U P O R A B N A I N F O R M A T I K A 1912016 - πtevilka 4 - letnik XXIV 1Marijan FrkoviÊ, 2Franci Pivec, 3Niko Schlamberger, 4Janez Grad 1Croatian Computer Society 2,3Slovenian Society INFORMATIKA 4University of Ljubljana marijan.frkovic@hiz.si; franci.pivec@izum.si; niko.schlamberger@gmail.com; janez.grad@siol.com A contribution to the history of computing and informatics in West Balkan countries Abstract The history of computing and informatics in the region which is today known as the West Balkan countries has not been systematically and methodically considered so far. There exist a limited number of books that are more or less memoirs and therefore provide a rather narrow and specific view. The ambition of this paper is not to offer a comprehensive overview of the beginnings of deployment of computers in former Yugo- slavia, but rather to serve as a seminal paper for those that wish to explore the issue in depth. In particular, the paper covers the deployment of the first computers in Slovenia and Croatia and the influence the process has had on the development of related businesses, professions and science. IzvleËek Prispevek k razvoju raËunalniπtva in informatike v dræavah zahodnega Balkana Zgodovina raËunalniπtva in informatike v regiji, ki je danes poznana pod skupnim imenom zahodni Balkan, do sedaj πe ni bila obravnavana niti sis- tematiËno niti metodiËno. Sicer obstaja omejeno πtevilo knjig, ki pa so predvsem spomini in omogoËajo zgolj povrπen in omejen vpogled. Ta Ëlanek ne predstavlja celovitega pregleda zaËetkov raËunalniπtva v nekdanji Jugoslaviji, ampak izhodiπËe za tiste, ki bi æeleli to podroËje raziskati podrob- neje. V Ëlanku sta πe posebej opisana uvedba prvih raËunalnikov v Sloveniji in na Hrvaπkem ter vpliv, ki ga je ta proces imel na razvoj povezanih dejavnosti, poklicev in znanosti. PREGLEdI V ZGOdOVINO SPO©TOVANE BRALKE IN SPO©TOVANI BRALCI, tokrat objavljamo prvi prispevek v novi rubriki Pogledi v zgodovino. ©tiridesetletnica Slovenskega druπtva INFORMATIKA je odliËna priloænost, da usmerimo pogled tudi v preteklost, v zaËetke in razvoj raËunalniπtva in informatike v Sloveniji in okolici. Ëeprav se je v tem Ëasu infor- macijska tehnologija razvijala s hitrostjo, ki je neprimerljiva s hitrostjo razvoja marsikaterega drugega podroËja Ëlovekovega delovanja, pa se iz zgodovine in aktivnosti posameznikov in organizacij v tistem Ëasu lahko marsikaj nauËimo in uporabimo tudi v danaπnjem Ëasu. Zato je pomembno, da razvoj raËunalniπtva in informatike v Sloveniji ne gre v pozabo. Prispevki v tej rubriki bodo preteæno odraæali poglede avtorjev in njihovo poznavanje dogajanja, ki je pogosto specifiËno in zajema le posamezna okolja. Zato vabimo vse bralce, ki ste bili udeleæenci tega razvoja ali ga dobro poznate, da nam poπljete svoje prispevke k zgodovinskemu spominu, ki jih bomo z veseljem objavili. Uredniπtvo revije Uporabna informatika U P O R A B N A I N F O R M A T I K A192 2016 - πtevilka 4 - letnik XXIV 1. INTRODUCTION The paper deals with the history of computing and informatics in the countries, as they are known today, of the West Balkans. However, it is actually about the history of computing and informatics in the countries that have come to existence as succes- sors of the federal republics of the former Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia. The denomi- nation WBC is therefore somewhat misleading as the paper does not take into account the history of computing and informatics in Albania, which is certainly part of the WBC as well. Also, it cannot be considered complete since it does not deal with the respective aspects of history in Bosnia and Herze- govina, Ko sovo, Montenegro, Macedonia and Ser- bia. Individual contributions have appeared in the IT STAR Newsletter (Vol. 6, No. 4, 2008, and Vol 12, No. 1, 2014). The former provides the story of the first computer ZUSE Z-23 installed in Slovenia, and the latter the story of development of the first Serbian-made electronic computer CER-10. To our knowledge, apart from Croatia, Slovenia and Serbia, neither computers nor peripherals were produced in the rest of the former Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia. Also, the introduction of computers there was rather slow and conservative, which is un- derstandable as the three aforementioned republics of Yugoslavia were most economically advanced. Nevertheless, we should not neglect the achieve- ments in applied computing and informatics that have come about in the period following 1975. In 1980s, a notable achievement was recorded: namely, Suad AlagiÊ from Bosnia and Herzegovina devel- oped at that time one of if not the most advanced concept of a data base management system. The rea- son why his concept was not deservedly recognized is probably the same as with the relatively short- lived success of the Triglav/Trident computer, de- scribed further in this paper. The history of computing in WBC can be rough- ly divided into three periods: before 1965s, 1965s to 1975s and post-1975s. The division is arbitrary and reflects the authors’ perceptions and experiences and could be argued. Before 1965, the deployment of computers was limited to their purchase and use mostly by university. After 1965, computers were also used for commercial purposes; training centres were established and the first faculties for comput- ing and informatics were founded. In the seventies, the state1 developed an ambition to produce its own computers. First began the licensed production of computer peripherals in the then federal republics of Croatia and Serbia, followed by the licensed pro- duction of computers in both. This effort culminat- ed with in-house production of minicomputers in Slovenia. Parallel to hardware production, also no- ticeable development of software can be registered, starting with general-purpose application software. After 1975, the achievement of Suad AlagiÊ should not be overlooked as his data base management concept was probably the most revolutionary of the period. 