F. JIN et al.: HIGH-STRAIN-RATE FORMING PERFORMANCE OF AN ALUMINUM ALLOY
627–632
HIGH-STRAIN-RATE FORMING PERFORMANCE OF AN
ALUMINUM ALLOY
ZNA^ILNOSTI ZELO HITREGA ELEKTROMAGNETNEGA
PREOBLIKOVANJA ALUMINIJEVE ZLITINE
Feixiang Jin
*
, Man Gu, Hua Zhong
School of Mechanical Engineering, Hefei University, 158 Jinxiu Avenue, Shushan district, Hefei City, 230601, China
Prejem rokopisa – received: 2019-09-20; sprejem za objavo - accepted for publication: 2020-06-17
doi:10.17222/mit.2019.255
The forming performance of an AA6014 aluminum alloy sheet at a high strain rate was studied. An electromagnetic forming test
and LS-DYNA software were used to study the plastic deformation process of 1-mm-thick aluminum alloy plates at different
voltages. The results showed that the maximum strain rate of the aluminum alloy plate reached 10
4
s
–1
, the maximum speed of
the plate center was 382.32 m/s, the swelling depth test result was 49.608 mm, the simulation result was 48.25 mm, the thick-
ness test result was 0.71 mm, and the simulation result was 0.696 mm under a voltage of 4 kV and a capacitance of 2400 μF. The
test results were close to the simulation findings. The analysis of the electromagnetic forming test and the simulation results
showed that the strain rate, sheet-metal bulging depth, and forming performance of the aluminum alloy improved gradually with
an increased voltage, whereas the minimum thickness gradually decreased. The forming performance of the aluminum alloy
sheet under different high strain rates was studied. The effect of high strain rate on the forming performance of the aluminum al-
loy sheet was obtained by a comparison between the test and simulation results. Theoretical guidance was further provided for
the development of the forming technology of the aluminum alloy sheet.
Keywords: high strain rate, aluminum alloy, electromagnetic forming, finite-element simulation
Avtorji v pri~ujo~em ~lanku opisujejo {tudijo zelo hitrega preoblikovanja plo~evine iz Al zlitine AA6014. Hitro preoblikovanje
so izvajali z elektromagnetnim postopkom preoblikovanja pri razli~nih elektri~nih napetostih (jakostih magnetnega polja) in
uporabljali ra~unalni{ko programsko opremo LS-DYNA za {tudij plasti~ne deformacije plo{~ debeline en (1) mm. Rezultati
eksperimentov so pokazali, da je bila dose`ena maksimalna hitrost deformacije izbrane Al zlitine 10
4
s
–1
, maksimalna hitrost
potovanja sredine trna/plo{~e je bila 382,32 m/s, pri tem pa je bila vdorna globina preizkusnega trna 49,608 mm, debelina
deformirane plo~evine pa 0,71 mm. Z ra~unalni{ko simulacijo so dobili naslednje vrednosti: za vdorno globino: 48,25 mm in
debelino plo~evine: 0,696 mm. V tem primeru so elektromagnetno preoblikovanje izvajali pri napetosti 4 kV in kapacitivni
upornosti 2400 μF. Kot ka`ejo rezultati ra~unalni{kih simulacij, so se le-ti dobro ujemali z eksperimenti. Analiza elektro-
magnetnega preoblikovanja in rezultati simulacij so pokazali, da se hitrost deformacije in vdorna globina postopno pove~ujeta,
medtem ko se debelina plo~evine zmanj{uje. Na osnovi te {tudije so avtorji pripravili teoreti~no podlago za nadaljnji razvoj
tehnologije hitrega elektromagnetnega preoblikovanja Al zlitin.
Klju~ne besede: velika hitrost deformacije, aluminijeva zlitina, elektromagnetno preoblikovanje, simulacija na osnovi metode
kon~nih elementov
1 INTRODUCTION
Aluminum alloys are some of the ideal materials for
lightweight products.
