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Eva Sicherl             UDK 811.163.6'373.231:811.111
University of Ljubljana* DOI: 10.4312/linguistica.55.1.273-289
THE ENGLISH-SLOVENE LANGUAGE CONTACT: 
BORROWING OF PERSONAL NAMES
1. INTRODUCTION
Bo Kevin Kampl igral? Vse bolj se zdi, da ne. [Is Kevin Kampl to play? It seems 
unlikely.]1
Such and similar were this year’s headlines in Slovene sports newspapers. The 
Slovene footballer, though born in Germany and of mixed Slovene-German parent-
age, may currently be the most famous Slovene bearing the name of Kevin. This name, 
unused in Slovenia prior to 1970, exemplifies the trend of fashionable name borrow-
ing from a prestigious foreign culture. The national statistical data show that this male 
English name first appeared in Slovenia around 1970, gained popularity in 1990, and 
peaked in 1996. Regionally, about 50 percent of all newborns named Kevin lived in 
Štajerska and Prekmurje, followed by Primorska (about 25 percent) (see Statistični 
urad Republike Slovenije, hereafter SURS; cf. Lenarčič 2012: 405). Why have so many 
Slovene parents in the 1990s decided to name their child Kevin? The unwitting culprit 
for its popularity is most probably the American actor Kevin Costner, whose acting 
career peaked between 1987 and 1992.
However, the naming of a newborn gives the baby identity. While Slovene par-
ents can choose from a number of original Slovene first names whose etymologies 
are undoubtedly Slovene (e.g. Mojca, Ajda), there is an even greater pool of first 
names to choose from that have been borrowed in the past from various sources 
and are no longer felt to be foreign at all although their origins may be Germanic, 
Romance, Latin(ate), or Slavic (e.g. Albert, Renato, Aleš, Igor). But during the past 
few decades, the lists of popular names that are given to newborns in Slovenia have 
become increasingly foreign-sounding. Between 1981 and 1990, several English-
derived names, Robert/Robi, Alen/Alan, Elvis, Patrik, Diana, Lana, Samanta and 
Sabrina, made it onto the list of 200 most popular names of the decade.2 The next 
decade (1991–2000), saw a new influx of (potentially) English names: Kevin, 
Vanesa/Vanessa, Tara, Alex/Alexander, Kim, Patrick, Melani/Melanie, Neli, Sarah, 
* Oddelek za anglistiko in amerikanistiko/Department of English and American Studies, Filozof-
ska fakulteta, Aškerčeva 2, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; eva.sicherl@ff.uni-lj.si
1 ekipa24.si/clanek/nogomet/evropskipokali/54eadfea90a96/po-kvalifikacijah-usodna-se-poskod-
ba; accessed July 2015.
2 The etymological origins of these names are not always English, but the English-speaking culture 
may have played a decisive role in their dissemination. For the criteria on inclusion among names 
from English source, see section 3.1.
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and Nick, with Diana, Samanta, Alan, and Sabrina still persevering among the top 
200. The statistical list for 2001–2013 shows new additions, such as Zara, Liam, Ian 
and Emma featuring among the top 200. Given that naming a newborn child is one of 
the most intimate events in a family's life – why do parents feel the need to introduce 
a foreign(-language) element into this act? 
2. A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF BORROWING OF PERSONAL NAMES 
IN SLOVENIA
The phenomenon of borrowing personal names is, naturally, not limited to Slovenia. 
It has been observed elsewhere in Europe (cf. Lenarčič 2012: 886). In Denmark, for 
example, certain English name equivalents are currently found to be more attractive 
than the traditional Danish forms, so William tops the list of names of newborn male 
children for 2014 (www.dst.dk/en). The form William peaked between 2006 and 2010, 
but remains immensely popular, unlike the Danish variant Vilhelm, which has also been 
on the rise, but is far less popular than the English form (www.dst.dk/en). Similarly, 
the English form Henry has experienced a sharp rise in popularity since 2011 over the 
traditional Danish form Henrik, which has been on a steady decline since 1985, but 
nevertheless remains the fifth most common name of the total Danish male population 
(www.dst.dk/en).3 The British themselves have had to come to terms with an influx of 
foreign personal names, such as Gemma, Irene, or Claire.4
Another fact that needs to be mentioned here is that the phenomenon of borrowing 
personal names has had a long tradition in the Slovene culture. Many names of for-
eign origin have been present in this area for such a long time that they are no longer 
felt to be foreign at all. Among these we find numerous Biblical names and names 
of saints that have been fully adapted into Slovene (e.g. Simon, Peter, Janez, Luka, 
Andrej; Barbara, Katarina, Tomaž), and that can be found in variant forms in most oth-
er European languages in countries with Christian tradition. Also borrowed centuries 
ago and completely adapted are some German names which testify to a strong influence 
of the German culture on practically the entire Slovene territory (e.g. Albert, Rudolf, 
Valter, Ernest, Vilma, Oto, Karel, Herman, Ferdinand, Ida, Adela, Erna, Amalija, 
Irma). Most of these names are no longer popular as names given to newborns, and are 
mainly found among the elderly Slovene population, with the exception of Oto, which 
is currently on the rise (see SURS). While names of German(ic) origin can be found 
3 The pair Henry-Henrik was also mentioned by Prof. Henrik Gottlieb in his paper within The 
Pragmatics of Borrowing seminar at the ESSE Košice Conference in September 2014.
4 The official UK statistics show that between 2003 and 2013, the name Mohammed moved from 
the 21st place to the 23rd place on the list of the most popular names, while the variant Mu-
hammad rose from the 61st place to the 15th (www.ons.gov.uk). Thus, the sum of all newborn 
Mohammeds and Muhammads in the UK in 2013 amounts to 6386, placing the name just behind 
the most popular boy name Oliver with 6949 newborn boys and before Jack with 6212 baby 
boys (www.ons.gov.uk). However, Mohammed is used in the UK for the naming of the newborn 
exclusively by Muslims and as such cannot be described as an import into the English language.
