Izzivi prihodnosti Challenges of the Future Letnik 6, številka 4, november 2021 Volume 6, Issue 4, November 2021 ISSN 2232-5204 ISSN 2463-9281 Boris Bukovec, Faculty of Organisation Studies in Novo mesto, Slovenia Alois Paulin, Technical University Vienna, Austria Juraj Marušiak, Slovak Academy of Science, Slovakia Mario Ianniello, Udine University, Italy Anisoara Popa, Danubius University, Romania Raluca Viman-Miller, University of North Georgia, Georgia, USA Anna Kołomycew, Rzeszów University, Poland Jurgita Mikolaityte, Siauliai University, Lithuania Patricia Kaplanova, Faculty of Organisation Studies in Novo mesto, Slovenia Laura Davidel, Univeristy of Lorraine, France Ana Železnik, Ljubljana University, Slovenia Marko Vulić, Information Technology School - ITS ComTrade, Serbia Vita Jukneviciene, Siauliai University, Lithuania Mitja Durnik, Ljubljana University, Slovenia Anca-Olga Andronic - Spiru Haret University, Romunija Razvan-Lucian Andronic - Spiru Haret University, Romunija   © C O P Y R I G H T F A K U L T E T A Z A O R G A N I Z A C I J S K E Š T U D I J E V N O V E M M E S T U . F A C U L T Y O F O R G A N I S A T I O N S T U D I E S . V S E P R A V I C E Z A D R Ž A N E . A L L R I G H T S R E S E R V E D . A N N M A R I E G O R E N C Z O R A N UREDNIŠKI ODBOR / EDITORIAL BOARD Naslov uredništva / Editorial address: Fakulteta za organizacijske študije v Novem mestu Ulica talcev 3 8000 Novo mesto, Slovenija ISSN 2463-9281 GLAVNI IN ODGOVORNI UREDNIK / EDITOR IN CHIEF Izid publikacije je finančno podprla ARRS iz naslova razpisa za sofinanciranje domačih znanstvenih periodičnih publikacij. The journal is subsidised by the Slovenian Research Agency. Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. * Korespondenčni avtor / Correspondence author 199 Prejeto: 30. avgust 2021; revidirano: 22. september 2021; sprejeto: 5. november 2021. / Received: 30th August 2021; revised: 22nd September 2021; accepted: 5th November 2021. DOI: 10.37886/ip.2021.027 Teacher's Effective Guidance of Students Biljana Bahat* Faculty of Organisation Studies Novo mesto, Ulica talcev 3, 8000 Novo mesto, Slovenia biljana.vovk@guest.arnes.si Marija Ovsenik Faculty of Organisation Studies Novo mesto, Ulica talcev 3, 8000 Novo mesto, Slovenia mara.ovsenik@gmail.com Nikolaj Lipič Alma Mater Europaea – Evropski center nikolaj.lipic@gmail.com Abstract: Background and Originality: The purpose of the study was to systematically review the domestic and foreign literature in the field of educational guidance and to contribute to a more transparent understanding and study of educational leadership or teacher guidance. How well do teachers master a single area of work in effectively guiding students? The purpose of an effective student is to create a stimulating learning environment in which students are productive, implicit, and active. The value of our research demonstrates the challenges of implementation and application at the secondary level seeking improvements in balance and relevance to the process of organisational renewal of the pedagogical process. Method: We used the survey method to investigate the purpose of the research. The target population of our study was secondary school teachers from all statistical regions of Slovenia. Descriptive, bivariate, and multivariate statistics were used for statistical data processing. The collected data were analysed using the statistical program SPSS. Results: The majority of respondents were women, who made up 71% of the sample, which was to be expected because the female population in Slovenia largely represents the pedagogical part of education. The results of the research showed that teachers believe that all 19 areas of work are equally important for the effective guidance or instruction of students by the teacher, so our hypothesis was confirmed. The measured concept had high reliability (Cronbach's alpha > 0.9), and factor analysis tested construct validity. Society: From the point of view of the vision of a moral society, one's awareness of oneself and ones responsibility towards society is a prerequisite for the functioning of societal transformation. The positive impact on educational institutions in this era of constant change certainly depends most on the teaching staff of such an institution. First and foremost, the staff must take responsibility for their lives because only a satisfied teacher is a good teacher. The ideological values of an organisation's mission are its staff or, in our case, the teachers who can be charismatic leaders and thus transform the organisation with their positive emotional energy, which we have confirmed through our research, as teachers consider all areas of work equally important, which requires their vast range of knowledge. Limitations/Future Research: Because of the epidemic, the timing of the research was not in our favor. Our own research suggests the need to survey students in all Slovenian regions, as this would measure the impact of all the building blocks studied from the perspective of all students in secondary school programs. Keywords: guidance, leadership, directing students, teacher, effectiveness. Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. 200 1 Introduction Effective student guidance aims to create a stimulating learning environment in which students are productive, implicit, and active. Classroom or student guidance is how teachers handle their personal characteristics, manner and approach to teaching and strategies in performing this critical task. Researchers have studied that the most important classroom management factors include consistency, motivation, knowledge in dealing with students' social and emotional problems, and relationships with external institutions and parents (Tamše, 2016, p. 67). Today, if we wanted to describe a quality teacher in general, we would probably describe them with the following quality indicators: Intelligence, charisma, determination, enthusiasm, strength, courage, ability to combine, self-confidence. Other researchers have dealt with a person's personality in more original ways than we can imagine, or we did not have the right tools to measure differences in personality traits (Ovsenik & Kaučič, 2017, p. 213). The starting point of traditional leadership theories is the personality of the leader. According to the authors, the ideal leader is primarily a rational personality who is alienated and analytical and must be able to act rationally in the leadership process and separate ones emotions from the cogent business (Ovsenik & Kozjak, 2017, p. 40). The purpose of this study is to provide a descriptive overview of the domestic and foreign literature on guidance or leadership in education and to contribute to a more transparent understanding and study of educational leadership or guidance of teachers. The study's central question was how well teachers mastered a particular area of work in guiding or instructing students. We believe that the inquiry will be helpful for those interested in this area and for teachers thinking about how they do their job - being an educational leader as an advisor to students. 2 Theoretical framework The profession of a teacher is certainly the most beautiful and important because the main task is the development of human abilities and talents. Ovsenik et al. (2021) have studied the teacher as an expert who simultaneously teaches and learns, influencing the young person and changing oneself in the process. The role of the teacher, which required the ability of familiarisation, daily fulfilment of expectations of parents, students and school management, has shown that the role of the teacher in today's school has become more comprehensive so that the teacher as a successful organiser of the pedagogical process requires knowledge and experience in leadership and guidance (Tamše, 2016, p. 10). Pedagogical literature states that the basics of teachers' knowledge of successful leadership certainly include knowledge of the broader principles and planning of leadership and organisation of teaching (Oberle, 2020). There are different understandings of what classroom management is. In summary, the primary contents are: Creating a positive atmosphere, ways and techniques of working with students, establishing rules, maintaining discipline, communicating with students, conflict management, mutual cooperation, co-creating class rules. Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. 201 The role of the teacher is expanding and becoming more demanding. They are expected to use multiple methods, approaches and tools and adapt them to the needs of the students (Schwab, 2020). To ensure timely student support, they must have the necessary competencies and skills to create a positive classroom climate and interact, collaborate, and participate with other stakeholders inside and outside the school. The paradigm of knowledge changed our daily lives and education, which led people to expect a well-trained teacher (Bou, 2021). Education became more and more one of the most important components of social development. From this perspective, teacher education represented an important element for the achievement of social goals. Despite all the available technologies and accepted regulations, it was important to recognise that teachers were the main actors of the educational process. The teacher's work as an organiser is still crucial in this era of dynamic technological development (Kim, 2020). Their knowledge of successful leadership, classroom management, guidance, and organisation of teaching can be summarised with basic contents: creating a positive atmosphere, ways and techniques of working with students, establishing rules, maintaining discipline, communicating with students, controlling absenteeism, mutual cooperation, and helping to create class order and rules. Educational guidance of students is a more complex activity than simply taking action when students behave unacceptably. Guidance refers to the teacher's strategies to create a positive, productive, inclusive, supportive, caring, and harmonious environment (Korotaj, 2020). Teachers who work with adolescents need to have more complex knowledge, including leadership skills, so that students can be guided appropriately in their work (Mowat, 2019). Between these types of knowledge, the teacher should develop a positive atmosphere and social skills, create a safe and encouraging learning environment where students feel liberated, where diversity is valued, independence and responsibility are encouraged, and display a positive attitude towards students by understanding and respecting their social, cultural, linguistic, and religious backgrounds. We have to teach children the importance of knowledge so that they can better navigate the world. With our attitude towards our fellow human beings, we could show children how to create a much-needed heartwarming connection by giving up control over others (European Commission, 2018). Instead of rewarding, teachers should support each child to achieve their set goal. Fomichov (2019) believes that creating an atmosphere that enables this is the fundamental task of schools and teachers in this century. To achieve this, it is necessary to rely on the creativity of teachers. When change is the only constant in our lives, the school has evolved from strict authoritarianism to permissiveness and today's pursuit of the greatest possible democracy for the individual. While the traditional school, on the one hand, carried out the subordination of the student with disciplinary approaches and, on the other hand, emphasised the importance of the superior position of the teacher and respect for the teacher's authority, in the period of permissive education the unconditional authority of the teacher was devalued and transferred Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. 