7Arheološki vestnik 74, 2023, 7–38; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/AV.74.01; CC BY-SA
On the Significance of Divje babe I Cave
for the Stratigraphy, Sedimentology,
and Chronology of Palaeolithic Cave Sites in Slovenia
O pomenu jame Divje babe I
za stratigrafijo, sedimentologijo in kronologijo jamskih
paleolitskih najdišč v Sloveniji
Matija TURK, Janez TURK
Izvleček
V članku sta podana pregled razvoja in razlaga postopkov, uporabljenih pri proučevanju profila paleolitskega jamskega 
najdišča Divje babe I. Podatke smo pridobili iz objav, arhivskega gradiva in osebnih informacij Ivana Turka, ki je vodil 
izkopavanja in ciljno usmerjal laboratorijske raziskave. Profil Divjih bab I je trenutno najbolje raziskan in kronološko 
opredeljen mlajšepleistocenski jamski profil v Sloveniji. Različni sedimentološki in drugi podatki iz standardnega profila 
so bili prvič nadgrajeni z istimi podatki, pridobljenimi na standardnih tlorisnih površinah in globinah. Ugotovljena je 
bila velika prostorska (lateralna) variabilnost, povezana s sicer sočasnimi, vendar različnimi jamskimi mikrookolji, na 
katera je odločilno vplivala različna prisotnost vode v vseh agregatnih stanjih. Brez upoštevanja časovne in prostorske 
dimenzije ne bi bilo mogoče povezati vseh statističnih množic zbranih podatkov o sedimentih, njihovi vsebini in kli-
matskih parametrih v enovit sistem.
Ključne besede: jama Divje babe I; mlajši pleistocen; variabilnost sedimentov; jamska mikrookolja; kongelifrakcija; 
korozija; klima
Abstract
The article reviews the development and interpretation of procedures used in the study of the sedimentary sequence 
of the Divje babe I Palaeolithic cave site. The data were obtained from publications, archives, and personal information 
provided by Ivan Turk, who directed the excavations and directed the laboratory investigations. The profile of Divje babe 
I is currently the best researched and chronologically defined Late Pleistocene cave profile in Slovenia. For the first time, 
various sedimentological and other data from the standard profile were upgraded with the same data obtained on standardized 
ground plan surfaces and depths. A large spatial (lateral) variability was discovered, associated with generally contemporaneous 
but different cave microenvironments, which were crucially influenced by different amounts of water in all aggregate 
states. Without taking into account temporal and spatial dimensions, it would not be possible to combine all statistical 
sets of collected data on sediments, their contents, and climatic parameters into a unified system.
Keywords: Divje babe I cave; Late Pleistocene; sedimentary variability; cave microenvironments; congelifraction; 
corrosion; climate
8 Janez TURK, Matija TURK
The palaeontological and archaeological cave site 
Divje babe I is located in western Slovenia, in the 
pre-Alpine hills, under the edge of the Šebreljska 
planota (Šebrelje plateau) (Fig. 1). The cave, formed 
in dolomite, opens on the steep, north-facing 
slope above the valley of the Idrijca River at an 
altitude of 450 m a.s.l. The site is widely known 
for the discovery of the unusually perforated fe-
mur of a young cave bear, which is interpreted as 
a Neanderthal musical instrument (M. Turk et al. 
2018). However, the site is also interesting because 
of other important finds and innovative research 
approaches (Turk 2007a; 2014a).
In the years 1978–1986, Mitja Brodar carried 
out systematic excavations in Divje babe I. The 
excavations were continued in 1989–1999 by Ivan 
Turk and Janez Dirjec. The second excavation cam-
paign brought some completely new approaches to 
the interpretation of the cave clastic and chemical 
sediments. I. Turk was their conceptual creator. 
Because of the potential of the findings from these 
approaches for the study of cave sites, this paper 
presents a summary with additional explanations 
of his ideas and findings published in numerous 
articles. Some previously unpublished data and 
findings are reproduced according to the extensive 
documentation from the archives of the Institute 
of Archaeology ZRC SAZU.1
Pleistocene cave sediments are important, both 
for their archaeological and/or palaeontological 
content and for the possibilities they offer for 
various other interdisciplinary studies. The study 
of sediments determines their formation, origin, 
and diagenesis. All this can be observed more or 
less continuously (depending on interruptions in 
sedimentation) in a given sedimentary profile. In 
contrast, such observation is usually not possible 
for archaeological and palaeontological finds, due 
to the presence of sediments without finds. Since 
cave sediments vary according to their micro-loca-
tion due to the specific sedimentary environment, 
the interpretation of sedimentological research 
must necessarily take into account their spatial 
variability, to which too little attention has been 
paid thus far (see Farrand 2001).
The study of Pleistocene sediments in Palaeoli-
thic cave sites has a long tradition in Slovenia (S. 
Brodar 1939; 1958; 1966; M. Brodar 1959; Osole 
1  Turk, I. 2002, Elaborat Divje babe I. Izkopavanja 
1989–1999, Archives of the ZRC SAZU, Institute of Ar-
chaeology.
Fig. 1: The view of the north slope of the Šebreljska planota (Šebrelje plateau) with the entrance to the Divje babe I cave 
(marked by a circle) and a location map.
Sl. 1: Pogled na severno pobočje Šebreljske planote z označenim položajem jame Divje babe I (označeno s krogom).
9On the Significance of Divje babe I Cave for the Stratigraphy, Sedimentology, and ...
1961; 1968; 1986). It was mainly limited to karst 
caves formed in limestone. In contrast, the Divje 
babe I cave is formed in dolomite, and at the be-
ginning of M. Brodar’s excavations, this site was 
an exception without a corresponding comparative 
practice due to the different sediments (M. Brodar 
1999, 39). Thus, Divje babe I became a seemingly 
unsolvable, or at least difficult to solve, problem 
in the field of Pleistocene cave sedimentology in 
Slovenia. The question even arose as to what sen-
se the routine sedimentological analysis valid at 
that time would have in this case. In 1997, when 
the opportunity arose for systematic radiometric 
dating of the Divje babe I profile with electron 
spin resonance (ESR),2 I. Turk decided to carry 
out a parallel pilot analysis of sediments from all 
layers, dated by this method. After the end of the 
systematic excavation in 1999, he started a thoro-
ugh analysis of all excavated sediments based on 
his own idea and started an informal cooperation 
with the geologist Dragomir Skaberne from the 
Geological Survey of Slovenia.3
THE RESEARCH METHODS
AND THEIR USE IN SLOVENIAN
PALAEOLITHIC CAVE SITES WITH 
EMPHASIS ON THE NEW METHOD
APPLIED IN DIVJE BABE I
Let us first present the main characteristics of 
the primary working method in sedimentology of 
Palaeolithic sites in Slovenia until 1999. The results 
of investigations of cave sediments in Palaeolithic 
sites in Slovenia were usually a component part 
of the chronology of sites and Palaeolithic finds. 
In research, the qualitative and deductive method 
was used almost exclusively, which presupposed 
certain regularities in sedimentation (e.g., alterna-
tion of gravel and clay layers) based on hypotheses. 
For example, it was assumed that the cave gravel 
was typical of colder climates and the cave clay 
of warmer climates (S. Brodar 1958; M. Brodar 
1959, 438; Osole 1961), which is a fundamental 
2  The site was first dated in 1990 using the then-new 
AMS 14C method. The method was developed by D. E. 
Nelson and his team (Nelson 1991; 1997). Divje babe I 
is one of the first Palaeolithic sites in Europe to be dated 
using this method.
3  The sediment analysis project was not approved. 
Nevertheless, sediment analysis was carried out in the 
1999–2014 period within the limited financial and techni-
cal possibilities.
fallacy (White 2007). The main assumption that 
climate was a key factor influencing cave sediments 
during the Pleistocene has never been tested from 
site to site. Therefore, the deviation of the values 
of the analysed attributes (parameters), mainly 
grain (clasts) size, in Pleistocene sediments from 
those of Holocene sediments, formed in a more 
or less known climate, was never determined. Not 
a single example of such a test is known from 
anywhere else. Exceptionally, the repeatability of 
the results of the technical part of the method has 
been verified within a single site by the samples 
from different profiles (M. Brodar 1959; Farrand 
1975, and others). From the multitude of sedi-
mentological attributes that may or may not be 
related to climate, the most influential attribute 
or attributes were never selected by the consistent 
application of the abstraction method. Therefore, 
once a particular attribute was analysed, which was 
usually the distribution of fine grain size fraction 
in profiles analysed by the quantitative method, 
no attempt was made to link it to other sedimen-
tological attributes using the synthesis method. 
Indeed, this was not possible as other attributes 
were not adequately quantified but were at best 
descriptively stated.
After almost 70 years of extensive, including 
multidisciplinary research (see Stritar et al. 1967) 
in numerous Palaeolithic cave sites in Slovenia, 
the excavations at Divje babe I and the innovative 
sedimentological research of I. Turk mark a turning 
point (Skaberne et al. 2015a; 2015b). We expect 
his findings to be useful at other sites with similar 
sedimentary environments and similar phenomena, 
such as congelifracts, cavernously corroded clasts, 
and phosphate aggregates. In Slovenia, such sites 
are caves Jama pod Herkovimi pečmi, Matjaževe 
kamre, Mokriška jama, Njivice and Potočka zijalka. 
For the analysis of sediments from Divje babe I, 
Turk used the empirical method, supported by 
statistics, not neglecting the qualitative signs of 
attributes, which he combined with the quanti-
tative ones. Each hypothesis, either his own or 
adopted, he tested within the given possibilities, 
also experimentally if possible. In order to test 
the old chronological scheme for the classification 
of Middle Palaeolithic sites in Slovenia, he laid 
the foundations for an independent radiometric 
chronology in informal cooperation with foreign 
colleagues (Nelson 1997; Ku 1997; Lau et al. 1997; 
Blackwell et al. 2007; 2009). To the extent possible, 
he applied the method of abstraction and removed 
all sedimentological attributes irrelevant to the 
10 Janez TURK, Matija TURK
climate model, including the distribution of fine 
grain size fraction. During the fieldwork, I. Turk 
developed a new model of the sedimentation process 
in the cave environment based on the interrelated 
sedimentological attributes reflecting both climatic 
conditions and sedimentation rate. The latter was 
insufficiently or not at all considered in the old 
model. The only attributes that are important are 
those that are undoubtedly related to climate and 
that occur continuously in time (vertical dimen-
sion) and space (lateral dimension) at the site. 
Previously, too little attention had been paid to 
the collection and statistics of continuous data on 
sediment properties and their spatial variability. 
Despite the opportunities offered by each major 
excavation and computer support to process the 
data sets, in most cases, this opportunity was not 
taken. The main reason for this was the technique 
of frontal excavation by layers from profile to 
profile and collecting finds without sieving the 
sediments. The new sedimentation model could 
only be developed on the basis of excavation by 
spits and quadrats and the wet sieving of all sedi-
ments, including the archaeologically sterile ones.
The vertical dimension
In Divje babe I, the vertical dimension was 
mainly represented by spits used to remove sedi-
ments. After 1989, the spit thickness was always 
12 cm, which is the optimal thickness considering 
the texture of the sediments, which contain many 
clasts larger than 10 cm. Spits can be equated with 
sedimentation levels, a stratigraphic category used 
and defined in Divje babe I by I. Turk. Sedimen-
tation levels follow the dip of layers when the 
boundaries between layers are not horizontal in 
the transverse and/or longitudinal directions. If 
necessary, several successive sedimentation levels 
Fig. 2: A simplified presentation of variability of aggregate content in the lateral direction according to spits and quadrats 
(left) and their mean value (right) in a constant volume of sediments of constant ground plan surface, which represents 
0.73% of the entire cave surface.
Sl. 2: Poenostavljen prikaz variabilnosti vsebnosti agregatov v bočni smeri po režnjih in kvadratih (levo) ter njihova srednja 
vrednost (desno) v stalnem volumnu sedimentov stalne tlorisne površine, ki predstavlja 0,73 % celotne površine jame.
11On the Significance of Divje babe I Cave for the Stratigraphy, Sedimentology, and ...
can be joined into a larger unit, such as a layer, 
and several layers in their sequence (see Skaberne 
et al. 2015a).
A geological layer, by its definition, is a ho-
mogenous unit formed (theoretically) under the 
same physicochemical conditions and in uniform 
processes and their uniform sequence. Each layer 
is separated from the lower and upper layers on 
the basis of one (or more) basic sedimentary 
characteristics. The characteristics of the layers 
are influenced by physical, chemical, biologi-
cal (including anthropological), geological and 
diagenetic conditions. As a rule, stratification 
occurs in the sediment when changes arise in the 
material that is being deposed. In the cave envi-
ronment where clastic sediments prevail, this is 
not a frequent occurrence. Invisible sedimentary 
hiatuses (gaps) between layers, which affect the 
completeness of the chronological record, result 
from interruption of sedimentation, erosion, or 
changes in sedimentation conditions. If we manage 
to determine hiatuses using dating and sedimen-
tological research, we can distinguish multiple 
sedimentation cycles separated by interruptions 
in sediment deposition (see Blackwell et al. 2020; 
J. Turk 2011). When excavating new layers, this 
obviously cannot all be determined simultaneously 
in the field. Therefore, so-called geological layers 
determined in the field are only a temporary wor-
king aid for stratigraphic and chronologic sorting 
of finds, carrying no significantly greater weight 
than artificial spits until the true nature of each 
individual layer or sequence of specific layers is 
determined by routine analytical techniques. A 
layer may contain archaeological and other finds 
either distributed throughout the entire thickness 
of the layer or concentrated in one or more levels 
(I. Turk 2003).
Both layers and sedimentation levels belong 
to time intervals of different lengths, since the 
Fig. 3: A simplified example of selecting the most (quadrat 26) and least divergent profile (quadrat 39) of aggregates 
from six profiles using a calculation procedure (numbers in the right corner of the graphs). The profile includes data 
from spits 2–36, layers 2–17a1 in six quadrats.
Sl. 3: Poenostavljen primer izbora najbolj (kvadrat 26) in najmanj odstopajočega profila (kvadrat 39) agregatov izmed 
šestih profilov s pomočjo računskega postopka (številke v desnem vogalu grafov). Profil zajema podatke iz režnjev 2–36, 
plasti 2–17a1 v šestih kvadratih.
12 Janez TURK, Matija TURK
sedimentation rate is not constant. In the cave 
environment, sedimentation takes place (or not) 
depending on various internal and external con-
ditions of local and/or global nature. Thus, the 
sedimentation rate is a very important variable on 
which the rate of sediment modification, sediment 
distribution, and temporal unity or disunity of 
archaeological and other finds depend (I. Turk 
2003). Temporal unity is not necessarily guaran-
teed with the occurrence of finds in a particular 
layer. Namely, the interruption or deceleration in 
sedimentation may cause the mixing of finds from 
different time periods.
In addition to determining layers and sedi-
mentary hiatuses, chronology is crucial in any 
research. Therefore, stratigraphy (i.e., the vertical 
dimension of the phenomenon under study) is 
of paramount importance. In Divje babe I, Turk 
defined the vertical dimension (i.e., the profile) 
quantitatively and qualitatively in two different 
ways (Figs. 2 and 3):
1 – Using the mean values of the data set of 
a particular sedimentological attribute in a suf-
ficiently large volume of stratified cave fill with 
ground plan area that comprised 15% (83 m²) of the 
total present-day cave area (550 m²) (I. Turk 2003, 
Fig. 6a). The data were arranged by sedimentation 
levels, represented by 12 cm thick spits. Once ex-
cavation was complete, sedimentation levels were 
arranged to roughly follow the dip of the layers in 
the direction of the longitudinal axis of the cave. 
Fig. 2, like the already published Figs. 6a and 7a 
(I. Turk 2003), show that the mean values of the 
sedimentological attributes change in the proportion 
of the sampled area to the total ground plan area, 
and that the larger the proportion of the sampled 
area, the more reliable they are.
2 – Using two profiles from the available set of 
profiles of a particular sedimentological attribute 
that were maximally different and represented the 
two extremes of a stratigraphic sequence: a) the 
profile that deviated the least from all available 
profiles, and b) the profile that deviated the most 
(Fig. 3). Both were more reliable the larger the set 
of profiles from which they were selected both visu-
ally and computationally. The profile that deviated 
the least from all available profiles represents the 
so- called type profile (I. Turk 2003). Fig. 3 shows 
considerable variability of the studied attribute in 
space (quadrats), which is to be expected for the 
cave environment. Thus, a very accurate and so-
phisticated analysis at a particular micro-location 
does not mean that the results obtained in this 
way are representative of the whole, which has not 
been subjected to such an analysis. It is a shortcut 
that can also be used when revising a specific site 
and can lead to a significantly different result than 
the original. However, we still do not know which 
result is more and which is less correct.