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throughout Slovenia, certain name borrowings of Italian (e.g. Ariana, Renato, Bruno) 
and Hungarian (e.g. Aranka, Zoltan, Lajoš) origins remain restricted to the border-
ing areas of Primorska and Prekmurje respectively (see SURS). Along with German 
names, some names that originate in Greek or Latin have been present for a long time 
and have become completely nativised (e.g. Aleksander, Roman, Emilija, Ambrož, 
Dijana, Ksenija, Mohor, Irena). Later additions include names from Slavic languages 
(e.g. Igor, Vanja, Mitja, Uroš, Stanislav, Ivan, Nataša), which are also no longer felt 
to be foreign at all and are by now deeply rooted. Some of these newer additions to the 
pool of personal names are variants of the older forms; thus, Nataša co-exists along 
with Natalija, and Ivan with Janez.
During the recent decades, however, increasing numbers of new names of foreign 
origin have entered lists of birth in Slovenia. Although some of these have become 
quite familiar (e.g. Karin, Karmen, Ines, Ingrid, Ula, Arne), others remain exotic and 
decidedly foreign, particularly if their spellings include non-Slovene characters (e. g. 
Alex, Max as opposed to Aleks(ander), Maks(imiljan)), a hiatus (e.g. Mia, Tia, Dorian, 
Laura, Diana instead of the more homely Mija, Tija, Dorijan, Lavra, Dijana), or dou-
ble lettering (e.g. Vanessa, Ulla, Ella, Emma). The current trend in naming newborns 
in Slovenia therefore seems to be: the more foreign(-sounding and looking), the bet-
ter. Another apparent trend is the brevity of names, as increasing numbers of three- or 
four-letter names dominate the lists. Furthermore, there is a trend towards usage of 
imaginative names that are created by parents themselves and have no etymological 
background (see also Lenarčič 2012: 891), but are simply fashionable in a particular 
period and will probably go out of use after some time (e.g. Nal, Amar, Nia, Din, Lian, 
Naj, Ajna, Nejla, Nej, to list just a few from the 2001–2013 top 200-name list).
3. PRAGMATIC BORROWING AND PERSONAL NAMES
Borrowing, particularly borrowing from English into other languages, has attracted 
a great deal of attention within linguistics from the 1950s onwards, starting with 
the pioneers of contact linguistics Haugen (1950) and Weinreich (1953). English as 
the world’s lingua franca and the popularity of Anglo-American culture practically 
throughout the world have resulted in English exerting a major influence on other lan-
guages, particularly in lexical fields such as science and technology, business, sports, 
fashion, foods, modern culture, etc. (see also Andersen 2014: 17). Naturally, research 
on anglicisms has mostly dealt with lexis and terminology, but has, in recent decades, 
begun to move beyond the word level and has started to include pragmatic and stylistic 
elements (see, for example, Prince 1988, Onysko 2009, Treffers-Daller 2010). It is 
now widely acknowledged that borrowings can convey a broad range of stylistic and 
pragmatic effects (cf. also Onysko and Winter-Froemel 2011: 1550). So far, most of 
the pragmatic research on anglicisms has focused on the borrowing of interjections or 
some other discourse features of a source language (SL) into a recipient language (RL) 
(see Andersen 2014: 17 ff and his overview), but Andersen argues for a broader defini-
tion of pragmatic borrowing that also includes associated speaker attitudes, taking into 
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account ‘sociolinguistic aspects’ and considering ‘relevant demographic predictors and 
factors such as register and style’ (cf. Andersen 2014: 18, 24).
The reorientation towards the pragmatic aspects of borrowing has resulted in more 
research on contextual factors that motivate the use of borrowed lexemes, ‘such as the 
attitudes, symbolic values and prestige associated with the SL culture’ (Andersen 2014: 
21). Pragmatically borrowed items carry important signals about the borrower’s atti-
tudes. The influence of English on present-day Slovene (and most other European lan-
guages) is a case of remote or intermediary language contact. Thus, ‘language contact 
generally lacks immediate speaker contact’ (Onysko 2007: 44), but English is neverthe-
less continuously present through popular culture on Slovene territory. By borrowing 
English personal names (along with other borrowings from English), Slovene speakers 
also participate in global trends, but such borrowing is done idiosyncratically and in a 
locally specific manner (see also Buchstaller 2008: 26).
The stylistic and pragmatic views on the study of anglicisms probably started with 
Galinsky (1967), who researched the stylistic and functional motivation for the use of 
anglicisms in German.5 A recent study made by Onysko and Winter-Froemel (2011) ex-
plores the pragmatic motivations for lexical borrowing in more detail, and has yielded 
some findings which can, to some degree, also be applied to the borrowing of English 
personal names. Many studies on linguistic borrowing (see, for example, an overview 
of these in Onysko and Winter-Froemel 2011: 1551) make a distinction between neces-
sary loans and luxury loans; this distinction is mainly based on whether the RL already 
contains a word that can be considered a semantic equivalent of the borrowed term or 
not. Naturally, this distinction has mainly been applied to usual lexical borrowings and 
not to personal names. But borrowing of names is also related to linguistic innovation, 
and the main motive for it is to be found in the prestige/fashion of the SL culture.
