ISSN 0351-1189 es s S s f TEMATSKI SKLOP / THEMATIC SECTION Literatura in pripoved: postklasične perspektive in analize Literature and Narrative: Postclassical Perspectives and Analyses Uredila / Edited by: Alenka Koron, Dejan Kos Alenka Koron: Predgovor / Introduction Bart Keunen: Storyworlds and the Semiotic Rules of Narrative Imagination Snežana Milosavljevic Milic: Notions of Atmosphere Leonora Flis: Grafične pripovedi in pripovednost Barbara Zorman: Obraz v velikem planu in pripovedna transparentnost Péter Hajdu: Fictionality in Historical Television Series Vladimir Biti: The Birthplace of Kafka's Narrative Authority Matjaž Birk: Spominska retorika v literarni esejistiki Josepha Rotha Martin Loschnigg: Narrating Modern War Darja Pavlič: Literarni liki v kratkih zgodbah Andreja Blatnika Vita Žerjal Pavlin: Naratološki vidiki lirskocikličnega oblikovanja Varja Balžalorsky Antic: Fokalizacija v lirskem diskurzu Kalina Zahova: Types of "Animalist" Focalization in Bulgarian Literature Alojzija Zupan Sosič: Pripovedna empatija ter Cankarjeva romana Hiša Marije Pomočnice in Križ na gori Alenka Koron: Sram in krivda v kratki zgodbi »Marija, pomagaj« Suzane Tratnik TEMATSKI SKLOP / THEMATIC SECTION Literatura in pripoved: postklasične perspektive in analize Literature and Narrative: Postclassical Perspectives and Analyses Uredila / Edited by: Alenka Koron, Dejan Kos 1 A lenka Koron: Literatura in pripoved: postklasične perspektive in analize (predgovor) 5 A lenka Koron: Literature and Narrative: Postclassical Perspectives and Analyses (An Introduction) 9 B art Keunen: Storyworlds and the Semiotic Rules of Narrative Imagination: Peirce and Cassirer as a Starting Point for the Study of Literary World Experience 31 B nežana Milosavljevic Milic: Notions of Atmosphere: Toward the Limits of Narrative Understanding 51 B eonora Flis: Grafične pripovedi in pripovednost 75 B arbara Zorman: Obraz v velikem planu in pripovedna transparentnost 97 B éter Hajdu: Fictionality in Historical Television Series 115 Vladimir Biti: State of Exception: The Birthplace of Kafka's Narrative Authority 127 Matjaž Birk: Spominska retorika v literarni esejistiki Josepha Rotha 143 B artin Loschnigg: Narrating Modern War: Technology and the Aesthetics of War Literature 157 B arja Pavlič: Literarni liki v kratkih zgodbah Andreja Blatnika 173 Bita Žerjal Pavlin: Naratološki vidiki lirskocikličnega oblikovanja: ob primeru cikla Josipa Murna »Fin de siècle« 189 Barja Balžalorsky Antic: Fokalizacija v lirskem diskurzu 209 B alina Zahova: Types of "Animalist" Focalization in Bulgarian Literature 223 B lojzija Zupan Sosič: Pripovedna empatija ter Cankarjeva romana Hiša Marije Pomočnice in Križ na gori 243 B lenka Koron: Sram in krivda v kratki zgodbi »Marija, pomagaj« Suzane Tratnik Primerjalna književnost Primerjalna književnost, letnik 43, št. 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Tematski sklop / Thematic section Literatura in pripoved: postklasične perspektive in analize Literature and Narrative: Postclassical Perspectives and Analyses Uredila / Edited by Alenka Koron, Dejan Kos Literatura in pripoved: postklasične perspektive in analize (predgovor) Alenka Koron Namen pričujočega tematskega sklopa je s sodobnega pripovednoteo-retskega vidika osvetliti kompleksna razmerja med literaturo in pripovedjo ter tako prispevati k razumevanju raznolikosti postklasične naratologije in njene vloge v aktualnem literarnovednem kontekstu. Za postklasično teorijo pripovedi, kakršna se je razvila v svetu in pri nas zlasti v zadnjih dveh desetletjih, je namreč značilen izrazito širok in vključujoč odnos do pojmovanja pripovedi, ki ga je zasnoval že Roland Barthes in ki legitimira njene interdisciplinarne in čezmedijske interese in pristope. Postklasična naratologija zato ni samo teorija literarnega pripovedništva, čeprav seveda slednje še vedno predstavlja njen izvorni predmet preučevanja; razmisliti mora tudi o tem, da literatura ni nujno pripovedna in da vse pripovedi niso literarne, torej mora nekako zajeti tudi estetsko dimenzijo in razmislek o literarnosti pripovedi. In ker so njeni uvidi prenosljivi še na druge, tradicionalno nepripovedne žanre (npr. liriko, dramatiko), medije (film, likovna umetnost) in zunajlite-rarna področja (npr. zgodovinopisje, medicino, pravo itn.), se pretirana rigidnost pri razmejevanju literature in pripovedi od neliterarnih kontekstov ne zdi produktivna, saj lahko prav ti vzvratno osvetlijo marsikatere doslej neopažene značilnosti in razmerja. Tolerantnost in nedo-ločenost, sinkretičnost ali celo eklektičnost postklasične naratologije je namreč mogoče še vedno kompenzirati z osredotočanjem na teme, ki so za literarno vedo morda najpomembnejše in najzanimivejše, med drugimi npr. o vlogi recipientov (bralcev, poslušalcev ali gledalcev) pri osmišljanju, izkušanju oziroma občutenju pripovedi ali o medsebojni prepletenosti teorije, analize in interpretacije pripovedi v literarnovedni hevristiki in ne samo na metateoretski ravni. Tudi pluralistično fokusi-ranje perspektiv klasične in različnih »novih«, postklasičnih naratologij na izbrani predmet utegne ponuditi natančnejše analitične in interpre-tativne rezultate od ene same perspektive. Prispevek Barta Keunena poseže v samo jedro posklasičnih nara-toloških preokupacij z bralčevimi kompleksnimi interakcijami z virtu-alnimi pripovednimi svetovi v domišljijskih procesih branja. Njegovo spoznavno izhodišče so Peirceva semiotika in Cassirerjeva filozofija simbolnih oblik ter analogija med procesom branja in fenomenologijo Primerjalna književnost (Ljubljana) 43.1 (2020) PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 pripovedne domišljije. Ob Baudelairovi pesmi v prozi Keunen prikaže rabo semiotične analize in vpelje Peircevo triado reprezentamen — predmet — interpretant kot elemente svetovljenja zgodbe, s katerimi zami-šljevalec »dopolni« znak z lastnim izkustvenim pomenom. Ti elementi lahko naglašajo svojo fenomenološko ali bolj epistemološko naravo, kar omogoči njihovo razlikovanje. Navdihnjen s Peircem nato razvije matrico devetih znakov, s katerimi poistoveti devet različnih načinov delovanja domišljije, jo podkrepi z navezavo na pet temeljnih kodov iz Barthesove analize Balzacove pripovedi v S/Z ter tako zgradi izviren hevristični pripomoček za opis izkustva zgodbenega sveta. Tudi Snežana Milosavljevic Milic se v svojem prispevku o pojmu atmosfere, ki v postklasičnem kontekstu doslej še ni bil deležen ustrezne pozornosti, navezuje na fenomenologijo in novo fenomenologijo. Do pojma atmosfere je kljub njegovi terminološki nestabilnosti in semantični nejasnosti v naratoloških diskurzih Mieke Bal, Geralda Princea, Marie-Laure Ryan in Porterja Abbotta izrazito afirmativna, saj meni, da bi svoj interpretativni potencial lahko razvil zlasti v okviru kognitivnih teorij intertekstualnosti. Leonora Flis v svojem članku o grafični pripovedi izhaja iz njene specifične narativnosti, ki je v dvojnosti prikazovanja in pripovedovanja zgodbe. To dvojnost morata upoštevati tudi čezžanrska in čezmedijska naratologija, da lahko ustrezno osmislita sekvenčnost podob, montažo kadrov, kompozicijo posameznih strani, vlogo »lukenj« med posameznimi sličicami ter druge strukturne značilnosti tvorjenja zgodbe, časovno razsežnost, fragmentarnost pripovedovanja itn. Posebno pozornost ob odlomkih iz del Arta Spiegelmana, Joeja Sacca in Marjane Satrapi posveti fokalizaciji in pri tem tudi ona upošteva spoznanja kognitivne naratologije. Funkcije obraza v filmskem velikem planu v svojem prispevku k filmski naratologiji raziskuje Barbara Zorman najprej teoretsko (Balazs, Deleuze, Barthes, Greco, Plantinga idr.), nato pa še v zanimivi študiji primera, analizi filma Roka Bička Razredni sovražnik, za katerega je značilna pogosta raba bližnjih prikazov obraza. Pri tem kot enega od učinkov specifičnega režiserjevega ravnanja z velikimi plani obrazov paradoksalno zazna nekakšno slepo pego filmske pripovedi, hoteno zavrnitev vnašanja berljivih pomenov in emocij vanje. Prispevek Petra Hajduja se ukvarja s primerjavami med žanroma zgodovinskega romana in televizijske nadaljevanke z zgodovinsko tematiko. Obstajajo nadaljevanke, v katerih je razmerje med fikcijskimi in nefik-cijskimi zgodbami uravnoteženo, a tudi take, ki uprizarjajo le življenje elit in pri katerih tvori zgodovinsko dogajanje samo ozadje za zgodbe, polne intrig, nasilja in seksa. Slednjič so zgodovinskim romanom Alenka Koron: Literatura in pripoved: postklasične perspektive in analize (predgovor) neke nove vrste podobne tudi nadaljevanke, v katerih ni politične zgodovine niti znanih zgodovinskih osebnosti (npr. Mad Man in The Knick); zdi se, da prikazujejo drugost preteklosti tako, kot da bi jih navdihnile nekatere usmeritve historiografije v dvajsetem stoletju. Vladimir Biti bere v svojem članku Kafkove pripovedi parabolično skozi Foucaulta, Agambena in Coetzeeja, upoštevajoč historično in biografsko ozadje nedokončanosti pisateljevega opusa in literarne preslikave položajnih obstrancev novih nacionalnih držav v osrednje like, pripovedovalce in pripovedne avtoritete njegovih pripovedi. Ugotavlja, da v neprestanih okoliščinah izjemnega stanja Kafkova pripovedna avtoriteta privzema izmuzljivo formo in izpostavlja bralce istemu fikcij-skemu zakonu, ki mu je bil od zakonodajalcev svojega časa izpostavljen tudi sam kot avtor. Tudi Matjaž Birk se v prispevku o spominski retoriki v literarni esejistiki Josepha Rotha ukvarja s pripovednimi strategijami, ki jih je zaznamovalo osebno izkustvo tega avstrijsko-judovskega pisatelja. Zanimajo ga različni načini (izkustveni, monumentalni, histo-rizirajoči, antagonistični in refleksivni) kolektivne spominske retorike in uporabljena literarna izrazna sredstva (slog in žanr, selekcijska struktura, intertekstualne, intermedialne in interdiskurzivne značilnosti, posebnosti pripovedovalčevega posredovanja in literarna konfiguracija likov in prostorov), ki prispevajo k interpretaciji družbenih in historičnih kontekstov ter etičnih vprašanj kolektivne kulture Rothovega časa. Martin Loschnigg pa se v svoji razpravi ukvarja s posledicami tehnolo-giziranega vojskovanja za vojne pripovedi, še posebej za prostorsko in časovno orientacijo pripovedi. V obravnavi izbranih primerov pokaže, da je mogoče kognitivno naratologijo transponirati v analizo estetskih prvin v vojni literaturi in analizo neizrekljivosti izkušnje oziroma krize jezika, značilnih za moderno literaturo. Tudi Darja Pavlič izhaja v obravnavi pripovednih likov v kratkih zgodbah Andreja Blatnika iz kognitivne naratologije in povezanosti pojma izkustvenost z bralci, literarnimi liki in pripovedovalci. Pomembna predpostavka njene analize je še, da je na ravni literarnih likov izkustvenost mogoče poistovetiti z njihovo zavestjo, sploh če jo razumemo kot utelešeni um; upravičuje jo pač dejstvo, da temeljijo Blatnikove zgodbe bolj na procesih v zavesti kot na zunanjih dogajanjih. Da so lahko naratološke perspektive produktivne za analize in interpretacije lirskocikličnega oblikovanja, čeprav samo za sintagmatske cikle, dokazuje ob primeru Murnovega tropesemskega cikla razprava Vite Žerjal Pavlin; pri tem se opira na metodologijo, ki so jo raziskovalci hamburške univerze sicer razvili za naratološko analizo lirskih pesmi. Tudi Varja Balžalorsky Antic se v svojem prispevku ukvarja z PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 liriko in na novo prilagodi pojem fokalizacije za tovrstno rabo. Ob primerih nato pokaže, kako se fokalizacija lahko izrazi na posameznih ravninah v liriki in vpelje zanimivo, spet s primeri podkrepljeno tipologijo fokalizacije v lirskem diskurzu. Nekoliko drugače in z neprikritim etičnim angažmajem se fokalizacije v »animalistični fikciji« bolgarske klasične realistične literature za bralce vseh starosti loteva Kalina Zahova. Tudi ona predlaga svojo tipologijo fokalizacije, ki ustreza izbranemu gradivu, zavzame pa se za iskreno in primerno, resda neizbežno antropocentrično fokalizacijo kot tisti tip, ki se z empatičnostjo do nečloveških živali lahko upre nasilni antropodominaciji. Zadnji dve razpravi se posvečata empatiji in afektom kot v narato-loških pristopih relativno novim, pozornosti vrednim razsežnostim pripovedi. Prispevek Alojzije Zupan Sosič analizira pripovedno empatijo dveh Cankarjevih romanov, Hiše Marije Pomočnice in Križa na gori, in jo razdeli na avtorjevo in bralčevo; pri analizi tehnik empatiziranja jo pri avtorjevi empatiji zanima avtobiografičnost, stopnja avtorjeve empa-tičnosti in estetika produkcije, pri bralčevi pa identifikacija z likom in s pripovedno situacijo. Z neskladji med bralčevo in avtorjevo empatijo zanimivo tolmači tudi recepcijo obeh besedil ob njunem izidu. V zadnjem prispevku pa Alenka Koron aplicira sinkretični model pripovednega svetotvorja, ki ga je razvila Claudia Breger, na kratko zgodbo Suzane Tratnik, pri čemer se osredotoči predvsem na pripovedno vlogo sramu in krivde kot družbenih afektov. 4 Literature and Narrative: Postclassical Perspectives and Analyses (An Introduction) Alenka Koron The purpose of this thematic section is to highlight the complex relationships between literature and narrative from a contemporary narrative-theoretical perspective, thus contributing to an understanding of the diversity of postclassical narratology and its role in the context of current literary theory. The postclassical theory of narrative, as it has developed worldwide and in Slovenia especially in the last two decades, is characterized by a broad and inclusive attitude towards the understanding of narrative as conceived by Roland Barthes, which legitimizes its interdisciplinary and transmedia interests and approaches. Postclassical narratology is not, therefore, just a theory of literary narrative, although the latter still represents its original subject of study; it must also consider that literature is not necessarily narrative and that not all narratives are literary, so the aesthetic dimension and reflection on the literary nature of the narrative must also be taken into account. In view of the fact that its insights are transferable to other, traditionally non-narrative genres (e.g., lyric poetry, drama), media (film, fine arts) and non-literary fields (e.g., historiography, medicine, law, etc.), excessive rigidity in delimiting literature and narrative from non-literary contexts seems unproductive, as the latter can conversely shed light on many hitherto unnoticed features and relationships. It is still possible to compensate for the tolerance and indeterminacy, the syncretism or even the eclecticism of postclassical narratology by focusing on topics that are perhaps the most important and interesting for literary scholarship, such as the role of the recipients (readers, listeners or viewers) in making sense of, experiencing or sensing narrative, and the interplay of the theory, analysis and interpretation of narrative, not just at a metatheoretical level, but also in literary theory heuristics. Moreover, the pluralistic focus of the perspectives of classical and various "new", postclassical narratologies on the chosen subject may offer more accurate analytical and interpretative results than those yielded by a single perspective. Primerjalna književnost (Ljubljana) 43.9 (2020) PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Bart Keunen's contribution gets to the very core of postclassical nar-ratological preoccupations with the reader's complex interactions with virtual narrative worlds in imagination-driven reading processes. His epistemological starting point is Peirce's semiotics and Cassirer's philosophy of symbolic forms, as well as the analogy between the process of reading and the phenomenology of narrative imagination. Taking Baudelaire's poem in prose as a case study, Keunen demonstrates the use of semiotic analysis and introduces Peirce's triadic model consisting of an interpretant, a representamen and an object as elements of "world-ing a story" used by the imaginator to "complete" the sign with his or her own experiential meaning. These elements can emphasize either their phenomenological or more epistemological nature, thus allowing them to be distinguished. Inspired by Peirce, Keunen then goes on to develop a matrix of nine different signs that correspond to nine distinct modes of imagination, reinforcing the latter by linking it to the five core codes in Barthes's analysis of Balzac's narrative in S/Z. In this way, he constructs an original heuristic device to describe the experience of the storyworld. In her contribution to the notion of atmosphere, which in the postclassical context has not yet received due attention, Snežana Milosavljevic Milic also refers to phenomenology and new phenomenology. Despite its terminological instability and semantic ambiguity in the narratological discourses of Mieke Bal, Gerald Prince, MarieLaura Ryan and Porter Abbott, the author is highly affirmative with regard to the notion of atmosphere, which, in her view, could develop its interpretative potential especially in the context of cognitive theories of intertextuality. In her article on graphic narrative, Leonora Flis derives her specific narrative from the duality of verbal and visual storytelling. This duality must also be addressed by transgeneric and transmedial narratology in order to ascribe proper meaning to the sequential nature of images, the principles of frame editing, the composition of individual pages, the role of "gutters" or empty spaces between individual frames, and other structural features of storytelling, such as the temporal dimension, fragmentation of storytelling, etc. Using examples from graphic narratives (by Art Spiegelman, Joe Sacco and Marjane Satrapi), she devotes special attention to investigating focalization, thus also drawing on the lessons of cognitive narratology. The functions of the face in close-up are explored by Barbara Zorman in her contribution to film narratology, first theoretically (Balazs, Deleuze, Barthes, Greco, Plantinga, etc.), then by providing an interesting case study analyzing Rok Bicek's film Razredni sovražnik (Class Enemy, 2013), which is characterized by frequent 6 Alenka Koron: Literature and Narrative: Postclassical Perspectives and Analyses (An Introduction) use of facial close-ups. In doing so, she paradoxically detects a kind of blind spot in the film's narrative as a result of the director's specific approach to large close-ups of the face: a wilful refusal to introduce readable meanings and emotions into the narrative. Péter Hajdu's article deals with comparisons between two genres: the historical novel and the television series with a historical theme. While in some series the relationship between fiction and non-fiction stories is balanced, others simply depict the lives of the elite, with historical events merely forming the backdrop for stories abounding in intrigue, violence and sex. In the end, television series that are devoid of political history or known historical figures (e.g., Mad Man and The Knick) are like a new kind of historical novel; they seem to portray the otherness of the past in ways inspired by some of the approaches of twentieth century historiography. In his article, Vladimir Biti reads Kafka's narratives parabolically through Foucault, Agamben and Coetzee, taking into account the historical and biographical background of the unfinished nature of the writer's oeuvre and the literary mapping of positional outsiders of new nation states onto the central characters, narrators and narrative authorities of his narratives. Biti notes that, under the circumstances of a constant state of exception, Kafka's narrative authority takes on an elusive form and exposes readers to the same fictional law that he himself was exposed to as an author by the lawgivers of his time. In his article on the rhetoric of memory in the literary-essay work of Joseph Roth, Matjaž Birk also deals with narrative strategies characterized by the personal experience of this Austrian-Jewish writer. He investigates the different modes (experiential, monumental, historicizing, antagonistic and reflexive) of the collective rhetoric of memory, as well as the literary means of expression used (style and genre; selection structure; intertextual, intermedial and interdiscursive characteristics; peculiarities of the narrator's intervention; and the literary configuration of characters and spaces), which contribute to the interpretation of the social and historical contexts and ethical issues of the collective culture of Roth's time. Martin Loschnigg deals with the implications of technological warfare for war narratives, especially for the spatial and temporal orientation of such narratives. In discussing selected cases, he shows that cognitive narratology can be transposed into an analysis of aesthetic elements in war literature and of the ineffability of the experience or crisis of language that is characteristic of modern and postmodern literature. In the treatment of narrative characters in Andrej Blatnik's short stories, Darja Pavlič is another author to find a point of departure in cognitive narratology, exploring the connection of the notion of experientiality with PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 readers, literary figures and storytellers. A further important premise of her analysis is that, at the level of literary characters, experientiality can be identified with the consciousness of the characters, particularly when it is understood as the embodied mind. This premise is justified by the fact that Blatnik's stories are based on processes in the consciousness of the characters rather than on external events. The fact that narratological perspectives can be productive for the analyses and interpretations of lyric cycle formation, albeit only for syntagmatic cycles, is demonstrated by Vita Žerjal Pavlin's discussion based on the example of a three-poem cycle by Josip Murn. She relies on a methodology designed by scholars from the University of Hamburg for the narratological analysis of lyric poems. Another contributor dealing with lyric poetry in her paper is Varja Balžalorsky Antic, who re-adapts the concept of focalization for this purpose. Considering a number of cases, she shows how focalization can be expressed on individual levels in lyric poems and introduces — again supported with examples — an interesting typology of focalization in lyric discourse. Somewhat differently and with unconcealed ethical engagement, the focalization in the "animalist fiction" of Bulgarian classical realistic literature aimed at readers of all ages is addressed by Kalina Zahova. She, too, proposes a typology of focalization that fits the chosen material, advocating a sincere and appropriate, although inevitably anthropocentric, focalization as one that, with empathy for nonhuman animals, can resist violent anthropodomination. The last two discussions focus on empathy and affect as relatively new dimensions of narrative worthy of attention in narratological approaches. Alojzija Zupan Sosic's article analyzes the narrative empathy of two of Ivan Cankar's novels, Hiša Marije Pomočnice (The Ward of Mary Help of Christians) and Križ na gori (The Cross on the Mountain), dividing it into the author's and the reader's empathy. In analyzing empathizing techniques with regard to the author's empathy, she is interested in the autobiographical, the level of the author's empathy and the aesthetics of production; regarding the reader's empathy, she seeks identification with the character and the narrative situation. In an interesting way, the author interprets the reception of both texts upon their publication in terms of the discrepancies between the reader's and the author's empathy. The last article in the section is by Alenka Koron, who applies a syncretic model of narrative worldmaking developed by Claudia Breger to a short story by Suzana Tratnik, focusing primarily on the narrative role of shame and guilt as social affects. 8 Storyworlds and the Semiotic Rules of Narrative Imagination: Peirce and Cassirer as a Starting Point for the Study of Literary World Experience Bart Keunen Ghent University, Blandijn 2, B-9000 Gent, Belgium https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7049-2712 bart.keunen@ugent.be With the help of Peirce and Cassirer, this article embeds storyworld theory in a broader phenomenology of narrative imagination. A first step is the semiotic description of narrative imagination; storyworld elements come about through the laws that Peirce attributes to all semiotic processes (section 1). Besides, Peirce's insights are used to show that those elements significantly differ according to their phenomenological or epistemological nature. From this description of semiotic processes, a matrix of nine different signs will be derived (section 2) that correspond to nine distinct operations of imagination. The hypothesis is that it suffices to attribute a distinct function to each of the nine signs to adequately describe the experience of a storyworld. Keywords: postclassical narratology / cognitive theory / semiotics / storyworld / imagination / Peirce, Charles Sanders / Cassirer, Ernst If there is one element that distinguishes postclassical narratology from its structuralist and formalist predecessors, then it is the idea that stories give rise to mental models in the minds of their readers, hearers or viewers. Stories, says David Herman in Story Logic, derive their cultural relevance primarily from their capacity to turn experiences into storyworlds (9-22). By shifting the emphasis from the structure of the literary text to the study of storyworlds, twenty-first-century narratology realized a genuine paradigm shift (Bortolussi 2). Thus, the discipline established a connection with the phenomenological and philosophical approach to narratives that focused on the experience of reading (e.g., Iser, Ricoeur). 9 Primerjalna književnost (Ljubljana) 43.1 (2020) PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 The advantage of the study of 'worldmaking' is that it enables researchers to shift their attention from objective textual structures to the subjective cognitive processes of concrete readers, to "the procedures used to create and update worlds in narrative contexts" (Herman, Basic Elements 118-119). The storyworld has often been badly served by nar-ratological tradition because everything that had to do with the referent of the text was put aside as "merely" the result of the reader's linguistic competences. Postclassical narratology, by contrast, points out that stories are constructed in such a way that they generate through targeted cues a mental image of the world that manifests "worldlikeness." David Herman makes in Basic Elements an argument "to slow down and de-automatize the rapid, apparently effortless interpretive processes involved in experiencing narrative worlds" (105) and patiently give thought to the process that he calls "worlding the story" (Herman, Storytelling x, 2). My ambition with this contribution is to shift into an even lower gear than David Herman. Recent debates in narratology show that there is a great need for this. In a recent publication, Marco Caracciolo insists "on the processual and dynamic nature of worlding the story." The narratologist should pay more attention to how reading gives rise to a complex interaction between readers and the virtual world that surrounds them. He argues for an "enactivist" definition of worldliness focused on "a process of embodied exploration" (116). The process of slowing down proposed in my paper is in line with this perspective, but instead of referring to enactivist neo-phenomenology, I would like to retrace the problem to its epistemological origins (Gallagher 55, 101). By falling back to the sort of phenomenology that Charles Sanders Peirce and Ernst Cassirer were practicing, I will be able to dig deeper into more aspects of the process of 'worlding the story.' Peirce offers an inspiring framework for the study of the storyworld phenomenon because he starts from the idea that "all this universe is perfused with signs" (The Essential Peirce EP 394). Whoever can describe the signs and the semiotic operations—the study of these was called 'Phenomenology' or 'Phaneroscopy' by Peirce (see Atkins)—will succeed in presenting "the ultimate analysis of all experiences" (Collected Papers CP 1.280). His project was given an extension in Gilles Deleuze's Cinema, in which the corpus of images produced by film history was seen as a reservoir of varieties of the world experience. Although applying Deleuze's semiotics to the narrative world experience is not without problems—he often seems to mock Peirce's definitions and refuses to refer to the act of interpretation—the analysis offered here can be seen as a related project. Cassirer, for his part, is interesting because, more Bart Keunen: Storyworlds and the Semiotic Rules of Narrative Imagination than Peirce (and a fortiori more than Deleuze), he emphasizes how the imagination processes control the construction and interpretation of such worlds. In the third part of his Philosophy of Symbolic Forms, Cassirer proposes to trace back cultural exploits of the humankind to a "phenomenology of knowledge" and to describe for each of the many cultural forms how they are aimed at creating a world sui generis (10). The imaginator and the imaginative signs The postclassical paradigm shift was fueled by insights from the discourse processing theory that gained increasing popularity in the linguistics, cognitivist psychology and computer science of the 70s. Reading a literary text, it was said, is accompanied by a mental operation that draws from the text a "referential representation" (Bortolussi 17) or a "mental model" (Herman, Basic Elements 106). From this perspective, narrative artifacts (texts, films, etc.) are interpreted as "blueprints for the creation and modification of such mentally configured storyworlds" (107). Important in this process of worldmaking is that readers are ascribed the capacity to connect the blueprint with their prior knowledge and expectations. Defining this prior knowledge is based on "what Minsky called frames, or structures for representing and remembering stereotypical situations (e.g., being in a living room or a store)" (106). Frames constitute a cognitive construction possessed by every competent reader. They are, after all, the common schemata of memory with which readers organize their knowledge of the world in everyday experience (they are "for Minsky a means for organizing knowledge of the world into discrete, manageable chunks" 106). Narrative artifacts contain cues that ensure the activation of the readers' available prior knowledge and the transformation into schematized chunks of information, into "mental models" or "referential representations." With the help of Peirce, this innovation can be defined more precisely. Considered semiotically, the worldlikeness of the story is the result of a triangular relationship. A sign is, by definition, threefold: a sign-vehicle (or representamen) stands for an object and produces a mental image (or interpretant) with a receiver (Peirce, EP 2 13). All three are activated in the process of reading. In the readers' brain, (1) mental images ("referential representations") arise that can be regarded as an equivalent of the interpretant element. They are the result of linking the (2) verbal signs (the words, the representamen) to the (3) prior knowledge of the reader (the frames, the object that the sign stands for). PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Although "re-engagement with the referential, world-creating potential or narrative" (Herman 106) is a decisive step for the investigation of narrative imagination, the cognitivist principle also poses problems. What is particularly problematic, is that discourse processing theories teach little about the way in which those mental models are perceived by readers, and that much remains unclear about the type of prior knowledge or the precise nature of the cognitive operations that are necessary to make those models life-like and world-like. This problem can be avoided if the semiotic analysis is detached from the verbal signs and focus is shifted to the schematic representations, the mental models themselves. In this way, the problem of the act of reading is moved to the activity of imagination. The semiotic analysis thus receives a new, quasi-Aristotelian study object; it turns into a kind of "phantasmalogy" that studies the processing of mental images (Aristotle's "phantasmata," see Liao) through operations of imagination. In the act of reading readers are not only beings that interpret words, but also 'explorers' that examine the schematized information (the result of the reading) and thereby seek the additional meaning this possesses for them. According to Peirce's semiotics, this is completely sound: any interpretation of a sign (in this case the schematized representation—the interpretant—evoked by verbal signs) can in itself act as a sign for a new interpretative process (CP 2.228, 8.191; Liszka 33). In the course of this paper, I would like to take referential representations as autonomous signs that function in the same way as verbal signs. I will consider them as imaginative signs (representamen) that are interpreted (interpretant) by connecting elements of prior knowledge (object). I would call the recipient imaginator, in order to avoid confusion with the experience of reading strictu sensu. In my view, a detailed description of the processes of the imagination of such an imaginator can lead to a better insight into the specific world experience that readers undergo during the act of reading. The elements of the imaginative sign To make my argument concrete, I now introduce (in a slightly abbreviated version) a short text from Charles Baudelaire's Le Spleen de Paris: Under a wide gray sky, on a great dusty plain with neither pathways nor grass nor thistles nor nettles, I came upon a number of men who walked along bent over. Each of them carried on his back an enormous Chimera ... I questioned one of the men, and I asked him where they were going in this condition. He Bart Keunen: Storyworlds and the Semiotic Rules of Narrative Imagination replied that he didn't know at all, neither he nor the others; but that apparently they were all headed somewhere, as they were all driven by an irresistible need to walk. A curious thing worth noting: None of these travelers seemed to be troubled by the ferocious beast hanging around his neck and attached to his back; it was as if each considered it a part of himself. All these weary, serious faces revealed no sense of despair; under the splenetic dome of the sky, feet plunged into a dusty soil as desolate as the sky, they marched onward with the resigned look of those condemned to eternal hope. And the whole retinue passed by me, soon sinking into the hazy horizon. And for a few seconds I stubbornly tried to understand this mystery; but soon an irresistible Indifference crashed down upon me, and I was more heavily burdened than they were by their crushing Chimeras. (12) Baudelaire's text brings up schematic representations of a celestial dome, a desert-like plain, and walking characters that carry a heavy burden while journeying through the desert. Besides, equally schematic images are created that relate to the storyteller's interaction with the characters (he addresses one of them). Moreover, we occasionally get a picture of a storyteller who speaks to the reader in order to express his reactions to the event. Each of those referential representations can be analyzed semiotically. They display the characteristics of an imaginative sign: a representamen that stands for an object and evokes an interpretant. The object with which the imaginator associates the representamen is—in the same way as with the verbal sign described above—an element from his prior knowledge, but this time enriched by imagination (the imaginator's memories of similar desert-like settings, knowledge about social interactions or psychological reactions). The semiotic object does what every semiotic object does, according to Peirce: it "determines" the representamen and defines the limits within which the sign acquires meaning (CP 6.347). In this sense, the semiotic object is the engine that drives processes of "worlding the story," because it provides the material with which the imaginator "feeds" the sign and which gives it experiential potential. The second element that plays a role in the construction of the storyworld is the cornerstone of the interpretation: the interpretant. Peirce gaged this concept to emphasize that something is added in the act of interpreting a sign (and its relationship to an object), to wit: a new mental sign (EP 2 493-494, CP 5.594). This usually involves the "implicit words" that the imaginator uses to shape the world of imagination (e.g., "the Chimera carriers have a miserable destiny"). In addition, the interpretant can also be a feeling (CP 4.536, 8.369), such PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 as pity or fear — to name the two emotions that dominate the story-world of Baudelaire (and are linked to classical tragedy, according to Aristotle's Poetics). Epistemological accents concerning imaginative signs The representamen-object-interpretant triad is an interesting tool in describing how narrative imagination works. Yet the semiotic process says little about the diversity of operations of imagination that are needed to construct a storyworld. In order to map out this diversity, one must have insight into the contexts of prior knowledge that play a role in the processing of the sign. In addition, a theoretical framework is needed that distinguishes types of epistemic operations. For this sort of problem, Peirce's semiotic frame of thought offers a solution as well (Liszka 43). One of his most inspiring findings is the proposition that a sign can privilege specific aspects and anesthetize other aspects. In the further course of this paper, I will develop this insight and, following Peirce, distinguish