202 to the student. However, it has not been maintained to this day because permissiveness, which allows the student to act out one's needs, wants and desires freely, is more of a hindrance than an advantage to the student. The social changes in the middle of the last century, when the authoritarian style of leadership prevailed, also brought an important change in the field of education, as the conviction from disciplining to leading prevailed, shifting the attention from control to the needs of the student (Tamše, 2016, p. 12). To teach successfully, the teacher had to ensure order and discipline in the classroom (Podgoršek, 2021). Education no longer focused solely on developing intellectual skills but was intended to promote the harmonious physical, mental, cognitive, emotional, and social development of individuals and stimulate critical thinking and judgment (Kalin, 2019, p. 32). Leadership was not just about controlling and punishing students. A good leader in the classroom is shaped and created through time and experience. An effective and good leader was the one who understood and used specific strategies and techniques. A successful teacher should also have been a good classroom leader. Kalin (2019, p. 30) listed the following qualities of an effective teacher: an effective class leader; mastered subject areas and content; had high expectations for all students in the class - the approaches and methods used were derived from the children and promoted student learning. Each teacher led the class in their way and influenced many aspects of student development. It impacted whether they took responsibility for controlling their own behaviour and accepted the consequences of their own actions. Kalin (2019, p. 32) stated that classroom management depends on many interrelated factors: organisational climate, school goals, teacher personality, teacher socio-emotional competencies and beliefs about the reasons for a student's inappropriate behaviour, academic and social development, student dispositions, and group dynamics. Glasser (2021, p. 321) said that listening to students' needs, responding appropriately to students' individual needs and problems, a positive emotional tone with emphasis on encouragement, rewards, and pep talks, and good parent-school collaboration also contribute to a supportive atmosphere in the school. The more opportunities there were in the school to take responsibility and actively participate and involve students in school life, the more they should have identified with the institution of school and the activities within it. The performance and well-being of students in the classroom depended largely on their leader, the teacher. Social psychology first attempted to compile a list of traits that would characterise the personality of an ideal leader. This was then replaced by the study of different leadership styles, characteristic communication patterns, and the interaction between the leader and group members (Glasser, 2021, p. 123). In light of the above, we can say that the quality of teaching depends on the teacher, who must be guided by the clear realisation that a teacher cannot force students to motivate themselves to learn or change the latter, but can encourage them mainly by sharing pedagogical educational power and decision- making. According to Zalokar Divjak (2019, p. 17), the teacher has many opportunities to do this, for example: in the composition of learning content and teaching materials, pathways to achieve learning success, in reading at home, in (co-)decision-making in assessment, in criticism and recognition, and should be aware that most of the causes of learning failure lie in Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. 203 the system of learning and not in the students themselves, and that the quality of teaching depends crucially on the participation and engagement of students. Glasser (2021, p. 133) explains that the teacher's leadership role does not conflict with the demand for student independence, provided the leadership is democratic and socially inclusive. In relation to the teacher's leadership style, he reminded of the need to carefully and limitedly understand the research findings that show that there are no significant differences in learning outcomes when achieved in a democratic or authoritarian learning climate and to realise that the teacher's role is not only to impart knowledge but also to develop cognitive, working, and creative skills and to demonstrate the value components of learning content that also educate and shape students (Glasser, 2021, p. 135). Lojk (2011, p. 99) believed that education was too important to be left to politicians, lawyers, and only theorists. In both forms of education, the focus was on controlling the behaviour of the outside of oneself, and in neither case was the young person recognised as a person. Therefore, neither trick worked in the long run. With repressive parenting, we tried to distract the young person with discomfort from the behaviour we did not want, and with permissive parenting, we tried to win the child over with the pleasure felt when rewarded for the behaviour we wanted. There was nothing wrong with wanting one behaviour in a child and not another. We too wanted to control the most precious part of our world, our children. The question, however, was whether we succeeded. If we had, not so much would be written about it. For too long, we believed that if we replaced traditional, often harsh punishment with rewards, praise, and good relationships, things would get better. We have failed. The vast majority of people and many experts have been unable to realise that educational work with young people has been demonstrated. With such attempts at motivation, rewards that fell under the external control of behaviour, we partially reduced traditional punishment. By beginning to reject the overt imposition of values and knowledge through permissive education, we have taken a step forward, even if the transition from authoritarian to permissive education has not led to better results. Attempts to return to a time when a teacher had more authority because of one's position are doomed to failure. In both approaches, the authoritarian more and the permissive less obvious, we wanted the child to accept our values and knowledge of the world. Such a goal was unattainable because we could not control the world around us, and in no way would we allow others to control us, either by force or manipulation (Zalokar Divjak, 2019, p. 49). An effective way out of the teacher's dilemma was to accept the fact that in the accelerated development of information technology, which offers the child many other sources of knowledge, teachers would become less and less important as mediators of learning. But the fundamental human values of coexistence and cooperation would still be experienced and developed by most children primarily on the basis of the model of cooperation developed by the teacher. Therefore, we believed that the school would increasingly become a place of living together and not just a transmitter of knowledge. Our task was to bring the knowledge acquired Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. 204 by teachers and children from different sources to a richer togetherness rather than rivalry and consumption through collaboration. The teacher's goal in such a school was no longer to have young people accept his knowledge and values, but to enable them, through his model of collaboration, to develop their values for living together and offer them a more comprehensive range of important knowledge for their lives. Teachers had to abandon ineffective and harmful motivational tools such as reward, evaluation, competition, classification, and punishment, which were part of the toolbox of external behavioural control, and we had to take advantage of man's fundamental and highly personal need to "control the world for his own good" (Zalokar Divjak, 2019, p. 56). We formulated a fundamental research question and established a working hypothesis based on the theoretical overview. The fundamental research question was (FRQ): "How well do teachers master a single domain of work in the effective guidance of students?" The research focused on effective guidance of students from the teacher's perspective, i.e., the teacher's self-assessment. The study aimed to confirm the following hypothesis. Hypothesis 1: There is a statistically significant difference in the various areas of a teacher's job when effectively guiding students. If teachers want to be successful and effective in their pedagogical work with students and create such conditions in the learning process that promote students' success and thirst for knowledge, they should have personal and social skills, knowledge and abilities acquired during their studies and lifelong learning. Goleman (2017, pp. 60-121) uses the following explanations: Emotional self-awareness (the teacher knows her emotions well and how they affect her skills when working with students), self-assessment (the teacher knows her strengths and limitations well), self-confidence (the teacher was aware of her strengths and knows how to use them well in the classroom), and self-control (a teacher knows how to control her emotions and has highly developed self-control, which enabled her to remain calm and collected in all (un)pleasant situations in the classroom). We investigated teachers' views on how to guide students in their 19 areas of work effectively. The research findings aimed to confirm the need for effective student guidance across teachers' work areas, confirm the hypothesis, and answer the research question. Our research objectives were to define the target population, develop a method for distributing the questionnaire, conduct empirical research, and determine procedures for processing the data. The innovation brought by the study is helpful for educators in secondary schools as well as others who would like to see improvements and more current and balanced work in the field. 3 Method We developed the measurement tool in the form of a questionnaire based on the literature (Lipič, 2016). The questionnaire was created in a web form using 1KA, an open-source application for online surveys. The target population of our survey was secondary school Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. 205 teachers, of whom 6,200 were registered in the public database of the Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia at the time of our survey. Our survey sample included 1,025 secondary school teachers and vocational secondary school teachers from all over Slovenia. The pilot study to test the measurement tool was conducted in April 2020. The questionnaire was tested on a sample of 60 vocational secondary school teachers from a local school centre in south-eastern Slovenia. The questionnaire conducted proved to be comprehensible and internally consistent with the topic of the survey. The data were collected in June 2020. With an introductory speech and a request to participate in the survey, we asked school centre directors who manage all secondary school principals and vocational secondary school principals as part of the school centre and secondary school principals who are not part of the school centres and manage independent secondary schools, to participate in the survey by e- mail. The difference between secondary school (hereafter: high school) and vocational secondary school (hereafter: vocational school) is that high school lasts four years and vocational school lasts three years. Moreover, a student graduating from a vocational school acquires a profession or trade, whereas a high school student does not. A request for participation was sent to all 23 principals of school centres and 119 principals of high schools. All responded and provided the web link to the teachers. Because we surveyed when the school system was in a state of emergency and schools were opening and then closing because of the COVID -19 epidemic, there was tension and reluctance. Therefore, we called the principals and directors, asked them to participate, and asked if they could forward the link with the cover letter to the teachers. The request for participation was sent twice to all teachers individually (high school and vocational teachers). The questionnaire was anonymous. The teachers filled it out voluntarily, and they could drop out at any time without giving a reason. The questionnaire consisted of closed-ended questions and a sociodemographic section (sex, areas of teaching, type of school, region, job title, education, and work experience), as well as 19 areas of teacher practice in which teachers were asked to self-assess how effectively they teach students in those areas. For 19 questions, each representing a different area of teacher practises, respondents self-rated their views on the questions about teachers' guidance of students using numbers from one to five, where one represented inadequate, two represented sufficient, three represented good, four represented very good, and five represented excellent. Descriptive, bivariate and multivariate statistics were used for statistical data processing. We used the descriptive statistics method to present the demographic data: Standard deviation, minimum and maximum values, frequencies and percentages. Comparisons between groups and pairs of variables were made by bivariate analyses (t-test, one-way analysis of variance, calculation of correlations). Factor analysis calculations were used for construct validation of the measured phenomena. Reliability was checked by calculating Cronbach's alpha coefficient, which had to be at least 0.7 for the measurement scale to be called reliable (Omerzu, 2019, p. 34). Multiple regression analysis was conducted to determine the influence of the independent variables on the dependent variable. Multiple regression was carried out using the Enter Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. 