2. A BRIEF HISTORY OF COMPUTING AND INFORMATICS IN CROATIA 2.1 Before 1965 In Croatia, the development and manufacture of computers started in 1948 when Tvornica raËunskih strojeva Zagreb (TRS, Zagreb Computing Machines Factory) was set up, the first of its kind in Croatia. Initially, the factory produced mechanical computers. From 1948 to 1973, no other computer manufacturers were present in Croatia. The pioneer in the field and the person responsible for building the first digital computer in Croatia was a Croatian scientist, a do- yen of computer science in Croatia and worldwide, Professor Branko SouËek, PhD. He developed and in 1959 together with the team from the Ruer BoπkoviÊ Institute carried out the project dubbed fl256-channel analyzer, memory, logics and programs«, which mar- ked the beginning of computer science development in Croatia. In the sense of achievements of the then technology, Professor SouËek's computer was state- -of-the-art: logic gates were based on vacuum tubes, the memory used magnetic cores and the program- mes were performed at the unbelievable speed of a million cycles per second, which was downright incredible at the time. The device was placed in a 2 meter high cabinet and a cathode ray tube was used as the output for displaying the data. After the first fully functional prototype at the beginning of 1960s, the Ruer BoπkoviÊ Institute together with a group of enthusiasts who were in- volved in Professor SouËek's project, made a series 1 i.e. the Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia Marijan FrkoviÊ, Franci Pivec, Niko Schlamberger, Janez Grad: A contribution to the history of computing and informatics in West Balkan countries U P O R A B N A I N F O R M A T I K A 1932016 - πtevilka 4 - letnik XXIV Marijan FrkoviÊ, Franci Pivec, Niko Schlamberger, Janez Grad: A contribution to the history of computing and informatics in West Balkan countries of these computers that were used at the Institu- te as well as by other institutions. The computers were put to good use at the Institute while Profes- sor SouËek's project aroused the interest of scien- tific communities worldwide, resulting in visits to the Institute by many scientists from all across the world with the intent of copying Professor SouËek's computer. One of the persons to visit the Institute was William A. Higinbotham, the director of BNL (Brookheaven National Laboratory) from the US, the biggest institute for scientific research in the world, which meant that the work of Professor SouËek, i.e. the beginning of computer science in Croatia, was recognized globally. When we look at the importance of Professor SouËek's project today, we should remember a series of facts related to world trends in computer science from the period: in 1956, Japan-based Fuji develo- ped a computer for the calculation of optical systems production with 1700 vacuum tubes; in 1957, the first FORTRAN compiler was developed and in 1958, the first prototypes of integrated electronic circuits. In 1959, the Japanese company NEC produced the first commercial transistor-based computer (transistor computer) while the first commercial mini-compu- ters were developed at the beginning of the 1960s (DEC PDP-1 in 1960 and DEC-PDP-8 in 1965). In Cro- atia, the use of computers and the development of information systems also started in that period, and was based mainly on imported equipment. Due to substantial prices, only large organizations could af- ford to buy computers. Although the equipment only had limited capacity, highly trained staff was able develop complete applications, thus compensating for the restrictions. 2.2 From 1965 to 1975 Initially, TRS, like most of producers worldwide, would only manufacture mechanical computers. During 1968 in Croatia, the first electronic calculator incorporating an optical display was developed. The calculator was based on 100 10-component integra- ted circuits produced by RIZ in Croatia. At the time, no LSI or VLSI-chips were available while integrated circuits of high and very high de- gree of integration were still to be developed. TRS‘s calculator was, in the sense of the number of compo- nents and external dimensions, one of the smallest desktop calculators in the world. A couple of years later in 1972, the first 1-chip (desktop and pocket variant) and printing calculators would appear. The first calculator in Croatia was designed in 1973 and production was started by Digitron Buje. It was in the same year that TRS produced the first Croatian printing calculator. TRS would also produce general purpose computer equipment. At the end of 1969, TRS became the distributor for Nixdorf, in turn developing a concept of distributed data processing. From the first computer independently produced in Croatia in 1974 to the end of 1988, TRS produced and installed several thousand units of series 700 and 900 computers manufactured