UDK 9C3,I(44)"633/6343":291-37
Documenta PraehistoricaXXXIII (2006)
Light at the end of the tunnel:
the way megalithic art was viewed and experienced
George Nash
Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Bristol, UK
postmaster@georgenash.demon.co.uk
ABSTRACT - This paper explores how megalithic art may have been viewed during a period when
Neolithic monuments were in use as repositories for the dead. The group of monuments discussed
are primarily passage graves which were being constructed within many of the core areas of Neoli-
thic Atlantic Europe. Although dates for the construction of this tradition are sometimes early, the
majority of monuments with megalithic art fall essentially within the Middle to Late Neolithic. The
art, usually in the form of pecked abstract designs appears to be strategically placed within the
inner part of the passage and the chamber. Given its position was this art restricted to an elite and
was there a conscious decision to hide some art and make it exclusively for the dead? In order to
discuss these points further, this chapter will study in depth the location and subjectivity of art that
has been carved and pecked on three passage graves in Anglesey and NW England. I suggest that an
encoded grammar was in operation when these and other passage grave monuments with megali-
thic art were in use.
IZVLEČEK - V tem poglavju raziskujemo, kakšen je bil pogled na megalitsko umetnost v obdobju, ko
so neolitske spomenike uporabljali kot grobnice. Skupina spomenikov, o kateri razpravljamo, so pred-
vsem 'grobovi v hodnikih', ki so pogosti v osrednjih področjih neolitske atlantske Evrope. Čeprav so
nekateri datumi gradnje zgodnji, sodi večina spomenikov megalitske umetnosti v čas od srednjega
do poznega neolitika. Zdi se, da je umetnost, običajno gre za izklesane abstraktne vzorce, strateško
razporejena v notranjem delu hodnika in v osrednji grobni komori. Glede na položaj se lahko vpra-
šamo, ali je bila ta umetnost omejena le na elito in, ali je obstajala zavestna odločitev skriti del umet-
nosti in jo nameniti izključno umrlim. V nadaljevanju bomo detajlneje preučili lokacijo in subjektiv-
nost umetnosti, ki je bila vklesana in vgravirana v treh 'grobovih v hodnikih' v Angleseyju in seve-
rozahodni Angliji. Domnevamo, da so v času, ko so uporabljali te in druge megalitske spomenike,
operirali s kodirano gramatiko.
KEY WORDS - chamber; fagade; fire; hearth; illumination; megalithic art; passage grave
Introduction
...he came to a mouth of a passage covered with a
square stone similar to that at [nearby] Plasne-
wydd, anxious to reap the fruits of his discovery
he procured a light and crept forward on his
hands and knees along the dreary vault, when lo!
In a chamber at the further end a figure in white
seemed to forbid his approach. The poor man had
scarcely power sufficient to crawl backwards out
of this den of spirits...
(Reverend John Skinner 1802)
There is a limited but significant passage-grave art
tradition in England and Wales which, although re-
stricted to two passage grave monuments in Angle-
sey, Bryn Celli Ddu and Barclodiad y Gawres and a
destroyed megalithic structure located in a park in
Liverpool, the Calderstones, marks the eastern ex-
tent of megalithic art in Britain and Ireland. The pas-
sage grave tradition is also one of the last megali-
thic architectural styles of the Neolithic. Outside these
two areas are a number of sites that possess simple
decoration, usually restricted to single and multiple
cupmarks (Darvill & Wainwright 2003; Sharkey
2004; Nash et al. 2006; see Tab. 2). However, these
monuments are not classified as passage graves.1
Outside England and Wales; in Ireland and north-
western France, megalithic art and passage grave ar-
chitecture is both numerous and complex in form
and many of the traits incorporated into these monu-
ments are also replicated in the British examples
(Forde-Johnstone 1956; Lynch 1967; 1970; Shee-
Twohig 1981).
These three passage graves each possess complex
carved art that is usually located within the inner
section of the passage or forms part of the chamber
alignment (Nash et al. 2006). Both Anglesey monu-
ments have the passage and chamber architecture
incorporated into large covering mounds. Despite
the intense and comprehensive archaeological inves-
tigations of these monuments and the near com-
plete destruction of the Calderstones monument, one
can make an assessment of how these monuments
may have functioned during ritual-symbolic events.
Recent investigations by the author have shown how
light may have played an important role especially
in illumination of various parts of the chamber and
passage architecture; more significantly, how the
rock-art was viewed and experienced.
This chapter will assess the impact of light on the
chamber, facade and passage areas, focusing on how
and why the rock-art was illuminated. I suggest that
megalithic art was deliberately placed in such a way
as to visually change the ambience of the space be-
tween various sections of the passage and chamber,
in particular at the point where natural light in the
passage area fades and was no doubt replaced by
the illumination of fire. Based on two types of light
and their intensity, two cognitive emotions are at
play. One based on the familiarity and safety of the
facade and the outer passage areas, the other based
on the ignorance and anticipation of the individual
entering the inner passage and chamber which were
initially dark, foreboding and unknown.
The data set
The distribution of the passage grave tradition is
within the Atlantic zone of Europe, occupying five
major core areas, from Iberia to southern Scandi-
Site Name	Sample/Area	RC4 date	Lab. No.	References
Alberite Cadiz, Spain	Funerary phase	5320+70 BP 4255 -4000 cal. BC	Beta-80602	Ramos Munoz & Giles Pacheco 1996
El Palomar Cadiz, Spain	Funerary phase	4930+70 BP 3780 - 3640 cal. BC	Beta-75067	Ramos Munoz & Giles Pacheco 1996
Ile Gaignog, Brittany	Construction phase (tomb C)	3850+300 bc 4630 cal. BC	Gif - 165	Shee-Twohig (1985.51)
Barnenez, Brittany	Sealed deposit in chamber G	3050+150 bc 3800 cal. BC	Gif - 1309	Shee-Twohig (1981.51)
Barnenez, Brittany	Lower deposit in chamber F	3000+150 bc 3600 cal. BC	Gif - 1556	Shee-Twohig (1981.51)
La Hougue Bie, Jersey	Primary cairn deposit	3450 - 3200 bc 4365-4055 cal. BC	Beta-77360/ ETH-13185)	Patton (1995, 582)
Knowth, Ireland	Monument construction - Charcoal from mound	2455+35 bc 3100 cal. BC	GrN-12357	Eogan (1986.225)
Knowth, Ireland	Pre-mound surface, contemporary with construction of the mound	2540+60 bc 3150 cal. BC	GrN-12358	Eogan (1986.225)
Newgrange, Ireland	Monument construction -burnt soil putty used to infill the cracks between the roofing slabs	2475+45 bc 3100 cal. BC	GrN-5462-C	O'Kelly (1982.230-1)
Newgrange	Same as above	2465+40 bc 3100 cal. BC	GrN-5463	O'Kelly (1982.230-1)
Tab. 1. Radiocarbon date ranges for passage grave construction along the Atlantic Seaboard.2
1	Frances Lynch however does describe several of these as being 'short passage graves (1969a & 1970)'. However, I am inclined to
suggest that these monuments have little architectural or chronological associations with the passage grave tradition per se of the
Late Neolithic.
