235
Five Visions of Yang Zhu:  
Before He Became a Philosopher
Carine M. G. DEFOORT*
Abstract
This paper traces the consecutive emergence of five important portrayals of Yang Zhu 
before he became a philosopher in the Republic. In the late Zhou, he was portrayed as a 
rival in debate and a defender of physical or personal integrity. From the Han onward, 
he became part of a rhetorical trope based on Mencius’ portrayal. In the Wei Jin he was a 
prominent figure in his own right. The fourth portrayal, from the Song onward, contained 
reflections on his thought in the shadow of Mozi and Confucian orthodoxy. Finally, in 
the late Qing, Kang Youwei presented him as a minor political reformer responding to 
Confucius’ reform plans. These layers contributed in various ways to the nowadays al-
most exclusive presentation of Yang Zhu as a philosopher, a defender of social tolerance, 
autonomy, or individual freedom. The rich variety of the portrayals has too often been 
sacrificed for this relatively homogeneous portrayal.
Keywords: Yang Zhu, Mencius, Succession of the Way, Liezi, Neo-Confucianism, Kang 
Youwei
Pet pogledov na Yang Zhuja preden je postal filozof
Izvleček
Članek sledi nastanku petih zaporednih pomembnih upodobitev Yang Zhuja, preden je v 
času republike postal filozof. V poznem obdobju dinastije Zhou so ga v razpravi upodab-
ljali kot nasprotnika ter zaščitnika telesne in osebne integritete. Od dinastije Han naprej je 
postal del retorične figure, utemeljene na Mencijevi upodobitvi. V času dinastij Wei in Jin 
je veljal za pomembno zgodovinsko osebnost. Četrta upodobitev, od dinastije Song nap-
rej, je vsebovala razmisleke o njegovi misli v senci Mozija in konfucijanske ortodoksije. 
Končno ga je ob koncu dinastije Qing Kang Youwei opredelil kot manj pomembnega 
političnega reformatorja, ki se je odzval na Konfucijeve reformne načrte. Vse te plasti 
so na različne načine prispevale k danes tako rekoč ekskluzivni predstavitvi Yang Zhuja 
kot filozofa, zagovornika družbene strpnosti, avtonomije in osebnih svoboščin. Bogata 
raznolikost upodobitev je bila prepogosto žrtev te, razmeroma homogene upodobitve.
Ključne besede: Yang Zhu, Mencij, napredovanje Poti, Liezi, neokonfucianizem, Kang 
Youwei
* Carine M. G. DEFOORT, Professor of Sinology
 at the University of Leuven (KU Leuven).
 Email address: carine.defoort@kuleuven.be
DOI: 10.4312/as.2020.8.2.235-256
236 Carine M. G. DeFOOrT: Five visiOns OF YanG Zhu
Yang Zhu Portrayals:  
Gaze from Nowhere; Visions from Somewhere
Yang Zhu 楊/陽朱 (Mr. Yang 楊生, Master Yang 楊子, fl. ca. 350 BC) figures 
as one of the earliest Chinese philosophers. Current scholarship tends to describe 
him as the founder of Yangism (Yang Zhu xuepai 楊朱學派), the influential lead-
er of those who would not sacrifice their physical integrity or individual freedom 
for anything, least of all for a ruler or a state. His motto was “for oneself 為我/己”. 
Egoism, individualism, Epicureanism, or hedonism are modern labels for his phi-
losophy (see e.g. Hu 1995, 155–62; Feng 2015, I, 147–56; Graham 1989, 53–64). 
The textual evidence for his existence, thought, and influence is, however, ex-
tremely meagre. There exists no early book under his name. “Of course Yang 
Zhu did not write one 楊子就一定不著”, Lu Xun 魯迅 (1881–1936) once joked, 
“because if he had written a book for others to read, that would have made him 
act ‘for others’ 因為若做出書來給別人看，便變成‘為人’了” (Lu 2005, vol. 3, 
538). A few statements about Yang are dispersed in some early sources such as 
the Mengzi 孟子, Zhuangzi 莊子, Han Feizi 韓非子, Lü shi chunqiu 呂氏春秋, 
Huainanzi 淮南子, and—for those who consider this an early source—the Liezi 
列子. During the twentieth century, there has been a spectacular Yang Zhu re-
vival in the field of Chinese philosophy, accompanied by a strong tendency to 
take these scraps of information at face value, knead them into a coherent por-
trayal, and enhance this with other textual material that contains no reference to 
Yang Zhu at all. This modern portrayal is nowadays so current that we tend to 
overlook its recent emergence and downplay the wide variety of the pre-twentieth 
century portrayals.
The Fudan historian and Yang Zhu scholar He Aiguo has argued that the Re-
publican Yang Zhu portrayal, even though dependent on the same ancient frag-
mentary sources, substantially differed from the earlier ones and responded 
to the needs of its own time. But he is still convinced that during the pre-Qin 
period a clearly identifiable Yang Zhu lineage thrived; between the Han and 
the twentieth century, this lineage was weakened and absorbed by Taoism (He 
2015, 2–41, 87–160). The young scholar Li Yucheng is more reticent about 
the pre-Qin influence of Yang Zhu, but he nevertheless sees it confirmed in 
some early passages. He believes, however, that already after the Han “most 
Yang Zhu portrayals were created on the basis of needs of the times” (Li 2017, 
51–60). Taking these arguments one step further, I argue that every vision of 
Yang Zhu, also that from the pre-Qin period, is a construction. To some ex-
tent this is the case for every master or philosopher, but with a figure who has 
left no written trace, the historicity of his portrayals, including the currently 
237Asian Studies VIII (XXIV), 2 (2020), pp. 235–256
dominant one, is all the more obvious. The striking dearth of textual evidence 
therefore makes Yang Zhu a fascinating case study of intellectual history and 
the layered construction of important figures. Unravelling these layers adds 
more to the figure of Yang Zhu than his exclusive evaluation in terms of philo-
sophical stances.
This paper assembles “visions” of Yang Zhu preceding the current philosophical 
“gaze”. Donna Haraway identified as a “conquering gaze” the view that claims 
to be “from nowhere”, a neutral, transparent, or objective description of the facts. 
Her alternative is a variety of visions that are “from somewhere”, an ever growing 
collection of “situated knowledges”, concrete embodiments, all “ruled by partial 
sight and limited voice”. This alternative does not amount to a strong relativism 
dethroning any claim to knowledge. On the contrary, such strong relativism is 
itself “the perfect mirror twin of totalization in the ideologies of objectivity; both 
deny the stakes in location, embodiment, and partial perspective; both make it 
impossible to see well” (Haraway 1988, 590, 584).