in-house, fitted prima- rily with own-produced keyboards, video terminals and printers, as well as operating systems and user software. During the period, TRS also collaborated with MDS and Metalka based in Ljubljana, Slovenia, in the production of series 711 computers, as well as with IBM in the production of Series 1 and System 1 devices equipped with peripherals from Croatia, intended for use in the economy and by schools, rail- ways and others. From 1973 to 1987, many other companies in Cro- atia started to engage in the production of computer equipment. However, the public and professional orga- nizations insisted on the non-market strategy that only one large manufacturer in Yugoslavia, and later one manufacturer in every federal republic, should be gran- ted a flmandate« from the government for the exclusive production of computer equipment. The government would also ensure the full protection of machines pro- duced in such a manner. The companies were: in Slove- nia it was Iskra, in Serbia EI Niπ, in Bosnia and Herze- govina Energoinvest, UNIS and Rudi »ajavec, while in Croatia, such a company did not exist at that time. The end of 1960s was when third-generation com- puters were being introduced, that is computers with real-time applications, with the capacity to manage production processes, implement communication systems, databases, as well as multiprogramming and multiprocessing which enabled coupled with fa- ster processing units and a larger external memory the development of integrated information systems for the economy and public administration. With re- spect to equipment production, the most prominent players were IBM, UNIVAC, ICL, Burroughs, BULL GAMMA, Honeywell and PDP. At the beginning of 1973 in Zagreb, the Impuls business association was set up with the purpose of U P O R A B N A I N F O R M A T I K A194 2016 - πtevilka 4 - letnik XXIV bringing together every notable producer of telecom- munication, electronic and computer equipment in Croatia. The founders were Nikola Tesla ‡ Tvornica telekomunikacijskih ureaja, TRS and ELKA ‡ Tvor- nica elektriËnih kabela, all of them based in Zagreb. During 1974, an idea was sparked that the deve- lopment of computer equipment production in Croa- tia could progress in collaboration with only a single technologically developed foreign partner capable of reliable financial backing. As a result, in 1976, the Government of the Republic of Croatia upheld the initiative and contacted ICL and SPERRY UNIVAC. In other parts of Yugoslavia, contacts were establis- hed as well: in Slovenia with Philips, in Serbia with Olivetti and Rockwell, and in Bosnia and Herzegovi- na with NCR and Olympia. These contacts were the result of a computer equipment import ban due to the lack of foreign exchange resources. Continuing the development of computer science in Croatia, in 1966 Professor SouËek set up the first La- boratory for Cybernetics, and in the 1966/67 school year the first research electronic computing centre: Znanstveni elektronski raËunski centar ‡ ZRCE (re- named in 1973 to the present day’s SveuËiliπni raËun- ski centar - SRCE (University Computing Centre). The same year, the subject Digital computers was introduced at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Faculty of Science; and in 1970, FEE introduced a new undergraduate course for 3rd and 4th year stu- dents dubbed Computer science alongside the post- graduate course of the same name. The books that Professor SouËek wrote at the time ‡ Microcomputers in Data Processing and Si- mulation (New York, 1973) and Microprocessors and Microcomputers (New York, 1976) ‡ made a major contribution in the development of computer scien- ce in Croatia. Professor SouËek also delivered many seminars and lectures in that period throughout the world (New York, Boston, Paris, London, Rijeka, Opatija and elsewhere). There was also a seminar on Microprocessors, a 3-day event in Croatia, whi- ch in 1978 grew into the MIPRO scientific conference which is still held annually today. 2.3 After 1975 During the period, there were a number of compa- nies that produced equipment for process manage- ment in telephone exchange, CAD CAM systems and graphics workstation, personal computers and peripherals (printers, cash registers, video terminals, discs) etc. Due to the open market, the production of hardware in Croatia developed at a steadier pace. It is important to point out that Croatian hardware production in an open market environment, without a planned development policy and funds and incen- tives, could not be developed to a greater extent. It is encouraging to note that as the atmosphere changed the development of Croatian software accelerated along with network development, end-user training etc., opportunities for buying foreign state-of-the-art hardware and software, while the quality of collabo- ration with foreign partners improved. There were leading manufacturers of computer equipment, such as IBM, SPERRY UNIVAC (UNI- SYS) and others, who continued their efforts by in- stalling and building powerful computers, develo- ping information systems with the support of highly qualified and educated Croatian experts, which cul- minated into the establishment of private IT compa- nies that positioned well in the foreign market. 