When a personal name is borrowed, this is clearly an example of luxury borrowing, 
particularly if we bear in mind the huge numbers of various male and female names 
at disposal that already exist in the language. It is, however, difficult to explain the 
motivation for the choice of a borrowed form over a native one in strictly linguistic 
terms. By choosing a foreign name, the parents try to introduce some local colour of 
the SL culture into their own. Once a borrowed form becomes popular and frequent, its 
markedness begins to disappear; that is why we find loanword-exoticism doublets such 
as Patrik and Patrick, the former so ‘naturalised’ that it was borrowed anew as Patrick 
in the 1990s (similar examples include Zofija/Sofija and Sofia, Ela and Ella, Sara and 
Sarah). The reasons for such borrowing may be sociolinguistically diverse, but in the 
case of English names used in Slovenia the influence of pop culture and media is prob-
ably of primary importance.6 Thus, parents’ bilingualism is no longer a prerequisite for 
borrowing.
5 Galinsky’s research has focused on the rather specific US-German context, so not all of his find-
ings can be applied equally well to the English-Slovene language situation, and, in particular, to 
the borrowing of English personal names.
6 The same phenomenon is observable in Britain and the USA: new names that appear in lists of 
popular baby names include popular film and TV-inspired first names.
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3.1 English personal names in Slovenia
It is difficult to establish the time of the first language contact between English and 
Slovene with any certainty, but the indirect contact between these two languages was 
certainly carried out via the intermediary German language and this took place centu-
ries ago. The German language has, for a very long time, played the role of the inter-
mediary language in the process of borrowing from English into Slovene. While this 
is immediately observable in the pronunciation and the spelling of some anglicisms 
that have found their way into the Slovene vocabulary via German (e.g. English: sprint 
[sprɪnt] > German: Sprint [ʃprint] > Slovene: šprint [šprint]), the German influence is 
also noticeable in some personal names borrowed into Slovene long ago that can be 
traced back to their British origin.7 Below, a selection of English first names that have 
been borrowed into Slovene is presented.
Oswald One of such early borrowings from English is the name Ožbalt and its 
variant Ožbolt, which entered from the German form Oswald, and this can be traced 
back to the English name Oswald and its Old-English (OE) form Osweald.8 Several 
churches, particularly in Koroška and Štajerska, were consecrated to this saint as early 
as the 12th century, so the name must have been familiar to at least part of the Slovene 
population since.9 The name has produced several shortened forms such as Ožbe/Ožbej/
Ožbi, and variants Ožbald/Ožbold/Osvald/Ozvald. The forms Ožbald/Ožbold/Ožbalt 
are extremely rare, the form Ožbolt is rare, but has resurfaced since 1991 as a name 
for newborns, and remains limited to Koroška and Gorenjska. Interestingly, the tradi-
tional Carinthian form Ožbej has gained ground since 1981, and has been on the rise in 
2001–2013 (ranking as high as 71st of all male newborn names in that period); while it 
is still mostly used in Koroška and Gorenjska, it has also spread to most other regions 
in Slovenia. Ožbej can serve as a classic example of a name that has been so completely 
adapted and nativised that its origin is felt to be native Slovene, particularly on account 
of the typical Carinthian ending -ej.
Edward Another early borrowing is Edvard, originating in the English name 
Edward (OE: Ēadweard). It has spread successfully throughout Europe and already ap-
7 At a meeting of the Linguistic Circle, held on December 4th 2000, at the Faculty of Arts in Ljubl-
jana, Prof. Janez Orešnik suggested that one of the first English borrowings in Slovene can be 
traced back to the Slovene dramatist Anton Tomaž Linhart and his play Miss Jenny Love (1780). 
Although the tragedy was written by Linhart in German, it can be assumed that this might be one 
of the first recorded appearances of an English phrase on Slovene territory. It seems, however, 
that certain personal names of potential English origin had been known in the area even before. 
With the earliest borrowings like Oswald, the Germanic name borrowings may have had parallel 
developments on the continent and the British Isles.
8 The etymologies of the names are cited after Hanks et al. (2006), Lenarčič (2012), and Keber 
(2008). The statistical data on the rankings and regional distributions of individual names are 
provided by SURS.
9 Thus, the first church of St. Ožbalt in Jezersko dates back to the 12th century (I owe this observa-
tion to Dr. Ferdinand Šerbelj, pers. comm. August 2015), and Sv. Ožbalt ob Dravi is mentioned 
for the first time as a place name in a document of St. Paul’s Abbey in Lavanttal in Carinthia in 
1372 (cf. http://www.kam.si/romarske_cerkve/ozbalt_ob_dravi.html; accessed August 2015).
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pears in the almanacs by Vodnik (1795–1797) (Lenarčič 2012: 201), no doubt having 
made its entrance into Slovene via German. The name was recorded before 1930 and 
has been present ever since, its popularity peaked between 1931 and 1960; the name 
has been on steady decline since 1960, its ranking is highest in Štajerska and Primorska, 
and it is currently ranking in the 98th place of all male names in Slovenia. The name 
has produced shortened variants Edo/Edi. The currency of Edo is rare according to the 
national statistics, but Edi is somewhat more popular. Edi has made it into the list of 
top 200 names in 1951–1960 (127th place), 1961–1970 (134th place), 1971–1980 (197th 
place), and again in 1991–2000 (189th place), probably due to increasing popularity of 
short names, ranking highest in Primorska.
Edith Of female names, Edita can be traced back to the English form Edith (from 
OE: Eadgyth/Eadgyō). It was recorded before 1930 and has had a rare but constant 
presence since. It prevails in Štajerska, Koroška and Prekmurje.10
Edwin The name of Edvin can be traced back to the English name Edwin (OE: 
Eadwine). The name has been present since 1941, and ranked 183rd in 1991–2000. Its 
currency was highest in Primorska. Lenarčič (2012: 202) argues that this name is also 
popular among the Muslim population living in Slovenia, on account of its similarity to 
traditional Muslim names beginning in Ed- and/or ending in -in.11
The personal names mentioned above are not really felt to be English at all by the 
speakers of Slovene. Some names that are to be dealt with below have been more recent 
additions to the pool of personal names used in Slovenia, but have also gone completely 
native on account of their frequency/popularity and their form, which has allowed for 
unproblematic spelling and pronunciation (e.g. Robert, Alan). Some others remain de-
cidedly foreign-sounding in the ears of many Slovene native speakers.