Philosophy that claims a view from nowhere tends to be oblivious of its own 
historicity. Yang Zhu as philosopher is then presented as an identifiable pre-Qin 
figure, with his thought reconstructed on the basis of a selective collection of 
textual sources. The variety of the used sources and the unselected passages are 
downplayed in the service of the philosophically most convincing reconstruc-
tion. This endeavour is legitimate as one possible approach to the topic, but its 
current dominance over all other visions of Yang Zhu is problematic. Inspired 
by Haraway, this paper tries to “see” the pre-philosophical Yang Zhu “well” by 
describing some important portrayals of this figure preceding the current aca-
demic default. Emerging in chronological order, they all evolved and contributed 
to the current portrayal. The paper traces the consecutive emergence of five lay-
ers: namely Yang Zhu as a rival in argumentation (late Zhou), a heretic (Han), a 
promi nent figure in the Liezi (Wei Jin), a master with deficient thoughts (Song), 
and a political reformer (late Qing).1 Even though each portrayal has lived on 
into the later stages and got entangled with other portrayals, I believe that an 
initial attempt to disentangle them sheds new light on the figure of Yang Zhu. 
The twentieth century philosophical portrayal itself, with all its complexities and 
1 These topics were discussed at the KU Leuven Workshop “How to Become a Philosopher: The 
Many Lives of Yang Zhu” (May 30–June 1, 2019), where an early version of this paper was also 
presented. I thank the discussant Paul Goldin and the participants for their comments. 
This research was supported by the FWO project G060817N: “Mozi and Yang Zhu from Heretics 
to Philosophers: Caught in Another Web? The Genealogy of ‘Chinese Philosophy’ in Three Major 
Steps”.
238 Carine M. G. DeFOOrT: Five visiOns OF YanG Zhu
variations, falls beyond the scope of this paper.2 So do the early anecdotes about 
Yang Zhu, with their limited role in the current portrayal.3
Yang Zhu as a Rival
If we collect the scraps of evidence that probably date from the Warring States 
era (475–221), the most striking Yang Zhu portrayal is that of an opponent or 
rival: the fact that Yang Zhu disagreed is better attested than what he argued for. 
Roughly simultaneously, the defence of self-preservation and resistance to any 
type of physical or personal sacrifice––the core of the current philosophical por-
trayal—became increasingly associated with him.
First, Yang as a rival is most well-known from the book Mencius, in which he 
appears three times. The shortest of these passages begins as follows:
When deserting Mo, they invariably turn to Yang; when deserting Yang, 
they invariably turn to the Ru. 
逃墨必歸於楊;逃楊必歸於儒. (Mencius 7B26)
This statement suggests that the followers of Mo, Yang, and the Ru were more 
or less identified as groups that one could join or desert. It does not say how they 
were organized nor what was at stake, but adherents were clearly wanted. What 
follows is probably a piece of advice to his fellow Ru:
When they turn to (us), then we simply accept them. 
歸斯受之而已矣. (ibid.)
Mencius criticizes the argumentative strategies used by some Ru:
Those who nowadays argue with Yang and Mo, are like chasing strayed 
pigs: having led them into the sty, they then also tie them up. 
今之與楊墨辯者如追放豚: 既入其苙, 又從而招之. (ibid.)4
2 For the construction of Yang Zhu as a philosopher in Japanese sources, see Sato 2019.
3 For example, “lodging in the inn with a pretty and ugly lady” (e.g. Zhuangzi, Han Feizi), “lament-
ing at a crossroads” (e.g. Xunzi, Huainanzi, Lunheng), as “the brother of Yang Bu who hit a dog” 
(e.g. Han Feizi), and the “cold belly 冷肠” versus the Mohist “hot intestins 热腹” (e.g. Yanshi 
jiaxun) (Li 2017, 57).
4 I follow the dominant interpretation of zhao 招 (recruit) as juan 罥 (tie up) (Jiao 1991, 997–99).
239Asian Studies VIII (XXIV), 2 (2020), pp. 235–256
Short and unconnected as it stands, like every passage in book 7, this fragment 
leaves many questions open. While the statement may reliably express the view 
of Mencius or of those who attributed it to him, we do not know how represent-
ative it was in his time. Its content is even less clear: What sort of people were 
seen as turning from Mo to Yang, and then eventually to Ru? Did Mencius insist 
on this specific sequence of changing allegiances, or did he merely portray a 
situation of continuous switches in various directions? What precisely did “turn 
to” mean? What was at stake? How conscious were these people of their chang-
ing alliance: did they actively choose a new label or was it attributed to them? 
These are some of the questions that can be asked about the alliance with Yang 
discussed in this passage.
The passage does contain a clue that resonates in other early mentions of Yang 
Zhu, namely the use of argumentation or debate (bian 辯). Mencius seems to 
agree with the policy of accepting adherents into the sty of Confucianism, but 
he objects to keeping them there with arguments. We know from another Men-
cius passage that he was struggling with this issue, and that he claimed to only 
reluctantly use bian as the last resort. When a disciple confronted him with his 
reputation of being fond of arguing, Mencius responded:
The statements of Yang Zhu and Mo Di fill the world. All statements in 
the world either join Yang or to Mo. (…) If the ways of Yang and Mo 
do not stop, Confucius’ Way will not be visible. This means that wrong 
theories mislead the people and totally block humaneness and righteous-
ness. When this happens, it causes beasts to eat people, and people will 
end up eating each other. I fear this. (…) Why would I be fond of argu-
ing? I simply have no choice. One who is able to stop Yang and Mo with 
words is the follower of the sages. 
楊朱墨翟之言盈天下. 天下之言不歸楊, 則歸墨. […] 楊墨之道不息, 
孔子之道不著. 是邪說誣民, 充塞仁義也. 仁義充塞, 則率獸食人, 人
將相食. 吾為此懼 […] 豈好辯哉? 予不得已也. 能言距楊墨者, 聖人
之徒也. (Mencius 3B9)
Other early sources also present Yang as one among the rivals associated with 
this contested notion of bian. This portrayal occurs in the Han Feizi (“Eight The-
ories 八說”) and the Zhuangzi, where Yang and Mo are criticized as debaters 
(“Ghostless Xu 徐無鬼”), whose mouths should be shut with clamps (“Ransack-
ing Coffers 胠篋”), and who parade with useless debates on hard and white, same 
and different, or right and wrong (“Webbed Toes 駢拇”). What Yang Zhu argued 
for is unclear and seems irrelevant. Along with others, he was more criticized for 
240 Carine M. G. DeFOOrT: Five visiOns OF YanG Zhu
his self-confident reliance on argumentation than for the specific views that he 
defended.
Secondly, as for Yang Zhu’s convictions, the Mencius attributed views to him 
that also appear in slightly later texts, albeit in a milder version. Two Mencius 
passages identify Yang with the motto “for oneself” (wei wo 為我) opposed to 
Mozi’s promotion of “inclusive care” (jian ai 兼愛). In the dialogue partly quoted 
above, Mencius accuses them of, respectively, not respecting their lord (wu jun 
無君) or father (wu fu 無父), which is something for “birds and beasts 是禽獸
也”, resulting in a terrifying dehumanization and a risk of cannibalism (Mencius 
3B9). In the other passage, Mencius claims that if Yang Zhu “could have bene-
fited the world by pulling out one hair, he would not have done it 拔一毛而利
天下, 不為也”, while Mozi would have sacrificed anything at all to benefit the 
world (ibid. 7A26).