3. A BRIEF HISTORY OF COMPUTING AND INFORMATICS IN SLOVENIA 3.1 Before 1965 First and foremost, it should be mentioned that the division of the history of computing and informatics is arbitrary and roughly follows the evolution of di- gital computers from electronic tubes to transistors and integrated circuit technology. Before 1965, the general awareness of computers, let alone of their potential to impact our lives, was virtually non-exi- stent. More knowledgeable were technically educa- ted individuals that perceived computers as an aid to release them of the burdens of intellectually non- -demanding but arithmetically extensive tasks, such as calculating the statics for several tens to hundreds statically undefined constructions. However, the sli- de rule was still the main calculating aid in the te- chnical domain while for extensive arithmetical cal- culations electromechanical devices were considered state-of-the-art. The first computer in today’s sense was the Zuse Z-23. Marijan FrkoviÊ, Franci Pivec, Niko Schlamberger, Janez Grad: A contribution to the history of computing and informatics in West Balkan countries U P O R A B N A I N F O R M A T I K A 1952016 - πtevilka 4 - letnik XXIV This period of computing2 in Slovenia is branded with the purchase and deployment of the first digital computer in the country. From today’s perspective, it is difficult to understand that the choice had to have been made between the British Elliott 803 and the German Zuse Z-23. US companies did not com- pete. Eventually, in 1962, the Z-23 was introduced, so 1962 can be justly considered as the beginning of the computer era in Slovenia. The Z-23 was used mostly in solving academic problems and research work in physics, chemistry, mathematics, economics, electri- cal, machine and civil engineering etc. It was used in calculating the statics for the Ljubljanska banka buil- ding. The system contained 120 statistically undefi- ned items and the engineers wanted to use the Z-23 to solve the problem. However, due to the lack of computer efficiency, the 120 by 120 system had to be manually reduced to 90 by 90, which took the team of three experts full three months to achieve, and it was only then that the Z-23 was able to take over and complete the task in mere days. The use of the com- puter in business was at the time beyond imaginati- on. Nevertheless, the Z-23 made a public appearance during the 1967 European Figure Skating Champi- onship in Ljubljana where it was used for adding up the scores. 3.2 From 1965 to 1975 It is remarkable to notice that during the period, an extremely novel and for the circumstances rather 2 Then, informatics as the discipline which goes hand-in-hand with computing did not yet exist. ambitious idea was born and also came into fruiti- on. Namely, Slovenia-based Intertrade succeeded in obtaining the license to import IBM computers and peripherals and to distribute IBM products in the ter- ritory of the then Yugoslavia. From today’s perspec- tive, we can judge this move as the major breakthro- ugh not only in the deployment of general purpose third-generation computers, but also as the catalyst for a myriad of aspects of accompanying activities. If computers were to be useful, they had to be sup- ported in various ways. Technical support is one of the obvious activities that is inseparably connected to every type of technical apparatus. Customer sup- port had to be developed to assist customers with transferring parts ‡ at that time ‡ of business activiti- es onto computers, which required the training of the customers’ personnel in systems analysis, program- ming, organization of data centres and more. At the same time, the vocabulary of computing and infor- matics also had to be established since no university study courses of computing and informatics existed. Electrical engineers were the only group of tertiary educated individuals with a grasp on computing es- sentials due to their education and understanding of the technical background, as well as mathematicians who understood the theoretical aspects of compu- ting. Faculties of computing and informatics were not established until much later. During this period, every major computer com- pany had a foothold in Yugoslavia, however because of strict import and export regulations, they were re- stricted from establishing their own representation of- fices. Instead, they were represented by national com- panies that conducted their business in the latter’s na- mes and on their behalves. The companies that were represented then were UNIVAC, National Cash Regi- ster, RCA, General Electric, Control Data Corporation, Honeywell, Burroughs, Digital Equipment Corporati- on, Olivetti and others, along with providers of IBM- -compatible peripherals such as magnetic tape devi- ces and magnetic disk drives3. Of course, it should not be overlooked that IBM at the time made the greatest contribution to development in the field of computing and must also be credited as the pioneer of informatics as a science in line with today’s perception. The IBM computers of the time were ‡ technically speaking ‡ 3 Computers provided an impulse for the economy at large; i.e. one of them were punch cards which were produced locally. Photo 1: Zuse in the Technical Museum in Munich Marijan FrkoviÊ, Franci Pivec, Niko Schlamberger, Janez Grad: A contribution to the history of computing and informatics in West Balkan countries U P O R A B N A I N F O R M A T I K A196 2016 - πtevilka 4 - letnik XXIV probably no better or worse than their competition but what provided the leading edge was the support or- ganized