2	There are no radiocarbon dates for the Welsh passage-graves.
navia. Its development can be clearly traced and it
probably terminates in Wales and north-west Eng-
land by about the mid-3rd Millennium BC (Shee-Two-
hig 1981). The majority of the passage graves, in
particular those monuments found in southern Scan-
dinavia, are not decorated with megalithic art and
are considered earlier than those that are, dating be-
tween 3200 and 3500 BC (Tilley 1991.77) and pro-
bably represent an initial wave of immigrant farming
or the translocation of ideas (or both). Megalithic art
can therefore be considered a secondary tradition
that occurs only in certain passage grave areas such
as Iberia, Brittany, Ireland, Wales and Scotland. The
latter two areas are restricted to no more than 12
sites, suggesting limited and late contact with areas
fully immersed in the megalithic art tradition.3
Discussing the distribution of megalithic rock-art in
Britain and Ireland is not new. Significant work has
been undertaken in Ireland by a number of eminent
archaeologists such as Michael O'Kelly (1982; 1993),
George Eogan (1986), Muris O'Sullivan (1986; 1993),
Elizabeth Shee-Twohig (1981) and a comprehensive
summary by Gabrial Cooney (2000). The passage
graves of Newgrange, Knowth and Dowth, located
within the Boyne Valley, and Fourknocks and Lough-
crew (Sliabh na Callighe), in County Meath all pos-
sess significant megalithic rock-art (Shee-Twohig
1981; Cooney 2000). Some designs arguably origi-
nate from the south, along the Atlantic seaboard,
within the core areas of Brittany and, according to
Eogan, from the Iberian Peninsula (1986.172). Based
on a limited but significant radiocarbon dating range,
one can trace the development of the passage grave
tradition. It is generally considered that the move-
ment is from south to north with its zenith in central
and southern coastal Ireland during the latter part
of the 4th millennium BC (Tab. 1).
The demise of the passage grave tradition, in particu-
lar those monuments that possess rock-art, appears
to occur in North Wales and north-west England, al-
though up to seven sites with megalithic art exist in
Scotland and Orkney (Piggot 1954; Shee-Twohig
1981). Simple passage graves located on the Isles of
Scilly and referred to as entrance tombs date to the
late Neolithic but have no megalithic art. It is prob-
able that the same architectural influences were mo-
ving northwards but some communities may have
considered megalithic art time consuming and deve-
loped new ways of expressing burial rites and artis-
tic endevour.
Recently, in 2005, part of an upright from a nearby
destroyed passage grave has been discovered in a
Bronze Age barrow at Balblair, Inverness, forming
one of the cist walls (Dutton & Clapperton 2005).
This carving, present on a former upright, shows a
new and altogether unique curvilinear design that is
not found on any other megalithic stone in the Bri-
tish Isles. The stone, forming the wall of a Bronze
Age cist probably originated from a nearby destroyed
passage grave.4 The stone decoration comprises two
large gouges, possibly cupmarks with each cup mea-
suring around 0.20m in diameter and up to three
finely carved lines radiating away from one of the
cups. One is perforated and may have possessed a
functional rather than a decorative role. The second
and more intriguing design field is located on the
upper section of the slab comprising of a series
deeply gouged semi-ovate lines which resemble (but
not necessarily is) the trunk and branches of a tree.
However, more probable and incorporating the two
large gouged cups from the lower section of the slab,
the two design fields may represent a stylised penis
(with accompanying testes).5 The upper design,
measuring approximately 0.70m x 0.70m is sym-
metrically placed with the outer gouges running pa-
rallel with a possible deliberately cut and shaped re-
cess. Despite the uniqueness of this art, however,
elsewhere in Scotland the designs show evidence for
a regional style developed from probable contact
and exchange with monument builders in Ireland.
Spirals and concentric circles at Pickaquoy and Eday
Manse, both in Orkney, have similar decorative styles
with monuments in central Ireland (Shee-Twohig
1981.136-7).
The people who constructed the monuments in An-
glesey and on Merseyside would have been involved
in varying degrees of socio-political contact and ex-
change with passage grave builders in central eastern
Ireland, operating in what Herity and others refer to
as the Irish Sea Zone (1970.30-3). This zone is iden-
tified mainly through the stylistic similarities in mo-
nument building and the deposition of material cul-
3	Shee-Twohig (1981.93) notes 11 passage graves in Wales and around 250 in Scotland.
4	The reuse of stone at sites such as Balblair is significant but is not discussed here.
5	Sexual and body iconography is not uncommon in early and later prehistoric art. In megalithic art Thomas and Tilley (1993) for
example has suggested that certain infilled rectangular designs represent the rib cage (and acts as a metaphor for the 'body' of the
tomb).
ture within each of the core areas that lie in this zone.
It is clear that the architectural traits that form the
passage grave tradition within both Ireland and
North Wales are similar.6
Excavations undertaken at Newgrange and Knowth
in the Boyne Valley, Ireland, have revealed that me-
galithic art is not just confined to the passage and
chamber areas. Both monuments, two of the largest
passage graves in Europe, possess rock-art on in
front and back of kerbstones which delineate the
extent of each of the mounds (Eogan 1986; O'Kelly
1972). Although specific groups of carvings are used,
no two stones are the same.
At Knowth, Eogan recognised two distinct forms of
megalithic art, one angular, the other curvilinear
(1986)? Both forms occur within the passage and
chambers of the same monument, mainly within the
inner passage and chamber areas. The eastern pas-
sage at Knowth measures c. 30m and both the curvi-
linear and rectilinear art is positioned around the in-
ner passage and chamber areas (ibid. 188-95).8
These images therefore would be near impossible
to view from the facade. Further restricted visual ac-
cess is hampered by a slight kink in the outer pas-
sage area. At Newgrange angular and curvilinear art
are positioned in the same way. Also, angular carv-
ings in the form of infilled diamonds, multiple zigzag
lines and triangles dominate the chamber and inner
passage areas at Fourknocks. This art too, cannot be
viewed from the facade area; the art is hidden and
can only be seen by people within the central cham-
ber and possibly from the short passage.
A similar design complexity and strategy is found
within the British passage grave tradition. At Bar-
clodiad y Gawres (ANG 4) the passage, measuring
approximately 6m, leads to a cruciform chamber
area which has a series of uprights decorated with
chevrons, lozenges, spirals and zigzag designs. These
lightly pecked designs are similar to decorated up-
rights found elsewhere along the Atlantic seaboard.
There is also a design association with nearby Bryn
Celli Ddu (ANG 1) and monuments found in the
Boyne Valley (Lynch 1967.1-22). Carved decoration
occurs on six stones, located either within the inner
passage or chamber areas.9 Decorated uprights in-
cluded Stone 5 (L8), 6 (C1), 7 (C2) 8(C3), 22 (C13)
and 19 (C16) (Shee-Twohig 1981.229)10 On Stone
5 are lozenges and vertical zigzags; Stone 6 exhi-
bits a conjoined circular motif, lozenges and vertical
zigzags; Stone 7 has a large chevron and on Stones
8 and 19 are a series of spirals and a series of unre-
cognisable motifs. Finally, on Stone 22 is a spiral,
with supporting motifs, lozenges, a horizontal chev-
ron band and a series of vertical zigzags. This parti-
cular stone bears some resemblance to the decora-
ted Pattern Stone carved on a fallen upright found
over a central pit at Bryn Celli Ddu. Unlike the monu-
ments found in the Boyne Valley, at Barclodiad y
Gawres all six stones have their decoration facing
into the chamber and are being hidden from view.
A large percentage of the megalithic art within the
Boyne Valley appears to be public art, carved onto
mound kerbing.