These three mentions of Yang Zhu in the book Mencius, or perhaps in its latest 
layers,5 thus combine the two major characteristics, namely that he argued and 
what he argued for. He is perceived as a rival promoting ideas that threatened 
Confucius’ Way. The three passages attest to the emergence of rival alliances 
in pre-imperial China, but not quite to an intellectual scene teeming with fully 
fledged lineages (jia 家), nor to a clear division between Confucian orthodoxy 
and its opposition. It was the beginning of something that would gain importance 
over time: Yang’s affiliation.
The gradual emergence of lineages was messy and is difficult to reconstruct 
on the basis of the extant sources. Some textual evidence suggests that there 
was no awareness of any lineage associated with Yang Zhu during the last 
centuries before the beginning of the Common Era. He is not mentioned even 
once in chapters that nowadays are often identified as Yangist: e.g. in Lü shi 
chunqiu “Taking Life as Basic 本生”, “Valuing the Self 重己”, “Honouring 
Life 貴生”, “Being Attentive to Aims 審為”; nor in Zhuangzi, “Abdicating 
the Throne 讓王”, “Robber Footpad 盜跖”, “Discoursing on Swords 說劍”, 
and “A Fisherman 漁父”.6 Equally remarkable is his absence from early over-
views of the intellectual scene such as Xunzi “Against the Twelve Masters 
非十二子” and “Dispelling Blindness 解蔽”, Han Feizi “Eminent Learnings 
顯學”, Zhuangzi “The World 天下”, Huainanzi “Overview of the Essentials 
5 This is argued by Bruce and Taeko Brooks. The three explicit mentions of Yang in the Mencius 
exclusively occur in books 3 and 7, as does Mencius’ explicit self-designation as Ru. Brooks and 
Brooks (2002, 242–43) suggest that the sharp awareness of rivaling allegiances belongs to the lat-
est layer of the book, just before the final conquest of Lu in 249 BC. Most scholars, however, read 
them as representative of Mencius’ thought in general.
6 For this identification, see Graham 1989, 55.
241Asian Studies VIII (XXIV), 2 (2020), pp. 235–256
要略”, Shiji “Preface of the Grand Scribe 太史公自序”, and Hanshu “Treatise 
on Art and Literature 藝文志”.
But lineages were taking shape: Yang Zhu valuing himself got included in some 
early imperial sets of rival views. The Lü shi chunqiu, for instance, contains a list 
of ten personalities along with their priorities. Among them figures Mr. Yang 陽生 
valuing the self 貴己 (“No Duality 不二”).7 The Huainanzi describes an even more 
elaborate scene in which four masters—Kongzi, Mozi, Yangzi, and Mengzi—pro-
mote some values and attack each other. In this Han description of the intellectual 
past, Master Yang is said to have rejected Mozi’s “inclusive care”, “elevating the 
worthy 尚賢”, “supporting ghosts 右鬼”, and “rejecting fate 非命”. He is in turn 
attacked by Mencius for promoting “keeping one’s nature intact 全性”, “preserving 
the genuine 保真”, and “not allowing things to entangle one’s body 不以物累形” 
(“Boundless Discourses 氾論”). In another Huainanzi chapter, Yang occurs in a list 
of four who all preach just one part of the total solution seen from their particular 
background (“Activating the Genuine 俶真”). And when Yang Xiong 揚雄 (53 
BC–18 AD) criticizes a list of seven figures, he puts Zhuang(zi) and Yang(zi) to-
gether as “wild and without rules 蕩而不法” (“Five Hundred (Years) 五百”).
The trend of associating Yang Zhu with lineages and allies continued after the 
Han dynasty. The strongest association—and the one that has survived the ages—
was with Taoism 道家/流, whether Laozi, Liezi, Zhuangzi, Taoism, pure conver-
sations 清談, or longevity practices 修煉. This is the case in Liezi’s “Yang Zhu” 
chapter, discussed below. The Song dynasty (960–1279) further confirmed the 
Taoist connection. In a response to the question as to why Mencius had not op-
posed Laozi, who presumably preceded the hardly known Yang Zhu and whose 
followers were perceived as more threatening, the standard answer was that “Yang 
Zhu’s learning came from Laozi 楊朱之學出於老子” and that “in refuting Yang 
Zhu, Mencius actually refuted Zhuangzi and Laozi 孟子闢楊朱, 便是闢莊老了” 
(e.g. Zhu 2010, vol. 18, 3900). Other alliances were sometimes suggested, none 
of which has made it into the currently dominant portrayal. Among these was the 
association of Mozi with the Taoists and Yang Zhu with the Confucians.8 Zhu 
Xi 朱熹 (1130–1200) also put forward an alliance with two types of Buddhism, 
namely Zen learning 禪學 and mendicant orders 行布施, evolving from Yang 
Zhu and Mo Di, respectively (Zhu 2010, vol. 18, 3924). He, moreover, rejected 
Cheng Yi’s suggestion that Yang and Mo derived from sub-lineages within Con-
fucianism, from Zixia 子夏 (卜商, Shang 商) and Zizhang 子張, respectively 
7 Unlike the Lü shi chunqiu itself, the Eastern Han scholar Gao You 高誘 (168–212) connects this 
in his commentary to the claim in Mencius (7A26) that “Yangzi would not pull out one hair to save 
the world” (Chen 1984, vol. 2, 1127).
8 Wang Anshi 王安石 (1021–1086) e.g. was inspired by Lunyu 14.24 (Li 2017, 59).
242 Carine M. G. DeFOOrT: Five visiOns OF YanG Zhu
(顓孫師, Shi 師).9 Yet another association was of Yang Zhu with Yanzi 顔子 
(= Yan Yuan/Hui 顏淵/回) living in a small alley 居陋巷 versus Mozi with Yu 
禹 (and sometimes Hou Ji 后稷) passing his home three times without entering, 
while labouring for the people of the world. Zhu Xi considered the association of 
Mozi with the Great Yu partly acceptable, but not the comparison of Confucius’ 
beloved disciple with Yang Zhu (Zhu 2010, vol. 16, 1963).10
Following the Zhou dynasty, statements about Yang Zhu’s belonging to the Tao-
ist lineage thus became increasingly elaborate. But even occasional challenges to 
this view shared the urge to locate him in one of the rival lineages and to take his 
stance “for oneself” seriously. The fact that he argued and what he argued for have 
become two important characteristics of the reconstructed Yangist philosophy.
Yang Zhu as Heretic
When, in the Han dynasty, authors began to cite Mencius’ portrayal of Yang and 
Mo, they picked up Yang Zhu’s oppositional dimension rather than his ideas. 