using IBM’s know-how, experience and kno- wledge. The result was that at least the major business in Slovenia and practically every federal institution, notably the Federal Statistical Office and Public Acco- untancy Service, were IBM customers. The prevailing argument was the support which was organized based on the IBM model. One feature was the establishment of branch offices in Belgrade, Zagreb and later also in Sarajevo, making sure customers always had access to system engineers. Soon, Intertrade established a cu- stomer training centre in Radovljica, approximately 50km from Ljubljana near the Austrian border where customer personnel from all of Yugoslavia underwent training in programming, system analysis and other related skills necessary to utilise computers most ef- ficiently. IBM personnel was however trained based on the established IBM training scheme primarily in IBM training centres throughout Europe and elsewhe- re. The training centre later extended its operations to function as the regional IBM training centre for Cen- tral and East Europe. 3.3 After 1975 Along Intertrade, another Slovenian company which ought to be highlighted is Elektrotehna as it success- fully qualified as a DEC representative. The division of Elektrotehna engaged with DEC computers was labelled Digital and operated quite successful, resul- ting in the foundation of Delta which remained part of the Elektrotehna Group4. The circumstances, that is business success, difficulties in providing the necessa- ry convertible currency, a number of enthusiasts from the Ljubljana faculty of electrical engineering, pos- sibly also the aftermath of the IFIP 1971 World Con- gress in Ljubljana, resulted in the idea to engage in the production of proprietary computers. The project was to use the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) approach to build a DEC compatible computer. The approach was promising as the US government was cautious about which countries US companies could export computers into. A Yugoslavian company from among the ranks of the three countries behind the idea of the Non-Aligned Movement appeared a good pro- spect to overcome the embargo that US government 4 The situation has been simplified, as the regulatory system was much different from what it is now or what it was in the West at the time. imposed on the export of computers. Nevertheless, as the essential components of computers, that is micro circuits and chips, were not produced in Yugoslavia, they still had to be obtained by Delta from DEC whi- ch seemed perfect as the computer was planned to have been DEC compatible. Eventually, efforts were successful and the first Slovenian computer, the Delta 340, was developed. The project focused particularly on technology process support as well as the deve- lopment of applications to enhance business proces- ses. The company later joined another business asso- ciation, namely Iskra Group, and changed its name to Iskra Delta. The success continued partly due to the political support it enjoyed, partly due to daring bu- siness decisions, as well as the awareness of the im- portance of well-organized customer and technical support and own research and development. Further- more, Iskra Delta also founded a training centre in Nova Gorica nearby the Italian border. After Delta 340, the company developed a three-processor micro- computer dub bed both Triglav (for reasons of national pride5) and Trident (to promote sales in the West). At the time of its introduction, it was probably among the best computers in the class in the world. The su- ccess story of Iskra Delta which just before its expiry employed over 2000 people ended with the massive political and economic changes at the end of 1990s that resulted in the dissolution of Yugoslavia and the company has since been closed down. The reason was according to the memoirs of the director of Iskra Delta a clash of interests between the CIA and KGB, where the termination of the company was collateral dama- ge. However, if we are to apply the Occam’s Razor principle, it seems more likely that the management did not understand the realities of the world. To be- come a global player, massive resources are required which were simply not available. Later, in the beginning of 1980s, Intertrade also developed an ambition to produce its own compu- ters. Whether it was a result of a sensation that the company is just as able as Iskra Delta to join the pre- stigious race or if another factor was at play is hard to tell. Also, the times were different in that the perso- nal computer has already made its entrance and was obviously there to stay. It is fact that the company started assembling IBM PCs and achieved modera- 5 Triglav, 2864 m high, the highest mountain of Slovenia and also the highest mountain of the then Yugoslavia. Marijan FrkoviÊ, Franci Pivec, Niko Schlamberger, Janez Grad: A contribution to the history of computing and informatics in West Balkan countries U P O R A B N A I N F O R M A T I K A 1972016 - πtevilka 4 - letnik XXIV te success. Together with the computer, the project team under the leadership of Matjaæ »adeæ develo- ped also a limited number of general purpose appli- cation programmes. The one that springs to mind is PCPIS, a word processor that at the time represen- ted a notable achievement. However, even before the 1990s, production was terminated. Today, global players are represented in Slovenia as independent