The lateral dimension
In Divje babe I, the lateral dimension was re-
presented by 1×1 m quadrats. The sedimentary 
environment of the cave consists of microenvi-
ronments. These change with the size of the cave 
entrance and the distance from it, so the pheno-
menon of gradient or gradual decrease of external 
influences proportional to the distance from the 
entrance and its size occurs. At the same time, the 
changes in microenvironments may be influenced 
by other factors that do not depend directly on 
the size of the entrance and distance from it. In 
particular, these other factors influence fossil 
remains and underground water (i.e., the perco-
lating water and the moisture in the sediments). 
The variability of cave sediments is the result of 
the action of various factors. A great variability 
is the main characteristic of cave sediments. For 
all these reasons, documenting and analysing the 
lateral characteristics of sedimentological attributes 
can be as important as documenting and analysing 
their vertical characteristics.
The new methodological approaches could be 
applied without adapting the archaeological field 
method to the new requirements resulting from 
the application of the different post-excavation 
analytical methods and procedures than were 
used in Slovenia until the end of the first phase of 
excavation at Divje babe I in 1986. The sedimento-
logical research at Divje babe I was carried out in 
such a way that, in addition to the above written, 
the accuracy and reliability of the data, on which 
the credibility or accuracy of the interpretation 
depends, were checked at the same time.
– The accuracy of the data collected depends 
primarily on the method, the time invested, and 
the precision of those performing the method. 
Accuracy controls that provide an estimate of the 
error are essential.
– Data reliability does not always depend on the 
precision with which the data are collected. The 
number of data is also important. A large number 
of less accurate data may provide a more reliable 
13On the Significance of Divje babe I Cave for the Stratigraphy, Sedimentology, and ...
result than a small number of very accurate data. 
Reliability can only be evaluated based on a set 
of data related to each of the attributes analysed.
– The credibility or accuracy of the interpreta-
tion of the data collected depends on how reliable 
the data are. However, the reliability of the data 
in itself does not guarantee the credibility of the 
interpretation. Therefore, any interpretation is only 
hypothetical until it is confirmed or disproved 
by verification with other independent data and 
methods. A verified assertion remains valid until 
it is replaced by another substantiated assertion 
or proven false. The credibility of the interpre-
tation does not mean that the interpretation is 
correct. Any interpretation should be based on 
an analysis of the accuracy and significance of the 
original data (facts). In Slovenia, only M. Brodar 
(1959) attempted to adhere to this principle in 
his granulometric analysis of the sediment in the 
Mokriška jama cave.
In studying problems related to past events 
and phenomena, we usually infer the causes and 
processes that lead to a particular current state 
from the consequences (i.e., facts). The problem 
with this is that different causes and processes 
can have similar consequences. This means that 
every interpretation and every conclusion carries 
a certain risk of being wrong. The risk can be 
reduced if we treat the facts not individually, but 
together with other available facts, by analysing 
their relationships and identifying meaningful 
links that lead to systematic solutions.
To summarise, we may say that I. Turk has 
upgraded the old methods, which were based on 
logical thinking, intuition, and experience, with 
research methods that derive their quality from 
quantity. He limited himself to autochthonous cave 
sediments and the site of Divje babe I, where he 
had the most personally collected data and the 
possibility of maximum verification of analytical 
results. It is understandable that his new findings 
did not always coincide with those obtained by 
other methods, including those he had used be-
fore following the example of his predecessors, 
and with the results of analyses of allochthonous 
admixtures in cave sediments. The latter are often 
treated preferentially, although they constitute an 
insignificant proportion of the cave sediments 
and may be episodic in nature.
THE GOAL AND INNOVATIVE
APPROACH OF SEDIMENTOLOGICAL
RESEARCH IN DIVJE BABE I
In the case of Palaeolithic sites, the study of 
Pleistocene sediments has a specific goal: to 
determine the origin and, more importantly, the 
age of the sediments. In the case of the sediments 
from Divje babe I, both have been more or less 
clarified. Due to the sedimentary environment and 
the structure of the sediments, there is no doubt 
about the almost exclusively autochthonous origin 
of most of the sediments. Numerous radiometric 
dates also explained the basic chronological que-
stions raised by M. Brodar (1999). What remained 
was the question of additional (alternative) aims 
of the sedimentological analysis (for routine pro-
cedures, see Farrand 2001; Woodward, Goldberg 
2001). These were:
– to determine the factors responsible for se-
diment deposition (including the finest fraction), 
weathering and further diagenesis of sediments;
– and possibly to determine indicators of basic 
climatic parameters.
Together with palynological, anthracotomical, 
macro- and microfaunal data, these factors would 
contribute to the reconstruction of the palaeocli-
mate. The palaeoclimate, together with radiometric 
data, is currently the only basis for a more or less 
reliable climatochronological placement of the 
site in the scheme of the contemporary global 
(climato)chronology of the Late Pleistocene, since 
the so-called complete division of Würm has long 
ceased to be relevant (see I. Turk, Verbič 1993).
In pursuing the goals set, I. Turk analysed 
samples of sediments taken from the profiles, as 
well as samples of sediments taken after spits and 
quadrats in the excavated area.4 A precise analysis 
of sediments from the profile is usually primarily 
or exclusively representative of a particular section 
of the profile, but it also has a broader significance, 
as each individual analysed value of a specific se-
diment characteristic in a profile certainly belongs 
to a population with a particular range of values. 
Thus, using data from individual profiles sensu 
stricto, we can compare the results of the analysis 
of sets of sedimentological data collected at spits 
and later combined into sedimentation levels, with 
so-called geological layers, as were determined 
4  Samples of sediments are kept together with other 
finds in the National Museum of Slovenia.
14 Janez TURK, Matija TURK
visually in profiles. The data collected according 
to spits pertained to the following categories:
– mass of dolomite blocks and fractions from 
fine-grained gravel to silt;
– volumetric mass of sandy fraction;
– fossil and archaeological remains.
Although sedimentological data were in no way 
as precise as the corresponding data from the pro-
files, their number (ranging from a few hundred 
to about 2,500 unpublished data points for a single 
category from layer 2 to including layer 16a, or 
an average of 150 data point for each excavated 
layer)5 made them statistically significant and thus 
allowed the recognition of the variability of the 
collected data according to the above categories. 
Since they were stratigraphically objectively defined 
with an accuracy of 12 cm, they could be compared 
quite well with the stratigraphically presumably 
comparable data from profiles, the comparative 
analysis could be carried out and the correlation 
between the sedimentation levels and the geological 
layers could be verified. In order to understand 
better the whole process of sedimentation and 
sediment diagenesis, I. Turk and his colleagues 
systematically studied:
a – the grain size distribution (of clasts and
      aggregates) of the various fractions;
b –  the average grain size in each clast fraction;
c – the post-sedimentary fragmentation of
      clasts (the so-called congelifracts);
d – the corrosion of clasts (the so-called cave-
      rnously corroded clasts);
e – the volumetric (specific) mass of the fine
      sediment fractions;
f –  the chemical composition of the individual
     sediment fractions with emphasis on the 
      fine fraction.6
I. Turk focused on certain universal characteristics 
of clastic sediments (weathering, congelifraction, 
corrosion, cementation), which he assumed to be 
directly related to climatic parameters (temperature, 
humidity). Using radiometric dates, he managed 
to directly parallel them with global climatic 
temperature fluctuations (Blackwell et al. 2007; 
Turk 2007b), whereas modern palaeoclimate and 
palaeoenvironmental research does so on the basis 
of other parameters that can only be indirectly 
5  Unpublished data from the Archives of the ZRC 
SAZU, Institute of Archaeology: Turk, I. 2002, Elaborat 
Divje babe I. Izkopavanja 1989–1999.
6  The latter in cooperation with the geologist D. Skaberne.
paralleled with dated climate curves (Ellwood 
et al. 2004; Spötl et al. 2006; Aubry et al. 2010). 
Congelifracts are thought to be highly correlated 
with temperature, whereas cavernously corroded 
clasts and various structural aggregates with 
cement binding are correlated with humidity or 
precipitation. He was able to reliably correlate 
cavernously corroded clasts with stagnations in 
the predominant mechanical weathering of the 
cave ceiling. These are also reflected in a disconti-
nuity in the ESR dates in the Divje babe I profile. 
To date, no one has paid much attention to the 
relationship between hiatuses and cavernously 
corroded clasts, not even authors who have dealt 
specifically with stratigraphic hiatuses in cave 
sites (Campy, Chaline 1993). Structural aggregates 
have also never been analysed quantitatively, as 
was done in Divje babe I.
In the analysis of the sediments of Divje babe 
I, Turk proceeded from general knowledge of the 
weathering and cementation of sedimentary rocks 
(which is also dolomite), as well as from his own 
field observations during 19 years of excavations 
at Divje babe I. His basic ideas regarding the 
correlation between weathering and cementation 
with climate came from wet sieving and exami-
nation of all excavated sediments in 1990–1999. 
Unfortunately, these ideas only emerged towards 
the end of the excavations, so it was not possible 
to verify congelifracts and cavernously corroded 
clasts in their lateral dimension, as was the case 
with structural aggregates.
Weathering
Weathering is a combination of inextricably 
linked mechanical and chemical processes that 
lead to the decomposition of rock (I. Turk 2006, 
21). Weathering of the dolomite parent rock could 
have been primary, synsedimentary, syngenetic (on 
the ceiling, walls, and shelves of the cave) and/or 
secondary, post-sedimentary, post-genetic (on/in 
the cave ground). The mass of post-sedimentary 
weathering products is the same as the mass of 
synsedimentary if there is no transport out of the 
cave or a major influx of allochthonous regolith. 
Both weathering categories are similar processes 
occurring under different sedimentary conditions 
(humidity, temperature, transport). Therefore, the 
final products may also be different. However, the 
products of one or the other type of weathering 
can only be distinguished in exceptional cases.
15On the Significance of Divje babe I Cave for the Stratigraphy, Sedimentology, and ...
Both synsedimentary and post-sedimentary 
weathering take place continuously, except in 
cases in which the protective layer of weathering 
products (on the shelves or ground) or chemical 
sediments such as sinter (on the ceiling, walls, 
shelves, and ground) begins to form. Weathering 
may be uniform or non-uniform. To what extent 
the weathering is non-uniform depends primarily 
on the degree of anisotropy of the rock (fracturing, 
etc.). If there is a prolonged interruption of primary 
weathering, corrosion lesions occur on the ceiling 
and walls. When the cave ceiling thus affected 
begins to fracture again, cavernously corroded 
clasts accumulate in the sediments. Under similar 
conditions, they can also occur in the ground.
Erosion, which plays an important part in 
the weathering of deposits in the open, was the 
exception rather than the rule in Divje babe I. 
It was only possible for the finest sediments wa-
shed into the pores and vacuoles between clasts 
by percolating water, and possibly from the cave 
if surface runoff occurred. Evidence of erosive 
solifluction is found only on the slope in front of 
and below the cave, where an unknown portion of 
the Pleistocene sediments is apparently missing. 
Also, the sediments of layer 2 at the present cave 
entrance were partly (anthropogenically?) removed 
(I. Turk 2007c, Fig. 4.1b).
Synsedimentary weathering, which takes place 
on a small area represented by the cave ceiling 
and shelves, is accompanied by the constant ero-
sion of the weathering products due to gravity, 
which is greatest on the ceiling and the least on 
the shelves. In terms of quantity, the results of 
synsedimentary weathering are mainly coarse 
fractions conditioned by primary macrocracks in 
the dolomite parent rock. Despite the potentially 
greater number of microcracks, the proportion of 
fine fractions conditioned by primary microcracks 
and the crystalline structure of the dolomite is 
relatively small due to the relatively small surface 
exposed to weathering.
Postsedimentary weathering, which occurs over 
a large area represented by the surfaces of all 
clasts and includes the occurrence of secondary 
cracks, is inversely proportional to synsedimentary 
weathering. This is because the rapid deposition 
of continually new sediments from the cave vault 
slows weathering of previously deposited sediments, 
while slow deposition allows greater weathering of 
previously deposited sediments. Post-sedimentary 
weathering depends not only on the climate and 
sedimentation rate of the gravitational gravel/debris 
that retains the moisture necessary for weathering 
but also on the amount of biomass. The result of 
post-sedimentary weathering is primarily fine frac-
tions, which are usually the subject of analysis of 
grain size distribution and micromorphology. The 
experiments of I. Turk have shown that gelifraction 
is most efficient when the sediment is flooded with 
water. This, of course, is possible mainly in/on the 
ground, if the necessary conditions are met (the 
presence of a less permeable ground in the form 
of a trampled surface). Under such conditions, 
silt and sand-sized clasts detached first, followed 
by coarse-grained clasts and so on, until large 
fragments break off that can reach half the size of 
a primary clast. Large fragments formed by frost 
action are called congelifracts.
Based on the basic law of syn- and post-sedi-
mentary weathering, the grain size distribution 
in the profile of Divje babe I has been explained, 
especially the coarsest and finest fractions (Ska-
berne et al., Fig. 17.2.1). These are not as clearly 
related to climate, as assumed by M. Brodar and 
some other authors. Both fractions are inversely 
proportional and predominantly of different ori-
gin. The coarse fraction, as already mentioned, 
was created predominantly synsedimentary in 
connection with the unstable cave vault. The finest 
fraction was created primarily post-sedimentary 
in connection with breaks in the sedimentation 
of the coarse fraction during periods of stable 
cave vault. Gravitationally, it is the most mobile 
fraction, which over time can fill all the pores 
between clasts.
The sedimentation rate of all gravitational cave 
sediments depends on the climate (temperature, 
humidity, seasonal distribution of precipitation), 
the nature of the rock (degree of fraction and 
structure), the inter-granular porosity of the 
clastic sediments, and seismic activity. Early 
chemical diagenesis (the formation of chemical 
deposits) depends on the physical and physi-
cochemical properties of the sediment and the 
solutions flowing through it. These properties 
depend on the composition of parent rock and 
sediments, as well as on exogenous conditions 
(climate, plant and animal compounds, living 
environment). Therefore, it was essential to con-
sider all these factors in explaining the results of 
sediment analysis. Some of them are interrelated. 
For example, the sinter could not have formed 
16 Janez TURK, Matija TURK
without a plant cover on the slope above the cave. 
The size of the populations of herbivorous cave 
bears that contributed to the organic component 
of the sediments was directly dependent on food 
or vegetation. The latter, in turn, was associated 
with higher temperatures, higher humidity, and 
longer summers. 
MODEL USED TO INTERPRET
SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS
OF CLASTIC SEDIMENTS
AND DIVJE BABE I
The model is based on the following general facts
Because underground caves do not receive direct 
sunlight, they have a special microclimate that 
can also be influenced by the microclimate in the 
immediate vicinity of the cave. The microclimate 
in caves is influenced by the size of the cave en-
trance, the temperature of the soil (including and 
especially of the cave sediments), the presence 
of people (fire), and the vegetation above and in 
front of the cave (trees, bushes, barren land). All 
of these factors may change in relation to climate 
change, and some of them may change in the con-
text of natural disasters (forest fires, ice-break in 
the forest, etc.). While microclimate affects cave 
sediments in the short term and are specific to a 
single site, the atmospheric climate has a long-term 
and global influence that allows comparisons on 
a global scale.
The humidity in the caves appears as conden-
sed water vapour and as underground (ground) 
water. Underground waters are all waters below 
the surface, including the water in the porous 
part of the cave sediments. Both condensed water 
vapour and ground water depend on the outside 
air temperature and precipitation. Humidity in the 
cave environment is closely related to differences 
between cave and outdoor temperatures, which are 
negatively correlated with the size of the entrance 
(see Fig. 4).
The inflow of underground water, such as 
percolating water in the horizontal underground 
caves, depends on precipitation. Fig. 5 shows the 
results of occasional measurements of undergro-
und inflow (percolating water) from the ceiling 
area of 91 m² in Divje babe I from January 2000 
to February 2001. The average value is 22.7 litres 
in one hour or 0.25 litres per 1 m² in one hour 
if the underground inflow of water was evenly 
distributed over the entire area of 91 m². The hi-
ghest value for the 91 m² area was 112 litres per 
hour and the lowest was 2 litres. Therefore, 2,190 
litres of water could drip onto 1 m² of cave floor 
each year, which is just above the local average 
precipitation for the period 1961–1990, which is 
2,098 litres (Nadbah 2012). Unlike precipitation, 
the underground outflow is constant. It increases 
rapidly after rainfall and then decreases in the 
form of an exponential curve. The latter decreases 
rapidly at first and then decreases very slowly after 
a certain point of runoff and probably never reaches 
the value of 0. The underground outflow depends 
on the separation of precipitation into the surface 
and subsurface outflow and on evapotranspiration 
(evaporation of water from the earth’s surface).
For the interpretation of humidity in the cave 
environment of Divje babe I, I. Turk used the 
following microclimatic model:
– At lower temperatures, the air contains less 
and the ground more humidity due to reduced 
evapotranspiration. For a 30-year average annual 
temperature of 10°C and 1,800 mm of precipitati-
on, both measured in the vicinity of the cave, the 
evapotranspiration amounts to 572 mm per year 
Fig. 4: The change of summer temperature in Potočka 
zijalka, connected with the changed size of the entrance 
as a result of the excavations that took place in 1928–1935. 