1
An aluminum alloy has the advan-
tage of low density, high specific strength and stiffness,
good elasticity and impact resistance, good processing
formability, and considerable recycling capability. Alu-
minum alloys have been widely used in traditional
high-end fuel and new electrical vehicles. W.Y. Ma
2
ob-
served the poor forming performance of an aluminum al-
loy in the traditional plastic forming; local cracking and
rebound defects can also be easily produced. Rebound is
difficult to avoid during the traditional stamping of an
aluminum alloy. F. C. Salvado
3
observed the inertial thin-
ning caused by the high-speed impact of molds, changes
in the material’s constitutive relationship and the plastic
deformation mechanism at high rates, and improved
forming performance of the aluminum alloy materials
and aluminum alloy plates due to high-strain-rate
forming during the deformation. Cracking defects and
rebound are effectively suppressed. However, this previ-
ous research focused only on the effects of the constitu-
tive relationship. G. K. Dhiraj
4
described several prod-
ucts with complex structures that are easily formed at
high speed. The forming effect far exceeds the traditional
quasi-static forming process. A.V. Mamutov
5
reported
that electromagnetic forming is a high-strain-rate form-
ing process. Electromagnetic forming has the advantages
of inhibiting wrinkles, reducing rebounds, high forming
limits, easy energy control, and production automation.
Numerical simulation results were obtained using the fi-
nite-element software LS-DYNA. However, Mamutov
performed no comparison with the results of experi-
ments. V. J. Vohnout et al.
6
consist of the research team
of Professor Deahn of Ohio State University in the
United States; they pioneered the idea of magnetic
pulse-assisted stamping forming technology in the inter-
national community and conducted innovative experi-
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 54 (2020) 5, 627–632 627
UDK 67.017:669.715:537.8 ISSN 1580-2949
Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni ~lanek MTAEC9, 54(5)627(2020)
*Corresponding author's e-mail:
brimetamtejfx@163.com (Feixiang Jin)

mental research. C. F. Li
7
conducted an electromag-
netic-assisted tensile experiment on an AA5052-O
aluminum alloy. The results showed that the electromag-
netic-assisted tensile forming performance far exceeded
the quasi-static forming performance, presenting a per-
formance that is slightly higher than the electromagnetic
drawing-deep-forming performance. However, Li did not
consider the effects of different high strain rates. D. H.
Liu
8
used unidirectional tensile and bidirectional tensile
methods to study the quasi-static and dynamic forming
properties of AA5052 aluminum alloy plates. The results
showed that the limits of the unidirectional tensile, plane
strain, and double isotensile composite forming were sig-
nificantly higher than the corresponding quasi-static
forming limit under quasi-static–dynamic composite
loading. Composite loading showed a slightly higher
limit plastic strain level than complete dynamic loading.
J. Imbert
9
studied the electromagnetic forming of pre-
formed AA5754 aluminum alloy plates by experimental
and computational simulations. The results showed that
electromagnetic forming significantly improved the
forming limit performance of the AA5754 aluminum al-
loy plates. Deformation from a radius of 20 mm to 5 mm
was achieved. J. Fang
10
obtained 2.16-fold traditional
stamping using an electromagnetic-assisted, progressive
draw-forming method. R. Smerda
11
performed dynamic
tensile tests on AA5754 and AA5182 aluminum alloys.
The tests were achieved using separate Hopkinson. The
results showed that the strain-rate sensitivity was not ob-
vious at strain rates of 600 /s to 1 500 /s. The main rea-
son is that the strain rate was small and remained below
the critical strain rate. J. D. Thomas
12
noted that material
formability improved due to the strain rate sensitivity of
the material and inertia during magnetic pulse forming.
The limit curve of the electromagnetic forming of the
aluminum tube was obtained. H.W. Li
13
showed that the
peak stress and electro-plasticity softening ratio in-
creased with the increase in the electro-plastic energy
density. A novel model for predicting the current-carry-
ing dynamic behavior of an Al alloy was established.