companies, established under Slovenian law and en- gaging in business activities more or less in the same manner as throughout the rest of the world. What is there to say to conclude this brief outline of the history of the Slovenian computer industry? It was a great run, but it appears like the dream of world domination through home-made computers has come to an end. 4. DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTING AN INFORMATICS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF LJUBLJANA Considering the beginnings of the computer era in Slovenia, it would be unfair not to mention the role that the academic sphere played in the process. The chapter6 brings up first and foremost the importan- ce of the Republic Computing Centre (RCC) and the University7 Computing Centre. Professor Grad has been active from 1960 onwards after having joined the then Nuclear Institute Joæef Stefan (NIJS) in Ljub- ljana (later renamed Institute Joæef Stefan (IJS)), that is the very beginnings of deployment of computers in the Slovenian business, research, and education domains, with special regard to research institutions in Ljubljana and Maribor. Below follows the informa- tion that the authors believe to be the integral ele- ment of a well-adjusted presentation of development of computing and informatics in Slovenia. The most important players in the 1960s were In- tertrade and the University of Ljubljana. Intertrade satisfied a considerable part of business needs via IBM technology while at the University, it was NIJS that took the role of initiator. The University also established an alliance with the United Company Iskra, the Executive Council of the Socialist Repu- blic of Slovenia, Research Community Slovenia, and Education Community of Slovenia8, the latter two 6 Courtesy of Professor Janez Grad 7 i.e. University of Ljubljana 8 It should be added that the names of companies and institutions of that time are rather hard to translate into any language of today. being the main providers of research financing. For research purposes, NIJS began using the IBM 705 at the Federal Statistical Office in Belgrade. In 1962, the University and NIJS, which at the time was an independent research organisation, migrated their data processing to the Zuse Z-23 that was installed in Ljubljana in collaboration with UC Iskra which star- ted the licenced production of the Z-23. University researchers were engaged with the company in the development of Z-23 system software. In order to exploit the benefits of the fast deve- loping computer technology based then predomi- nantly on batch-oriented data processing without the use of telecommunication equipment which was too expensive and even wasteful for any individual organisation to own as it could not have been utili- sed to its full potential, the above mentioned entities established the RCC, chaired by Janez Grad, MSc, and procured for its operations the CDC 3300 com- puter. The location of RCC was rather distant from the University, so the University in turn purchased the IBM 1130 computer for education purposes. It was installed at the Institute of Mathematics, Physics and Mechanics. To facilitate coordination of activiti- es among university members, the IJS and RCC, the University established the Computing Centre of the University of Ljubljana (CCUL) under the leadership of Janez Grad, PhD. Business collaboration between the University, the IJS and RCC were overseen by the Business Board of the CCUL while the Professio- nal Council for Computing headed by Jernej Virant, PhD, was established to provide guidance in the field of computing and informatics. University members would use the central computer facility to perform any special tasks, as well as smaller computers whi- ch were incapable of communicating with the central one. The need for computing power increased rapidly, so RCC in 1971 decided to purchase a significantly more powerful model labelled CDC CYBER 70 with remote access capabilities by means of terminals. The new temporary director of RCC was appointed Edo Pirkmajer, PhD, to be succeeded by Cveto Trampuæ and Desan Justin, PhD. To make better use of the new computer, new users were engaged through time, among others the Ljubljana Dairy Company, Obnova Construction Company, the National Bank of Slove- nia, Republic Roads Company, and Slovenian Natio- nal Publishing Company. Marijan FrkoviÊ, Franci Pivec, Niko Schlamberger, Janez Grad: A contribution to the history of computing and informatics in West Balkan countries U P O R A B N A I N F O R M A T I K A198 2016 - πtevilka 4 - letnik XXIV More than 20.000 students in faculties and acade- mies were using the central computer both in batch and interactive modes, increasing the workload, so in 1981 CCUL decided to set up a new computer network where University members would become entry points. The existing CYBER 70 was seen as no longer appropriate for the architecture and the cho- ice was made to migrate to DEC System-10 compu- ters. The new system was composed of 10 nodes with Delta computers and the Kopa 10009 and LA 34 ter- minals. In the following years, the system was even- tually developed and made operational while Franc Mandelc was appointed head of CCUL. CCUL took big steps in 1987 and 1988 when the DEC System-10 was succeeded by two VAX 8550 computers control- ling a network of 200+ terminals and personal com- puters. In that period, Yugoslavian telecommunicati- on