206 method, where all independent variables are retained in the regression model and p < 0.05 determined statistical significance. The results were presented in tabular form and described by a descriptive method. We have also used the method of comparison, analysis, and synthesis of the research results. The collected data were analysed using SPSS statistical program (version 23.00). We used Excel for graphical representations. The validity of the questionnaire was ensured by developing appropriate indicators to measure individual concepts, which were explained in detail in the theoretical part of the article. The reliability of the questionnaire was checked using Cronbach's alpha (α) coefficient, which was developed to measure the internal consistency of the measurement instrument. Cronbach's α-coefficient assumes a value between zero and one, and values above 0.8 indicate high reliability (Omerzu, 2019, p. 34). The calculated reliability of the questionnaire (Table 1) and the results showed a high level of reliability (above 0.9). Table 1. The reliability of the measuring instrument The model of the survey in Figure 1 represents the conceptual construct of the survey and schematically depicts the topic areas of the article. The model consists of the individual work areas of teachers in student guidance. Based on the theoretical framework studied and the research question posed, a hypothesis was formed, which was then tested using quantitative analysis. Number of statements Cronbach alfa The efficiency of student guidance (n = 960) 19 0.957 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. 207 Figure 1. Conceptual design of the research Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. 208 The research model in Figure 2 represents one dependent variable and 19 independent variables that we identified as part of the research question and the hypothesis. Figure 2. Research model 4 Results 4.1 Descriptive statistics of sociodemographic data Table 2 shows the distribution of the sample according to the sex of respondents. Females constituted the majority of respondents in the sample at 71.4%. Males accounted for 28.6 % of the sample. Table 2. The sex of respondents The sex of respondents f % Male 293 28.6 Female 732 71.4 Total 1025 100.0 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. 209 Table 3 shows the age groups of the respondents. We have divided them into four groups. The largest percentage of the respondents was between 21 and 40 years old, more precisely, a little more than half or 51.1 %. This was followed by respondents between the ages of 41 and 60. They accounted for 42.9 % of the sample. A smaller proportion, 3.9 % of the respondents, were under 20 years of age, and an even smaller proportion, only 2 % of the respondents, were over 61 years of age. Table 3. Age groups of respondents Age groups of respondents f % up to 20 years old 40 3.9 21–40 years old 524 51.1 41–60 years old 440 42.9 61 years old or older 21 2.0 Total 1025 100.0 Respondents were also asked about the type of school they teach in. The data are presented in Table 4. A larger proportion, 70.9 %, were from vocational schools. The remaining proportion, 29.1 %, was represented by high school teachers. A few respondents, exactly 26, did not answer the question. Table 4. The type of school in which the respondents teach The type of school in which the respondents teach f % Vocational school 708 70.9 High school 291 29.1 Total 999 100.0 Table 5 shows the frequency distribution of respondents by the region in which they teach, with all Slovenian regions included (the names of the regions are in Slovenian, respectively ). The largest proportion of respondents teach in the region Gorenjska, 17.5 %. In the region Osrednjeslovenska we recorded 14.8 % of respondents and in the region Obalno-Kraška, another 11.6 % of respondents. Other regions were less represented. The percentages in the regions Podravska (8.4 %), Primorsko-Notranjska (8.2) %), Jugovzhodna and Pomurska (8.1 %) were very similar. This was followed by respondents who teach in the Goriška region; of these, we included 8 % in the sample. A smaller proportion of respondents teach in the Savinjska (6 %), Posavska (5.3 %) and Zasavska (4.3 %) regions. Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. 210 Table 5. Secondary school teaching regions Secondary school teaching regions f % Posavska 54 5.3 Gorenjska 179 17.5 Goriška 80 7.8 Obalno-Kraška 119 11.6 Primorsko-Notranjska 84 8.2 Jugovzhodna 83 8.1 Zasavska 44 4.3 Osrednjeslovenska 152 14.8 Savinjska 61 6.0 Podravska 86 8.4 Pomurska 83 8.1 Total 1025 100.0 Table 6 shows the respondents by professional titles that can be acquired with additional education and training. The first title of a mentor can be acquired after five years of working in the education system. The title of consultant and councillor can be acquired later, depending on a teacher's individual professional development. Just under half of the respondents, 46 %, held the title of a mentor. Slightly fewer, 43.9 % of respondents, reported having the professional title of consultant. 6.5 % of respondents were named councillors. The smallest percentage of respondents, 3.6 %, did not have a title. Table 6. Professional title of respondents Professional title of respondents f f % Untitled 37 3.6 Mentor 471 46.0 Consultant 450 43.9 Councillor 67 6.5 Total 1025 100.0 The teachers who participated in the survey had varying levels of education. Some had only a high school education or post-secondary education; these were the practise teachers. All other teachers had a higher education degree: professional higher education degree, university higher education degree, master of science/profession, or doctorate. 90.1 % of all respondents had a university degree (Table 7). Another 3.5 % had a higher education, and 2.7 % of the respondents had a Master's degree in science or profession. Exactly 2 % of all respondents had a high school diploma. Post-secondary education was reported by 0.9 % of respondents. Another 0.7 % of the respondents in the sample had the title of doctor of science. Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. 211 Table 7. Level of education Level of education f % High school education 21 2.0 Post-secondary education 9 0.9 Higher education professional degree 36 3.5 Higher education university degree 924 90.1 Master degree of science/profession 28 2.7 Doctor of science 7 0.7 Total 1025 100.0 Table 8 shows the frequency distribution of respondents by years of work experience in the education system. The largest proportion of respondents taught between 11 and 15 years, 34.6 %. They were followed by those who taught between 16 and 20 years, of which 20.1 %, and respondents with six to ten years of work experience (18.8 %) and between 21 and 40 years of work experience (18.3 %). A smaller proportion of respondents taught for up to five years (8.2 %). Table 8. Years of work experience Years of work experience f f% Up to 5 years 84 8.2 6–10 years 194 18.8 11–15 years 354 34.6 16–20 years 206 20.1 21–40 years 187 18.3 Total 1025 100.0 In addition to teaching, most respondents were involved in providing additional professional assistance, 47.9 % (Table 9). This was followed by those involved in humanitarian and voluntary activities, namely 42.7 %, and those involved in national and international projects (35.1 %). Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. 212 Table 9. Additional activities in the school while teaching (several possible answers) Additional activities in the school while teaching (several possible answers) f % Involvement in national and international projects 360 35.1 Humanitarianism, volunteering 438 42.7 Implementation of additional professional assistance (helping students with special needs) 491 47.9 Organisation and implementation of lectures and workshops for employees 302 29.5 Other 23 2.2 Education outside the organisation for personal development 237 23.1 Total n = 1025 4.2 Teachers' self-assessment of effectiveness in leading or guiding students in various areas of work As part of the investigation of our key variable, the effectiveness of student guidance in different work areas, we were concerned with teachers' self-assessment. They rated how well they mastered each work area. 19 statements were used, and their means, standard deviations, minimum and maximum values are shown in Table 10. The respondents rated the statements using a five-point scale, where one represented inadequate and five represented excellent. Respondents were given the option to continue even if they did not answer every question. We chose this method because the questionnaire was very comprehensive, but at the same time, the results of the responses did not influence each other. All claims were rated quite high and just below a score of four, which represented very good. Respondents rated efficiency in guiding talented students in school (M = 3.82), guiding students in competitions at school (M = 3.81), efficiency in guiding students in successful situations (M = 3.81), and efficiency in guiding students on professional field trips and other travel (M = 3.80). The lowest scores, although not poor, were obtained for the effectiveness of directing students in situations involving aggression (M = 3.72), effectiveness in guiding students in extracurricular activities (M = 3.72), and effectiveness in guiding students in crisis situations (M = 3.73). Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. 213 Table 10. Effectiveness of teacher guidance Effectiveness of student guidance n min max average Stan. deviation 1. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in national projects at school? 958 1 5 3.70 0.938 2. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in international projects at school? 959 1 5 3.71 0.979 3. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in school competitions? 960 1 5 3.81 0.925 4. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in class at school? 958 1 5 3.78 0.938 5. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in extracurricular activities at school? 960 1 5 3.75 0.937 6. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students on professional excursions and other school trips? 960 1 5 3.80 0.939 7. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in other school activities (e.g., sports, science, technical, cultural days, etc.)? 959 1 5 3.75 0.940 8. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in extracurricular activities (e.g., firefighters, local choir, volunteer work, etc.)? 958 1 5 3.72 0.991 9. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding all students at the school? 960 1 5 3.77 0.927 10. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding talented students at school? 961 1 5 3.82 0.929 11. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students with special needs at school? 961 1 5 3.77 0.924 12. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding disabled or injured students at school? 959 1 5 3.77 0.969 13. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students with various health problems? 959 1 5 3.78 0.967 14. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding dropout students? 960 1 5 3.75 0.977 15. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in crises (e.g., death/suicide of a student, etc.)? 958 1 5 3.73 0.939 16. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in situations related to aggression (e.g., beating students, shouting and breaking students, etc.)? 960 1 5 3.72 0.962 17. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in emotionally pleasurable situations (e.g., birth, marriage, etc.)? 960 1 5 3.74 0.958 18. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in stressful situations (e.g., addiction, domestic violence, etc.)? 960 1 5 3.75 0.933 19. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in successful situations (e.g., successes and victories of students, etc.)? 959 1 5 3.81 0.901 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. 214 In the following, we used factor analysis to determine whether it was appropriate to combine the statements used into a new, common variable to be used later in the regression model as the dependent variable. We included all 19 statements in the factor analysis to measure teacher effectiveness in guiding students. The commonalities indicated the proportion of variance in the observed statements that could be attributed to the total factor or explained variance (Table 11). If the utility value of a statement was low (0.3 or less), consideration was given to excluding the statement from the factor analysis and repeating it. We see that all utility values were reasonably high after extraction, the highest commonality after extraction had "Efficiency in guiding students on professional field trips and other school excursions" (0.571), and the lowest had "Efficiency in guiding students in stressful situations" (0.485). Table 11. The effectiveness of student guidance – utilities n = 934 Start Extraction 1. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in national projects at school? 