Patrick Another saint name that originates from the British Isles, but seems to have 
gained popularity only recently, is Patrik, derived from the English form Patrick and 
going back to Latin Patricius. It had probably been known as the name of the Irish saint 
and as such appeared in various Slovene almanacs and in calendars, but had not been 
10 Lenarčič (2012: 200) cites shortened variants such as Eda/Ditka/Dita, though the latter two are 
probably more frequently used as shortenings of the name Judita. The currency of Eda seems 
somewhat limited, it is only in Primorska that it has joined the top 200 names (181st place); the 
form was recorded by the national statistics before 1930, but has remained rare since, has even 
disappeared for a decade and then resurfaced in 2001–2013, probably due to the popularity of 
short three-letter names (similar to Oto and Edi mentioned before).
11 Lenarčič (2012: 885) argues that names given to their children by Slovene citizens of Bosnian or 
Albanian origin remain foreign-sounding as they are used to ‘express and retain their religious 
and national identity’. It appears, however, that names such as Tarik and Lejla are now used 
beyond the Muslim community (see also Table 1 in the Appendix). Lenarčič (2012: 887) also 
points out that many parents of Bosnian origin show a preference for names which are neither 
real Muslim names nor typical Slovene names (e.g. Elvis, Almira), while parents of Serbian or 
Croatian or mixed origin opt for names which are French, English, or in some other way foreign-
sounding. A similar trend has been observed in France with parents of Arab origin, who often 
choose a Greek name like Yannis/Yanis, the form of which may be reminiscent of Arab names, 
to avoid the traditional Christian variant Jean (see Lenarčič 2012: 342). 
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used as a personal name until 1971 when it started to appear in the national statistics. 
It entered the list of top 200 personal names in 1981–1990 decade (155th place), and 
the next decades saw an even steeper rise in its popularity. It was the 50th most popular 
name in the 1990s, and rose to the 33rd place in 2001–2013. The name ranks highest 
in Primorska and Prekmurje. Also statistically recorded since 1971 is the foreign form 
Patrick, this was likewise on the rise in 1991–2000 (110th place) and 2001–2013 (150th 
place). This form ranks highest in Prekmurje.12
Kevin Not to be left out from the present study are some names of Celtic origin that 
have been introduced into Slovene in their anglicized forms. These are mostly recent 
additions to the pool of personal names used in Slovenia (see Table 1 in the Appendix). 
Thus, Kevin can be traced back to Irish Caoimhín. The name has been recorded by 
SURS from 1971 onwards, and experienced a sharp rise between 1991 and 2013. While 
unknown before 1970, it made it to the 69th rank in 1991–2000, and ranked 80th in 
2001–2013.13
Alan On the other hand, we may find some very popular names whose origins are 
somewhat uncertain or mixed, but their popularity can undoubtedly be attributed to 
the influence of the English-speaking culture. A fairly popular male name in Slovenia 
is Alan, whose origin is either Breton or other Celtic. The name was first recorded 
between 1961 and 1970, and then made it to the top 200 male names; it ranked 134th 
in 1971–1980, 137th in 1981–1990, 136th in 1991–2000, and 162nd between 2001 and 
2013, its popularity prevailing in Primorska. Its popularity was even surpassed by the 
variant Alen, which ranked 77th between 1971 and 1980, 35th between 1981 and 1990, 
25th between 1991 and 2000, and 39th in 2001–2013. The name is popular throughout 
Slovenia, but prevails in the Littoral (32nd place). However, the form Alen is particu-
larly popular among the Croatian, Serbian and Bosnian-Muslim population living in 
Slovenia (see also Lenarčič and his explanation of the use of the name in ex-Yugoslavia 
in Lenarčič 2012: 30–31).
Robert The name Robert has been present in Slovene prior to 1930 and can be traced 
back to the German, French and English name Robert or its Latinised variant Robertus. 
It originates in Old High German Hrodebert and had existed in OE as Hrēodbēorht, 
Hrodberht, Hrēodbēorð, Hrœdbœrð, Hrœdberð before the Normans brought the Old 
French form Robert. Similarly, the name must have been known among Slovenes in an 
older form Rupert (from Germanic Hrodberht). It was an immensely popular name for 
male newborns in Slovenia for two decades, between 1961 and 1980, when it ranked 
4th among all male names. It has experienced some decline in popularity since, but has 
always ranked among the top 200 names. It has been frequent all over Slovenia, and 
is presently in the 19th place of all male names. It has produced a shortened form Robi, 
which has been quite popular since 1971 and can be found throughout Slovenia. The 
12 Lenarčič (2012: 633) attributes the surge in popularity of Patrik/Patrick to the success of the 
American actor Patrick Swayze in the 1980s and the 1990s.
13 Lenarčič (2012) includes a number of other names of Celtic origin in his monograph (e.g. Kilian, 
Moira, Ken), but these are rare or not used at all by Slovenes according to the statistical data 
provided by SURS.
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variant Robin is rarely used, but has been constantly present since 1961 when it was 
first recorded. The form Robin can also be found used as a female name, but this is 
even rarer.