nine types of signs. These nine types are established by taking into account two types of emphases: on the one hand, the emphases that result from the diversity of epistemic modes, and, on the other hand, the accents for which the diversity of experiential domains (contexts of prior knowledge) is responsible. Both emphases probably have their basis in the workings of the human brain and the specific interaction it maintains with its Umwelt, but regarding this matter, Peirce makes no claims whatsoever, unlike Cassirer who refers in Essay on Man to Jacob von Uexkull's biological model (41). According to Peirce, diversity in the field of the epistemic mode is due to the power a sign possesses to give a stronger accent to one of its three components. Depending on this emphasis, a specific epistemic mode is privileged, thereby making it possible to talk about signs that privilege, respectively, the "mode of being/presentation," the "mode of representation/reference to the object" or signs that favor the "mode of interpretation/reference to the interpretant." Peirce has a logical explanation for this distinction: the brain of the receiver is confronted, respectively, with one, two or three elements — with firstness, second-ness or thirdness. Some of the imaginative signs in 'Everybody their Chimera' (e.g., aridity, heaviness, the indifferent face of the walkers) lend themselves perfectly to highlight the "firstnesses," the "mode of being" of the sign. The imaginator experiences them as if they are a reality and personally 14 Bart Keunen: Storyworlds and the Semiotic Rules of Narrative Imagination feels the atmosphere of the desert trip. They hardly require any work on the part of the brain because sign and semiotic object dissolve into each other, because, in principle, the imaginator has no conscious awareness of the prior knowledge he uses. Moreover, there is no need to examine the relationship that the sign maintains with prior knowledge in order to also anesthetize the interpretant. In the second epistemic mode, the relationship between sign and object is explicitly put in the forefront. The receiver's attention is focused on the connection of two elements so that the epistemic mode can be characterized as "secondness." When reading Baudelaire's text, this occurs when the imaginator emphatically connects an imaginative sign with an object of memory (the landscape reminds him of a desert) or with prior knowledge concerning causality (the scenes in the text are arranged according to a pattern that follows the laws of empirical causality). Finally, the third epistemic mode requires the greatest intellectual effort because there are three elements involved. The receiver draws conclusions from the relationship between a sign and its object (Peirce CP 8.314). In the context of narrative imagination, one must think of signs that tempt the imaginator to connect subjective connotations with the imaginative sign. Baudelaire's text occasionally leads to a state of consciousness in which a subjective interpretation (the interpretant) is brought in the forefront: the imaginator feels pity, arrives at the conclusion that the narrator displays psychological reactions and is not insensitive to the hopelessness of the situation. Phenomenological accents concerning imaginative signs These three groups already illustrate the richness of the imaginative world of experience. However, in a later stage of his career, Peirce concluded that there is a second way in which signs can differ from each other. More specifically, the diversity of contexts of experience or prior knowledge brings out different and equally important accents in a sign. In the years following the penultimate turn of the century, Peirce felt the need to further expand his typology by taking into account the 'phenomenological nature' of the sign. Indeed, also with respect to the phenomenology of experience, a distinction can be made between "firstnesses," "secondnesses" and "thirdnesses." Peirce names these experiential contexts utilizing the concepts of "quality," "brute reaction" and "mediation." Gilles Deleuze beautifully illustrates in his Cinema books PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 what exactly is meant by Peirce when he isolates and interprets images of affection, action and relation in the work of classical filmmakers. In the imaginative signs evoked by Baudelaire's fictional world, one also recognizes these phenomenological accents. In order to find clues of these differences, it suffices to give a moment's thought to the experience of reading. One could say that the imaginator is simultaneously present in three worlds while reading. The least complex world or context of experience comes up for discussion when the imaginator withdraws into the personal private world and—guided by what von Uexkull would call the "receptor system"—focuses on those specific imaginative signs that have a direct aesthetic effect. In Baudelaire's text, this concerns signs indicating that the sky is gray and splenetic, the plain solid, dusty, empty and desolate or that ferocious, powerful chimeras weigh down the characters. The text, through those specific images, seduces the imaginator to believe in the existence of sensory qualities, both visual and tactile, and also a little bit kinesthetic. Typical of this aspect of the reading experience is that the imaginator limits himself to the context of the "immediate present." He undergoes the impressions in a spontaneous, almost scattered way. Moreover, his reactions are 'physical' in a certain sense: he submits himself to quasi-sensory impressions, to a stream of recognizable images and to the connotations (emotions or ideas) that they evoke in him. Out of this way of perceiving, the world in which the imaginator finds himself becomes a vibrant and life-like world of experience. The sign takes him to a closed, monadic world of "firstnesses only." The immediate 'lyrical' effect that stories often exert corresponds to the imagination in the narrow sense: the experience of "images" that have a qualitative similarity to images from the arsenal of prior knowledge (Johansen 30). The lyrical effects of imagination were often neglected in narratology. Postclassical theorists put this world of experience back on the narratological agenda. "Interpreters of narrative," says Herman, "do not merely reconstruct a sequence of events and a set of existents but imaginatively (emotionally, viscerally) inhabit a world in which ... things matter, agitate, exalt, repulse" (Basic Elements 119). Coinciding with the first experiential context, a second context urges itself upon the imaginator. The imaginator encounters resistance from the imagination material — it cannot be entirely reduced to what she or he would like to make of it in their "lyrical" omnipotence. This resistance can be traced back to the temporal dynamics in the story. Minimal changes in the imagination material give the story a theatrical allure. The group of people is moving in a desert plane; the narrator 16 Bart Keunen: Storyworlds and the Semiotic Rules of Narrative Imagination takes the initiative to go talk to someone; we see the people march with determination, and the action ends with a narrator who says he feels more discouraged than the characters he observes. The imagina-tor who is caught up in this type of "resisting" and dynamic world is—led by what von Uexkull would call the "effector system"—actively creating connections between the changed situation and the situation before (consequence-cause). Moreover, he connects the situation with expected changes (action-response). When the imaginator interrelates things, the exclusive bond with the immediate present is broken, because she or he is also concerned with the past, while at the same time anticipating the future. The focus on sequentiality and especially on the causal relations pervading the material of imagination—a well-known research topic in narratological studies—leads to a completely different type of experience than what was previously seen. The relations of dramatic tension are connected to a different type of object. It is not so much the idiosyncratic and monadic image that the imaginator immediately associates with the sign, but rather the memory of a virtual image that is causally associated with the imaginative sign. Because of the changes in the world of Baudelaire he or she is forced to expand the first world to a second world that, as it were, adds a second layer to it. Thus, he or she experiences two phenomena at the same time: on the one hand, the firstness of the lyrical effects and, on the other hand, the "dramatic" relationship between two units, each of them possessing its own firstness. The third world that occurs during the experience of reading arises when the imaginator uses his imaginative capacity to link the referential representations to "solidified" knowledge when he relies on external corpora of knowledge. Solidified knowledge concerns information about various forms of what Peirce calls "regularities" (Atkins 148), that is, information about fixed relationships between elements of information with which the imaginator becomes acquainted in the course of his life (personal experience, knowledge out of books, stereotyped image constellations — everything that is law-like and "carved in stone"). A good example is the knowledge about symbolist conventions, such as the idea of allegory and the theory of correspondences. This knowledge is indispensable for fully experiencing Baudelaire's text. In this way, the image of the "splenetic dome of the sky" only has a melancholic effect when the imaginator brings to bear knowledge about the concept of 'spleen' and the allegorical connection between soul and world. In this operation of imagination, the imaginator no longer focuses on the qualities in the storyworld, and neither on the dynamics of the events. PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Instead, he focuses on the implicit evaluations that he believes to recognize in the storyworld. These implicit evaluations relate to all kinds of intellectual frames of reference (e.g., genre conventions, which are often neglected by neurobiological research on imagination, see Richardson 234) and provoke a kind of intertextual operation, since this type of experience is entirely based on "texts" as intermediary bodies. It goes without saying that the two previous worlds are indispensable in generating such an experience. The extra knowledge only has an effect when it is applied to lyrical and dramatic phenomena. In other words, as Peirce repeatedly states, thirdness implies firstness and secondness. The nine imaginative operations that construct a storyworld On the basis of the epistemological and phenomenological types of privilege, Peirce arrives at a list of nine classes of signs, arranged in the matrix below. The scheme is complemented by some of my own terms, which were already informally introduced (lyrical, dramatic and intellectual) or which anticipate the epistemic properties of narrative imagination that were inspired by Ernst Cassirer and are discussed in this section. World Experience Epistemic Mode Firstness Quality Lyrical Secondness Brute reaction Dramatic Thirdness Mediation Intellectual Firstness Mode of Being Oneiric Mode Qualisign Quality that is a Sign Sinsign Event that is a Sign Legisign General Type that is a Sign Secondness Mode of Reference to Object Constructivist Mode Icon Qualitative Relation of Sign and Object Index Genuine Relation of Sign and Object Symbol Abstract Relation of Sign and Object Thirdness Mode of Reference to Interpretant Hermeneutic Mode Rheme/Seme General Interpretation of Some Possible Object Dicisign/Dicent Specific Interpretation of Actual Properties of Object Argument Logical Interpretation or Judgment Peirce had a clear philosophical intention with his matrix of nine classes of signs, namely "to unravel the tangled skein [of] all that appears in Bart Keunen: Storyworlds and the Semiotic Rules of Narrative Imagination any sense and wind it into distinct forms" (CP 1.280). If it is true what postclassical narratology claims, that narrative experience is based on worldlikeness, then we should evidently also find the nine signs in the narrative imagination. In what follows, I will distinguish nine possible aspects of the storyworld. Although these are arbitrarily activated in the actual experience of reading and can often occur in combinations, they may positively be seen as distinct signals that trigger the process of "worlding the story." The semiotic matrix, which I discuss in detail below, contains signs that considerably deviate from the examples given by Peirce in his discussion of the classes of signs. Peirce was not, or hardly ever, concerned with artistic signs. Yet from his remarks about imagination (Peirce CP 7.646; see Barrena, Andacht, Johansen) it can be deduced that my overview of imaginary signs corresponds to his method of working. Other thinkers also give clues in connection with operations of imagination that are nicely attuned to Peirce's analysis. Below, I will mobilize these authors to reinforce my hypothesis about the nature of narrative imagination. On the one hand, I will point out the similarity of five of the signs to the five codes distinguished by Roland Barthes in S/Z. For Barthes, the five textual codes correspond with totally different ways of interpretation; they are different voices in the polyphony of reading (Barthes 19, 30). In the following, I will relate them to types of imagination processes we discovered through Peirce's semiotics. On the other hand, significant similarity exists between Peirce's three types of phenomenological experience and the triad used by Ernst Cassirer—relying on some of Goethe's maxims and Uexkull—in his posthumously published The Metaphysics of Symbolic Forms (Krois). The Peircean epistemic modes also play a major role in his work. In the first three parts of his magnum opus, he continually relies on an epistemological triad that corresponds in some aspects to that of Peirce (Ausdruck or Expression, Darstellung or Representation and Reine Bedeutung or Signification). Variations of the oneiric mode For a proper understanding of the first epistemic mode within narrative imagination, we need to bring to mind the experience of dreaming. In dreams, we experience "the absence of the constraints upon thought characteristic of waking imagination" (Walsh). Instead, we merge with the "firstness" of the oneiric signs and are affected by the mirages that 19 PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 pop up "before our eyes." In Cassirer's view, dream images are exponents of the most elementary epistemic operation of which the brain is capable. In The Metaphysics ofSymbolic Forms, Cassirer refers to Ludwig Klages's dream theory, which very clearly shows to what extent dreaming subjects produce knowledge in their own way (23—32). Analogous to Peirce's idea of "firstness," the essence of oneiric knowledge, he states in Mythical Thought, is that it does not distinguish between "image and thing, the sign and what it designates" (72), it entails an unmediated "authentic presence" (68). In the oneiric mode of knowledge, the attention is completely absorbed by the presence of the sign. Typical of signs conceived in their firstness—in this resides their affinity to the dream—is that they do not refer to an object, but rather are the object: a qualisign is the quality, a sinsign is the event, and the legisign is the general type. Here, one can bring to mind the phenomenon called "immersion" in nar-ratology (Gerrig, Ryan, Burke) or neurobiological observations about the functioning of mirror neurons (Lakoff 19). Narratological research, however, does not sufficiently respect the phenomenological differences between the oneiric signs of imagination (quality, reaction, mediation). These are related to the diversity of prior knowledge that is mobilized by the imaginator with the purpose of giving meaning to the signs. A qualisign belongs in the private world of the imaginator. Above, some examples were given of signs that shape Baudelaire's prose poem and provide a specific "quality of feeling" (Peirce CP 1.303). The affects evoked by words such as barren and empty, or the sense of gravity that we associate with the "cumbersome" Chimera are examples of lyrical-oneiric images. The way in which the rhythm of the text affects the imaginator can also be seen as a form of immersive knowledge. The slow pace of the first few sentences or Baudelaire's story already anticipates the way the chimera pushes down on the heads and the backs of these ambulating characters. The sinsigns include all kinds of changes that involve chains of images confronting the imaginator with a response unit (the prefix sin indicates "unity"). Peirce primarily observes the experience of sinsigns in the experiential context of empirical facts, but this type of phenomenon also occurs within narrative imagination. In dreams and stories, the causal chain of events is experienced in an immediate manner (e.g., dangerous situations disappear through the actions of a character or, on the contrary, are worsened by frightening characters). The liveliness of the dream and the experience of narrative actions are most strongly reflected in the imagination of characters. As a collection of proper- Bart Keunen: Storyworlds and the Semiotic Rules of Narrative Imagination ties, characters give rise to an experience of firstness, but as instances of action, they generate the experience of secondness. As goal-directed instances, they are the ideal lubricant to give shape to the dramatic experience of time. This hybridity in the imagination of characters— which was already observed by Aristotle (pt. 6)—is implicitly reflected in narratological research (Burke 231—232), but can gain more relevance with a Peircean sense of nuance. The legisigns of narrative imagination also fall under the oneiric mode of knowledge. This is because they imply a spontaneous pattern of reaction in which the mediating knowledge item (e.g., the correspondence device of the symbolists) is applied automatically. This somewhat resembles the absence of reflection on the precise meaning of a monster appearing in a dream: it is nothing more than the incarnation of "danger" and "evil." Postclassical narratology has also made many contributions concerning legisigns, especially in the field of the study of characters (Jannidis). Variations of the constructivist mode There is a common-sense belief that equates imagination with dreaming (Gottschall 28). Imagination is said to involve fantasy, creative reproduction of the empirical reality in the brain. This view of imagination as a capacity for reproduction is often central to experimental psychology (cf. pictorialism) and the philosophy of imagination (Gilbert Ryle, Jean-Paul Sartre). Paul Ricoeur ("Function" 118-123) has rightly pointed out the reductionist nature of these theories of imagination. Basing his view on Kant, he states that we must sharply demarcate reproductive imagination from a more complex operation of thought: productive imagination. Imagination, after all, is also, and above all, the ability to order, to contemplate from a distance, and to upgrade the world experience—as we do in dream recall (Dennett 132-134)—to a constructed whole. A theoretical foundation for this thesis can be found in Cassirer's work. When discussing the second type of object construction, he refers to the constructed character of human perception (or, in the Kantian mode of expression, "intuition"). "In the field of intuition and the pure 'representative function,'" it is necessary, Cassirer says, to invoke "the aid of the 'productive imagination' at every step" (Phenomenology 306). In the Essay on Man, Cassirer further develops his view of productive imagination and explicitly refers to that specific epistemic mode that PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 is typical of works of art. The artistic imagination, he says, is indeed related to other forms of simulation-based knowledge such as dream and play: "In play we have to do with simulated images which may become so vivid and impressive as to be taken for realities" (209). Dream and play, however, are purely expressive forms of knowledge that do not yet fully unfold the constructivist power of imagination. This only happens when an artistic form is imposed on the phenomena: "In play we merely rearrange and redistribute the materials given to sense perception. Art is constructive and creative in another and a deeper sense" (209). The Kantian idea of productive imagination, as elaborated by Ricoeur and Cassirer, returns in the three signs that Peirce associates with the representational mode of knowledge: icons, indexes and symbols. Because they favor the relationship between representamen and object, with these three operations, an element emerges that is often central to theories of reading, to wit, the conception of reading as the creative handling of "information gaps" (Iser 92, 166-167; Miall 261). As will become clear, these gaps can be described more accurately as a three-fold phenomenon employing Peirce's phenomenological categories. The constructivist sign that belongs in the lyrical context of experience, the icon, requires completion by way of "personal" information. Ryan calls this the principle of minimal departure, which states that "when readers construct fictional worlds, they fill in the gaps in the text by assuming the similarity of the fictional worlds to their own experiential reality" (Ryan, Possible Worlds 447). The representamen (a schematic representation, such as the script "desert trip") is fed by the imaginator with items from a corpus of images of memory. Thanks to the connection he makes between the representamen and the (determining) object, the imaginator ensures that the schematic representation will display similarities to desert images from his memory. Icons ensure that the storyworld becomes a "trusted environment"; indexes, by contrast, work with interactions and are placed under the constellation of the recalcitrant and the variable. They give signals to the imaginator to represent the changes as a "causal-chronological whole" (Herman, Storytelling 37). Characters, for example, are recognized as having a Greimasian "actantial function" and are organized in accordance with a logic of cause-effect or action-reaction. When, at the end of Baudelaire's text, the narrator refers to "an irresistible Indifference crashed down upon me," then this information raises the question about the cause of this emotion, and therefore about the depressing events that precede it — to a certain extent, it turns the walkers into antagonists. This example nicely illustrates the way in which an indexi- Bart Keunen: Storyworlds and the Semiotic Rules of Narrative Imagination cal operation of imagination contributes to the construction of a story-world: the information gaps are not so much related to the properties of its elements (as in the case of iconicity), as they are to the causal relations between the imaginative signs. The temporal logic, or the sequen-tiality of the elements in the storyworld, occupies the central place. This temporal relation can go in all directions because sometimes it is an object that must be seen as a consequence, sometimes it is an object that constitutes the cause of the phenomenon. For this reason, indexes are at the basis of "curiosity, surprise and suspense," the universals of narrative temporality discovered by Sternberg (517—518). They also hold a central position in Paul Ricoeur's masterful Time and Narrative. The phenomenon that he calls "emplotment"—which he explicitly connects with the operations of productive imagination (68)—can be seen as an interpretative cognitive construction based on the indexical relationship between imaginative signs and their causes or effects. Finally, the constructivist mode of knowledge also has a variant that is realized with the help of thirds. Barthes uses the term "symbolic code" for such operations of imagination. With a little goodwill, these can be seen to correspond to what Peirce calls symbols. In S/Z, Barthes gives the example of the symbol of castration in Balzac's story. In this, he acts as an imaginator who uses the psychoanalytic view of sexuality to solve a problem in the plot (a "second") or to increase the recognizable nature of the story elements ("firsts"). The distinguishing characteristic of such signs is that they refer to a system of judgments, that the imaginator recognizes a theoretical relevance in them. They invite the imaginator to search the storyworld for recurring images and to link these to specific conventions. This operation of ordering gives rise to a semantic framework in the storyworld, a structure of semantic clusters that refer to a view or belief and that can subsequently be combined with each other (for example, to generate the oppositions that "Greimasian" structural semantics discuss). The result of a symbolic operation of imagination (the interpretant of a symbol-sign) corresponds to what is traditionally understood by "themes." Variations of the hermeneutic mode The hermeneutic mode of knowledge may be regarded as the closing piece of the narrative world experience. Signals that explicitly relate to an interpretation, that elicit a conscious reaction from the imaginator, fall under the classes of rheme, dicisign and argument. Typical of such PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 signs is that they entice the imaginator into making a judgment and encourage him to reflect. To use Cassirer's words, they are "brought to light by conscious intellectual effort" (Phenomenology 283). Cassirer sees this epistemic mode explicitly as an intensified form of productive imagination (306). His definition comes very close to what Peirce means by "mode of interpretation" because in the third type of knowledge, the emphasis is laid explicitly on the interpretant of the sign, on those propositions that pass judgment on a state of affairs. Evidently, icons, indexes and symbols also have an interpretant, but Peirce (in this followed by Deleuze) regards these as a kind of residual product; it only concerns a "conclusion" in relation to a quality, a reaction or a mediation. In the case of rhemes, dicisigns and arguments, interpretation is brought into prominence. Following Roland Barthes, the hermeneutic mode of knowledge could be called the "realm of truth." When he speaks of the semic and the hermeneutic code, Barthes refers to the judgments concerning "truth" readers make while reading (e.g., 61—62, 75—76, 171). Here, however, the truth cannot be understood as empirically tested truth. Rather, judgments in fiction deal with the truth and credibility of the storyworld. One could say that such judgments are beyond the reach of the storyworld itself, yet it is undoubtedly so that they are an essential component of the narrative world experience. Such in any case, was Mark Twain's understanding when he reportedly claimed that "the only difference between reality and fiction is that fiction needs to be credible." The first kind of signal that invites credibility to be assessed are the signs that Peirce calls rheme (alternately called seme; CP 4.538). Statements such as "under the splenetic dome of the sky, feet plunged into a dusty soil as desolate as the sky, they marched onward" force the imaginator to assess the desert and the walkers as depressing, in order to let the qualitative similarity between the sign of imagination (the frame "desert trip") and the object of memory (the qualitative properties of deserts and walks under harsh circumstances) end in the idea and the feeling of "what a depressing state of affairs." In this sense, the rhemes are signals that are responsible for an important aspect of the aesthetics of stories: they produce, among other things, the tragic emotions that Aristotle considers crucial for a successful aesthetic experience. One could say that the evaluative act "contaminates" the image with qualitative connotations (Baudelaire's characters provoke the fear of social isolation or a feeling of exhaustion). The interpretant of the rheme thus generates a surplus of meaning that is added to the storyworld. Roland Barthes classes such connotations under the name "semic code" and Bart Keunen: Storyworlds and the Semiotic Rules of Narrative Imagination calls them "impressionistic": the semic code "plays with the distribution of a discontinuity (thus creating a character's 'personality')" (22). The second type of evaluative connotations (the class that Peirce calls dicisigns) does not concern qualitative evaluations, but rather the dynamics of events. When the narrator talks about faces that reveal "no sense of despair," that have "the resigned look of those condemned to eternal hope," and when he talks about characters "driven by an irresistible need to walk," then he forces the imaginator to render a judgment about the causal coherence of the story. The faces are evaluated on the basis of their quality of reaction (they respond to the desire to move forward and not to the heavy burden under which they suffer), the characters on the basis of the psychological motivation that explains their behavior. Statements made by the narrator, in which he assesses himself (e.g., "an irresistible Indifference crashed down upon me") automatically lead to an opinion at the side of the imaginator, because the narrator himself connects his feelings with the situation they cause. The assessment of causal relations between scenes or images, as in the discussed example, often boils down to assessing the credibility of the behavior and the psychological responses of the characters. Narratology studies such judgments under the name of "theory of mind" or "literary mindreading" (Palmer, Zunshine, Mar and Oatley). Central to judgments about causal relations concerning the psychology of the characters is their credibility — they belong to what Barthes called the "Voice of Truth" (the hermeneutic code). The imaginator should ask himself whether lonely walks in the desert are accompanied by negative feelings and whether it is credible that someone looks down on people who respond to them with positive feelings. If the imaginator attaches faith to this state of affairs, the scene can be used to perform an additional operation of imagination within the third experiential context (he can consider the depressing desert journey as a symbol when he recognizes in it the expression of the theme of hope or hopelessness). A third type of sign that is related to the truth of the fictional world, shows similarities to what Peirce calls "argument". If an imaginator reads Baudelaire's text through the lens or Walter Benjamin's theory of modernity, she or he is using imagination to see the text as an illustration of a critique of phantasmagoria and hence as an implicit evaluation of contemporary capitalism. He or she will use the semantic tension between hopelessness and naive hope to come to an understanding of the sad fate of the citizen in the capitalist metropolis. When the imagi-nator uses an intertextual framework of judgments (Marxist ideology criticism) as a mediator between a specific imaginative sign (the image PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 of "the resigned look of those condemned to eternal hope") and the final interpretation, he enters the domain of theoretical assessment. As in the Benjamin example, it can give rise to a series of neo-Marxist associations that build on the implicit judgment of the narrator, whether alleged or not, whether in the form of hineininterpretierung or based on evidence. Conclusion: About the usefulness and disadvantage of a semiotic matrix of imagination To conclude, I would like to point out that the presented semiotic matrix can and will be more than a description of the processes of "world-ing the story." The matrix is bound to be useful as a heuristic tool for (1) assessing practices from literary criticism, (2) identifying gaps in narratological research, and (3) facilitating comparative research in the field of intermediality. (1) Taking the different forms displayed by narrative imagination as a starting point, one could describe three caricatures of readers that are all too common in the world of literary criticism. A first cliched figure is the naive reader who reads "from the gut" and therefore only has eyes for firstnesses (both in terms of the context of experience and of the modes of knowledge). The non-academic or dilettante reviewer, a second caricature, is involved in "reading for the plot" and has an eye for the secondnesses, the constructivist elements and the dramatic elements. University literary criticism has understood Barthes's wise advice — to wit, that it is best not to limit literary experience to the pro-airetic code (30)—and, by contrast, focuses primarily on the thirdnesses of the narrative world experience—both on the hermeneutic mode of knowledge and on the intellectual field of experience. These three caricatures can be seen as reductionist readers to which the polyphony of reading is lost. Conversely, one can say that readers who activate all elements of the semiotic matrix come closer to what can be called a rich narrative imagination. (2)The matrix is a useful tool for mapping trends in narratological research. As it turns out, a one-sided focus on sequentiality is not only a fault that characterized structuralist narratology. Indeed, it often looms up in postclassical narratology, as if it were the return of the repressed. The reason for this is perhaps the desire to connect more closely with the experience of a concrete reader — the reader who meets the profile associated above with "reading for the plot." The second generation 26 Bart Keunen: Storyworlds and the Semiotic Rules of Narrative Imagination of cognitivism-inspired narratologists tries to remedy this by paying more attention to the oneiric mode of knowledge and by focusing more strongly on epistemological operations that concern the lyrical domain of experience. Other theorists attempt to fill the gaps in current nar-ratological research pertaining to the intellectual domain (e.g., Herman and Vervaeck, Nünning). (3) The matrix can finally be a heuristic instrument for intermedial comparative research. On the basis of the "matrix of imagination," it can be concluded that the nature of the representamen is responsible for the creation of distinct semiotic processes. The oneiric epistemic mode differs entirely depending on the media used. Verbal narratives work with referential representations that must be distilled from verbal signs, and these are merely schematic representations. In the case of cinematic images, the referential representation is anything but schematic, in such a way that the operations of imagination can be performed directly, as Deleuze's descriptions show (it is no accident that he calls perception images instances of 0-ness). As far as their graphic aspect is concerned, graphic novels, for their part, work with imaginative signs that are a representation of schematic representations. Nevertheless, as Deleuze's film semiotics shows, the operations of thought return in more or less the same proportions for literature, film and comics. I would like to emphasize that the research of narrative worldmaking also brings about many limitations. Mapping operations of imagination does not relieve the narratologist of the obligation to keep a keen eye on "the design of the blueprint itself — complexities creating additional layers of mediation in the relationship between narrative and storyworld" (Herman Basic Elements 107) or on the functioning of narrativity in a broader cultural context (e.g., the ability of stories to break expectations, or to be used in everyday contexts as instruments of "sense making," cf. Herman Storytelling 263—310). Nevertheless, the study of the imaginative operations seems to me to be of fundamental importance, perhaps even a priority. "First things first." For a Peircean semiotic, this expression means: first, to examine the worldlikeness (iconicity, firstness); next, to scrutinize the relationship with textual mechanisms (indexicality, secondness); finally, to investigate cultural relevance (symbolicity, thirdness). 27 PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 WORKS CITED Andacht, Fernando. "Those Powerful Materialized Dreams: Peirce on Icons and the Human Imagination." The American Journal of Semiotics 17.3 (2001): 91—116. Aristotle. Poetics. Trans. S. H. Butcher. London: Macmillan, 1929. The Internet Classics Archive. Web. 12 Dec. 2019. Atkins, Richard Kenneth. Charles Sanders Peirce's Phenomenology: Analysis and Consciousness. Oxford: Oxford U.P., 2018. Barrena, Sara. "Reason and Imagination in Charles S. Peirce." European Journal of Pragmatism and American Philosophy V-1 (2013). Web. 12 Dec. 2019. Barthes, Roland. S/Z. Trans. Richard Miller. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1974. Baudelaire, Charles. Paris Spleen. Trans. Raymond N. MacKenzie. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2008. Bortolussi, Marisa, and Peter Dixon. Psychonarratology: Foundations for the Empirical Study of Literary Response. Cambridge: Cambridge U.P., 2003. Burke, Michael. Literary Reading, Cognition and Emotion: An Exploration of the Oceanic Mind. New York: Routledge, 2011. Caracciolo, Marco. "Ungrounding Fictional Worlds: An Enactivist Perspective on the 'Worldlikeness' of Fiction." Possible Worlds Theory and Contemporary Narratology. Ed. Alice Bell and Marie-Laure Ryan. Lincoln: U. of Nebraska P., 2019.113-131. Cassirer, Ernst. Essay on Man: An Introduction to a Philosophy of Human Culture. New York: Doubleday, 1944. Cassirer, Ernst. The Philosophy of Symbolic Forms. 2 (Mythical Thought). 3 (The Phenomenology of Knowledge). 