They did not particularly engage in reflection about self-preservation versus po-
litical devotion. The combined threat of Yangzi and Mozi became a rhetorical 
trope used to construe the model of a courageous worthy person versus his dan-
gerous and wicked enemies. Mencius stood for the former; Yang and Mo for the 
latter. Content wise, this portrayal was very meagre and negative.
The initial building blocks of the trope came from the Mencius: with Yang and 
Mo “totally blocking humaneness and righteousness 充塞仁義” and “Confucius’ 
way not being visible 孔子之道不著”, so that Mencius “simply had no choice 
不得已”. The true “follower of the sages 聖人之徒” had to continue their civi-
lizing mission by his “ability to stop Yang and Mo with words 能言距楊墨”. 
Hence, he claimed:
I also wish to correct the hearts of others, to end incorrect theories, stop 
biased behaviour, and banish lewd expressions, in order to carry on the 
work of the three sages. 
我亦欲正人心, 息邪說, 距詖行, 放淫辭, 以承三聖. (Mencius 3B9)
The three exemplary figures that Mencius singled out for emulation had all re-
stored order in the style appropriate for their age: the legendary Great “Yu 
9 Inspired by Lunyu 11.16 (Zhu 2010, vol. 15, 1411).
10 This association had been suggested by Cheng Yi’s student, Yang Shi (see below).
243Asian Studies VIII (XXIV), 2 (2020), pp. 235–256
repressing the floods 禹抑洪水”, “the Duke of Zhou embracing the barbarians 
周公兼夷狄”, and “Confucius completing the Spring and Autumn Annals 孔子
成春秋” (ibid.).
This portrayal went unheeded until the Han dynasty (Defoort 2014, 354–57). As 
a trope, it was fixed and enhanced by Yang Xiong, who would later gain an im-
portant position in the Succession of the Way (daotong 道統).
When in antiquity Yang and Mo blocked the road, Mencius spoke up and 
refuted them, thus opening up (the road). Since afterwards people have 
been blocking the road (again), I compare myself with Mencius. 
古者揚墨塞路, 孟子辭而闢之, 廓如也. 後之塞路者有矣, 竊自比於
孟子. (Fayan, “Our Masters 吾子”)11
Some portions of this statement also became part of the often repeated stereotype, 
namely that Yang and Mo blocked the “road 路”, that Mencius “refuted them 
闢之”, “thus opening up (the road) 廓如也”,12 and that he “compared himself 
with Mencius 竊自比於孟子”. This last line may have been an echo of Confu-
cius’ claim that he did not create but only transmitted, “comparing myself to our 
Lao Peng 竊比於我老彭” (Lunyu 7.1).13
Thus emerged Yang Zhu’s second portrayal, namely as a rhetorical trope. While 
a series of scholars claimed their place in the Confucian line of orthodoxy, Men-
cius and his two rivals increasingly became empty signifiers. The trope gained 
momentum in the Tang dynasty (916–907), with Han Yu 韩愈 (768–824) as its 
next architect. In his eyes, Mencius had defended the Way against Yang and Mo, 
and Yang Xiong had been able to restore it, but then had come disaster. Echoing 
Mencius’ complaints about changing alliances between Mo, Yang, and Ru (Men-
cius 7B26), Han stated:
Those discussing morality either joined Yang or Mo or Lao or Fo, invari-
ably going from one to the other. 
其言道徳仁義者不入于楊則入于墨, 不入于墨則入于老, 不入于老
則入于佛. 入于彼必出于此. (Zhou 2011, 4–9)14
11 Fayan, 2.5/22. See Nylan 2013, 35. All quotes of Chinese masters texts refer to Lau Dim-Cheuk 
(1993–2002), except in the case of well-established references as for the Lunyu, Mencius and  Laozi. 
12 For this expression, “lui rendant son ampleur” (L’Haridon 2010, 20), “in this displaying true great-
ness” (Nylan 2013, 35).
13 Another Han example is Wang Chong 王充 (27–100 AD) in Lunheng 論衡 “Responding about 
Creating (this book) 對作”, but he did not identify with the Ru tradition.
14 See his “Tracing the Way 原道” (of 805 AD).
244 Carine M. G. DeFOOrT: Five visiOns OF YanG Zhu
The addition of Lao and Fo (sometimes Shi 釋) representing Taoism and Bud-
dhism, respectively, was neither casual nor arbitrary, since “the harm of Shi and 
Lao exceeded that of Yang and Mo 釋老之害過於楊墨” (Zhou 2011, 374–76). 
For Han Yu, Taoism and Buddhism were the real problem; he was the saviour of 
his own age.
I am less worthy than Mencius. He could not save [the Confucian Way] 
before it had become lost. And I now wish to restore it after its destruc-
tion. Alas! How poorly did I estimate my force. Now seeing the danger in 
which I am, nobody can save me from death. But if thanks to me this Way 
could be more or less transmitted, I would not at all mind to die for it. 
韓愈之賢不及孟子. 孟子不能救之於未亡之前. 而韓愈乃欲全之於
已壞之後.嗚呼其亦不量其力, 且見其身之危. 莫之救以死也. 雖然使
其道由愈以粗傳, 雖滅死萬萬無恨. (“Letter to Minister Meng Jian”, in 
Zhou 2011, 374–76; Li 2017, 58)
At this stage, the Mencian trope had become the core of Ru orthodoxy, with new 
building blocks added by Han, such as “How poorly did I estimate my force 
其亦不量其力”.15 On the one hand Han Yu had added himself behind Mencius 
and Yang Xiong in an increasingly clear defence of Confucian orthodoxy. On the 
other hand, he had replaced Yang and Mo with worse villains.
From the Song (960–1279) onward, we encounter an increasing variation on 
both sides of the trope: moral heroes and wicked enemies. New courageous 
defenders of Confucianism were added, often by their disciples. For instance, 
Ouyang Xiu 歐陽修 (1007–1072) was paired with Han Yu.16 Zhang Zai 張載 
(1020–1077) “simply had no choice but to speak up 言不得已而云” to refute 
the “statements of Buddha and Laozi 浮屠老子之言” (Zhang 1985, 5).17 And 
the same went for Zhou Dunyi 周敦頤 (1017–1073), Cheng Hao 程颢 (1032–
1085), and Cheng Yi 程颐 (1033–1107), according to Hu 胡宏 (1102–1161) 