W.S. Lee
14
showed that the strain-rate sensitivity of an
AA6061-T6 aluminum alloy gradually increased with
the increase in strain rate. The flow stress and strain-rate
sensitivity increase with an increase in the strain rate or
decrease in the temperature. The temperature sensitivity
increases with the increase in the strain rate and the tem-
perature. B. Ravindranadh
15
reported that the formability
of AA7017 aluminum alloys increased significantly with
the increase in the strain rate. The Johnson–Cook (J–C)
constitutive model was developed for AA7017 aluminum
alloy on the basis of high-strain-rate tensile data gener-
ated from a split Hopkinson tension bar at various tem-
peratures. However, a small high strain rate was used in
the experimental research. K. Guo
16
improved the form-
ing depth of the slab and shape deviation of a mold using
the method of continuous discharge with a small voltage
for a fixed high-voltage position. The electromagnetic
forming experiments and simulation results were com-
pared and analyzed. P. Evandro
17
revealed that the
coupling of different currents, electromagnetic fields,
and work pieces during electromagnetic forming influ-
enced the prediction of the electromagnetic force. How-
ever, the thickness distribution results at different cur-
rents were not provided. Q. X. Zhang
18
studied the
deformation behavior of a large-size sheet metal under
Lorentz force. The results showed that the height and
area of the sheet-metal forming can be effectively con-
trolled by changing the discharge voltage and position.
The plastic deformation performance of the metal was
significantly influenced by its deformation strain rate. In
the present study, the deformation process and influence
of the AA6014 aluminum alloy sheet for an automobile
under different high strain rates were studied and ana-
lyzed by changing the voltage size. The theoretical basis
for the development of the aluminum alloy sheet forming
technology for automobiles is further provided.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Materials
The test material was an AA6014 alloy plate with a
thickness of 1 mm and its chemical composition is
shown in Table 1. The electromagnetic forming test
sheet size of 300 mm × 300 mm.
Table 1: Chemical composition of AA6014 aluminum alloy sheet (%)
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ti V Al
0.59 0.22 0.12 0.08 0.65 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01 bal.
2.2 Test methods
The flat electromagnetic forming experiment device
used in the test (Figure 1) had a coil radius of R140 mm,
F. JIN et al.: HIGH-STRAIN-RATE FORMING PERFORMANCE OF AN ALUMINUM ALLOY
628 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 54 (2020) 5, 627–632
Figure 1: Devices used in the experiments

a concave die inner diameter of 120 mm, a circular ra-
dius of R10 mm, and a distance of 1 mm between the
coil and the plate. The deformation results of the alumi-
num alloy plates with different high strain rates were ob-
tained by adjusting the voltage parameters. The test volt-
ages were (2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, and 4.0) kV; the capacitance
of the capacitor was 2400 μF. The plate material was
placed on the press-driven coil. The mold pressed on the
plate. The charging voltage of the capacitor was con-
trolled, and an instantaneous discharge was triggered. At
this point, the electromagnetic field force exceeded the
yield strength of the aluminum alloy sheet material in
several microseconds. Sheet plastic deformation was
generated. Given the large diameter of the forming sheet,
the sheet material was measured via a displacement
gauge. Measurements were repeated five times to reduce
the measurement error. The average depth of the sheet
formed with different strain rates was obtained.
2.3 Numerical model
The electromagnetic forming simulation analysis of
the aluminum alloy sheet material included electric,
magnetic, and structural fields. LS-DYAN was used to
perform multiphysical field coupling simulation analy-
ses. To compare the simulation results with the experi-
mental findings, we used the capacitance, voltage, induc-
tance, and resistance values of the input experiment as
the loads for the electromagnetic field analysis during
the simulation.