Perceiving scapes: art, doorways, thresholds
and passages
Before I discuss the social (and antisocial) divisions
of space within and around the monument, I want
to look at the perception given to different spaces
and how our senses react in different ways within
these spaces. The passage grave builders would have
been aware of sensory arousal, of how people using
the monument should act and react. The passage
grave blueprint, used throughout most of the Atlan-
tic zone during the Middle and late Neolithic, consists
of the facade area, the outer passage, the inner pas-
sage and finally the chamber. It is clear that as one
progresses through these quite different spaces,
one's sensory perception changes. In order to move
from, say, the facade to the outer passage area, the
change of space is represented by both a physical
doorway (doorstone) as well as a metaphysical one.
Static points such as a stone threshold, constricting
or protruding uprights or a lowering of a passage
capstone usually represent the physicality of a space.
The changes in the physical statementing was argu-
6	Earlier architectural traditions in Ireland and Western Britain are also present such as the wedge tombs of the Carlingford-Clyde
Group and the Court tombs of southern Ireland and Cornwall etc. (Daniel 1950).
7	These terms in many ways do not capture the style but for the sake of this section of the paper I will use them.
8	The chamber measures around 20.21m
9	Powell & Daniel (1956) and later Lynch (1967) record five stones. However, in March 2006 a team from the University of Bri-
stol discovered a sixth stone that formed the northern upright of the eastern passage. This multi-phased decoration comprised a
large chevron that was either superimposed or underlying a series of horizontal pecked lines (Nash et al. 2006).
10	The numbering system uses Powell & Daniel (1956), later used by Lynch (1967) and Shee-Twohig's numbering (in brackets)
(1981).
ably accompanied by changes in ambience; changes
in light intensity (from light to dark), changes in
smell (from open air to stale musty air, due partly to
the putrefaction of decomposing flesh) and changes
in audibility; from the familiar noises made by the
family group within the facade area to the near si-
lence of the inner passage and chamber.
Christopher Tilley's pioneering work on passage
grave monuments in Västergötland clearly shows
the strategic importance and intentionality of cer-
tain architectural features (i.e. what materials are
used and how they are used). This group of monu-
ments, consisting of over 265 passage graves within
an area of 38km by 25km is the most northerly Neo-
lithic group in Europe. According to Tilley, tombs be-
come 'socialised' through their construction and use,
thus allowing sites to become socially-politically ma-
nipulated (1991.68). This process is evident through
the changes to the tomb architecture or changes in
burial practice. From Tilley's analysis all monuments
are standardised in design, comprising an east-west
oriented passage leading to a north-south oriented
chamber, which are incorporated into a round
mound. The mound is delineated by stone kerbing
and it is more than likely that the capstones of the
chamber were exposed during use. The interplay be-
tween the different colours and textures of the stone,
the arrangement of the passage and chamber up-
rights and the way one moves through these diffe-
rent spaces would have been paramount to users of
the monument. Not surprisingly many architectural
traits are replicated in the two Anglesey monuments
and passages along the Atlantic Zone. What is absent
though is rock-art.
These single-phased monuments are
regularly spaced within the land-
scape, sometimes in rows of up to
twelve and are very visible. Tilley
has also identified a series of intrigu-
ing architectural traits that are repli-
cated in most of the Västergötland
monuments which further suggests
a recognised blueprint in design as-
sociated with the ritual use of the
monument. Nearly all the uprights
used to construct the passage and
chamber walls are of sedimentary
rock, while the capstones (or roofing
stones) are of igneous rock (ibid.
70). The entrance to all the passages
are narrow, measuring between 0.5m
and 0.8m in width. The entrance to
the passage is also low, suggesting that during use,
people entering the monument would have to crawl
in order to gain access. However, as one progresses
through the passage, the walls and the roof open
out and upwards until one reaches the keystone (or
threshold). The keystone, located at the transition
point between the chamber and passage is a delibe-
rately placed capstone that is lower than the other
capstones and, when entering the chamber area, one
has to crouch lower in order to gain access to the
chamber. Like other thresholds, the keystone is yet
another device to restrict visual access from those
looking into the passage from the facade area. It also
possibly marks the point where the body (or body
parts) finally enter the other world of the ancestors.
Between the entrance to the passage and the key-
stone and entrance into the chamber, the body has
to travel, albeit a short distance through what Tilley
and others has termed as 'liminal space' (ibid. 74-5).
This liminal space acts as a rite of passage whereby
the body is neither of this world or the next. This
simplistic hypothesis can be further dissected to re-
present a series of journeys and not surprisingly ad-
ding further complexity to the rite of passage and
the way the dead are deposited.
The doorway at Pentre Ifan in Pembrokeshire, SW
Wales stands around 2.2m above the facade floor
level and is located between two uprights which sup-
port an enormous capstone estimated to weigh 30
tons (Pl. 1). The doorway, itself weighing around 5
tons is set in such a way that human bone and asso-
ciated offerings can be placed though the gaps be-
tween the door stone and the uprights (Children &
Nash 1997). I have suggested that the door stone
Pl. 1. The fagade and entrance of Pentre Ifan. The doorway to the
chamber is located between the two supporting uprights (Photo:
GHN).
may have been physically tilted and moved to one
side in order to allow access by certain high status
individuals (Nash 2006). Once inside the chamber
secret rites could be performed where both the dead
and living would have interacted in a special way;
what goes on behind closed doors! The doorway
therefore acts as a thoroughfare to the realm of the
supernatural. Special individuals would have the
knowledge and power to act as an intermediary be-
tween living and the dead. They would deposit the
remains of new ancestors, communicate with the old
ancestors, replenish the grave goods and offering
the new ancestors food and drink for their journey
into the next world. However, can the same process
of moving the dead across a series of zones be main-
tained when there are no passages? At Pentre Ifan
(Pembrokeshire), the space between the enclosed
facade and the chamber is short and the distance
between the facade and the chamber, unlike other
Neolithic monuments, lacks liminal space. However,
one could counter argue and suggest that liminal
space is represented by the thickness of the door-
stone. This blocking device separates the facade from
the large rectangular chamber. Arguably, this journey
between the living space and the space for the dead
is restricted. Nevertheless, the journey, however
short, is still paramount within the act of burial.
Sometimes doorways are set into the fabric of the
passage and cannot be moved. Two uprights found
within the inner section of the passage at La Hougue
Bie, Jersey restricts the visual access between the fa-
cade and the chamber (Baal et al. 1925.Fig. 2). La
Hougue Bie, one of Europe's largest and most im-
pressive passage graves and dating to the latter half
of the fourth millennium BC has, like other passage
graves, more than one doorway. One of these is lo-
cated between the passage and the facade while the
other is between the inner passage and the cham-
ber (Nash forthcoming). This careful and contrived
arrangement of stone uprights within the passage
establishes restricted visual access. The builders have
added further components to the passage to ensure
what is undertaken in the chamber remains secret,
visually hidden from people using the facade area.
At the eastern end of the passage a deliberate but
subtle kink within the length of the passage has been
made, and like most passage graves, the passage
constricts at the facade end, while at the chamber
end the passage walls and roof widen and rise. Peo-
ple using the monument would have therefore been
forced to crouch at the entrance in order to gain ac-
cess to the 9m long passage. However, as one pro-
gressed along the passage, one could move from a
crouching position to an upright position by the
time one has reached the inner passage and cham-
ber areas. The living and the dead are also guided
through the passage and chamber with a set of stra-
tegically placed cupmarks (Fig. 1). Several are carved
within the inner passage area onto smooth pink gra-
nite, while a further 21 are carved onto the external
face of the northern chamber (Pls. 2 a & 2b). Argu-
ably, and similar to megalithic art elsewhere these
would have been hidden during the Neolithic (assu-
ming that they date from this period). Furthermore,
nine subtly-placed cupmarks are located on the roof
[capstone] of the northern chamber (Mourant 1974).