Kim The origin of the name Kim is even more opaque. In English, it can be both a 
male and female name, and traced back to the OE form Cyneburh. Another, less pos-
sible, influence is the novel Kim by Rudyard Kipling, in which the hero Kim (shortened 
from the name Kimball) is a boy. In Slovenia, the name is used exclusively as a female 
name, it was first recorded in 1981–1990, then took a sharp rise between 1991 and 2000 
when it made it to the 108th place among the top 200 girl’s names, and rose even further 
up to 87th rank in 2001–2013. It seems to be somewhat more popular in the Littoral than 
elsewhere in Slovenia.14
Elvis The next group of English names that have been borrowed into Slovene owe 
their inclusion to the influence of a prominent personality from the English-speaking 
culture. One of such outstanding examples is the name Elvis (the etymology of this 
name is not transparent, the origin may be the Irish form Ailbhe). It was first recorded 
as a name in Slovenia between 1961 and 1970, experienced a sharp rise in popularity 
between 1971 and 1990 (ranking 99th in 1971–1980 and 62nd in 1981–1990). There 
was some decline between 1991 and 2000 (but still 107th rank), after 2000 it left the 
list of the top 200 boy names. Its appearance can undoubtedly be linked to the popu-
larity of Elvis Presley (peaking between 1953 and 1970), but afterwards the name 
has obviously caught on among the Muslim population of Slovenia irrespective of 
Presley’s fame. Its rankings are highest in the Littoral and Zasavje (both regions have 
a dense Muslim population) and its use peaked well after Presley’s death in 1977. 
Lenarčič (2012: 213) attributes its popularity among the Muslims to its similarity to 
some traditional Muslim names beginning in E(l)- and ending in -is, such as Enis 
(compare Edvin above).
Diana The name Diana and its variant Dijana have been known among Slovenes 
since the 1930s, the origin, of course, goes back to Roman mythology. Both forms 
were first recorded between 1931 and 1940. Diana was rare before 1961 when it first 
made it to the top 200 names (179th in 1961–1970, 161st in 1971–1980). Then came 
a sudden rise in popularity between 1981 and 1990 (114th rank) and between 1991 
and 2000 (106th rank), coinciding with the strong media presence of Princess Diana 
throughout the 1980s and the 1990s. Some decline has been apparent since (181st rank 
for 2001–2013), probably attributable to Princess Diana’s death in 1997. This name 
form can be found throughout Slovenia, but particularly in the South and South-East of 
Slovenia. The more homely variant Dijana reappeared in the statistics in 1951–1960, 
and made it to the top 200 names in the following periods (134th in 1971–1980, then 74th 
in 1981–1990, 129th in 1991–2000). Again, a drop in use is recorded for 2001–2013. 
The nativised form prevails in Gorenjska and Zasavje and in Central Slovenia. This 
trend of borrowing British royal names is probably comparable to the popularity of 
Edvard (see above) in the 1930s and the following decades, and may continue with 
14 Lenarčič (2012: 407) attributes its popularity to the singer Kim Wilde and the actress Kim 
Basinger, but that hardly explains the recent rise in the name’s popularity.
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Zara.15 As a girl’s name, Zara was first recorded in Slovenia in 2001–2013 and imme-
diately got high rankings (68th), becoming popular throughout the area.
Samantha Some other names that have been statistically recorded as popular names 
recently are Samanta/Samantha, Sarah, Lana, Ian, Liam, and Lucas. The form Samanta 
was first statistically recorded between 1961 and 1970. It made it to the top 200 names in 
1981–1990 (171st) and 1991–2000 (113th), but has experienced some drop in popularity 
since 2001. The highest rankings are in the Littoral and Prekmurje. The original form 
Samantha appeared later (1981–1990) and has since been used constantly, but rarely.16
Sarah While the Old Testament name Sara has become the most popular name 
for girls in 2013 (see Table 1), its foreign (English-induced) form Sarah also made it 
to the top 200 names in 1991–2000 (175th ranking), having been first recorded only a 
decade before. It remained popular in 2001–2013, particularly in Prekmurje, Štajerska 
and Goriška.
Lana Another name that ranks very high in the national statistics is Lana, whose 
etymological origin, however, is also uncertain (Gaelic, Hebrew or German). Lenarčič 
(2012: 431), however, makes it a name of Anglo-American origin (and parallels its rise 
in popularity to the growing fame of the actress Lana Turner); it is also possible that 
in Slovenia it is seen as a female counterpart to the male name Lan (currently ranking 
29th in the latest list of boy names). However, in the Slovene statistics, Lana was first 
recorded 1961–1970, decades before the first appearance of Lan in 1991. Lana has been 
on the rise ever since; it is popular throughout Slovenia and is presently ranking 6th.
Liam Of male English names, Liam is currently one of the more popular ones. Its 
origin is undoubtedly Irish English, a shortened form of William (going back to Old 
German Wilhelm), which, however, has never been present in this form in Slovene. 
Known were the forms Vil(i)jem/Vil(i)jam (probably from the German name Wilhelm), 
and the shortened form Vili. Although not recorded before 2001, these days Liam ranks 
79th (its rankings are highest in Štajerska, Prekmurje and the Littoral).
Ian The name goes back to Scottish Gaelic Ian/Iain, and was borrowed into Slovene 
even earlier than Liam. It was first recorded by the national statistics between 1981 and 
1990, and has enjoyed a rising popularity since, currently ranking 94th in the Slovene 
list of popular boy names for 2001–2013. It appears throughout Slovenia, with the ex-
ception of Zasavje. The rankings are highest in Primorska and Central Slovenia.
Lucas The name Lucas in this particular orthographic form can also be considered 
English (unlike the form Lukas, which is most probably modelled on German), but its 
etymological pathway of borrowing makes English origin somewhat uncertain (Latin 
form of the Greek name Loukas). Both forms compete with the form Luka that is well 
established in the area (similar to other popular Bible names, statistically present be-
fore 1930, practically always listed among the top 200 male names, with a sharp rise 
15 Zara is not originally English, it was first used in English in the translation of Voltaire’s play 
Zaïre; alternatively, its popularity in Slovenia may be attributable to the name of the Spanish 
fashion store Zara.