4 (The Metaphysics of Symbolic Forms). New Haven: Yale U.P., 1955, 1957, 1996. Deleuze, Gilles. Cinéma 1: L'Image-mouvement. Paris: Minuit, 1983. Dennett, Daniel. "Are Dreams Experiences?." Brainstorms: Philosophical Essays on Mind and Psychology. Cambridge, MA: MIT press, 1981. 129-148. Gallagher, Shaun. Enactivist Interventions: Rethinking the Mind. Oxford: Oxford U.P., 2017. Gerrig, Richard. Experiencing Narrative Worlds: On the Psychological Activities of Reading. New Haven: Westview, 1998. Gottschall, Jonathan. The Storytelling Animal: How Stories Make Us Human. Boston: Houghton, 2012. Herman, David. Story Logic: Problems and Possibilities of Narrative. Lincoln: U. of Nebraska P., 2002. Herman, David. Basic Elements of Narrative. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. Herman, David. Storytelling and the Sciences of Mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2013. Herman, Luc, and Bart Vervaeck. "A Theory of Narrative in Culture." Poetics Today 38.4 (2017): 605-634. Hühn, Peter, et al., eds. The Living Handbook of Narratology. Hamburg: Hamburg University. Web. 12 Dec. 2019. Iser, Wolfgang. The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response. London: Routledge, 1978. Jannidis, Fotis. "Character." The Living Handbook of Narratology. Peter Hühn o. c. Johansen, Joergen Dines. Literary Discourse: A Semiotic-Pragmatic Approach to Literature. Toronto: U. of Toronto P., 2002. Krois, John Michael. "More than a Linguistic Turn in Philosophy: The Semiotic Programs of Peirce and Cassirer." SATS 5 (2004): 14-33. Bart Keunen: Storyworlds and the Semiotic Rules of Narrative Imagination Lakoff, George. "The Neural Theory of Metaphor." The Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought. Ed. Raymond Gibbs. Cambridge: Cambridge U. P., 2008. 17-38. Liao, Shen-yi, and Tamar Gendler. "Imagination." The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2019 Edition). Ed. Edward N. Zalta. Web. 12 Dec. 2019. Liszka, James Jacob. A General Introduction to the Semeiotic of Charles Sanders Peirce. Bloomington: Indiana U.P., 1996. Mar, Raymond A., and Keith Oatley. "The Function of Fiction is the Abstraction and Simulation of Social Experience." Perspectives on Psychological Science 3 (2008): 173-192. Miall, David S. "Affect and Narrative: A Model of Response to Stories." Poetics 17 (1988): 259-272. Nünning, Ansgar. "Surveying Contextualist and Cultural Narratologies: Towards an Outline of Approaches, Concepts, and Potentials." Narratology in the Age of Cross-Disciplinary Narrative Research. Ed. Sandra Heinen and Roy Sommer. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2009. 48-70. Palmer, Alan. Fictional Minds. Lincoln: U of Nebraska P., 2004. Peirce, Charles Sanders. The Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce Vols. I—VI. Ed. Charles Hartshorne and Paul Weiss. 2, 3. Ed. Arthur W. Burks. Cambridge, MA: Harvard U.P., 1931-1935 & 1958. Peirce, Charles Sanders. The Essential Peirce: Volume 1 (1867—1893) and Volume 2 (1893-1913). Ed. The Peirce Edition Project. Bloomington: Indiana U. P., 1992 & 1998. Richardson, Alan. "Imagination: Literary and Cognitive Intersections." The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Literary Studies. Ed. Lisa Zunshine. Oxford: Oxford U.P., 2015. Ricoeur, Paul. Time and Narrative. 1. Chicago: U. of Chicago P., 1984. Ricoeur, Paul. "The Function of Fiction in Shaping Reality." A Ricoeur Reader: Reflection and Imagination. Toronto: U. of Toronto P., 1991. 117-136. Ryan, Marie-Laure. Possible Worlds, Artificial Intelligence and Narrative Theory. Bloomington: U. of Indiana P., 1991. Ryan, Marie-Laure. "Possible-Worlds Theory." Routledge Encyclopedia of Narrative Theory. Ed. David Herman, Manfred Jahn, and Marie-Laure Ryan. London: Routledge, 2005. 446-450. Sternberg, Meir. "Universals of Narrative and Their Cognitivist Fortunes (II)." Poetics Today 24 (2003): 518-638. Walsh, Richard. "Dreaming and Narration." The Living Handbook of Narratology. Ed. Peter Hühn. o.c. Zunshine, Lisa. Why We Read Fiction: Theory of Mind and the Novel. Columbus: Ohio State U. P., 2006. 29 PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Pripovedni svetovi in semiotična pravila pripovedne domišljije: Peirce in Cassirer kot izhodišče za preučevanje izkustva sveta skozi literaturo Ključne besede: postklasična naratologija / kognitivna teorija / semiotika / pripovedni svet / domišljija / Peirce, Charles Sanders / Cassirer, Ernst V pričujočem prispevku s pomočjo uvidov Peircea in Cassirerja umestim teorijo pripovednega sveta v širšo fenomenologijo pripovedne domišljije. Prvi korak je semiotični opis pripovedne domišljije; elementi zgodbe se uresničujejo skozi zakone, ki jih Peirce pripiše vsem semiotičnim procesom (razdelek 1). Peirceove uvide poleg tega uporabim za to, da pokažem, kako zelo se ti elementi razlikujejo glede na svojo bodisi fenomenološko ali epistemološko naravo. Iz opisa semiotičnih procesov nato izpeljem matrico devetih znakov (razdelek 2), ki ustrezajo devetim različnim načinom delovanja domišljije. Hipoteza je, da za ustrezen opis izkustva posameznega pripovednega sveta zadostuje, če vsakemu od devetih znakov pripišemo ustrezno funkcijo. 1.01 Izvirni znanstveni članek / Original scientific article UDK 82.0-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/pkn.v43.i1.01 30 Notions of Atmosphere: Toward the Limits of Narrative Understanding Snežana Milosavljevic Milic University of Niš, Faculty of philosophy, Cirila i Metodija 2, 18105 Niš, Serbia https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0313-6849 snezana.milosavljevic.milic@filfak.ni.ac.rs The change of methodological paradigms, introduced by postclassical narratology and especially its cognitivist orientation, has thus far not reflected on the phenomenon of atmosphere. This is somewhat surprising, if we consider that the contemporary conceptualization of atmosphere and the increased interest in the questions it brings forth arise from new phenomenology and phenomenological aesthetics, fields that have directly initiated the development of postclassical narratology. Starting with the phenomenological concept of atmosphere of M. Merleau-Ponty andH. Schmitz (atmosphere as an ecstasy of experience, a specific modus of presence with a quasi-objective and inter-subjective status fitting into the extra-linguistic framework, atmospheric perception as seizing the surfaceless space) and the aesthetic relevance of the concept (G. Böhme, T. Griffero, E. FischerLichte), this article presents the terminological instability and semantic vagueness of atmosphere and related terms within the narratological discourse of M. Bal, G. Prince, M.L. Ryan and P.Abbott (atmosphere as receptive and narrative disposition, the accompanyingfactor of morphological categories, the thematic-psychological distinctive characteristic of genre). The primary objective of the paper is to reexamine the methodological legitimacy of the concept of atmosphere, both regarding the limits of narrative understanding and its interpretative potential which might become relevant within cognitive theories of intertextuality (E. Panagiotidy, M. Juvan), while also being a humanistic response to the challenges of new epistemological paradigms and a return to the transcendental essence of literature. Keywords: postclassical narratology / new phenomenology / focalization / atmosphere 31 Primerjalna književnost (Ljubljana) 43.1 (2020) PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Poetic space, because it is expressed,, assumes values of expansion. It belongs to the phenomenology of those words that begin with "ex." Gaston Bachelard During the last decade, a certain phenomenon has earned a distinctive place in the phenomenological vocabulary, especially within new phenomenology. It occupies the attention of researchers so much that they are already using it to name a new turn in the humanities. This term is atmosphere, or more precisely, atmospheres, as the phenomenon is more often mentioned in plural form. In spite of the growing interest and an almost unquestionable fascination following the atmospheric turn—a fascination that also indicates the symptom of overcoming postmodern epistemological fear and entering a new, positive (trans-modernistic) paradigm—, it seems that the expected researcher resonance among modern narratologists is still lacking. This is even more surprising, as in this case the scientific focus fails to be accompanied by terminological innovations; on the contrary, the term atmosphere is widely naturalized both in various discourses and in everyday language. As most researchers have noted, we all have experience with atmosphere—we can name it, describe it, valorize it—, but none of us can precisely define what the term actually means. The atmospheric turn is presently the most prominent exchange in new phenomenology and aesthetics. Starting with their insights, we will ask the rhetorical question of whether atmosphere is also a narrative phenomenon. The affirmative response represents a hypothesis, and its argumentation and support in the second part of the paper will take the form of a sketch of research perspectives provided by the application of the modern theoretical concept in the domain of literary-criticism research. The term 'atmosphere' originally pertained to the geographic meaning of the aerial cover of Earth. The metaphorical meaning of the term appeared at the beginning of the nineteenth century and remains to this day, in the form of atmosphere as the qualitative characteristics of a situation or the mood caused by a situation. The usual use of conceptual metaphors in describing atmosphere—for example, in syntagmas such as heavy air, easy/soft wind, gloomy weather—indicates synesthesia as an important property of atmospheric perception. Lexicographic entries of this term foreground at least two crucial aspects of atmosphere: its spatial character and its connection with 32 Snezana Milosavljevic Milic: Notions of Atmosphere: Toward the Limits of Narrative Understanding feelings. These are actually not two separate or alternative properties. Their fusion represents the intriguing ontological status of atmosphere regarding the relationship between the subject and the object. As Stuart Grant claims, "the reference to atmosphere usually means that there is an unknown, something difficult to grasp, which needs to be clarified" (19). The early signs of the atmospheric turn in the humanities are already contained in the change of epistemological paradigm achieved at the beginning of the twentieth century, with the abandonment of the Cartesian concept of subject. According to Damir Smiljanic, "the subject with no body and feelings is being replaced by a sensitive body," while "the substantiality of the objects of traditional gnoseology is simply dissolving in the wealth of synesthesia surrounding the body of the subject" (79). The key initial role in the inauguration of the term 'atmosphere' as a new genius loci in the modern theory discourse1 belongs to Maurice Merleau-Ponty. He was the first to state the conceptual content of atmosphere and atmospheric perception in greater detail2 in his Phenomenology of Perception (1945). Using the syntagma "sensory experience" (86) as the "ecstasy of experience," Merleau-Ponty connected the "world of interacting sense" (262) and "the total life of the spectacle" (263). He emphasizes that pure experience is neither the awareness nor the pure being, but rather the communication of the subject with the non-transparent being. Merleau-Ponty assigns the attribute of "atmospheric" to the sensory sensations of color and sound, emphasizing the impossibility of their spatial localization, omnipresence and inherent coexistence with the bodily experience as an imminent aspect of the "synesthetic experience" (266). Here we have deliberately emphasized Merleau-Ponty's theses that are differentia specifica of the presently defined concept of atmosphere: its holistic nature, the spatial character of feelings as atmosphere, the ecstasy of experience, and the reach of sensory perception localized only "in between" the subject and the object, as an embodied experience. The radicalization of these viewpoints is noticeable with the founder of new phenomenology, Herman Schmitz. His concept of feeling as atmosphere3 has been widely reflected in modern humanities in the 1 For the genesis of this term and its connection with the term 'Stimmung' in Heidegger's philosophy, see Popovic (462) and Smiljanic ("Nova" 420). 2 It may seem unusual that modern research by new phenomenologists and representatives of atmospheric aesthetics often overlooks the role of Merleau-Ponty, or only emphasizes the importance of H. Schmitz as the forerunner of the atmospheric turn. 3 Schmitz introduced the term 'atmosphere' in 1969. 33 PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 last few years. The nature of our "affective touch" matches the concept of surfaceless spaces. According to Schmitz, it also includes the space of sound, wind, silence, bodily reactions, and, water as a perceived dynamic volume (86—89). These are actually specific phenomena that are called "half-entities" by Schmitz, as they are not full things, but as quasi-objective facts, they carry the essential atmospheric potential. The synesthetic character of atmospheric perception, as "multi-presentable impression" (56) is at the same time immeasurable and infinite. Moreover, it is impossible to define it through the dichotomous categories of "external" and "internal" (Smiljanic, Sinestetika 192). Promoting the thesis on the quasi-objective status of emotions, Schmitz simultaneously harshly criticized the "psychologistic-reduc-tionist-introjectionist" concept of feelings as private spiritual states (91) and the modern constellationism in technical sciences, which he named "the neurological usurpers of philosophy" (52). Michael Hauskeller, as an author of one of the more recent reception of Schmitz's work, summarized the key episteme in the following way: But what exactly are atmospheres? It seems obvious that they are not things. ... However, atmospheres are similar to things in that we don't find them in ourselves, like an emotion or a thought, but to all appearances in the world out there. Yet atmospheres are not sensory qualities either, like colours, sounds or smells, even though such qualities can certainly contribute to the nature of an atmosphere. Nor are they emotions. Atmospheres do not consist in purely cognitive associations, even though these can be a contributing factor. Atmospheres are felt, or experienced. Experience must here be understood as a mode of perception that necessarily involves emotions. I would define them as both tempered and tempering spaces. (42) Directly inspired by Schmitz's concept of feelings as atmosphere and their quasi-objective status, as well as Walter Benjamin's concept of aura, Gernot Böhme defined the aesthetics of atmospheric synesthetic perception as an essential factor of various aesthetic practices. Why is atmosphere "a fundamental concept of new aesthetics" (Böhme 13)? As a primary object of observing, but at the same time as that which "constitutes observation" (Lazic 323), appearing in the relation between the subject and the object, the pre-linguistic and pre-reflexive nature of atmosphere emphasizes the importance of live bodily experience in the context of aesthetic practices. In correlation with Schmitz's concepts of semibeings, Böhme introduces (after Merleau-Ponty) a concept of "ecstasy of things" which refers to the way in which a thing steps out of itself and into the sur- 34 Snezana Milosavljevic Milic: Notions of Atmosphere: Toward the Limits of Narrative Understanding rounding space, where it becomes palpably present (8). As Tina EngelsSchwarzpaul suggests, "The new aesthetics is above all a theory of sensory experience. ... Therefore the new aesthetics may be described ... as a theory of perception" (10). The most consistent follower of Bohme's new aesthetics was the Italian theorist Tonino Griffero, who studied atmospheres as the aesthetics of emotional spaces. Griffero often touched upon the atmospheric experience of literature: for example, when talking about the simultaneous strength and fragility of the first impression or about the inevitability of being submerged as a synonym of atmospheric perception. Atmospheric perception is therefore a holistic and emotional being-in-the-world (Atmospheres 32). By evoking Merleau-Ponty's thesis on the authority of atmospheric perception, Griffero emphasizes an analysis of the authority of atmospheric feelings, considering them more stable and performative than a social norm or a thought. Griffero's contribution of modern research in this field may be observed in renaming atmospheric phenomenology with the more general "philosophy of situations" (Atmospheres 36), as the emphasis in studying atmosphere is now placed on the actual situation, seen as the multiple and chaotic state of things that can be distinguished from others precisely owing to its peculiar atmospheric tone (Atmospheres 36). From this overview of the most important insights of new phenomenology and new aesthetics, it may be concluded that the phenomenon of space and the affective participation of persons with the space are key aspects of atmospheric perception. It is indicative that, in classical nar-ratology, atmosphere was mostly referred to in the same situations where the issues of space are discussed. A return to its most prominent theorists does, however, symptomatically indicate a consensus in the generally accepted colloquial use of the term atmosphere, with a lack of any distinctive description of this term in a terminological, functional or semantic sense. This is, among other things, evidenced by the ellipsis in narratological dictionaries,4 as they do not mention the term atmosphere. In her concise synthesis Narratology Introduction to the Theory of Narrative, Mieke Bal stressed the fact that the concept of space was one 4 A rare example is the entry with this term in John Anthony Cuddon's The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. Cuddon defines atmosphere as "The mood and feeling, the intangible quality which appeals to extra-sensory perception, evoked by a work of art" (59). The author also cites "atmosphere of the mind," "the phrase invented by Henry James to denote what the subjective writer of the novel tries to convey to the reader. After a time we in a sense 'inhabit' the writer's mind, breathe that air and are permeated by his vision" (59). 35 PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 of the "most vague" concepts in narrative theories, in spite of its "self-evident" form (132). She emphasizes the difference between the terms 'space' and 'place,' which used to have the status of an axiom among narratologists. Bal considers the senses of sight, hearing and touch to be particularly important for the narrative presentation of space. Actually, Bal is less focused on the reader's (affective) response to the "atmosphere" of the narrative and more on "the relations between space and character" (138), where the aspect of focalization becomes crucial. In his Dictionary of Narratology, Gerald Prince also found a place for atmosphere, but his term "setting" indicates the "spatiotemporal circumstances in which the events of a narrative occur" (italics by SMM), which might be "vague" or "precise" (88). It is also indicative that the atmospheric effect is indirectly prescribed to description as a form of storytelling. This morphological category therefore becomes the third distinctive property of atmosphere in traditional narrative theory (along with space and sensory mediation). In addition to other functions, Prince lists as a property of description the ability to set the "tone or mood of a passage" (19). Yet, just as in Bal, there is a lack of further explanation of this quality of description and space. We may therefore wonder whether such indifference or minimization was an approbation of the belief that atmosphere was not important enough in the story to be especially addressed. Or, more likely, that the explanative-method-ological framework of discourse of classical narratology, as a factor of the linguistic turn, was still unable to position "in-between" to match the extralinguistic markers. What changes were brought about by postclassical narratology? The interest in the affective nature of narrative and its semantic dimensions expressed through the concept of storyworld has directed the reader's receptive disposition toward the category of experience. In her book Towards the Natural Narratology, Monika Fludernik follows Paul Ricoeur and emphasizes the importance of narrative experience and its indubitable "peculiar dynamic" (18). By opposing the dominance of linguistics and the logic of syntax, Fludernik, after Claude Bremond and Jonathan Culler, notes the role of "experiential intentionality and dynamic teleology" (16) in the configuration of a holistic comprehension of narrative. In Porter Abbott's concept of "literature of experience," as opposed to "literature of representation" (45), we may notice that the intention to position the atmospheric property between the recipient's experience and the logic (syntax) of the narrative, is the actual relation. From the perspective of Abbott's distinction of "two kinds of engagement 36 Snezana Milosavljevic Milic: Notions of Atmosphere: Toward the Limits of Narrative Understanding with fiction — the experience of the text and its interpretation" (10), it may be inferred that Abbott's vision of an "experiential, processual, affective approach to interpretation with its focus on what happens to us over the course of an expressive or representational event (listening to a poem, reading a novel, watching a play)" (10) is close to the atmospheric experience in the reception of an artwork. In this sense, atmosphere might be the desired effect of the "silence of the text." According to Abbott, "What prose fiction contributed was silence, releasing words from what one might call their aural materiality" (59), but, at the same time it is the property providing specificity to the text. The greatest advance toward discussing atmosphere in narratologi-cal theories is present in the cognitivist-oriented theories of immersion. The experience of reading as the perception of atmospheres has a holistic prefix that seems to unite the aspects of atmospheric perception previously separated in narratology, namely: space, description, the sensory experience of the character, and the affective resonance of the reader. This psychological-phenomenological substitution of basic narrato-logical terms made the appearance of the phenomenon of atmosphere practically impossible to disregard. It could have already been predicted from the emphasis on the holistic nature of storyworld. Moreover, the readiness to accept extralinguistic tools that could be used to describe this appearance had already quite openly hinted that the second wave of cognitive narratologists were much closer to the new-phenomeno-logical paradigm than the linguistic paradigm. As Marie-Laure Ryan puts it, "In the metaphor of the text as world, the text is apprehended as a window on something that exists outside language and extends in time and space well beyond the window frame" (91). Of the five aspects of narrative space, the one combining the storyspace and the reader's imagination is particularly significant for atmospheric perception. Its hybrid character indicates the importance of intersubjective correlation, and the description of immersion through the metaphor of getting lost in the storyworld implicitly directs us to those characteristics of atmosphere that pertain to surfaceless space and the removal of its topographic coordinates. According to Ryan, atmospheric perception belongs to "the richer forms of perception" and "depends on the resonance in the reader's mind of the aesthetic features of the text: plot, narrative presentation, images, and style" (96). This specific feeling of space is atmospheric in its essence, and as such cannot be defined as a purely cognitive construct: Ryan claims that, "A sense of place is not the same thing as a mental model of space: through the former, readers PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 inhale an atmosphere; through the latter, they orient themselves on the map of the fictional world" (123, italics by SMM). Without additional explanation of the elements constitutive of atmospheric perception, Ryan emphasizes that one of the functions of atmosphere is to "facilitate the process of mental simulation and enrich our mental representation of all the episodes to come" (126). Such is the case with the introductory atmosphere, which opens the entryway into the storyworld, or, we would add, with the landscape, which has a background ambient function. Although it may be connected with the first impression, which, according to Griffero, is always atmospheric, the narrative experience of atmosphere "invites us to slow down the pace of reading" (Ryan 140). Perhaps this rhythm of affective resonance with regard to the imaginative storyworld should be the solution to the secret of aesthetic receptive competence. The modern affective-narratological concept of atmosphere may be partially connected to another interpretation of the concept of expe-rientiality. According to Marco Caracciolo, a representative of enac-tivist narratology, "experientiality [is] the 'impact' of engaging with a story, the extent to which it affects us" (15). This theoretical framework, which is close to the concept of Mimesis III (Ricoeur), supports hypotheses concerning the strong impression that atmospheric perception, as a product of the interaction between the recipient and the text, might have on the reader — its authoritative power. The new-phenomenological approach to atmosphere described is, however, opposed to enactivism as a new paradigm for cognitive science, as it does not resolutely accept its scientism. On the other hand, both the immersion theory and enactivism maintain a resemblance to the concept of live body, which is the experience that matters to the recipient. The potential effects of the enactivistic and atmospheric approach to the narrative are indicated by the so-called "4E approach" which has become increasingly present as an orientation toward research of neglected aspects of cognition, including "cognition as embodied, embedded, enactive and extended" (Nikolic 545).5 By accepting the thesis on the "emotional or aesthetic quality inherent in the notion of atmosphere," Peter Stockwell, within the cognitive poetics, distinguishes between tone and atmosphere. As he explains, "atmosphere and atmospheric generally point to the world-evoked con- 5 "According to the controversial topic of broadened awareness, cognition does not take place only in the brain, and is not even limited by the body of the individual but extends to the outside world" (Clark in Nikolic 2017: 546, my translation). 38 Snezana Milosavljevic Milic: Notions of Atmosphere: Toward the Limits of Narrative Understanding tent of the writing, and point to a direct and integrated relationship between the reader and that world," while "tone ... stands as a quality of the voice of the writing, and strongly indexes a mood, characteristic or trait of the writer's personality."6 "Tone can be described in text-linguistic terms . Atmosphere requires a cognitive poetic description that takes account of the readerly sense of the contextual world of the depicted setting." However, Stockwell goes even further when he introduces the notion of "ambience," which is the "combination of tonal voice and atmospheric world," and which, due to its diffuse quality, is regarded as a "supertextual feature of discourse" ("Atmosphere" 360-374). Since he believes that a "cognitive poetic account would begin by regarding atmosphere and tone as the global effects of ambience," Stockwell tries to use concrete examples from literary works to show the applicative effects of such theoretical starting points. Although it may be argued that the theoretical framework of the concepts offered is consistent and indubitably poetically relevant, the exact discourse in concrete analyses seems to oversimplify the problem. In this vein the final result does not achieve a degree of interpretation comparable to the strength of atmospheric perception. When it comes to voice, it is worth noting another new contribution relating to audionarratology. Indeed, if "an enactive image has more of a holistic potential, tapping more deeply into the affective charges of the narrative in question" (Mildorf and Kinzel 7), one may reconsider the similarities between "multimodal sensations experienced in enac-tive imagery" with audionarrative and atmosphere as part of mental imagery that "has been redefined," according to Jarmila Mildorf and Till Kinzel, "in terms of enactment" (ibid). The last contribution to be mentioned, but paradoxically possibly the first overall contribution to approaching this topic in literary studies, is Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht's book Atmosphere, Mood, Stimmung: On a Hidden Potential of Literature (2011). Although Gumbrecht asserts that "it is impossible to formulate a general theory about necessary conditions for producing Stimmung in general — or even in particular" (14), he believes "that researchers in the field of the 'human sciences' should rely more on the potential of counterintuitive thinking than on a pre-established 'path' or 'way'" (14). Essentially, Gumbrecht 6 Similarly, Abbot regards voice as "the sensibility through which we hear the narrative, even when we are reading silently" (243). As Abbott puts it, "narrative voice colors the story it narrates" (72). 39 PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 is in line with aforementioned authors, as he is "interested in the atmospheres and moods that literary works absorb as a form of 'life' — an environment with physical substance, which 'touches us as if from inside'" (16). In this way, Gumbrecht has tried to oppose "the skepticism of 'constructivism' and the 'linguistic turn' that concerns only ontologies of literature based on the paradigm of representation" (14). The applicative potential of the atmospheric turn in narratology The status assigned to the phenomenon of atmosphere in previous nar-ratological theories, as a secondary companion of the chronotype (classical narratology) or as an important factor of the reader's participation in the storyworld (postclassical phase), suggests the potential methodological challenges posed by the introduction of this term. Some of these challenges can be illustrated through dichotomous antithetic pairs, where the first term matches the existing traditional concepts of narrative and the second term corresponds to their modifications assumed by the concept of atmosphere: 1) sequentiality of the narrative progression vs diffuse character of atmosphere; 2) degree of narrativity vs intensity of atmospheric (synesthetic) perception; 3) linguistic foundations vs the (new) phenomenological method; 4) interpretation vs hunch, intuition; 5) thematic or composition positioning vs position "in between"; 6) narrative competence vs emotional competence; 7) narrative as a cognitive style vs atmosphere as a medium of perception. On the one hand, these dichotomies reveal the issue of boundary aspects of narratological theories, while, on the other hand, they can encourage the applicative potential offered to these theories by the episteme of the atmospheric turn. Finally, in some newer approaches within postclassical narratology, it is already possible to recognize implicit agreements with new-phenomenological paradigms, as well as an openness toward interdisciplinary crossings. In what follows, I have tried to present some of the perspectives offered by such a cooperative platform, that is, the application of the concept of atmosphere to inter- 40 Snezana Milosavljevic Milic: Notions of Atmosphere: Toward the Limits of Narrative Understanding preting narrative, especially regarding the topics of focalization, literary character, description as a narrative form, theory of intertextuality, and epitextual space. Gerard Genette's famous concept of focalization was revised in postclassical narratology, both by introducing new types (such as hypothetical and conceptual focalization by David Herman, and plural focalization by Brian Richardson), and by the recognition a problem in zero focalization as an unsustainable and abstract type. The application of the concept of atmosphere enables the addition of the concepts of 'atmospheric focalization' and 'focalization of the first impression'7 to this taxonomy. In the former, atmosphere would have the role of a medium or filter of narrative information,8 providing a more sophisticated modus of what was previously included—mostly with insufficient precision—in the category of internal focalization or through character-perspective storytelling. In other words, the subject-object relation, or what happens between the subject and the object, is necessary for atmospheric focalization. This type of focalization acquired a more intensive role in the early twentieth century with modernism, where it appears in the role of painting with space (most commonly named "experienced space"). However, as with other types, atmospheric focalization is not just a perceptive aspect of "atmospheric space" (Griffero "Who's" 37). It can provide a tone to the psychological state of an individual or a group, which is an excellent way to evoke their expressive qualities (non-verbal and psychonarrative content), or state the main color of the objects within the storyworld. As such, atmospheric focal-ization is of special interest in the interpretation of narrative: it can be an interpretative point of orientation, flexible enough not to limit the 7 As Mildorf and Kinzel put it, "Focalization, which is a controversial concept in narratology ..., is based on the visual metaphor of a lens through which one can take things, characters, actions in the storyworld into 'focus.' It seems that a mediasensitive narratology has to revise this concept to accommodate all the other sense perceptions, too" (14). 8 In this sense, our concept of atmospheric focalization is different from Manfred Jahn's notion of ambient focalization. "Jahn describes ambient focalization as a case where spatial deictics are relaxed and the vision is mobile, hence beyond that of a single individual. One variety would be where the narrator's words convey the simultaneous takes of several individuals on the same object" (Margolin 55). "In ambient focalization, the field of subjectivity is shown as an ellipse: like a geometrical ellipse, which has two foci, ambient focalization is based on two (or more) F1's, depicting a thing summarily, from more than one side, possibly from all sides, considerably relaxing the condition of specific time-place anchoring, and allowing a mobile, summary, or communal point of view" (Jahn). 41 PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 interpretation to either the subjective intimate world of the character or the objective reference. Although it is important for portraying the collective character, atmospheric focalization should not be considered equal to plural focalization, precisely because of its ambivalent, not purely anthropomorphic nature. It is therefore more appropriate to consider the de-subjectivization of atmosphere, which is often found in combination with "intermental thought" (Palmer 218) and polylogue in presentations of group characters. This aspect of atmospheric focalization also supports efforts to interpret atmosphere as a social phenomenon, which is often mentioned in the most recent literature. The introduction of atmospheric focalization also enables the differentiation of "focalization of first impression" as its subtype. As stated by Griffero, if atmosphere is a primary (aesthetic) perception, then the holistic nature of the first impression is in its essence synesthetic, as sensory perceptions are not differentiated yet.9 This type of focalization is present during the first introduction of space in the narrative, often in the introductory framework, in order to provide emphatic description. The "ecstasy of things as a specific modus of presence" (Bohme, "Atmosphere" 121) then combines the character and the space, and this constellation is manifested indicatively in the text by the crisis of language representation. Bearing in mind Werner Wolf s concept "mise en cadre," one may conclude that atmosphere as a "mode of showing" "occurs when the text evokes, describes or narrates something in a framing part which, usually proleptically, but in some cases also analeptically, sheds light on the framed part and thus triggers a relevant cognitive frame in the recipient's mind that influences his or her interpretation" (Wolf 62). This aspect of focalizations of the first impression can be studied in more detail in the context of certain genres, as their distinctive initial cognitive marker of framework; for example, in an idyll or a horror story. Considering the whole discussion of atmosphere presented, it is obvious that this concept may be a significant addition to theory of literary character. The emphasis on atmospheric perception and atmospheric focalization may make the hero more a passive than an active subject within the storyworld, a kind of resonance of synesthetic and pathic understanding. The concept of atmosphere, or feelings as atmo- 9 The importance of the atmosphere of the first impression is particularly pronounced in theories of performing arts. It is an important factor enabling the specific "experience of spaceness" (Fischer-Lichte 140). 