mieux dans l'ordre de préséance, qui est utilisée pour représenter clairement la distribution du pouvoir symbolique entre les acteurs politiques interétatiques et intra-étatiques. L'objectif de cet article est de tester la présomption qu'un impact régional (c'est-à-dire la Méditerranée) se reflète aussi dans la pratique diplomatique de l'ordre de préséance nationale des Etats méditerranéens. Cependant, une analyse détaillée des 16 pays méditerranéens ne confirme pas cette présomption, montrant plutôt que ce n'est pas la région celle qui exerce un impact sur l'ordre de préséance, mais que cette ordre est davantage défini par les caractéristiques du système politique national qui, elles, devraient être prises en compte lorsque nous analysons l'aspect plus large des relations interétatiques régionales. Mots clés: ordre de préséance, diplomatie, pouvoir symbolique, Méditerranée. IJEMS 10 (2) : pp. 79-106 Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Povzetki RAZISKAVA O DOLOČANJU VPLIVA PRAKS UČV NA POVEČANJE ORGANIZACIJSKE ZAVEZANOSTI Esin Ertemir, Yasemin Bal, Serdar Bozkurt Človeški viri so postali primarni vir znatne konkurenčne prednosti organizacij, ki delujejo v zahtevnih okoljih. Da bi organizacije ohranile in zadovoljile svoje zaposlene, bi morale razviti svoje funkcije in prakse upravljanja s človeškimi viri (UČV) v skladu s pričakovanji svojih zaposlenih. Zato je organizacijska zavezanost do zaposlenih postala zelo pomembna, saj zaposlene ohranja v organizaciji. Upravljavci človeških virov lahko povečajo nivo organizacijske zavezanosti svojih zaposlenih z izvajanjem funkcij in praks UČV glede na pričakovanja samih zaposlenih in tako lahko le-ti čutijo, da so glavni kapital organizacij. Namen te raziskave je proučiti razmerje med razsežnostmi organizacijske zavezanosti in praksami UČV. Drugi cilj te raziskave je določiti, kako zaposleni zaznavajo ta nivo organizacijske zavezanosti in praks UČV. Ugotovitve raziskave bodo omogočile delodajalcem pregled nad dejanskim stanjem, kar lahko prispeva k razvoju organizacijske zavezanosti s pomočjo praks UČV znotraj organizacij. Ključne besede: upravljanje s človeškimi viri, organizacijska zavezanost. IJEMS 10 (2): 3-28 KAJ SKRIVA STATISTIKA? SEKUNDARNA ANALIZA BREZPOSELNOSTI V ŠPANIJI Diana Amber, Jesús Domingo Uradni statistični viri poročajo o alarmantni stopnji brezposelnosti med osebami nad 45 let v Španiji. Vendar je veliko informacij zamolčanih ali pa le-te zahtevajo še neobstoječo sekundarno analizo, ki olajšuje zmanjšanje družbenih težav in pomaga pri kritični analizi podatkov ter njenih slabosti in prednosti. Študija opravlja sekundarno analizo podatkov iz Nacionalnega inštituta za statistiko o brezposelnosti pri omenjeni skupini. Rezultati zagotavljajo: splošni profil brezposelnih nad 45 let; izobraževalni profil brezposelnih nad 45 let; in podatke, ki so jih viri zamolčali. S študijo je bilo ugotovljeno, da nam posredovani podatki ne omogočajo izboljšanja in prepoznavanja Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Povzetki vseh kazalnikov, ki določajo zaposljivost. Državljanstvo, stopnja izobrazbe in spol so opredeljeni kot glavni dejavniki zaposlovanja. Ključne besede: sekundarna analiza, nad 45 let, brezposelnost, statistika. IJEMS 10 (2): 29-47 REKONTEKSTUALIZIRANJE TERORJA: PREDSTAVITEV | 112 | ISIS-A V ANGLEŠKIH