16 Lenarčič (2012: 694) attributes its popularity in the USA to the TV series Bewitched (1964), but 
this can hardly be the reason for its spread in Slovenia.
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1971–1980 to the 51st place, then 12th place in 1981–1990, and 1st place since 1991 on-
wards). Both Lukas and Lucas were first recorded statistically between 1991 and 2000. 
While Lukas rose to 84th place between 2001 and 2013 (its highest ranking reached 
in Prekmurje), the English variant Lucas is somewhat rarer (but still ranking 195th in 
2001–2013, and, again, with the highest ranking reached in Prekmurje). Interestingly, an 
earlier variant, Lukež, known from Slovene literature, is not statistically recorded at all.
3.2 Adaptation of English personal names in Slovene
In some aspects, borrowed personal names from English conform to the rules that ap-
ply to the borrowing of anglicisms in general. However, it turns out that in some other 
aspects they resist adaptation to retain their foreignness as prestige borrowings.
Most borrowed English personal names undergo complete adaptation and are, as a 
result, totally integrated into the language system of Slovene. This is to be expected: 
once given, a name is, after all, used on a daily basis and is not an occasional exoti-
cism used to pep up an informal conversation with some ‘local colouring’. Thus, their 
foreignness becomes blurred and they are, consequently, pronounced, written and de-
clined as any other Slovene name. This is the case with all old borrowings (e.g. Robert, 
Edvin, Edita) and some recent ones, especially if their forms allow for non-problematic 
pronunciations and spellings (e.g. Kevin, Lana, Sabrina, Zara). Thus, borrowed female 
names that end in -a (Sabrina, Lana) enter the first nominal declension pattern for femi-
nine nouns. However, borrowed female names not ending in -a enter the third nominal 
declension pattern with zero case endings. Such female names have been in use for 
a long time (e.g. Ines, Karmen, Karin, Iris, Lili, Doris), so all English-derived addi-
tions such as Kim or Melani also conform to this pattern. Morphologically, male names 
in Slovene as a rule enter the first masculine nominal declension pattern (e.g. Janez, 
Jakob), some also the second masculine nominal declension pattern (e.g. Miha, Luka). 
As for the borrowings, in all male names borrowed from English the first declension 
pattern is applied (e.g. Patrik – Patrik-a (genitive)). Shortened name forms ending in 
the vowel -i add -j- before the final case ending in non-nominative cases (e.g. Robi-j-a, 
Edi-j-a in the genitive).
Phonologically, the adaptation of English names may remain incomplete in some 
of the more recent borrowings, on the grounds of remaining fashionable and prestig-
ious in their foreign sound, but there is a tendency towards complete phonological 
adaptation, in which individual English phonemes are sought to be replaced by their 
nearest equivalents from the Slovene phonemic system. The written form is, however, 
crucial to the pronunciation of the borrowed name by Slovene speakers as in Slovene 
every grapheme, as a rule, has its own pronunciation and represents one phoneme. 
Consequently, the formation of the phonological form of the borrowed name is mainly 
modelled on its spelling. Nevertheless, it is to be expected that Melani and Melanie are 
actually pronounced in exactly the same way by Slovene users, and that the pronuncia-
tion of Samantha is no different from that of Samanta, due to the fact that the English 
dental fricative /θ/ is totally absent from the Slovene phonological system and therefore 
regularly replaced by its nearest equivalent phoneme /t/ in the transphonemisation pro-
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283
cess. The most notable phonological changes appear in the vowels. Thus, the English 
close-mid to open-mid front /e/ is usually replaced by close /e/ in Slovene, the front-
to-central and close to close-mid /ɪ/ is replaced by the front close /i/, and the schwa /ǝ/ 
is replaced by /a/: Melanie [‘melǝnɪ] > [‘melani], Kevin [‘kevɪn] > [‘kevin], Ella [‘elǝ] 
> [‘ela]. However, since increasing numbers of Slovene speakers are familiar with the 
original pronunciations of these names due to their bilingualism (or some command 
of the English language), variant pronunciation forms with open /ɛ/ can also be heard, 
thus [‘mɛlani], [‘kɛvin], and [‘ɛla]. The forms with close vowels seem to be mainly 
used by the older generation and/or users not too familiar with English. The pronuncia-
tions of Liam and Ian are also changed: [lɪǝm] > [‘lijam]; [ɪǝn] > [‘ijan]; the English 
diphthong /ɪǝ/ is replaced by the group /ija/. The same goes for Diana – in this case, 
the phonological form of the borrowing is based solely on the spelling: the English 
pronunciation [daɪ’ænǝ] is replaced by [di’jana] in Slovene.
The spellings of some of the fashionable prestige borrowings of the last decade are 
the most resistant to complete adaptation. If the parents opt for a foreign name for their 
offspring, then at least the spelling is sought to be preserved to set the baby apart from 
the rest of the children, therefore Max instead of Maks, Lucas instead of Luka(s), Alex 
instead of Aleks, Ella instead of Ela, and Nick instead of Nik.
3.3 Potential of borrowed English personal names
It was already established earlier that the borrowing of English personal names into 
Slovene is not a recent phenomenon. However, the question remains as to whether 
these latest imports, which may still sound unusual in the ears of many Slovenes, are 
to be integrated into the Slovene language as successfully as Robert was in the past. 
Do they possess the potential to oust traditional or established names or are they to 
remain marginal borrowings, fashionable and prestigious for a particular period of time 
and then disappearing into disuse? Table 1 in the Appendix lists the 100 most popular 
baby names of 2013 (along with the total number of newborns that received a particular 
name) and clearly shows that the names chosen for newborns in Slovenia are now a mix 
of original Slovene names (e.g. Svit, Bor, Gaber, Živa, Ajda, Zarja), completely nativ-
ised names of various foreign origins, and fashionable name borrowings that stand out 
as recent additions. Among the completely nativised names we find those of Biblical 
origin and names of saints. These have mostly been in use for decades, if not centuries, 
particularly New Testament names with some (now popular) shortened variants (e.g. 