In 1929, S. Brodar collected 87 measurements for each 
part of the cave and outside the cave and 107 analogous 
measurements in 1935 (data: S. Brodar, Archives of the 
ZRC SAZU, Institute of Archaeology).
Sl. 4: Sprememba poletne temperature v Potočki zijalki, 
povezana s spremenjeno velikostjo vhoda kot posledico 
izkopavanj v letih 1928–1935. V letu 1929 je S. Brodar 
zbral 87 meritev za vsak predel in 107 meritev za vsak 
predel v letu 1935 (podatki: S. Brodar, Arhiv ZRC SAZU 
Inštitut za arheologijo).
17On the Significance of Divje babe I Cave for the Stratigraphy, Sedimentology, and ...
(cf. Verheye et al. 1991, Table 1). If the average 
annual temperature falls by 5°C and precipitati-
on remains the same, evapotranspiration falls by 
35%, equivalent to 372 mm per year. In the long 
term, this means less condensed water vapour 
(i.e., condensation humidity) in the cave enviro-
nment and more groundwater. The latter is more 
aggressive due to the lower temperature and may 
produce more cavernously corroded clasts in the 
ground, which may be joined by clasts detached 
from the cavernously corroded cave vault of the 
previous warmer period with more condensation 
humidity and corrosion (see I. Turk et al. 2005, Fig. 
7). Precipitation primarily increases groundwater 
inflow because it does not have a major influence 
on evapotranspiration. With an average annual 
precipitation of 2,500 mm, which is probably 
close to the possible maximum for this area, and 
an average annual temperature of 5°C, annual 
evapotranspiration would be 425 mm, which is 
only 12% more than with a precipitation of 1,800 
mm. Grass vegetation, typical of a colder climate, 
increases the vertical permeability of the ground, 
which has a positive effect on the underground 
water flow, which can increase by up to 50% as 
a result (Ćirić 1986, 123s). In contrast, the day-
-night temperature amplitude is smaller at lower 
temperatures than at higher temperatures. A smaller 
amplitude also means less condensation humidity. 
The temperature amplitudes are smaller in the caves 
with the smaller entrance. This was demonstrated 
during the excavation in the Potočka zijalka, which 
took place in the summer of 1929–1935 and was 
accompanied by daily temperature measurements 
inside and outside the cave (S. Brodar 1934) (Fig. 
4). In 1929, before the entrance was enlarged, only 
13% of the air temperature fluctuations behind 
the entrance (n = 87, p = 0.001) and 24% of the 
air temperature fluctuations at the end of the cave 
(n = 87, p < 0.001) were explained by fluctuations 
in the outside air temperature. After the entrance 
was enlarged by excavation, variations in outside 
air temperature in 1935 explained 64% of the 
variation in air temperature behind the entrance 
(n = 107, p < 0.001) and 72% of the variation in 
air temperature at the end of the cave (n = 107, 
p < 0.001). With a statistical significance of 95%, 
the average air temperature behind the enlarged 
entrance increased by 1.3–1.5ºC in 1935 and by 
0.8–1.0ºC at the end of the cave, even though 
the average outside air temperature decreased by 
1.8–2.0ºC in the same year compared to 1929, when 
the entrance had not been enlarged. Looking at 
the difference in average outside air temperature, 
the largest average increase was 3.5ºC behind the 
entrance and 3ºC at the end of the cave. Analogous 
to the increase in summer temperatures would be 
the decrease in winter temperatures in the cave 
due to the enlarged entrance.
– At higher temperatures, the air contains mo-
re humidity and the ground less due to higher 
evapotranspiration. In the long run, this means 
more condensation in the cave environment and 
somewhat less underground water. Precipitation 
increases the inflow of underground water, but 
much less than at lower temperatures. With an 
average annual precipitation of 2,500 mm and a 
temperature of 10°C, annual evapotranspiration 
would be only 2% higher than at the same tem-
perature and 1,800 mm precipitation. The runoff 
deficit (the difference between the amount of water 
that has fallen on a given area and the amount of 
Fig. 5: The inflow of underground water into Divje babe I in the 2000–2001 period.
Sl. 5: Dotok podzemne vode v Divje babe I v obdobju 2000–2001.
18 Janez TURK, Matija TURK
water that has run off from that area; it is roughly 
equivalent to evapotranspiration) is also increased 
by forest vegetation, which can be expected to be 
more developed in a warmer climate than in a 
colder climate. Therefore, precipitation at higher 
temperatures increases condensation humidity 
more than at lower temperatures. The amount 
of condensation humidity also increases due to 
the greater temperature amplitude, which is a 
consequence of higher temperatures. The larger 
temperature amplitude may also be caused by the 
smaller cave entrance (Fig. 4).
– Since condensation humidity accelerates the 
corrosion of the cave vault, we can theoretically 
expect more cavernously corroded clasts to appear 
in the sediments after warmer periods than after 
colder periods. The extent of corrosion depends 
primarily on the stability of the cave vault and 
partly on the amount of precipitation. The cave 
vault is destabilised by earthquakes and frost. Since 
frost depends on temperature and underground 
(percolating) water, it is minor at higher average 
annual temperatures. This has a positive effect on 
the development of corrosion on the cave walls 
and ceiling.
– Since underground water accelerates the 
formation of aggregates, breccias, and sinter, 
these formations are to be expected in both cold 
and warm periods. The freezing of ground with 
a silty-sandy matrix, as found in the Divje babe I 
sediments, further contributed to the formation and 
consolidation of structural aggregates (Williams, 
Smith 1989, 42, 46). The range and development 
of these formations depend on the amount of 
precipitation, which more or less directly affects 
the amount of (percolating) underground water. 
Lower temperatures and more water accelerate the 
action of frost, which destabilises the cave vault 
and increases the post-sedimentary fragmenta-
tion of clasts (gelifraction) and the formation of 
cavernously corroded clasts and aggregates in the 
cave ground. The instability of the cave vault only 
further reduces the already limited efficiency of 
corrosion. The likelihood of slope erosion also 
increases. If erosion destroys the vegetation above 
the cave, which could have happened in the past 
at Divje babe I due to the very steep, ridge-like 
terrain above the cave, there are no longer con-
ditions for sinter to form. The eroded slopes also 
increase surface water outflow, possibly causing the 
percolating underground water inflow to decrease. 
On the present erosion-instable slope above Divje 
babe I, we cannot expect thicker deposits of clay, 
which water would substantially wash into the cave. 
Since there is practically no clay in the Pleistocene 
sediments of Divje babe I, we can assume that in 
the Pleistocene slope above the cave was as steep 
and unstable as the present one.
The proposed microclimatic model is com-
parable to climate models based on temperature 
change. The long-term change in average annual 
temperature does not mean that summer and 
winter temperatures would have changed equally. 
On the contrary, it is more likely that winter tem-
peratures would change much more than summer 
temperatures. The consequence of the temperature 
changes would be the changed amount of preci-
pitation, which would be distributed differently 
in winter than in summer. This would affect the 
thickness of the snow cover, which is one of the 
main regulators of ground temperature in cold 
climates (cf. Williams, Smith 1989, 81).
Since, according to the proposed model, hu-
midity and temperature are interdependent cli-
matic parameters in the cave environment, it was 
possible to verify the extent to which findings 
based on presumed sedimentological attributes 
for temperature and humidity, represented by 
congelifracts, cavernously corroded clasts, and 
aggregates, are consistent. These currently pre-
sumed climatic attributes were represented by 
completely independently obtained continuous 
sedimentological data related to syngenetic and 
various post-genetic processes. Since the results 
of the analyses of selected sedimentological data 
agree well, we can trust the explanation of climate 
based on the proposed model. Since the influence 
of temperature and humidity on carbonate rocks is 
universal, the method of I. Turk can be applied in 
all similar sedimental environments with similar 
results of post-sedimentary processes.
SYNTHESIS
The synthesis of the pioneering sedimentological 
research in Divje babe I was only possible on the 
basis of numerous dates of layers using the electron 
spin resonance (ESR).7 By dating the layers and 
comparing analytical findings with the oxygen 
7  After 1999, when the informal project of sedimento-
logical analyses was carried out, dating was kindly provided 
by Bonnie A. B. Blackwell (MA lab: Dept. Of Chemistry, 
Williams College, RFK Research Institute, Williamstown, 
MA, USA) (Blackwell et al. 2007; 2009).
19On the Significance of Divje babe I Cave for the Stratigraphy, Sedimentology, and ...
isotope stage (OIS) temperature curve and similar 
curves for the period of the Late Pleistocene (see 
I. Turk, Verbič 1993), it was possible to identify 
the boundary between the warm Early Glacial 
(OIS 5) and the cold Full Glacial (OIS 4) in the 
curves of congelifracts, cavernously corroded clasts 
and structural aggregates.8 This boundary, set by 
agreement at 74,000 years before present (I. Turk 
2007b), divides the Divje babe I profile into two 
parts with statistically different characteristics of 
clastic and chemical sediments (Skaberne et al. 
2014; 2015a; 2015b). The lower part of the profile 
represents the warm and dry Early Glacial, while 
the upper part represents the cold and humid Full 
Glacial (Pleniglacial). Within both parts, sediments 
reflect major or minor millennial climate changes 
defined by temperature and humidity (I. Turk et 
al. 2001; 2005; J. Turk, M. Turk 2010; Skaberne et 
al. 2014; 2015a; 2015b; Blackwell et al. 2009). I. 
Turk’s findings on humidity in the Early and Full 
Glacial contradict the commonly accepted belief 
that there were humid-warm periods in the Early 
Glacial and dry-cold periods in the Full Glacial. 
This belief is based primarily on the loess sediments 
that are typical of the Glacial climate. However, 
the formation and growth of glaciers are conditi-
oned by abundant snowfall combined with a more 
humid climate and lower summer temperatures.
The cornerstones of I. Turk’s synthesis
1 – In both chronostratigraphically delineated 
parts of the profile, the proportion of cavernously 
corroded clasts (Fig. 6a) that he associated with 
condensation and ground humidity is significantly 
different (p < 0.05) (Skaberne et al. 2014, Fig. 17.2.2). 
Thus, the differences in amplitude and proportion 
of cavernously corroded clasts between the upper 
(OIS 3) and lower part of the profile (OIS 5) could 
reasonably have been explained by the stable and 
dry climate in the lower part of the profile and 
the unstable, humid climate in the upper part. The 
ceiling corrosion features could be explained by 
smaller or larger temperature differences between 
the air outside and inside the cave, while increased 
precipitation accounts for the ground corrosion 
feature (I. Turk et al. 2001; 2005). There were more 
8  OIS 4 is poorly represented by finds due to inter-
rupted sedimentation. Completely without sediments (and 
consequently without finds) are OIS 2 and the younger 
part of OIS 3.
ceiling corrosion features in the warm climate. 
However, due to the larger entrance, the tempera-
ture differences between the air outside and inside 
the cave were smaller. In contrast, there was more 
corrosion in the ground in the cool climate with 
the same amount of precipitation. By reducing the 
size of the entrance during the period of the cold 
climate, the temperature differences between the 
air outside and inside the cave increased, which 
consequently led to more corrosion on the ceiling. 
Since condensation and groundwater depend on 
temperature, it is significant that the distribution 
of the proportions of cavernously corroded clasts, 
in general, matched the distribution of the propor-
tions of post-sedimentary fragments (Skaberne et 
al. 2014, Fig. 17.2.2).
2 – The proportion of congelifracts with sharp 
edges (Fig. 6a) and fresh (not-weathered) fracture 
surfaces differs significantly (p < 0.05) in both chro-
nostratigraphically delineated parts of the profile 
(Skaberne et al. 2015a, Fig. 7). The proportion of 
congelifracts has been related to the number of 
days in a year when it freezes, or to the average 
winter temperature in a relatively short period 
before new sediments are deposited (I. Turk et 
al. 2001). Thus, the differences in amplitude and 
percentage of congelifracts between the upper and 
lower parts of the profile could be explained by a 
stable, globally warmer climate in the lower part 
of the profile (OIS 5) and the unstable, globally 
colder one in the upper part (OIS 3) or by higher 
and lower temperatures. The size of the entrance 
influenced the congelifraction in an inverse way 
compared to the corrosion of the cave vault. Na-
mely, it was accelerated in the lower part of the 
profile by the larger entrance and slowed down in 
the upper part by the smaller entrance.
Since the inflow of underground water in Divje 
babe I was recorded even during prolonged winter 
periods of drought and low temperatures, there 
was at least just enough water, if not abundant, 
also during the days of frost under glacial climatic 
conditions. The measured minimum in the central 
part of the cave, at the end of a one-month period 
of extremely cold and dry conditions by Slovenian 
standards in the winter of 1999/2000, was 1.05 
litres/m² in 24 hours. At the end of an even drier 
and colder two-month period with below-average 
temperatures and, above all, below-average preci-
pitation in the winter of 2001/2002, the absolute 
minimum was measured at 0.68 litres/m2 in 24 
hours. In both cases, icicles formed on the floor 
but not on the ceiling, up to 19 metres from the 
20 Janez TURK, Matija TURK
entrance. If the ice surrounded the cracked, more 
or less corrosively rounded pieces of gravel on/in 
the ground only once per winter, they turned into 
congelifracts in ten to twenty winters. Then, at 
temperatures above 0°C, the process of re-rounding 
the fresh edges of the newly created clasts on/in 
the ground began. Rounding and congelifraction 
kept alternating until new sediments covered the 
ground and both processes slowed down considera-
bly or even stopped. Only congelifracts with fresh 
fractures surrounded by sharp edges formed just 
before the coverage by new sediments were used 
for the approximation of the negative temperature.
3 – The proportion of structural aggregates in the 
sandy fraction, simplified expressed by volumetric 
mass, has been related to precipitation by ground 
moisture. In both chronostratigraphically deline-
ated profile parts, the proportion is significantly 
different (p > 0.05) (Skaberne et al. 2015a, Fig. 7). 
The difference in the volumetric mass of the sandy 
fraction between the upper and lower parts of the 
profile was reasonably explained by the globally 
Fig. 6: The relation between palaeoclimate and the presence of humans and cave bears in Divje babe I: a – palaeoclimate 
reconstructed on the basis of the percentage (%) of congelifracts (●) and cavernously corroded clasts (○) (see I. Turk et 
al. 2005; Skaberne et al. 2015a); b – human and cave bear presence defined on the basis of the number of artefacts (●) 
and all determinable cave bear remains (□) (NISP) (I. Turk, Dirjec 2007, Tab. 12.4.1; I. Turk 2014b, Fig. 3.2, Tab. 3.1). 
Sedimentation levels with hearth remains are marked with three asterisks (***).
Sl. 6: Odnos med paleoklimo ter prisotnostjo ljudi in jamskega medveda v Divjih babah I: a – paleoklima, rekonstruirana 
na podlagi številčnih deležev (%) kongelifraktov (●) in reliefno korodiranih klastov (○) (glej I. Turk et al. 2005; Skaberne 
et al. 2015a); b – prisotnost ljudi in jamskega medveda, opredeljena na podlagi števila artefaktov (●) in vseh določljivih 
ostankov jamskega medveda (□) (NISP) (I. Turk, Dirjec 2007, tab. 12.4.1; I. Turk 2014b, sl. 3.2, tab. 3.1). Sedimentacijski 
nivoji z ostanki ognjišč so označeni s tremi zvezdicami (***).
21On the Significance of Divje babe I Cave for the Stratigraphy, Sedimentology, and ...
drier and warmer climate in the lower (OIS 5) 
and the globally more humid and colder climate 
in the upper part of the profile (OIS 3) (I. Turk 
et al. 2005). Since the formation of structural 
aggregates and the corrosion agency in the ground 
inevitably requires water in the form of ground 
moisture, it is important that the distribution of 
structural aggregates matches the distribution 
of corroded clasts as well as corroded bones, 
in the sediments of the stratigraphic sequence. 
The rough correspondence of the distribution of 
structural aggregates with congelifracts could be 
the result of the formation and consolidation of 
aggregates due to the segregation of ice in the 
ground (Williams, Smith 1989, 42, 46). Aggregates 
compressed in this way are more resistant than 
unconsolidated aggregates from warmer clima-
tic periods and could therefore be preserved in 
larger quantities.
Fossilised cave bear hair and hair imprints were 
discovered for the first time in larger structural 
aggregates (Fig. 7) (I. Turk et al. 1995). The dis-
covery was later independently confirmed with 
similar finds of the Pleistocene age at Ozark Cave 
in the USA (Schubert, Kaufmann 2003). The Iron 
Age find from Čadrg near Tolmin (Kavkler 2016) 
with identical mineralised structures of wool fi-
bres, such as fossilised hair (Fig. 7), showed that 
two-and-a-half millennia are sufficient for hair 
fossilisation. From this, we can conclude that the 
fossilised hairs and their associated aggregates in 
Divje babe I originated syngenetically (i.e., almost 
contemporaneously with sediment deposition) 
rather than epigenetically.