MEDIJIH Nael F. M. Hijjo, Surinderpal Kaur Na podlagi interdisciplinarnega pristopa Bakerove pripovedne analize, ki temelji na teoriji (Baker 2006, narrative theory-informed analysis), ta članek analizira angleške prevode arabskih uredniških vsebin na temo ISIS-a, ki jih je med letoma 2013 in 2016 objavil Srednji vzhodni raziskovalni inštitut za medije (Middle East Media Research Institute - MEMRI). MEMRI je možganski trust s sedežem v Washingtonu, ki ga v veliki meri navajajo zahodni mediji, predvsem v ZDA. Namen tega članka je preučevanje vloge medijev s pomočjo prevajanja kot sredstva za rekonstrukcijo in ponovno pogajanje o predstavitvi omenjene teme. Članek prav tako preučuje učinkovitost kontekstualnega okvira pri spreminjanju pripovedi o terorističnih dejanjih, ki jih je storila skupina ISIS (islamska država), kar pa povzroča izkrivljeno podobo islama in muslimanov pri evro-sredozemskih uradnikih in širši javnosti. Ugotovitve kažejo, da je vsebinsko okvirjanje učinkovito orodje za vključevanje izvirne zgodbe v medijske prevode, ki delujejo izven neposrednega besedila. Preokvirjanje konteksta je učinkovita jezikovna metoda, s pomočjo katere lahko vključimo določene ideologije in programe znotraj ciljne pripovedi v skladu z meta-pripovedjo, ki temelji na »Vojni proti terorju«. Zato je treba informirano in inova-tivno prevajati kontekste posameznih neznanih pojavov, saj znotraj evro-sredozemskega prostora obstaja kulturna razlika pri severni in južni javnosti ter vzhodni in zahodni. Ključne besede: vsebinski okvir, angleški mediji, evro-sredozemsko, ISIS, prevajanje. IJEMS 10 (2): 49-77 Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 Povzetki ALI SREDOZEMLJE OBSTAJA PRI DRŽAVNIH DIPLOMATSKIH RITUALIH?: PRIMERJAVA PREDNOSTNEGA VRSTNEGA REDA PRI SREDOZEMSKIH DRŽAVAH Jana Arbeiter, Boštjan Udovič Diplomacija je osrednjega pomena za mednarodne odnose in predstavlja enega glavnih elementov in instrumentov državne moči. Vsi akterji v mednarodni skupnosti so zavezani skupnim pravilom obnašanja v medsebojnih odnosih in ne morejo delovati brez hierarhije. V diplomaciji se takšna hierarhija najbolje izraža v prednostnem vrstnem redu, ki se uporablja za jasno predstavljanje porazdelitve simbolične moči med meddržavnimi in znotrajdržavnimi političnimi akterji. Namen tega članka je preveriti domnevo, ali se regionalni vpliv (torej Sredozemlja) odraža tudi v diplomatski praksi vrstnega reda sredozemskih držav. Podrobna analiza 16 sredozemskih držav ne potrjuje te domneve. Regija ne vpliva na prednostni vrstni red, ta pa je odvisen od značilnosti nacionalnega političnega sistema, kar je treba upoštevati pri analizi širšega vidika regionalnih meddržavnih odnosov. Ključne besede: prednostni vrstni red, diplomacija, simbolična moč, Sredozemlje. IJEMS 10 (2): 79-106 Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 AtiJaiall jüll ô J-jj JiC ÁJJ¿.I Jj Ij-aJl ôjlj] ÜjLjjLa-o jjj .—a üjl^jjj jIJJM tJlj jjtiuAj cjuUtiJjl jjul U^J .djWjUt fr^i— ^Mj ^l^jll ^l] ^jll C'ltiJ'tiil Aj^âljjll Sjjtiil ^Mllul J-^a AjJ.jll Jjljtill k «Afrl^j] J^l j— jji^jtill ül*Jjj ¡jiljJJl 4jj.1I Jjljtill Sjl-b A^li jLiclj dujlti— . d^'j'^ll ^ic S-ljj 4JJ.1I Jjljtill ^JJJ— .J^l j- ^ulul -^J^ jj^jtill AtiJ'jtill ^l_jjll JJJ*J ^lU «jjic ^li^llj jiJajtiill cjlajjjJ liâj 4JJ.