42 Snezana Milosavljevic Milic: Notions of Atmosphere: Toward the Limits of Narrative Understanding sphere, might then cast a new light on the profile of the modernistic literary character, which has mainly been described in literature in an introjectionistic way.10 Instead of the overly sharp division between realism and modernism made in historical poetics, there would appear a sphere of soft, shaded transitions, more appropriate to the literary practice of the time. From this methodological position, it seems that the next stage of the pronounced symbolism of the hero could rely on a more detailed description of genesis. At the same time, this concept may be improved by the term "passant" (Rabinowitz 184),11 which was recently introduced into the theory of characters, and has indubitable methodological significance in the case of insufficiently theoretically described collective character. Friedlind Riedel claims that "atmosphere describes the ways in which a multiplicity of bodies is part of, and entrenched in, a situation that encompasses it" (85). This holistic and homogenizing role of atmosphere enables the metonymic description of the collective character, further aided by an atmospheric description of the social space as a distinctive factor in mass character. The importance of perception and sensory mediation, as well as the synesthetic nature of atmosphere, suggests its interpretative potential in relation to description as a narrative form. As paradigmatic atmospheric phenomena (air, smoke, wind, wisp, sparkle, ray, sound, light), they are also almost an integral part of atmospheric description in literature. Naturally, the mere mention of these phenomena is not enough to assign the attribute of atmosphere to a description. An evident role must be assigned to the synesthetic play of senses, but it must also be noted that a more detailed description of the atmospheric non-object would lead to the loss of its atmospheric activity. Is a description of atmosphere the same as an atmospheric description? While the first case would better suit pure description (mostly of space) and atmosphere as a motif, the second case would represent more of a hybrid form of description, that is "descriptive narration" (Mosher 427),12 and a more common use of atmospheric focalization. 10 Smiljanic emphasized that the change in perspective in theory of understanding at the beginning of the twentieth century was manifested by "modification of the active state of subject into the passive state" (Sinestetika 82). 11 According to Peter Rabinowitz, the "passant" is a character "on whom impressions are registered" (184). 12 In one of the rare and excellent examples of applying the concept of atmosphere to literature, Timothy Chandler asks: "Is atmosphere itself representable?" (192), and emphasizes the paratactical (193) nature of "textual atmospheres" (192), which is otherwise also characteristic of descriptive narration. 43 PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Within the context of historical poetics, it is possible to reconsider the hypothesis on description of atmosphere as a characteristic of the nineteenth-century realism, that is, atmospheric description as a sign of modernistic description. In this context, it is justified to discuss the role which an atmospheric description would have in the process of the modernistic aestheticization of the perception of reality, as a step away from the mimetic concept of reality and a turn toward its symbolization. One of the most vital new tendencies regarding the application of the atmospheric episteme to literary criticism includes genealogy and the theory of intertextuality. The natural meeting of these two methodological pathways is enabled by the dominance of cognitivist theories, resulting in the relationship between texts and genres being increasingly discussed in categories of cognitive (meta)concepts. The invariant cutting through genre variations, free of stable morphologically-semantical boundaries, now finds its conceptual and interpretative background in atmosphere. Whether naming it by this term, or as allusion, more commonly as an echo, a resonance or an evocation, or as memory of text, modern theories of intertextuality use this re-actualization of phenom-enological genealogy to search for a model of intertext flexible enough to be, so to speak, interpretatively sensitive and susceptible to the finest modulations and gradients.13 It seems that modern comparatists and literary theorists are increasingly open to this new—one could call it atmospheric—intertextuality. Enticed by Genette's theory of palimpsest, Zoran Konstantinovic mentions citations not limited to a certain artistic procedure, not on the "surface structure of the text," but instead springing out of its depth. Such is the case with the "overlap and congruence of metaphysic quality" as that "feeling of unreachable originating in the wholeness of certain text" (Konstantinovic 153, 163, 165, italics by SMM). Maria-Eirini Panagiotidou introduced the concept of texture to explain the way of activating "semantic intertextual frames, which can be seen as the most idiosyncratic and loose way of bringing together two texts" (185). One of the criteria determining the properties of texture is resonance. As an "echo back a previous part of the text"14 or 13 It must be noted, however, that the criterion of atmosphere has already been used as distinctively genre-related, although the lack of a methodological and terminological framework has prevented any systematic approach in that direction. One example is the definition of the gothic novel, the horror genre, the idyll, the dithyramb, or the fantasy genre. 14 For more about the metaphor of echo, see Hollander. 44 Snezana Milosavljevic Milic: Notions of Atmosphere: Toward the Limits of Narrative Understanding "alluding markers" (183), the "prolonged or momentary resonance" (176) may, obviously, be connected to atmospheric perception as an experience of reading, when there is no concrete linguistic synonymy between the texts in correlation. The concept of atmospheric experience is also close to the theory on "weak textuality, when readers are not able to point to particular textual occurrences as the text-specific activators of intertextual knowledge, but are still able to create an intertextual link based on what we may call the general texture of the text itself' (175).15 In this case, we conclude that two or more texts share the same or similar atmosphere, functioning as an implicit intertextual trigger. In the domain of cognitive linguistics and cognitive poetics, Stockwell (Texture 458) directly connected the concept of texture as "the experienced quality of textuality" with the reader's experience of ambience as a "superordinate term encompassing atmosphere and tone."16 By presenting a modern thesis against the linearity of text and meaning, Marko Juvan outlines the methodological consequences of the dominance of spatial metaphorics on the modern text theories. The concept of space becomes "key for the idea of intertextuality" (246), as, according to Juvan, intertextuality produces "transgressive spaces" (255). The intertextual evocations, or the mere impressions, of space, are indicative of the appearance of the "hybrid identity of floating spaces" (256). It is obvious that there is a certain compatibility between the concept of transgressiveness as an intertextual category and atmosphere, especially in the case of palimpsest transgression. The further addition of a concept of atmosphere to cognitive theories of intertextuality may obviously concretize an insufficiently articu- 15 In addition to texture, Panagiotidou introduces the dimension of "granularity"; "Readers may be able to recall very specific elements from previous texts, such as word occurrences or phrases, and connect them with the current text. ... However, another possibility is that they are able to locate some vague similarities which are only remotely related to the text or the word or phrase that prompted the activation of the intertextual knowledge, thus delineating the degree of granularity as low" (175). The same lexeme is also used by Griffero who describes atmosphere as "characterized by a qualitative microgranularity that is inaccessible to a naturalistic-epistemic perspective" (Quasi-Things x). 16 On the other hand, Stockwell insists on the difference between ambience and resonance, as the former is "even less articulable and tangible" (Atmosphere 364). According to him, "Resonance is what a reader takes away from a striking reading — a definite thread of sensation that persists strongly after the text has been put aside. Ambience is much more mistily defined: it is the cognitive effect of cumulative but diffused associations across discourse" (Atmosphere 365). 45 PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 lated effect of reading, or support the work on adaptations and reconstruction of text17 Potential analogies between the various theoretical approaches to intertextuality indicate both the metaphoric meaning of the term atmosphere in the sense of a metadiscursive tool and its metonymic meaning including the possibility of intertextual relations. Terminological proliferation following the discourse of various intertextual theories, particularly regarding the nature of indirect relationships, implicitly reveals a potential dictionary of atmospheronyms, which would include the terms: allusion, echo, reflection, resonance, evocation, drive, impulse, hidden citation, memory of text. The applicative potential of this "situational atmosphericness" (Griffero, Atmospheres 46) may be connected to the pragmatic aspects of literature in the epitextual space. It includes the atmosphere of buying the book, as "an atmosphere of assisted social relation between the producers and the consumers" (Bradic 522), its public presentation (book fair, gallery and other exhibition spaces) or reception (book promotions and meetings, the public and intimate space of reading), and the institution of literary awards. The hybrid character of these atmospheric spaces (as a milieu) assumes a dynamic co-relationship between the subject and the (adverbial) perception of the surroundings. Their activity is highly dependent on "atmospheric authority" and its conventions and "production" (Bradic 524) is constructed by cultural codes. From this standpoint, the library stands out for its atmospheric "voluminosity" (Griffero, Come rain 69), and many poetic as well as scientific books have been written on its magic.18 There is no doubt that further research on this aspect of literary pragmatics and epitextual narratives would also open the door for a meeting of geocriticism, nar-ratology and theory of atmosphere. Conclusion In this article I have tried to present atmosphere as an indubitably narrative phenomenon and an important part of the story. The answer to the question of whether atmosphere is also a narratological 17 One example may be the recent project of finishing the unfinished stories by Laza Lazarevic, where the authors worked hard to transfer the atmosphere to the new narrative ending. 18 On the library as a multiple spatial metaphor and its atmospheric activity, see Manguel 2006. 46 Snezana Milosavljevic Milic: Notions of Atmosphere: Toward the Limits of Narrative Understanding phenomenon is not so clearcut, or is at least ambivalent. This article offers only sketches of potential methodological applications of this phenomenon. Recalling the opinion of Una Popovic on the metadiscursive role of the term atmosphere as that which enables "the general phenomenological framework of any phenomenon" (454), atmosphere may be considered not as an object, but as a method of interpretation during the phenomenological reading of text. This hermeneutical challenge is present in literary works of modernism and the avant-garde, but also in contemporary trans-modernistic narrative practice. In the aforementioned theories of intertextuality, the concept of atmosphere is applicable both as proto-text (the "what") and method (the "how"), that is, in discussions of evocation. I therefore believe that the term atmosphere and related terms should be used to fill the void of ellipses in narratological dictionaries. The persistent stubborn resistance to theorization of atmosphere in narratology should not, however, be neglected. It is evidence of the difficulties (both methodological and epistemological) pertaining to the limits of narrative understanding19 as experience of the simultaneous danger and attractiveness that we feel in the embrace of the lacuna and energeia of the literary text, something that is at the same time present and absent. This is the very "tension between the experience of reading a text and the analytical work of interpreting" (Abbott 10). One may assume that this heavy breathing in the diluted air of the quasi thing of atmosphere is the extralinguistic extra that, by resisting language conceptualization (or exactly because of that), drives further thinking about this phenomenon. Indeed, one can agree with Gumbrecht that "the dimension of Stimmung discloses a new perspective on and possibility for the — 'ontology of literature'" (7), as well as that "concentrating on atmospheres and moods offers literary studies a possibility for reclaiming vitality and aesthetic immediacy that have, for the most part, gone missing" (11). We should never give up hope, even if we are aware of the danger of the utopian dream of understanding the transcendental being of literature. 19 As Richard Walsh puts it, "things may appear to make sense even while we are unable to make sense of them." 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Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2003. Rabinowitz, Peter J. "They Shoot Tigers, Don't They?: Path and Counterpoint in The Long Goodbye." A Companion to Narrative Theory. Eds. James Phelan and Peter J. Rabinowitz. Australia: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. 181-192. Riedel, Friedlind. "Atmosphere." Affective Societies: Key Concepts. Eds. Jan Slaby and Christian von Scheve. New York: Routledge, 2019. 85-95. Ryan, Marie-Laure. Narrative as Virtual Reality, Immersion and Interactivity in Literature and Electronic Media. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001. Schmitz, Herman. Kratki uvod u novu fenomenologiju. Trans. Damir Smiljanic. Beograd: Akademska knjiga, 2018. Smiljanic, Damir. Sinestetika: skicapatičke teorije saznanja. Novi Sad: Adresa, 2011. Smiljanic, Damir. "Nova fenomenologija." Filozofska istraživanja 37.3 (2017): 417-421. Stockwell, Peter. "Atmosphere and Tone." The Handbook ofStylistics. Eds. Peter Stockwell and Sara Whiteley. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014. 360-374. Stockwell, Peter. "Texture." The Bloomsbury Companion to Stylistics. Ed. Violeta Sotirova. Bloomsbury Academic, 2015. 458-475. Walsh, Richard, "Sense and Wonder: Complexity and the Limits of Narrative Understanding." Narrating Complexity. Eds. Richard Walsh and Susan Stepney. Cham: Springer, 2018. 49-60. Wolf, Werner. "Mise en Cadre - A Neglected Counterpart to Mise en Abyme: A Frame Theoretical and Intermedial Complement to Classical Narratology." Post-classical Narratology, Approaches and Analyses. Eds. Jan Alber and Monika Fludernik. Columbus: The Ohio State University Press, 2010. 58-82. PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Pojmovanja atmosfere: k mejam pripovednega razumevanja Ključne besede: postklasična naratologija / nova fenomenologija / fokalizacija / atmosfera Spremenjene metodološke paradigme, ki jih je prinesla postklasična naratologija in še posebej njena kognitivistična usmeritev, fenomenu atmosfere do zdaj niso posvečale veliko razmisleka. To nekoliko preseneča, če upoštevamo, da sodobna konceptualizacija atmosfere in povečano zanimanje za vprašanja, ki jih prinaša, izhajata iz nove fenomenologije in fenomenološke estetike, področij torej, ki sta neposredno prispevali k razvoju postklasične narato-logije. V prispevku začenjam s fenomenološkim konceptom atmosfere po M. Merleau-Pontyju in H. Schmitzu (atmosfera kot ekstaza izkušnje, poseben način prisotnosti s kvaziobjektivnim in intersubjektivnim statusom, ki se prilega zunajjezikovnemu okviru, dojemanje atmosfere kot brezpovršin-skosti prostora) in estetskim pomenom tega koncepta (G. Böhme, T. Grif-fero, E. Fischer-Lichte), nato pa predstavljam terminološko nestabilnost in semantično nejasnost atmosfere ter povezanih izrazov znotraj naratološkega diskurza M. Bal, G. Princea, M-L. Ryan and P. Abbotta (atmosfera kot recep-tivna in pripovedna naravnanost, spremljevalni dejavnik morfoloških kategorij, tematsko-psihološka značilnost žanra). Najpomembnejši cilj prispevka je, da ponovno preuči metodološko legitimnost koncepta atmosfere, tako kar zadeva meje pripovednega razumevanja kot njenega interpretativnega potenciala, ki bi lahko postal relevanten v okviru kognitivnih teorij intertekstual-nosti (E. Panagiotidy, M. Juvan), po drugi strani pa gre tudi za humanistični odgovor na izzive novih epistemoloških paradigem in povratek k transcendentalnemu bistvu literature. 1.01 Izvirni znanstveni članek / Original scientific article UDK 82.0-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/pkn.v43.i1.02 50 Grafične pripovedi in pripovednost Leonora Flis Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za socialno delo, Topniška 31, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija Univerza v Novi Gorici, Vipavska 13, 5000 Nova Gorica, Slovenija https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4l90-2548 leonora.flis@fsd.uni-lj.si Grafične pripovedi se nahajajo na stičišču prikazovanja in pripovedovanja zgodbe, v vsakem primeru pa zgodbo pripovedujejo, torej predstavljajo narativen žanr. Grafično pripovedovanje omogoča zastavljanje temeljnih vprašanj, ki zadevajo na primer temporalni aspekt narativnosti (razumljene kot skupek formalnih in kontekstualnih lastnosti, ki določajo pripoved) in področje fokalizacije. Grafične pripovedi s pripovednim časom upravljajo nekoliko drugače od (zgolj) literarnih besedil, saj občutek časa ustvarjajo z razmerjem med vizualnim in verbalnim. Nadalje poleg (po navadi uokvirjenih) ilustracij vsebujejo tudi tako imenovani »gutter«, »jarek« ali »luknjo«, torej vmesne prazne prostore. Teoretik in stripar Scott McCloud pravi, da je prav ta prostor v grafičnem romanu najkreativnejši; je praznina, ki najbolj buri bralčevo domišljijo, obenem pa tudi prostor, kjer se zgodi iluzija premika prostora in časa. Na primerih nekaj stripov (izpostavljeni avtorji so Art Spiegelman, Joe Sacco in Marjane Satrapi) članek prikaže specifike grafičnega pripovedovanja, ki s sekvenčnostjopodob, montažo kadrov, kompozicijo posameznih strani in drugimi strukturnimi karakteristikami omogočajo grajenje in vzdrževanje zgodbe. Ko govorimo o grafičnih pripovedih, je torej ustrezno govoriti o čezžanrski in čezmedijski naratologiji, zato razprava izpostavi tudi vlogopostklasične naratologijepri interpretaciji in razumevanju tovrstnih zgodb. Ključne besede: postklasična naratologija / hibridni žanri / roman v stripu / grafični roman / grafična pripoved / narativnost / Spiegelman, Art / Satrapi, Marjane / Sacco, Joe Primerjalna književnost (Ljubljana) 43.1 (2020) 51 PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Grafična pripovednost kot multimodalnost Grafični romani ali širše grafične pripovedi1 (GP) predstavljajo hibridni žanr, ki v sebi združuje literarno in vizualno pripovedno linijo. Kompleksnejše GP so se šele v poznih 80. letih in zgodnjih 90. letih prejšnjega stoletja osvobodile predsodka, da so stripovske zgodbe namenjene zgolj mlajšim, da so preproste in enoplastne; postale so komercialno uspešnejše in tudi prepoznane kot legitimen literarno-umetniški pojav.2 GP se umeščajo v kategorijo multimodalnih pripovedi, ki za upodabljanje pripovednih svetov uporabljajo dve semiotični liniji, verbalno in vizualno. Za naratologe danes predstavljajo pomembno področje raziskovanja (čeprav raziskav na področju naratologije stripa še ni prav veliko); za njihovo interpretacijo pa je potrebna holistična analitična metoda (podobno kot za filmsko naracijo ali animacijo). Stripar in teoretik Will Eisner v svojem teoretičnem delu Comics and Sequential Art zapiše, da film, animacija in stripi (tu termin »strip« uporablja v najširšem pomenu besede, saj z njim zaobjame vse od kratkih stripov v časopisju do grafičnih romanov) za pripovedovanje uporabljajo (grafične) podobe ter besedilo ali dialog, a ne glede na medij 1 Raje kot izraz grafični roman (termin se je uveljavil zlasti po izdaji dela Willa Eisnerja leta 1978 z naslovom A Contract with God: A Graphic Novel) v članku uporabljam izraz grafična pripoved, saj vse pripovedi, ki se jim velikokrat, vsaj v anglo-ame-riškem prostoru, pripisuje oznaka »grafični roman« (graphic novel), ne ustrezajo kriterijem za roman kot literarno zvrst s specifičnimi zakonitostmi in zahtevami do pisca in bralca. V svoji odločitvi za oznako grafična pripoved tako pritrjujem ameriški literarni znanstvenici Hilary L. Chute, ki je v svojih delih, vključno s knjigo Graphic Women: Life Narrative and Contemporary Comics, izrazila preferenco do izraza »grafična zgodba/ pripoved« (graphic narrative; Flis 144—145). Grafična pripoved je torej krovni termin, označuje pa sekvenčno urejene podobe, ki jih pogosto dopolnujejo ali podkrepljujejo napisi, oblački ali drugi verbalni elementi. V članku so izpostavljene kompleksnejše zgodbe, ki presegajo nivo kratke sekvenčnosti podob in teksta; analizirane zgodbe so po navadi namenjene odraslemu bralcu, prevladujoči žanri pa so biografija, avtobiogra-fija, literarni žurnalizem v podobi grafične zgodbe in zgodovinska pripoved. Nekateri teoretiki (npr. Scott McCloud) pa uporabljajo kot krovni termin kar izraz strip. Pri nas se uveljavlja tudi izraz risoroman (kot sopomenka za grafični roman), ki spet vključuje predpostavko, da izbrano delo ustreza zapovedim romana. Roman je zelo odprta in prilagodljiva literarna vrsta, ki se lahko širi na območje biografije, avtobiografije, romana v verzih, scenariziranega romana in tako dalje, vseeno pa je navzoča zahteva, da gre za daljše zapise. Termina risoroman (ki je sprejemljiv in uporaben za ožji segment grafičnih pripovedi) ne zavračam, vseeno pa se odločam za grafično pripoved, saj želim vendarle govoriti o žanru kot takem (ki lahko vključuje tudi kratka zaporedja podob in besed) in ne o specifični literarni vrsti znotraj tega žanra. 2 Glej tudi Baetens, Frey in Tabachnick 1-18. 52 Leonora Flis: Grafične pripovedi in pripovednost je zgradba zgodbe pravzaprav bolj ali manj enaka; to pomeni, da se pristopi k analizi omenjenih vrst pripovedovanja na nekaterih točkah staknejo. Če se oprem na postavke postklasične naratologije, ki mi bo pri analizi GP pomagala, je treba zgodbo razumeti v širokem pomenu besede in se zavedati, da smo v domeni pretočnosti terminov. Ali kot v delu Teorija pripovedi zapiše Alojzija Zupan Sosič: Postklasična teorija pripovedi se od klasične razlikuje v poudarjanju konteksta, besedila in bralca oziroma kritika. [...] V nasprotju s klasično (predvsem strukturalistično) naratologijo, ki je bila usmerjena k nezgodovinskim univerzalijam, je postklasična naratologija bolj diahrona, saj interdisiplinarno raziskuje pripovedno kot večplastni pojav, usmerjen tudi v okoliščine in posledice različnih branj.3 (30) Pripoved v kontekstu GP razumem tudi v smislu pripovedi, kot jo pojmuje Roland Barthes. Barthes namreč meni, da so zgodbe univerzalne v smislu, da nam jih lahko posreduje katerikoli medij (237—272). Kot zapiše Alenka Koron v delu Sodobne teorije pripovedi: Barthesova opredelitev pripovedi, na katero se mnogi sklicujejo, je implicitno speta z vsebino, vendar je hkrati jasno razvezana od besedilne podlage in zajeta kot semiotični pojav, ki se lahko manifestira besedno ali v nebesedni obliki, znotraj ali onkraj literature, torej tudi v drugih, nebesednih medijih, v likovni umetnosti, na vitrajih, v filmu, stripu, v različnih dejstvih [...]. (26) Pri analizi GP, kot jo zasnujem v tem zapisu, se torej odmikam od tradicionalne literarne teorije in klasične naratologije. Adrijana Marčetic v članku »Postklasična naratologija« pravilno ugotavlja, da sodobna naratologija na pripovedovanje gleda skozi transmedialno perspektivo, saj pripovedovanje vidi kot pojav, ki je skupen različnim medijem: literature, filmu, stripu, plesu, gledališču in vsakodnevni komunikaciji. Zapiše še: 3 Zupan Sosič v svojem članku »Postklasična teorija pripovedi« razloži tudi, da je konec tradicionalne literarne teorije in teorije književnosti na splošno zaobsežen že v samem konceptu postmoderne (opre se na teorijo Fredrica Jamesona). Današnja teorija pripovedi je tako ali tako pojmovanje za naratologijo v širšem smislu in se ne nanaša zgolj na metodo (post)strukturalizma (če jo zožimo na metodo, ki se je razvila iz strukturalne poetike in semiotike) (Zupan Sosič, »Postklasična« 497). »Širše poimenovanje pa si zasluži samo tista naratologija, ki je odstopila svoje tradicionalno poslanstvo polivalentni teoriji pripovedovanja in tako premestila svoj raziskovalni poudarek s proze na pripoved.« (Prav tam) 53 PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Če govorimo o metodi, je tudi metoda sodobne naratologije trans- ali pa interdisciplinarna. Sodobni naratologi se poslužujejo različnih metod - zgodovinskih, lingvističnih, psiholoških, filozofskih, pravnih, socioloških, antropoloških in drugih. Interdisciplinarnost je pravzaprav ena največjih vrlin sodobnih teorij pripovedovanja in predstavlja velik napredek v primerjavi z dosežki klasične naratologije.4 (77) Med najpomembnejšimi področji postklasične teorije pripovedi so kulturna, kognitivna, retorična, feministična in spolnoidentitetna narato-logija. Pri razlagi GP se zdi, kot bom pokazala v nadaljevanju, najbolj izstopajoča in najuporabnejša kognitivna naratologija.5 Občasno teoretiki GP omenjajo tudi kulturno naratologijo. Joe Baetens recimo v članku »Stories and Storytelling« pravi, da je razlog za uspeh GP tudi to, da nudijo odgovor na specifičen zgodovinski in kulturološki problem, ki, kot meni, postane še posebej izrazit v 80. letih prejšnjega stoletja: visoka, sofisticirana literatura, ki je preplavljala tržišče, ni več zadovoljila bralstva. Baetens torej razlaga GP kot postmoderni fenomen.6 Zato avtorji iščejo alternative. Pojavila se je potreba po »družbeno in osebno uporabni pripovedi in pripovedovanju,« zapiše Baetens (31). To seveda ne pomeni, da so GP v domeni preprostega in enopla-stnega, vseeno pa gre za medij, ki je dostopnejši širšemu krogu bralcev. Baetens pravi tudi, da moramo GP zaradi raznolikosti njihovih pojavnih oblik in tudi zaradi nenehnega preoblikovanja in modifici-ranja medija videti kot prostor, ki nakazuje na spremembe na področju pripovedovanja nasploh. Zato predlaga, da GP tolmačimo tudi s pomočjo principov kulturne naratologije (41). A. Zupan Sosič opaža, da je v zadnjem desetletju kognitivna naratologija v postklasični nara-tologiji zasenčila kulturno naratologijo (ki v analizo pripovedi vključuje tudi študij delovanja družbenih, gospodarskih in političnih vplivov ter pomeni preplet sociologije, antropologije, kulturologije, če naštejemo nekaj pristopov). Kognitivna naratologija pa raziskuje »razmerja med percepcijo, jezikom, znanjem, spominom in svetom; zanimajo jo vloge zgodbe v okviru sečišč in nizov različnih pojavov« (Zupan Sosič, Teorija 31). Zupan Sosič pojasni tudi, da je ena izmed nalog kognitivne nara- 4 Prevod Leonora Flis. 5 O delitvi naratologije na klasično in postklasično je pri nas prva pisala Alenka Koron v svoji disertaciji Novejše teorije pripovedi v literarni vedi in njihova raba v slovenski in tujih književnostih. Glej tudi David Herman, »Introduction« 1—30. 6 O začetkih postmodernizma seveda obstaja več teorij. O rahljanju mej med visoko in nizko literaturo ali sofisticirano in popularno umetnostjo vsekakor lahko govorimo najmanj dve desetletji pred začetkom, ki ga omenja Baetens. 54 Leonora Flis: Grafične pripovedi in pripovednost tologije, ki jo lahko pojmujemo tudi kot multidisciplinarni projekt, analiza delujočih ali opuščenih kognitvnih okvirjev v bralnem procesu (prav tam). Bralčeva percepcija pa je gotovo ena od ključnih postaj pri raziskavi GP. Pri GP kot multimodalnem mediju se tako kažejo naslednja vprašanja: kako bralci v GP iz kombinacije slik in besed sestavljajo pripovedne svetove, kako se v GP med seboj prepletajo semiotični kanali, kako se GP primerjajo z drugimi multimodalnimi mediji ali pripovedmi, na primer s filmskimi, kako podobe (slike, ilustracije), besede in sekvence podob sploh oblikujejo narativni potencial grafičnih pripovedi ter kako razvrstitev okvirjev implicira časovni potek dogajanja. GP so odličen primer sodelovanja med različnimi pripovednimi modalitetami, in prav zato je ta medij tako pomemben za transmedialno naratologijo. Vsaka od teh modalnosti ali modalitet deluje kot sistem izbir, ki imajo za cilj posredovanje pomena. Razumevanje GP tako zahteva sprejetje dinamičnega prepleta modalitet in teoretičnih pristopov. Kot zapisano, je v GP verbalna modaliteta vedno v interakciji z vizualno modaliteto in s sekvenčno naravo medija, med modalitetami je ves čas prisoten dinamičen proces sovplivanja in medsebojnega dopolnjevanja.7 Stripovski kader, torej ena sličica, je najmanjši del stripa. Ko nizamo kader za kadrom, sličico za sličico, sestavljamo zgodbo. GP pa poleg podob in teksta vsebujejo tudi prostor med okvirji. Scott McCloud (Kako razumeti strip) to »belino« imenuje »gutter« (luknja, praznina); v tem razmaku med sličicama se odvija, kot pravi McCloud, večina tiste »čarovnije in skrivnosti, ki tvorita samo srž stripovske umetnosti. [...] [I]n prav tu, v vmesni praznini beline, človeška domišljija zlije dve ločeni sličici v en sam, enoten koncept.«8 (66) Bistvo stripa je po mnenju McClouda prav v tovrstnem dopolnjevanju. Med bralcem in avtorjem se sklepa nekakšna tiha in tajna pogodba. Šele bralec je 7 Will Eisner (Comics and Sequential Art) strip (to je izraz, ki ga najpogosteje uporablja) konsistentno definira kot »sequential art«, torej kot umetnost sekvence ali zaporedja in pretežno iz sekvenčnosti razlaga poglavitne karakteristike tega medija. Glej tudi Karin Kukkonen, »Comics«. 8 Joyce Goggin in Dan Hassler-Forest, ki sta uredila knjigo The Rise and Reason of Comics, v »Uvodu« opišeta ta prazen prostor kot edini bistveni element, ki definira GP kot samostojen žanr in ne podžanr literature ali pa grafične umetnosti v širšem pomenu besede. Pravita, da je bralčevo sodelovanje v praznem prostoru odločilnega pomena za razumevanje GP. Sprašujeta se tudi o tem, koliko svobode pri interpretaciji GP ima bralec in ugotavljata, da je prav gutter prostor največje svobode, saj okvirji že določajo potek in način bralčevega razumevanja in interpretacije. 55 PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 tisti, ki poveže kadre v smiselno celoto, torej »zažene« zgodbo. Strip od bralca zahteva nenehno sodelovanje, bralci smo pomožni animatorji. McCloud v delu Kako nastane strip poudari tudi, da mora avtor stripa, da bi dosegel svoj cilj, osvojiti načela jasne komunikacije. Naučiti se morate, kateri elementi nekega dela lahko publiko prepričajo, da ostane z vami. Strip od nas zahteva, da nenehno izbiramo podobe, tempo, dialog, kompozicijo, geste in cel kup drugih elementov. Vse te izbire pa lahko strnemo v pet osnovnih tipov: izbor trenutka, izbor kadra, izbira slike, izbira besed in izbor poteka. (9-10) Kognitivna naratologija na primer predpostavlja, da bralec pristopi k branju z določenimi kognitivnimi vzorci in shemami, ki omogočajo smiselno organizacijo različnih, med seboj povezanih konceptov; ti okvirji in sheme so povezani z bralčevimi preteklimi izkušnjami. S pomočjo teh vzorcev in shem bralec sklepa, domneva in ustvarja hipoteze. Pascal Lefevre v članku »Narration in Comics« jasno pokaže na tesno povezavo med GP in kognitivno naratologijo ter izpostavi, da so za razumevanje GP pomembni tudi izsledki in koncepti kognitivne psihologije. Če se bralcu zapisano in izrisano ne bo zdelo zanimivo ali ne bo prepoznal podob in simbolov, bo prenehal z branjem in interpretacijo. Omenja dela naratologov, kot so Bordwell, Reid, Fludernik in Herman, saj so med tistimi, ki poudarjajo vlogo bralca in način, kako tekst pritegne bralca v proces semantične izmenjave in interakcije. Lefevre se sprašuje, kako GP usmerjajo bralca v določeno branje s pomočjo svoje forme in pa kako lahko bralci tudi brez tekstualnih »namigov« aktivirajo določena znanja in razumevanja besedila in vizualne podobe. Podobe v GP kažejo dejanja, situacije ali predmete in bralec jih po navadi brez težav prepoznava in razume. Bralec prav tako prepozna pomen okvirja in domneva tudi, da se fikcijski svet ne konča na robu okvirja. Bralec GP pristopi k branju z določenimi kognitivnimi okvirji in shemami in z njimi lahko, na podlagi preteklih izkušenj, različne, med seboj povezane, koncepte povezuje v smiselne celote.9 Na tem mestu se zdi smiselno omeniti teorijo Wolfganga Iserja, ki govori o praznih mestih v besedilu oziroma besedilni strukturi, ki pogojujejo sodelovanje bralca.10 Po Iserju pomembne prvine literarnega dela ostajajo neizrečene in se realizirajo šele v bralčevi domišljiji (glej tudi Zupan Sosič, Teorija 263). 9 Lefevre se opre tudi na delo Roberta J. Sternberga Cognitive Psychology (1996), knjigo Davida Bordwella Narration in the Fiction Film (1985) ter na Karla Haberlandta in njegovo delo Cognitive Psychology (1994). 10 Glej Iser, Bralno dejanje. 