4 – The distribution of the fossil remains of 
the cave bear, which with regard to the mortality 
rate in the cave den could have depended on the 
duration and characteristics of a winter (humid, 
dry), is clearly different between the upper part 
and the lower part of the profile (Fig. 6b). The 
remains are much more numerous in the upper 
part of the profile, deposited in a cold and humid 
climate. Since the land was covered with mixed 
forests at that time (OIS 3), as indicated by the 
analyses of charcoal and pollen (Šercelj, Culiberg 
1991; Culiberg 2007; 2011), living conditions were 
favourable for the cave bear population during 
the warm season. It might have been different in 
the cold season, when mainly female bears with 
cubs and older, weaned cubs stayed in the cave. 
When winter conditions were unfavourable (at the 
time of increased humidity), rivalry for cave dens 
could have occurred between male bears on one 
side and female bears with cubs on the other. The 
mortality rate was the highest among cubs up to 
one year old, which constitute 70% or more of the 
fossil population in the upper part of the profile, 
excavated in 1989–1999 (Debeljak 2002).
5 – A similar pattern as with cave bears is seen 
in the distribution of Palaeolithic artefacts (Fig. 
6b). These show the intensity of cave visits by the 
local Neanderthal population and their use of 
the cave as a shelter from bad weather. Thus, the 
cave visits correspond well with the approximate 
values for temperature and humidity (Fig. 6). The 
archaeological remains, such as artefacts and fire-
places/hearths, roughly reflect the density of the 
local Neanderthal population. In the harsh Glacial 
climate, they were forced to retreat from central 
Europe toward the Mediterranean. This led to a 
greater population density and also to increased 
visitation to caves in the area. It is well known that 
in the warm Interglacial climate finds in the open 
Fig. 7: a – examples of fossilised hair and hair impressions 
from Divje babe I (Turk et al. 1995, Fig. 5); b – examples 
of wool fibres of Iron Age textile from Čadrg (Kavkler 
2016, Fig. 3).
Sl. 7: a – primerki fosiliziranih dlak in odtisov dlak iz 
Divjih bab I (Turk et al. 1995, sl. 5); b – primerki volnenih 
vlaken železnodobne tkanine iz Čadrga (Kavkler 2016, sl. 3).
22 Janez TURK, Matija TURK
predominate, while in the cold Glacial climate 
finds in caves are much more numerous. This 
pattern is now clearly expressed and confirmed 
also in Divje babe I.
6 – Analysis of the rich stratified microfauna 
revealed that the climate was more humid at the 
time of sedimentation in the upper part of the 
profile (OIS 3) than at the time when the layers 
of the lower part of the profile (OIS 5) were de-
posited (Toškan, Kryštufek 2007; Toškan, Dirjec 
2011). As these are discontinuous data, it was not 
possible to compare the results in detail with the 
sedimentological results.
7 – The findings from the microfauna remains 
were supplemented by palaeobotanical analyses 
of stratified pollen and several thousand charcoal 
pieces. They confirmed that the climate at the time 
of deposition of certain layers in the upper part 
of the profile (OIS 3) was colder than at the time 
of deposition of the layers in the lower part (OIS 
5) (Šercelj, Culiberg 1991; Culiberg 2007; 2011). 
Again, these are discontinuous data that cannot 
be compared in detail with sedimentological data.
The first natural science synthesis of the multi-
disciplinary analysis of an individual Palaeolithic 
site in Slovenia yielded consistent results. Nume-
rous collected data from different fields of natural 
science create a uniform system. Divje babe I can 
therefore rightly be regarded as one of the key cave 
sites for the OIS 5 and OIS 3 stage, which are little 
known in terms of environment and Palaeolithic 
finds. In the second half of OIS 3, there was a 
complete replacement of the human population 
in Europe, with the arrival of new species and 
associated cultural changes, which was not the 
case at any earlier or later time. 
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the synthesis of the results of all the 
analyses carried out on the sediments of Divje 
babe I and their content, we come to these reliable 
conclusions:
1 – The analysed profile of Divje babe I, altho-
ugh incomplete due to hiatuses, is currently the 
most illustrative profile for the major part of the 
Late Pleistocene in Slovenia (I. Turk 2006; I. Turk 
2007c, Fig. 4.1b). It is certainly more illustrative 
than the profiles of Črni Kal and Betalov spod-
mol, which have long been considered reference 
profiles for this period (M. Brodar 2009). Its 
potential is far from exhausted, for the sediments 
on the slope below the cave, whose entrance was 
once moved far forward, are probably 50 m deep 
and reach far back into the Pleistocene. It need 
not be particularly emphasised that caves with 
such thick sediments containing archaeological 
and palaeontological finds are an extreme rarity. 
Moreover, most of the cave interior has not been 
excavated, while the sediments of Črni Kal have 
been completely removed and only a small part 
has been preserved in Betalov spodmol.
2 – The sediments excavated in Divje babe I 
were formed under the influence of individual 
cave microenvironments in the microenvironment 
of a cave as a whole. Cave microenvironments, 
including sedimentary environments, are prima-
rily shaped by unevenly distributed underground 
water in all aggregate states, which depend on 
temperature. The latter can be generalised to all 
horizontal caves. In Divje babe I, cave microen-
vironments are expressed in a mosaic image. This 
was established on the basis of a comprehensive 
spatial analysis of various data recorded during 
the excavations and afterwards using samples of 
sediment fractions. The mosaic environment is 
thus conditioned by space and time. When solving 
problems of the cave sedimentary environment, it 
is therefore essential that these two dimensions 
are taken into account. Traditional approaches 
that consider almost exclusively the dimension 
of time on a given vertical of a given profile in 
a cave would have been appropriate if the same 
conditions, expressed by temperature and humi-
dity, were present in the entire ground plan, or 
if there were no microenvironments. Otherwise, 
misleading interpretations may result, especially 
if generalised to the entire site.
3 – A microenvironment forms and changes due 
to the influence of various factors (global climatic, 
microclimatic, etc.) that are constant or change 
over time. One of the most important factors is 
certainly the atmospheric climate, which is known 
to be constantly changing on a global scale.
4 – The most important factors affecting the 
microenvironment in Divje babe I are the parent 
rock, the global climate, the presence of cave 
bears, and the volume of the cave. None of the-
se factors was constant in time and space. The 
main characteristics of the parent rock (cracking, 
porosity) could have changed from one rock la-
yer to another. The global climate was certainly 
not the same all the time (i.e., for 90,000 years 
23On the Significance of Divje babe I Cave for the Stratigraphy, Sedimentology, and ...
of sedimentation). The visits of cave bears and 
Neanderthals who used Divje babe I as a den and 
shelter fluctuated. The cave entrance and geometry 
of the cave gradually changed, and the cave volume 
constantly decreased. This had a direct impact 
on the microclimate in the cave. Before the Last 
Glacial Maximum (OIS 2) the entrance was only 
1 m high. Due to this, and the northern position 
of the entrance, a deeply frozen ground without 
an active layer, which normally thaws in summer, 
gradually formed in the cave during the period 
of the glacial maximum. During the formation 
of permafrost, strong cryoturbation of the san-
dy-silty sediments occurred (Fig. 8). Since the 
temperature in the cave thus remained negative 
throughout the year, the cave was no longer a 
suitable shelter for humans and animals, even if 
the low entrance was not closed by perennial snow 
and ice. Such a condition lasted several thousand 
years, possibly even several tens of thousands of 
years, and caused a long hiatus in sedimentation 
and the complete absence of any kind of finds 
from this period, due to the extremely hostile 
living environment.
5 – Diagenetic-pedogenetic processes that occur 
in a cave environment are processes of transforma-
tion of rock clasts, processes of transformation of 
organic remains, and migration processes. Among 
the latter, migrations of uranium are especially 
analytically significant (Skaberne et al. 2015b). In 
the cave ground, there was no biological circulation 
of minerals between the animate and inanimate 
nature, which is typical of ordinary pedogenetic 
processes. The transformation processes occurred 
differently in a cave than in the open. In the cave, 
the regolith was formed by the weathering of the 
parent rock on the ceiling and walls rather than 
by the weathering of the bedrock, which was pro-
tected from weathering by thick layers of detrital 
and other sediments because there was no major 
erosion. The processes of transformation of parent 
rock and minerals are mainly secondary in nature, 
as they took place almost exclusively in the regolith 
in/on the cave ground.
The processes of transformation of organic 
remains resulted at best in the formation of a 
parahumus horizon, but not humus horizons. The 
organic remains were mainly represented by mass 
remains of animal origin and remains introduced 
from the outside.
The migration processes transferred products 
of transformation by leaching or accumulation, 
and corresponding (para-)horizons (cambic, elu-
vial, illuvial) were formed in the cave sediments. 
The migration processes were more complicated 
in the cave than in the open air, because the 
transformation products from the ground and 
the rock strata above the cave could be leached 
and accumulated in the cave sediments. Fine 
particles could also be brought into the cave by 
Fig. 8: Distinct cryoturbation in the transverse profile x = 10 m.
Sl. 8: Izrazita krioturbacija v prečnem profilu x = 10 m.
24 Janez TURK, Matija TURK
the wind, as revealed by chemical analysis of the 
sediments (Skaberne et al. 2015b). Leaching was 
unevenly distributed across the space. Migrations 
within the profile were confirmed by analysis of 
uranium content, which migrated from the upper 
part of the profile to the lower part (ibid.), as 
well as within individual layers, due to breaks in 
sedimentation.9 In Divje babe I, this affected the 
dating of the upper and lower part of the profile 
based on uranium series, meaning that certain dates 
from the lower part of the profile were younger 
than the dates from the upper part of the profile, 
giving the impression of a reversed stratigraphy 
(Ku 1997).
6 – Processes associated with the activities 
of particular factors also took place in the cave 
ground. These processes included cryoturbation 
and oxidation associated with the presence of 
stagnant water in the sediments. In caves with 
sandy-silty sediments, cryoturbation is particularly 
strong between the lateral walls. Walls prevent the 
lateral expansion of the frozen sediments, whose 
volume expands greatly (Fig. 8). Cryoturbation 
is often mistakenly associated with the mixing 
of sediments and finds from different layers. In 
reality, no mixing occurs, as confirmed by distinct 
boundaries between cryoturbated layers. Finds are 
not mixed earlier than during excavations because 
9  In preparation: I. Turk, J. Turk, M. Turk, Uran (U) in 
torij (Th) v sedimentih Divjih bab I, dinamika sediment-
acije in ESR kronologija. / Uranium (U) and thorium (Th) 
in Divje babe I cave sediments, sedimentation dynamics 
and ESR chronology.
it is not possible to reliably follow the cryoturbatic 
folds according to layers.
The excavations of 1989–1999 have by far not 
exhausted the potential of the site. They provided 
guidelines for possible further exploration of this 
promising site and reliably achievable goals were 
defined. With the application of the presented new 
methods and approaches to all sediments excavated 
in the future, it would be possible to verify and 
improve the existing findings. The proposed new 
standards would be strengthened and in time they 
would bring new insights into the Palaeolithic in 
Slovenia and into the Palaeolithic in general. 
The main goal remains to obtain as detailed 
and reliable a chronological sequence of climatic 
events as possible, to determine sedimentation 
hiatuses, and to find out how these hiatuses and 
the climate influenced the formation of the site. 
New excavations could further improve the field 
method of sediment sampling and test the credi-
bility of the results of the 1989–1999 excavation 
campaign and their definitions obtained on the 
basis of the new model to explain the cave clastic 
sediments.
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank Ivan Turk for his generous help 
and informations. 
Translation: Maja Sužnik
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27O pomenu jame Divje babe I za stratigrafijo, sedimentologijo in ...
O pomenu jame Divje babe I
za stratigrafijo, sedimentologijo in kronologijo jamskih
paleolitskih najdišč v Sloveniji
Prevod
Paleontološko in arheološko jamsko najdišče 
Divje babe I leži v zahodni Sloveniji, v predalp-
skem hribovju, pod robom Šebreljske planote (sl. 
1). Jama, izoblikovana v dolomitu, se odpira na 
strmem severnem osojnem pobočju nad dolino 
reke Idrijce, na nadmorski višini 450 m. Najdišče je 
znano predvsem po najdbi nenavadno preluknjane 
stegnenice mladega jamskega medveda, interpre-
tirani kot neandertalsko glasbilo (M. Turk et al. 
2018). Vendar je najdišče zanimivo še zaradi drugih 
pomembnih odkritij in inovativnih raziskovalnih 
pristopov (I. Turk 2007a; 2014a).
V Divjih babah I je v letih 1978–1986 sistematič-
no izkopaval Mitja Brodar. Izkopavanje sta v letih 
1989–1999 nadaljevala Ivan Turk in Janez Dirjec. 
Njuno izkopavanje je prineslo nekatere povsem 
nove pristope za razlago jamskih klastičnih in 
kemičnih sedimentov. Njihov idejni tvorec je bil 
I. Turk. Zaradi pomembnosti izsledkov teh pristo-
pov za raziskovanje jamskih najdišč sva avtorja v 
pričujočem članku pripravila povzetek z dodatno 
razlago njegovih zamisli in izsledkov proučevanj, 
objavljenih v številnih člankih. Nekateri doslej 
neobjavljeni podatki in izsledki pa so povzeti po 
obsežnem elaboratu, ki ga hrani arhiv ZRC SAZU 
Inštituta za arheologijo.1
Pleistocenski jamski sedimenti so pomembni tako 
zaradi arheološke in/ali paleontološke vsebine kot 
tudi zaradi možnosti, ki jih ponujajo za različne 
druge interdisciplinarne raziskave. S proučevanjem 
sedimentov ugotavljamo njihov nastanek, izvor in 
diagenezo. Vse to lahko spremljamo bolj ali manj 
zvezno – odvisno od prekinitev v sedimentaciji – v 
določenem profilu. Takšno spremljanje običajno ni 
mogoče pri arheoloških in paleontoloških najdbah, 
in sicer zaradi prisotnosti sedimentov brez najdb. Ker 
so jamski sedimenti zaradi posebnega sedimentnega 
okolja spremenljivi glede na njihovo mikrolokacijo, 
je treba pri razlagah izsledkov sedimentoloških 
raziskav nujno upoštevati tudi njihovo prostorsko 
variabilnost, čemur pa se je doslej namenjalo bistveno 
premalo pozornosti (glej Farrand 2001).
1  Turk, I. 2002, Elaborat Divje babe I. Izkopavanja 
1989–1999, Arhiv ZRC SAZU Inštitut za arheologijo.
Proučevanje pleistocenskih sedimentov v pa-
leolitskih jamskih najdiščih ima v Sloveniji dolgo 
tradicijo (S. Brodar 1939; 1958; 1966; M. Brodar 
1959; Osole 1961; 1968; 1986). Omejeno je bilo 
predvsem na kraške jame, ki so se izoblikovale v 
apnencu. Zato je jama Divje babe I, ki je nastala 
v dolomitu, zaradi drugačnih sedimentov na za-
četku izkopavanj M. Brodarja pomenila izjemo 
brez ustrezne primerjalne prakse (M. Brodar 
1999, 39). Divje babe I so tako začasno postale na 
videz nerešljivo ali vsaj težko rešljivo vprašanje s 
področja pleistocenske jamske sedimentologije v 
Sloveniji. Postavljalo se je celo vprašanje, kakšen 
smisel bi v tem posebnem primeru imela tedaj 
veljavna rutinska sedimentološka analiza. Ko je 
I. Turk leta 1997 dobil novo priložnost za siste-
matično radiometrično datiranje profila Divjih 
bab I z elektronsko spinsko resonanco (ESR),2 
se je odločil izvesti vzporedno pilotsko analizo 
sedimentov vseh s to metodo ponovno datiranih 
plasti. Po zaključku sistematičnih izkopavanj leta 
1999 se je lotil temeljite analize vseh odkopanih 
sedimentov po lastni zamisli in se pri tem povezal 
z geologom Dragomirjem Skabernetom z Geolo-
škega zavoda Slovenije.3
RAZISKOVALNE METODE IN NJIHOVA 
UPORABA V SLOVENSKIH
PALEOLITSKIH JAMSKIH NAJDIŠČIH
S POUDARKOM NA NOVI METODI, UPO-
RABLJENI V DIVJIH BABAH I
Naj najprej predstaviva glavne značilnosti prvotne 
metode dela v sedimentologiji paleolitskih najdišč 
v Sloveniji do leta 1999. Rezultati proučevanja jam-
skih sedimentov v paleolitskih najdiščih Slovenije 
so bili običajno sestavni del kronologije najdišč 
2  Prvič je bilo najdišče datirano leta 1990 s tedaj novo 
metodo AMS 14C, ki jo je s svojo ekipo razvil D. E. Nelson 
(1991; 1997), kar Divje babe I uvršča med prva s to metodo 
datirana paleolitska najdišča v Evropi.