The strategic location of these cupmarks, between
the inner passage to the chamber possibly demar-
cates part of the journey for the dead and it is clear
that these marks cannot be seen from the facade. In-
deed, only fire from a hearth or torch could illumi-
nate these marks along with other cultural goods
such as decorated pottery and the colour of the sea
pebble floor (also found within the chamber and pas-
sage). Similar to art found at Newgrange and else-
Pl. 2a (left). Passage and chamber arrangement illuminated by artificial light (Photo: Adam Stanford).
Pl. 2b. Partially hidden upright forming part of the northern chamber showing 21 cupmarks (Photo:
Adam Stanford).
Fig. 1. Plan of La Hougue Bie, Jersey (adapted from Baal et al. 1925/
where in Ireland and Anglesey the cupmarks that
are located within and around the northern cham-
ber are hidden from the view of the living and are
therefore the property of the dead.
A similar passage arrangement is witnessed, albeit
on a much smaller scale at Arthur's Stone, a long
grave in west Herefordshire, one of the most notable
of all Neolithic burial monuments in western Britain.
The site lies on the western intermediate slopes of
Merbach Hill and faces the impressive eastern slopes
of the Black Mountains of central Wales. This monu-
ment, one of the most northerly
chambered tombs of the Cotswold-
Severn Group, is one of eighteen
tombs that dominate the Neolithic
landscape of the northern reaches of
the Dore, Upper Wye and Usk valleys
of Breconshire and neighbouring He-
refordshire (Children & Nash 1994;
Darvill 1982; Grimes 1936; Hemp
1935; Nash 1997). The majority of
the monuments within this group
conform to a number of architectural
rules including locally oriented lat-
eral passages and a false portal loca-
ted within the fagade area.
The chamber and passage at Arthur's
Stone are set within a cairn rubble
mound. The chamber has nine up-
right stones that support an enor-
mous capstone, estimated to weigh
25 tons. Recent investigations by the
author suggest the chamber
and passage were set within
a long mound that extended
some 50m north of the pre-
sent mound, probably trape-
zoidal in shape and similar to
other monuments within the
group (Nash 2006). At the
north-western end of the
chamber is an unorthodox
right-angled passage with a
pronounced doorway, consis-
ting of a single upright (Pl. 3).
Between the chamber and a
door stone the passage is ori-
ented east. However, from the
door stone to the fagade and
entrance, the passage changes
direction to the northwest,
pointing towards an impres-
sive scarp of the Black Mountains locally known as
Hay Bluff (Children & Nash 1994.26; Tilley 1994.
140). Similar with other monuments mentioned in
this chapter Arthur's Stone has a narrow and low
entrance that enlarges as one progresses through
the passage towards the doorway and chamber.
There is clearly no visual access between the cham-
ber and the fagade beyond. The 90° kink of the pas-
sage alignment where the doorway is sited appears
to show a conscious attempt to separate living space
and the realm of order and control, from the inside
world of death, dismemberment and disorientation.
Pl. 3. The unauthodoxpassage at Arthur's Stone, Herefordshire.
Passage turns 90° between the facade and the chamber (Photo:
GHN).
The transition between the two spaces is achieved
precisely at that point, equidistant between chamber
and entrance, where the passage abruptly changes
direction. It is here that the living come into contact
with the dead; an act and point in time that is re-
peated in every chamber monument throughout the
Neolithic world. A similar passage arrangement with
its restricted visual access is recorded for the majo-
rity of passage graves either with or without rock-art.
The three passage graves forming the focus of this
discussion, Barclodiad y Gawres, Bryn Celli Ddu and
The Calderstones inherently have their problems.
The first of these to be considered and problematic
to all monuments of this age, is taphonomy. The sur-
viving material culture probably represents a small
percentage of what was within each of the chamber
and passage areas. Consumables, such as offerings
of food, wood and hide would have long disinte-
grated over time. This is further hampered by acidic
soils that cover most of Wales. Finally, there is a pro-
blem with antiquarian and non-scientific excavation
methods. All three sites have been severely disturbed;
the Calderstones completely destroyed. Thankfully,
the two Anglesey sites were excavated during the
mid-20th century, albeit after initial antiquarian in-
vestigations during the 18th and 19th centuries, and
attempts to use the sites as stone quarries (Appen-
dix). Following excavation both monuments were
restored. However, it is not known if the restoration
of both monuments was sympathetic with the orig-
inal layout of the monument. The excavation of Bar-
clodiad y Gawres in 1952-3 focused on the excava-
tion of the passage and chamber areas although,
trenching was also extended through the surroun-
ding cairn (Powell & Daniel 1956). One can assume
that, based on the excavation report, this excavation
was by far the most meticulous and scientific. Exca-
vations undertaken at Bryn Celli Ddu, first by Lukis
in 1865 and later by Hemp between 1925 and 1929,
reveal the probability of a two-phase monument. It
is not clear how meticulous both excavations were.
What is known is that, based on a mid-19th century
engraving, the monument comprised a chamber and
passage and the mound had been almost completely
removed (used as a quarry). It is not known from
the Hemp excavation report if the passage uprights
were in their original position or whether or not the
outer passage uprights supported capstones. The Cal-
derstones, presently standing out of context in Cal-
derstones Park, have a sadder but well documented
history. They are known to have formed part of a
Fig. 2. Decorated stones at Barclodiad y Gawres
(after Lynch 1967 and Nash et al. 2006)
parish boundary during the 16th century and are in-
deed located on a map from this period.11 Between
this period and the 19th century the stones, probably
forming part of a passage grave were slowly but
systematically destroyed. In the early 20th century
the remaining stones were placed in storage and
later erected within the entrance area of Calderstones
Park, before finally being re-erected in a purpose
built vestibule in 1964.
Despite problems of taphonomy associated with the
early archaeological investigations, one can consider
a number of similarities between each of the monu-
ments. Firstly, and most simply, two of the three sur-
viving monuments are architecturally associated with
other passage graves within the Irish Sea zone. The
architectural style used by monument builders in
Anglesey and in Ireland suggests complex contact
and exchange networks between these and other
groups to the north (Cooney 2000.226-8; Eogan
1986.220). Secondly, are the more complex issues
as to the origins of artistic endeavour. The artistic
styles from all three monuments are all very diffe-
11 See Royden on www.btinternet.com/m.royden/mrlhp/local/calders/calders.htm
rent but are nonetheless classified as megalithic
(Shee-Twohig 1981). Each of their styles may have
originated from monuments within different areas
of Ireland (Cooney 2000).
The artistic style from the Barclodiad y Gawres mo-
nument is essentially geometric in form with the
predominant designs being chevrons, lozenges and
zigzag lines. These occupy four of the six stones that
are located within the inner passage and chamber
and are essentially hidden from view and cannot be
completely seen with natural light. On Stones C3,
C13 and C16 large spirals are present while on Stone
C3 spirals dominate (Fig. 2). The rock-art from this
monument is probably contemporary and despite its
unique design coding, many individual design com-
ponents are also found within Irish passage graves.