(Hu Hong 1987, 161, 158). The list of opponents also increased. Lu Jiuyuan 陸
九淵 (1139–1193), for instance, gave the label “Yang and Mo” to those oppor-
tunistic office seekers who merely repeated Ru classics for the sake of passing 
15 See e.g. Wang Yangming in Wang 1992, vol. 1, 78.
16 By e.g. Wang Yangming: “As for the mistakes of those two (Lao and Fo) and Yang and Mo, re-
spectively, Mencius refuted them first, and masters such as Han (Yu) and Ou (Yang Xiu) refuted 
them later. 若夫二氏與楊、墨之非，則孟子闢之於前，韓、歐諸子闢之於後.” (Wang 1992, 
vol. 1, 862)
17 See Fan Yu 范育 in his preface to “Rectifying Ignorance 正蒙”. 
245Asian Studies VIII (XXIV), 2 (2020), pp. 235–256
the exams (Lu 1980, 150).18 Wang Yangming 王陽明 (1472–1529) “simply had 
no choice” but to refute “the current theories that venerate Zhu (Xi) 今日之崇
尚朱之說”. (Wang 1992, vol. 1, 77)19 And so did the critics of Christianity in 
defence of the indigenous tradition.20 Their opponents were invariably associ-
ated with Yang and Mo, who were increasingly identified as “heretics” (yiduan 
異端),21 an equally vague label used to identify opponents.22
This variety of new enemies was accompanied by the explicit statement that Yang 
and Mo were actually no longer the problem. They had been threats in the past, 
courageously and effectively discarded by the Second Sage, but the real prob-
lem now lay with Taoists, Buddhists, other Confucians, or Christians. The Cheng 
brothers, for example, repeatedly pointed out: “harms like those of Yang and Mo 
no longer exist in the current generation. 如楊墨之害在今世則已無之”. (Cheng 
1981, vol. 1, 3) Even “the harm of theories like Taoism is in the end small 如道家
之説其害終小”. “Only Buddhist learning 惟佛學” was seen as a threat, because 
“now everybody discusses it, abundantly and terrifyingly, so that its harm is end-
less 今則人人談之, 瀰漫滔天, 其害無涯”. (ibid.) The identification of the spe-
cific threat was never determined once and for all. Yan Yuan 颜元 (1635–1704), 
for example, was of the opinion that “while the harm of Taoism (immortals) and 
Buddhism was worse than Yang and Mo, the disaster of the study of the pattern 
was more disruptive than Taoism and Buddhism 仙佛之害甚於楊墨, 理學之禍
烈於仙佛”. (Xiao 2018, 6–8)23
This Yang Mo trope does not seem to have survived the introduction of philoso-
phy in China. At least professional academics would no longer use to it today to 
express their moral stance against social threats. But due to the long dominance 
of Confucianism, its stereotypical opposition to Yang and Mo has been so deeply 
entrenched in scholars’ minds that its influence has lingered. The content of Men-
cius’ negative vision of the two opponents may have softened, but its form has 
endured. The opposition of Yang, Mo and Ru has therefore continued to shape 
most narratives of early Chinese thought.
18 For more examples, see Li 2017, 59–60.
19 In his Instructions for Practical Living 傳習錄.
20 See e.g. Yang Guangxian 楊光先 (1597–1669) in Rejecting Heresies 辟邪论 (1659), collected in 
his I Simply Have no Choice 不得已 (1664). For this and other examples, see Yang 2013, 14–15.
21 Probably inspired by Lunyu 2.16. This label had been applied to Yang and Mo by Zhao Qi (趙岐, 
d. 210 AD) in his Mencius Questions and Expressions 孟子題辭. But the label only became prom-
inent later. See Li 2017, 54, 57.
22 For the vagueness of this label, see Xiao and Zhang 2017.
23 Yan also attacks the Cheng-Zhu school and the Lu-Wang schools.
246 Carine M. G. DeFOOrT: Five visiOns OF YanG Zhu
Prominent Figure in the Liezi
By the Song dynasty this rhetorical trope fed into reflections about Yang and Mo. 
But that was preceded by a remarkable portrayal that seems largely disconnected 
on both ends: from the rhetorical trope as well as from the Song reflections. It oc-
curs in the book Liezi (300 AD). Whether written, forged, collected, or edited and 
commented upon by Zhang Zhan 张湛 (d. 360 AD), this book in eight chapters 
gives a surprisingly prominent position to Yang Zhu no less than six centuries 
after his supposed lifetime.24 Not only does it contain the sole chapter in the en-
tire Chinese corpus explicitly named after him (chapter 7), it also portrays him 
in other parts of the book (in chapters 2, 4, 6 and 8). While there is a generally 
recognized breach between the pre-Qin Yang Zhu and the Liezi figure (e.g. Feng 
2015, vol. 1, 149, 154), the latter is not easy to pin down. The stories in which he 
appears within the whole book, and even within the chapter named after him, con-
vey different and sometimes even conflicting messages, so “that it may not make 
sense to try to fixate on excavating an original or authentic Yang Zhu”, as Erica 
Brindley puts it (Brindley 2019, 5, n. 4).25 I therefore consider this the portrayal of 
“a prominent figure”, refraining from a more specific label in terms of hedonism, 
anarchism, Taoism, or egoism.
As a rule, the Yang Zhu figure in the Liezi is strikingly unconnected to the trope 
in which he is criticized along with Mozi (the 2nd portrayal). The only exception 
to this rule is, interestingly, the most often quoted statement attributed to him. It 
concerns Yang’s unwillingness to sacrifice one hair for the whole world. A tenta-
tive translation goes as follows:
Since Bocheng Zigao would not benefit (from?) others (material things?) 
at the cost of one hair, he renounced his state and retired to plough the 
fields. Since the Great Yu did not keep even his own person for his own 
benefit, he worked to drain the flood until his whole body was limping 
and emaciated. If men from antiquity could have benefited (from?) the 
world by the loss of one hair, they would not have given it; if the world 
had been given to them alone, they would not have taken it. If nobody 
would lose one hair, and nobody would benefit (from?) the world, the 
world would be well ordered.
24 I bypass debates on the dates and authenticity of (portions of) the Liezi. The Liezi editor, Yang 
Bojun 杨伯峻 considered it a post-Han text, while A. C. Graham identified a mix of pre-Han and 
post-Han material. See Liu and Li 2018, and Graham 1990, 12.
25 She identifies some degree of consistency in chapter 7’s Yang Zhu figure concerned with life and 
death, reality versus pretense, the internal versus the external, and between human nature in rela-
tion to fate (Brindley 2019, 9).