3  Projekt analize sedimentov ni bil odobren. V okviru 
omejenih finančnotehničnih možnosti je bila analiza sedi-
mentov vseeno opravljena v letih 1999–2014.
28 Janez TURK, Matija TURK
in paleolitskih najdb. Pri raziskavah se je skoraj 
izključno uporabljala kvalitativna in deduktivna 
metoda, ki je predpostavljala določene zakonitosti 
v sedimentaciji (npr. menjavanje gruščnatih in 
ilovnatih plasti) na podlagi hipotez. Tako se je 
npr. predpostavljalo, da so jamski grušči značilni 
za hladnejšo klimo in jamske ilovice za toplejšo (S. 
Brodar 1958; M. Brodar 1959, 438; Osole 1961), 
kar je v osnovi zmotno mišljenje (White 2007). 
Temeljna domneva, da je bila v pleistocenu klima 
glavni dejavnik, ki je vplival na jamske sedimente, 
se od najdišča do najdišča ni preverjala. Tako se 
ni ugotavljalo odstopanje vrednosti analiziranih 
atributov (parametrov) – predvsem velikosti zrn 
(klastov) – v pleistocenskih sedimentih od vrednosti 
atributov v holocenskih sedimentih, ki so nastali 
v bolj ali manj poznani klimi. Tudi drugod ni po-
znan niti en primer takšnega preverjanja. Se je pa 
samo izjemoma preverila ponovljivost rezultatov 
tehničnega dela metode v okviru posameznega 
najdišča z vzorci iz različnih profilov (M. Brodar 
1959; Farrand 1975 in drugi). Iz množice sedi-
mentoloških atributov, ki so lahko – ali pa tudi 
ne – povezani s klimo, se ni nikoli izločil najvpliv-
nejši atribut ali najvplivnejši atributi z dosledno 
uporabo metode abstrakcije. Zato se po opravljeni 
analizi določenega atributa – običajno je bila to 
porazdelitev velikosti drobnih zrn, analiziranih s 
kvantitativno metodo – tega ni poskušalo povezati 
z drugimi sedimentološkimi atributi z metodo 
sinteze. Dejansko to ni bilo mogoče, ker drugi 
atributi niso bili ustrezno količinsko ovrednoteni, 
temveč v najboljšem primeru zgolj opisno navedeni.
Po skoraj 70 letih obsežnih, tudi multidisci-
plinarnih raziskav (Stritar et al. 1967) v številnih 
paleolitskih jamskih najdiščih po Sloveniji so premik 
v novo smer prinesla prav izkopavanja v Divjih 
babah I in Turkova inovativna študija sedimentov 
(Skaberne et al. 2015a; 2015b). Domnevamo, da 
so njegove temeljne ugotovitve uporabne tudi 
na drugih najdiščih s podobnim sedimentnim 
okoljem in podobnimi pojavi, kot so zmrzlinski 
klasti (kongelifrakti), reliefno korodirani klasti in 
fosfatni agregati. Takšna najdišča so v Sloveniji 
Jama pod Herkovimi pečmi, Matjaževe kamre, 
Mokriška jama, Njivice in Potočka zijalka. I. Turk 
je za analizo sedimentov Divjih bab I uporabil 
empirično metodo, podprto s statistiko. Pri tem 
pa ni zanemaril kvalitativnih znakov atributov, ki 
jih je kombiniral s kvantitativnimi. Vsako prevzeto 
ali lastno hipotezo je preveril v okviru danih mo-
žnosti, tudi eksperimentalno, če je bilo mogoče. Z 
namenom preverjanja stare kronološke sheme za 
umeščanje srednjepaleolitskih najdišč v Sloveniji 
je z neformalno pomočjo tujih sodelavcev posta-
vil temelje neodvisne radiometrične kronologije 
(Nelson 1997; Ku 1997; Lau et al. 1997; Blackwell 
et al. 2007; 2009). V okviru možnosti je uporabljal 
metodo abstrakcije, s katero je odstranil vse za 
klimatski model nebistvene sedimentološke atri-
bute, med katere sodi tudi porazdelitev velikosti 
drobnih zrn. Med terenskimi raziskavami je I. Turk 
razvil nov model poteka sedimentacije v jamskem 
okolju. Ta je osnovan na spletu med seboj poveza-
nih sedimentoloških atributov, izbranih z metodo 
abstrakcije, ki odslikavajo tako klimatske razmere 
kot hitrost sedimentacije. Slednja je bila v starem 
modelu premalo ali pa sploh ni bila upoštevana. 
Pomembni so samo tisti atributi, ki so nesporno 
povezani s klimo in ki na najdišču nastopajo 
zvezno v času (navpična razsežnost) in prostoru 
(bočna razsežnost). Zbiranju in statistiki zveznih 
podatkov, ki se nanašajo na lastnosti sedimentov in 
njihovo prostorsko variabilnost, se je v preteklosti 
posvečalo premalo pozornosti. V večini primerov se 
obojega, kljub možnosti, ki jo ponujata vsako večje 
izkopavanje in računalniška podpora za obdelavo 
podatkovnih množic, ni izkoristilo. Glavni razlog za 
to je bil v izkopavalni metodi čelnega izkopavanja 
po plasteh od profila do profila in pobiranja najdb 
brez sejanja sedimentov. Nov model sedimentacije 
je bilo mogoče razviti šele na podlagi izkopavanj 
po režnjih in kvadratih ter mokrega sejanja vseh, 
tudi arheološko sterilnih sedimentov.
Navpično razsežnost
so v Divjih babah I predstavljali v prvi vrsti 
režnji, izkopi enake debeline, s katerimi so se od-
stranjevali sedimenti. Debelina režnjev je bila po 
letu 1989 stalno 12 cm, kar je optimalna debelina 
glede na teksturo sedimentov, ki vsebujejo veliko 
klastov, večjih od 10 cm. Režnje lahko enačimo s 
sedimentacijskimi nivoji, stratigrafsko kategorijo, 
ki jo je v Divjih babah I uporabil in opredelil I. 
Turk. Sedimentacijski nivoji sledijo naklonu plasti, 
če meje med plastmi niso vodoravne v prečni in/ali 
vzdolžni smeri. Več zaporednih sedimentacijskih 
nivojev lahko po potrebi združimo v večjo celoto, 
kot je npr. plast, več plasti pa v njihovo zaporedje 
(glej Skaberne et al. 2015a).
Po definiciji je geološka plast homogena celota, 
ki je (teoretično) nastala pod enakimi fizikal-
no-kemičnimi pogoji pri enotnih procesih in 
njihovem enotnem zaporedju. Plast je ločena od 
29O pomenu jame Divje babe I za stratigrafijo, sedimentologijo in ...
podlage in krovnine glede na eno (ali več) osnov-
nih značilnosti sedimentov. Na značilnosti plasti 
vplivajo fizikalni, kemični, biološki (vključno z 
antropološkimi), geološki in diagenetski pogoji. 
Plastnatost nastaja v sedimentu praviloma ob 
spremembah v materialu, ki se odlaga. To v jam-
skem okolju, kjer prevladujejo klastični sedimenti, 
ni ravno pogosto. Nevidne sedimentacijske vrzeli 
med plastmi (hiati), ki vplivajo na popolnost 
kronološkega zapisa, nastanejo zaradi prekinitve 
v sedimentaciji, delovanja erozije ali sprememb 
pogojev pri sedimentaciji. Če nam uspe ugoto-
viti hiate na podlagi datacij in sedimentoloških 
raziskav, lahko razlikujemo več sedimentacijskih 
ciklusov, ki so med seboj ločeni s prekinitvami v 
odlaganju sedimentov (glej Blackwell et al. 2020; 
J. Turk 2011). Med odkopavanjem vedno novih 
plasti vsega tega seveda ni mogoče sproti ugota-
vljati na terenu. Zato so na terenu ugotovljene t. i. 
geološke plasti samo začasni delovni pripomoček 
za stratigrafsko in kronološko razvrščanje najdb, 
ki nima bistveno večje teže od arbitrarnih režnjev, 
dokler ne ugotovimo prave narave vsake posamične 
plasti ali zaporedja določenih plasti z rutinskimi 
analitskimi postopki. Plast lahko vsebuje arheo-
loške in druge najdbe. Te so bodisi razpršene po 
celotni debelini plasti bodisi zgoščene v enem ali 
več horizontih (I. Turk 2003). 
Tako plasti kot sedimentacijski nivoji pripadajo 
različno dolgim časovnim intervalom, saj hitrost 
sedimentacije ni enakomerna. Sedimentacija v 
jamskem okolju poteka ali pa ne, odvisno od 
različnih notranjih in zunanjih pogojev, lokalne 
in/ali globalne narave. Hitrost sedimentiranja 
je torej zelo pomembna spremenljivka. Od nje 
sta odvisni stopnja preoblikovanosti sedimentov 
ter zastopanost in časovna enotnost oziroma 
neenotnost arheoloških in drugih najdb (I. Turk 
2003). Časovna enotnost ni nujno zagotovljena s 
pripadnostjo najdb določeni plasti. Zaradi zastoja 
v sedimentaciji lahko namreč pride do mešanja 
različno starih najdb.
Kronologija je poleg določitve plasti in sedi-
mentacijskih vrzeli med plastmi ključnega pomena 
pri vsaki raziskavi. Zato je nadvse pomembna 
stratigrafija, ki jo predstavlja navpična razsežnost 
proučevanega pojava. I. Turk je v Divjih babah I 
opredelil navpično razsežnost (profil) kvantitativ-
no-kvalitativno na dva načina (sl. 2 in 3):
1 – S pomočjo srednjih vrednosti množice po-
datkov določenega sedimentološkega atributa v 
primerno velikem volumnu stratificiranega jamskega 
zasutja s tlorisno površino, ki je obsegala 15 % (83 
m2) celotne današnje površine jame (550 m2) (I. 
Turk 2003, sl. 6a). Podatki so bili razporejeni po 
sedimentacijskih nivojih, ki so jih predstavljali 
12-centimetrski režnji. Ti so bili po končanih 
izkopavanjih razvrščeni tako, da so v grobem 
sledili padcu plasti v smeri vzdolžne osi jame. Sl. 
2 ter tudi že objavljeni sl. 6a in 7a (I. Turk 2003) 
kažejo, da se srednje vrednosti sedimentoloških 
atributov spreminjajo s spreminjanjem deleža 
vzorčene površine od celotne tlorisne površine 
in da so tem bolj zanesljive, čim večji je delež 
vzorčene površine. 
2 – S pomočjo dveh profilov iz razpoložljive 
množice profilov določenega sedimentološkega 
atributa, ki sta se maksimalno razlikovala ter tako 
predstavljala obe skrajnosti stratigrafskega niza: a) 
profil, ki je najmanj odstopal od vseh razpoložljivih 
profilov, in b) profil, ki je od teh najbolj odstopal 
(sl. 3). Oba sta bila tem bolj zanesljiva, čim večja 
je bila množica profilov, izmed katerih sta bila 
izbrana, vizualno ali računsko. Profil, ki najmanj 
odstopa od vseh razpoložljivih profilov, predstavlja 
t. i. tipični profil (I. Turk 2003). Na sl. 3 je razvi-
dna znatna variabilnost proučevanega atributa v 
prostoru (kvadratih), kar je pričakovano za jamsko 
okolje. Zato zelo natančna in sofisticirana analiza 
na določeni mikrolokaciji ne pomeni, da so tako 
dobljeni rezultati reprezentativni tudi v primeru 
celote, ki ni bila podvržena takšni analizi. Gre za 
bližnjico, ki jo lahko uporabimo tudi pri reviziji 
določenega najdišča, in pri tem lahko dobimo bi-
stveno drugačen rezultat od prvotnega. Pri tem pa 
še vedno ne vemo, kateri rezultat je bolj pravilen 
in kateri manj.
Bočno razsežnost
so predstavljali v Divjih babah I kvadrati ve-
likosti 1×1 m. Jamsko sedimentacijsko okolje 
je mozaično okolje, sestavljeno iz mikrookolij. 
Ta se spreminjajo že s samo velikostjo vhoda in 
oddaljenostjo od njega, tako da prihaja do pojava 
gradienta ali postopnega zmanjševanja zunanjih 
vplivov sorazmerno z oddaljenostjo od vhoda in 
njegovo velikostjo. Sočasno lahko na spremembe 
vplivajo tudi drugi dejavniki, ki niso neposredno 
odvisni od velikosti in oddaljenosti vhoda. Ti zlasti 
vplivajo na fosilne ostanke in podzemno vodo, pri 
čemer ni mišljena podtalnica, temveč prenikajoča 
voda in z njo povezana večja ali manjša prisotnost 
vlage v sedimentih. Posledica delovanja različnih 
30 Janez TURK, Matija TURK
dejavnikov je variabilnost jamskih sedimentov. 
Velika variabilnost pa je temeljna značilnost 
jamskih sedimentov. Zaradi vsega naštetega je 
dokumentiranje in analiziranje značilnosti sedi-
mentoloških atributov v bočni smeri lahko prav 
tako pomembno kot dokumentiranje in analiziranje 
njihovih navpičnih značilnosti.
Vseh novih metodoloških prijemov seveda ni 
bilo mogoče izpeljati brez prilagajanja arheološke 
terenske metode novim zahtevam, ki jih prinaša 
uporaba drugačnih poizkopavalnih analitskih metod 
in postopkov, kot so bili pri nas v rabi do konca 
prve faze izkopavanj v Divjih babah I leta 1986. 
Raziskava sedimentov Divjih bab I je v osnovi po-
tekala tako, da je poleg naštetega sproti preverjala 
natančnost in zanesljivost podatkov, od katerih je 
odvisna verodostojnost oziroma točnost razlage.
– Natančnost zbranih podatkov je odvisna 
predvsem od metode, vloženega časa in natanč-
nosti tistih, ki metodo izvajajo. Nujne so kontrole 
natančnosti, ki dajo oceno napake.
– Zanesljivost podatkov ni vedno odvisna od 
natančnosti, s katero so podatki zbrani. Pomembno 
je tudi število podatkov. Veliko število manj natanč-
nih podatkov lahko da bolj zanesljiv rezultat kot 
skromno število zelo natančnih podatkov. Oceno 
zanesljivosti lahko naredimo samo na podlagi 
množice podatkov, ki se nanašajo na posamezne 
proučevane atribute.
– Verodostojnost oz. točnost razlage zbranih 
podatkov je odvisna od tega, kako zanesljivi so 
podatki. Vendar zanesljivost podatkov ni sama po 
sebi porok za verodostojnost interpretacije. Zato je 
vsaka razlaga samo hipotetična, dokler je ne potr-
dimo ali ovržemo na podlagi preverjanja z drugimi 
neodvisnimi podatki in metodami. Preverjena trditev 
ostane veljavna, dokler jo ne nadomestimo z drugo 
dobro utemeljeno trditvijo ali dokažemo, da je na-
pačna. Verodostojnost razlage še ne pomeni, da je 
razlaga pravilna. Vsaka razlaga bi morala temeljiti 
na analizi natančnosti in zanesljivosti izhodiščnih 
podatkov (dejstev). Tega načela se je v Sloveniji 
poskusil držati le M. Brodar (1959) pri analizi 
zrnavosti sedimentov Mokriške jame.
Pri proučevanju problemov, povezanih s preteklimi 
dogodki in pojavi, običajno iz posledic (dejstev) 
sklepamo na vzroke in procese, ki so privedli do 
določenega aktualnega stanja. Težava je v tem, da 
imajo različni vzroki in procesi lahko podobne 
posledice. To pomeni, da je vsaka razlaga in vsako 
sklepanje povezano z določenim tveganjem, da ni 
pravilno. Tveganje lahko zmanjšamo, če dejstva ne 
obravnavamo posamično, temveč skupaj z drugimi 
razpoložljivimi dejstvi, tako da analiziramo njihove 
medsebojne odnose in ugotavljamo smiselne pove-
zave, ki pripeljejo do sistemskih rešitev.
Če povzamemo, lahko rečemo, da je I. Turk stare 
metode, ki so temeljile na logičnem razmišljanju, 
intuiciji in izkušnjah, nadgradil z raziskovalnimi 
metodami, ki kvaliteto črpajo iz kvantitete. Pri tem 
se je omejil na avtohtone jamske sedimente in na 
najdišče Divje babe I, kjer je imel na voljo največ 
osebno zbranih podatkov in možnost maksimalnega 
preverjanja rezultatov analiz. Razumljivo je, da 
se njegovi novi izsledki niso vedno skladali z 
izsledki, pridobljenimi z drugačnimi metodami. 
Tudi tistimi, ki jih je prej sam uporabljal po zgledu 
svojih predhodnikov, in z izsledki analiz alohtonih 
primesi v jamskih sedimentnih okoljih. Slednje se 
pogosto obravnavajo prednostno, čeprav predsta-
vljajo neznaten delež v jamskih sedimentih.