0.544 0.500 2. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in international projects at school? 0.599 0.544 3. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in school competitions? 0.586 0.544 4. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in class at school? 0.576 0.557 5. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in extracurricular activities at school? 0.542 0.521 6. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students on professional field trips and other school excursions? 0.598 0.571 7. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in other school activities (e.g., sports, science, technical, cultural days, etc.)? 0.604 0.560 8. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in extracurricular activities (e.g., firefighters, local choir, volunteer work, etc.)? 0.565 0.542 9. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding all students at the school? 0.582 0.548 10. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding talented students at school? 0.578 0.548 11. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students with special needs at school? 0.598 0.560 12. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding disabled or injured students at school? 0.592 0.541 13. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students with various health problems? 0.606 0.565 14. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding dropout students? 0.582 0.548 15. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in crisis situations (e.g., death / suicide of a student, etc.)? 0.597 0.547 16. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in situations related to aggression (e.g., beating students, shouting and breaking students, etc.)? 0.600 0.545 17. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in emotionally pleasurable situations (e.g., birth, marriage, etc.)? 0.571 0.543 18. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in stressful situations (e.g., addiction, domestic violence, etc.)? 0.523 0.485 19. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in successful situations (e.g., successes and victories of students, etc.)? 0.538 0.514 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. 215 In the next step, we checked the values of KMO and Bartlett's test. The recommended value for KMO was above 0.5; otherwise, we assumed that we were aiming for the highest possible value of the KMO test, whereas, for Bartlett's test, we wanted it to be statistically significant. For the group of teacher competencies, the results in Table 12 show that the KMO value is 0.968 and Bartlett's test is statistically significant as p < 0.05. Therefore, we conclude that the statements within this set are sufficiently related and that factor analysis is reasonable. Table 12. The effectiveness of student guidance – KMO and Bartlett test Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin criteria 0.968 Bartlett sphericity test chi-square 11981.706 Degree of freedom 171 p 0.000 Table 13 shows the proportion of total variance explained. The eigenvalue above one in the table indicates the decision to exclude one factor because it fell below the value of one for the second factor. This (one) factor (which was included in the further analysis) explained 54.1% of the variance. The higher the value of explained variance, the more information we retained for our further research, and in the case of the effectiveness of student guidance, this value was appropriate. Table 13. The effectiveness of student guidance – level of explained variance Factor Starting eigenvalues Variance after extraction Total % of variance cumulative % Total % of variance cumulative % 1 10.742 56.537 56.537 10.284 54.127 54.127 2 0.871 4.585 61.121 3 0.742 3.907 65.028 4 0.703 3.701 68.729 5 0.642 3.377 72.106 6 0.615 3.238 75.345 7 0.501 2.639 77.983 8 0.475 2.501 80.485 9 0.430 2.261 82.746 10 0.419 2.207 84.953 11 0.406 2.139 87.091 12 0.381 2.007 89.099 13 0.349 1.835 90.933 14 0.338 1.779 92.713 15 0.320 1.687 94.399 16 0.288 1.518 95.918 17 0.279 1.469 97.387 18 0.262 1.380 98.767 19 0.234 1.233 100.000 We eliminated one factor, and all factor weights were correspondingly high, the highest for the statement "Efficiency in guiding students on professional excursions and other school trips" Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. 216 and the lowest for the statement "Efficiency in guiding students in stressful situations" (Table 14). Table 14. Effectiveness of student guidance - factor weights n = 934 Factor 1 1. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students on professional excursions and other school trips? 0.756 2. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students with various health problems? 0.752 3. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students with special needs at school? 0.749 4. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in other school activities (e.g., sports, science, technical, cultural days, etc.)? 0.748 5. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in class at school? 0.746 6. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding talented students at school? 0.741 7. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding all students at the school? 0.740 8. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding dropout students? 0.740 9. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in crises (e.g., death/suicide of a student, etc.)? 0.740 10. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in situations related to aggression (e.g., beating students, shouting and breaking students, etc.)? 0.738 11. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in school competitions? 0.738 12. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in international projects at school? 0.737 13. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in emotionally pleasurable situations (e.g., birth, marriage, etc.)? 0.737 14. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in extracurricular activities (e.g., firefighters, local choir, volunteer work, etc.)? 0.736 15. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding disabled or injured students at school? 0.736 16. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in extracurricular activities at school? 0.722 17. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in successful situations (e.g., successes and victories of students, etc.)? 0.717 18. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in national projects at school? 0.707 19. How do you assess your leadership or effectiveness in guiding students in stressful situations (e.g., addiction, domestic violence, etc.)? 0.697 The variable was stored in the database using the regression coefficient method. In this way, we obtained a new construct, a variable for further use in the model. Summarising the factor analysis results, all the analysed results confirm the unidimensional structure of the concept of efficiency of student orientation, which means that all the data can be combined into one factor, into a new which is our key dependent variable. The variable was stored in the database using the method of regression coefficients, thus obtaining a new construct, a variable for further use in the model. The calculation of Cronbach's alpha coefficient on the set of statements showed a high degree of reliability, as it is 0.957. Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. 217 As we can see, all the ratings were slightly below four on a point scale; the ratings were also completely comparable, which means that the respondents thought that all the building blocks were equally important for the teacher's leadership effectiveness or student guidance 5 Discussion 1025 respondents were included in the survey sample. The survey was administered to a sample of high school teachers whom their principal had invited via e-mail to participate in the 2020 survey. We contacted principals personally and asked them to allow them to participate. Participation in the survey was voluntary and anonymous. The majority of the sample was female (71.4%), respondents were between 21 and 60 years old (94%), taught in vocational secondary schools (70.9%), and had a university degree (90.1%). The sample included teachers who taught in schools in all statistical regions of Slovenia. The results of the research show that teachers believe that all 19 areas of teacher activity (i.e., the effectiveness of guiding or guiding students in national projects, international projects, competitions, classes, interesting activities, professional excursions, other sports activities, extracurricular activities, guiding talented students, guiding students with special needs, guiding students with disabilities and various health problems, dropouts, students in crisis, emotional and stressful situations) are equally important for the effective leadership or guidance of students by the teacher. It can be concluded that teachers need very diverse knowledge and skills in performing their tasks. Thus, we have confirmed our hypothesis. The key concept or paradigm we tested with the questionnaire was teacher effectiveness in guiding students. The concept measured had high reliability (Cronbach's alpha > 0.9), and construct validity was tested by factor analysis. For the comparative analysis, all variables were derived by calculating them based on the average estimates of each statement falling on an individual factor. We believe that the effective guidance of students, which we examine at the level of the pedagogical environment, is their upbringing and preparation for independent and responsible living. School is a place of socialisation where the paths of cognitive, social and emotional learning intersect. Thus, it involves social interactions with teachers and other students in which the skills of perception, use, expression, and regulation of emotions are formed. Change is a constant in our lives. We find it increasingly difficult to cope with them. The teaching profession requires training and educational competencies that a professional must bring to the daily routine of teaching and leading or managing the classroom. Based on our research findings, we can conclude that all 19 areas of teaching are equally important for effective leadership or guidance of students, from which we conclude that teachers need very different knowledge and skills in performing their job or task. We believe that the way teachers are trained to do their job is all the more important and propose a system change, namely: senior teachers should be partially relieved of their teaching duties to act as tutors for teachers who have no professional experience and are at the beginning of their careers. A successful teacher must first learn to lead the class and students well (Moe, 2020). This is not an easy task in life, and neither is being a teacher. We conclude that this is a very special Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. 218 challenge for any educational worker. As a facilitator, the teacher needs to adapt to working with each student to fit their personality (Kahan, 2020). The teacher needs a lot of psychological and social skills and knowledge; a teacher must also be able to perceive the inner processes in the student (Braun, 2020). Leading or guiding students requires a great deal of knowledge in the theories that we presented in our article, with theoretical starting points and research findings (Valente, 2020). Therefore, it is even more critical that educational professionals recognise the need for this type of knowledge. 6 Conclusion The majority of respondents were female, representing 71 % of the sample, which was to be expected because in Slovenia, teaching is primarily represented by the female population. It was also expected that more than half of the sample was between 21 and 40 years old. The respondents, 70.9 %, were mostly from vocational secondary schools. Most of the respondents held the title of a consultant (43.9 %) and mentor (46 %), and only 6.5 % were councillors, which was expected given the age of respondents. No less than 90 % of the respondents had a university education which is compulsory in most schools. More than 90 % of the respondents were engaged in additional activities at school, namely humanitarian activities (42.7 %) and carrying out additional professional assistance (47.9 %), which is probably due to the organisation of work in secondary schools, where in most cases teachers carry out this type of work. The contribution of science highlights the challenges of implementation and application in secondary education, which aims to improve the process of organisational renewal of the pedagogical process in a balanced and timely manner. The presented paradigm of effective student guidance contributes to improving not only the way of teaching, but also the organisational climate of the school, student work motivation and individual student satisfaction at the micro level and the performance of the school as a whole at the macro level. The positive impact on educational organisations in this era of constant change depends most heavily on the teachers in such an organisation. The constant changes in education are multi-faceted and require new insights in the field of communication and innovations. The limitations of the research are reflected in the data collection itself, as we encountered some problems. We collected the data during the epidemic, which presented a unique situation for both the researcher and the respondents. We also faced a low response rate because all invitations to participate were sent remotely via e-mail, which required a great deal of personal contact with school administrators, further encouraging respondents to complete the questionnaire. We can assume that certain limitations also arise from the possibility of teachers providing socially desirable responses, as we measured the areas under study with a self-assessment questionnaire. Our own research and the results obtained suggest that it is necessary to survey students in all Slovenian regions, as this would measure the influence of the 19 building blocks from the perspective of students in all secondary school programs. Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. 219 Pedagogical eros derives from the professional and motivated work of the teacher and the teacher's responsibility for the holistic development of the young person (Sergio Mérida, Martín Sánchez, & Natalio, 2020). We are aware that the driving force of any school is the teacher. Therefore, it is necessary to promote teachers' professionalism and personal development and seek new pedagogical approaches to work with educational participants. Teachers are a bridge for young people between the past and the future of humanity; together, they help shape the school. Therefore, it is important to be aware of our important and demanding task and to face this noble event, because the profession of teacher is a profession with an extraordinary task, it deserves a special honour, and is indispensable for the development of a responsible society. References 1. 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Zrna odličnosti fakultete za organizacijske študije v Novem mestu: Nove paradigme organizacijskih teorij, p. 37–68. 19. Ovsenik, M. & Kaučič, B. M. (2017). Holistični model za zagotavljanje zadovoljstva z življenjem v starosti. Zrna odličnosti fakultete za organizacijske študije v Novem mestu: Nove paradigme organizacijskih teorij, p. 213–259. 20. Ovsenik, M., Meško, M., Šćepanović, D., Mihalj, I., Kalan, M., Šuklar, S., & Macur, M. (2021). Raziskovanje izzivov organizacijskih teorij. Novo mesto: Fakulteta za organizacijske študije. 21. Podgoršek, V. (2021). Moje življenje-moja knjiga. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, p. 10–21. 22. Schwab, S. (2020). Agreement among student, parent and teacher ratings of school inclusion: A multitrait-multimethod analysis. Journal of school psychology, 82(1). Retrieved 22nd August 2021, from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2020.07.003 23. Sergio Mérida, L., Martín Sánchez, G. & Natalio, E. (2020). Leaving the Teaching Profession: Examining the Role of Social Support, Engagement and Emotional Intelligence in Teachers' Intentions to Quit. University of Málaga, Spain: Universitat Jaume I, Castellón, Spain. Retrieved 2nd March 2020, from: https://doi.org/10.5093/pi2020a10 24. Tamše, M. (2016). Učiteljeve kompetence za učinkovito vodenje razreda. Magistrsko delo. Maribor: Pedagoška fakulteta. 25. Valente, S. (2020). The role of the teacher's emotional intelligence for efficacy and classroom management. Revista CES Psicología, 13(2), p. 18–31. 26. Zalokar Divjak, Z. (2019). Eno je inteligenca, drugo je otrokov socialni in čustveni razvoj. Brestanica: Posavski obzornik. Year 23, Nm. Retrieved 22nd August 2019. *** Biljana Bahat is a doctoral student at the Faculty of organisation study in Novo mesto. She works as a secondary school teacher in the field of social sciences, where she studies students' emotional intelligence and its potential and participates in international projects. Her research interests include quality classroom work, preventive workshops for students in the areas of emotional intelligence, mindfulness, sense of self-worth, mental health and communication. *** Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. 221 *** Marija Ovsenik is a full professor and expert in the field of organisation, people management and social gerontology. She obtained a PhD from the Faculty of Political Behavior Veljko Vlahović in Sarajevo and the Faculty of organisation study in Novo mesto, and completed a specialised training in the field of human resource management in non-profit organisations at the University of Ljubljana. In 1996, the Ministry of Labor, Family and Social Affairs awarded her the prize for outstanding achievements in the field of social protection. *** Nikolaj Lipič is a doctor of science and assistant professor in the field of social gerontology. At Alma Mater Europaea - European Center, Maribor, he lectures in the study programs of social gerontology, physiotherapy and health sciences. He is also the president of the Gerontological Society of Slovenia, a member of the Expert Council at the Social Chamber of Slovenia and a member of the Expert Council for Social Affairs at the Ministry of Labor, Family, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities. His research focuses on the development of statistical literacy of different generations, research on active aging, dementia and demographic aspects of aging, the establishment of quality teamwork and excellence in social gerontological practice. *** Povzetek: Učiteljevo učinkovito vodenje oziroma usmerjanje dijakov Ozadje in izvirnost: Kako dobro učitelji obvladajo posamezno področje dela pri učinkovitem usmerjanju oziroma vodenju dijakov? Namen učinkovitega usmerjanja dijakov je vzpostaviti spodbudno učno okolje, v katerem so dijaki storilni, implicitni in aktivni. Namen raziskave je bil sistematičen pregled domače in tuje strokovne literature s področja usmerjanja oziroma vodenja na področju vzgoje in izobraževanja ter prispevati k preglednejšemu razumevanju in preučevanju pedagoškega vodenja oziroma usmerjanja učitelja. Vrednost naše raziskave kaže izzive k implementaciji in uporabi na ravni srednješolskega izobraževanja, ki želi v proces organizacijske prenove pedagoškega procesa vnašati izboljšave uravnoteženosti in aktualnost. Metoda: Za namen raziskave smo uporabili metodo anketiranja. Ciljna populacija v naši raziskavi so bili srednješolski učitelji iz vseh slovenskih statističnih regij. Za statistično obdelavo podatkov smo uporabili opisno, bivariantno in multivariantno statistiko. Zbrane podatke smo analizirali s pomočjo statističnega programa SPSS (verzija 23.00). Rezultati: Pretežni delež respondentov predstavljajo ženske, ki jih je v vzorcu 71 %, kar je bilo pričakovano, saj v slovenskem prostoru pedagoški del v izobraževanju v veliki meri zastopa ženska populacija. Rezultati raziskave so pokazali, da so učitelji mnenja, da je vseh devetnajst področjih dela enako pomembnih pri učiteljevem učinkovitem vodenju oziroma usmerjanju dijakov, posledično lahko našo hipotezo potrdimo. Merjeni pojem je izkazal visoko stopnjo zanesljivosti (Cronbach alfa > 0,9), konstruktno veljavnost smo preverjali s faktorsko analizo. Družba: Človekovo zavedanje do samega sebe in njegova odgovornost do družbe je z vidika vizije moralne družbe pogoj za delovanje preobrazbe družbe. Pozitiven vpliv na izobraževalne organizacije je v današnjem času konstantnih sprememb zagotovo najbolj odvisen od pedagoškega kadra, ki ga premore tovrstna organizacija. V prvi vrsti so zaposleni tisti, ki morajo prevzemati odgovornost za svoje življenje, kajti le zadovoljen učitelj je dober učitelj. Ideološke vrednote poslanstva neke organizacije so njeni zaposleni oziroma v našem primeru učitelji, ki so lahko karizmatični vodje in tako preobrazijo organizacijo s svojo pozitivno čustveno energijo, kar smo z raziskavo potrdili, saj so učitelji mnenja, da so vsa področja dela enako pomembna, torej potrebujejo zelo širok spekter znanj. Omejitve/nadaljnje raziskovanje: Čas izvajanja raziskave nam zaradi epidemije ni bil naklonjen. Lastna raziskava pa nakazuje potrebo po anketiranju dijakov v vseh slovenskih regijah, saj bi s tem merili vplivnost vseh proučevanih gradnikov s perspektive dijakov vseh srednješolskih programov. Ključne besede: usmerjanje, vodenje, dijaki, učitelj, učinkovitost. Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 199-222. 222 Copyright (c) Biljana BAHAT, Marija OVSENIK, Nikolaj LIPIČ Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 223-242. * Korespondenčni avtor / Correspondence author 223 Prejeto: 13. oktober 2021; revidirano: 22. oktober 2021; sprejeto: 23. november 2021. / Received: 13th October 2021; revised: 22nd October 2021; accepted: 23rd November 2021. DOI: 10.37886/ip.2021.028 Turnover Intentions of Employees in some Slovenian Organisations Experiencing Crisis Rok Pipan* Faculty of Organisation Studies Novo mesto, Ulica talcev 3, 8000 Novo mesto, Slovenia rok_pipan@t-2.net Milan Ambrož Faculty of Organisation Studies Novo mesto, Ulica talcev 3, 8000 Novo mesto, Slovenia milan.ambroz@fos-unm.si Abstract: Background and Originality: The purpose of this paper is to determine the relationship between job satisfaction, the inclusion of employees in the organisation’s crisis-solving process, and employees' turnover intentions. Through this research we contribute to understanding of the importance of job satisfaction and inclusion of the employees in the organisation’s crisis-solving process as predictors of employees' turnover intentions. We also highlight the importance of employees’ low turnover intentions for sustaining a resilient organisation. Method: A retrospective study was conducted using an online questionnaire to collect data from a sample of 469 participants in Slovenia. The instrument was developed based on a review of research literature. Job satisfaction was measured with 7 items, the inclusion of employees in the organisation’s crisis-solving process with 3 items, and employees' turnover intentions with 4 items. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to reduce the dimensions and to determine the principal components, while multiple regression analysis was conducted to test the hypotheses. Results: The results show that job satisfaction has a significant negative impact on employees' turnover intentions whereas the exclusion of employees from the organisation’s crisis-solving process has a significant positive impact on employees' turnover intentions. Society: Institutions in society can cope with crises by maintaining the citizens’ positive mood with respect to resolving the crisis and by actively involving citizens in the crisis-solving process. Limitations/further research: The study sample was too small to allow the results to be generalised to the entire population. Additional job satisfaction variables should be included in future research. The snowball sampling method indicates limited access to certain groups of participants according to their age and educational level. The validity and reliability of the instrument was examined only in the present study. Keywords: organisation, employee, satisfaction, inclusion, turnover intentions, crisis, resilience. 1 Introduction In the contemporary era of multifaceted crises, organisations' successful coping with a crisis is a topic attracting the attention of both professionals and scholars and may become even more important in the coming decades. Organisations must learn how to adopt to new challenging crises and become more resilient. However, many organisations cannot cope with a crisis Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 223-242. 