56 Leonora Flis: Grafične pripovedi in pripovednost Nadalje lahko po analogiji z Gadamerjevim horizontom pričakovanja izpostavim tudi, da bralec pri branju GP uporablja svoje inzven-tekstovne, »zunanje« sheme; njegova pričakovanja se preverjajo s svojo (ne)izpolnitvijo znotraj pripovednega sveta GP. Obenem je bralec pozoren tudi na norme, ki jih postavlja GP. Te notranje zapovedi so lahko v skladu s konvencijami zunanjega sveta, ki jih bralec prinese v branje, ali pa odstopajo od njih. Bralec mora sprejeti, da razporeditev okvirjev na posamezni strani ni naključna, ampak določena, in da so podobe v okvirjih med seboj povezane. Tvorijo sekvenco zaporednih situacij. Sledeč izsledkom kognitivne psihologije je ustrezno reči, da je naša interakcija z okoljem in z drugimi ljudmi pravzaprav zgrajena na principu sekvenčnosti. Če poznamo zaporedje dogodkov v vsakodnevnem življenju, verjetno ne bomo imeli težav pri razumevanju prikaza takšnih sekvenc v GP. Res pa je, da nekateri prikazi zahtevajo od bralca več domišljije kot drugi. Poleg tega za GP ni nujno, da so sekvence zgrajene po principu enake kontinuitete, kot jo najdemo v vsakodnevnem življenju. Pravzaprav to ni mogoče. Stripi in GP so že zaradi zahtev medija eliptične pripovedi. Za razliko od filmov in gledaliških iger lahko GP predstavljajo le fragmente dogodkov (in predmetov). GP tako zgolj s prikazom posameznih ključnih dejanj nakažejo celotno zaporedje dogodkov. Ko pristopimo h GP, moramo tako vedno vzeti v zakup, da imamo opravka z medijem eliptičnega in fragmentarnega pripovedovanja. V naslednjih odstavkih natančneje pokažem, kakšna je zgradba GP in v kakšno razmerje do pripovednega ob branju vstopa bralec. Podrobnejša anatomija grafične pripovedi in njene pripovednosti Ko govorim o branju GP, ga razumem v širšem pomenu besede — ne le kot branje besed, temveč kot razbiranje simbolov. Podobno tudi Eisner v Graphic Storytelling govori o branju stripov kot o zaznavni aktivnosti. Strip komunicira v jeziku, ki se nanaša na vizualne izkušnje, in skozi te izkušnje se povežeta ustvarjalec in bralec. Podobe in znake v stripu moramo razumeti, šele tako kadri oživijo in lahko govorimo o oblikovanju zgodbe in posredovanju idej. Kot hibridni medij vsebujejo GP dosti prvin, ki si jih delijo z drugimi mediji (film in animacija), vendar jih uporabljajo na sebi lasten in izviren način. Tu mislim na razdelitev zgodbe v posamezne okvirje (v katere avtor »zamrzne« določen segment realnosti), interakcijo med okvirji in njihovo razporeditev na strani, na slog ilustracij, na mizansceno znotraj okvirjev ter način, kako so pove- 57 PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 zani verbalni (recimo v govornih in miselnih balonih) in vizualni elementi. V zahodnem svetu obstaja konvencija branja od leve proti desni in od zgoraj navzdol, vendar lahko z določenimi elementi risbe vrstni red branja tudi spremenimo. Za razliko od filma in animacije, kjer gledalec spremlja kader za kadrom (režiser/avtor ima popoln nadzor nad »branjem« prikazanega), pri stripu bralec vidi naenkrat celotno stran in lahko kadre preskoči oziroma jih pogleda v poljubnem zaporedju. A če želi prebrati zgodbo, kot si jo je zamislil avtor, mora slediti nepisanim pravilom branja od leve proti desni in od zgoraj navzdol. Branje v drugačni smeri za bralca ni čisto samoumevno, zato moramo bralcu pomagati. Če je GP dobro oblikovana in spisana, skoraj ne opazimo, kdaj sprejemamo informacije s slike in kdaj iz besedila — oboje je neločljivo povezano in prepleteno. Kot razloži Špela Štandeker: Besede, slike in druge ikone tvorijo besednjak jezika, ki mu pravimo strip. Podobno kot literatura tudi strip uporablja dramsko oblikovanje teksta, pripovedno večplastnost, psihologizacijo likov in žanrska pravila. Obenem pa so za stripovski medij pomembni tudi neliterarni postopki, kot so likovni elementi, montaža, izražanje gibanje, iluzija minevanja časa in specifičen avtorski risarski stil, ki gradi stripovsko strukturo. Prav kombinacija teksta in podob tako ustvari jezik, ki besednemu/likovnemu vidiku doda nove razsežnosti in tako ustvari povsem svoj, stripovski jezik. (6) Lahko pritrdim tudi Eisnerjevemu opažanju (v Comics and Sequential Art), da razumevanje podob v stripu terja bralčevo in piščevo/stripar-jevo harmonijo izkušnje. Stripar si mora prizadevati razumeti bralčeve življenjske izkušnje in jih upoštevati. Od tega je odvisno, kako uspešno bo bralec prepoznaval podobe in zaznaval njihove miselne in emotivne razsežnosti (7—8). »Uspeh stripa resnično izvira iz umetnikove sposobnosti, da pravilno oceni sposobnost bralčevega razbiranja podob in simbolov,« še zapiše Eisner (39). Časovni aspekt je v GP zelo pomemben. V GP čas dojemamo prostorsko; v svetu stripa sta namreč čas in prostor eno. Vsaka sličica prikazije določen trenutek ali neko časovno obdobje, naslednja sličica pa prikazuje že novo obdobje in skozi čas se pomikamo tako, da se pomikamo po strani, po prostoru. V mediju, kjer se prostor in čas tako popolnoma zlivata, razlika med njima pogosto izgine (Hančič 37). Iz zaporedja (dogodkov) izvira naša ideja o času. Na podlagi izkušenj pa sklepamo, kaj se zgodi prej in kaj kasneje ter koliko časa je medtem minilo. Okvirji zreducirajo kronološko zaporedje zgodbe na izbrane fragmentirane enote. Vsak okvir lahko prikazuje le en trenutek ali pa daljše časovno obdobje. Okvirji lahko vsebujejo tudi različne časovne 58 Leonora Flis: Grafične pripovedi in pripovednost segmente. Če je preplet časovnih segmentov zelo zapleten, se od bralca zahteva dodatna pozornost. Res pa je, da lahko bralec poljubno dolgo časa posveti enemu okvirju in ga do potankosti preuči, pregleda celotno stran, lahko se vrne k določenemu okvirju ali sekvenci in jo vnovič preveri. Poleg tega večina sodobnih GP okvirje še vedno po navadi razvršča v kronološko, linearno zaporedje. Če pa imamo v pripovedi skoke v preteklost ali v prihodnost, je to jasno nakazano z verbalnimi in vizualnimi sredstvi. Ti pogledi naprej in nazaj pa vnovič vsebujejo kronološko sekvenco, ki bralcu pomaga pri orientaciji. Če film gledalca izpostavi neprestanemu gibanju naprej, se v stripu lahko vračamo nazaj ali pa listamo naprej. Lahko rečemo, da so GP v primerjavi s filmom bolj prostorski medij. »Vsak zaporeden filmski posnetek se projicira na isto mesto — na platno, medtem ko mora biti vsak stripovski kader postavljen na drugo mesto od ostalih. Za strip je prostor to, kar je čas za film,« zapiše McCloud v delu Kako razumeti strip (7). Slika 1: McCloud, Kako razumeti strip 7 V GP sta torej čas in prostor tesno povezana, in iz te postavke sledi ugotovitev, da si v primeru GP zastavljamo vprašanja o dinamiki pripovednega časa in časovni perspektivi pripovednosti nekoliko drugače kot pri literarnih besedilih. Kai Mikkonen (»Remediation«) pojasni, da zato, ker se za ponazoritev časa pač uporabljajo tako vizualna kot verbalna sredstva, [...] poleg tega pa se GP pri ustvarjanju časovne dimenzije ne zanašajo le prostore/podobe, ki jih vidimo na sličicah, ampak tudi na obrobo, na prazen vmesni prostor [gutter] in na vizualno podobo celotne strani. (74) PKn, letnik 43, st 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Nadalje se Mikkonen sprašuje, kako bralec serijo podob spreminja v zgodbo, kako kognitivno mapira časovno zaporedje dogodkov. Ugotavlja, da imajo podobe (sličice), tudi če niso del sekvence,11 načine, kako izražati temporalnost in kavzalnost (na primer z govorico telesa ali z gestami likov na sličici). Vseeno pa je posamezna slika, kljub temu, da deluje tudi sama po sebi, tako verbalno kot vizualno po navadi povezana še s slikami in okvirji, ki jo obkrožajo, in tako se oblikuje časovni kontinuum. Nekateri okvirji lahko s seboj nosijo več akcije in dogajanje naprej poganjajo z večjo silo kot drugi. Res pa je, da v GP slike v okvirjih predstavljajo izbrane trenutke dane situacije, ki je v bralec v celoti ne vidi. Zato, kot pravi Mikkonen, je v kontekstu pripovednosti v GP treba misliti tudi na to, da bralec-gledalec ugleda možnost alternativnih posledic dejanj, ki jih prikazujejo okvirji. Prazen prostor je manifestacija simultane prekinitve časa in prostora. Bralec-gledalec si mora v tem prostoru zamisliti pomen prehoda od ene podobe k drugi, od enega dejanja k drugemu. Film dela podobno z montažo; gre za sekvenco posnetkov, ki pokažejo izbrane segmente danega dogodka. Seveda pa pri GP nimamo opravka s časom na platnu, ki bi bil ves čas v teku, pri GP lahko govorimo o dobesedni liniji podob, ki se mate-rializirajo v prostoru, in ne o zaporedju podob v času (kot pri filmu). Mikkonen izpostavi še eno pomembno značilnost GP: poleg linearne sekvence podob imajo posamezni okvirji moč interakcije skozi celoten pripovedni kontinuum. GP lahko na isti strani knjige med seboj vizualno povezujejo tudi različne (ne nujno zaporedne) podobe v okvirjih ali pa se povezave vzpostavljajo celo med bolj oddaljenimi deli zgodbe. Poleg tega lahko GP v en sam okvir naenkrat ujamejo različne časovne prostore, pretekli, sedanji in prihodnji; ne da bi kršili pravila verjetnosti, se časovne dimenzije lahko nalagajo ena na drugo ali ena ob drugo. Občutek za čas je tako odvisen od podob v posameznem okvirju, od povezav med okvirji oziroma od bralčevega-gledalčevega aktivnega kognitivnega mapiranja teh povezav (Mikkonen 78—80).12 Vpliv na naše dojemanje časa (in ritma pripovedi) ima lahko tudi oblika sličice; daljša sličica (okvir) daje lahko občutek daljšega trajanja. Sličica brez besed, ki v svoji vsebini z ničemer ne izdaja svojega trajanja, pa lahko daje vtis brezčasnosti. Tudi količina detajlov lahko podaljša občutek trajanja, saj oko potrebuje več časa, da se sprehodi po celi sličici. Res je, da tudi filmska naracija in animacija ne sledita nujno linearnemu poteku dogajanja (uporabljajo se pogledi nazaj ali naprej), vendar 11 Te imenuje monofazne podobe; pravzaprav je vsaka podoba v GP uokvirjena in deluje kot samostojna entiteta. 12 Glej tudi Eisner, Comics and Sequential Art 23—30. 60 Leonora Flis: Grafične pripovedi in pripovednost si GP lažje privoščijo tovrstne skoke (lahko tudi v enem samem okvirju ali na eni strani). Joe Sacco v svojem delu Footnotes in Gaza.13 (2009) pogosto uporablja takšne (tudi zelo hitre) premike po časovni premici, ki služijo poudarjanju vsebine — nenehnega in neprekinjenega nasilja med Izraelci in Palestinci.14 Saccove podobe včasih, zavoljo dramatičnosti, poudarjanja nasilja in nenadnih napadov (sploh v njegovih vojnih grafičnih pripovedih Palestine15 in Footnotes), tudi prebijajo okvirje in udarjajo v »luknjo«, v praznino, in obenem kažejo tako na brezčasnost kot na prežečo nevarnost.16 Sacco uporablja tudi prekrivajoče se okvirje; s tem načinom po navadi prikaže simultanost dogajanja, pa tudi časovno in prostorsko kaotičnost prikazane situacije. Slika 2: Sacco, Footnotes in Gaza 187 Pri analizi časovnega aspekta GP je treba omeniti tudi govorne (ali miselne) balončke. Besede v balončkih so po navadi v sedanjem času in imajo podobno funkcijo kot dialog ali monolog v zgolj verbalnih pripovedih. 13 Delo ni prevedeno v slovenski jezik. Naslov bi se lahko glasil Opombe iz Gaze. 14 Glej tudi Flis 136. 15 Delo ni prevedeno v slovenski jezik. 16 Glej Ann Miller 400-401. 61 PKn, letnik 43, st 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Kot pravi David Carrier v The Aethetics of Comics: »Govorni balonček je pomemben element stripa, saj ustvari entiteto beseda/podoba, ki se razlikuje od podob, ki ilustrirajo besedilo.« (4) Razvrstitev govornih in miselnih balončkov (položaj balončka glede na druge balončke, položaj balončka v razmerju do prikazanega dejanja in do govorca) vsekakor vpliva na temporalni aspekt GP. Tudi balončke moramo brati v enakem zaporedju kot beremo podobe in/ali spremljevalno besedilo, torej znotraj bralne konvencije zahodnega sveta od leve proti desni in od zgoraj navzdol. Govorni balonček je nekaj, kar v realnem svetu ne obstaja, a vseeno bralci vseh starosti in s praktično kakršnimkoli kulturnim ozadjem vedo, kakšen je njegov namen. Avtorji Charles Forceville, Tony Veale in Kurt Feyaerts v članku z naslovom »Balloonics« v knjigi The Rise and Reason of Comics tolmačenje balončkov razlagajo s konvencijo, ki je del kode grafičnih pripovedi, kot pravijo. Balončki ne posredujejo informacij le v podobi teksta, saj so poleg tega važne tudi njihova oblika, barva, položaj na strani, velikost in postavitev repkov, ki izhajajo iz balončkov. Govorni balonček omenjeni avorji razumejo kot konceptualno metaforo. Konceptualne metafore so vzorci razmišljanja, ki naj bi predstavljali osnovo ali podlago za vsakodnevne metaforične izraze. Ti metaforični izrazi so po navadi jezikovni, lahko pa se pojavljajo tudi v podobah. Prepričani so, da tudi ko gre za balonček, ki je specifika stripovskega sveta, zaradi navezovanja ali povezovanja z osnovnimi kognitivnimi procesi tolmačenje ne zahteva posebnega ali posebej pridobljenega znanja.17 Potem je pogosto navzoče še spremljevalno besedilo, torej besede, ki jih ne povezujemo nujno z določenim likom; to besedilo je lahko v kateremkoli času. Primere spremljevalnega besedila najdemo tako pri Spiegelmanu kot pri Saccu in v manjši meri tudi pri Satrapi. Avtor se tu postavi v vlogo razlagalca, povezovalca dogodkov, komentatorja ali distanciranega opazovalca. Spodnji ilustraciji prikazujeta primera iz Spiegelmanovega Mausa (1980) in iz Saccovega dela Footnotes in Gaza (2009). 17 Glej tudi glej Kukkonen, Contemporary 56—73. 62 Leonora Flis: Grafične pripovedi in pripovednost Slika 3: Spiegelman, Maus 21 Slika 4: Sacco, Footnotes in Gaza 81 63 PKn, letnik 43, st 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Če se ozrem k Genettu, je to torej lahko glas ekstradiegetskega pripovedovalca ali pa raje (sledeč postgenettovski terminologiji) zunanjega fokalizatorja, ki je lahko tudi avtor sam.18 Kar zadeva pripovedovalce in fokalizatorje v kontekstu GP, se opiram tudi na stališče Alojzije Zupan Sosič, ki zagovarja mešanost ali sinkretičnost vrst in kategorij pripovedovalca ter pretočnost pripovedovalcev in fokalizatorjev (opre se tudi na teorijo Manfreda Jahna).19 Lahko seveda izpostavim, da so za analizo GP koristni tudi koncepti pripovedi in fokalizacije, kot jih zasnujeta Gerard Genette in Mieke Bal, vseeno pa se kot še primernejši kaže Jahnov model, ki razširi pojem fokalizacije s pomočjo kognitivnih pristopov. Manfred Jahn, kot povzema Alojzija Zupan Sosič v članku »Pripovedovalec in fokalizacija«, je fokalizacijo razumel kot okno v pripovedni svet, ki omogoča bralcem videti dogodke skozi per-ceptualni zaslon s pomočjo fokalizatorja, delujočega kot zunajzgodbeni ali znotraj zgodbeni medij. Na ta način je razložena kot prvenstveno sprožilo za avtorje, pripovedovalce in bralce ter temeljni proces pripovedovanja in razumevanja zgodb, kar je nasprotno od tradicionalnega pojmovanja fokalizacije, ko je bila ta razlagana kot nekaj drugotnega v smislu filtra predstavitve že obstoječih pripovednih dejstev (Zupan Sosič, »Pripovedovalec« 65—66). V multimodalnih pripovedih (kot so GP), je fokalizacija stvar interpretacije, torej neprestane interakcije med tekstom in recepcijo (bralcem-gledalcem). Fokalizacija oziroma bral-čevo razumevanje fokalizacije se razvija skozi proces branja. Vprašanje fokalizacije Kukkonen (v Contemporary Comics Storytelling) večkrat omeni, da je naratologija stripa v bolj ali manj začetni fazi in potrebuje sistematično obdelavo, največ pozornosti pa je po njegovem mnenju treba nameniti prav fokalizaciji, pripovedovalcu ter razliki med zgodbo in diskur-zom. Temu pritrjujeta tudi Silke Horstkotte and Nancy Pedri v članku »Focalization in Graphic Narrative«, na katerega se bom pri analizi fokalizacije deloma oprla.20 Avtorici izhajata iz raziskav kognitivne nara-tologije, še posebej izpostavita Manreda Jahna, Davida Hermana in 18 Glej Alojzija Zupan Sosič, »Pripovedovalec« 47-72 in delo Alenke Koron Sodobne teorije pripovedi. 19 Manfred Jahn, »Focalization« in tudi »Windows of Focalization«. 20 V zadnjih letih ni nastalo ravno veliko novih zapisov o fokalizaciji v grafičnih pripovedih, zato se opiram na tiste, ki izbrano problematiko najbolj jasno opišejo. 64 Leonora Flis: Grafične pripovedi in pripovednost Alana Palmerja.21 V članku govorita o tem, da se GP pri posredovanju pomena zanašajo na uravnotežen preplet semiotičnih kodov ali moda-litet, obenem pa se vedno znova zastavlja vprašanje, kaj natančno predstavlja fokalizacijo v GP oziroma kako se ta demonstrira. Kot multi-modalne pripovedi grafične pripovedi povezujejo različne semiotične modalitete, slike, besede in sekvenčnost ter nedvomno ponujajo bogat prostor za raziskovanje. Fokalizacija v multimodalnih medijih je večkrat nekaj ambivalentnega in zmuzljivega. Na primerih dela Marjane Satrapi Persepolis (2000) in Spigelmanovega Mausa bom pokazala nekaj možnosti za razumevanje in razlago fokalizacije v GP. V GP tako pripoved kot fokalizacija lahko simultano delujeta na dveh modalnih pasovih, to pa lahko povzroča »vrzeli, premore in napetosti, ki jih v monomodalnih, zgolj verbalnih pripovedih ne najdemo« (Horstkotte in Pedri 336). Horstkotte in Pedri poudarjata, da je pri vpogledu v vidike fokalizacije v GP nujno treba upoštevati sledeče razlike med GP in fotografijo ter premičnimi slikami (filmom ali animacijo) na eni strani in verbalnimi pripovedmi na drugi: — poleg multimodalnosti gre v GP za drugače kodirana čas in prostor; Thierry Groensteen22 temu reče »spacio-topia« (prostorotopija)23 semiotičnega sistema GP; — oblikovanje tega »časa v prostoru« skozi okvirje in vmesne prostore (gutter), ki so ključni za pripoved; — »prepletanje« GP — vsak okvir je vsaj v potencialnem, če ne dejanskem odnosu z drugimi okvirji, to pa ustvarja zgoščenost detajlov in definira tudi ritem pripovedi.24 Delo Marjane Satrapi Persepolis je narisano v črno-belem, minima-lističnem slogu.25 Satrapi bralcu ponudi subtilno izpisano in izrisano zgodbo o odraščanju v Iranu v času islamske revolucije in v času iran-sko-iraške vojne. Slogovno Satrapi perzijsko ikonografijo prepleta z zahodnjaškim podobjem in simboliko, njene minimalistične podobe so stilizirane in ravno zaradi svoje simplifikacije še poudarjajo izraženo oziroma prikazano. Avtorica ne uporablja senčenja, temveč gre ves čas za monokromatske, črno-bele ilustracije. 21 Glej predvsem David Herman, »Beyond« 119—142. Pomembna zapisa sta tudi njegova »Introduction« 1-30 in »Toward« 47-75. Glej tudi delo Alana Palmerja Fictional Minds. 22 Glej Thierry Groensteen, The System of Comics. 23 »Topia« izvira iz grškega izraza »topos«, ki pomeni prostor, kraj. 24 Glej Horstkotte in Pedri, »Focalization in Graphic Narrative« 336-337. 25 Satrapijino delo natančno opiše Rocio G. Davis v članku »A Graphic Self« (264-279). PKn, letnik 43, st 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Slika 5: Satrapi, Persepolis 6 Strinjam se s Horstkotte in Pedri, ki menita, da je preprostost podob v delu Persepolis zgolj navidezna, veliko okvirjev namreč vsebuje inter-tekstualne aluzije in prikaze izkušenj, ki presegajo izkustveni in kognitivni svet deklice (male Marji), ki mu sledimo v prvem od obeh zvezkov. Skozi celotno delo se verbalno in vizualno soočamo z dvomi, težavami razumevanja in miselnimi vrtinci protagonistov. Ni vedno nemudoma razvidno, ali dojemanje in interpretacija dogodkov pripadata pripove-dujočemu jazu ali pa gre za fokalizacijo, ki je del pripovednega sveta in pripada izbranemu protagonistu ali protagonistki. Persepolis je hibridno delo tudi v žanrskem vidiku: lahko bi ga opisali kot mešanico avtobio-grafije, zapisa (in orisa) izseka iz zgodovine Bližnjega vzhoda, knjiga ima tudi prvine, ki bi si jih lahko lastile ženske študije, feministična besedila, spominska proza in še kakšen žanr. Satrapi raje uporablja vizualne metafore in simbolizem, s katerimi nakazuje stališče, ki ga ne moremo vedno pripisati določenemu liku, kot da bi okvirje oblikovala v smislu jasne perspektive in fokalizacije. 66 Leonora Flis: Grafične pripovedi in pripovednost Kot primer navajam sekvenco, v kateri se družina Satrapi pogovarja o razmerah v Iranu po tem, ko državo zapusti šah. Satrapi vstavi okvir, v katerem družino obkroža stiliziran simbol hudiča v podobi kače. Ta podoba je v popolnem nasprotju z materinimi besedami v balončku, v katerem pravi, da je hudič (šah) odšel. Resnica je, da je šah še navzoč in da vdira v življenje družine. Čez nekaj tednov so v Iranu oblast resnično prevzeli fundamentalisti, nedavno izpuščeni politični zaporniki so bili vnovič zaprti, mučeni in ubiti, Iran pa se je kmalu zapletel v krvavo vojno v Sadamom Huseinom. Slika 6: Satrapi, Persepolis 43 Kačo lahko vidimo kot vpogled v politično in zgodovinsko stanje in kot oceno situacije, kot simbol retrospektivnega zrenja na dogodke, v tem primeru okvir s kačo odraža videnje zrelejšega pripovednega »jaza« in ne neposredno doživljajoči otroški »jaz«. Lahko pa kačo beremo kot izraz Marjaninega (otroškega) prizadevanja, da bi razumela kompleksno situacijo in prevprašala interpretacije dogodkov, ki jih ponudijo njeni starši. Njen namrgoden izraz na obrazu kaže na dvome, ki se ji porajajo, ponujena razlaga se ji ne zdi dovolj prepričljiva. Vseeno pa se zdi verjetnejša možnost, da imamo opravka z distancirano, zrelo, retrospektivno pripovedovalko (odrasla Marjane), ki pozna podrobnosti političnega dogajanja in kačo vidi kot simbol za šaha. Bralec se mora tako odločiti, katera verzija fokalizacije se mu izrisuje kot verjetnejša v izbrani situaciji, in včasih naletimo na primere, ki so lahko dvoumni. V tem specifičnem primeru sta naša branje in razumevanje zares odvisna od tega, ali fokali-zacijo pripišemo literarni osebi (mladi Marji) ali odrasli pripovedovalki. Če jo pripišemo literarni osebi, dobimo vpogled v njen miselni svet (ki je bogat, a zaradi njene mladosti vseeno omejen), če pa govorimo o fokalizaciji, ki je del odrasle pripovedovalke, dobimo drugačen uvid. 67 PKn, letnik 43, st 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 V tem primeru časovni odnos med osnovnim okvirjem in »vloženo« (dodano) podobo kače ni popolnoma jasen in zato ni jasna fokalizacija. Kognitivni aspekt je torej ključen pri opredelitvi fokalizacije. V Spiegelmanovem Mausu, ki je kompleksna mešanica biografije in avtobiografije, imamo opraviti z dvema časovnima premicama in dvema pripovedovalcema, torej je tu model multimodalne naracije in fokalizacije bolj niansiran in lažje opredeljiv. Svet druge svetovne vojne stoji ob boku New Yorku v 80. letih prejšnjega stoletja in intradieget-ska pripoved (zgodba Vladkovega preživetja) se prepleta z njegovimi ekstradiegetskimi pogovori (intevjuji) s sinom (Artom Spiegelmanom), ki piše/riše zgodbo svoje družine. Vladek je torej intradiegetski pripovedovalec (Poljska, 40. leta prejšnjega stoletja), Art pa je ekstradieget-ski pripovedovalec (v 80. letih) kot tudi risar (vizualni narator) tako ekstradiegetske kot intradiegetske pripovedi. Občasno pa se pravzaprav tudi sam (ko dvomi o uspehu svojega pisanja in risanja izbrane zgodbe) postavi v vlogo intradiegetskega pripovedovalca (razmišljevalca). Poleg tega je Artova pripoved očetove zgodbe personificirana, še posebej močno z uporabo živalskih metafor (Judi kot miši, Poljaki kot prašiči, Nemci kot mačke, Američani kot psi). Ker imamo tako pri Satrapi kot pri Spiegelmanu opravka z mešanjem biografskega in avtobiografskega (grafičnega) zapisa, je določitev fokalizacije še težja kot v primerih, kjer pripovedovalec ni del pripovednega dogajanja (ter zgolj »od zunaj« komentira, torej ni izkušajoči »jaz«) in tam, kjer imamo opravka z različnimi časovnimi premicami. V Mausu recimo lahko najprej vidimo Vladkovo intradiegetsko pripoved, v naslednjem okvirju pa se živalska metafora zamenja in izpostavi se vprašanje fokalizatorja. Zdi se, da je nenazadnje Art tisti, ki v 80. letih dvomi oziroma niha med dvema različnima vizualnima repre-zentacijama zgodbe. Vladek pravi, da je identiteta zapornikov tako ali tako nepomembna. Prav zaradi dvomov Spiegelman tudi zasenči drugi okvir. Horstkotte in Pedri govorita o pripovedni negotovosti (narrative uncertainty), značilni za Spiegelmanovo delo.26 Poglavitna razloga zanjo sta razplastena zgodba in kompleksna fokalizacija.27 V Mausu se preskok v fokalizaciji zgodi, ko se zunanja, ekstradie-getska pozicija (zapornik je narisan kot miš) spremeni v Artovo (ki je tudi lik v zgodbi) notranjo fokalizacijo, ki podobo spremeni v mačko. Čeprav je fokalizator v obeh okvirjih Artie, gre v prvem okvirju za zuna- 26 Podoben dvom ali nestabilnost vedenja, resnice in še posebej spomina zasledimo tudi v delih Joeja Sacca. Hillary Chute govori o »samozavedajoči metodologiji« Sacco-vega dela. Glej Chute, Disaster 228. 27 Glej Horstkotte in Pedri 330-331. 68 Leonora Flis: Grafične pripovedi in pripovednost njega fokalizatorja, ki prikazuje Vladkove spomine iz časa vojne, v drugem okvirju pa postane Artie notranji fokalizator (lik), ki v New Yorku v 80. letih 20. stoletja domneva, da bi bil zapornik lahko tudi Nemec. Čeprav je torej sama zgodba iz 40. let Vladkova (občasno notranji fokalizator, večinoma pa je tudi on zunanji, saj pripoveduje v 80. letih), je Artov prikaz te zgodbe — torej vizualna interpretacija — tista, ki se zdi v večini okvirjev ključna fokalizacija (Vladkova pripoved v 80. letih 20. stoletja je podana skozi Artovo vizualno oblikovanje ali interpretacijo). Opraviti imamo torej z dvema zunanjima fokalizatorjema — eden deluje na vizualnem nivoju, drugi na verbalnem. Tudi Art se premika med zunanjim in notranjim pripovedovalcem.28 Takšna gibanja ali nihanja (med obema pripovedovalcema) so prevladujoča pripovedovalska in fokalizacijska pozicija v Spiegelmanovem grafičnem romanu. Maus ima torej dve zgodbi, ki ju pripovedujeta dva pripovedovalca, postavljeni pa sta na na dve semiotični liniji, imamo dva notranja fokalizatorja in dva zunanja fokalizatorja. Slika 7: Spiegelman, Maus 210 Tudi Joe Sacco v svojih delih spreminja fokalizatorje. Ustrezno se zdi govoriti o pretočnosti fokalizatorjev, saj se, recimo v delih Palestine in 28 Erin McGlothlin v članku »Art Spiegelman's Practice« govori o metareferenč-nem značaju Mausa; s tem terminom označi obče avtorefleksivne značilnosti Spiegel-manovega dela. 69 PKn, letnik 43, st 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Footnotes in Gaza selimo od videnja in dojemanja Palestincev (ki je prevladujoče) do perspektive izraelskih vojakov in tudi Saccovega lastnega vpogleda (ki pa je predvsem v Footnotes in Gaza omejen na minimum). Kot je mogoče razbrati iz omenjenih del, so razplastenost in fragmentiranost zgodbe ter z njima povezano vprašanje fluidne fokalizacije lastnosti, ki so zlasti izrazite v GP, ki upovedujejo travmatične dogodke in oživljajo spomine nanje. Ambivalentnost fokalizacije in fragmentarna struktura pripovedi pripomoreta tudi k prikazu soobstoja različnih, spreminjajočih se, subjektivnih resnic, ki jih posredujejo različni pripovedovalci (lahko tudi skozi različne, prepletajoče se časovnice).29 Kot pravi McCloud v delu Kako nastane strip: »Strip je fragmentaren medij, tu je par besed, tam košček slike, če je dobro narejen, pa lahko bralci te fragmente med branjem povezujejo in doživljajo zgodbo kot povezano celoto.« (129) Bralec delce sestavlja v celoto in več ko ima na razpolago perspektiv, celovitejša je njegova slika dogajalne situacije. Slika 8: Sacco, Footnotes in Gaza 222 29 Glej tudi Flis, »Joe Sacco in literarno novinarstvo v podobi stripa« 142-143. 70 Leonora Flis: Grafične pripovedi in pripovednost Sklep V zaključku lahko pritrdim Scottu McCloudu, ki pravi, da vsi dojemamo svet skozi svoje čute in čuti lahko vedno znova opozarjajo na svet, ki je fragmentiran in nepopoln. Naše dojemanje »realnosti« temelji na veri ali na prepričanju, ki je subjektivno in zgrajeno iz fragmentov. Še tako razgledan in načitan človek vidi le fragmente (velikokrat ne povsem doumljive) celote, karkoli že ta celota je. McCloud imenuje opazovanje delcev, fragmentov in njihovo kognitivno povezovanje v zamišljene (trenutne) celote dopolnjevanje30 (Kako razumeti 64—65). Tako v življenju kot tudi med branjem stripov smo torej ves čas v iskanju vsaj začasnih zaključkov. Narativni principi GP, še posebej sekvenčna narava in fragmentiranost, se torej dobro ujamejo s človeškim dojemanjem realnosti in s procesom spominjanja. Poleg tega so GP pluralen medij, saj povezujejo različne perspektive in tako bralcu ponudijo različne (včasih čisto nasprotujoče si) poglede, ta princip pa znova dobro posnema ali uteleša življenjsko stvarnost. Če umetnik (tudi stripar) želi, da ga bo bralec/gledalec razumel, mora upoštevati tisto, kar je skupno naši izkušnji »biti človek«. Pri tem je avtor GP žanrsko neomejen, obravnava lahko katerokoli temo ali aspekt življenja, s tem pa GP lahko postane odlično umetniško upovedana realnost življenja. Bralec in avtor sta v GP zapletena v ples vidnega in nevidnega — skupaj ves čas ustvarjata nekaj novega in tako fragmentiranim stvarnostim podarjata (začasne) izteke ali zaključke. LITERATURA Baetens, Jan. »Stories and Storytelling in the Era of Graphic Narrative«. Stories. Ur. Ian Christie in Annie van den Oever. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2018. 27-45. Baetens, Jan, Hugo Frey in Stephen E. Tabachnick. »Introduction«. The Cambridge History of the Graphic Novel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018. 1-18. Barthes, Roland. »An Introduction to the Structural Analysis of Narrative«. Trans. Lionel Duisit. New Literary History 6.2 (1975): 237-272. Carrier, David. The Aesthetics of Comics. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000. Chute, Hillary. Graphic Women: Life Narrative & Contemporary Comics. New York: Columbia University Press, 2010. Chute, Hillary. Disaster Drawn: Visual Witness, Comics and Documentary Form. Cambridge MA in London: Harvard University Press, 2016. 30 Tako prevaja »closure« prevajalec McCloudovega dela Kako razumeti strip Izar Lunaček. Avtorica članka predlagam tudi drugo možnost prevoda: zaključevanje. 71 PKn, letnik 43, st 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Davis, Rocio G. »A Graphic Self: Comics as autobiography in Marjane Satrapi's Persepolis«. Prose Studies 27.3 (2005): 264-279. Eisner, Will. Comics and Sequential Art. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1985. Eisner, Will. Graphic Storytelling and Visual Narrative. Florida: Poorhouse Press, 1996. Flis, Leonora. »Joe Sacco in literarno novinarstvo v podobi stripa: žanrski preplet literature, stripa, novinarstva in zgodovine«. Primerjalna književnost 37.2 (2014): 129-150. Forceville, Charles, Tony Veale in Kurt Feyaerts. »Balloonics: The Visuals of Balloons in Comics«. The Rise and Reason of Comics and Graphic Literature: Critical Essays on the Form. Ur. Joyce Goggin in Dan Hassler-Forest. London: McFarland & Company, Inc. Publishers, 2010. 56-73. Goggin, Joyce, in Dan Hassler-Forest. »Introduction«. The Rise and Reason of Comics and Graphic Literature: Critical Essays on the Form. Ur. Joyce Goggin in Dan Hassler-Forest. London: McFarland & Company, Inc. Publishers, 2010. 1-4. Groensteen, Thierry. The System of Comics. Prev. Bart Beaty in Nick Nguyen. Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi, 2007. Hančič, Miha. Avtorski strip. Diplomsko delo. Mentor Bojan Kovačič. Somentorica: Tonka Tacol. Univerza v Ljubljani, Pedagoška fakulteta. Tudi na spletu. Dostopano 18. 1. 2020. Herman, David. »Introduction«. Narratologies: New Perspectives on Narrative Analysis. Ur. David Herman. Columbus: The Ohio State University Press, 1999. 1-30. Herman, David. »Toward a Transmedial Narratology«. Narrative Across Media: The Languages of Storytelling. Ur. Marie-Laure Ryan. Lincoln in London: University of Nebraska Press, 2004. 47-75. Herman, David. »Beyond Voice and Vision: Cognitive Grammar and Focalization Theory«. Point of View, Perspective, Focalization: Modeling Mediacy. Ur. Peter Huhn, Wolf Schmid, Jorg Schonert. Berlin in New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2009. 119-142. Horstkotte, Silke, in Nancy Pedri. »Focalization in Graphic Narrative«. Narrative 19.3 (2011): 330-357. Iser, Wolfgang. Bralno dejanje: teorija estetskega učinka (prev. A. Leskovec). Ljubljana: Studia humanitatis, 2001. Jahn, Manfred. »Windows of Focalization: Deconstructing and Reconstructing a Narratological Concept«. Style 30.2 (1996): 241-267. Jahn, Manfred. »Focalization«. The Cambridge Companion to Narrative. Ur. David Herman. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008. 94-109. Koron, Alenka. Sodobne teorije pripovedi. Ljubljana: Založba ZRC SAZU, 2014. Kukkonen, Karin. »Comics as a Test Case for Transmedial Narratology«. SubStance 40.1 (2011) (Issue 124: Graphic Narratives and Narrative Theory): 34-52. Kukkonen, Karin. Contemporary Comics Storytelling. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2013. Lefevre, Pascal. »Narration in Comics«. Image and Narrative: Online Magazine of the Visual Narrative August 2000. Splet. Dostopano: 30. 11. 2019. Marčetic, Adrijana. »Postklasična naratologija: koliko je prirodna prirodna naratolo-gija?«. Od narativa do narativnosti:pola veka naratologije: tematski zbornik radova. Ur. Snežana Milosavljevic-Milic, Jelena Jovanovic in Mirjana Bojanic-Cirkovic. Niš: Filozofski fakultet, 2018. 73-85. McCloud Scott. Kako nastane strip: pripovedne skrivnosti stripa, mange in risanega romana. Prev. Maša Peče. Ljubljana: Društvo za oživljanje zgodbe 2 koluta, 2010. 72 Leonora Flis: Grafične pripovedi in pripovednost McCloud, Scott. Kako razumeti strip: o nevidni umetnosti. Prev. Izar Lunaček. Ljubljana: Cankarjeva založba, 2011. McGlothlin, Erin. »Art Spiegelman's Practice from Maus to MetaMaus«. The Cambridge History of the Graphic Novel. Ur. Jan Baetens, Hugo Frey in Stephen E. Tabachnick. Cambridge in New York, 2018. 203-218. Mikkonen, Kai. »Remediation and the Sense of Time in Graphic Narratives«. The Rise and Reason of Comics and Graphic Literature: Critical Essays on the Form. Ur. Joyce Goggin in Dan Hassler-Forest. London: McFarland & Company, Inc. Publishers, 2010. 74-86. Miller, Ann. »Joe Sacco, Graphic Novelist as Political Journalist«. The Cambridge History of the Graphic Novel. Ur. Jan Baetens et al. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018. 389-404. Sacco, Joe. Palestine: A Nation Occupied.. Seattle, WA: Fantagraphics Books, 1996. Sacco, Joe. Footnotes in Gaza. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2009. Satrapi, Marjane. Persepolis. London: Vintage Books, 2008. Spiegelman, Art. Maus. Prev. Oto Luthar. Ljubljana: Založba ZRC, 2010. Štandeker, Špela. »Slogovna in vsebinska raznolikost stripovskega izraza«. Tomaž Lavrič: Stripi/Comics. Ljubljana: Moderna galerija, 2010. 5-10. Zupan Sosič, Alojzija. »Postklasična teorija pripovedi«. Slavistična revija 61.3 (2013): 495-506. Zupan Sosič, Alojzija. »Pripovedovalec in fokalizacija«. Primerjalna književnost 37.3 (2014): 47-72. Zupan Sosič, Alojzija. Teorija pripovedi. Maribor: Litera, 2017. Graphic Narratives and Narrativity Keywords: postclassical narratology / hybrid genres / graphic novel / graphic narrative / narrativity / Spiegelman, Art / Satrapi, Marjane / Sacco, Joe The article focuses on the narrative principles of graphic narratives representing a hybrid genre that dwells at the intersection of literary and visual storytelling. The genre's multimodality is also viewed through the prism of certain principles of postclassical narratology. Graphic narratives occupy the intersection of showing and telling stories; they always tell a story, so they are a narrative genre. Graphic storytelling enables us to pose some fundamental questions that concern, for example, the temporal aspect of narrativity (understood as a collection of formal and contextual traits that define a narrative) and the issue of focalization. Graphic narratives treat time somewhat differently from (merely) verbal narratives, as a sense of time is created through the relationship between the visual and the verbal. Moreover, apart from the (mostly) framed images, graphic narratives also contain the so called "gutter" or an empty space PKn, letnik 43, st 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 between the frames. Scott McCloud, himself a comics theorist and comics artist, says that gutter is the place where the illusion of the movement of space and time takes place. Using the examples from a few graphic narratives (by Art Spiegelman, Joe Sacco, and Marjane Satrapi), the article shows the specifics of graphic storytelling, which, with its sequential nature, the principles of montage, the composition of individual pages, and other structural characteristics, enables the formation of narratives. When we talk about graphic narratives, it is appropriate to talk about the transgeneric and transmedial narratology, hence the article also exposes the role of postclassical narratology in the process of interpreting and understanding graphic narratives. 1.01 Izvirni znanstveni clanek / Original scientific article UDK 82.0-31:741.52 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/pkn.v43.i1.03 74 Obraz v velikem planu in pripovedna transparentnost Barbara Zorman Univerza na Primorskem, Pedagoška fakulteta, Cankarjeva ulica 5, 6000 Koper, Slovenija https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3498-6958 barbara.zorman@pef.upr.si V prvem delu prispevka primerjam različne teoretske poglede na funkcije obraza v filmskem velikem planu. Balazs meni, da spričo povečave prikazanega obraza, ki vzbuja občutek intenzivne bližine, nastane premik v naraciji iz dogajalnega gibanja v mikrogibanje. Deleuze izpostavi veliki plan kot entiteto (ločeno od prostorsko-časovnih koordinat, iz katerih izhaja), kjer obrazni izraz postane nosilec afekta, obenem pa obraz izgubi funkcije individualizacije, socializacije in komunikacije, ki so ga predhodno opredeljevale. Barthes piše o obrazu filmske zvezde v vlogi maske, Greco pa o vplivu pogleda, ki ga maska iz ekrana usmerja v gledalca. Plantinga analizira vlogo obraza v »prizorih empatije«. V drugem delu članka analiziram film Roka Bička Razredni sovražnik (2013). Netransparentnost obraza se izraža najočitneje pri reprezentaciji lika Sabine, ki sošolce pretrese s samomorom. Nedostopnost Sabinine subjektivnosti predstavljajo bližnji prikazi njenega obraza v kontekstu spominskih predstav njene prijateljice in maske, ustvarjene po fotografiji Sabininega obraza, ki sijih nadenejo njeni sošolci. Sabinin obraz je slepa pega filmske pripovedi; čeprav se pred nami razkriva scela, je njegov pomen odprt, nedoumljiv. Eden od učinkov takega prikaza je zavrnitev obraza kot»znakovnega instrumenta« (Eleftheriotis) oziroma kot transparentne površine, hkrati pa tudi zavrnitev prisvajanja oziroma redukcije skrivnostne drugosti obrazov bližnjih na berljive emocije oziroma afekte. Ključne besede: filmska teorija / kognitivna znanost / naratologija / obraz v filmu / filmski liki / slovenski film / maska / Biček, Rok 75 Primerjalna književnost (Ljubljana) 43.1 (2020) PKn, letnik 43, st 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Vsaka pegica je bila kakor zvezda in imel je vse. Veliki voz, Mali voz, Oriona, Medveda, Dvojčka, Betelgezo, Rimsko cesto. Na njegovem obrazu je bila vsaka zvezda v pravilnem položaju. Bellow, Herzog 282 There's no art / To find the mind's construction in the face. Shakespeare, Macbeth, 1. dejanje, 4. prizor Obrazi, predstavljeni v filmu, nudijo gledalcem poleg svoje osnovne, identifikacijske funkcije vsaj dve vrsti užitka. Po eni strani gre za estetsko kontemplacijo njihove lepote ali unikatnosti. Milton Brener meni, da je obraz lep prav zaradi svoje spremenljivosti, saj nenehno proizvaja izraze, med katerimi nekateri trajajo le petindvajsetinko sekunde. Najpogostejši med izrazi je smehljaj, ki ga znanstveniki kategorizirajo na štiri najpogostejše različice, čeprav so, kot meni Brener, njegove nianse skoraj neskončne (35). Iain McGilchrist piše, da se hoteni oziroma prisiljeni obrazni izrazi manifestirajo večinoma v okolici ust, bolj pretanjeni in nehoteni čustveni izrazi pa v zgornji polovici obraza (59). Za gledalce so torej obrazi zapeljivi tudi zaradi želje po prisvajanju njihovih pomenov, ta pa izhaja iz domneve, da jih je mogoče prebrati, dešifrirati. V medosebni komunikaciji interpretiramo, z obrazom zrcalimo in si včasih preko čustvene nalezljivosti celo prisvojimo obrazne izraze in občutja oseb, s katerimi smo v stiku. A vendar nam obrazi drugih, zlasti neznancev, v resničnem življenju najpogosteje predstavljajo skrivnost, saj iz njih ne zmoremo razbrati dejanskih občutij in misli; obrazne izraze zlahka interpretiramo v neskladju z dejanskim občutjem njegovega nosilca. Filmi pogosto prikazujejo konflikte, ki izvirajo iz tovrstnih nesporazumov. Po drugi strani pa je gledalcu v odnosu do protagonista dovoljena izredno velika mera vpogleda v notranja stanja; možnost zaupanja, zaupnosti med prejemnikom in fikcijskim likom je eden ključnih užitkov fikcije. Kadar nam fikcija vzbuja občutek, da je drugi »berljiv«, se to dogaja preko tako imenovane »transparentne pripovedi«, kjer nam podatke posreduje zanesljiva pripoved oziroma fokalizacija. Film ima mnogo tehnik, s katerimi omogoči vpogled v subjektivnost drugega, npr. glasbo, pripovedni kontekst, govor, pripoved, ki je podana skozi perspektivo (npr. percepcijsko polje) lika; v angleški filmski terminologiji posnetke, kjer filmska pripoved dogajanje prikazuje iz zornega kota enega od likov, imenujejo point-of-view shot. 76 Barbara Zorman: Obraz v velikem planu in pripovedna transparentnost V pričujočem članku me najbolj zanima pripovedna vloga obraza kot transparentne površine, ki gledalcu razkriva subjektivnost predstavljenega lika. Kot ugotavlja Carl Plantinga, so obrazi likov v filmu, posebej tisti, ki nam preko pripovedi ponujajo vživetje v svoj položaj, pogosto namenoma in izrazito transparentni, toda njegove ugotovitve so vezane večinoma na analizo hollywoodskih filmov. Prizore, ki uporabljajo te vrste izraznost za posredovanje pripovednih podatkov ali spodbujanje določenih odzivov pri gledalcih, imenuje »prizori empatije« (scenes of empathy) (»The Scene« 247). Plantinga meni, da v nasprotju z dejanskimi situacijami, v katerih svoja občutja z obrazi prikrivamo vsaj toliko, kolikor jih razkrivamo, v konvencionalnih filmskih prizorih empatije obraz izraža notranja stanja lika, in sicer tako, da se liki prikažejo v položajih, v katerih v njihovi obrazni izrazi ne bodo dojeti kot zavajajoči, temveč nam bodo iskreno posredovali občutja — na primer ko je čustvujoči lik prikazan takrat, ko meni, da ga nihče ne opazuje (251). V nasprotju s tovrstno transparentnostjo protagonistov klasične hollywoodske narativnosti je v tradiciji evropskega filmskega modernizma oziroma novih valov razmerje med gledalcem in zaslonom drugačno, saj je naracija teh filmov pogosto avtorefleksivna, opozarja torej na svojo umetniško zgradbo, konstrukcijo. Thomas Elsaesser in Malte Hagener ugotavljata, da nam tovrstne pripovedi vzbujajo občutek, da je »zatopljenost v fikcijo nemogoča«. Ta naravnanost ustreza stališču psihoanalitične filmske teorije, ki gledanje filma dojema kot proces zavajajoče identifikacije, kot gledanje v zrcalo lažnega samospo-znavanja (72—73). Tako kognitivna kot psihoanalitična filmska teorija bosta predstavljeni v prvem delu prispevka, ki primerja različne teoretske poglede na obraz v velikem planu. V drugem delu prispevka pa bo vloga obraza predstavljena z analizo filmskega prvenca Roka Bička Razredni sovražnik (2013). Obraz v velikem planu kot okno v dušo Bela Balazs je bil madžarski filmski scenarist in režiser, ki je zaslovel kot filmski kritik, posebej z zbirko esejev Der sichtbare Mensch: oder Die Kultur des Films (1924), v kateri je med prvimi pisal o izraznosti obraza v filmu v povezavi z estetiko nemih filmov. Balazs je bil prepričan, da je obrazni izraz najbolj subjektivna manifestacija človeškega. Polifonično in ambivalentno naravo emocije naj bi obrazna mimika predstavila ustrezneje kot besede. Zapisal je, da je veliki plan izumil nov nejezikovni medij oziroma komunikacijski kod PKn, letnik 43, st 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 med subjektivnostjo lika in gledalca, in sicer s pomočjo dolgo pozabljenega univerzalnega jezika kretenj in obraznih izrazov. Za Balazsa je obraz v velikem planu zaznamovan z dvojnostjo: obraz igralca je površina, na kateri se prikaže subjektivnost lika. Meni, da v nasprotju z odrskim, gledališkim igralcem, ki predstavlja svojo vlogo prek mnoštva mask, ki si jih nadeva za potrebe predstav, filmski igralec »živi notranja stanja lika«, sicer dojemamo njegov izraz kot lažen. Povečani posnetek dovoli gledalčevemu pogledu tako blizu prikazanega obraza, piše Balazs, da bi pri potvarjanju, prikazovanju nepristnega čustva določeni deli obraza nehote izdali emocije, ki »so v nasprotju s prevladujočim obraznim izrazom« (Theory 77). Za Balazsa obraz v velikem planu ni nikoli netransparenten: [V]idimo, da je tam nekaj, česar ne moremo videti. Beremo med vrsticami. [...] to so mikrofizionomije velikega plana, ki so nam dale najbolj pretanjeno igro obraznih potez, skoraj nezaznavno, a vendar tako prepričljivo. Tako se je izza vidnega obraza pojavil nevidni obraz, ki je viden eni osebi, tisti, ki jo naslavlja — in občinstvu.1 (77) Balazs torej verjame v »nevidno«, skrito obličje, ki se manifestira preko obraza v velikem planu zaradi novih tehnoloških možnosti kinematografije: povečave prikazanih objektov. Tako se gledalčeva pozornost usmeri v fragment naracije: Veliki plan je tehnični pogoj umetnosti obraznega izražanja in s tem visoke filmske umetnosti sploh. Obraz moramo približati in ga ločiti od vsakršnega okolja, ki bi nas lahko zmotilo [...] tako dolgo si ga moramo dovoliti opazovati, da ga res lahko beremo. Film zahteva pretanjenost in zanesljivost mimike, o kakršni igralec, ki nastopa zgolj na odru, ne more niti sanjati. (Der sichtbare 48) Balazs poudarja, da veliki plan zaznamuje prostorsko-časovna ločenost od diegeze. Pripovedni tok je suspendiran, zamrznjen, a ne zato, da bi pripoved prešla na navajanje atributov kakega objekta, kot v literarnem opisu, temveč zaradi prestopa na gibanje drugačne vrste. Povečano gibanje obraznih potez, piše Balazs, izgubi povezavo s pripovednim prostorom in »prikažejo se emocije, razpoloženja, nameni in misli, stvari, ki jih oči lahko vidijo, čeprav niso v prostoru« (Theory 61). Balazsove ugotovitve so v nasprotju z domnevo, da na gledalčeve predstave o občutjih v filmu predstavljenega lika bolj kot izraz na obrazu vplivajo montažni postopki. To stališče je na podlagi eksperi- 1 Ta in ostali prevodi iz tujejezičnih virov so delo Barbare Zorman. 