The meticulous excavation programme undertaken
by Powell and Daniel suggests that the position of
each of the stones remained in situ and what one
witnesses today is roughly what was present during
the Neolithic.
At Bryn Celli Ddu the art comprises a spiral and,
more impressively, a serpentine-style carving (Fig. 3).
Both designs configure with Eogan and O'Kelly's cur-
vilinear classification. The small spiral, (13cm in dia-
meter) located within the southern section of the
chamber and carved on an upright, may be a later
addition. I suggest this because compared with other
spirals elsewhere in Anglesey and Ireland, the Bryn
Celli Ddu example has been clumsily constructed.
The serpentine form, which is carved on what is re-
ferred to as the 'Pattern Stone', was discovered lying
prostrate next to a pit, centrally loca-
ted and west of the chamber (Hemp
1930). The style of the decoration on
the Pattern Stone is similar to Stone
16 at nearby Barclodiad y Gawres
and extends over three faces. Exca-
vation by Hemp between 1925 and
1929 revealed an earlier monument
phase that he interpreted as being a
henge and it is possible, though per-
haps doubtful, that this stone belongs
to this earlier monument. However,
I am not entirely convinced that a
henge phase exists. Instead the cha-
racteristics of the henge may be me-
rely an initial construction or ground
preparation phase associated with
the passage grave. Whatever the
phase, the Pattern Stone and its lo-
cation, hidden from view, has more Fig. 3. Decorated stones at Bryn Celli Ddu (after Shee-Twohig 1981).
to do with the dead rather than the living in that it
was found lying prostrate, the art lying face down.
Likewise, the spiral, if contemporary with the use of
the monument as a passage grave, is difficult to lo-
cate and could have only been viewed under certain
artificial light conditions.
Moving through physical and metaphysical spa-
ces
Previously, I have briefly considered the way our
senses change when experiencing different types of
space (Nash 2006). I now want to focus on visuality
and how rock-art may have played a vital role in
providing a series of focal points both inside and
outside the monument. Of course one can never
completely comprehend how and why prehistoric
burial was undertaken; there lacks any secure tan-
gible evidence and any burial service cannot survive
the archaeological record. A phenomenological ap-
proach and the way monuments are approached,
has been undertaken by Tilley (2005), while a more
personal account of how people and the dead move
through the monument has been effectively discus-
sed by Parker Pearson & Richards (1994). Both ap-
proaches extend beyond the realms of empirical dis-
course. Cynically though, the evidence used is limi-
ted to just >5% of the potential material culture.
However, the architecture of the passage grave tra-
dition is similar throughout the Neolithic core areas
of Europe and in each area there is a limited number
of sites whose condition fares better than others.
From these sites one can ascertain a 'sense of occa-
sion'; the way one approaches the monument and
the way one enters the facade, passage and
chamber. The ambience for each of these is
usually different depending on the condi-
tion of the monument. Fortunately, both
Barclodiad y Gawres and Bryn Celli Ddu
are enclosed within a rubble mound, albeit
reconstructed, thus the passage and cham-
ber components are hidden from the out-
side.
In experiential terms Michael Shanks has
probably come close in attempting to under-
stand ambience and the rhetoric of space
(1992). Shanks' retrospective accounts of
visiting the Cotswold-Severn monuments of Maes y
Felin and Tinkinswood in South Wales and Dunstan-
burgh Castle in Northumberland is personal and
subjective. He encounters though, an incomplete
past, a pastiche of preconceived ideas that affords a
casual glimpse of the present. The experience of ap-
proaching and entering the monument would have
been somewhat different during Neolithic times. One
can assume, based on ethnographic and historical
evidence, that people using the monument during
Neolithic times were high status individuals, and
having a similar role to the modern day priest. They
would have possessed a knowledge and view of the
world that would have made him or her different to
others. The experience would have been sublime,
fulfilling a plethora of human emotions based on
terror with fascination, as each space is encountered
and experienced (Chippindale & Nash forthcom-
ing). Probably accompanying the priest would have
been other status individuals who would also have
special sacred knowledge of the dead. The architec-
tural traits such as the constricting passage, the door-
way and threshold, and the kink in the passage,
would have restricted the visuality between the fa-
fade and the chamber. Furthermore, the natural light
availability would have diminished as one progressed
along the passage into the chamber, adding further
visual restrictions on people standing within the fa-
fade area. One can see a similar visual restriction
within the medieval church. A strategically placed
rude screen constructed between the nave and the
congregation and the altar area, plus various parts
of the act of service being performed by the priest
with his back to the congregation, would have estab-
lished a clear divide between what can and cannot
be seen (and understood).
The way the living and the dead move through a
scape or physical space have serious implications on
the way a space is perceived. Each space, either re-
Fig. 4. Floor plan of the chamber and passage at Barclodiad
y Gawres showing the position of the decorated stones
(adapted from Shee-Twohig 1981).
presenting a different architectural space or a diffe-
rent stage in the journey from landscape to the spirit
world, creates a different experience or ambience.
Both the architecture and the art would have played
a vital role in how the dead changed physically and
metaphysically as they moved from one space to
another.
Concerning burial deposition, it is now becoming
clear that the passage grave tradition represents a
corporate mentality towards death. However, both
Anglesey passage grave monuments show little evi-
dence of this. It is probable that corporate mentality
actually means the burial of a high status extended
family and that each member would have to under-
go a series of processes before he or she could enter
the next world. I would stress here that the final rest-
ing-place is not the chamber, which merely forms
one stage before the metaphysical journey begins.
The journey for the dead begins outside the monu-
ment, between the moment of death and entrance
to the fafade area. It is probable that the monument
was outside the main settlement area and would
have been approached in a certain way using a se-
ries of markers within the landscape. According to
the limited radiocarbon dating evidence the passage
grave tradition in Britain and Ireland suggests many
monuments were in use between the Late Neolithic
and the Early Bronze Age (3000-2000 cal. BC). At
the same time other monuments were being used
such as standing stones, stone rows and stone cir-
cles. In the case of Bryn Celli Ddu two standing
stones are located nearby and are possibly contem-
porary with each other (Nash et al. 2006). It is con-
ceivable that the standing stones provided a pathway
to Bryn Celli Ddu from the east; I regard this as the
first journey. Once at the monument, the body would
enter the fafade area and thus establish a second
journey. Whilst in the fafade area, the dead may
Fig. 5. Decortaed stones from the now destroyed
Calderstones monument (after Shee-Twohig 1981).
take on a different guise. There is evidence from
other Neolithic burial sites in England and Wales of
excarnation, such as at Gwernvale in Breconshire
and Wayland's Smithy in Berkshire. The body may
have lain in state over many weeks, at the same
time providing a necessary period for the mourning
of the deceased. During this time the body would
have transformed beyond human recognition, beco-
ming a skeleton, physically leaving the world of the
living and entering an ancestral world.