224 because in today's knowledge economy employees are the most important asset, and if employees leave the organisation, this means the organisation loses their knowledge and a crucial competitive advantage (Urbancová & Linhartová, 2011, p. 84). Horne III and Orr (1998, p. 39) emphasise that to leverage the organisational resilience needed to survive in modern chaotic times full of crises, organisations must focus on activating the factors of resilience embedded in both employees and processes. Ensuring employee turnover remains low is important for all organisations, especially during crises. Weick (1988, pp. 311-312) viewed employee turnover as a threat to the organisation’s knowledge assets, possibly weakening the organisation’s ability to respond to a crisis. Moreover, turnover negatively impacts employees’ productivity and organisational effectiveness (Barak, Nissly, & Levin, 2001, p. 627). To be resilient to crises, it is vital that the organisation acts proactively to reduce employees’ turnover (Parise, Cross, & Davenport, 2006, p. 38). A comprehensive understanding of employees' turnover intentions can help organisations introduce proactive measures to prevent it (Fasbender, Van der Heijden, & Grimshaw, 2019, p. 32). Employees' turnover intentions is the most important predictor of employee turnover (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000, p. 480; Allen & Bryant, 2012, p. 14; Steel & Ovalle, 1984, p. 673; Tett & Meyer, 1993, p. 505; Barak et al., 2001, p. 652). Namely, employees' turnover intentions indicate the degree to which they intend to leave the organisation (Martin, 1979, p. 316). In general, intentions represent what people are willing to do in order to perform a behaviour (Ajzen, 1991, p. 181). Barak et al. (2001, p. 625) argued the most important predictors of employee turnover and employees' turnover intentions are organisation- or job-related, which can be influenced by managers and organisational policymakers. One of these factors is job satisfaction. Although the influence of job satisfaction on employees' turnover intention is widely researched, there are few empirical studies examining job satisfaction’s influence on employees' turnover intentions during crises, a time when organisational resilience is the most visible. Some empirical evidence shows that during the crisis brought by the COVID-19 pandemic job satisfaction has been negatively associated with employees' turnover intentions (Abd-Ellatif, Anwar, AlJifri, & El Dalatony, 2021, p. 1; Hidayat et al., 2021, p. 121), yet not all studies have reached this conclusion (Wong et al., 2021, p. 1). Several scholars and practitioners emphasise that crises in organisations can be resolved by including employees in the crisis-solving process (Seeger, Ulmer, Novak & Sellnow, 2005, p. 87; McCann III, Lee, Morrison, Selsky & Vickers, 2006, p. 21; Ochetan & Ochetan, 2012, p. 774; Carden, Maldonado, & Boyd, 2018, p. 29). However, we were unable to find any empirical study specifically examining the impact of including employees in the organisation's crisis- solving process on employees' turnover intentions. According to Mor Barak, Levin, Nissly and Lane (2006, p. 552), only a few studies have investigated the relationship between perceptions of employees' organisational inclusion and employees' turnover intentions. Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 223-242. 225 This paper identifies factors affecting employees’ turnover intention during a crisis in an organisation and the factors that may lead to a turnover crisis. First, we explore the literature on job satisfaction, the inclusion of employees in the organisation’s crisis-solving process as well as the turnover intentions of employees with regard to leaving the organisation during the crisis. Second, we propose a model that successfully reduces employee intentions to leave the organisation during a crisis. The purpose of this study is to test a theoretical model based on the concept of organisational resilience and to examine the relationships between job satisfaction, inclusion of employees in the organisation’s crisis-solving process, and employees' turnover intentions. We expect the results to show that higher job satisfaction and the greater inclusion of employees in the organisation's crisis-solving process significantly reduces employees' turnover intentions during crises. This would then also confirm the appropriateness of using the concept of organisational resilience while designing the theoretical model, the importance of constantly maintaining high levels of employee job satisfaction during crises and the role of managers of the organisation in including employees in the organisation's crisis-solving process for assuring positive employees' outcomes. 2 Theoretical framework 2.1 Resilient organisation Stewart and O’Donnell (2007, p. 247) described resilience as an organisation’s ability to respond positively to, adapt to, and learn from disruptive change. Horne III and Orr (1998, p. 31) defined resilience as the "fundamental quality of individuals, groups, organisations, and systems as a whole to respond productively to significant change that disrupts the expected pattern of events without engaging in an extended period of regressive behavior". Lee, Vargo and Seville (2013, p. 29) stated that organisational resilience can be a source of competitiveness. Boin and van Eeten (2013, p. 430) noted the literature suggests resilient organisations can exhibit high levels of performance even under adverse circumstances. The concept of organisational resilience consists of characteristics that enable the resilient organisation to cope with disruptive change. Denyer (2017, p. 5) defined two core characteristics of organisational resilience: the defensive characteristic that permits organisations to prevent bad things from happening and the progressive characteristic that enables organisations to make good things happen. Linnenluecke (2015, p. 1) highlighted similar two characteristics of resilience. She defines resilience as the strength of organisations and employees to persevere and recover in the face of disruptive change. Coutu (2002, p. 4) added that resilient organisations possess three specific characteristics for dealing with disruptive change: acceptance of the reality, the ability to find the meaning of existence regardless of the situation, and the ability to improvise. Vogus and Sutcliffe (2003, p. 107) stressed that a resilient organisation responds to adverse circumstances with a broader range of information, decentralised authority, and by using the available organisational resources, Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 223-242. 226 resulting in positive adaptation, while a non-resilient organisation responds rigidly by relying on a narrow range of information, centralised authority, and the economisation of resources, resulting in negative adaptation to adverse circumstances. 2.2 Job satisfaction Job satisfaction is a group of characteristics of the job and work environment that the employee finds satisfactory or unsatisfactory (Churchill, Ford, & Walker, 1974, p. 255). In the broader context, job satisfaction encompasses issues affecting employees' experiences of their work and quality of work life (Mishra, 2013, p. 49). Zhu (2013, p. 294) observed the fact that job satisfaction research has evolved from a single perspective about an employee's affection for their job to a multiple perspective in which affection is complemented by cognition, which represents a more logical and rational evaluation of working conditions in comparison with an employee's references. Saari and Judge (2004, p. 396) added that thinking and feeling are involved in the evaluation process of everything important to a person, including the evaluation of a job and work environment. According to Rabbi et al. (2015, p. 320), job satisfaction has been extensively researched and is closely related to employee motivation, performance, commitment, retention and turnover. Traven (1998, p. 131) argued the organisation should constantly maintain high levels of employee job satisfaction to prevent undesirable effects of dissatisfaction such as absenteeism, lower performance, and undesirable employee turnover. Rabbi et al. (2015, p. 327) argued that organisations constantly confront the fact that employees may leave the organisation during the crisis and one of the reasons for that is low job satisfaction among employees. Several studies have confirmed the negative relationship between job satisfaction and employees' turnover intentions (Michaels & Spector, 1982, p. 56; Mor Barak at al, 2006, p. 566; Jones & George; 2012, p. 85; Cheng & Waldenberger, 2013, p. 31; Pang, Kucukusta, & Chan, 2015, p. 585; Voigt & Hirst, 2015, p. 585; Gholipour Soleimani & Einolahzadeh, 2017, p. 12; Jabeen, Friesen, & Ghoudi, 2018, p. 363). However, some empirical studies did not find a significant influence of job satisfaction on employees' turnover intentions (Smith, Holtom, & Mitchell, 2011, p. 298; Nie, Ding, & Sousa-Poza, 2020, pp. 1-2). 2.3 Inclusion of employees Shore et al. (2011, p. 1265) defined inclusion “as the degree to which an employee perceives that he or she is an esteemed member of the work group through experiencing treatment that satisfies his or her needs for belongingness and uniqueness”. Miller and Katz (2002, p. 17) argued that including the employees creates a sense of belonging to the organisation that boosts their motivation and self-confidence and increases the available human energy in the organisation. Mor-Barak and Cherin (1998, p. 59) stated that such inclusion incorporates an employee's perception of their influence on the decision-making process, work group involvement, and access to resources and information. Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 223-242. 227 Some empirical studies showed that particular inclusive organisational practices are negatively related to employees' turnover intentions (Mor Barak et al., 2006, p. 566; Chordiya, 2020, p. 18). Managers in the organisation play an important role in creating a strong sense of inclusion among employees (Mor Barak et al., 2006, p. 567), which is especially important during times of crisis in the organisation. According to Kuknor and Bhattacharya (2021, pp. 106-107), managing the inclusion of a diverse workforce during crises has positive organisational outcomes, including a lower desire of the employees to leave the organisation. Randel et al. (2018, p. 198) added that the inclusive behaviours of managers are positively associated with employee behavioural outcomes such as lower turnover. The inclusion of employees in the organisation's crisis-solving process can be encouraged by managers in several ways. Mallak (1998, p. 8), in the context of the managerial decentralisation of authority, explained that sharing decision-making power allows employees to respond to change in a timely and effective manner. Kahn, Barton and Fellows (2013, pp. 390-391) argued that managers must involve employees in the organisation's crisis-solving process and at the same time they must lead by example and clearly explain employees’ role in achieving the planned goals. Seeger et al. (2005, pp. 78, 83) described the importance of communication during a crisis. Managers have to act immediately and show their commitment to solving the crisis and secure the salaries, even if the organisation is not operating. In this way, they reduce the pressure on employees who are worried about their survival and encourage them to cooperate and commit to rebuilding the organisation. McCoy and Elwood (2009, p. 13) argued that in times of crisis, managers are in the focus of the employees' attention. They observe the managers' reactions to the crisis and demand explanations about the situation and the consequences of the crisis. 2.4 Turnover intentions At a time of crisis, it is important for an organisation not to lose its highly competent employees. They are hard to replace because they are scarce in the labour market (Rabbi et al., 2015, p. 319). Employees' low turnover intentions may be controlled by ensuring high job satisfaction. Meta-analyses show that job satisfaction negatively affects employees' turnover intentions (Barak et al., 2001, p. 653; Nouri Parker, 2020, p. 297; Kim & Kim, 2021, p. 11). Jabeen, Friesen and Ghoudi (2018, pp. 356, 360) conducted a study with 323 women employed in the United Arab Emirates and found that job satisfaction reduces employees' turnover intentions. Egan, Yang and Bartlett (2004, pp. 279, 287) obtained similar results in an empirical study with 245 employees of information technology companies in the United States of America that job satisfaction negatively affects employees' turnover intentions. The elements of inclusion ensure that employees feel valued by the organisation and act to reduce their turnover intentions. Barak (2003, p. 249) concluded that women and members of racial and ethnic minorities often feel excluded from networks of influence within Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 223-242. 228 organisations, resulting in fewer job opportunities and career advancement which, among others, increases turnover. In a study conducted in the USA, Chordiya (2020, p. 18) found that some elements of organisational inclusion (i.e., perceived organisational fairness, cooperativeness, empowerment) reduce employees' turnover intentions. Mor Barak et al. (2006, p. 566) pointed out that exclusion from the organisational decision-making process along with a lack of job satisfaction are among the strongest predictors of employees' turnover intentions. Demirović Bajrami et al.'s (2021, p. 1) research findings show that job insecurity and changes negatively impacted turnover intentions. To provide clearer evidence of the influence of job satisfaction and the inclusion of employees in the organisation's crisis-solving process on employees' turnover intentions, we propose an empirical model (Figure 1). Figure 1. Empirical model of the impact of job satisfaction and inclusion of employees in the organisation's crisis- solving process on employees' turnover intentions To test the model shown in Figure 1, we propose two hypotheses: H1: Job satisfaction has a significant negative effect on employees’ turnover intentions. H2: The inclusion of employees in the organisation's crisis-solving process has a significant negative effect on their turnover intentions. 