78 Barbara Zorman: Obraz v velikem planu in pripovedna transparentnost menta Leva Kulešova, izvedenega v Rusiji v začetku preteklega stoletja, v delu Film Technique and Film Acting predstavil V. I. Pudovkin. Kulešov je isti posnetek obraza (ki ga Pudovkin opisuje kot statičnega in neekspresivnega) znamenitega ruskega igralca nemih filmov, Ivana Možuhina, v montažnem zaporedju postavil ob posnetek juhe, trupla, igrajočega se otroka. Občinstvo, ki si je ogledalo posnetke, je bilo navdušeno, piše Pudovkin, nad igralsko ekspresivnostjo Možuhina. Hvalili so zamišljenost ob pozabljenem krožniku juhe, globoko žalost, ki jo je izražal njegov obraz ob pogledu na umrlo žensko in veselje ob pogledu na igrajoče se dekletce. Pudovkin opisani učinek razlaga tudi z dolžino posnetkov; podobno kot v glasbi tudi v filmu ritem vpliva na občutja gledalca; hitri in kratki posnetki povzročajo vznemirjenje, dolgi in počasni pa imajo pomirjujoč učinek (140—141). Kontrast med Balázsevim in Pudovkinovim pogledom na funkcijo obraza v velikem planu izpostavlja najstarejšo in najvplivnejšo dihoto-mijo v teoretskih pogledih na film, in sicer razlikovanje med formalističnimi in realističnimi pristopi (Elsaesser in Hagener, Teorija 13). Eisenstein film razume v okvirjih formalističnih teorij, ki film analizirajo predvsem preko njegove konstrukcije in kompozicije, Balázs pa pripada drugi struji, ki poudarja (delno) transparentnost filma oziroma njegovo sposobnost, da nam omogoči nova spoznanja o predstavljeni resničnosti. Obraz v velikem planu kot entiteta Gilles Deleuze se na Balázsa nanaša zlasti v študiji Podoba-gibanje (1983), v poglavjih o podobi-afekciji — ki zanj določa »afektivno branje celotnega filma« (120). Tako kot Balázs Deleuze obrazov ne pripisuje zgolj domeni človeškega, temveč praktično vsakemu aspektu filmskega prostora, ki deluje kot »živčna ploščica, organonosilka[, ki je] žrtvovala bistveni del svoje globalne gibljivosti in ki svobodno sprejema in izraža najraznovrstnejša drobna lokalna gibanja« (121). V velikem planu gre skratka za prostor, ki je izločen iz prostorsko-časovnih koordinat in ki postane reflektirajoča površina oziroma z mikrogibanjem izraža določeno kvaliteto ali potenco (121). Obraza oziroma poobličenih površin ne moremo ločiti od afektov, ki jih izražajo (obrazi pa se med seboj razlikujejo po svojem potencialu za predstavljanje afektov); takšno enoto oziroma entiteto, torej množico afekta in obraza, imenuje Deleuze »ikona« (132). Obraz v velikem planu, izražen kot podoba-afekcija, izgubi funkcije, ki so ga določale v njegovem prejšnjem kontekstu, tj. individualizacijsko, socializacijsko in komunikacijsko. Veliki plan — 79 PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 obraz v podobi-afekciji je tako v svoji deteritorializaciji odtrgan tudi od svojega nekdanjega nosilca, osebe. Tako si obrazi naposled začnejo postajati podobni, zamenljivi. Deleuze stopnjuje brezosebnost obraza v velikem planu do skrajnosti: Ni velikega plana obraza. [...] Golota obraza je večja od golote telesa, nečlo-veškost obraza je večja od nečloveškosti zveri. [...] Poleg tega pa veliki plan naredi iz obraza fantom in ga izroča fantomom. Obraz je vampir in pisma so njegovi netopirji, njegova izrazna sredstva [...]. Obrazi se zlivajo drug v drugega, si sposojajo svoje spomine in se nagibajo k temu, da se med seboj pomešajo. [...] [V]eliki plan-obraz je hkrati obličje in njegov izbris. (135-136) Obraz v velikem planu kot maska Deleuzevo tezo, da so obrazi v velikem planu brezosebni, je mogoče zaslediti že v eseju Rolanda Barthesa o obrazu Grete Garbo, ki je v izšel v zbirki esejev z naslovom Mythologies leta 1957. Deleuze brezosebnost obraza izpeljuje prek koncepta njegove »golote« in zlasti mikro-gibanja, ki razgiba obraz v afektu. Barthes pa pri obravnavi obraza Grete Garbo, zlasti na primer v zadnji sekvenci filma Queen Christina (Rouben Mamoulian, 1933), izhaja iz njegove negibnosti, statičnosti. Obraz Grete Garbo je za Barthesa neprebojen, popoln, božanski. Obraz dive določa tisto, kar ga prekriva; njegov make-up ima »snežno gostoto maske« — to »ni naličen obraz, temveč obraz iz mavca, ki ga varuje površina barve in ne njegove poteze«. Barthes vzpostavi kontrast med varovalno funkcijo maske in samotnostjo oči, »črnih kot pulpa, drhtečih ran«, ki spominjajo na »bolezenske izrastke oči« na totemskem obrazu Charlieja Chaplina. Zapeljivost igralkinega obraza izvira iz absoluta maske, njene božanskosti, skrivnostnosti, nedoumljivosti (94). V The Face: A Natural History (2000) Daniel McNeill piše o obrazni lakoti (face hunger) — potrebi, da bi videli celoto in podrobnosti obraza ljudi, s katerimi komuniciramo. Maska oziroma skrivanje obraza lahko spodbudi željo gledalcev, da bi videli izraz na obrazu oziroma delu obraza, ki je skrit (155—156). Podobno željo, hrepenenje, pravzaprav obsedenost, opisuje roman Der Man der Greta Garbo liebte, ki ga je J. M. Frank napisal 1933. V študiji »Adoratori romaneschi della Garbo: (de)figurazioni narrative di un volto divino (1933—2007)« Giuseppe Girimonti Greco analizira ta roman, ki predstavlja dogodivščine berlinskega uradnika, družinskega moža po imenu Tobia Müller. Tega naključno kinematografsko srečanje z obrazom Grete Garbo v velikem planu povsem pretrese: zdi se mu, da ga je pogled dive, usmerjen vanj Barbara Zorman: Obraz v velikem planu in pripovedna transparentnost iz velikega ekrana, nagovoril. Ta ideja protagonista obsede: obraz Grete Garbo začne srečevati povsod, zdi se mu, da ga zasleduje kot fantom, fantazmatska projekcija imaginarnega (Greco 159), zaradi česar uradnik izgubi stik z realnostjo in zaposlitev, odtuji pa se tudi od žene. Naposled odpotuje v Los Angeles, ker začne igralko iskati. Ko jo naposled zagleda v sončni svetlobi pred filmskim studiem, se Tobia Müller sooči z obrazom, ki je močno naličen, maskiran za potrebe filma, ki je občutljiv na modri spekter svetlobe. Veke in usta igralke, temno modro pobarvane, se razkrijejo na bledi sinje rumenkasti podlagi njene kože. To srečanje, ugotovi Greco, je za protagonista travmatična izkušnja, zaradi katere se fantazmatska projekcija razkroji in za obrazom oziroma masko Dive se razkrije obraz Müllerjeve žene, ki ji je igralka močno podobna (162). Ta tragikomična zgodba o obsesiji aludira na gledalčevo iluzijo prisvajanja (stapljanja z lastnimi fantazijami) povečanih obrazov igralcev, kar se dogaja v kontekstu mitologiziranja zvezd, ki jih ustvarja kinematografska industrija. Tako Barthesov esej kot Frankov roman prikažeta privlačnost zvezdniškega obraza v velikem planu kot zavajajočo masko. Koncept gledalske identifikacije kot samoprevare ima ključno vlogo tudi v psihoanalitični filmski teoriji. Obraz v velikem planu kot zrcalo Thomas Elsaesser in Malte Hagener v zgodovini teorij o filmu predstavita poglede na film med drugim preko metafor vrat, okna in zrcala. Zadnja metafora, ugotavljata avtorja, označuje samonanašalnost (avto-referencialnost) modernističnega filma, ki zavrača možnost identifikacije; označuje jo kot prevaro, napačno spoznavanje (misrecognition) (83). Koncept ogledala je zavzemal osrednje mesto v psihoanalitični filmski teoriji. Kot ugotavljata Elsaesser in Hagener, je predstava o filmu kot ogledalu prevladovala v filmski teoriji med 1960 in 1980, posebej v teoriji Christiana Metza, ki je v študiji Le signifiant imaginaire: psychanalyse et cinéma (1977) predstavil film kot »imaginarni nosilec fragmentirane zaznave gledajočega subjekta« (nav. po Elsaesser in Hagener 82—83). Ker gledalčevo telo v filmu nikoli ne najde lastnega odseva, gre za dejanje napačne prepoznave oziroma napačnega spoznanja. Gledalec drugega zmotno prepoznava kot sebe oziroma vidi sebe v nekom drugem (83). Identifikacijo s pomočjo napačnega spoznanja Metzeva teorija primerja z značilnostmi Lacanovega zrcalnega stadija. Metz razlikuje med primarno identifikacijo s kamero in sekundarno identifikacijo z liki (Elsaesser in Hagener 85—86). PKn, letnik 43, st 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Kognitivna filmska teorija zavrača psihoanalitično teorijo lažne identifikacije oziroma jo skuša nadomestiti z bolj niansiranimi koncepti. Pri analizi obraza v velikem planu poudarja predvsem njegov intersubjektivni in afektivni potencial; izhaja iz prepričanja, da film gradi na vrojeni človeški sposobnosti soobčutenja afektivnih stanj drugih in nam tako ponuja utelešeno pot do empatije s človeškimi bitji, četudi fikcijskimi. Odkritje funkcij zrcalnih nevronov, ki ljudem omogočajo, da občutijo določeno situacijo, kot bi jo doživeli v telesu druge osebe, je bila ena od temeljnih spodbud kognitivne filmske teorije, ki je v osemdesetih letih prejšnjega stoletja začela raziskovati kognitivne procese filmske recepcije. Carl Plantinga v članku »The Scene of Empathy and the Human Face on Film« analizira odzivanje gledalcev na emocije likov v prizorih, ki obraze slednjih prikazujejo v velikem planu — te imenuje »prizori empatije« (239). Dejavnike, ki vplivajo na gledalčevo vrednotenje obraza, je mogoče s Plantingo in ostalimi teoretiki povzeti v petih točkah: a) karizma, zvezdniški status, privlačnost igralcev, ki upodabljajo lik; b) ekspresivnost upodobljenih obrazov — pri tem Plantinga ugotavlja, da je ekspresivnost obraza v tovrstnih prizorih poudarjena in prikazana transparentno; da gledalcu torej posreduje karseda natančne podatke o notranjem stanju lika (»The Scene« 251). Ekspresivnost obraza v velikem planu ne pomeni teatralične, pretirano patetične obrazne mimike, ki je značilna za igro v nekaterih nemih filmih. Thomas Elsaesser and Malte Hagener ugotavljata, da je eden temeljnih paradoksov, povezanih z upodabljanjem obraza v velikem planu, paradoks gibljivosti in neizraznosti. Film namreč izraznost obraza »gradi s pomočjo drastične redukcije njegove gibkosti in gibljivosti, saj se nas v velikem planu dotaknejo že najmanjši, skoraj neopazni gibi obraza« (98); c) podaljšano trajanje prikaza povečanega obraza. Plantinga ugotavlja, da so prizori, ki predstavljajo obraz v ameriških filmih, znatno daljši od drugih prizorov, saj razvoj empatije zahteva trajanje (»The Scene« 250). Poleg trajanja pa je pomemben faktor še povečava oziroma bližina prikazanih obrazov, kot je ugotavljal že Bela Balazs; č) Obrazne reprezen-tacije delujejo v povezavi s pripovednim kontekstom, ki je najbrž eden najmočnejših dejavnikov vzbujanja empatije. Ta zahteva, kot rečeno, določeno trajanje, zato se prizori empatije navadno pojavijo v zaključku pripovedi (251); d) kulturni kontekst; gledalčev odnos do predstavljenih likov gradi na izkušnjah s fikcijskimi in nefikcijskimi osebami kot tudi na usklajenosti vrednot, ki jih predstavljajo liki, z vrednotami, ki so jih gledalci ponotranjili s socializacijo. 82 Barbara Zorman: Obraz v velikem planu in pripovedna transparentnost Razredni sovražnik Čeprav je Razredni sovražnik (2013) režijski prvenec Roka Bička, gre za enega najkvalitetnejših dosežkov sodobnega slovenskega filma, kar so med drugim potrdile naklonjene kritike in številne nagrade na filmskih festivalih, npr. na Festivalu slovenskega filma v Portorožu in Mednarodnem filmskem festivalu v Benetkah. Razrednega sovražnika lahko umeščamo v tradicijo »šolskih« filmov, kot sta npr. If.... (Lindsay Anderson, 1968) ali Entre les murs (Laurent Cantet, 2005); ti pogosto tematizirajo nasilje, ki zaznamuje šolski sistem in konflikt med individualno svobodo ter pravili, ki omogočajo gladko skupinsko delovanje. Kot v Entre les murs tudi v Razrednem sovražniku šola prerašča iz dogajalnega prostora v neke vrste mikrokozmos, a obenem tudi vodilno tematiko in simbol. Izhod iz šole v Razrednem sovražniku nakaže samo Sabina, in sicer v prizoru, ki simbolizira njen samomor. V zadnji sekvenci, ki kaže dijake na končnem izletu, pa je simbolika šole prikazana z drugačnim označevalcem - ladjo sredi morja. Podobno kot v Entre les murs je tudi v Razrednem sovražniku učitelj lik, ki želi uveljaviti drugačne vzgojne principe od obstoječih, a mu pri tem ne uspe; toda če gre v Entre les murs za željo po demokratizaciji, gre v Razrednem sovražniku za avtoritarnost. V Razrednem sovražniku se dijaki četrtega letnika stopijo v kolektivnega protagonista. Ta proces okrepita dva dogodka. Dogajanje najprej razgiba prihod novega učitelja, ki kot razrednik in učitelj nemščine zaradi porodniškega dopusta učiteljice Nuše prevzame razred in dijake šokira s svojimi skrajno avtoritarnimi metodami. Ključni sprožilni motiv v naraciji pa je samomor ene dijakinj. Krivdo zanj razred pripiše novemu učitelju, vanj usmeri tudi skrajno jezo, ki se izraža v bojkoti-ranju, obtoževanju in poniževanju. Zaradi izjemne kvalitete filma in pripovedne tematike, ki jo je moč umestiti v poljubni srednjeevropski kontekst, je Razrednega sovražnika mogoče obravnavati kot enega reprezentativnih primerov sodobnega evropskega filma. Obenem pa je film za osrednjo temo prispevka zanimiv tudi zato, ker subjektivnost likov podaja predvsem prek bližnjih prikazov njihovih obrazov. Ti prikazi v določenih kontekstih, kot bom nakazala kasneje, transparentno podajajo občutja likov, še večkrat pa so obrazi likov zadržani v svoji izraznosti, skrivnostni, večpomenski. Tovrstna filmska reprezentacija, kjer je razumevanje subjektivnosti lika oteženo oziroma upočasnjeno, zaznamuje navezanost na dediščino modernističnega filma, ki pripovedno transparentnost destabilizira z močno avtorefleksivnostjo, v kateri se filmska naracija zazira v lastno konstrukcijo. Biček je v intervjuju s 83 PKn, letnik 43, st 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Špelo Barlič (»Razredni«) kot referenco oziroma navdih navedel filme Michaela Hanekeja, zlasti Cache. Hanekejevi filmi so znani po poudarjeni etični dimenziji. Ta se kaže tudi na ravni režiserjeve premišljene konstrukcije filmske naracije, ki je v določenih elementih bolj kot v podajanje vsebine usmerjena v avtorefleksijo lastnih učinkov. Obrazi kot okna v notranja stanja likov Razredni sovražnik v veliki meri gradi na izraznosti obrazov; ti so prikazani večinoma v velikih oziroma srednjih planih, poleg tega se kamera na obrazih igralcev zadržuje relativno dolgo. Počasni, dolgo trajajoči kadri in pogosto fokusiranje na obraze igralcev so med drugim značilni za evropski modernistični film, denimo za stvaritve Ingmarja Bergmana ali Jean-Luca Godarda. Bližnji posnetki obrazov, kakor sta ugotovila že Balazs in Deleuze, abstrahirajo in prestavijo gibanje iz narativnega toka dogodkov na raven podobe-afekcije. S tem pa filmska pripoved prikazani lik iz/loči iz okolice, ki ga obdaja, predvsem od drugih diegetskih likov, kot tudi iz zgodbenega konteksta. Lik se v bližnjem posnetku obrača vase in se razkriva gledalcu v svoji intimi, ga s tem nagovarja k zavezništvu. Obenem pa veliki plan tudi izpostavlja samoto, izoliranost lika. Obrazi so pomembni tudi v zgodbeni komunikaciji med liki; v Bičkovem filmu se enako pogosto kot z besedami sporazumevajo s pogledi. V nekaj prizorih so pogledi, ki jih en lik nameni drugim/ drugemu, izrazito dolgi. Taki so na primer pogledi učitelja Zupana, ki odgovarjajo na obtožbe dijakov (sliki 1 in 2). ... Slika 1: Maruša (Pia Korbar), Luka (Voranc Boh), Chang (Kangjing Qiu), Mojca (Doroteja Madrah), Tadej (Jan Župančič) in Spela (Spela Novak) v Razrednem sovražniku (2013). Copyright Triglav film. 84 Barbara Zorman: Obraz v velikem planu in pripovedna transparentnost Slika 2: Robert Zupan (Igor Samobor) v Razrednem sovražniku (2013). Copyright Triglav film. Če pogledi prevzemajo mesto besed, pa se obenem preciznost besed kot s konvencijami določenih označevalcev nadomešča s pomensko ambivalenco in polifonijo pogledov; tak je na primer Sabinin pogled v Zupana, ko učitelj vstopi v prostor, kjer dekle igra klavir (slika 3). Slika 3: Sabina (Daša Cupevski) in Robert Zupan (Igor Samobor) v Razrednem sovražniku (2013). Copyright Triglav film. Pomensko preciznejši in bolj transparenten je pogled Maruše, ki se obrnjena s hrbtom proti kameri oddaljuje od gledalčevega pogleda, ko zapušča učilnico, v kateri je videla Zupana, ki je prisostvoval Sabininemu igranju. Maruša se počasi obrne nazaj, ko se ozre proti prostoru, ki ga je zapustila, hkrati pa proti kameri oziroma gledalcem usmeri svoj obraz, pogled. Ta izraža množico čustev, ki jo prevevajo in med katerimi dominirata osuplost in nerazumevanje, morda tudi gnus nad prizorom, ki mu je bila pravkar priča. Temni odtenki njenega obraza pri 85 PKn, letnik 43, st 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 tem ustvarjajo konflikt s svetlobo in belino odtenkov dekletove obleke in globine polja. V opisanem prizoru gre za pripovedno posredovanje čustev in misli gledalcu/-ki, hkrati pa pogled, uprt v kamero, nakazuje avtorefleksivnost pripovedi; Elsaesser in Hagener menita, da oči, uprte iz zaslona v gledalce, te nujno zdramijo iz zatopljenosti v fikcijo. Režiser je želel, da bi bila prikazana občutja avtentična oziroma resnična. Zato je v filmu prikazano dogajanje — samomor in razredni upor, ki sta se zgodila na gimnaziji, ki jo je obiskoval — prej natančno raziskal; uporabil je tako pogovore kot osebne spomine. V prikazu avtentičnosti dogajanja je bilo pomembno tudi režijsko delo z igralci naturščiki, ki se je začelo z dolgotrajnim postopkom izbiranja zasedbe. V intervjuju je Biček povedal, da je bilo njegovo delo z igralci podobno »psihoterapevtski seansi« (v Barlič, »Razredni«). Izvabljanje potlačenih emocij je bilo nemara za nekatere igralce travmatično, vendar je režiser s tem dosegel učinek realizma v ekspresivnosti likov, in sicer ta, da »igralec ne izhaja iz neke vnaprejšnje predstave o liku, da ne igra, temveč živi njegovo življenje« (»Razredni«). V uvodni sekvenci nam film kaže čustvena stanja glavnih protagonistov razreda. Najprej dvajset sekund trajajoč srednji-veliki plan prikazuje Sabino, ki tiho in zamišljeno sedi za svojo mizo. Zdi se, da gleda nekaj, kar vidi le sama in ne drugi diegetski liki. Nato petdeset sekund spremljamo tesnobno Mojco in njeno srečanje s fantom Luko, čigar obraz je žalosten, nekako zamrznjen. Kasneje izvemo, da mu je umrla mama. Vzdušje razreda tako določajo žalost, tesnobnost in otopelost, kar predstavljajo Sabina, Mojca in Luka. To vzdušje na avdio-vizualni ravni izražajo prevladujoči beli in sivi barvni odtenki ter Chopinova glasba. Zalobnejša in resnejša čustva v predstavitvi razreda pa se občasno kontrastno dopolnijo tudi z bolj razposajenimi razpoloženji, ki jih predstavljajo Špela, Nik in Tadej ter ostali manj izpostavljeni člani razreda. Obrazi mladih, ki predstavljajo dijake, temeljijo na mladostniški iskrenosti, ekspresivnosti, čustvenosti, spontanosti. Izrazi njihovih čustev ter afektov so intenzivni in fluidni, hkrati pa preskakujejo, prehajajo med liki, saj so dijaki predstavljeni kot kolektivni protagonist. Ta je blizu predstavi posameznika kot kompleksnega, nestalnega skupka različnih hotenj, interesov, vzgibov, zmožnosti. Po drugi strani pa se tako predstavljeni kolektivni protagonist oddaljuje od klasičnega junaka, ki s svojo motivacijo premočrtno poganja narativno dogajanje. Kot že omenjeno, je kolektivni protagonist poudarjeno labilen in anonimen. Razred se poenoti zgolj v agresiji in uporu proti učitelju Zupanu. Kolektivni protagonist v tem primeru gledalcu ne omogoča čustvene povezave, vživetja, saj nobeden od obrazov ni prikazan na 86 Barbara Zorman: Obraz v velikem planu in pripovedna transparentnost platnu dovolj konsistentno dolgo, da bi lahko gledalec vanj usmeril svojo naklonjenost oziroma empatijo in z napetostjo spremljal, ali bo oseba uresničila svoje želje. Obraz kot maska Zupana je upodobil Igor Samobor, ki je svojo kariero zgradil v osrednjem nacionalnem gledališču in je eden najkredibilnejših in najbolj karizmatičnih slovenskih igralcev. Predstavil je učitelja, ki ima jasne cilje; dijakom želi privzgojiti proaktivno suverenost, ki temelji na disciplini, delu in pridobivanju znanja. Ker je učitelj avtoritativen in jih ne poskuša zapeljati s prijaznostjo, ga dijaki izberejo za grešnega kozla, napadejo ga in ponižujejo. Omenjena dejstva bi gledalcem morala omogočiti čustveno navezano na ta lik. Obenem pa lik Zupana gledalcu ne omogoča, da bi se vživel v njegovo doživljanje, saj je predstavljen kot dosledno racionalna figura, ki nikoli ne pokaže čustev. Tudi v trenutku, ko ga dijaki preko šolskega radia kruto in nepravično obtožujejo in bi se gledalec lahko povezal z njim v njegovi ranljivosti, Zupan ohrani nepremičen obraz, stisnjene ustnice, kameri pokaže hrbet, odide v razred in za sabo zaloputne vrata. Glavna značilnost novega učitelja je netranspa-rentnost. Robert ostane vse do izteka filmske pripovedi, ki jo zaključi z dolgim nagovorom, v katerem dijake opozarja na njihovo labilnost, tako za zgodbene like kot za gledalce tujec. Biček kot eno glavnih značilnosti, ki gledalcu zapirajo dostop do tega lika in hkrati tudi do vrednot, ki jih predstavlja, izpostavi njegovo govorico v nemščini. Zupan, meni Biček, »govori modro, ampak ker govori v nemškem jeziku in s pozicije moči, avtomatično vzbudi v nas nek negativen praspomin« (v Barlič, »Razredni«). S tem je Biček nemara meril tudi na prototipe slovenskega filma (in njegovih navezav na narodno-konstitutivno literaturo), tj. partizanske filme. Te zaznamuje, kot prikaže Peter Stankovič v Rdečih trakovih, študiji reprezentacije v slovenskem partizanskem filmu, mani-hejska struktura prikaza likov. Na eni strani so pripadniki nemškega naroda (posebej oficirji), ki jih zaznamuje krutost, racionalnost, meha-ničnost (podobni so strojem), odsotnost čustev. Na drugi strani pa imamo tople, človeške, humorne, z naravo povezane Slovence (79). K Zupanovi nedostopnosti, tujosti pa nedvomno prispevajo tudi obrazna mimika, drža, gestikulacija. V prizorih, ko Zupana prvič vidimo pred razredom, sicer deluje nekoliko krhko, na preži, a obenem tudi povsem zadržano, nedostopno. Na vesel pozdrav ob prvem srečanju, ki se izvije iz razreda, se odzove z minimalnim nasmeškom, da zadosti najosnov- PKn, letnik 43, st 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 nejšim vljudnostnim zahtevam. Gre za prisiljeno gesto; Zupan se na prijaznost ne odzove spontano, temveč ustnice prisili v lažni smehljaj. Njegov obraz je obrambna drža, s katero ohranja distanco, zadržanost, nadrejenost: je konstantno neekspresiven, hladno odvrača poskuse zbli-žanja tako s strani učencev kot kolegov. Z obrazom nikoli ne zrcali čustev svoje okolice, na druge like se odziva povsem v nasprotju s pričakovanji. V netransparentnosti ga podpira filmska naracija, ki gledalcu ne omogoči vpogleda v Zupanovo preteklost oziroma okolje, iz katere prihaja. Ko si ureja prostor v kabinetu, v rokah za hip ljubeče podrži uokvirjeno podobo, ki pa je gledalcu ni dano videti. V celotnem filmu razen imena, priimka in njegovega poklicnega udejstvovanja o njem ne izvemo ničesar. Prikaz Zupana je omejen na profesionalno izvajanje. Zato deluje kot skrivnost, uganka, zaprta knjiga, kot maska (slika 4). Slika 4: Robert Zupan (Igor Samobor) v Razrednem sovražniku (2013). Copyright Triglav film. Kljub temu gledalci filma, kot sem se lahko prepričala v pogovorih s številnimi študenti, ki so si film ogledali, ne zavrnejo Zupana kot anti-junaka, ki v njih vzbuja le negativna čustva, na primer strah ali jezo. Mnogi gledalci so menili, da so bila Zupanova hotenja in dejanja častna in so se tudi lahko strinjali z njegovim prepričanjem, da šola zahteva večjo mero strogosti in avtoritarnosti. Lik v filmu torej lahko gledalce pripravi do zavezništva s svojimi vrednotami, četudi jim ne dopusti vstopa v svojo subjektivnost in jim z mnogimi dejanji vzbuja antipatijo. Kot je razumeti iz intervjujev, Bičkov namen ni bil prikaz zgodbe zgolj iz ene perspektive. Pripoved o posledicah samomora sošolke in uporu proti učitelju je želel gledalcem predstaviti kot presečišče, »bojno polje« različnih hotenj, videnj, ne da bi katerega od njih predstavil kot bolj ali manj resničnega, vrednega, pravega (v Barlič, »Razredni«). 88 Barbara Zorman: Obraz v velikem planu in pripovedna transparentnost Njegov prikaz likov torej zaznamuje opolnomočenje gledalcev, ki so prisiljeni, da sami ovrednotijo pozicije različnih likov. Največ praznih mest pa je v predstavitvi Sabine, dijakinje, ki je naredila samomor, kar je eno glavnih gibal narativnega dogajanja. Obraz kot slepa pega pripovedi Rok Biček je o liku Sabine izjavil: Chopin je v svoje kompozicije ujel vse to, kar v sebi nosi lik Sabine. O njej v bistvu vemo zelo malo. Tudi jaz jo poznam le bežno. Sem pa začutil, kaj nosi v sebi, ravno skozi Chopina. Upam, da bo tako tudi pri gledalcih. Nekaterih stvari se enostavno ne da opisati z besedami in takrat je glasba najboljši pomočnik. (Barlič, »Razredni«) Podobno malo vedo o Sabini njeni sošolci. V nekaj stavkih, ki nakazujejo pogovor o samomoru, sošolci ugotavljajo, da o njej ne vedo pravzaprav ničesar. Mojca, njena najboljša prijateljica, ni bila nikoli pri njej doma. Sabine, ugotavljajo sošolci, niso ne videli, ne slišali. Menim, da je za razumevanje lika Sabine, kolektivnega lika razreda in temeljnega sporočila filma, ključna sekvenca, v kateri Mojca bere esej o samomoru, naslovljen s citatom Thomasa Manna, ki se v prevodu, navedenem v scenariju Razrednega sovražnika, glasi: »Človekova smrt je bolj zadeva svojcev kakor njega samega.« Ta sekvenca se začne s posnetkom, ki od strani in izza hrbta prikazuje Zupanov vstop v razred in njegovo soočenje z dijaki, ki so si obraze pokrili maskami, ustvarjenimi iz fotografije Sabininega obraza. Ko pride do katedra, si Zupan nadene Sabinino masko. Nato pozove Mojco, naj prebere svoj esej. Mojca, ki ji je fant v predhodni sekvenci očital brezčutnost in jo pripravil do joka, pride pred tablo. Sledi kader, v katerem je Mojca v ospredju kadra predstavljena iz profila, tako da je njen obraz deloma prekrit s Sabinino masko. V ozadju kadra pa vidimo Zupana, ki s Sabininim obrazom na maski strmi v kamero. Mojca začne brati esej. Naslednji posnetek Mojco, ki nosi Sabinino masko, prikaže v velikem planu; maska gleda v kamero, v gledalca. Mojca začne z branjem spisa, v katerem je izrazila svoja občutja ob Sabininem samomoru. Esej tematizira nenehno razmišljanje o umrli prijateljici in vzroku njene smrti; obsesivna vprašanja in občutki krivde se v tekstu kažejo s kopičenjem paralelizmov in repeticij. Mojčina subjektivnost se vzpostavlja z govorom, nagovarjanjem bližnje osebe, ki se ne more odzvati, na vprašanja ne more odgovoriti. Mojčin govor 89 PKn, letnik 43, st 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 določa potujitveni efekt nemščine, predvsem pa glas, njegov ritem, kadence, zadrževanje joka. Mojčin glas lahko deluje na gledalca preko »prozodičnega zrcaljenja«, ki je po Brenerju pomemben element empa-tije; višina tona, intonacija, ritem, premolki v gibanju govorčevega glasu lahko na poslušalca vplivajo s skupnim spreminjanjem dihanja in mišičnimi premiki (Brener 31). V tem filmu je sluh bolj empatičen kanal kot vid; najgloblja spoznanja o likih nam ponudijo njihovi glasovi in Chopinova glasba — ti pronicajo v telesa gledalcev in onemogočajo distanco do predstavljenega dogajanja. Mojčine besede spremljajo prikazi Sabine, ki hodi od garderobnih omaric v kleti proti razredu v prvem nadstropju stavbe; njeno vzpenjanje iz teme kleti k svetlobi je v navezavi na prizor iz uvodnega dela filma, ki samomor nakaže s prestopom skozi šolska vrata v bleščečo svetlobo. Zaporedje posnetkov, ki prikazujejo Sabinino vzpenjanje po stopnicah, je sestavljeno iz nekaj dolgo trajajočih — najdaljši je dolg 50 sekund — mobilnih velikih planov Sabininega obraza. Interakcija besed in slik implicira, da Sabinin obraz, prikazan v tej sekvenci, lahko interpretiramo kot Mojčino mentalno predstavo, kot vizualno dimenzijo njenega obsesivnega vračanja h ključnemu vprašanju, skrivnosti filma: vzroku Sabininega samomora. Sabinin obraz na Mojčina vprašanja ne odgovori; zazrt je vase, v svoje misli, nedoumljiv. Ključna podoba-afek-cija v filmu torej kaže Mojčino mentalno podobo prijateljičinega obraza v obdobju, tik preden si je Sabina vzela življenje. Če Mojčine besede obsesivno ponavljajo vprašanje, zakaj jo/jih je prijateljica zapustila, nam Mojčina miselna predstava Sabininega obraza s svojo zastrtostjo (v kontrastu s klovnovsko obrazno mimiko Špele in Tadeja v ozadju) kaže, da Mojca nagovarja Sabino brez upanja na odgovor. Še bolj nedoumljiv pa je Sabinin obraz takrat, ko kot maska, izdelana iz fotografije na njeni dijaški vozovnici, nameščena na obrazih njenih sošolcev, zre v gledalca. Pomnoženi, v maski razosebljeni obraz upira v kamero pogled, ki nagovarja gledalce, ne da bi ga mogli razumeti. Sabinin obraz je v obeh primerih, kot Mojčina mentalna predstava in kot maska, manj pomenljiv v tem, kar hoče povedati, kot v tistem, kar skriva. 90 Barbara Zorman: Obraz v velikem planu in pripovedna transparentnost Slika 5: Razred z maskami gleda v učitelja Roberta Zupana v Razrednem sovražniku (2013). Copyright Triglav film. Ce interpretiramo Sabino zgolj v kontekstu šole kot mikrokozmosa, se nam prikaže kot ne zgolj prezrti, temveč tudi izbrisani del kolektiva. Sabina predstavlja tisto, česar skupina ni želela videti, sprejeti kot svojega in se je zato izločilo iz kolektivnega telesa. In vendar se njen obraz nenehno vrača v vidno polje in tako opozarja na skrito, izbrisano, ki tako postane bistveni, označevalni del skupine. V prizoru, ko sošolci prekrijejo svoje obraze s Sabininim, je individualnost dijakov reducirana; razred se skrije v kolektivnost oziroma v anonimnost, Sabinin obraz pa mimikrira individualna občutja krivde in sramu v manifestacijo kolektivne agresije (slika 5). Slika 6: Sabina (Daša Cupevski) posluša učitelja Roberta Zupana, ki jo obtožuje lenobe in pasivnosti v ekspoziciji Razrednega sovražnika (2013). Copyright Triglav film. Sabinin obraz je slepa pega filmske pripovedi; neprosojno mesto, ki prekriva vzrok, motiv njenega dejanja. V tem smislu Sabinina skriv- PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 nostnost predstavlja funkcijo obraza v velikem planu, vsaj kot se kaže v Bičkovem filmu; čeprav se pred nami razkriva scela, je za nas njegov pomen odprt, nedoumljiv. Verjetno je bil motiv za ustvarjalčevo odločitev za uporabo mask drugačen, a eden od učinkov te odločitve je zavrnitev obraza kot »znakovnega instrumenta« (Eleftheriotis 216). V filmu, kjer je ključna sekvenca določena z elementom mask, prikazanih obrazov ni mogoče interpretirati kot transparentnih površin, ki gledalcem iskreno posredujejo afekte, emocije, misli. Podobno ugotovitev izpelje Dimitris Eleftheriotis iz analize uvodne sekvence Hanekejevega filma Code inconnu (2000), v kateri pantomi-mičnega prikaza deklice njeni vrstniki nikakor ne morejo interpretirati pravilno. Ta prikaz, obenem z umestitvijo drugih velikih planov v tem filmu po mnenju Eleftheriotisa nakazuje Hanekejevo težnjo po izzivanju »samozadostnosti obraza kot označevalca subjektivnosti drugega«. Tovrstna interpretacija obrazne mimike implicira tudi izničenje dru-gosti in posplošeno razumevanje drugega kot nekoga, ki obstaja izven historičnih in kulturnih specifik (215—216). Zdi se, da sta se v predstavitvi različnih teoretskih pogledov na obraz v velikem planu izrisala vsaj dva različna pogleda na to tematiko. Kognitivna, zlasti anglo-ameriška filmska teorija je v nekaterih aspektih blizu Balazsevemu prepričanju, da film s pomočjo povečav in podaljšanega trajanja prikazov človeških obrazov razvija dovzetnost za komunikacijo s pomočjo obrazne mimike, torej za vlogo ozaveščanja utelešenih občutij pri razvijanju empatije. Po drugi strani pa Gilles Deleuze, kot že omenjeno, izraža prepričanje, da veliki plan obraze, ki postanejo izključno nosilci afektov, razoseblja, pri čemer je ključnega pomena njihova ločenost od konteksta, torej okolja, dogajanja in oseb, ki so njihovi nosilci. Psihoanalitična filmska teorija filmsko recepcijo povezuje s procesom zavajajoče identifikacije, ki jo predstavlja kot gledanje v zrcalo lažnega samospoznavanja (Elsaesser in Hagener 72—73). Modernistični film približani obraz in zlasti pogled, uprt iz ekrana v gledalca, pogosto uporablja za nagovarjanje, zapeljevanje gledalca, obenem pa tudi v kontekstu razbijanja filmske iluzije, preprečevanja zato-pljenosti v fikcijo. Navsezadnje, kot je bilo prikazano prej, Dimitris Eleftheriotis izpostavi obraz v velikem planu kot označevalec, ki pokaže afekte in emocije, hkrati pa zabrisuje specifični kulturni oziroma zgodovinski kontekst, ki določa prikazano subjektivnost. Čeprav Bičkov film uporablja obraze igralcev kot enega najmočnejših kodov za posredovanje občutij in idej, sta ključni obličji te filmske pripovedi netransparentni. Obraza Sabine in Zupana pogosto delujeta kot maski. Zdi se, da tako problematizirata možnost obraza kot označevalca, Barbara Zorman: Obraz v velikem planu in pripovedna transparentnost ki se kaže kot okno v človeško psiho, in obenem opozarjata na ambiva-lentno sporočilnost velikega plana obraza. LITERATURA Balazs, Bela. Der sichtbare Mensch: oder Die Kultur des Films. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag, 2001. Tudi na spletu. Dostop na naslovu https://epdf.pub/der-sichtbare-mensch-oder-die-kultur-des-films.html 22. 1. 2020. Balazs, Bela. Theory of the Film (Character and Growth of a New Art). Prev. Edith Bone. London: Dennis Dobson Ltd., 1952. Barlič, Špela. »Razredni sovražnik je vsaj srednjeevropska zgodba«. Intervju z Rokom Bičkom. Pogledi 13. 09. 2013. Tudi na spletu. Dostop 10. 1. 2020. Barthes, Roland. »Obraz Garbo«. Prev. Polona Poberžnik. Časopis za kritiko znanosti, 31.212 (2003): 94—95. Tudi na spletu. Dostop 12. 1. 2020. Bellow, Saul. Herzog. Prev. Mira Mihelič. Ljubljana: Delo, 2004. Brener, Milton E. Evolution and Empathy: The Genetic Factor in the Rise of Humanism. Jefferson, N. C.: McFarland & Co., 2008. Deleuze, Gilles. Podoba-gibanje. Prev. Stojan Pelko. Ljubljana: ŠKUC: Znanstveni inštitut Filozofske fakultete, 1991. Eleftheriotis, Dimitris. »Cosmopolitanism, Empathy and the Close-Up«. The Routledge Companion to Cinema and Politics. Ur. Yannis Tzioumakis in Claire Molloy. London in New York: Routledge, 2016. 209—225. Elsaesser, Thomas in Hagener, Malte. Teorija filma: uvod skozi čute. Prev. Polona Petek. Ljubljana: Slovenska kinoteka, 2015. Girimonti Greco, Giuseppe. »'Adoratori' romanzeschi della Garbo: (de)figurazioni narrative di un volto divino (1933—2007)«. L'immagine ripresa in parola: letteratura, cinema e altre visioni. Ur. Matteo Colombi, Stefania Esposito in Massimo Fussilo. Rim: Meltemi, 2008. 145—169. McGilchrist, Iain. The Master andHis Emissary. New Haven in London: Yale University Press, 2012. McNeill, Daniel. The Face: A Natural History. Boston, New York in London: Little, Brown and Company, 2000. Mitchell, W. J. Thomas. What do Pictures Want?: The Lives and Loves of Images. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2005. Plantinga, Carl. »The Scene of Empathy and the Human Face on Film«. Passionate Views: Film, Cognition, and Emotion. Ur. Carl Plantinga in Greg M. Smith. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999. 239—256. Plantinga, Carl. »Facing Others: Close-Ups of Faces in Narrative films in The Silence of the Lambs«. The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Literary Studies. Ur. Lisa Zunshine. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2015. 291 — 312. Pudovkin, Vsevolod Illarionovich. Film Technique and Film Acting: The Cinema Writings of V. I. Pudovkin. Prevajalec: Montagu, Ivor. London, Vision Press Limited, 1954. Shakespeare, William. Shakespeare: Complete Works. Ur. W. J. Craig. London: Oxford University Press, 1969. Stankovič, Peter. Rdeči trakovi: reprezentacija v slovenskem partizanskem filmu. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za družbene vede, 2005. 93 PKn, letnik 43, st 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 FILMOGRAFIJA Anderson, Lindsay, in Michael Medwin (producenta). Lindsay Anderson (režiser). If... VB: Memorial Enterprises. Benjo, Caroline, Carole Scotta in Barbara Letellier (producentke). Laurent Cantet (režiser). Entre les murs. Francija: Haut et Court, 2008. Heiduschka, Veit, Michael Katz in Margaret Menegoz (producenti). Michael Haneke (režiser). Caché. Francija, Avstrija, Nemčija, Italija: France 3 Cinéma, Canal+, Bavaria Film, Wega Film, 2005. Karmitz, Marin (producent). Michael Haneke (režiser.) Code inconnu: récit incomplet de divers voyages. Francija, Nemčija, Romunija: Arte France Cinéma, Bavaria Film, Canal+, Filmex, France 2 Cinéma, Les Films Alain Sarde, MK2 Productions, Romanian Culture Ministry, Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (ZDF), 2000. Prosenc, Aiken Veronika, in Janez Lapajne (producenta). Rok Biček (režiser). Razredni sovražnik. Slovenija: Triglav film, 2013. Wanger, Walter (producent). Rouben Mamoulian (režiser). Queen Christina. ZDA: Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 1933. The Face in Close-Up and Narrative Transparency Keywords: film theory / cognitive science / narratology / face on film / film characters / Slovenian film / mask / Bicek, Rok In its first part, the article compares various theoretical insights into the topic, beginning with Balazs's claim that the magnification and proximity of the face in close-up replace narrative movement, i.e. action, with micromovement that represents subjectivity. For Deleuze, the face in close-up is deterritorial-ized into the 'feeling-thing,' the entity as the set-up of the affect. For Deleuze, the close-up abstracts the face from its bearer. Furthermore, the film face as a mask is presented (Barthes). Besides the metaphor of the cinema as a mirror within psychoanalytical film theory, the insights of the cognitive film theory are analyzed, particularly the function of the face in the "scenes of empathy" (Plantinga). The second part examines the role of the face in Rok Bicek's first feature film Razredni sovraznik (Class Enemy, 2013), which presents the revolt of a class against an authoritative teacher following the suicide of their classmate Sabina. This film exposes the opaqueness of the face most notably in the representation of Sabina's face, particularly as it is presented within the context of her friend's mental images, memories. But the mysteriousness of her face is most prominent in the masks created from the photography of Sabina's face that her classmates put on in an act of rebellion against their teacher. 94 Barbara Zorman: Obraz v velikem planu in pripovedna transparentnost Sabina's face is the film's blind spot: although completely exposed to our gaze, its meaning remains ambiguous, even unattainable. Such representation seems to reject the face as "an instrument of signification" (Eleftheriotis). 1.01 Izvirni znanstveni članek / Original scientific article UDK 791.2:572.54 791.229.2(497.4)Biček R. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/pkn.v43.i1.04 95 Fictionality in Historical Television Series Péter Hajdu Shenzhen University, School of Foreign Languages, 3688 Nanhai Ave, Building H5, Office B106, Nanshan District, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518060, China https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3623-1578 pethajdu@gmail.com The most obvious formal feature of the historical novel as the genre founded by Walter Scott is the duplicity of a fictional foreground story and a historically approved background. Many television series have a historical past setting, and many of them can be seen as similar to historical novels. The 2005-07series Rome kept something of the Scottian structure of fictional foreground story. The Pullo and Vorenus story line is fictional, and it stages the life of ordinary people, while historical characters like Julius Caesar and Pompey or Antony and Augustus do not merely form a factual background. The fictional and non-fictional stories are in balance, and they together offer a vivid and convincing representation of the past. Many historical television shows use the past only as decorative setting for a story full of intrigue, violence and sex (The Tudors, The Borgias). These may be described as historical (anti)romances, which tend to focus exclusively on the elite. Another kind of historical novel has been developed by some shows that (as if at the other extreme) eliminate the historicalfacts even from the background and represent everyday life of ordinary people in its (semi-)historical otherness. In shows like Mad Men or The Knick, no event of political history is mentioned, no historical person appears in the background. However, these shows successfully represent the otherness of the past from the viewpoint of public discourse on issues of race, gender, or even morality, phenomena which can be regarded as the development of a new kind of historical novel encouraged by the twentieth-century ideals of historiography. Keywords: historical novel / television series / fictionality / realism / documentarity / anachronism / Rome / Mad Men It is hardly a surprise that in the context of postmodernism's sensitivity to historical knowledge, and the rise of quality television, several TV series have approached historical material. This art form solicits comparison to the long literary narrative on history, i.e. the historical novel. Some television series show remarkable similarities to the Scottian archetype, which focuses on fictional everyday characters while trying to 97 Primerjalna književnost (Ljubljana) 43.1 (2020) PKn, letnik 43, st 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 draw a reliable picture of political history in the background; others experiment with new kinds of historical narrative, either through retelling stories of the political elite attested by historiography, or eliminating political history to focus on everyday life in the past. The latter approach seems to result in more interesting works, maybe due to its affinity to the twentieth-century criticism of historiography that emphasized the importance of understanding the life of the underprivileged and hearing the voice of the oppressed. According to Gyorgy Lukacs's definition, not every novel with past setting is a historical novel, only those that belong to the realist tradition initiated by Walter Scott, who is generally regarded as the founder of the genre, and have "the specifically historical, that is, derivation of the individuality of characters from the historical peculiarity of their age" (Lukacs 19), novels that represent the past in connection to the present and by doing so discuss crucial problems in the lives of the people. Many romans historiques (which means historical novels) were produced in eighteenth-century France, and they even made use of the formal feature which appears as obligatory and genre-constituting in the later development, namely the duplicity of a fictional foreground story and a historically attestable background.1 Scott, who knew this kind of French literature, did not invent but always applied that feature, as did most nineteenth-century historical novels following in his wake. The prestige of historical novels had its ups and downs through history; there were times when the genre was highly appreciated and times when it was regarded as entertaining literature mostly for youth. High-brow literature tended to take an ironic stance towards the traditional form of historical novel in the second half of the twentieth century, which can be clearly seen in what Linda Hutcheon called historio-graphical metafiction (Hutcheon 105—231), but also in Stefan Heym's The King-David-Report (1973), which can be put in that category only with some difficulties.2 The genre has, however, kept much of its vitality, at least as popular fiction. 1 Lukacs was well aware of "novels with historical themes," some "'precursors' of the historical novel" also in China or India, and "the so-called historical novels of the seventeenth century," but he did not think they have anything to do with "the phenomenon of the historical novel" (Lukacs 19). In a posthumously published paper Mihaly Szegedy-Maszak tried to work with a more inclusive generic definition, which embraces eighteenth-century French novels and postmodernist works as well (Sze-gedy-Maszak passim). 2 Hutcheon does not mention Heym, which allows one to come to the conclusion that an ironic stance towards history and historical knowledge may appear also outside the realm of historiographic metafiction. 98 Péter Hajdu: Fictionality in Historical Television Series With the rise of the quality television series as a prestigious form of cultural production, which can achieve not only immense popularity but also critical acclaim and academic interest, and may have become the most important artistic form of our times, historical series have appeared too. Some television series with a historical setting can be seen as similar to historical novels, and their cumulative length can even challenge some monumental printed examples from the nineteenth century, like Tolstoy's War and Peace. In my calculation it takes approximately 52 hours to read War and Peace; to have such time of entertainment one needs 5 or 6 seasons of a series. In the history of television, the serial format was first applied long ago, but the low-budget simplistic form of two decades ago is obviously not the same we are watching today.3 There seems to be an essential link between the serialized realist novel of the nineteenth century and the present television series, which mostly adapts a realist aesthetics (Goodlad passim). In accord with the general opinion I take as starting point of the rise of television series the production date of the Sopranos, i.e. 1999.4 The first major attempt at a historical television series was Rome by HBO/BBC (2005-07) that kept something of the Scottian structure of fictional foreground story and historical background facts. The Pullo and Vorenus story line may be regarded as the fictional foreground, which stages the life of ordinary people, but historical characters like Julius Caesar and Pompey or Antony and Augustus do not merely form a factual background. The names of Titus Pullo and Lucius Vorenus are historically verified, since they appear in Julius Caesar's commentary on the war in Gaul. Caesar wrote one chapter about one of their deeds (Book 5, Chapter 44), when in spontaneous competition of heroism they helped and saved each other in fight against a Gallic tribe. According to that report they were both centurions, enemies of fierce rivalry, and both great fighters. Only the last feature has made its way 3 I think the difference in quality, complexity and sophistication is obvious, but I have to admit that not for everybody. In his article on "Televising Antiquity," Jon Solomon narrated a continuous history of miniseries on antiquity which naturally and without any bigger jump went on with (post-Sopranos) Rome. His conclusion was that "the huge budget, the multi-layered narrative, the enormous cast of characters, the sexual titillations and contrasting extremes of morality, the densely packed and constantly varied screen visuals, and the segmented broadcasts as well as the pre-broadcasting and postbroadcasting promos, trailers, and teases all have their precedents in the earlier examples of the genre" (Solomon 26). However, the aesthetic gap between the minise-ries he refers to and Rome could not be wider. 4 Lauren Goodlad, for example, spoke of "[t]he game-changing aesthetic prestige of The Sopranos" (Goodlad 321). 99 PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 into their representation in Rome. When we first meet them in the series, Vorenus is a centurion, but Pullo is just an undisciplined regular soldier under his command. They are neither enemies nor rivals, and despite their initial dislike they gradually become best friends. The only episode of their lives told by Julius Caesar has not been used by the creators of the show, but they are involved in many fictional and semi-fictional events from Gaul to Rome, to Greece and Egypt. Their life stories are therefore fictional, with the only historically attested features of the names and their exceptional fighting skills. And these two characters provide the opportunity to represent the life of the lower social strata of Roman society with their morals, lifestyle, aims, and also the objects they use in everyday activities. Rome, however, does not only represent the life of people like Pullo and Vorenus, but retells in detail the political history of what is usually called today the Roman revolution. The fictional and non-fictional stories are in balance, and together offer a vivid and convincing panorama of the past. And the show invents many ingenious moments to connect the two social strata of the story; such points of juncture are omnipresent, as when Julius Caesar uses Lucius Vorenus as his personal bodyguard, when Atia employs Titus Pullo as her son's personal trainer, when the two of them are sent out by Caesar to save Cleopatra and bring her to Alexandria, or when Marc Antony commissions Pullo to execute Cicero.5 They are always present where something important is about to happen in Roman history,6 but they have quite different viewpoints and interests from those of the Roman nobility, which does not mean Vorenus and Pullo's worldviews are identical. Vorenus represents a naive belief in traditional Roman values, shared by hardly anybody from the rather cynical ruling classes, while Pullo gives into the show an appetite for life and joy unadulterated by moral or ideological restrains. The contrast of the two social layers also has humorous potentials, both in a harsh and a more refined register. An example of the latter can be 5 Cicero's death scene is discussed by Eran Almagor as a perfect opportunity for the interplay of fact and fiction, since the historical facts were "obscured by clouds of fiction" "from the outset" (Almagor 61). Since "despite having a range of source material on this event which is, relatively speaking, extremely wide, we know very little indeed about what actually happened" (Wright 452), it is even possible to insert Pullo in the gap of knowledge (although some sources attest that the killer's name was Popillius) and imagine a dialogue in the manner ancient suasoriae did. The fine analysis regards Rome's strategies in creating historical narrative as rather similar to ancient historiography. 6 That is why Monica S. Cyrino calls them "the heart and soul of Rome's narrative trajectory," and likens Pullo to Forrest Gump (Cyrino, "Introduction" 4, 6). Péter Hajdu: Fictionality in Historical Television Series the scene in which Cicero foretells that killing him provides immortality to Pullo ("Philippi," S02E06). Cicero: I dare say your work today will earn you immortality. Pullo: How's that? Cicero: I will be in all the history books. My killer's name, no doubt, will live on also. Pullo: Oh, my name ... Thought you meant me. The misunderstanding follows from their different value systems: fame, a central value of any aristocracy, does not mean anything to Pullo. He would be enthusiastic to gain immortality in person, and he is naive and uneducated enough to imagine it is possible, but could not care less about the presence of his name in history books. The value conflict is more complex than the traditional Hollywood clichés of "a debauched upper class who provide titillation and shock value, and a sympathetic, hard-working lower echelon who embody 'values' we recognize" (Haynes 51).7 It would be, however, an oversimplification to associate fictionality with low-social-strata characters and factuality with the Roman elite. The life and character of Atia, Caesar's niece and Octavian's mother, is hardly more attested by historical evidence than those of Vorenus. And the little we can learn from historical sources overtly contradicts her circumstances in the TV show. During the times represented in Rome she was not a single mother but married to a certain Lucius Marcius Philippus.8 The shrewd widow, the promiscuous, highly independent Atia, the authoritative mother as the head of her family in the absence of any adult male figure, is rather fictional, but obviously has great potential both for Octavian's bildungsroman (see Weiden Boyd) and the development of an alternative, gendered system of power relations in the series' narrative (see Cyrino "Introduction"; Toscano). Historical evidence tends to inform us of the life of privileged men, and if we also consider stories about privileged women as part of the fictional foreground story of Rome, the relationship to the factual narrative becomes balanced and more similar to the Scottian proportions. The show is also exemplary from the viewpoint of necessary anach-ronism—to use an expression coined by Lukács in a broader sense. For 7 Also cf. Haynes's note 2 on page 59 on the Hollywood clichés origins with further bibliography. For a different contrast of upper and lower class moralities see (Toscano 164). 8 Suetonius, Augustus 8; see also Dio 45.3—4. 101 PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Lukacs it was mostly a linguistic feature of the historical novel: historical characters should not speak an idiom that is historically accurate.9 Their speech must be anachronistic so that readers understand them. It goes without saying that in the show everybody, be Roman, Greek or any kind of barbarian including Jews, speaks English.10 But the show uses some visual means too to make the represented past alien and familiar at the same time. It avoids radical historical accuracy without total domestication of the visual environment. The half painted public buildings, especially temples, are a case in point. Viewers probably associate the image of ancient temples with bright whiteness. To show white buildings in the television would have been completely anachronistic, since—as archaeologic evidence proves—the ancient buildings were painted. However, the creators chose not to shock their public with painted surfaces of the familiar shapes of classic buildings. What one sees in the show is half-painted temples; painted for historical accuracy, white for the necessary anachronism, to link the experience to modern predispositions. One may say that the show makes the audience meet the past half way in many aspects of the visual environment. This strategy must be part of what Cyrino calls the "process of creating an authentic, but not always accurate, onscreen portrayal of antiquity" (Cyrino "Atia" 7).11 Letters and messages may serve as another, although less spectacular example. The most usual material to write messages on in ancient Rome was waxen tablets, as we know both from textual and visual representations. In Rome tablets appear sporadically, but people mostly use rolls of something similar to our paper. In the pilot four letters appear. First a soldier delivers Pompey's letter to Julius Caesar. After the delivery scene we see Caesar's face reading the letter while we hear Pompey's voice telling about Julia's death. Then the film actually 9 More accurately, when Lukacs introduces the notion (referring to Goethe and Hegel), speaks mostly about the characters' consciousness: "[T]he writer would allow those tendencies which were alive and active in the past and which in historical reality have led up to the present (but whose later significance contemporaries naturally could not see) to emerge with that emphasis which they possess in ... the present" (Lukacs 61—62). In his most detailed analysis of the problem, however, he focuses on linguistic issues (195-198). 10 Apart from several minor cases of code-shifting, the most interesting of which are those in ritual context (Briggs 201-204). 11 Or what Kristina Milnor summarized in much less favorable terms: "The producers of Rome wanted Romans who were different, but not too different," because "for them, authenticity was in the impressive details, the titillating finishing touches" (Milnor 45, 48). Péter Hajdu: Fictionality in Historical Television Series shows the death scene without narration. The latter technique does not feature in the episode's other letter reading scenes. Brutus delivers Caesar's letter to Servilia, we see Servilia read it and hear Caesar speaking to her. The third letter is Caesar's to Atia, which appears without the delivery. Atia reads while listening to Caesar's voice. In these three cases the letters are written on a material that looks like fine paper with uneven edges. The first two messages are also shown before reading as rolls. Paper would be anachronistic, therefore we may take that material for papyrus, but listeners do not need to know. The fourth letter is sent by Caesar to Pompey, and it is written on wax tablets. With three scenes the show has satisfactorily established the narrative pattern of reading letters. A person looks at the message while we listen to the voice-over reading by the sender. The feature that the letters are rolled and not folded gives them enough historical air. For the fourth letter the show dares venture historically more accurate material. The very unfamiliar object of the double tablets as carrier for written messages is easily understandable from the already familiar narrative frame. Pompey is looking at that object while we listen to Caesar's voice speaking to him. It must be a letter. The lack of intellectual topics is an aspect in which the limits of a historical television series becomes visible. The politics represented in the show (maybe made anachronistically similar to modern politics) lacks intellectual content, and therefore hardly anything is mentioned about the erudition of the characters. It is not by chance that figures like Virgil12 or Horace do not appear in the show. Maecenas is a secondary character in season 2, an effeminate guy mostly moved by greed, of whom nobody would imagine that he attracts and enjoys the company of the finest minds and the greatest poets of his time, some of them maybe the greatest of all times. Julius Caesar is clever, wise, impressive, but hardly anybody who would care to create fine prose or write treatises about linguistics. Cicero is represented as a sorry loser; you would not believe of that person that he was one of the greatest orators of history who in his free time created the basic lexicon of European philosophy. The teenage would-be-Augustus writes tragedies in season 12 Actually Virgil's poetry (not the poet as a character) appears in a rather strange way. In episode "Stealing from Saturn" S01E04 Atia forces her daughter Octavia to entertain her party guests with some poetry, because "she can rattle off pages of the stuff." Octavia quotes Aeneid 6.126—129, and as Ward Briggs wittily remarks, she "exits the party before we realize that she has lost not only her husband but also her place in time" (Briggs 203), since the dramatic moment precedes the writing of those lines by more than twenty years. PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 1, and he also quotes Catullus' Poem 2 to his sister (S01E09), but this seems a childish pastime in retrospect, since any interest in literature disappears from him at the moment he starts acting as a politician. The Roman elite's enthusiastic interest in philosophy, history, poetry does not feature in the show, probably because it would not contribute to the action, while making characters too complex. With all its popular features, with all its concentration on the personal, Rome explains a major historical change in Roman society, and the Scottian duplicity of average fictional personnel and well documented characters of the elite helps to represent the crucial problems of the society. This statement might be strong; the critical response to the balance of what historians call history and the focus on private as the carrier of novelistic narrative is polarized. Some critiques find the focus on the private sphere ahistorical and "cheap," to use Brutus's evaluation of what he wants to avoid in Caesar's assassination. He rejects the idea of poisoning the tyrant, because "this is not some cheap murder," and wants a public, theatrical performance, while the story line suggests that Caesar has to die because of the revenge of his abandoned lover Servilia, who uses her son Brutus and the other conspirators as her puppets; this way the show displays the assassination as a basically private action, which is emphasized by Vorenus's parallel drama of jealousy, which ends with the death of his wife Niobe (Futrell 109—113).13 Others will find that "the genius of the series Rome lies in its depiction of power as intricately complex, many-layered, always shifting, unstable, and never focused on just the privileged few" (Toscano 154). This, however, is not the usual strategy. Many historical television shows use the past only as decorative setting for a story full of intrigue, violence and sex. Those may be described as historical (anti)romances. They tend to focus exclusively on the elite, without an ordinary-people story-line, which obviously could not be so decorative. These can be examples of an approach to the past that rather avoids the ordinary. Stories about rich people who wear beautiful clothes, live in grand palaces and magnificent gardens, but seldom care about anything but personal interest, money and desire, and maybe family. The Tudors and The Borgias by Showtime (2007—10 and 2011—13, respectively) are suitable examples;14 they can be called anti-romances, because their general attitude is the negation of the values cherished in romances. 13 See also the devastating critic of Season 2 (Bianco 2007). 14 Lauren Goodlad called the former "a mix of biopic and blue movie," which accurately describes both its focus and its lack of historical interest (Goodlad 321). Péter Hajdu: Fictionality in Historical Television Series When there is a basic conflict between two forces, they are not good and evil (as in a traditional romance), but between two equally evil groups among the elite. Ordinary people with their ordinary problems cannot appear in such a context. I am inclined to regard such shows as one of the possible extremes of historical television narrative, the one focusing exclusively on the elite, which also means, on historical characters whose existence is verifiable by evidence. The other extreme can be found in some shows that eliminate the grand historical facts even from the background and represent the everyday life of ordinary people in its (semi-)historical otherness. In shows like Mad Men (Lionsgate 2007—15) or The Knick (Cinemax 2014—16) no event of political history is mentioned, no historical person appears in the background. However, these shows successfully represent the crucial problems of the life of the people in their everyday reality, and also the otherness of the past from the viewpoint of public discourse on issues of race, gender, or even morality. The ordinary is represented as strange here. The lack of historical background events is not totally complete in Mad Men, but it is a basic difference from the traditional (written) historical novels that the background is much more literally a background. In historical novels the figures familiar from history books tend really to appear; in the background, but as background characters. Important historical events still tend to be narrated, even if they are not decisive for the fictional characters' personal life story. In this show, however, what is usually regarded as history is merely mentioned by the characters, for example in elevator chats. In the first season the 1960 presidential elections are mentioned several times, but mostly from the viewpoint of advertisement professionals who wonder which candidate appears better in television ads. Politics is just another product and in the represented community nobody cares about the political content of the candidates' messages, nobody seems to wonder what is at stake, they only evaluate the achievement of the campaign teams in selling their product. Kennedy's face appears in leaflets or TV ads that characters are looking at. After the election night Bert Cooper explicitly explains to Don Draper that Kennedy's presidency will not influence their business. Political history or the history of the highest elite does not seem to bother anyone. In the same episode that discusses the elections in most detail, S01E12 entitled "Nixon vs. Kennedy," one can also see a flashback from the Korean War, which explains Don's past, how he had gained a new identity to break all the ties to the family and the past he hated. The Korean War appears as a haunting memory, a past that PKn, letnik 43, st 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 should be stayed buried, the return of which Don fears the most. The war, as it is represented in the show, is not a major historical event of the American nation or in the conflict of global superpowers, but a personal affair of the protagonist that should stay forgotten. And he seems to share this attitude with the majority. Only Roger Sterling speaks about some war memories once when he is so drunken that he even tries to hit on Don's wife. The same can be said about the Vietnam war in Season 5, news of which rarely appear, "most often through brief news reports on TVs in the background of scenes" (Polan 44). The assassinations of Robert Kennedy and Martin Luther King have a major impact on the emotions of all the characters, and whole episodes are built around them (S03E12 and S06E05 respectively). The death of these figures of historical importance is not directly shown: we see how the characters see those events on TV, how they learn about them. In this way they are in the background, but the events massively influence what happens to the characters in the given episodes. However, an earlier episode (S02E09) provides a caveat: Marilyn Monroe's death by overdose has exactly the same kind of impact on the represented microcosm. The three episodes together suggest that what is at stake is not a factual historical event that is so important that it breaks through from the narrative background, but the death of a celebrity, a shocking piece of the news flow can temporarily unsettle the story-world. Nevertheless, many viewers have gone so far as to call Mad Men a documentary. This impression may partially stem from the accurate representation of clothes, furniture, inner design, and various objects. The creators of the show invested immense energy in the realistic appearance of the visual environment,15 which, however, does not exclude minor anachronisms for artistic purposes or other reasons. Already in the pilot Joan Holloway praises the IBM Selectric typewriter used in the office in the dramatic time of March 1960, while these were not introduced earlier than June 1961. "Matthew Weiner has said that he knew that this was an anachronism, but the more period-correct 1960 models were harder to come by and repair, and also much louder, 15 "In the exhibition 'Matthew Weiner's Mad Men at the Museum of the Moving Image in New York, visitors could see the attention to detail Mad Men lavished on items that were only briefly on camera. Some, in fact, were never seen at all, and were only created to help the actors get into the right headspace. Don, Roger, Pete, and Joan all have business cards. Don's wallet includes a driver's license and a picture of young Sally and Bobby in a toy wagon. Even the secretaries' desk drawers contain period knickknacks and sixties-appropriate personal mementos" (Zoller Seitz footnote 13 to S05E13, a note written by Amy Cook). 106 Péter Hajdu: Fictionality in Historical Television Series which created more sound issues" (Zoller Seitz footnote 8 ad S01E01). The difficulty of finding the correct model is technical, and the sound it would make is a rather artistic problem that could have been avoided by a minor anachronism, while the model that appears on screen is still characteristic of the period. Such minor anachronisms might happen by mistake (although nowadays studios can count on fans to spot the anachronisms), but more probably by conscious decision, as in the case of S04E03 when Draper and Lane watch the Japanese movie Gamera on December 31, 1964, despite its not having been released till November 1965. The film was too good for artistic purposes, while being characteristic of the period, to dismiss because of some minor chronological scruples. But the show seems also reliable as a representation of past mentalities and discourses. Nineteenth-century historiography was much criticized for exclusively focusing on elite political history and neglecting the life of the people. The latter was an area in which the historical novel was competing with historiography. As is well known, twentieth-century historians developed several methods to widen the scope of their discipline, the most successful of which is microhistory. Mad Men can be regarded as an attempt at a kind of historical fiction that gets rid of the ballast of elite political history to represent the everyday life of the past in its otherness. Another question that could be raised is if the 1960s are remote enough to be called history. According to Jan Assmann the floating gap between communicative memory and cultural memory (to the latter of which historiography might contribute) is about 80 years back in time (e.g. Assmann 2013). Walter Scott in the novel which is generally regarded as the founding piece of the tradition, namely Waverley, represented events that had happened 70 years earlier. The 50 years of the Mad Men is still something reachable for the communicative memory through the personal experience of many people still alive around us. Three answers might be given to this question. The first would be that we have experienced the changes in everyday mentalities and discourses as so rapid in the last decades that 50 years ago might appear as historical times. The second would be that American TV studios work not only for the US but also for a global market, while even the US audience is much too broad to be able to have a unified communicative memory. New York of the 1960s is not something that most spectators can reach through communicative memory, the lack of which might make it history. This answer implies that the measure of the time-gap is only enough to establish historicity inside a given culture, and oth- PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 erwise a more complex spatio-temporal scrutiny is needed. Non-local readers of postcolonial writing may learn something like history even if the time-gap between the reading and the represented social reality is much narrower than the floating gap required by Assmann. For the availability or lack of witnesses let me quote a passage from Matt Zoller Seltz's complete recap collection: Even in its freshman season, Mad Men was criticized in some quarters as a cari-caturish wallow in a Generation X-aged writer-producer's fantasy about the go-go lives of his parents' generation: a series that amped up the era's smoking, drinking, infidelities, and male chauvinism to absurd levels while reveling in the antics it supposedly critiqued. Funny thing, though: A lot of people who worked on Madison Avenue in the sixties have insisted that Mad Men doesn't exaggerate that much. (Zoller Seitz 65) Could or could not the audience reach that particular past through communicative memory? From the first part of the quotation one can conclude that they could not. But a lot of eyewitnesses, even if they must be very old, are still around. With the aid of current technologies of communication, they reacted to the false claims of those who had no access to that memory. Assmann spoke about the communicative memory of a community, and probably did not consider the possibility of virtual on-line communities and communication. The answer therefore depends on the acceptance of the intervention of a lot of people who worked there as communicative memory on a global scale. The third answer would be simply negative, namely that Mad Men should not be called historical, because the represented past is not remote enough. One does not have to face such a problem with The Knick, which is set in the beginning of the twentieth century. It is a hospital story, and does not only shock with the sexism, racism, and antisemitism of the everyday discourse, but also with the maybe naive approach to drug addiction (and addictive drugs), and the brutal treatment of the patients, especially the mentally ill. The Knick contains even fewer references to political or large-scale historical events than Mad Men. The show focuses exclusively on the life of doctors, nurses, ambulance drivers, patients — and hospital owners, bookkeepers, construction entrepreneurs, and the criminals connected to them. Still, the show can make one realize major historical changes in the way we live, which changes of course are mostly results of painful struggles, and have not, alas, arrived at a final point in which we can happily live ever after. Nevertheless, it can be argued that shows like Mad Men and The Knick suggest exactly that. They can be examples "of those cases in Péter Hajdu: Fictionality in Historical Television Series which criticism of the past is used to congratulate the present," because "everything right today was wrong back then" (Greif). It might very well be the case, but practically these shows do not tell anything about the present explicitly, but rather highlight features of the past that were radically different and therefore solicit comparison. Or to put it another way: "the show isn't about history"; "[t]he people of Mad Men do things and have things done to them while history rolls forward. ... It's about human behavior occurring in the moment. It doesn't explain. It observes. It's not about the period; it's about the question mark" (Zoller Seitz 426—427). But it depends on the recipient's decision or attitude to which kind of conclusion to come. That can easily be "now we know better" but also "we still have a lot to do," not to mention the possibility of a nostalgia for those times when people were allowed to be racist machos without being frowned upon. And while following the lives of several people throughout the 1960s the show seems to represent some changes that can be called historical; changes of attitudes and moralities. In Season 1 sexual harassment of women appears as a daily office routine, and Peggy Olson struggles to be the first female copywriter. In Season 6 women seem to have a rather different position in the company, to face the old fashioned degradation and humiliation when their firm joins a big corporation in Season 7. Even if a historical change is visible, it is far from being an unilinear movement which has homogeneous speed in every location, social stratum, or corporate level. Non-white characters are hardly present in Season 1, a janitor, Hollis, the elevator operator, the Drapers' housekeeper. Later the company will employ two African-American secretaries. Pete Campbell makes a remark in S01E8 that can be understood as racist, expressing his dissatisfaction about having to share the elevator space with the African-American janitor because the service elevator is out of order; it is not evident if his problem is the intruder's social status or race or a mixture of the two. In Season 3 he is the one who discovers the potentials of a "negro market," and in his enthusiasm he tries to engage in a conversation with Hollis — an attempt not accepted favorably, but at least it ends with them laughing together.16 In Season 6 it will be Campbell who accuses Harry Crane of racism. In his progress we can see a hint at a historical change, even if it is a very cautious hint.17 16 S03E05. It is true, however, that the laughter can be interpreted in very different ways (see Lang; Joyrich 221—24; Ono). 