companies constructed the JUPAK10 network via which the University was connected to computers in Slovenia and Yugoslavia as well as Europe. This enabled the this way, direct exchange of information between universities within the country and as well as worldwide using electronic mail (BITNET, COSI- NE) and maintaining and deploying of common data bases. The development of computer technology by Slovenian universities and the society as a whole has been accompanied with intense research, deve- lopment and educational activities in various organi- sations and companies such as the Slovenian Society INFORMATIKA, Society of Economists of Ljubljana, ISKRA Institute for Automatization, ISKRA Delta, Intertrade and others. Their activities have helped recognize the business potential of computing and informatics and introduced them into study and re- search programmes of practically every tertiary edu- cation course but to some extent also into secondary education. These activities and results should not be forgotten, and they should be made public and re- membered to make possible a fair assessment of the role and influence that research and education have had on the development of computing and informa- tics in Slovenia. The list of examples below is illustra- tive, however far from exhaustive: 9 The terminals were produced in Slovenia. 10 Yugoslavian packet switching network  organisation of conferences, symposia and similar events such as FCIP, INFORMATICA, IFIP, DSI, SOR, and related papers;  creation of professional papers, studies, reports on research projects, CCUL development plans, program products, such as − Physical Calculations for YEGGR (a preliminary study for nuclear power stations) by the Reactor Department of NIJS, Ljubljana, 1962, carried out by Milan Osredkar, PhD et al.; the study conta- ins a computer program for IBM 705 by J. Grad; − Study Material IV ‡ Elements of Automatic Data Processing in Public Administration and Socie- tal Services, Institute for Public Administration and Labour Relations at the Faculty of Law in Ljubljana, Ljubljana, November 1969 (9 papers, 5 overviews and schemes); − (1) A Study on Information Processing in Slove- nia, (2) Program for a Data Processing Project in SK Bank, Ljubljana 1970, 25 authors; − Electronic Computers, published by Associati- on of Electrical Engineers of Slovenia, Ljubljana, 1971, at the occasion of IFIP World Computer Congress 1971 in Ljubljana; − Computer Science, materials for secondary gra- de teachers, Institute for Education in Socialist Republic of Slovenia, 7 authors; − Bulletin of the University of Ljubljana, Compu- ting, Ljubljana, 1971 to 1979, head of Professio- nal council J. Virant, PhD, CCLU representative J. Grad, PhD; − System Tor Treating Documentation Informati- on of Various Data Bases, Phase I, ISKRA Insti- tute for Automatization, Ljubljana, 1973, A Re- search Project report, Vera Mirt-Levovnik et al.; − The experience of operating the University Computing Centre with other users. Sperry Univac International Executive Centre, COM- PUTERS IN EDUCATION AND RESEARCH Symposium, Rome, Nov. 18−20, 1975, by Janez Grad; − Mid-Term Development Plan of the Com- puter System of the University of Ljubljana 1976‡1980, University of Ljubljana, Computing Centre of the University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana 1977, signed by 20 authorised representatives of the members and the rector of the University; Marijan FrkoviÊ, Franci Pivec, Niko Schlamberger, Janez Grad: A contribution to the history of computing and informatics in West Balkan countries U P O R A B N A I N F O R M A T I K A 1992016 - πtevilka 4 - letnik XXIV − First Working Report (December 1976) and Se- cond Working Report (November 1980), Com- mittee of Social Planning and Information Sy- stem, Working group for republic program for education workforce for computing and infor- matics, by J. Virant et al.; − Organisation of Information Centre I ‡ III, rese- arch report, Computing Centre of the Universi- ty of Ljubljana, 1975, 1976, 1978, by Janez Grad et al. (14 + collaborators); − Computer Network of the University, Univer- sity of Ljubljana, Computing Centre of the Uni- versity of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, 1981, main edi- tor Janez Grad, editor in charge Franc Mandelc et al.; − PC LIP and PC LIP, program package for linear programming, Intertrade IBM, Center for Soft- ware Development, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Economics, Faculty Centre for In- formatics, Development and Sales of Software, Ljubljana, 1986−1987, led by Janez Grad, PhD, et al. (two collaborators); − Glossary of Business Informatics, Society of Economists of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, 1987, by Ivan Turk, PhD, et al. (37 collaborators); − A Little Dictionary of Computing, English-Slo- venian, Slovenian-English, Cankarjeva zaloæba, Ljubljana, 1993, professional editor Matjaæ Gams, PhD, et al. (9 national coordinators of computer terminology, 80 collaborators); − Several professional papers and editorial work for a number of professional journals, also for Slovenian Society INFORMATIKA (Informati- ca, Applied Informatics); − Textbooks for computing and informatics for faculties and similar educational institutions, such as − Ivan Bratko, Vladislav RajkoviË: Introduc- tion into Computing, National Publishing Company, Ljubljana, 1974; − Long-term collaboration with the Centre for Programmed Learning, Ljubljana, chai- red by Aleksandra Kornhauser, PhD.  