CILJ IN INOVATIVNE METODE
SEDIMENTOLOŠKIH RAZISKAV
V DIVJIH BABAH I
Proučevanje pleistocenskih sedimentov ima v 
paleolitskih najdiščih določen cilj. To je običajno 
ugotoviti izvor in predvsem starost sedimentov. 
Oboje je bilo pri sedimentih Divjih bab I bolj ali 
manj pojasnjeno. Zaradi sedimentnega okolja in 
posebne skeletne zgradbe sedimentov ni dvoma o 
skoraj izključno avtohtonem izvoru večine sedimen-
tov. Številni radiometrični datumi so pojasnili tudi 
osnovna kronološka vprašanja, ki jih je postavil M. 
Brodar (1999). Ostalo je torej vprašanje dodatnih 
(alternativnih) ciljev sedimentološke analize (za 
rutinske postopke glej Farrand 2001; Woodward, 
Goldberg 2001). Ti so bili: 
– ugotoviti dejavnike, odgovorne za odlaganje 
sedimentov (vključno z najbolj drobno frakcijo), 
preperevanje in nadaljnjo diagenezo sedimentov;
– po možnosti določiti kazalnike temeljnih 
klimatskih parametrov. 
Tako bi skupaj s palinološkimi, antrakotomskimi, 
makro- in mikrofavnističnimi podatki prispevali k 
rekonstrukciji paleoklime, ki je poleg radiometričnih 
podatkov trenutno edina podlaga za kolikor toliko 
zanesljivo klimatokronološko umestitev najdišča 
v shemo sodobne globalne kronologije mlajšega 
pleistocena, saj t. i. popolna členitev Würma že 
dolgo ni več aktualna (glej I. Turk, Verbič 1993).
V zasledovanju zastavljenih ciljev je I. Turk 
analiziral vzorce sedimentov iz profilov in vzorce 
sedimentov, odvzetih po režnjih in kvadratih v 
31O pomenu jame Divje babe I za stratigrafijo, sedimentologijo in ...
prostoru, na katerem so potekala izkopavanja.4 
Natančna analiza sedimentov iz profila je sicer 
reprezentativna predvsem ali samo za določen 
odsek profila, vendar ima tudi širši pomen, ker 
vsaka posamezna analizirana vrednost določene 
značilnosti sedimentov v profilu nedvomno pri-
pada množici z določenim razponom vrednosti. 
Na podlagi podatkov iz posamičnih profilov sensu 
stricto lahko tako primerjamo izsledke analize 
množic sedimentoloških podatkov, ki so bili zbrani 
po režnjih in pozneje združeni v sedimentacijske 
nivoje, s t. i. geološkimi plastmi, kot so bile določene 
vizualno v profilih. Podatki, zbrani po režnjih, so 
se nanašali na naslednje kategorije: 
– maso dolomitnih blokov in frakcij od vključno 
drobnega grušča do melja; 
– na volumsko maso peščene frakcije; 
– na fosilne ter arheološke ostanke. 
Čeprav sedimentološki podatki niso bili v no-
benem pogledu tako natančni kot ustrezni podatki 
iz profilov, so bili zaradi svoje številnosti (od ne-
kaj 100 do ok. 2500 arhiviranih in neobjavljenih 
podatkov5 za posamezno kategorijo od plasti 2 do 
vključno plasti 16a ali povprečno 150 podatkov 
za vsako odkopano plast) statistično zanesljivi in 
so tako omogočili spoznati variabilnost zbranih 
podatkov po omenjenih kategorijah. Ker so bili 
stratigrafsko objektivno opredeljeni z natančnostjo 
12 cm, jih je bilo mogoče dosti dobro vzporediti 
s stratigrafsko domnevno primerljivimi podatki 
iz profilov, narediti primerjalno analizo in pre-
veriti korelacijo med sedimentacijskimi nivoji in 
geološkimi plastmi. Da bi bolje spoznal celoten 
potek sedimentacije in preobrazbe sedimentov, je 
I. Turk s sodelavci sistematično proučil:
a – porazdelitev velikosti zrn (klastov in agre-
     gatov) različnih frakcij;
b – povprečno velikost zrn v posameznih frak-
     cijah klastov;
c – posedimentno fragmentiranje klastov (t. i.
     zmrzlinske klaste ali kongelifrakte);
d – korozijsko razjedenost klastov (t. i. reliefno
     korodirane klaste);
e – volumsko (specifično) maso drobnih sedi-
     mentnih frakcij;
f – kemično sestavo posameznih sedimentnih
     frakcij s poudarkom na drobni frakciji.6 
4  Vzorce sedimentov skupaj z drugimi najdbami hrani 
Narodni muzej Slovenije.
5  Turk, I. 2002, Elaborat Divje babe I. Izkopavanja 
1989–1999, Arhiv ZRC SAZU Inštitut za arheologijo.
6  Slednje v sodelovanju z geologom D. Skabernetom.
Pri tem se je osredotočil na nekatere univer-
zalne značilnosti klastičnih sedimentov (prepe-
relost, kongelifrakcija, korozija, cementacija), za 
katere je domneval, da so neposredno povezane 
s klimatskimi parametri (temperaturo, vlago). Na 
podlagi radiometričnih datumov mu jih je uspelo 
neposredno korelirati z globalnimi klimatskimi 
nihanji temperature (Blackwell et al. 2007; I. Turk 
2007b), medtem ko se pri modernih paleoklimatskih 
in paleookoljskih raziskavah to počne na podlagi 
drugačnih parametrov (Ellwood et al. 2004; Spötl 
et al. 2006; Aubry et al. 2010), ki se jih lahko sa-
mo posredno primerja z datiranimi klimatskimi 
krivuljami. Visoko korelativni s temperaturo naj bi 
bili zmrzlinski klasti (kongelifrakti), z vlago ozi-
roma padavinami pa korozijsko razjedeni klasti in 
različni strukturni agregati s cementnim vezivom. 
Korozijsko razjedene klaste je lahko zanesljivo 
povezal tudi z zastoji v pretežno mehanskem 
preperevanju jamskega svoda. Ti se odslikavajo 
tudi v diskontinuitetah datumov ESR v profilu 
Divjih bab I. Doslej ni bil nihče posebej pozoren 
na povezavo med hiati in korozijsko razjedenimi 
klasti, vključno z avtorji, ki so se posebej ukvarjali 
s stratigrafskimi hiati v jamskih najdiščih (Campy, 
Chaline 1993). Tudi strukturni agregati niso bili 
nikdar analizirani tako, kot je bilo to storjeno v 
Divjih babah I.
V analizi sedimentov Divjih bab I je I. Turk izhajal 
iz splošnega znanja o preperevanju in cementira-
nju sedimentnih kamnin (kamor prištevamo tudi 
dolomit) ter lastnih terenskih opažanj iz obdobja 
19-letnih izkopavanj v Divjih babah I. Temeljne 
zamisli o povezavi preperevanja in cementiranja s 
klimo je dobil pri mokrem sejanju in pregledovanju 
vseh odkopanih sedimentov v letih 1990–1999. 
Vendar žal šele proti koncu izkopavanj, zato mu 
kongelifraktov in korozijsko razjedenih klastov ni 
uspelo preveriti v njihovi bočni razsežnosti tako, 
kot je to storil s strukturnimi agregati.
Preperevanje
je kombinacija neločljivo povezanih mehanskih 
in kemičnih procesov, ki privedejo do razkroja 
kamnine (I. Turk 2006, 21). Preperevanje matič-
ne dolomitne kamnine je bilo lahko primarno, 
sinsedimentno, singenetsko (na stropu, stenah in 
policah jame) in/ali sekundarno, posedimentno, 
postgenetsko (na/v jamskih tleh). Masa posedi-
mentne preperine je enaka masi sinsedimentne 
preperine, če ni nobenega transporta preperine iz 
32 Janez TURK, Matija TURK
jame ali izdatnejšega dotoka alohtone preperine. 
Pri obeh vrstah preperevanja gre za podobna pro-
cesa, ki potekata pod različnimi sedimentacijskimi 
pogoji (vlaga, temperatura, transport). Zato so 
lahko končni proizvodi različni. Vendar proizvode 
enega in drugega preperevanja lahko razlikujemo 
samo izjemoma.
Tako sinsedimentno kot posedimentno prepe-
revanje potekata neprekinjeno, razen v primerih 
nabiranja zaščitnega sloja preperine (na policah in 
na tleh) ali kemičnih sedimentov, kot je siga (na 
stropu, stenah, policah in na tleh). Preperevanje je 
lahko enakomerno ali neenakomerno. Do kakšne 
mere je preperevanje neenakomerno, je odvisno 
predvsem od stopnje anizotropnosti (pretrtosti 
idr.) kamnine. Ob daljšem zastoju v primarnem 
preperevanju nastanejo na stropu in stenah koro-
zijske razjede. Ko se tako preoblikovan jamski svod 
začne ponovno krušiti, se v sedimentih nabirajo 
reliefno korodirani klasti. V podobnih okoliščinah 
lahko ti nastanejo tudi v tleh.
Erozija, ki ima pomembno vlogo pri prepere-
vanju usedlin na prostem, je bila v Divjih babah 
I bolj izjema kot pravilo. V poštev pride le pri 
najdrobnejših sedimentih, ki jih je podzemna 
voda spirala v pore in vakuole med klasti, lahko 
pa tudi iz jame ob površinskem curljanju. Dokazi 
za erozivno soliflukcijo so samo na pobočju pred 
jamo in pod njo, kjer evidentno manjka neznan 
del pleistocenskih sedimentov. Delno odstranjeni 
(antropogeno?) so bili tudi sedimenti plasti 2 pri 
sedanjem jamskem vhodu (I. Turk 2007c, sl. 4.1b).
Sinsedimentno preperevanje, ki poteka na majhni 
površini, ki jo predstavljata jamski svod in police, 
spremlja stalna erozija preperine zaradi delovanja 
težnosti. Ta je največja na stropu in najmanjša na 
policah. Količinsko gledano, so rezultat sinsedi-
mentnega preperevanja predvsem debele frakcije, 
pogojene s primarnimi makrorazpokami v matični 
dolomitni kamnini. Delež drobnih frakcij, pogoje-
nih s primarnimi mikrorazpokami in kristalinsko 
zgradbo dolomita, je kljub potencialno večjemu 
številu mikrorazpok relativno majhen zaradi re-
lativno majhne površine, ki prepereva. 
Posedimentno preperevanje, ki poteka na ve-
liki površini, ki jo predstavljajo površine vseh 
klastov, in vključuje tudi nastajanje sekundarnih 
razpok, je obratno sorazmerno s sinsedimentnim 
preperevanjem, ker hitro odlaganje vedno novih 
usedlin z jamskega svoda zavira preperevanje prej 
odloženih sedimentov. Nasprotno počasno odla-
ganje novih usedlin z jamskega svoda omogoča 
močnejše preperevanje prej odloženih sedimentov. 
Posedimentno preperevanje pa ni odvisno samo 
od klime in hitrosti sedimentacije gravitacijskega 
drobirja, ki zadržuje za preperevanje nujno potrebno 
vlago, temveč tudi od količine biomase. Rezultat 
posedimentnega preperevanja so predvsem drobne 
frakcije, ki so običajno predmet analize porazdelitve 
velikosti zrn in mikromorfologije. Poskusi I. Turka 
so pokazali, da je delovanje zmrzali (gelifrakcija) 
najučinkovitejše, če je sediment dobesedno zalit 
z vodo. To je seveda mogoče predvsem v/na tleh, 
če so za to izpolnjeni potrebni pogoji (prisotnost 
manj propustnega sloja v obliki zahojene površi-
ne). V takšnih pogojih se najprej odkrušijo klasti 
v velikosti melja in drobnega peska. Nato začne 
odpadati debelejši pesek in tako naprej do velikih 
odlomkov, ki lahko dosežejo polovico velikosti 
zamrznjenega klasta. Veliki odlomki, ki so nastali 
zaradi delovanja zmrzali, so t. i. zmrzlinski klasti 
ali kongelifrakti.
Na podlagi temeljne zakonitosti sin- in po-
sedimentnega preperevanja je bila razložena 
porazdelitev velikosti zrn v profilu Divjih bab I, 
predvsem najdebelejše in najdrobnejše frakcije 
(Skaberne et al. 2014, sl. 17.2.1). Ti nista tako 
izrazito povezani s klimo, kot so predpostavljali 
M. Brodar in nekateri drugi avtorji. Obe frakciji 
sta obratno sorazmerni in večinoma različni po 
izvoru. Najdebelejša frakcija je, kot rečeno, nastala 
pretežno sinsedimentno v povezavi z nestabilnim 
jamskim svodom. Najdrobnejša frakcija je nastala 
predvsem posedimentno v povezavi z zastoji v 
sedimentaciji najdebelejše frakcije v obdobjih sta-
bilnega jamskega svoda. Predstavlja gravitacijsko 
najbolj mobilno frakcijo, ki lahko sčasoma zapolni 
vse pore med klasti.
Hitrost sedimentacije vseh gravitacijskih jamskih 
sedimentov je odvisna od klime (temperature, 
vlage, sezonske razporeditve padavin), narave 
kamnine (stopnje pretrtosti in zgradbe), medzrn-
ske poroznosti klastičnih sedimentov in potresne 
dejavnosti. Zgodnja kemična diageneza (nastanek 
kemičnih usedlin) je odvisna od fizikalnih in fizi-
kalno-kemičnih lastnosti sedimenta in raztopin, ki 
se pretakajo skozenj. Te lastnosti pa so odvisne od 
sestave okolnih kamnin in sedimentov ter eksogenih 
pogojev (klima, rastlinske in živalske primesi, živo 
okolje). Pri razlagi rezultatov analize sedimentov je 
bilo zato nujno upoštevati vse te dejavnike. Nekateri 
so med seboj povezani. Tako npr. siga ni mogla 
nastati brez rastlinskega pokrova nad jamo. Velikost 
33O pomenu jame Divje babe I za stratigrafijo, sedimentologijo in ...
populacije rastlinojedega jamskega medveda, ki je 
prispevala k organski komponenti sedimentov, je 
bila odvisna od hrane oziroma vegetacije. Ta pa je 
bila spet povezana z višjimi temperaturami, večjo 
vlago in daljšimi poletji. 
MODEL, UPORABLJEN ZA RAZLAGO 
IZBRANIH ZNAČILNOSTI KLASTIČNIH 
SEDIMENTOV V DIVJIH BABAH I
Model temelji na naslednjih splošnih dejstvih
Ker v podzemnih jamah ni direktnega sončnega 
obsevanja, je v njih posebna mikroklima, na katero 
lahko vpliva še mikroklima v neposredni okolici 
jame. Na jamsko mikroklimo vplivajo velikost 
vhoda, temperatura tal (vključno in predvsem 
jamskih sedimentov), prisotnost človeka (ogenj) in 
vegetacija nad jamo in pred njo (drevje, grmovje, 
goličava). Vsi ti dejavniki se lahko spreminjajo 
soodvisno, nekateri tudi neodvisno od klimatskih 
sprememb v povezavi z naravnimi katastrofami 
(gozdni požari, ledolomi ipd.). Medtem ko vpliva 
mikroklima na jamske sedimente kratkoročno in 
specifično za posamezno najdišče, vpliva atmos-
ferska klima dolgoročno in globalno, kar omogoča 
primerjave na globalni ravni.
Vlaga v jamah nastopa kot kondenz in kot pod-
zemna (talna) voda. Podzemne vode so vse vode 
pod površino zemlje, vključno z vodo v porozni 
sredini jamskih sedimentov. Tako kondenzna vlaga 
kot podzemna talna voda sta odvisni od zunanje 
temperature zraka in padavin. Vlaga v jamskem 
okolju je močno povezana z razlikami med jamski-
mi in zunanjimi temperaturami, ki so v negativni 
korelaciji z velikostjo vhodne odprtine (glej sl. 4).
Podzemni dotok vode, kot je prenikajoča voda v 
horizontalnih jamah, je odvisen od padavin. Na sl. 5 
so prikazani izsledki občasnih meritev podzemnega 
dotoka (prenikajoče vode) s stropne površine 91 
m2 v Divjih babah I od januarja 2000 do februarja 
2001. Povprečje meritev je 22,7 litra v eni uri ali 
0,25 litra na 1 m2 v eni uri, če bi bil podzemni 
dotok vode enakomerno razporejen po površini 
91 m2. Največja vrednost za površino 91 m2 je bila 
112 litrov na uro, najmanjša pa 2 litra. V enem 
letu bi lahko tako na 1 m2 jamskih tal pricurljalo 
2190 litrov vode, kar je malo več od lokalnega 
povprečja padavin za obdobje 1961–1990, ki znaša 
2098 litrov (Nadbah 2012). Podzemni odtok je v 
nasprotju s padavinami stalen. Po padavinah hitro 
naraste, potem pa pade v obliki eksponencialne 
krivulje. Ta se najprej hitro spušča, od določene 
točke pretoka pa zelo počasi in se verjetno nikoli ne 
spusti na vrednost 0. Podzemni odtok je odvisen od 
ločevanja padavin na površinski in podpovršinski 
odtok ter evapotranspiracije (izhlapevanja vode z 
zemeljskega površja).