247Asian Studies VIII (XXIV), 2 (2020), pp. 235–256
楊朱曰: 伯成子高不以一毫利物, 舍國而隱耕. 大禹不以一身自利, 一
體偏枯. 古之人損一毫利天下不與也. 悉天下奉一身不取也. 人人不
損一毫, 人人不利天下, 天下治矣. (Liezi 7, 41/18–20; see also Graham 
1990, 148–49)
I refrain here from discussion about this statement’s date (between late Zhou 
and Wei Jin), authenticity (whether or not reflecting the historical Yang Zhu’s 
thought), and interpretation (“benefit” versus “benefit from”).26 While echoing 
the Mencian portrayal, Mencius is not mentioned. Compared to the trope, there 
are important differences: the author takes Yang Zhu seriously, opposes him to 
Mo rather than to Ru, provides him with a defence, and locates him in a clear line-
age. This is apparent in the immediately following debate between some Yangists 
and Mohists about the willingness to sacrifice body parts. It concludes with a 
stalemate between the two views in terms of distinct lines of allies: on the Mohist 
side, Great Yu 大禹 is a model, Mo Di 墨翟 a master, and Qin Guli 禽滑厘 a 
disciple and master (Qinzi 禽子). On the other side, Bocheng Zigao 伯成子高 
figures as model, Yang Zhu as master, Mengsun Yang 孟孫陽 as disciple, with 
Lao Dan 老聃 and Guan Yin 關尹 as authorities.27
In general, the prominent figure of Yang Zhu in the Liezi stands out as rather dis-
connected from earlier as well as later portrayals. The only exceptions are these 
passages about sacrificing hair have some connection with both: they echo Men-
cius’ portrayal and are quoted by Song and Ming scholars, although very rarely 
(e.g. Zhu 2010, vol. 16, 1962). Whenever the latter happens, it is again in line 
with the rhetorical trope, not the new content initiated in the “Yang Zhu” chapter. 
Interest in the Liezi’s Yang Zhu figure only emerged in the late Qing evidential 
research (the 5th portrayal) and moved to the centre stage in the Republican era.
Yang Zhu as a Master
When the Mencian trope eventually gave rise to a variety of reflections in the 
Song dynasty, most scholars showed no particular interest in Yang and Mo but 
used them to defend and refine their interpretation of the Confucian Way.28 Bud-
26 For this last debate, see Defoort 2008, 173–76. For the former debates, see note Liu and Li 2018.
27 This vision of two elaborate lineages is one of the reasons I tend to agree with a Wei Jin date for 
at least this portion of the “Yang Zhu” chapter. For another argument in favor of a Wei Jin dating, 
see Defoort 2018, 175–77.
28 Lyell (1962, 92) considers this the second stage in the Neo-Confucian use of the Yang Mo symbol, 
namely for the sake of the “systematization of beliefs”. He calls the first stage the “assertion of 
orthodoxy”, coinciding with what I identified as the rhetorical trope.
248 Carine M. G. DeFOOrT: Five visiOns OF YanG Zhu
dhism was an important trigger for the emergence of this new portrayal of Yang 
Zhu; Mohism was a necessary detour. To make a long story short: influenced by 
Buddhist ideals of supporting the sentient beings, some early Neo-Confucians ex-
pressed the notion of humanness (ren 仁) in terms that resonated with the Mohist 
ideal of “inclusive care”.29 Some believed even that after the decline of Mohism, 
Mozi’s ideal had survived in the Buddhist notion of “great compassion 大悲” 
(Zhu 2010, vol. 18, 3953). The ensuing debate ended up entailing Mo Di’s twin 
heretic Yang Zhu.30
The twins Yang and Mo did not arouse equal interest. While Yang Zhu was con-
sistently paired with Mozi, the latter sometimes independently triggered reflection 
and discussion, with the former following suit. The dominant interest in Mozi ap-
peared, for instance, when Yang Shi 楊時 (Guishan 龜山, 1053–1155) expressed 
his admiration for Mozi who “simply did not want his supplies to be scant 濟不
欲寡而已”. Yang Shi argued that this altruistic ambition resembled the generally 
praised Great Yu and Hou Ji (Lord of Millet), who respectively suppressed the 
floods and fed the hungry. He then briefly added the less pregnant parallel case of 
Yang Zhu resembling Yan Hui living a simple life (in Zhu 2010, vol. 7, 743–44; 
see also Zhu 2010, vol. 14, 635–36). A second example was triggered by Han Yu’s 
praise for Mozi in his short text “Reading Mozi 讀墨子”. More specifically, he 
had stated that Mozi’s “inclusive care” resembled and supported Confucius’ “all-
round care and loving humaneness, acting as a Sage by broadly supplying for the 
sentient beings 泛愛親仁以博施濟衆為聖” (Zhou 2011, 35–36, 37–38). This was 
a disturbing statement from the Song Confucians’ hero.31 Neither totally agreeing 
nor disagreeing, Cheng Yi pointed out that Mozi was indeed very—perhaps too—
dedicated to humaneness 仁, while his heretic counterpart had an equally strong 
sense of righteousness 義 (e.g. Cheng 1981, vol. 1, 231–32). Such examples give 
the impression that discussion of Yang Zhu was initially somewhat steered by the 
Neo-Confucian attempt to position themselves in relation to Mohism.
The new portrayal was accompanied by an increase in textual evidence. While 
Mencius’ three Yang Zhu passages still constituted the major textual material, 
29 See his claim in “Sincere and enlightened 誠明” that “knowledge must be all-round, care must 
be inclusive 知必周知，愛必兼愛” and his “Western Inscription 西銘” about “The people and I 
being one family, others and I joined together 民吾同胞，物吾與也”. See, respectively, Zhang 
1985, 21, 62. For the discussion, see Feng 2015, vol. 2, 744–46.
30 For example, between Cheng Yi and Yang Shi. See Lyell 1962, 46–47. Another, secondary Bud-
dhist inspiration may have been the perceived similarities between some types of Buddhism and 
Yang Zhu’s supposed support for hermits and non-worldliness.
31 This praise was indeed some sort of dissonant in Han Yu’s generally negative and standard men-
tions of Mozi along with Yang Zhu. For this schizophrenic portrayal, see Defoort 2015, 224–27.
249Asian Studies VIII (XXIV), 2 (2020), pp. 235–256
there existed also a Mozi edition.32 Cheng Yi sometimes refers to it, e.g. when 
pointing out that “the book Mozi is not all that much about inclusive care 墨子之
書未至大有兼愛之意” (Cheng and Cheng 1981, vol. 1, 171).33 Moreover, some 
other passages from the Mencius and the Lunyu triggered reflections on Yang, 
even though they did not mention him. There exists one Mencius dialogue dis-
cussing Mohism independently from Yang Zhu, in which the master accuses the 
Mohists of using “two roots 二本” rather than one 一本 (Mencius 3A5). This 
dialogue may have inspired the recurrent Neo-Confucian claim that Mencius had 
attacked Mozi—and Yang Zhu in his tracks—at the roots.34 Other inspiring Men-
cius passages were his claim to understand the hidden intricacies of four kinds 
of speech 知言 (ibid. 2A2), and the disdain that he shared with Confucius for the 
morally mediocre “village worthy 鄉原” (ibid. 7B37). Among the Lunyu pas-
sages were “To work on yiduan, this causes real damage 攻乎異端斯害也已” 
(Lunyu 2.16), “As for Shi, he overshoots the mark and as for Shang, he falls short 
師也過商也不及” (ibid. 11.16), “While curbing oneself, return to rituals 克己
復禮” (ibid. 12.1), “Learning for oneself 學者為己” versus “learning for (the 
eyes of) others 學者為人” (ibid. 14.24), “The six statements and six delusions 
六言六蔽” (ibid. 17.7), and “The village worthy is virtue’s thief 鄉原德之賊也” 
for stealing the appearance of worthiness (ibid. 17.11).35 This cluster of textual 
references fed reflection on Yang Zhu as a master with his own, even though 
deficient, ideas.