When the time was right the remains would have
been collected and transferred from the facade to
begin the third journey, along the passage or what
Tilley (1991.75) refers to as liminal space. Liminal
space, defined as a metaphysical as well as a physi-
cal entity where the dead are neither human nor an-
cestral, would be divided into two spaces, the inner
and outer passage areas. Between the entrance and
the inner passage, the dead and its entourage would
experience a number of visual and audible sensa-
tions. Firstly, the natural or artificial light from the
facade area would obscure parts of the passage archi-
tecture as one progressed toward the inner passage
area. The amount of illumination from this light
source would begin to fade. At the same time the
noises from the facade would get fainter as one en-
tered into a world of ancestors and spirits. Deveraux
(1996) suggests that certain stones, either in situ
architecture or movable, may have been struck that
could resonate around the passage and chamber ad-
ding further sublime sensations for the occupants of
the tomb. These noises, along with chanting both
inside and outside the monument, would have crea-
ted an audible sensation that would have been both
synchronous and harmonious. It is at this point
within the area of liminal space that the entourage
would have to light torches or construct a hearth,
probably within the chamber area. When approa-
ching the inner passage area the rock-art would be
fully illuminated. The carved abstract images each
with their own meaning would move [and dance] as
the flames from the fire flicker. A large hearth area
was exposed during the Powell & Daniel excavation
within the chamber area at Barclodiad y Gawres. Si-
milar evidence has been found at the highly deco-
rative monument of Gavr'inis. Here, charcoal has
been found in both the chamber and passage areas
(Le Roux 1985).
Light emitted from the Barclodiad y Gawres hearth
would have illuminated nearly all the stones, inclu-
ding the newly discovered Stone C2 as well as Stone
C3, each forming the
northern and eastern
walls of the eastern
chamber, as well Stones
C13, C16 and L8. The
last two stones flank the
doorway between the
inner passage and the
chamber and can only
be seen from these two
areas (Fig. 4). The ritual
activity that would have
been undertaken within
the chamber probably
remained exclusive to
people using this part of
Fig. 6. The three sec-
tions of a menhir, each
section now incorpora-
ted into later burial mo-
numents (after La Roux
1985).
Pl. 4. Central section of an enormous capstone, la-
ter incorporated into the Table des Marchandspas-
sage grave (Photo: GHN).
the monument. As suggested earlier, using Tilley's
analysis on monuments from Västergötland, restric-
ted visual access would have been in place. The car-
ved symbols, their location within the chamber, and
their position on the panel, along with their relation-
ship with other symbols would have been restricted.
In the cases of the two passage graves in Anglesey,
and probably the Calderstones monument, the art is
positioned in such a way that it cannot be seen from
the fagade or the outer passage. Many passage grave
monuments with art appear to conform to this basic
rule. It is clear that in some cases, such as the north-
ern chamber or cell of La Hougue Bie or the eastern
chamber at Barclodiad y Gawres the rock-art is very
difficult to view. It is possibly that this art was to be
viewed only by the ancestors before they or their spi-
rits embarked onto their final journey to the other-
world. The finely pecked lo-
zenge and spirals on Stones
C2 and C3 respectively sug-
gest that the light emitted
from the hearth would not be
enough to fully read, and
therefore understand each
narrative. It is probable that
torches would be required in
order to fully illuminate these
panels. Once the remains of
the dead had been interred,
grave goods would be offered
in order to accompany the
dead on their final journey.
Based on the fragmentary evi-
dence from both excavations,
offerings would have included
pottery vessels, flint tools and,
in the case of the burials at Barclodiad y Gawres, a
finely carved bone pin (Lynch 1969b.158, fig. 21).
However, based on ethnographic evidence it is
thought that the spirits of the ancestors would not
have entirely left the monument. According to many
non-western societies the ancestral spirits could be
summoned back from time to time, maybe to assist
with later internment. The rock-art, which was hid-
den, static and probably possessing a restricted mea-
ning, would have guided generation after genera-
tion of ancestors using a prescribed way of moving
through the various spaces, maybe emerging from
the art itself. It is clear that many passage graves
that possess megalithic art have panels that are en-
tirely hidden from view. At Gavr'inis, Newgrange and
in some respects, at Barclodiad y Gawres and Bryn
Celli Ddu, certain panels are hidden and inturned to-
wards the monuments mound. Some of this art is ex-
tremely elaborate in form (Eogan 1986; Hemp 1930;
O'Kelly 1982). It could be the case that this inturned
art originates from earlier monuments. At the Table
des Marchands passage grave, Morbihan, one third
of an enormous menhir has been incorporated as a
capstone into the chamber architecture. Carved onto
the stone is a visible axe (Pl. 4). The other two sec-
tions of the stone have been also used to form cap-
stones and are incorporated into the roofs of Gavr'i-
nis and nearby Er Grah (Fig. 6). However, the sec-
tions containing once continuous figurative art, inclu-
ding two goats and a large axe, have its art hidden.
The destruction of the menhir and its incorporation
into a later monument appears to be a deliberate act.
Moreover, the positioning of certainly two of the
three sections conform with how megalithic art is
being used in passage graves.
Pl. 5. Stone C3 forming the back wall of the eastern chamber. The art can
only be seen using artificial light. Photo: Adam Stranford.
Site	Grid ref.	Art	Location	References*
Arthur's Stone, Herefordshire	SO 318 431	Cupmarks	Portal stone	Children & Nash 1994; Nash 2003; 2006; Hemp 1935
Bachwen, Caenarvonshire	SH 407 495	Cupmarks	Capstone	Daniel 1950; Hemp 1926; Lynch 1969a
Barclodiad y Gawres, Anglesey	SH 329 707	Spirals, chevrons, zigzags, lines, lozenges, cupmarks	Chamber	Powell & Daniel 1956; Lynch 1969a; Nash et al. 2006; Shee-Twohig 1981
Bryn Celli Ddu, Anglesey	SH 508 702	Serpentine, spiral, cupmarks	Chamber, rock outcropping	Daniel 1950; Hemp 1930; Lynch 1969a; Nash 2006; Nash et al. 2006; Shee-Twohig 1981
Calderstones, Liverpool	SJ 405 875	Concentric circles, cupmarks, footprints, lines/grooves, spirals,	Chamber uprights (destroyed passage grave)	Daniel 1950; Forde-Johnston 1956; Nash 2006; Shee-Twohig 1981
Carreg Coetan Arthur, Pembrokeshire	SN 061 359	Cupmarks?	Capstone	Children & Nash 1997; Nash 2006
Cerrig y Gof, Pembrokeshire	SN 037 389	Cupmarks	Capstones, rock outcropping	Nash 2006
Cromlech Farm, Anglesey	SH 360 920	Cupmarks, horse-shoe carving	Monument architecture and rock outcropping	Nash et al. 2006
Cist Cerrig, Caenarvonshire**	SH 543 384	Cupmarks	Rock outcropping	Lynch 1969a
Cae Dyni, Caenarvonshire	SH 511 382	Cupmarks	Located on two uprights	Nash et al. 2006
Dyffryn Ardudwy, Merioneth	SH 588 229	Cupmarks	North portal of the western chamber	Powell 1973; Sharkey 2004
Garn Turne, Pembrokeshire	SM 979 272	Cup-and-ring, Cupmarks	Capstone, rock outcropping	Nash et al. 2006
Garn Wen Cemetery, Pembrokeshire	SM 948 390	Cupmarks	Rock outcropping	Nash et al. 2006
Llannerch	SH 559 379	Cupmarks	Remains of chambered tomb?	Sharkey 2004
Morfa Bychan, Carmarthenshire	SN 221 075	Cupmarks	Rock outcropping	Sharkey 2004
Pentre Ifan, Pembrokeshire	SN 099 370	Cupmark, spiral?	Portal stone	Lynch 1972
Treflys, Caenarvonshire	SH 543 384	Cupmarks	Rock outcropping	Barker 1992; Hemp 1938
Trellyffaint, Pembrokeshire	SN 082 425	Cupmarks	Capstone	Barker 1992; Children & Nash 1997
Ty Illtud, Breconshire	SO 098 263	Geometric forms, semi-representative figures (medieval)	Chamber uprights	Children & Nash 2001; RCHAMW 1998
Ty Newydd, Anglesey	SH 617 112	Cupmarks	Capstone	Sharkey 2004
* References refer to discussions specific to rock-art rather than the monument as a whole.