Luka, Marko, Simon, Janez and its variant Jan, Matej and its variants Matic, Matevž, 
Matija, Tevž), and the names of popular saints in many variants (e.g. Jakob, Jaka; 
Neža; Ema; Ana and its variants Anja, Anika, Aneja; Nikolaja and its more popular 
shorter version Nika). Many Old Testament names, on the other hand, although famil-
iar to the Slovene population, have, traditionally, not been used as first names, so that 
names like Sara, Rebeka, Izak, and Adam are mainly found in the young generation. It 
is quite probable that some popular shortened forms from these long established names 
have been produced under the English influence and can therefore have English source 
ascribed to them (e.g. Nik either as shortened from Nikolaj/Niko or from English Nick; 
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284
Mark from traditional Marko or from English Mark; Tim from traditional Timotej or 
from English Tim; Leo from traditional Leonard/Leon or from English Leo). Val, Neli, 
and Evelin in the list could potentially (also) have English source (see also Lenarčič 
2012: 797, 598, 231, who advocates their English origin).
When considering the degree of nativisation of these names, three factors are of cru-
cial importance: the longevity of the name, its frequency/popularity, and its form. Thus, 
if a name has been used for a long enough period of time, has been popular and thus 
frequently used, and if its written and spoken form allow for rapid adaptation, the re-
markability of the name may all but disappear. Thus, many of these names from foreign 
sources and adopted long ago (e.g. Erik, Aleksander, Uroš, Karin, Lili, Maša, Doris, 
Lara, Nina) are nowadays not felt to be foreign at all. Quite often we may find vari-
ants of what is essentially the same name at different degrees of nativisation, e.g. the 
nativised forms Sofija/Zofija along with the forms Sofia/Zoja with a still foreign touch 
to them. The list brings a number of names taken from foreign sources that are mainly 
recent imports and are currently popular as prestigious fashionable borrowings, e.g. 
Jon from Scandinavian languages, Rene, Žan, Žana, Žak, Marcel from French, Aleksej, 
Jaša, Zoja, Larisa from Russian. The source language of some others may be more 
difficult to pin down (Val could be English, but could also be original Slovene, Oskar, 
Alex/Aleks and Max/Maks could be modelled either on English or German; forms like 
Tian, Tijan, Lian, Tai, Taj are probably products of parents’ imagination). The names 
that can be ascribed English source are written in bold in Table 1, though their respec-
tive origins may not be English but most often Celtic (e.g. Liam, Alen, Ian, Kevin, Tara) 
or some other (e.g. Zara, which is of Arabic origin).
A quantitative analysis of the frequency/popularity of the names from Table 1 
shows that 7742 (out of 10804) newborn boys and 7239 (out of 10307) newborn girls 
in Slovenia have been given one of the top 200 names. Of these, 5625 boys (72.66 %) 
were given original Slovene or completely nativised names, and 2117 (27.34 %) 
were given names whose foreignness is still palpable. Of the 7239 baby girls born 
in Slovenia in 2013 with one of the top 200 names, 5542 girls (76.56 %) were given 
original Slovene or completely nativised names, and 1697 girls (23.44 %) were given 
names that may still sound foreign.
4. CONCLUSION
We can therefore conclude that the share of personal names recently borrowed from 
foreign sources is on the rise among the Slovene population; however, the influence of 
the English language as a source is not prevalent here as its share amounts to approxi-
mately six per cent of the most popular names used in the last decade. Regionally, the 
preference for foreign (-sounding and looking) name forms is more marked in certain 
bordering areas of Slovenia, particularly in Prekmurje and in the Littoral. What sets 
borrowed names apart from ordinary anglicisms is their ‘resistance’ to certain aspects 
of adaptation: the original spelling is often preserved, and sometimes the phonetic ad-
aptation is only partial. The borrowed item probably also does not convey the same 
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285
attitudinal meanings/connotations in the RL and the SL – in English speaking cultures 
these names are unremarkable, while the recently borrowed names ‘stand out’ in the 
Slovene area.