3 Method To test the hypotheses, we used the questionnaire survey method. For the purpose of the study, we developed the instrument based on theoretical issues and empirical findings, including statements about job satisfaction, inclusion of employees in the organisation’s crisis-solving process and employees’ turnover intentions using a five-point, Likert-type interval scale, as presented in Table 1. Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 223-242. 229 Table 1. Statements in the survey on job satisfaction, exclusion of employees, and turnover intentions No Statement Job satisfaction 1 I was satisfied with the opportunities for advancement in the organisation. 2 I was satisfied with my relationships with co-workers. 3 I was satisfied with the opportunities for professional development. 4 I was satisfied with the freedom the organisation offered me. 5 Our manager understood that fair work is followed by fair pay. 6 In the organisation I left; we employees were able to work independently in our work area. 7 In the organisation I left, they appreciated the commitment and effort I put into achieving my work goals. Exclusion of employees 8 During the crisis, the management of the organisation developed new projects and encouraged innovative work from all members of the organisation, but I was not invited to participate, so I decided to leave the organisation. 9 I did not have the opportunity to constantly communicate with the management and other employees of the organisation in solving the crisis, so I decided to leave the organisation. 10 Other members of the organisation and management did not want me to be involved in solving crisis problems, so I decided to leave the organisation. Turnover intentions 11 Long before I left the organisation due to the crisis, I was actively looking for a new job. 12 I tried hard to find a new job so I could leave the organisation due to the crisis. 13 My desire to leave the organisation intensified with the crisis in the organisation. 14 I talked to other people several times about leaving the organisation because of the crisis. The focus of this study was the population of employees in Slovenia who had at least once voluntarily left their organisation while it was involved in a crisis. To obtain the sample for the analysis, we used the snowball sampling method. This method was chosen due to limited resources and limited time to conduct the research, albeit with awareness of its limitations. Voicu and Babonea (2007, p. 1345) emphasised that the snowball sampling method’s characteristics mean the researcher has limited control over the method, not knowing the real distribution of the population of the sample and because initial participants tend to invite participants similar to themselves and thus the entire population will not be properly represented by the sample. The survey was conducted in September and October 2019. They received a link to the anonymous questionnaire together with a request to forward it to any further possible candidates for participating in the survey. Finally, we obtained a response from 628 participants. After examining the survey data, we excluded 159 incomplete questionnaires and questionnaires of those participants who had never voluntarily left the organisation. In further analysis we included 469 questionnaires. The survey data were statistically analysed using TIBCO Statistica and IBM SPSS Statistics software. Descriptive statistics such as mean value, standard deviation, frequency, were used to describe the participants’ characteristics. The data were investigated for outliers using the box- plot instrument, with no significant outliers being found. As suggested by (Bastič, 2006), the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin test (KMO test) and Bartlett's test of sphericity were used to confirm the suitability of using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). A test of the power of communalities Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 223-242. 230 was performed to define which variables would be used in the PCA and Kaiser criterion (Kaiser, 1960) was used as a criterion for principal component extraction, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with Varimax rotation was conducted in order to reduce the number of variables and create principal components. We investigated the thus created principal components data distribution to ensure the assumption of data normal distribution is not void. Multiple regression analysis was conducted to test the hypotheses in the model and identify factors associated with employees' turnover intentions. Multicollinearity in the regression model was examined before interpreting the results. Cronbach's alpha coefficient (Cronbach, 1951) was used to test the reliability of the instrument in the study. The results in Table 2 show the items in the questionnaire was internally consistent, demonstrating reliability of the scales higher than .75. All items showed the high reliability of instruments for all principal components (< .70). Table 2. Reliability of instruments in principal components Principal component Number of items Cronbach's alpha Job satisfaction 7 .822 Turnover intentions 4 .811 Exclusion of employees 3 .763 Validity was obtained through the development and use of the instrument according to purpose of the study and theoretical framework. This is also confirmed by the study’s results which are in line with purpose of the study and empirical model. 4 Results 4.1 Demographic data The demographic data of the sample presented in Table 3 show a balanced gender distribution. The sample participants were 35 years old or older (87.9%), had at least a bachelor's degree (84.9%), were employed for indefinite or definite period of time (88.5%), had voluntarily left the private sector (71.1%), and did not hold a managerial position (62.9%). Participants had voluntarily left micro/small, medium and large organisations in similar proportions. Table 3. Demographic data of the sample Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 223-242. 231 Category Frequency Relative frequency in % Gender Male 232 49.5 Female 237 50.5 Age 15-24 years 3 0.6 25-34 years 54 11.5 35-44 years 173 36.9 45-54 years 177 37.7 55-64 years 57 12.2 65 years and older 5 1.1 Education Primary school or less (SQF* level 1. 2) 2 0.4 Vocational secondary school (SQF level 3. 4) 1 0.2 Secondary school (SQF level 5) 49 10.4 Higher post-secondary vocational education (SQF level 6) 19 4.1 Bachelor's degree (SQF level 7) 70 14.9 Master's degree (SQF level 8) 219 46.7 Master of science (SQF level 9) 77 16.4 Doctoral degree (SQF level 10) 32 6.8 Managerial position Managerial position 174 37.1 No status 295 62.9 Current status of participants on the labour market Employed for indefinite or definite period 415 88.5 Student work 9 1.9 Employed, other forms of work 45 9.6 Sector of organisation participants last left Public sector 134 28.6 Private sector 335 71.4 Structure of organisations in the sample by size Micro/small (0-49 employees) 151 32.2 Medium (50-249 employees) 151 32.2 Large (250 or more employees) 167 35.6 * Slovenian Qualifications Framework (SQF) 4.2 Principal component analysis PCA was used with the aim of clarifying the observed variables through a smaller number of principal components. There were more than five times as many items in the questionnaire as there were variables in the tested empirical model and we concluded that the sample was big enough to conduct PCA (Hair et al. (2006, p. 112). Table 4 shows that the KMO test results as a measure of sampling adequacy (KMO = .827) proved the appropriateness of using PCA (Kaiser, 1974, p. 35) and Bartlett’s test of sphericity (chi-square = 2355.312, df = 95, sig. = .000) indicated that the variables in the population correlation matrix are uncorrelated (Malhotra, 2010, p. 608) (Table 4). Table 4. KMO and Bartlett's tests Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy .827 Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 223-242. 232 Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 2355.312 df 95 Sig. .000 The test of the power of communalities of the variables in the analysis showed commonalities greater than .30. and we included all variables in further analysis. For the selection of the principal components, we employed the Kaiser criterion (Kaiser, 1960) that states components with eigenvalues greater than 1 may be included in further analysis. The results are shown in Table 5. The principal components included in further analysis accounted for 57.7 % of the total variance. Table 5. Total Variance Explained Component Eigenvalue % Total variance Cumulative Eigenvalue Cumulative % Job satisfaction 4.617 33.0 4.617 33.0 Turnover intentions 2.090 14.9 6.707 47.9 Exclusion of employees 1.372 9.8 8.079 57.7 The rotated principal component matrix using a varimax normalisation presented in Table 6 yielded a three-component structure: job satisfaction (33 %), turnover intentions (14.9 %) and exclusion of employees (9.8 %). Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 223-242. 233 Table 6. Rotated Component Matrix (Varimax Normalised) Loadings are > .40 No. Variable Job satisfaction Exclusion of employees Turnover intention Mean Std. Dev. Job satisfaction 1 I was satisfied with the opportunities for advancement in the organisation. .700 -.192 -.001 2.603 1.190 2 I was satisfied with my relationships with co-workers. .552 -.087 -.115 3.635 1.148 3 I was satisfied with the opportunities for professional development. .670 -.223 -.021 3.000 1.218 4 I was satisfied with the freedom the organisation offered me. .779 -.081 -.046 3.145 1.266 5 Our manager understood that fair work is followed by fair pay. .634 -.045 -.125 2.921 1.191 6 In the organisation I left; we employees were able to work independently in our work area. .668 -.156 .007 3.377 1.074 7 In the organisation I left, they appreciated the commitment and effort I put into achieving my work goals. .761 -.065 -.135 3.069 1.147 Turnover intentions 8 Long before I left the organisation due to the crisis, I was actively looking for a new job. -.091 .808 .027 2.34 1.156 9 I tried hard to find a new job so I could leave the organisation due to the crisis. -.141 .840 .151 2.39 1.171 10 My desire to leave the organisation intensified with the crisis in the organisation. -.208 .741 .233 2.93 1.246 11 I talked to other people several times about leaving the organisation because of the crisis. -.186 .669 .209 2.73 1.193 Exclusion of employees 12 During the crisis, the management of the organisation developed new projects and encouraged innovative work from all members of the organisation, but I was not invited to participate, so I decided to leave the organisation. .022 .089 .779 2.20 1.028 13 I did not have the opportunity to constantly communicate with the management and other employees of the organisation in solving the crisis, so I decided to leave the organisation. -.172 .193 .816 2.57 1.161 14 Other members of the organisation and management did not want me to be involved in solving crisis problems, so I decided to leave the organisation. -.137 .220 .788 2.38 1.083 4.3 Regression analysis Hypotheses in the model were tested using regression analysis. First, we tested for a normal distribution. The results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test in Table 7 show the data are not normally distributed as all statistics are significant (Field, 2009, p. 146). Skewness results show the interval between -.2 and .2, which means the distribution is not significantly skewed (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson and Tatham, 2006, p. 40), and kurtosis was on interval from -0.6 to 0.6. Since we had a large sample, the values for skewness and kurtosis were close to 0, and Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 223-242. 