A detailed study of all the Song-Ming reflections concerning Yang Zhu would 
lead too far into the intricacies of Neo-Confucian thought. One idea was that 
Yang and Mo were not as terrible as Mencius had claimed, but that his harsh 
criticism was nevertheless warranted in order to stop their disastrous influence.36 
Mozi was appreciated for his altruism, goodness or humaneness, while Yang Zhu 
was consistently—but somewhat less elaborately—attributed a sense of right or 
righteousness (Cheng 1981, vol. 1, 231–32). These similarities to Ru values made 
them all the more alluring and hence threatening to Confucianism. Wang Yang-
ming, for instance, argued that
32 Respect for the Song taboo on kuang 匡 (of the first Song emperor, Zhao Kuangyin 趙匡胤 (927–
979)) suggests that the Mozi was included in the now lost Song Daozang.
33 He also refers to the book Mozi when checking Mencius’ claims. See also Cheng and Cheng (1981, 
vol. 1, 231), where he slightly misrepresents Mencius, since the latter made his claim Mohist Yi 
Zhi, not about Mozi.
34 See e.g. Hu Hong about Zhang Shi 張栻 (1133–1180), in Hu 1987, 339.
35 I do not go into the long tradition of interpreting and translating all these statements. See also in Li 
2017, 59, and Xiao and Zhang 2017.
36 For Hu Hong’s initial puzzlement at Mencius’ criticism, see Hu 1987, 281–82.
250 Carine M. G. DeFOOrT: Five visiOns OF YanG Zhu
the two masters were also worthies of their time. If they had lived in 
Mencius’ days, he certainly would also have considered them worthies. 
Mozi’s “inclusive care” simply overshot the mark in implementing good-
ness while Yang Zhu’s “for oneself” simply overshot the mark when im-
plementing rightness. 
二子亦當時之賢者. 使與孟子並世而生, 未必不以之為賢. 墨子兼愛
行仁而過耳楊子為我行義而過耳. (Wang 1992, vol. 1, 77)
Echoing Lunyu 11.6, some Neo-Confucians argued that while Mozi had overshot 
the mark, Yang Zhu had fallen short (e.g. Zhu 2010, vol. 7, 392–93). An impli-
cation of this archery metaphor was the conviction that even a minor deviation at 
the beginning (e.g. in Yang and Mo’s own deeds or words) could lead to an in-
creasing and disastrous divergence of paths (their later or unworthy followers).37 
Only Mencius was alert enough to hear the germinating sounds of disaster in what 
seemed like very attractive variations of his own beliefs (Cheng and Cheng 1981, 
vol. 1, 231). This speculation allowed some Neo-Confucians to avert the major 
blame from Yang and Mo to their later followers (e.g. ibid., 171).
These are only some hints of the wealth of reflections engendered by one cli-
chéd portrayal. Some Song opinions have shaped the modern views of Yang and 
Mo, such as their respective association with “humaneness” and “righteousness”. 
But not much of the Song debates have survived in current Yang Zhu research, 
 probably because the Song focus of interest was not Yang Zhu to begin with. 
Most Song reflections were replaced by the tsunami of Western notions such as 
individual rights and liberty, and which rescued Yang and Mo from their tradi-
tional predicament as mere heretics or deficient masters.
Yang Zhu as Reformer
The Western reading of Yang Zhu in the Republican era was preceded by one 
more portrayal shaped by Qing scholars’ textual studies or “evidential research” 
(kaozheng/ju 考證/據). I focus here on someone who was influenced by Western 
thought, but not yet abundantly in the explicitly comparative and borrowing fash-
ion of the Republic, namely Kang Youwei 康有為 (1858–1927). He shaped the 
last important portrayal of Yang Zhu on the verge of the creation of Chinese phi-
losophy (He 2015, 13; Wei 2017, 40). In his eyes, the Confucian daotong corpus 
of Old Texts was based on the fabrications of Liu Xin 刘歆 (ca. 50 BC–23 AD) 
37 This metaphor connects nicely with early Yang Zhu passages presenting him weeping at the cross-
roads because minor decisions can have major results.
251Asian Studies VIII (XXIV), 2 (2020), pp. 235–256
in support of the political system of Wang Mang’s 王莽 (45 BC–23 AD) short-
lived Xin 新 dynasty (9–23 AD). Fortunately, according to Kang, Confucius had 
hidden a reformist ideal in the original New Texts, waiting to be decoded. His 
Confucius as a Reformer 孔子改制考 (1897), written when Kang was himself 
also preparing fundamental reforms for China, contained a fleshed out portrayal 
of Yang Zhu as one of the less important Zhou masters objecting to Confucius’ 
suggestions for political reform and a “doctrine” or “religion” (jiao 教).
Kang’s novel views reshuffled all the previous Yang Zhu portrayals. Those close-
ly connected with the Succession of the Way—the rhetorical trope and Neo-Con-
fucian reflections—lost their dominance. But Kang’s Yang Zhu portrayal pre-
served traces of the heretic promoting “for oneself” in opposition to “inclusive 
care”, as well as reflections on extreme views that overshoot or fall short in either 
humaneness or in righteousness. The oldest portrayal of Yang Zhu as an opponent 
fitted nicely in Kang’s argument that all masters responded to Kongzi’s reforms. 
Hence, the lively Zhou debate among masters began to overshadow the age-long 
opposition between daotong and heresy. Finally, thanks to evidential research 
supplanting Song Ming speculations, an impressive array of textual sources, 
including the Liezi, contributed to this portrayal.38 Its two major characteristics 
were Kang’s insistence on Yang Zhu’s institutional vision and his belonging to 
an intellectual lineage.
Kang argued that Yang was one of the many reformers who all attributed their 
projects to the exemplary past. “Yang Zhu made ‘for oneself’ a core rule; what 
he said about indulging in desires was the task, as well as not pulling out one 
hair to benefit of world. He attributed them all to antiquity 楊朱以為我為宗
旨; 所言以縱欲為事, 拔一毫利天下不為而皆托之於古.” (Kang 2007, vol. 3, 
41) Kang’s identification of Yang Zhu with “for oneself” and with the unwill-
ingness to sacrifice even one hair was inspired by the Mencius, further elab-
orated upon in the Liezi, which is also the source of his supposed hedonism. 