** Also known as Treflys
Tab. 2. Megalithic chambered monuments with rock-art in Wales and the border counties.
Concluding remarks
In this chapter I have concentrated on the passage
grave tradition, focusing mainly on how the living
and the dead may have viewed and experienced me-
galithic art. I have suggested that rock-art, located
mainly within the inner passage and chamber areas
of two of the three British passage graves is strategi-
cally placed. The art can only be viewed and read if
the reader is positioned in a particular place inside
the monument. I stress, however, that the ambience
experienced by people moving from the fagade into
the outer and inner passage areas and finally, in the
chamber area, changes forming part of a special ex-
perience that is restricted to only a few. These chan-
ges affect all the senses as people move through the
different physical spaces, and this is arguably irre-
spective of whether or not rock-art is present. Rock-
art merely forms a series of focal points for the liv-
ing and, in particular for the dead, as they move
through the different spaces whilst on their final
journeys to the spirit world.
I would further suggest that similar emotions are ex-
perienced outside the monument as well, and that
both the living and the dead are required to under-
take a series of journeys that include moving through
open spaces via a series of landscape markers, them-
selves sometimes decorated with rock-art. These mar-
kers provide rigid points through which people have
to move in a particular way. Similar to the way we
bury our dead, people are required to follow proto-
col, and funeral rites are properly observed. Mar-
kers, usually in the form of standing stones and more
subtly, exposed rock-outcropping, would have pro-
vided a series of way points whereby the dead (ac-
companied by the living) made a series of journeys
before embarking on their final spiritual journey
from the chamber to the next world. When in the
chamber area, an array of grave goods would have
accompanied the remains.
Pl. 6. Decoration from the passage of the Gavr'inis
passage grave. Photo: G. H. Nash.
I have suggested that changes in perception are con-
trolled and manipulated by changes in architecture
and that how our senses react would depend on the
ambience of each space encountered. Likewise, the
dead also change both physically and metaphysically
as they embark on their journeys through these dif-
ferent spaces, from a fleshed and recognisable corpse,
through to decomposition and putrefaction to finally
a collection of bleached bone; unrecognisable to those
who are involved in the performance of burial.
Incorporated into inner spaces of the monument is
rock-art, usually in the form of a series of abstract
geometric forms. Although the syntax is limited to,
say, ten distinct symbols, the way they are positioned
on the panel suggests a complex grammar was in
operation. The dominant symbols from the three
monuments, including chevrons, concentric circles,
cupmarks, lozenges, serpentine forms, spirals and
zigzags are all located on uprights that are visually
restricted and appear to function in areas of the
monument where probably only a few individuals
would attempt to go. Alternatively, the responsibility
of moving the dead from a known to an unknown
space would have been restricted to may be one of
two high status individuals. As the burial monument
is used over many generations the original meaning
of each of the symbols may have been forgotten or
-ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS-
I would like to thank the following people for assis-
tance with this chapter. Firstly sincere thanks to Mi-
hael Budja for inviting me to the 12th Annual Confe-
rence at the University of Lublijana, Slovenia where
elements of the paper was presented. Also thanks to
Abby George and Laurie Waite for taking the time
read through the text. Finally thanks to Dr Becky Ros-
sef and Professor Mike Shanks for invaluable com-
ments concerning the issues raised in this rather dif-
ficult and personal project.
elaborated on. In order to read each of these sym-
bols the strategic position of a hearth or torch would
have been paramount.
Finally, like all architecture, the passage grave tradi-
tion indicates that there is an intentionality in de-
sign. The design elements repeated throughout the
Atlantic zone including mound shape, passage and
chamber plans, and the construction methodology
would have had a significance to the people using
the monument. The idiosyncratic and subtle position
of, say, the doorway jambs, the constricting passage,
or the location of the rock-art, indicate a status-dri-
ven society where by only elite individuals get the
privilege of accompanying the dead on part of their
journey and experiencing the light at the end of the
tunnel!
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APPENDIX
PASSAGE GRAVE DESCRIPTIONS12
Barclodiad y Gawres, Llangwyfan
Large passage grave, also referred to as Mynnedd
Cnwc or Mynydd y Cnwc, lies 19m AOD on the south-
ern part of a small promontory headland overlook-
ing a small inlet known as Porth Trecastell (SH 3290
7072). This monument appears to have suffered da-
mage until its excavation in 1953. Used as a stone
quarry in the 18th century, most of the contents, in-
cluding archaeological deposits from the chambers,
were removed. However, the monument did receive
some archaeological recognition in 1799 when a
note was published by David Thomas in the Cam-
brian Register, listing the Cromlechau or Druidical
Altars of Anglesey. One of the first accounts of this
monument was given by the Reverend John Skin-
ner who on Monday December 6th 1802 described it
thus:
"Instead of a cromlech at Mynnedd Cnwc we found
the vestiges of a large carnedd; many of the flat
stones of the cist faen or chamber are still remai-
ning but the small ones have been almost all re-
moved to build a wall close at hand. On another
fork of the peninsula about a hundred yards dis-
tant we observed the traces of another carnedd of
much smaller dimensions [This is now regarded as
a Bronze Age cairn]. From the nature of their situa-
tion, the bay, the earth work &c. it is not possible
to suppose that an engagement here took place
with the natives wherein some principal officers
were slain and interred on the spot."
In 1869 H. Pritchard published a full description of
the site including a plan of the passage and part of
the chamber, but made no reference to the destruc-
tion of the monument. The monument was later pho-
tographed by J. E. Griffith in 1900. In 1910, E. N.
Baynes concluded that Barclodiad y Gawres was a
small cairn, and it was not until 1937 that the full
extent of the chamber area and the mound was ex-
posed in the plan made by W. F. Grimes. In his re-
search, Grimes concluded that the monument was a
passage grave of the style 'of Newgrange and other
Irish sites'.
The forecourt area opens out onto views across the
western coast of Anglesey. Based on pre-excavation
photographic evidence, the chamber and passage ar-
chitecture prior to excavation was not fully covered.
However, when constructed it was probably covered
by a large turf mound. The profile of the passage ap-
pears to narrow as one progresses into the cham-
ber area, an arrangement unlike passage tombs else-
where. However, one should be cautious in so far as
the true lines of both passage walls may no longer
be in their original positions.
The passage measures approximately 6m and leads
to a cruciform chamber which has a series of uprights
decorated with chevrons, lozenges, spirals and zigzag
designs. These pecked designs are similar to those
found within the Boyne Valley and nearby Bryn Celli
Ddu (see above).
The cremated remains of two young adult males
were found in the western chamber during the 1953
12 Although without a passage, nearby Bryn yr Hen Bobl, Llanedwen (SH 5190 6900) possesses many passage grave traits such as
a sub-circular mound and enclosed fafade. However, no rock-art is present.
excavation. According to Powell & Daniel (1956) no
primary pottery was found, but there was one arte-
fact, which may be contemporary with initial use of
the monument. This was a bone or antler pin which
was found with the cremation burials in the western
side chamber, a pin similar to skewer pins found at
Loughcrew and Fourknocks in central Ireland. The
pin fragments were all burnt and would appear to
be associated with the cremation. The location of a
cinerary urn, above the collapsed roof area, also sug-
gests that the deposition of the cremation was sub-
sequent to the initial use of the tomb. The urn had
a decorated bevelled rim made up of a series of lines
of plaited cord impressions. Within the central cham-
ber was discovered a hearth approximately 1m in
diameter which contained a mixture of charcoal and
stone chips. Also recovered was an assemblage of
shells, fish bones, amphibia, reptiles and small mam-
mals.