19
The flat electromagnetic expansion of
the AA6014 aluminum alloy sheet was finished. Fig-
ure 2 shows the 3D geometric model and size of the
electromagnetic expansion. The mold circular angle was
10 mm, the flat coil turn number was 23, the cross-sec-
tional area was 1.5 mm × 6 mm, the coil closure spacing
was 2 mm, and the inductance was 2.75 μH. The sheet
material diameter was 280 mm, the plate thickness was 1
mm, and the distance between the coil and sheet material
was 1 mm. The total resistance of the discharge loop was
25 m . Table 2 shows the parameters of the electromag-
netic expansion analysis of the flat plate helical coil and
the aluminum alloy sheet.
Table 2: Electromagnetic forming parameters of aluminum alloy
plates and coils
Material
Relative
perme-
ability
Resistiv-
ity ( ·m)
Density
(kg/m
3
)
Poisson’s
ratio
Elastic
modulus
(GPa)
Alumi-
num alloy
1 4.0e-8 2700 0.33 69
Copper 1 1.75e-8 8900 0.34 113
The grid model, current load, and boundary condi-
tions of the entire electromagnetic forming simulation
were established by LS-DYNA. Rigid shell units were
used for the mold to reduce the calculation time. To im-
prove the simulation accuracy, we used a hexahedral ele-
ment to conduct the mesh division of the coil, sheet
metal, and blank holder. The grid was divided by a scan-
ning method. The J–C constitutive model of dynamic
plastic deformation was adopted as follows (Equa-
tion (1)):
20

 =+ − −
⎛ ⎝ ⎜ ⎞ ⎠ ⎟ (.) (.l n
 )
.
123 44158 1 0 0041 1
630
0 60613
ΔT
1 207 .
⎡ ⎣ ⎢ ⎤ ⎦ ⎥ (1)
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The simulation results of the deformation alumi-
num-alloy sheets under different high strain rates were
obtained by adjusting the voltage of the electromagnetic
forming. The electromagnetic expansion of the alumi-
num alloy plates was simulated using the voltages of
(2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, and 4.0) kV. The electromagnetic ex-
pansion’s maximum displacement and displacement in-
creased with different voltages (Table 2). The displace-
ment of the expansion shape of the aluminum alloys
gradually increased with the increase in the voltage. The
maximum displacement of the same position increased
gradually with the voltage. As shown in Figure 3, the
strain rate at the center of the sheet material changed
with the time at different voltages. The high deformation
speed increased gradually with the voltage. The maxi-
mum strain rate reached 10
4
s
–1
at 4 kV. The strain rate
fluctuated considerably with the deformation of the sheet
metal. This result was attributed to the constantly chang-
ing electromagnetic force, which was generated in differ-
ent areas of the sheet metal, with the continuous defor-
mation of the sheet metal, which resulted in a constant
change in the local deformation velocity and the dis-
placement of the sheet metal. Thus, the strain rate
changed constantly during deformation. The maximum
strain rate of the plate material increased continuously
with the increase in the voltage. Figure 4 shows the elec-
tromagnetic expansion displacement distribution of the
aluminum-alloy sheet test and the simulation with differ-
ent voltages. The increase in electromagnetic expansion
displacement of the aluminum alloy plates ws relatively
close with the voltage.
Table 3 lists the measured results of the deformation
depth of the sheet material. The experimental results
showed that the electromagnetic forming depth increased
with the increase in the voltage. This finding indicates
that different drawing depth shapes can be obtained by
changing the voltage size and shape of the mold.