Examples of “Yang Zhu changing the system 楊子改製” were that “like Mozi 
he was in favour of frugal burials 與墨子薄葬同” and that “he sang when 
presiding at a funeral, which did not accord with Confucius’ system 臨喪而歌, 
必非孔子之製”, but rather with Laozi (Kang 2007, vol. 3, 25).39 Together they 
38 Along with its precedent Study of Xin Learning as Forgeries 新學偽書考 (1891). Confucius 
as a Reformer contains a remarkable variety of early references to Yang Zhu, weeping at a 
crossroads, singing at a burial, describing the vagueness of the past, denying the importance of 
a reputation, etc.
39 He also enhanced older attempts to identify less known figures in relation to Yang Zhu, such as Yang 
Ziju 陽子居 in the Zhuangzi, Yuan Rang 原壤 in the Lunyu, Zi Sanghu 子桑戶 in the Shuoyuan, or 
Mengsun Yang 孟孫陽 and Xin Duzi 心都子 in the Liezi. See Kang 2007, vol. 3, 72–73.
252 Carine M. G. DeFOOrT: Five visiOns OF YanG Zhu
stood for self-care 為我 (from Yang Zhu) and “inhumaneness 不仁” (from 
Laozi).40
The content of Yang Zhu’s thought was thus closely connected to his belonging to 
the Taoist lineage against not just Confucianism, but even more against Mohism. 
Based on Mencius 7B26 Kang portrayed Yang and Mo as two legs of a tripod: 
Since they saw Confucius as creating and installing a doctrine/religion, 
Yang and Mo stood in a tripod relation with him. Hence they simply had 
some followers deserting and others turning to them. 
以其為孔子創立之教, 楊墨鼎立. 故其門下有逃有歸耳. (Kang 2007, 
vol. 3, 88) 
This threefold connection moved away from the Mencian cliché since Kong 
stood closer to Mo than to Yang. Kang saw “Mozi as coming from Confucius’ 
followers 墨子本孔子後學”, while “Yang Zhu was a disciple of Laozi 楊子為老
子弟子” (Kang 2007, vol. 3, 16). The former two supported “humaneness” and 
wanted to rescue their age, like Kang in his own days; the latter two pro moted 
the opposite (ibid., 58). “Even though forming three (lineages), they actually 
were two 則雖三而實為二焉.” While “Ru and Mo had flourished in the Warring 
States era 在戰國儒墨最盛”, in “the early Han, Laozi was the most flourishing, 
Confucians did well, and Mohism had disappeared 至於漢初，老氏最盛，儒
學駸駸其間，而墨亡矣”. The competition between the two survivors eventu-
ally caused Confucianism and Taoism to live on (Kang 2007, vol. 3, 206), as it 
was “thanks to this after-effect of Yang Zhu that Lao learning could spread over 
the world 楊朱得此後勁，老學所由遍天下哉” (ibid., 59). For Kang, Yang was 
not just one of Laozi’s disciples, but the leader of his worst sub-lineage, repre-
senting egoistic hedonism leading to social disruption.
Even though inspired by previous portrayals and based on an exceptionally wide 
variety of extant sources, Kang’s portrayal was again very different. As Wei Yixia 
points out, Kang was not interested in getting to know Yang Zhu for his own sake, 
but in establishing a variety of responses to Confucius’ proposal of a state religion 
國教. Yang’s thought and affiliation remained both secondary to this aim.
From his specific position and need to establish Confucius’ jiao as a state religion, 
Kang Youwei never discussed Yang Zhu out of interest for Yang Zhu. Placing 
Yang Zhu in the midst of the pre-Qin masters and schools was secondary to his 
vision with regard to Chinese and Confucian learning, and served the theoretical 
40 See Laozi 5 about “Heaven and Earth 天地” as well as the “sage 聖人” being “inhumane 不仁” 
and using others as “strawdogs 芻狗”.
253Asian Studies VIII (XXIV), 2 (2020), pp. 235–256
purpose of establishing Confucius’ jiao as a state religion (Wei 2017, 45). Indeed, 
Kang did not even pretend to objectively and coherently interpret Yang Zhu as a 
philosopher, a portrayal that was soon to be born.
Envoy: Yang Zhu the Philosopher
The five selected portrayals of Yang Zhu constitute a dense cluster of historical 
and partial visions. More portrayals could be analysed and connections between 
them further elucidated. The quantity and diversity of visions of such a minor 
figure, one with hardly any textual testimony, is truly remarkable. Some of their 
characteristics have better survived than others. Yang Zhu’s label “for oneself”, 
his unwillingness to sacrifice even one hair, and his oppositional stance in de-
bate date from the Zhou dynasty. The rhetorical trope reinforced this opposition, 
even though it has lost its traditional function of defending a moral stance. Aside 
from presenting the figure of a hedonist (not discussed in this paper), the Liezi 
 defended Yang Zhu in his own right and established him in a respectable line-
age. Little new content has been transmitted from the many Song Ming views 
about Yang. Finally, Kang Youwei’s reinvigoration of the pre-Qin layer, his use 
of much textual evidence, his attempt to knead it into one view, and his further 
elaboration of Yang’s lineage, have also contributed to the booming field of Re-
publican philosophical portrayals.
Aside from Kang, I believe that the Mencius and Liezi have contributed most to 
current portrayals of Yang Zhu as a philosopher: the former negatively and heav-
ily supported by a long Confucian tradition; the latter positively by considering 
and defending Yang Zhu against Mohists. Specialists of Taoism and Yang Zhu’s 
philosophy understandably prefer the latter. From the Republican era date the 
views that the original Yang Zhu did not resist “benefitting” the world but “taking 
benefit from” it, that the Liezi passages predate Mencius and were misrepresented 
by him,41 along with an insistence on the authenticity of the book Liezi, the his-
toricity of both Yang Zhu and Liezi as figures of the Taoist lineage, etc.42 These 
traits, among others (discussion of which goes beyond the limits of the current 
paper), characterize much of the current portrayal of Yang Zhu.
If Yang Zhu as philosopher is presented as one more “vision”, namely one that 
fits the twentieth century and feeds from older portrayals, I have nothing to object 
to. But when it is presented as the only authentic, historical figure, we end up with 
41 For these argument by scholars such as Men Qiming 門啟明 and Gu Jiegang 顾颉刚, see Defoort 
2008, 173–76.
42 For an example of this trend, see Liu and Li 2018.
254 Carine M. G. DeFOOrT: Five visiOns OF YanG Zhu
a philosophical “gaze”. One selective mixture is made with various ingredients 
from different sources and periods. Many insights then become irrelevant, such 
as the fact that Mencius’ portrayal was unheeded before the Han dynasty, or the 
initially merely rhetorical use of his view. On the other hand, the pre-Qin dating 
of the Liezi’s “Yang Zhu” chapter has become an almost religiously defended 
dogma. Even though taken separately, these views are worth considering, their 
clustering in the philosophy department has led to one flat and exclusive por-
trayal. It is as if one first takes away all the different tastes from a rich meal by 
cooking them into one stew, then adding exotic—in this case, Western philosoph-
ical—herbs to give it back some flavour.
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