Bryn Celli Ddu, Llanddaniel-Fab
Bryn Celli Ddu is located on a low ridge of a glacial
moraine at around 33m AOD and close to the Menai
Straits and extensive views of the Snowdonia peaks.
To the north and west is a slightly undulating land-
scape. Other Neolithic monuments are sited within
the locality including the dolmens of Plas Newydd,
Bodowyr and Perthi Duon.
Based on the passage grave sequence in central Ire-
land Bryn Celli Ddu probably dates from the Late
Neolithic and possibly has an association with near-
by Early Bronze Age monuments such as the stand-
ing stone that is located in a field some 200m west
of the monument (SH 50632 70103). Also worth
noting is the recent discovery of 26 cup marks on
rock outcropping that lies roughly 250m north-west
of Bryn Celli Ddu (SH 50623 70240).
The mound, 26m in diameter, may have been pos-
sibly larger, but during part-restoration by the Mini-
stry of Works, the monument may have been severe-
ly altered. The entrance, with its two uprights (with-
out capstone), is located on the eastern side of the
mound. It leads and into a slab-roofed passage ap-
proximately 7.5m in length. Intriguingly, the south-
ern wall of the passage is straight, whereas the
northern wall is not (Thomas 1988. 45). To the west
of the monument and almost in line with the align-
ment of the walls of the passage is a standing stone,
suggesting fore planning of the monument. The pas-
13 Lynch (1969a.116) refers to the chamber as roughly polygonal
sage leads into a polygonal chamber roughly 2.5m
across.13 Between the entrance and the passage are
two sets of kerbing, which suggests two phases of
passage grave building.
The Reverend John Skinner visited the site in De-
cember 1802 and writes an important account of
how he entered the passage. The site was excavated
by Captain F. du Bois Lukis in 1865 and later by
Hemp between 1925 and 1929. Hemp revealed a
possible complex multi-phased history to the site.
Beneath the mound was, according to Hemp a cir-
cular henge consisting of 14 upright stones, some of
which were broken others, leaning outwards, and
within the centre of this was a pit that was a recum-
bent stone slab. During excavation, socket holes
were found which might represent the position of
further uprights. Underlying some of these socket
holes was evidence of cremation material. Covering
the area of this possible henge monument, but un-
derlying the present mound, was a purple coloured
clay that Hemp suggests may represent a ritual floor.
However, Lynch (1969a.112) argues that it is a pa-
laeo-turf line, the colour of which has been affected
by drainage conditions from the overlying mound.
Lying next to the pit was the Pattern Stone.
Finds from the 1925-29 excavation are meagre and
included a petit tranchet arrowhead that is probably
Late Neolithic in date. Also recovered was a rounded
scraper (thumb-shaped end scraper), a small lithic
assemblage numbering twenty pieces and a mud-
stone bead which was found within the turf line of
the ditch, south of the passage. Previous antiquarian
interest in this monument (dating to at least the
early 19th century) has probably seen the removal
of much of the artefactual evidence from this site.
Within the entrance area of the passage-grave were
the sockets of five post-holes that may represent a
possible burial platform for human excarnation and
two hearths. Immediately behind this structure was
a shallow pit containing the remains of an ox burial.
The presence of the post-holes, the burial pit and the
two hearths suggests ritual activity is an ongoing pro-
cess whilst the monument was in use.
Along with Barclodiad y Gawres, this monument has
two stones with megalithic art, one within a pit, the
other in the chamber. Decoration of one of two
stones includes an anti-clockwise spiral approxima-
tely 13cm in diameter. The other stone, known usu-
ally as the 'Pattern Stone' was found in a possible ri-
tual pit in the centre of the monument. The Pattern
Stone was believed by Hemp to belong to the henge
phase.
Considering the design and the presence of an ox
burial Lynch suggests that this monument has a
greater association with passage graves in Brittany
than with monuments in the Boyne Valley in south-
ern Ireland (1969a.111). Within the chamber area is
a single pillar-stone, which has no structural use and
therefore may be considered as possessing some ri-
tual or at least, an aesthetic significance.
The complex decoration of the 'Pattern Stone', loca-
ted on three of its faces comprises a clockwise spiral
which is linked to a meandering curvilinear pattern,
referred to by Shee-Twohig as a serpentine form
(ibid. 230). This design covers both faces of the
stone. Also present is a cup-mark. The simple spiral
may have direct similarities with stone C16 within
the chamber of Barclodiad y Gawres and Stones A,
B, C, D, E & F of the Calderstones, Liverpool.
Outside the upright stones were the remains of a sil-
ted, flat-bottomed ditch approximately 6m in diame-
ter and 2.2m in depth. It is this feature that is con-
sidered to be the henge. However, it is just as plau-
sible to suggest that the henge uprights may in fact
represent the kerbing of the passage gave.
Calderstones, Liverpool
This now destroyed site has, in my opinion the most
complex decorated carved megalithic art assemblage
in southern Britain. The history of its destruction can
be traced as far back as the 18th century. Surviving
today are just six decorated stones that once formed
the uprights of a passage and/or chamber. Documen-
tary evidence for this site is good and several early
19th century engravings exist of the site which by
then was much denuded. The original site is not
known and today the stones stand within a glass-
house in Calderstones Park. There have been at-
tempts, albeit based on limited evidence to place
each of the stones into their original context (Cowell
1981). Based on the location of decorated stones at
Barclodiad y Gawres, Bryn Celli Ddu and monuments
within the Boyne Valley in Ireland, the Calderstones'
uprights would have been erected within the cham-
ber and inner passage areas.
The stones were first recorded properly in 1954 by
Forde-Johnston who labelled the stones A to F (Fig.
5). However, Forde-Johnston and later Cowell (1981)
were concerned with recording only the megalithic
art. The rock-art present on these stones is divided
into at least four chronological phases that include:
Phase I - megalithic art includes concentric circles,
grooves, lines and spirals. Phase II include Late Neo-
lithic/Early Bronze Age arcs, an axe, cupmarks, foot-
prints and a wheel motif. Phase III includes medieval
and post-medieval graffiti (a Maltese cross, shoe-
prints and text) and Phase IV includes 20th and 21st
century textual graffiti.
Interestingly, the art from Phase II does not super-
impose Phase I art suggesting some degree of re-
spect for the earlier tradition. It is probable that
both phases are within a generation or two of each
other. Many components used within both phases
are found elsewhere on Late Neolithic/Early Bronze
Age exposed rock-art in Northern Britain (see Becken-
sall 1999). Common artistic themes found on all
three monuments are spirals and concentric circles
and these designs are probably the earliest. Foot-
prints, of which there are four on the Calderstones
are considered rare in Britain and are restricted to
a limited number of sites. The Calderstone footprints
probably belong to Phase II, dating to between c.
2500 and 1800 BC. Similar carvings have been found
on a capstone belonging to the Pool Farm cist burial
in Somerset and this site is clearly Bronze Age in
date.