F. JIN et al.: HIGH-STRAIN-RATE FORMING PERFORMANCE OF AN ALUMINUM ALLOY
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 54 (2020) 5, 627–632 629
Figure 2: 3D geometric model of electromagnetic expansion

Table 3: Maximum displacement of electromagnetic expansion and
displacement increase at different voltages
voltage /V 4 3.5 3 2.5 2
simulation displace-
ment /mm
48.25 41.7 35.11 28.44 22.14
displacement increases
/mm
6.55 6.59 6.67 6.3 -
test displacement /mm 49.61 45.82 40.26 33.44 27.49
The results of the electromagnetic forming experi-
ments and simulation of the aluminum alloy sheets with
different voltages were compared and analyzed. Table 3
shows the experimental and simulation results of the
sheet-forming depth at different voltages. The sheet ex-
pansion depth increased linearly with the increase in the
voltage. The errors of the experimental and simulation
results decreased gradually with the increase in the volt-
age. The deformation profile of the sheet material was
compared and analyzed at voltages of 4 kV and 3 kV.
Figure 5 illustrates the experimental and simulation re-
sults. The results showed a certain error between the
simulation and experimental results. The errors were ap-
proximately 2.7 % at 4 kV and 4.45%3kV .Thedefor-
mation results of the experiment were larger than those
of the simulation. This result may be due to the errors of
current load, friction coefficient, and constitutive rela-
tionship model. Figure 6 shows the thickness distribu-
F. JIN et al.: HIGH-STRAIN-RATE FORMING PERFORMANCE OF AN ALUMINUM ALLOY
630 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 54 (2020) 5, 627–632
Figure 3: Changes in deformation speed and strain rate over time at
different voltages: a) deformation speed, b) strain rates
Figure 4: Displacement distribution of electromagnetic expansion sheets and simulation results under different voltages
Figure 5: Outline of plate forming experiment and simulation:
a)4kV ,b)3kV

tion of the sheet-forming experiment and the simulation.
This result showed that the thickness results of the simu-
lation were close to the experimental findings. The maxi-
mum thickness of the sheet deformation area was 0.71
mm in the experiments and 0.696 mm in the simulation
at 4 kV. The maximum thickness of the sheet deforma-
tion area was 0.77 and 0.789 mm in the experiment and
simulation, respectively at 3 kV.
The forming performance of the AA6014 aluminum
alloy plate with different high strain rates was studied.
The strain rate gradually increased with the voltage, and
the forming performance of the aluminum alloy sheet
gradually improved. The analysis results are as follows.
1) Compared with the quasistatic rate, the plastic perfor-
mance of the aluminum alloy sheet with high strain
rate significantly increased.
21
2) The forming performance of the aluminum alloy
sheet increased with the strain rate under the influ-
ence of high-speed load inertia under the high strain
rate.
22
3) An adiabatic phenomenon was generated by high-
speed deformation of the aluminum alloy sheet.
23
The adiabatic temperature generated in an instant in-
creased with the increase in the strain rate, thereby im-
proving the plastic forming performance of the
aluminum alloy sheet.
24
4 CONCLUSIONS
1) The results of the electromagnetic forming test and
the simulation of the aluminum alloy sheet were com-
pared and analyzed. The test results were close to the
simulation findings. The depth test result was 49.608
mm, whereas the corresponding simulation result was
48.25 mm. The minimum thickness test result was 0.71
mm, and the simulation result was 0.696 mm at 4 kV
voltage.
2) The bulging results of the aluminum alloy sheet
with different strain rates were obtained by changing the
voltage. The maximum plastic deformation velocity,
maximum strain rate, and forming depth of the alumi-
num alloy sheet gradually increased, while the minimum
thickness gradually decreased with the increase in volt-
age.
3) The results showed that the plastic deformation
performance of the aluminum alloy increased with the
strain rate within a certain range of high strain rates. The
findings also provide theoretical guidance for the devel-
opment of a new forming process and the application of
the electromagnetic forming technology of aluminum al-
loy sheets.
Acknowledgment
This study was financially supported by International
Science and Technology Cooperation Programme
(No.2015DFR710-80), Natural Science Research Pro-
gram in colleges and universities of Anhui Province (No.
KJ2018A0553, Scientific Research fund for talents of
Hefei University (No. 18-19RC51).
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632 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 54 (2020) 5, 627–632