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www.dst.dk/en/Statistik/emner/navne/navne-til-myfoedte
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Appendix
rank boys number girls number
1 Luka 317 Sara 264
2 Nik 267 Eva 259
3 Jakob 244 Lara 232
4 Filip 241 Ema 230
5 Žan 212 Ana 219
6 Mark 197 Nika 208
7 David 184 Julija 194
8 Jaka 180 Lana 190
9 Jan 175 Zala 190
10 Žiga 169 Zoja 172
11 Anže 162 Mia 165
12 Maks 154 Ajda 164
13 Nejc 150 Ela 152
14 Vid 150 Neža 152
15 Lovro 145 Hana 147
16 Aljaž 144 Klara 126
17 Tim 138 Brina 119
18 Matic 137 Maša 113
19 Gal 116 Kaja 112
20 Maj 111 Lina 111
21 Patrik 111 Vita 103
22 Gašper 108 Maja 101
23 Anej 106 Nina 101
24 Rok 103 Manca 91
25 Aleks 101 Tinkara 91
26 Tilen 101 Neja 90
27 Miha 100 Taja 87
28 Lan 99 Žana 81
29 Tian 89 Živa 80
30 Matija 84 Anja 79
31 Liam 83 Lucija 75
32 Matevž 83 Gaja 74
33 Martin 80 Laura 70
Linguistica_2015_FINAL.indd   286 14.3.2016   8:39:43
34 Oskar 80 Zarja 70
35 Blaž 79 Mija 69
36 Leon 78 Naja 69
37 Val 78 Tjaša 68
38 Jure 73 Ula 68
39 Erik 72 Alina 66
40 Benjamin 66 Pia 66
41 Enej 66 Tia 66
42 Andraž 63 Katarina 64
43 Rene 63 Špela 64
44 Matej 62 Iza 62
45 Svit 62 Iva 61
46 Bor 58 Mila 61
47 Timotej 58 Teja 58
48 Lukas 56 Lia 57
49 Marko 56 Tina 57
50 Urban 55 Sofija 55
51 Teo 54 Alja 53
52 Tine 54 Larisa 53
53 Jaša 52 Neli 52
54 Tai 52 Lea 47
55 Domen 51 Lili 47
56 Nace 49 Kim 44
57 Aleksander 48 Nuša 44
58 Taj 48 Zara 43
59 Izak 46 Izabela 42
60 Bine 44 Maruša 40
61 Alex 43 Pika 40
62 Lenart 43 Tara 40
63 Tristan 43 Lejla 35
64 Marcel 42 Karin 34
65 Ožbej 42 Valentina 34
66 Urh 42 Sofia 33
67 Aleksej 41 Tisa 31
68 Dominik 41 Nikolina 30
Linguistica_2015_FINAL.indd   287 14.3.2016   8:39:43
69 Erazem 40 Veronika 30
70 Jurij 40 Katja 29
71 Andrej 39 Kiara 29
72 Tadej 39 Kristina 29
73 Adam 36 Nastja 29
74 Žak 36 Iris 27
75 Alen 35 Karolina 27
76 Leo 34 Asja 26
77 Gabriel 33 Elena 26
78 Ian 32 Evelin 26
79 Klemen 32 Ivana 26
80 Kevin 30 Daša 25
81 Jernej 29 Ella 25
82 Brin 28 Patricija 25
83 Jon 28 Leja 24
84 Kristjan 28 Aneja 23
85 Lev 28 Anika 23
86 Tevž 28 Liza 23
87 Vito 28 Nia 23
88 Samo 27 Stella 23
89 Gaber 26 Urška 23
90 Uroš 26 Inja 22
91 Adrian 25 Luna 22
92 Ažbe 25 Tajda 22
93 Simon 25 Jerca 21
94 Tarik 25 Lija 21
95 Tijan 25 Rebeka 21
96 Jošt 24 Tea 21
97 Max 24 Tiana 21
98 Tibor 23 Tija 21
99 Lian 22 Viktorija 21
100 Amadej 21 Lorena 20
Table 1. Popular names for newborns in Slovenia 2013 (Source: SURS)
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289
Abstract
THE ENGLISH-SLOVENE LANGUAGE CONTACT: 
BORROWING OF PERSONAL NAMES
The article aims to shed some light on the growing tendency of Slovene native speak-
ers towards borrowing English personal names when naming new-born children. Some 
historical overview of the borrowing of English personal names into Slovene is given, 
starting with lists compiled from 1931 onwards, established from the data supplied by 
the Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia (SURS). The phenomenon of bor-
rowing personal names is discussed from the point of view of pragmatic borrowing 
as advocated by G. Andersen (2014), taking into account the traditional distinction 
between necessary loans on the one hand and luxury loans on the other. The article il-
lustrates how in the case of personal names, ‘exoticisms’ (e.g. Alex, Liam, Kevin, Kim, 
Ian, Vanessa, Adrian, Ella, Emma, Patrick, Nick, Alan, Lucas, listed among the most 
popular 200 first names in the 2001–2013 period) compete with name forms that have 
been adapted and nativised long ago (e.g. Patrik), or are currently being introduced for 
the first time into Slovene. In these recent borrowings, the foreign forms undergo some 
adaptation, but at the same time, unlike other anglicisms, show the tendency to resist 
complete adaptation, particularly in terms of spelling and pronunciation. Such prag-
matically borrowed items carry significant sociolinguistic signals about the borrowers’ 
attitudes, and these are briefly commented on.
Keywords: pragmatic borrowing, personal names, English, Slovene
Povzetek
ANGLEŠKO-SLOVENSKI JEZIKOVNI STIK: IZPOSOJANJE OSEBNIH IMEN
Prispevek obravnava vse bolj izraženo tendenco slovenskih govorcev, da si pri poime-
novanju svojih otrok sposojajo angleška lastna imena. Statistični podatki, dostopni na 
portalu Statističnega urada Republike Slovenije (SURS) s seznami najpogostejših imen 
od leta 1931 dalje nam omogočajo zgodovinski pregled takega sposojanja iz anglešči-
ne v slovenščino. Pojav sposojanja tujejezičnih lastnih imen obravnavamo z vidika 
pragmatičnega sposojanja po G. Andersenu (2014) in ob upoštevanju že uveljavlje-
nega razlikovanja med potrebnimi in prestižnimi sposojenkami. Prispevek ponazarja, 
kako pri lastnih imenih »eksotična« imena (npr. Alex, Liam, Kevin, Kim, Ian, Vanessa, 
Adrian, Ella, Emma, Patrick, Nick, Alan, Lucas, ki so na seznamu 200 najbolj priljub-
ljenih imen za novorojence v obdobju 2001–2013) tekmujejo z oblikami, ki so bile 
sposojene in prilagojene slovenščini že pred desetletji (npr. Patrik) ali pa jih tokrat 
prvič uvajamo v slovenščino. Pri teh nedavnih sposojenkah tuje oblike sicer delno pri-
lagodimo slovenskemu jezikovnemu sistemu, vendar jih, za razliko od drugih angliz-
mov, ne prilagodimo vedno v zapisu in izgovarjavi. V članku na kratko komentiramo 
tudi sociolingvistične vidike takšnih pragmatičnih sposojenk in odnos sposojevalcev.
Ključne besede: pragmatično sposojanje, lastna imena, angleščina, slovenščina
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