Za razlago humidnosti v jamskem okolju Divjih 
bab I se je I. Turk oprl na naslednji mikroklimatski 
model:
– Pri nižjih temperaturah je v zraku manj, v 
tleh pa več vlage zaradi manjše evapotranspiracije. 
Ta pri 30-letni povprečni letni temperaturi 10 °C 
in 1800 mm padavin, oboje izmerjeno v okolici 
jame, znaša 572 mm na leto (primerjaj Verheye 
et al. 1991, tab. 1). Pri znižanju povprečne letne 
temperature za 5 °C in nespremenjenih padavinah 
bi se evapotranspiracija zmanjšala za 35 %, tako 
da bi znašala 372 mm na leto. V jamskem okolju 
to dolgoročno pomeni manj kondenzne vlage in 
več podzemne vode. Slednja je zaradi nižje tem-
perature agresivnejša in lahko v tleh proizvede 
več reliefno korodiranih klastov, ki se jim lahko 
pridružijo klasti z reliefno korodiranega jamskega 
svoda iz predhodnega toplejšega obdobja, ko je 
bilo več kondenzne vlage in korozije (glej I. Turk 
et al. 2005, sl. 7). Padavine povečajo predvsem do-
tok podzemne vode, ker nimajo večjega vpliva na 
evapotranspiracijo. Pri povprečnih letnih padavinah 
2500 mm, ki so verjetno blizu možnega maksimuma 
za to območje, in povprečni letni temperaturi 5 °C 
bi bila letna evapotranspiracija 425 mm, kar je 
le 12 % več kot pri 1800 mm padavin. Travniška 
vegetacija, značilna za hladnejšo klimo, povečuje 
navpično prepustnost tal, kar ugodno vpliva na 
pretok podzemne vode, ta se lahko tako poveča 
tudi do 50 % (Ćirić 1986, 123s). Po drugi strani je 
dnevno-nočna temperaturna amplituda pri nižjih 
temperaturah manjša kot pri višjih temperaturah. 
Manjša amplituda pomeni tudi manj kondenzne 
vlage. V jami so temperaturne amplitude manjše 
pri manjšem vhodu. To se je lepo pokazalo med 
izkopavanji v Potočki zijalki, ki so potekala poleti v 
letih 1929–1935 in so jih spremljale dnevne meritve 
temperature v jami in zunaj nje (S. Brodar 1934) 
(sl. 4). Pred povečanjem vhoda je bilo z nihanji 
zunanje temperature zraka leta 1929 pojasnjene 
samo 13 % variacije temperature zraka za vhodom 
(n = 87, p = 0,001) in 24 % variacije temperature 
zraka na koncu jame (n = 87, p < 0,001). Po pove-
čanju vhoda z izkopavanji je bilo z nihanji zunanje 
temperature zraka leta 1935 pojasnjene že 64 % 
variacije temperature zraka za vhodom (n = 107, 
p < 0,001) in 72 % variacije temperature zraka na 
34 Janez TURK, Matija TURK
koncu jame (n = 107, p < 0,001). Pri 95-odstotnem 
zaupanju se je povprečna temperatura zraka za 
povečanim vhodom leta 1935 zvišala za 1,3–1,5 ºC, 
na koncu jame pa za 0,8–1,0 ºC, in to kljub padcu 
povprečne zunanje temperature zraka za 1,8–2,0 
ºC istega leta v primerjavi z letom 1929, ko vhod 
še ni bil povečan. Če upoštevamo še razliko v 
povprečni zunanji temperaturi zraka, je bilo naj-
večje povprečno povišanje 3,5 ºC za vhodom in 
3,0 ºC na koncu jame. Analogno zvišanju poletnih 
temperatur bi bilo znižanje zimskih temperatur v 
jami zaradi večjega vhoda.
– Pri višjih temperaturah je v zraku več vlage, v 
tleh pa manj zaradi večje evapotranspiracije. V jam-
skem okolju to dolgoročno pomeni več kondenzne 
vlage in nekoliko manj podzemne vode. Padavine 
povečajo dotok pozemne vode, vendar bistveno 
manj kot pri nižjih temperaturah. Pri povprečnih 
letnih padavinah 2500 mm in temperaturi 10 °C 
bi bila letna evapotranspiracija namreč samo za 
2 % večja kot pri enaki temperaturi in 1800 mm 
padavin. Odtočni deficit (razlika med količino vode, 
ki je padla na določeno območje, in količino vode, 
ki je s tega območja odtekla ob iztoku – v grobem 
je enak evapotranspiraciji) povečuje tudi gozdna 
vegetacija, ki je v toplejši klimi pričakovano bolj 
razvita kot v hladni klimi. Zato padavine pri višjih 
temperaturah tudi bolj povečujejo kondenzno vlago 
kot pri nižjih temperaturah. Količina kondenzne 
vlage se poveča tudi zaradi večje temperaturne 
amplitude, ki je posledica višjih temperatur. Ve-
čjo temperaturno amplitudo lahko povzroči tudi 
manjši jamski vhod (sl. 4).
– Ker kondenzna vlaga pospešuje korozijo jam-
skega svoda, lahko po toplejših obdobjih teoretično 
pričakujemo v sedimentih več reliefno korodiranih 
klastov kot po hladnejših obdobjih. Obseg korozije 
pa je odvisen predvsem od stabilnosti jamskega 
svoda in delno od količine padavin. Jamski svod 
destabilizirajo potresi in zmrzal. Ker je zmrzal 
odvisna od temperature in podzemne (prenika-
joče) vode, je manjša pri višjih povprečnih letnih 
temperaturah. To ugodno vpliva na razvoj stenskih 
in stropnih korozijskih tvorb.
– Ker podzemna voda pospešuje nastanek 
agregatov, breč in sig, lahko te tvorbe pričakujemo 
tako v hladnih kot toplih obdobjih. Zmrzovanje 
tal z meljasto-peščeno osnovo, kot jo imamo v 
sedimentih Divjih bab I, je dodatno prispevalo k 
nastanku in konsolidaciji strukturnih agregatov 
(Williams, Smith 1989, 42, 46). Obseg in razvitost 
teh tvorb pa sta odvisna od količine padavin, ki 
bolj ali manj direktno vpliva na količino podzemne 
(prenikajoče) vode. Nižje temperature in več vode 
pospešujejo delovanje zmrzali, ki destabilizira jamski 
svod in povečuje posedimentno razpadanje klastov 
(gelifrakcija) ter nastanek reliefno korodiranih 
klastov in agregatov v jamskih tleh. Nestabilnost 
jamskega svoda samo še zmanjšuje možnosti za že 
tako omejeno učinkovitost korozije. Povečajo se 
tudi možnosti za pobočno erozijo. Če erozija uniči 
vegetacijo nad jamo, kar se je v primeru Divjih 
bab I v preteklosti lahko dogajalo zaradi izredno 
strmega, slemenasto oblikovanega terena nad ja-
mo, ni več pogojev za nastajanje sige. Erodirana 
pobočja tudi povečajo površinski odtok, zaradi 
česar se (lahko) zmanjša dotok podzemne vode. 
Na današnjem erozijsko nestabilnem pobočju nad 
Divjimi babami I ne moremo pričakovati debelejših 
nanosov ilovice, ki bi jo voda izdatneje splakovala 
v jamo. Ker v pleistocenskih sedimentih Divjih 
bab I praktično ni ilovice, lahko sklepamo, da je 
bilo podobno strmo in nestabilno kot sedanje tudi 
pleistocensko pobočje nad jamo.
Predlagani mikroklimatski model je primerljiv 
s klimatskimi modeli, ki temeljijo na spremembi 
temperature. Dolgoročna sprememba povprečne 
letne temperature ne pomeni, da bi se enakomerno 
spremenila tudi poletna in zimska temperatura. 
Nasprotno temu je verjetneje, da bi se precej 
bolj kot poletne spremenile zimske temperature. 
Posledica temperaturnih sprememb bi bila spre-
menjena količina padavin, ki bi bile spet drugače 
razporejene pozimi in poleti. To bi vplivalo na 
debelino snežne odeje, ki je eden glavnih regu-
latorjev temperature tal v hladni klimi (prim. 
Williams, Smith 1989, 81).
Ker sta vlaga in temperatura na podlagi pre-
dlaganega modela v jamskem okolju soodvisna 
klimatska parametra, se je lahko preverilo, kako 
se medsebojno ujemajo izsledki, dobljeni na 
podlagi domnevnih sedimentoloških atributov za 
temperaturo in vlago, ki jih predstavljajo zmrzlin-
ski klasti, korozijsko reliefno razjedeni klasti in 
agregati. Te za zdaj domnevne klimatske atribute 
so predstavljali povsem neodvisno pridobljeni 
zvezni sedimentološki podatki, ki so se nanašali 
na singenetske in različne postgenetske procese. 
Ker se rezultati analiz izbranih sedimentoloških 
podatkov dobro ujemajo, lahko zaupamo razlagi 
klime, ki temelji na predlaganem modelu. Ker gre 
za univerzalno delovanje temperature in vlage 
na karbonatne kamnine, se da metodo I. Turka 
uporabiti v vseh podobnih sedimentnih okoljih s 
podobnimi posledicami posedimentnih procesov.
35O pomenu jame Divje babe I za stratigrafijo, sedimentologijo in ...
SINTEZA
Sinteza pionirskih sedimentoloških raziskav 
v Divjih babah I je bila mogoča šele na podlagi 
številnih datacij plasti z metodo elektronske spin-
ske resonance (ESR).7 Na podlagi datacij plasti in 
primerjanja analitskih izsledkov s temperaturno 
krivuljo kisikovih izotopskih stopenj (OIS) in 
njej podobnih krivulj za obdobje mlajšega plei-
stocena (glej I. Turk, Verbič 1993) je bilo mogoče 
v krivuljah kongelifraktov, reliefno korodiranih 
klastov in strukturnih agregatov prepoznati 
mejo med toplim zgodnjim glacialom (OIS 5) 
in hladnim visokim glacialom (OIS 4).8 Ta meja, 
ki je po dogovoru postavljena 74.000 let pred 
sedanjost (I. Turk 2007b), deli profil Divjih bab 
I v dva dela s statistično različnimi značilnostmi 
klastičnih in kemičnih sedimentov (Skaberne et 
al. 2014; 2015a; 2015b). Spodnji del profila pred-
stavlja topel in suh zgodnji glacial, zgornji del 
pa hladen in vlažen visoki glacial (pleniglacial). 
Znotraj obeh delov se v sedimentih odslikavajo 
še večje ali manjše tisočletne spremembe klime, 
opredeljene s temperaturo in vlago (I. Turk et 
al. 2001; 2005; J. Turk, M. Turk 2010; Skaberne 
et al. 2014; 2015a; 2015b; Blackwell et al. 2009). 
Izsledki I. Turka o vlagi v obdobjih zgodnjega 
glaciala in visokega glaciala so nasprotni od splo-
šno sprejetega mnenja o vlažnih toplih in suhih 
mrzlih obdobjih zgodnjega in visokega glaciala. 
To mnenje temelji predvsem na puhličnih sedi-
mentih, ki so značilni za glacialno klimo. Vendar 
so za nastanek in rast ledenikov pogoj izdatne 
snežne padavine, povezane z bolj vlažno klimo 
in nižjimi poletnimi temperaturami.
Gradniki sinteze I. Turka
1 – Delež reliefno korodiranih klastov (sl. 6a), 
ki jih je povezal s kondenzno in talno vlago, je v 
obeh kronostratigrafsko razmejenih delih profila 
statistično značilno različen (p < 0,05) (Skaberne 
et al. 2014, sl. 17.2.2). Razlike v amplitudi in deležu 
reliefno korodiranih klastov med zgornjim (OIS 3) 
7  Datacije je po letu 1999, ko je stekel neformalni pro-
jekt sedimentoloških analiz, ljubeznivo priskrbela Bonnie 
A. B. Blackwell (MA lab: Dept. Of Chemistry, Williams 
College, RFK Research Instiute, Williamstown, MA, USA) 
(Blackwell et al. 2007; 2009).
8  OIS 4 je z najdbami slabo zastopan zaradi prekinjene 
sedimentacije. Popolnoma brez sedimentov (in posledično 
najdb) je OIS 2 in mlajši del OIS 3. 
in spodnjim delom profila (OIS 5) so se zato lahko 
smiselno razložile s stabilno in globalno suho kli-
mo v spodnjem delu profila in nestabilno globalno 
vlažno klimo v zgornjem delu. Oziroma z manjšimi 
in večjimi temperaturnimi razlikami med zrakom 
zunaj jame in v njej za stropne korozijske tvorbe 
in s povečanimi padavinami za talne (I. Turk et al. 
2001; 2005). Stropnih korozijskih tvorb je bilo več 
v topli klimi. Vendar so bile zaradi večjega vhoda 
temperaturne razlike med zrakom zunaj jame in v 
njej manjše. Talnih pa je bilo več v hladni klimi pri 
enaki količini padavin. Zaradi krioklastične sedi-
mentacije, ki je v obdobju hladne klime zmanjšala 
velikost vhoda, so se večale temperaturne razlike, 
kar je imelo za posledico tudi večjo stropno korozijo. 
Ker sta kondenz in talna voda odvisna od tempe-
rature, je pomembno, da se je porazdelitev deležev 
reliefno korodiranih klastov v splošnem ujemala s 
porazdelitvijo deležev posedimentnih fragmentov 
(Skaberne et al. 2014, sl. 17.2.2).
2 – Delež kongelifraktov z ostrimi robovi (sl. 6a) 
in svežimi (nepreperelimi) prelomnimi ploskvami se 
v obeh kronostratigrafsko razmejenih delih profila 
statistično značilno razlikuje (p < 0,05) (Skaberne et 
al. 2015a, sl. 7). Zastopanost deležev kongelifraktov 
je bila povezana s številom dni v letu, ko zmrzuje, 
oziroma s povprečno zimsko temperaturo v rela-
tivno kratkem časovnem obdobju pred zasutjem 
z novimi sedimenti (I. Turk et al. 2001). Razlike 
v amplitudi in deležu posedimentnih fragmentov 
med zgornjim in spodnjim delom profila so bile 
lahko smiselno razložene s stabilno, globalno to-
plejšo klimo v spodnjem delu profila (OIS 5) in 
nestabilno, globalno hladnejšo v zgornjem (OIS 3) 
oziroma z višjimi in nižjimi temperaturami. Veli-
kost vhoda je vplivala na kongelifrakcijo obratno, 
kot na korozijo jamskega svoda. V spodnjem delu 
profila jo je zaradi večjega vhoda pospeševala, v 
zgornjem pa zavirala.
Ker je bil v Divjih babah I zabeležen dotok 
podzemne vode tudi v daljših zimskih obdobjih 
suše in nizkih temperatur, je bilo vode v dneh, 
ko zmrzuje, tudi v pogojih glacialne klime vsaj za 
silo dovolj, če ne v izobilju. Izmerjeni minimum 
v osrednjem delu jame na koncu enomesečnega 
za slovenske razmere skrajno mrzlega in suhega 
obdobja pozimi leta 1999/2000 je bil 1,05 l/m2 v 24 
urah. Na koncu še bolj suhega in mrzlega dvome-
sečnega obdobja s podpovprečnimi temperaturami 
in predvsem podpovprečnimi padavinami pozimi 
leta 2001/2002 pa je bil izmerjen absolutni mini-
mum 0,68 litra/m2 v 24 urah. V obeh primerih so 
nastale na tleh, ne pa tudi na stropu, ledene sveče 
36 Janez TURK, Matija TURK
v oddaljenosti do 19 m od vhoda. Če je led samo 
enkrat na zimo vklenil že napokane bolj ali manj 
korozijsko zaobljene kose grušča v tleh, so se ti v 
desetih do dvajsetih zimah spremenili v konge-
lifrakte. Potem pa se je začel proces ponovnega 
zaobljevanja svežih robov na novo nastalih klastov 
na/v tleh pri temperaturah nad 0 °C. Zaobljevanje 
in kongelifrakcija sta se izmenjavala še naprej, 
vse do zasutja z novimi sedimenti, ko sta se oba 
procesa močno upočasnila ali celo ustavila. Za 
približek negativni temperaturi so služili izključ-
no kongelifrakti s svežimi odlomi, obkroženi z 
ostrimi robovi, ki so nastali tik pred zasutjem z 
novimi sedimenti.