234 visual inspection of the histograms showed approximately normal distributions, we decided to perform a regression analysis. Table 7. Test of normality for principal components Constructs Kolmogorov-Smirnov Skewness and kurtosis Statistic Sig. Skewness Kurtosis Job satisfaction .064 .040 -0.151 -0.402 Exclusion of employees .096 .000 0.186 -0.395 Turnover intentions .076 .008 0.039 -0.564 The correlation analysis presented in Table 8 showed that job satisfaction, exclusion of employees (r = -.241, P < .01) and turnover intentions (r = -.374, P < .01) were significantly correlated. Exclusion of employees was significantly correlated with turnover intentions (r = .399, p < .01). Table 8. Correlation matrix between predictors and the dependent variable Constructs and correlations Job satisfaction Exclusion of employees Turnover intentions Job satisfaction Pearson correlation 1 Exclusion of employees -.241** 1 Turnover intentions -.374** .399** 1 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Table 9 showed the highest mean score for job satisfaction (mean = 3.11, Std. Dev. = 0.82), followed by turnover intentions (mean = 2.60, Std. Dev. = 0.95) and exclusion of employees (mean = 2.38, Std. Dev. = 0.90). Table 9. Descriptive statistics Constructs No. Min. Max. Mean Std. Dev. Job satisfaction 469 1 5 3.11 0.82 Exclusion of employees 469 1 5 2.38 0.90 Turnover intentions 469 1 5 2.60 0.95 We tested the relationship between independent variables and the dependent variable using multiple regression analysis using the equation: Turnover intentions = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1× job satisfaction + 𝛽2× exclusion of employees The results in Table 10 showed the regression model (R2 = .491) was significant and had moderate predicting power (F = 74.086; p = .000). It explained 49.1% of the variability in turnover intention. To adjust the number of predictors in the model, we adjusted R2, which increases when significant predictor variables are included in the model, and decreases when predictor variables do not add significant value to the regression model. The result showed a moderate relationship between the predictor variables and dependent variable in the regression model (R2adj = .238). Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 223-242. 235 Table 10. Overall fit of regression model for turnover intentions Dependent Variable Multiple R Multiple R2 Adjusted R2 F p Turnover intentions .491 .241 .238 74.086 .000*** To test the overall fit of the regression model, we used the Variance Inflation Factor. Results of the test given in Table 11 showed that multicollinearity in the regression model was low (VIF = 1.06). Table 11. Collinearity statistics of the regression model for turnover intentions Effect Tolerance VIF R2 Beta in Partial t p Exclusion of employees 0.942 1.062 .058 0.327 0.343 7.877 .000 Job satisfaction 0.942 1.062 .058 -0.296 -0.313 -7.108 .000 The standardised beta coefficient values presented in Table 12 revealed that the strongest and positive predictor of employees’ turnover intentions was the “exclusion of employees” (ß = 0.327; p = .000). The second predictor of employees’ turnover intentions was “job satisfaction” (ß = -0.296; p = .000). The predictor was negative, denoting that the dissatisfaction of the employees with their job increases their turnover intention to leave an organisation. The equation of the regression model for turnover intention was: Turnover intentions = 2.840 - 0.296 × job satisfaction + 0.327 × exclusion of employees Table 12. Parameter estimates of the regression model for turnover intentions Effect Parameter Standard Error t p Beta (ß) Standard error of ß Intercept 2.840 0.207 13.750 .000 Exclusion of employees 0.347 0.044 7.877 .000 0.327 0.042 Job satisfaction -0.344 0.048 -7.108 .000 -0.296 0.042 5 Discussion The results of our study show that it is crucial that during the time of the organisation’s crisis the management motivates the employees to stay in the organisation and contribute to the crisis- solving efforts. The research findings support hypothesis H1: “Job satisfaction has a significant negative effect on employees' turnover intentions” and we can thus accept it. More specifically, our results reveal that employees who are satisfied with their job are less likely to leave the organisation than dissatisfied ones. Several studies support the results of this hypothesis (Rabbi et al., 2015, p. 324; Coudounaris, Akuffo, & Nkulenu, 2020, p. 12; Li, Zhang, Xiao, Chen, & Lu, 2020, p. 5; Halcomb, Bird, Mcinnes, Ashley, & Huckel, 2021, p. 947; Zhao et al., 2021, p. 6). The Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 223-242. 236 findings of our study are consistent with Hidayat et al. (2021, p. 121) and Abd-Ellatif, et al.'s (2021, p. 5) empirical study findings that showed that employees with higher job satisfaction have lower intentions of leaving the organisation during the COVID-19 crisis. According to these findings, employees' turnover intentions are lower when employees are satisfied with their opportunities for advancement and professional development in the organisation, when they receive recognition for their work, when the organisation offers them freedom and independence, when managers understand that fair work is followed by fair pay, and when they have good relationships with their co-workers. Rabbi et al. (2015, p. 328) provide partial support for the findings of our study, concluding that job satisfaction, with the facets pay, promotion, supervisor, co-worker and nature of work, has a significant negative relationship with employees’ turnover intentions. The research findings confirm hypothesis H2: “The inclusion of employees in the organisation's crisis-solving process has a significant negative effect on their turnover intentions”. The results indicate that employees who were included in the organisation's crisis-solving process were less likely to intend to leave the organisation during a crisis. We conclude that employees' turnover intentions are lower when employees have the opportunity to constantly communicate with management and other employees about solving the crisis in the organisation. It is also true that when they are involved in solving crisis-related problems and new projects and their innovative suggestions about the solving of the crisis are accepted, their turnover intention is low. These research findings are congruent with those of Brimhall, Lizano and Mor Barak (2014, pp. 83, 85), showing that exclusion from decision-making processes, information networks, and level of participation/involvement has a significant negative indirect effect on employees' turnover intentions and significantly increases job satisfaction. Moreover, Pennie and Christopher (1997, p. 350) argue that more opportunities for employees to influence the decision-making and operations in the organisation strengthens employees' meaningful involvement in the organisation and its operations. The organisation has a better chance of overcoming a crisis if the employees’ turnover intentions are lower, which may be achieved through employees’ greater inclusion in the organisation's crisis-solving process and higher job satisfaction. By involving employees in the organisation's crisis-solving process and ensuring high employee job satisfaction, the organisation can avoid any following turnover crisis, which could erode the organisation’s efforts to solve the main crisis. 6 Conclusion Employees are an important asset in resolving crises and building organisations’ resilience. Motivating and inspiring employees to stay with the organisation during a crisis is the high priority task of managers. Job satisfaction and inclusion of employees in the organisation's crisis-solving process are important predictors of employees' turnover intentions. Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 223-242. 237 The research findings of our study contribute to the theoretical body of research on the nature of solving crises and building up organisational resilience. The current study highlights the importance of preventing the loss of employees during a crisis. In particular, our study reveals that, by ensuring a high level of job satisfaction and inclusion of employees in the organisation's crisis-solving process during a crisis, organisations can reduce the employees’ turnover intentions and contribute to building up the organisations’ resilience. This research was novel in revealing the inclusion of employees in the organisation's crisis-solving process as a specific predictor of employees’ turnover intentions during a crisis. It shows that employees want to participate in the organisation's crisis-solving process and help the organisation overcome the crisis. Without being included in the organisation's crisis-solving process, they are more likely to leave the organisation, which makes the organisation become less resilient. This study also suggests formulating employees’ turnover intentions statements in the instrument in a way that reflects a particular crisis. By doing so, we emphasise a crisis in the organisation may act as a driver of employees’ turnover intentions and influencing their final decisions about their future workplace. Our research findings hold practical implications for management and organisation. The vantage point of our study is its focus on employees’ role in the processes of solving a crisis in the organisation. The second focus points to the need for open and direct communication with employees during a crisis. Our study has some research limitations that should be addressed. First, the study sample is not large enough to generalise the results to the entire population of employees in Slovenia. Second, although the job satisfaction variables examine many important dimensions of job satisfaction, additional variables addressing attitudes toward one’s supervisor, working conditions, status and job characteristics should be included in the model. Third, the choice of the snowball sampling method indicates limited access to participants aged 15 to 24 years and participants with some level of education (primary school or less, vocational secondary school, secondary school). Fourth, the instrument used in this study was developed based on the research literature reviewed. 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Zhu, Y. (2013). A Review of Job Satisfaction. Asian Social Science, 9(1), 293–298. https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v9n1p293 *** Rok Pipan is a doctoral student of Quality Management at the Faculty of Organisation Studies in Novo mesto. He has worked for over 20 years in the fields of human resources, information technology and digitalisation of HR processes in various local and international organisations. *** Milan Ambrož is a Professor Emeritus at the Faculty of Organization Studies in Novo mesto. His research interests are human resource management, organizational culture, leadership, and time management. He has published several scientific, professional articles and books. He has received awards as a landscape and abstract photographer. *** Izzivi prihodnosti / Challenges of the Future, Članek / Article November 2021, leto / year 6, številka / number 4, str. / pp. 223-242. 242 Povzetek: Namera za prostovoljni odhod zaposlenih v nekaterih slovenskih organizacijah v krizi Ozadje in izvirnost: Z raziskavo želimo ugotoviti, kakšno je razmerje med zadovoljstvom z delom, vključenostjo zaposlenih v proces reševanja krize v organizaciji in namero zaposlenih za prostovoljni odhod iz organizacije. S to raziskavo prispevamo k razumevanju, kako sta zadovoljstvo z delom in vključenost zaposlenih v proces reševanja krize v organizaciji pomembna napovedovalca namere za prostovoljni odhod iz organizacije. Poudarjamo tudi pomen nizke namere za prostovoljni odhod iz organizacije za ohranjanje organizacijske odpornosti. Metoda: Retrospektivna raziskava je bila izvedena s spletnim vprašalnikom. Vzorec je sestavljalo 469 oseb iz Slovenije. Merski instrument je bil oblikovan na podlagi pregledane znanstvene literature. Zadovoljstvo z delom smo merili s sedmimi trditvami, izključenost zaposlenih iz procesa reševanja krize v organizaciji s tremi trditvami in namero zaposlenih za prostovoljni odhod iz organizacije s štirimi trditvami. Analiza glavnih komponent (PCA) je bila uporabljena za zmanjšanje števila spremenljivk in oblikovanje glavnih komponent. Za preverjanje hipotez smo uporabili multiplo regresijsko analizo. Rezultati: Rezultati so pokazali, da ima zadovoljstvo z delom pomemben negativni vpliv na namero zaposlenih za prostovoljni odhod iz organizacije, medtem ko ima izključenost zaposlenih iz procesa reševanja krize v organizaciji pomemben pozitivni vpliv na namero zaposlenih, da prostovoljno odidejo iz organizacije. Družba: Institucije v družbi se lahko uspešno spopadejo s kriznimi razmerami tako, da ohranijo pozitivno razpoloženje državljanov za reševanje krize in z aktivnim vključevanjem državljanov v proces reševanja krize. Omejitve/nadaljnje raziskovanje: Vzorec raziskave je bil premajhen, da bi rezultate posplošili na celotno populacijo. V prihodnje raziskave je treba vključiti dodatne spremenljivke zadovoljstva z delom. Vzorčenje po metodi snežne kepe kaže na omejen dostop do nekaterih skupin udeležencev,in sicer glede na njihovo starost in stopnjo izobrazbe. Veljavnost in zanesljivost instrumenta sta omejeni na obstoječo raziskavo. Ključne besede: organizacija, zaposleni, zadovoljstvo, vključenost, namera za prostovoljni odhod, kriza, odpornost. Copyright (c) Rok PIPAN, Milan AMBROŽ Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.