¿JÍ l Jjljtiil Sjli_j A—li Jl»£; ---liÁjii. . jj-jjsri cjlu lj.il Ajljil l Aia^l : JUL u^jll LjL^j a wL»^Sj AJ^^JJUJJVI úl^lj^ii AjSjjil Áik^il :JulSilj ^jil U^jl j^JÍI JJJ JJ jjj Ájjüx ÁJ^I^JÍJ^II ^^j^^il J^ J^ ^jijjj jljjwjj íjJUÜji IJIA. úl^^jl JS .Áijjil Á^i^J úIjjVIj Áj^l^Vl Jj^jj Ju ÁJjJl Ájj£j^ jjj*j Áj^^jÍjjÍI ji ^i .Áji^i^jll jjj Ja*j ji l^i jS^jVj ÁÍjIjüaÍI úI^jIaa ^i ÁSjj^^ jtljlj ÁdjjL ^ijjil ^^j^^il ^i ÁÍl*Ül £jIá.j jju Áil*iil Á^l^l úl^^il ^it Ájj^jil ^jSil ¿jjjJ ^j^ju JJajJ .j^J^jj Ájá^^vi ^jjjjU Iía Áj^l^jijjil ^J^jil Áját^yi UJJJJ ÚI^JIAA ^i (U^j^l j^jil) ^^jiáyi J^I jlS lj¡ jljJ^l ^ij ü^jil IÍA .Jjjil ji j^ VJU 4jij ^IjJsVI l^A lj*j2j V U^jJaJI J^jîl Jjj j^ ^^ J-ž-il Jjj^Jil ji Jj¿ (U^j^l J^jîl Jjji ji y^j ^JÍl Á^jíil Áj^lj^il ^^jil úli^u jj^j jjSVI ji ^^jj ÁjSj^Vl ^^jj ^it j^ l^i ^Jil ÁáU'^ii jj£j Jjjii jju áSJJ^AJI Á^jiáyi ^Í ¿^JVI jl^i Jji^J jjt jljJtVi i^jJ .U^jJ^il ^JJVI j^jil 'Ájj^jil éjíil (Ájwl^jiuj 'Ájáj^yi yjJjj úl^i£il ^.l-V^^ :(Y)>»^SJ ÁJU^JJ.JJVI úl^ljjii Ájijjil Ái^xil :J^l£ilu ^jSl Volume 10 | 2017 | Number 2 EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Abdelhamid El-Zoheiry, EMUNI University, Slovenia CO-EDITOR Ana Bojinovic Fenko, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia MANAGING EDITOR Faris Kocan EDITORIAL BOARD Nabil Mahmoud Alawi, An-Najah University, Palestine Nadia Al-Bagdadi, Central European University, Hungary Ahmad M. Atawneh, Hebron University, Palestine Pamela Ballinger, Bowdoin College, USA Klemen Bergant, University of Nova Gorica, Slovenia Roberto Biloslavo, University of Primorska, Slovenia Remi Brague, Pantheon-Sorbonne University, France Holger Briel, University of Nicosia, Cyprus Donna Buchanan, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, usa Claudio Cressati, University of Udine, Italy Yamina El Kirat El Allame, University Mohammed V, Morocco Said Ennahid, AlAkhawayn University in Ifrane,Morocco Nejat Erk, Cukurova University, Turkey Carlos Fraenkel, McGill University, Canada Mladen Franko, University of Nova Gorica, Slovenia Giacomarra Mario Gandolfo, University of Palermo, Italy Anton Gosar, University of Primorska, Slovenia Rune Gulev, Kiel University of Applied Sciences, Germany Mitja Gustin, University of Primorska, Slovenia Hassan Hanafi, Cairo University, Egypt Joaquina Labajo Valdes, Autonomous University of Madrid, Spain Senin Latif Sanin, Hacettepe University, Turkey Binshan Lin, Louisiana State University in Shreveport, USA Gyozo Lugosi, University of Budapest, Hungary Salwa Najjar, University of Gabes, Tunisia David Ohana, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel Stefania Panebianco, University of Catania, Italy Stefano Pivato, University of Urbino, Italy Carmen Popescu, Paris-Sorbonne University, France Georges Prevelakis, Pantheon-Sorbonne University, France Andrej Rahten, University of Maribor, Slovenia Franco Rizzi, Mediterranean Universities Union Gianluca Sadun Bordoni, University of Teramo, Italy Tobias Schumacher, Lisbon University Institute, Portugal Anthony Spiteri, University of Malta, Malta Ivan Sprajc, Scientific Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Petros Stangos, University of Thessaloniki, Greece Ali Toumi, Universite de Tunis, Tunisia Greg Woolf, University of St Andrews, United Kingdom Euro-Mediterranean University Kidričevo nabrežje 2 SI-6330 Piran, Slovenia www.ijems.emuni.si ijems@emuni.si