3 – Delež strukturnih agregatov v peščeni frakciji, 
poenostavljeno izražen z volumsko maso, je bil 
prek talne vlage povezan s padavinami. Delež je v 
obeh kronostratigrafsko razmejenih delih profila 
statistično značilno različen (p > 0,05) (Skaberne 
et al. 2015a, sl. 7). Razlika v volumski masi peščene 
frakcije med zgornjim in spodnjim delom profila 
je bila smiselno razložena z globalno bolj suho in 
toplo klimo v spodnjem (OIS 5) in globalno bolj 
vlažno in mrzlo klimo v zgornjem delu profila 
(OIS 3) (I. Turk et al. 2005). Ker je za nastanek 
strukturnih agregatov in za delovanje korozije 
v tleh nujno potrebna voda v obliki talne vlage, 
je pomembno, da se je porazdelitev strukturnih 
agregatov ujemala s porazdelitvijo korodiranih 
klastov, pa tudi korodiranih kosti, v sedimentih 
stratigrafskega niza. Grobo ujemanje porazdelitve 
strukturnih agregatov s kongelifrakti pa je lahko 
posledica nastajanja in konsolidacije agregatov za-
radi segregacije ledu v tleh (Williams, Smith 1989, 
42, 46). Tako stisnjeni agregati so odpornejši od 
nekonsolidiranih iz toplejših klimatskih obdobij 
in so se zato lahko ohranili v večjem številu.
V večjih strukturnih agregatih so bile prvič 
odkrite fosilizirane dlake in odtisi dlak jamskega 
medveda (sl. 7) (I. Turk et al. 1995). Odkritje je 
bilo pozneje neodvisno potrjeno s podobnimi 
najdbami pleistocenske starosti v jami Ozark v 
ZDA (Schubert, Kaufmann 2003). Železnodobna 
najdba iz Čadrga nad Tolminom (Kavkler 2016) 
z enakimi mineraliziranimi strukturami volnene 
tkanine, kot so fosilizirane dlake (sl. 7), je poka-
zala, da za fosilizacijo dlak zadostuje že poltretje 
tisočletje. Zato lahko sklepamo, da so fosilizirane 
dlake in z njimi povezani agregati nastali v Divjih 
babah I singenetsko, tj. skupaj z odlaganjem sedi-
mentov, ne pa epigenetsko.
4 – Porazdelitev fosilnih ostankov jamskega med-
veda, ki je bila, ko gre za smrtnost v jami-brlogu, 
lahko odvisna od trajanja in značaja zime (vlažna, 
suha), je v zgornjem delu profila bistveno drugačna 
kot v spodnjem (sl. 6b). Ostankov je precej več v 
zgornjem delu z znaki hladne in vlažne klime. Ker 
je bila v tem obdobju (OIS 3) pokrajina poraščena 
z mešanim gozdom, kot kažejo analize oglja in 
peloda (Šercelj, Culiberg 1991; Culiberg 2007; 
2011), so bile življenjske razmere za populacijo 
jamskega medveda v toplem delu leta ugodne. 
Drugače je lahko bilo v mrzlem delu leta, ki so ga 
zlasti medvedke z mladiči in že samostojni mladiči 
prebili v jami. V neugodnih zimskih razmerah, 
kot je povečana vlaga, je lahko prihajalo tudi do 
tekmovanja za jamske brloge med samci na eni 
strani ter samicami in mladiči na drugi strani. 
Smrtnost je bila največja med mladiči do enega 
leta starosti, ki predstavljajo 70 % in več fosilne 
populacije v zgornjem delu profila, raziskanega v 
letih 1989–1999 (Debeljak 2002).
5 – Podoben vzorec kot pri jamskem medvedu 
se je ponovil tudi pri porazdelitvi paleolitskih 
artefaktov (sl. 6b). Ti predstavljajo intenzivnost 
obiska lokalne populacije neandertalcev v jami 
in njene uporabe kot zavetišča pred vremenskimi 
neprilikami. Zato se obiskanost jame dobro ujema 
s približki temperature in vlage (sl. 6). Arheološke 
ostaline, kot so artefakti in ognjišča/kurišča, v gro-
bem odslikavajo številčno stanje lokalne populacije 
neandertalcev. V zaostreni glacialni klimi so bili 
ti prisiljeni umakniti se iz srednje Evrope proti 
Sredozemlju. To je imelo za posledico večjo gostoto 
poseljenosti in tudi večji obisk jam nasploh na tem 
območju. Znano je, da v topli interglacialni klimi 
prevladujejo najdbe na prostem, v mrzli glacialni 
klimi pa najdbe v jamah. Ta vzorec je zdaj jasno 
izražen in potrjen tudi v Divjih babah I.
6 – Analiza bogate stratificirane mikrofavne je 
pokazala, da je bilo podnebje v času odlaganja 
plasti zgornjega dela profila (OIS 3) vlažnejše 
kot v času nastanka plasti spodnjega dela profila 
(OIS 5) (Toškan, Kryštufek 2007; Toškan, Dirjec 
2011). Ker gre za nezvezne podatke, izsledkov ni 
bilo mogoče podrobno primerjati s sedimento-
loškimi rezultati.
7 – Izsledke na podlagi ostankov mikrofavne so 
dopolnile paleobotanične analize stratificiranega 
peloda in več tisoč primerkov oglja. Te so potrdile, 
da je bilo podnebje v času odlaganja določenih 
plasti zgornjega dela profila (OIS 3) hladnejše 
kot v času nastanka plasti spodnjega dela (OIS 5) 
(Šercelj, Culiberg 1991; Culiberg 2007, 2011). Tudi 
v tem primeru gre za nezvezne podatke, ki jih ne 
moremo podrobno primerjati s sedimentološkimi.
37O pomenu jame Divje babe I za stratigrafijo, sedimentologijo in ...
Prva naravoslovna sinteza multidisciplinarne 
analize posameznega paleolitskega najdišča v 
Sloveniji je dala skladne rezultate. Številni zbrani 
podatki iz različnih področij naravoslovja tvorijo 
enovit sistem. Divje babe I lahko zato upravičeno 
štejemo za eno redkih tipskih jamskih najdišč za 
slabo poznano stopnjo OIS 5 in OIS 3, ko gre za 
okolje in paleolitske najdbe. V drugi polovici OIS 
3 je prišlo v Evropi do popolne zamenjave človeške 
populacije z novo vrsto in s tem povezanih spre-
memb, kar se ni zgodilo ne kdaj prej ne pozneje. 
SKLEPI
Na podlagi sinteze izsledkov vseh analiz, izvede-
nih na sedimentih Divjih bab I in njihove vsebine, 
lahko naredimo nekaj zanesljivih sklepov:
1 – Analizirani profil Divjih bab I je zaradi sedi-
mentacijskih hiatov sicer nepopoln, vendar trenutno 
še vedno najbolj izpoveden za večji del mlajšeple-
istocenskega obdobja v Sloveniji (I. Turk 2006; I. 
Turk 2007c, sl. 4.1b). Vsekakor je izpovednejši od 
profila Črnega Kala in Betalovega spodmola, ki sta 
dolgo veljala za referenčna profila tega obdobja (M. 
Brodar 2009). Njegov potencial še zdaleč ni izčr-
pan, saj so sedimenti na pobočju pod jamo, katere 
vhod je bil nekoč pomaknjen daleč naprej v smeri 
pobočja, domnevno debeli 50 m in segajo globoko 
v pleistocen. Da so jame s tako debelimi sedimenti 
ter pripadajočimi arheološkimi in paleontološkimi 
najdbami velika redkost, ni treba posebej poudar-
jati. Poleg tega je nedotaknjen večji del notranjosti 
jame, medtem ko so sedimenti Črnega Kala v celoti 
odstranjeni, v Betalovem spodmolu pa jih je ohra-
njen le manjši del.
2 – Sedimenti, odkopani v Divjih babah I, so 
nastali pod vplivom posamičnih jamskih mikro-
okolij v mikrookolju jame kot zaključene celote. 
Jamska mikrookolja, vključno s sedimentnimi, 
oblikuje predvsem neenakomerno razporejena 
podzemna voda v vseh agregatnih stanjih, ki so 
odvisna od temperature. Slednje lahko posplošimo 
na vse vodoravne jame. Jamska mikrookolja se v 
Divjih babah I izražajo v mozaični sliki. To smo 
ugotovili na podlagi izčrpne prostorske analize 
različnih podatkov, zabeleženih med izkopavanji 
ali po njih na podlagi vzorcev sedimentnih frakcij. 
Mozaično okolje je torej pogojeno s prostorom 
in časom. Pri reševanju problemov jamskega se-
dimentnega okolja je zato nujno treba upoštevati 
ti dve dimenziji. Običajni pristopi, pri katerih se 
je upoštevala skoraj izključno dimenzija časa na 
določeni vertikali določenega profila v jami, bi 
bili ustrezni, če bi v tlorisu povsod vladali enaki 
pogoji, podani s temperaturo in vlago, oziroma 
če ne bi bilo mikrookolij. V nasprotnem primeru 
lahko pride do zavajajočih razlag, zlasti če jih 
posplošimo na najdišče kot celoto.
3 – Mikrookolje se oblikuje in spreminja zaradi 
vpliva različnih dejavnikov (globalnih klimatskih, 
mikroklimatskih idr.), ki so stalni ali pa se v času 
spreminjajo. Eden glavnih dejavnikov je nedvomno 
atmosferska klima, za katero vemo, da se nenehno 
spreminja na globalni ravni.
4 – Glavni dejavniki, ki so vplivali na mikro-
okolje v Divjih babah I, so matična kamnina, 
globalna klima, prisotnost jamskega medveda in 
prostornina jame. Nobeden od teh dejavnikov 
ni bil stalen v času in prostoru. Glavne lastnosti 
kamnine (razpokanost, poroznost) so se lahko 
spreminjale od ene kamninske plasti do druge. 
Globalna klima zanesljivo ni bila ves čas, tj. 90.000 
let, enaka. Obisk populacij jamskega medveda in 
neandertalcev, ki so uporabljale Divje babe I za 
svoj brlog in zavetišče, je doživljal vrhunce in 
padce. Jamski vhod in konfiguracija jame sta se 
postopno spreminjala, prostornina jame pa se je 
vztrajno zmanjševala. To je neposredno vplivalo 
na jamsko mikroklimo. Pred glacialnim vrhuncem 
(OIS 2) je bil vhod visok samo še 1 m. Zaradi tega 
in severne lege so v času glacialnega vrhunca v 
jami postopno nastala globoko zamrznjena tla 
brez aktivnega sloja, ki se sicer odtaja čez poletje. 
Med nastajanjem permafrosta je prišlo do močne 
krioturbacije peščeno-meljastih sedimentov (sl. 8). 
Ker je bila posledično temperatura v jami vse leto 
negativna, jama ni bila več primerno zatočišče za 
ljudi in živali, tudi če nizkega vhoda nista zaprla 
večni sneg in led. Takšno stanje je trajalo več tisoč 
let, lahko tudi več deset tisočletij in povzročilo 
dolgotrajen zastoj v sedimentaciji ter popolno 
odsotnost vseh vrst najdb iz tega obdobja, zaradi 
skrajno neprijaznega bivalnega okolja.
5 – Diagenetsko-pedogenetski procesi, ki pridejo 
v poštev v jamskem okolju, so procesi transfor-
macije kamninskih klastov, procesi transformacije 
organskih ostankov in procesi migracije. Pri slednjih 
so analitsko pomembne predvsem migracije urana 
(Skaberne et al. 2015b). V jamskih tleh ni bilo 
biološkega kroženja mineralnih snovi med živo in 
neživo naravo, značilnega za običajne pedogenetske 
procese. Procesi transformacije so potekali v jami 
drugače kot na prostem. V jami je nastajala prepe-
rina (regolit) s preperevanjem stropne in stenske 
38 Janez TURK, Matija TURK
matične kamnine namesto s preperevanjem talne 
matične kamnine, ki je bila pred preperevanjem 
zaščitena z debelimi sloji detritičnega in drugega 
sedimenta, ker ni bilo izdatnejše erozije. Procesi 
transformacije matične kamnine in mineralov so 
večinoma sekundarne narave, ker so potekali skoraj 
izključno v regolitu v/na jamskih tleh.
Procesi transformacije organskih ostankov so 
pripeljali kvečjemu do nastanka parahumusnega 
horizonta, ne pa do humusnih horizontov. Organske 
ostanke so predstavljali predvsem množični ostanki 
živalskega izvora in nanosi od zunaj.
S procesi migracije so se premeščali proizvodi 
transformacije, tako da so se izpirali ali zbirali, 
pri čemer so tudi v jamskih sedimentih nastajali 
ustrezni talni (para)horizonti (kambični, eluvi-
alni, iluvialni). Procesi migracije so bili v jami 
kompleksnejši kot na prostem, ker so se v jamske 
sedimente lahko spirali in zbirali tudi proizvodi 
transformacije iz tal in kamninskih skladov nad 
jamo. Z delovanjem vetra so v jamo drobni delci 
lahko prišli tudi z oddaljenih lokacij, kar je poka-
zala kemična analiza sedimentov (Skaberne et al. 
2015b). Samo spiranje pa je bilo neenakomerno 
razporejeno v prostoru. Migracije znotraj profila 
je potrdila analiza vsebnosti urana, ki je iz zgor-
njega dela profila migriral v spodnjega (ibid.), in 
tudi znotraj posameznih plasti, zaradi zastojev v 
sedimentaciji.9 To je v Divjih babah I vplivalo na 
datacije zgornjega in spodnjega dela profila na 
podlagi uranovih serij. Nekatere datacije spodnjega 
dela profila je toliko pomladilo, da je nastal vtis 
obrnjene (inverzne) stratigrafije (Ku 1997).
6 – V jamskih tleh so potekali tudi procesi, povezani 
z delovanjem posebnih dejavnikov. Takšna procesa 
sta bila npr. krioturbacija in oksidacija, povezana 
z zastajanjem vode v sedimentih. Krioturbacija je 
v jamah s peščeno-meljastimi sedimenti posebno 
močna med stranskima stenama, ki preprečujeta 
bočno raztezanje zamrznjenih sedimentov, ki se 
jim močno poveča volumen (sl. 8). Krioturbacija se 
pogosto zmotno povezuje z mešanjem sedimentov 
in najdb iz različnih plasti. Dejansko ne prihaja 
do mešanja, kar je potrjeno z razločnimi mejami 
med nagubanimi plastmi. Najdbe se pomešajo šele 
pri izkopavanjih, ker ni mogoče zanesljivo slediti 
zapletenim gubam po plasteh.
9  V pripravi: I. Turk, J. Turk, M. Turk, Uran (U) in torij 
(Th) v sedimentih Divjih bab I, dinamika sedimentacije 
in ESR-kronologija. / Uranium (U) and thorium (Th) in 
Divje babe I cave sediments, sedimentation dynamics and 
ESR chronology.
Z izkopavanji v letih1989–1999 potencial naj-
dišča še zdaleč ni bil izčrpan. Podane so bile zgolj 
smernice za morebitne nadaljnje raziskave tega 
vsestransko obetavnega najdišča in opredeljeni 
zanesljivo dosegljivi cilji. Z uporabo predstavljenih 
novih metod in pristopov na vseh v prihodnje 
izkopanih sedimentih bi bilo mogoče preveriti in 
izpopolniti dosedanje izsledke. Utrdili bi predla-
gane nove standarde, ki bi sčasoma prinesli nova 
spoznanja o paleolitiku v Sloveniji in o paleolitskem 
obdobju nasploh. 
Glavni cilji ostajajo ugotoviti čim bolj podrob-
no in zanesljivo kronološko zaporedje klimatskih 
dogodkov, ugotoviti zastoje/prekinitve (hiate) v 
sedimentaciji in to, kako so hiati in klima vplivali 
na celotno podobo najdišča in na naše predstave 
o njem. Z nadaljevanjem izkopavanj bi se dalo 
izboljšati terensko metodo vzorčenja sedimentov 
in preveriti zanesljivost rezultatov izkopavanj v 
letih 1989–1999 in njihovih razlag, pridobljenih 
na podlagi novega modela za razlago jamskih 
klastičnih sedimentov.
Zahvala
Zahvaljujeva se Ivanu Turku za pomoč pri pisanju članka 
in za vse informacije. 
The authors acknowledge financial support from the Slove-
nian Research Agency (P6-0064).
Članek je nastal v okviru raziskovalnega programa Ar-
heološke raziskave (P6-0064), ki ga je sofinancirala Javna 
agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije iz 
državnega proračuna.
Illustrations: Fig. 1 (photo: Carmen Narobe). – Fig. 8 
(photo: Ivan Turk).
Slikovno gradivo: Sl. 1 (foto: Carmen Narobe). – Sl. 8 
(foto: Ivan Turk).
Matija Turk
Znanstvenoraziskovalni center SAZU
Inštitut za arheologijo
Novi trg 2
SI-1000 Ljubljana
matija.turk@zrc-sazu.si 
Janez Turk
Zavod za gradbeništvo Slovenije
Dimičeva ulica 12
SI-1000 Ljubljana
janez.turk@zag.si
ID orcid: 0000-0003-4949-2790