International cooperation, such as the cooperati- on within COST (Cooperation scientifique et tech- nique) projects COST 11 ‡ The European Informa- tics Network (Tomaæ Kalin, PhD), and COST 12 ‡ The European Computer Software Library (Janez Grad, PhD). 5. SOURCES AND REFERENCES [1] Pivec, Franci: First Real Computers in Slovenia, IT STAR Newsletter Vol. 6, No. 4, 2008. [2] Hristovic, Dusan: The First Digital Electronic Computer in Serbia, IT STAR Newsletter Vol. 12, No. 1, 2014. [3] Schlamberger, Niko, personal recollections and experience [4] ©krubej, Janez: Hladna vojna in bitka za informacijsko tehno- logijo (The Cold War and the Battle for Information Technolo- gy), Ljubljana 2008, ISBN 978-961-6361-98-9. [5] Grad, Janez: Development of Computing an Informatics at the University of Ljubljana (draft, non-published), Ljubljana, 2015. Marijan FrkoviÊ, Franci Pivec, Niko Schlamberger, Janez Grad: A contribution to the history of computing and informatics in West Balkan countries  Marijan FrkoviÊ je predsednik hrvaπke informacijske zveze (HIZ) in nacionalni koordinator ECDL. Z informatiko se ukvarja veË kot oseminπtirideset let: πtiriindvajset let je delal v æelezarni Sisak ‡ od programerja do Ëlana poslovnega odbora za informatiko –, kasneje pa na Centru za informatiko hrvaπke gospo- darske zbornice. Sodeluje v mednarodnih zdruæenjih CEPIS, IFIP, IT STAR in ECDL. Bil je Ëlan delovnih skupin za razvoj svetovne zborniËne mreæe, v mednarodni trgovinski zbornici v Parizu (ICC) in za e-poslovanje. Sodeloval je v πtevilnih telesih vlade Republike Hrvaπke. Bil je med pobudniki digitalne agende za Evropo 2020 na Hrvaπkem in ECDL Za konkurenËno Hrvaπko. Sodeloval je pri izvajanju veË informacijskih projektov v gospodarstvu, bankah in dræavni upravi.  Franci Pivec je po prvotni izobrazbi filozof in sociolog, kasneje je opravil magisterij iz informacijskih znanosti ter petnajst let delal na podroËju informatike (IZUM Maribor). V tem Ëasu je bil aktiven v Slovenskem druπtvu INFORMATIKA (tudi podpredsednik) ter v mednarodnih zdruæenjih FID (Ëlan upravnega odbora) in IFIP (slovenski predstavnik v TC9 in πe vedno Ëlan SIG Etika raËunalniπtva). Poldrugo desetletje je bil urednik OZ ‡ Organizacija znanja, ki je indeksirani Ëasopis za podroËje knjiæniËne informatike. Njegova strokovna bibliografija zajema predvsem podroËje nastajanja informacijske druæbe s posebnim poudarkom na etiËnih vpraπanjih. U P O R A B N A I N F O R M A T I K A200 2016 - πtevilka 4 - letnik XXIV Marijan FrkoviÊ, Franci Pivec, Niko Schlamberger, Janez Grad: A contribution to the history of computing and informatics in West Balkan countries  Niko Schlamberger je diplomiral na Fakulteti za strojniπtvo Univerze v Ljubljani. Delovne izkuπnje obsegajo delo v industriji, preteæno pa v raËunalniπtvu in in- formatiki: programiranje, sistemsko analizo in razvijanje raËunalniπkih reπitev, predavanja, izvajanje usposabljanja na podroËju informatike, svetovanje, vodenje projektov, organiziranje in izvedba nacionalnih ter mednarodnih konferenc in mednarodno sodelovanje. Bil je na vodstvenih in vodilnih delovnih mestih v dræavni upravi. Je predsednik Slovenskega druπtva INFORMATIKA, bil je podpredsednik svetovne zveze IFIP in predsednik evropskega zdruæenja CEPIS. Je avtor πtevilnih strokovnih in znanstvenih Ëlankov.  Janez Grad je leta 1958 diplomiral iz matematike na Naravoslovni fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani, leta 1968 je magistriral iz matematiËne fizike na Univerzi v Bir- minghamu, leta 1973 pa doktoriral iz matematiËnih znanosti na VseuËiliπËu v Zagrebu. Po letu 1957 je bil strokovni sodelavec na Institutu Joæef Stefan, vodja Republiπkega raËunskega centra in predstojnik RaËunalniπkega centra Univerze v Ljubljani. Od leta 1973 do leta 1999 je sodeloval kot uËitelj za informatiko na Ekonomski fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani, nato pa je do upokojitve leta 2007 pouËeval informatiko na Fakulteti za upravo Univerze v Ljubljani. Strokovno se je izpopolnjeval na Zveznem zavodu za statistiko v Beogradu, Institutu für Strahlen und Kernphysik v Bonnu, Univerzi v Birminghamu, kot gostujoËi profesor pa je delal na Univerzi v Indiani, School of Business, Bloomington, ZDA. Ukvarjal se je s programiranjem na raËunalniku in z numeriËno matematiko ‡ reπevanjem problema lastnih vrednosti in vektorjev matrik; v zadnjih letih pred upokojitvijo pa se je ukvarjal predvsem z reπevanjem problemov s podroËja operacijskega raziskovanja in s podroËja baz podatkov. Je soavtor πestnajstih monografij, uËbenikov in knjig, 119 Ëlankov in referatov v strokovnih revijah ter zbornikih stro- kovnih sreËanj doma in v tujini ter 38 poroËil raziskovalnih nalog in projektov. Opravil je veË recenzij Ëlankov za domaËe in tuje revije, bil je Ëlan πtevilnih domaËih in tujih strokovnih zdruæenj in zvez ter Ëlan uredniπkih odborov veË domaËih in tujih strokovnih revij. Slovensko druπtvo INFORMATIKA mu je leta 1995 podelilo priznanje za æivljenjsko delo na podroËju razvoja in uveljavitve informatike v Sloveniji. Bil je mentor pri dvanajstih doktorskih disertacijah, veË deset magisterijih in univerzitetnih diplomah na ekonomski fakulteti. Univerza v Ljubljani mu je za njegovo delo podelila zlato plaketo in naziv zasluæni profesor; na 17. mednarodni multikonferenci Informacijska druæba so mu podelili nagrado Donald Michie and AlanTuring za æivljenjsko delo.