17 Matt Zoller Seitz criticizes the show of avoiding the racial issues and handling them too cautiously or superficially (Zoller Seitz passim). PKn, letnik 43, st 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Environmental issues are hardly ever in the focus in Mad Men, but S02E07 can exemplify the problematic nature of the wrong past/correct present dichotomy. First ad men discuss the pros and cons of Pampers' new product, the disposable diapers, which ends in the middle. Even if Sal Romano thinks that "ten cents apiece, you kind of think you should reuse them," Ken Cosgrove's conclusion may stick in the mind: "and the greatest benefit of all, you can throw them away." Really? Throwing things away as a greatest benefit? Later in the same episode, the Drapers have a picnic in the green. When the idyllic scene ends, Don throws away his empty beer can with full concentration and great effort, and Betty simply throws off the garbage from their blanket. For an uncut 40 seconds, while they drive away, the garbage on the grass stays almost in the center of a well composed landscape picture. This episode entitled "The Gold Violin" is not about garbage issues18 (notwithstanding the fact that it happens in this episode that Jimmy Barrett calls Don Draper "garbage"), but they are much more present than in any other episode. But does this minor subtext really suggest that back then the attitude to littering was wrong and is good now? Is the problem of land garbage satisfactorily solved? Are the days of naive, easy-going polluting gone? Even if upper middle class families might not leave their garbage on the grass after a picnic nowadays (or might they?), the issue of garbage is still very much central to our present concerns. And I would not exclude the possibility that one can feel nostalgia for the days when irresponsible garbage production did not elicit any feeling of guilt. From the viewpoint of the fictional plot of everyday characters I have discussed three positions in the possible spectrum from none to exclusivity. I found the former the less interesting from the aspects both of art and history. The more or less balanced middle represented by Rome is an outstanding achievement, which is the most similar to the historical novel. The exclusively everyday plot may result in a new kind of historical novel which is closer to the twentieth-century ideals of history or historiography. 18 Matt Zoller Seitz finds this episode quite unfocused simply "revisiting ides the series has spotlighted before," which results in "the first installment of Mad Men that feels largely superfluous" (Zoller Seitz 111). 110 Péter Hajdu: Fictionality in Historical Television Series WORKS CITED Almagor, Eran. "Earning Immortality: Cicero's Death Scene in Rome." Rome, Season Two: Trial and Triumph. Ed. Monica S. Cyrino. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2015. 61-73. Assmann, Jan. "Communicative and Cultural Memory." The Theoretical Foundations of Hungarian "lieux de Mémoire " Studies. Ed. Pal S. Varga, Karl Katschthaler, Donald E. Morse, and Miklos Takacs. Debrecen: Csokonai Kiado, 2013. 36-43. Bianco, Robert. "Rome Goes into Decline." Usatoday.com 11 Jan. 2007. Web 12 Jan. 2020. Briggs, Ward. "Latin in the Movies and Rome." Rome, Season One: History Makes Television. Ed. Monica S. Cyrino. Malden: Blackwell, 2008. 193-206. Cyrino, Monica S. "Introduction." Rome, Season One: History Makes Television. Ed. Monica S. Cyrino. Malden: Blackwell, 2008. 1-10. Cyrino, Monica S. "Atia and the Erotics of Authority." Rome, Season One: History Makes Television. Ed. Monica S. Cyrino. Malden: Blackwell, 2008. 130-140. Futrell, Alison. "'Not Some Cheap Murder': Caesar's Assassination." Rome, Season One: History Makes Television. Ed. Monica S. Cyrino. Malden: Blackwell, 2008. 100-116. Goodlad, Lauren M. E. "The Mad Men in the Attic: Seriality and Identity in the Modern Babylon." Mad Men, Mad World: Sex, Politics, Style and the 1960s. Eds. Lauren M. E. Goodlad, Lilya Kaganovsky, and Robert A. Rushing. Durham: Duke University Press, 2013. 320-344. Greif, Mark. "You'll Love the Way It Makes You Feel." London Review of Books 23 Oct. 2008. Web. 12 Jan. 2020. Haynes, Holly. "Rome's Opening Titles: Triumph, Spectacle, and Desire." Rome, Season One: History Makes Television. Ed. Monica S. Cyrino. Malden: Blackwell, 2008. 49-60. Hutcheon, Linda. The Poetics of Postmodernism. London: Routledge, 1988. Joyrich, Lynne. "Media Madness: Multiple Identity (Dis)Orders in Mad Men." Mad Men, Mad World: Sex, Politics, Style and the 1960s. Eds. Lauren M. E. Goodlad, Lilya Kaganovsky, and Robert A. Rushing. Durham: Duke University Press, 2013. 213-259. Lang, Clarence. "Representing the Mad Margins of the Early 1960s: Northern Civil Rights and the Blues Idiom." Mad Men, Mad World: Sex, Politics, Style and the 1960s. Eds. Lauren M. E. Goodlad, Lilya Kaganovsky, and Robert A. Rushing. Durham: Duke University Press, 2013. 73-91. Lukacs, Georg. The Historical Novel. Trans. Hannah and Stanley Mitchell. London: Merlin, 1989. Milnor, Kristina. "What I Learned as an Historical Consultant for Rome." Rome, Season One: History Makes Television. Ed. Monica S. Cyrino. Malden: Blackwell, 2008. 42-48. Ono, Kent. "Mad Men's Postracial Figuration of a Racial Past." Mad Men, Mad World: Sex, Politics, Style and the 1960s. Eds. Lauren M. E. Goodlad, Lilya Kaganovsky, and Robert A. Rushing. Durham: Duke University Press, 2013. 300-319. Polan, Lana. "Maddening Times. Mad Men in Its History." Mad Men, Mad World-: Sex, Politics, Style and the 1960s. Eds. Lauren M. E. Goodlad, Lilya Kaganovsky, and Robert A. Rushing. Durham: Duke University Press, 2013. 42-60. Solomon, Jon. "Televising Antiquity: From You Are There to Rome." Rome, Season One: History Makes Television. Ed. Monica S. Cyrino. Malden: Blackwell, 2008. 11-28. 111 PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Szegedy-Maszak, Mihaly. "A törtenelmi regeny letezesi modja." Mufaj es komparat-isztika. Eds. Dorottya Szavai and Zoltan Z. Varga, Budapest: Gondolat, 2016. 57-67. Toscano, Margaret M. "Gowns and Gossip: Gender and Class Struggle in Rome." Rome, Season One: History Makes Television. Ed. Monica S. Cyrino. Malden: Blackwell, 2008. 153-67. Weiden Boyd, Barbara. "Becoming Augustus: The Education of Octavian." Rome, Season One: History Makes Television. Ed. Monica S. Cyrino. Malden: Blackwell, 2008. 87-99. Wright, Andrew. "The Death of Cicero: Forming a Tradition: The Contamination of History." Historia 50 (2001): 436-52. Zoller Seitz, Matt. Mad Men Carousel: The Complete Critical Companion. New York: Abrams, 2015. Fikcijskost v zgodovinskih televizijskih nadaljevankah Ključne besede: zgodovinski roman / televizijske nadaljevanke / fikcijskost / realizem / dokumentarnost / anahronizem / Rim / Oglaševalci Najočitnejša formalna lastnost zgodovinskega romana kot žanra, ki ga je vzpostavil Walter Scott, je dvojnost fiktivne zgodbe v ospredju in zgodovinsko potrjenega ozadja. Dogajališča mnogih televizijskih nadaljevank so zgodovinska, mnoge od nadaljevank je mogoče videti kot zgodovinske romane. Televizijska serija Rim (2005-2007) je ohranila nekaj scottovske strukture, značilne za izpostavljeno fikcijsko zgodbo. Zgodba o Pulosu in Vorenusu je fikcijska in uprizarja življenje preprostih ljudi, zgodovinski liki, kot so Julij Cezar in Pompej ali Antonij in Avgust, pa ne nastopajo zgolj kot na zgodovinskih dejstvih temelječe ozadje. Razmerje med fikcijskimi in nefikcijskimi zgodbami je uravnoteženo, in kot tako ponuja živ in prepričljiv vpogled v preteklost. Mnogim zgodovinskim nadaljevankam preteklost služi zgolj kot dekorativno prizorišče za zgodbe, polne intrig, nasilja in seksa (Tudorji, Bor-gijci), predstavljene kot zgodovinske (anti)romance, ki pa se osredotočajo zgolj na elito. Zgodovinski roman druge vrste pa so ustvarile nekatere nadaljevanke, ki (navidez s povsem drugega konca) celo iz ozadja izključijo vsa zgodovinska dejstva in predstavijo vsakdanjost navadnih ljudi v njeni (kvazi)historični drugosti. V nadaljevankah kot Mad Men in The Knick denimo ni omenjen noben političnozgodovinski dogodek, prav tako se v ozadju ne pojavi nobena zgodovinska osebnost, vendar pa te uspešno predstavljajo drugost preteklosti z gledišča javnega diskurza o vprašanjih rase, spola in celo morale, fenomenov, Péter Hajdu: Fictionality in Historical Television Series ki jih je mogoče videti kot razvoj nove vrste historičnega romana, spodbujene s historiografskimi ideali dvajsetega stoletja. 1.01 Izvirni znanstveni članek / Original scientific article UDK 316.77:621.397.13 075.2:82.0-311.6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/pkn.v43.i1.05 113 State of Exception: The Birthplace of Kafka's Narrative Authority Vladimir Biti Institute of Slavic Studies, University of Vienna, Spitalgasse 2 / Hof 3, 1080 Vienna, Austria https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8873-0339 vladimir.biti@univie.ac.at Across the postimperial East Central Europe, whose geopolitical space was reconfigured on the model of West European nation-states, unprocessed human residues proliferated as the collateral effects of politically guided national homogenizations. These positional outsiders, who were prevented from becoming legible within the newly established political spaces, take center stage in Kafka's narratives, not only in the form of their characters but also their narrators and ultimate authority. They passionately attach themselves to the zones of indistinction, which the modern societies' 'egalitarian discrimination'has doomed them to, thus trying to turn their enforced dispossession into a chosen self-dispossession. I argue that Kafka's narratives owe their elusive ultimate authority precisely to this persistent translation of the political state of exception of his agencies into their literary state of exemption. They are at constant pains to transfigure the imposed state of exception through its peculiar fictional adoption, but Kafka's ultimate narrative authority nevertheless takes care to keep an edge over their efforts. It is precisely this never-ending gradation of subversive mimicry in Kafka's works that his postcolonial successor J. M. Coetzee most admired. Keywords: Austria-Hungary / Central European literature / literary periphery / Kafka, Franz / literary characters / outsiders / subversivity Barely a year after the death of Emperor Franz Joseph,1 Franz Kafka worked on "At the Construction of the Great Wall of China,"2 a story which, from the perspective of an anonymous stonemason, focuses on the unification of the Chinese Empire out of seven warring states. The huge geopolitical and historical dislocation of the transfiguring empire—transposed from East Central Europe at the outset of the twen- 1 Vladimir Biti is currently Distinguished Chair Visiting Professor at Guangdong University of Foreign Studies and Zhejiang University. 2 Willa and Edwin Muir translate "Beim Bau der chinesischen Mauer" as "The Great Wall of China," thus bereaving the title of the concepts "at" and "construction" that are, as I will show, extremely important. 115 Primerjalna književnost (Ljubljana) 43.1 (2020) PKn, letnik 43, st 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 tieth century to ancient China—engenders a kind of parable, Kafka's favorite literary genre. Parables are, by definition, narrated by slaves or underdogs.3 To underline the insignificance of its narrator, the parable's first part merges him into a "we" of manual laborers, doomed to observe the construction from the confined point of view of its "most miserable" subjects (jammerlichste Untertanen, Beim Bau 75, trans. modified).4 In fact, the stonemason submits his report after the Great Wall of China had already been completed, thus benefiting from a retroactive insight. During the construction, he and his companions were confined to a particular part of the wall that they were appointed to build and were thus bereft of the general view that was reserved for experts and supervisors. According to the official proclamation, the wall was erected to protect China from an invasion by northern tribes but, fragmentary as it was, it could not really offer protection from those who, due to their nomadic mobility, better understood its flaws than the workers themselves. Nevertheless, the narrator realizes, the system of piecemeal building was deliberately chosen, carefully prepared, and superbly carried out by "the high command" (The Great Wall 271). What this supreme agency was aiming for was a unity of the Empire distilled out of its enormous diversity: Groups of people with banners and streamers waving were on all the roads; never before had they seen how great and rich and beautiful and worthy of love their country was. Every fellow countryman was a brother for whom one was building a wall of protection, and who would return lifelong thanks for it with all he had and did. Unity! Unity! Shoulder to shoulder, a ring of brothers, a current of blood no longer confined within the narrow circulation of one body, but sweetly rolling and yet ever returning throughout the endless leagues of China. (269) Thus, ultimately, it was neither the Huns nor the Emperor's decree that triggered the wall-building, but the high command's conviction in the 3 Hegel compares them to fables (Hegel 391), the subordinate narrators of which do not dare to transmit their "doctrines openly but can only make them understood hidden [...] In the slave, prose begins, and so this entire genre is prosaic" (387). 4 Next to this parable, the narrative perspective that switches between the "we" and "I" characterizes some of Kafka's other narratives as well, such as "The Refusal" or "Josephine the Singer." In the German critical edition of 1994, which is my departure point, the concluding part of "At the Construction" is narrated from the "I" perspective. In the American edition of The Collected Stories (1971), this part is published separately under the title "The News of the Building of the Wall: A Fragment" (280-282). 116 Vladimir Biti: State of Exception: The Birthplace of Kafka's Narrative Authority necessity of uniting diversity. The narrator pays considerable attention to this political background of the seemingly illogical system of piecemeal construction. He claims that a far-reaching recalibration of the imperial common-being was envisaged through the central assignment of various groups' respective tasks. This is "one of the crucial problems in the whole building of the wall" that he "cannot go deeply enough into" (270). His scholarly focus and discourse remind us that the mask of a humble stonemason, in accordance with the genre's ventriloquist rule, is in fact worn by an interested and attentive explorer. For readers during Kafka's time, an analogy with the Dual Monarchy's political reconfiguration after the defeat at Königgrätz in 1866 was undoubtedly at play. In the last decades of the nineteenth century, the frustrated Empire not only reoriented its agenda toward the Slavic population of eastern and southeastern Europe but also translated it from conquering and assimilating into civilizing and affirming terms. No longer denied, the inferior others were now acknowledged in their particularity. Accordingly, the aim of cosmopolitan projects like the Vienna World's Fair (1873) or the encyclopedia Die österreichischungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild (1885—1907) was to establish the monarchy's unity-in-diversity (Judson 317—328). However, as in the Chinese case, the envisioned homogenization merely reaffirmed the gap between the center and its peripheries. Since the Slavs were taken as still living in the mythic phase of human history, they were expected to help the Germans, as the carriers of historical progress, rejuvenate themselves. Through the centrally governed project of unity-in-diversity, the domination of German culture over its peripheral Slavic constituencies was thus maintained. The expansion of the traffic and communi-cational infrastructures, as well as the administrative and educational networks, into the Slavic regions strengthened the interaction between governmental institutions and these peripheral collectivities but came at the price of loosening connections between themselves. Governments' insistences on their belonging to a particular ethnic group (Anderson 162-185; Stourzh 81) compartmentalized the imperial population, encapsulating its collectivities into their allocated identity confines. This is how the subdividing mechanisms of 'capillary supervision' entered the Habsburg political space, paving the way for its transformation along national lines (Judson 317-328; Cohen 2013). Analyzing this restructuring of imperial common-being in his Discipline and Punish, Foucault draws an analogy with Jeremy Bentham's penitentiary Panopticon: PKn, letnik 43, st 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Each individual, in his place, is securely confined to a cell from which he is seen from the front by the supervisor; but the side wall prevents him from coming into contact with his companions. He is seen, but he does not see; he is the object of information, never a subject in communication. The arrangement of his room, opposite the central tower, imposes on him an axial visibility; but the divisions of the ring, those separated cells, imply a lateral invisibility. And this invisibility is a guarantee of order. "[...] The crowd [...] is abolished and replaced by a collection of separated individualities. From the point of view of the guardian, it is replaced by a multiplicity that can be numbered and supervised; from the point of view of the inmates, by a sequestered and observed solitude. (200-201) Since in the center "one sees everything without ever be seen" and in the peripheries "one is totally seen, without ever seeing" (202), control over the population is accomplished without the public manifestations of power that were characteristic of the previous age of sovereignty. Now the power throws off its corporeality, becoming an anonymous machine with myriad operators, rendering its ultimate agency unverifi-able. Its multiplied relays reproduce the power relation by themselves, without any identifiable external force. By pointing out that "no one whom I have asked knew then or knows now [where] the office [of the high command] was and who sat there" (The Great Wall 271), Kafka's narrator addresses precisely this withdrawal of the ultimate authority from historical evidence. The high command was not a hastily summoned body of mandarins but "has existed from all eternity, and the decision to build the wall likewise" (273). As the current leaders "traced their plans," through the window of their office "the reflected splendors of divine worlds fell" on their hands (271). This vanishing of the supreme authority into the divine sphere renders it impenetrable for the common people. Around it, the "fog of confusion" (274) grows. Even though the common people are entitled to know it, it is stranger to them than the "life beyond" (das jenseitige Leben).5 Its obscurity exposes them to an enduring uncertainty and discontent. Kafka was deeply concerned about the consequences of the delineated exception of the law from the realm of those governed by it. Cautioned by the same developments, his contemporary Carl Schmitt notices that, in the recent state of exception, the law only belongs to the juridical order by occupying a constitutively external position within it (Schmitt 7; Agamben 2, 35). In "The Problem of Our Laws," Kafka's 5 Muirs translate "life beyond" as "the next world" (278). 118 Vladimir Biti: State of Exception: The Birthplace of Kafka's Narrative Authority narrator states "it is an extremely painful thing to be ruled by laws that one does not know" (TheProblem 482). When he further remarks that "the laws were made to the advantage of the nobles" who stand above them (482), he again anticipates Foucault's insight that disciplinary power, praised for its egalitarianism, in fact establishes "the inequality of the different 'partners'" "in relation to the common regulation" (Foucault 223). Having "the precise role of introducing insuperable asymmetries" (222), it reaffirms the basic power relation between the law that comprehends all its subjects and those whose comprehension it escapes. Taking the shape of an appearance 'from beyond,' it remains an enduring mystery (The Problem 482) whose dictum has to be detected by each subject individually, with all the risk of invention that this implies. Since in the disciplinary society, "between the [juridical] norm and its application there is no internal nexus that allows one to be derived immediately from the other" (Agamben 40), Agamben interprets this derivation as controversial and conflict-ridden, involving a "plurality of subjects" (39—40). As if illustrating Agamben's insight into the modern law's dissensual pluralization much in advance, Kafka concludes "The Problem of Our Laws" by presenting a conflict of its interpretations bereft of resolution. The further the law reaches on its way to the periphery, the less trust it evokes in its addressees. Instead of feeling protected, they feel victimized by it. In "The Refusal," a report from a remote, imperial "little town" in the middle of nowhere, the local narrator (again a wolf in sheep's clothing) offers the portrait of a "chief tax-collector," the imperial administration's representative in this godforsaken province. He is an "old man" who "commands the town" although he never "produced a document entitling him to his position; very likely he does not possess such a thing. Maybe he really is chief tax-collector" (The Refusal296). But is that all? Does this entitle him to rule over all the other departments in the administration as well? True, his office is very important for the government, but for the citizens it is hardly the most important. One is almost under the impression that the people here say: "Now that you've taken all we possess, please take us as well." (296—297) If we now return to The Great Wall, when the stonemason first learned of the Emperor's decision to build the wall—thirty years after it was publicly announced—he was a small boy accompanying his father on a walk along the river (Beim Bau 79). Approaching his father, an unknown boatman whispered the message in his ear, meeting his deepest mistrust. Like many of Kafka's unfinished works that went unpublished PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 during his lifetime, the parable is interrupted here. Its only published fragment, focusing on the failed transfer of law to the peripheries, is the embedded parable "An Imperial Message". In a manner illustrated in his aphorism "On parables," Kafka lures his reader into taking this embedded parable as a key for the parable which hosts it. In fact, the transfer of trust between parables, like the transfer of law from the Emperor to his subjects, cannot but fail by requiring further transfers to make up for the failure. Significantly, "An Imperial Message" opens with the same act of entrusting a humble peripheral subject that closes "The Great Wall of China," albeit now from the Emperor's perspective instead of that of his remote addressee. Passing away, the Emperor addresses precisely this "miserable subject, the insignificant shadow" in the uttermost imperial province by ignoring all "the great princes of the Empire" who had assembled to witness the spectacle of his death (The Great Wall 275, trans. modified). In lieu of approaching the attending nobility, in accordance with the centuries-long tradition of public spectacles, he entrusts his last will to the messenger whom he commanded "to kneel down by the bed, and whispered the message to him; so much store did he lay on it that he ordered the messenger to whisper it back into his ear again" (275). Thus, obviously concerned with the rising mistrust of his peripheral subjects that threatens the maintenance of the empire,6 he switches from the public visual demonstration of his will to the assembled princes to its private oral transmission to anonymous peripheral subjects. Choosing a method of its delivery right into the ear of his messenger, whom he expects to dispatch its exact rendering door to door, the Emperor introduces the new "capillary supervision" of all his subjects. Nonetheless, the narrator argues, his replacing of the amorphous crowd by a "collection of separated individuals" (Foucault 201) fails to consolidate the endangered imperial common-being because the privately entrusted law loses transparency and becomes elusive. Internally processed by myriad addressees, it dissolves into an "imaginary norm" (Slaughter 215) that is wholly dependent on the interpretation of the individuals who apply it and therefore completely arbitrary. Kafka's heroes and narrators are turned into the helpless targets of this fictional law that looms large on the horizon of his time. In The Trial, for example, its operators prove to be extremely whimsical. 6 The last sentence of the "News of the Building of the Wall" reads: "For it seems that infidel tribes, among them demons, often assemble before the imperial palace and shoot their black arrows at the Emperor" (281). Vladimir Biti: State of Exception: The Birthplace of Kafka's Narrative Authority In fact, this title, which associates a public dispute in the courtroom, mistranslates the German Der Procef that refers to a preliminary and, by definition, secret process of examination (Ziolkowski 226). Rather than the written law, it relies upon its representatives' contingent performances that pretend to be authorized but cannot prove this due to the "high command's" inaccessibility. Such circumstances make legislation tantamount to its random execution (Friedman, Bergengruen). It is telling that the guards appointed to arrest Josef K. carry the names of the Austrian and German emperors of the time: Franz and Willem. Delivered to the self-willingness of such petty sovereigns, he is relegated to a "zone of indistinction" deprived of legal rights. While in the simultaneously composed story "In the Penal Colony," Kafka openly confronts the European allegedly liberal legal system with the summary justice of its penal colony, in this novel the legal system is invisibly perverted by the summary justice from within. Aberrations do not threaten it from outside, but are from the very beginning its constitutive parts. As Foucault spelled out half a century later, within one and the same modern juridical frame, the capillary mechanisms of counter-law disqualify and invalidate the egalitarian law by turning it into a discriminatory inquisitorial machine (Foucault 222—227). Doomed to this frame's devastating effects, Kafka's subjects experience it out of its lawless "heterotopias" proliferating across its expanding network. Thus, epitomizing the Austro-Hungarian juridical system of the time, entirely focused on "inventing the criminal" (Wetzel), the magistrates examine Josef K.'s presumed criminal motivation rather than any verifiable crime. When he refuses to accept such martial law as the necessary "order of the world" (Der Procef 233), he speaks for all outsiders who, like the narrators of "The Great Wall of China" and "The Problem of Our Laws," tend to dismantle its utter fictionality and randomness. Paradoxically, to turn their passive location of the targeted "objects of information" into the active position of the targeting "subjects in communication" (Foucault 200), they engage the same maneuver of self-exemption, which their executors take advantage of while imposing the law upon them. While the executors exempt themselves from the law which they apply to others, the outsiders exempt themselves from its undertaken application. Whereas the executives are at pains to exactly locate the law's subjects, the outsiders invest their efforts to limit the locating capacity of its executives. In response to the executives' silent message that we can formulate as "Examine our law as much you like, it is beyond the location that it has assigned you!", they claim something like "Our extreme dislocation places us beyond PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 the reach of your law!". To limit the power of the executives who are in charge of them, Kafka's appointed outsiders, as it were, adhere to Wittgenstein's dictum: "Distrust of grammar is the first requisite for philosophizing" (Wittgenstein 106). Rather than obeying this legal "grammar" that turns them into its outsiders, they attach their imagination to its suppressed possibilities, as if following Lucy's advice from J. M. Coetzee's Disgrace: "When all else fails, philosophize" (Disgrace 60). In this manner they transform their restricted location into a much more mobile room for maneuver. Consider Josef K.'s insight on the very eve of his execution: "Were there objections that had been forgotten? There must have been some. The logic is irrefutable, but it cannot resist someone who wants to live" (Der Procefí 241). The suppressed possibilities of the reigning "grammar" figure as the source of authorization not only for Kafka's protagonists, but also for his narrators who make even more extensive use of them. Thus, at the beginning of "An Imperial Message," the narrator operates as a humble relay of its historical transmittance ear to ear, a technique introduced by the Emperor, via his messenger, many centuries ago. However, if the parable was transmitted to him in this oral manner—as testified by "it is said" at its very beginning—from now on it acquires written form that enables it to directly address its distant trustee, the reader. By apostrophizing him or her through the immediate "you alone," the narrator heightens the efficiency of the emperor's formerly mediate address. What was mediated through the messenger in the imperial oral form becomes immediate in the modern written form. Activating the potential of the new medium that bridges both spatial and temporal distances much easier, the initially insignificant narrator of "An Imperial Message" suddenly acquires "imperial" abilities. He now manages the emperor as his character instead of the other way around. As a result, while the report of the narrator of "The Great Wall of China" encompasses no less than three centuries from the first announcement to the eventual completion of its construction, his own report covers "thousands of years" of the message's failed transmission. Both narrators turn from riveted subhuman creatures into the mobile superhuman observers in possession of sovereign insight. To uncover the ultimate agency of such a subterraneous entitlement of theirs, we have to recall Kafka's diary entry of 28 September 1917: I strive to know the whole human and animal community, to recognize their basic predilections, desires, moral ideals, to reduce these to simple rules and as quickly as possible trim my behavior to these rules in order that I may find favor in the whole world's eyes [...] To sum up, then, my sole concern is the 122 Vladimir Biti: State of Exception: The Birthplace of Kafka's Narrative Authority human tribunal, which I wish to deceive, moreover, though without practicing any actual deception. (Diaries 387) Instead, he practices an imaginary self-exemption from the restricted historical world of humans into the inexhaustible potentiality of life. Therefore, whenever Kafka's figures and narrators lay claim to this 'state of exception,' they act as the appointed and carefully supervised messengers of his withdrawn authorial agency. Foreshadowing his great admirer J. M. Coetzee, an inhabitant of another postimperial state of exception, Kafka's authorial agency operates as the chief "secretary of the invisible".7 His narratives are constructed in the piecemeal manner of the Great Wall of China: the fragments of the upcoming redemption as distributed by the "high command's" limitless possibilities. The "high command," in its turn, remains invisible and inaccessible. In a letter to Max Brod from November 1917 Kafka expressed his hope that, in a time yet-to-come, "a whole will be made up of these bits" to serve (their readers) as "an instance of appeal" (Briefe 195). Up to then, as announced by the title "At the Construction," the work of scattered construction must persevere. Like the presumptive mole from "The Burrow" (the original German title reads, literally, "The Construction"),8 Kafka's author is persistently at the construction, involved in an enterprise-in-making. In the state of exception which makes anything possible, the ongoing destruction of the political common-being does not permit its aesthetic completion. As Coetzee points out in his reading of Kafka's last narrative, nothing can protect its law from the intrusion of a counter-law that perverts it ("Time, Tense, and Aspect" 228). To recall Foucault's thesis, within one and the same modern juridical frame, the capillary mechanisms of counter-law disqualify and invalidate the egalitarian law by turning it into a discriminatory inquisitorial machine (Foucault 222—227). Under such continuously exceptional circumstances, Kafka's narrative authority takes the shape of an elusive "imaginary norm" whose application is in the hands of its addressees, with all the risk of subversive invention that this implies. His technique of authoring exposes his readers to the same fictional law 7 The phrase is borrowed from Coetzee's heroine Elizabeth Costello, who herself borrows it from Czeslaw Milosz. According to her explanation, she is only one of "the many secretaries over the ages" (Elizabeth Costello 199). As one of his interpreters (Marais passim) puts it, Coetzee himself receives his authorial vocation from an invisible otherness, which is why he also acts as "the secretary of the invisible." 8 Muirs translate the German title "Der Bau" as "The Burrow," repeatedly sacrificing the key concept of construction. PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 that he as the author was exposed to by the whimsical lawgivers of his time. It is up to them to explore its limitless possibilities as he himself has done, via his numerous doppelgangers, with the inaccessible law that he was dependent upon. WORKS CITED Agamben, Giorgio. State of Exception. Trans. Kevin Attell. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2005. Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. Rev. and ext. edition. London: Verso, 1991. Bergengruen, Maximilian. "Vor dem Gesetz sind alle Staatsbürger gleich?: Rechtsgrundsatz und Gesetzesfiktion in Kafkas Türhüter-Legende." Deutsche Vierteljahrschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte 90.3 (2016): 415-434. Coetzee, John Maxwell. "Time, Tense, and Aspect in Kafka's 'The Burrow.'" Doubling the Point: Essays and Interviews, Cambridge, MA; London: Harvard University Press, 1992. 210-232. Coetzee, John Maxwell. Disgrace. London: Secker & Warburg, 1999. Coetzee, John Maxwell. Elizabeth Costello. London: Vintage, 2004. Cohen, Gary B. "Our Laws, Our Taxes, and Our Administration: Citizenship in Imperial Austria." Shatterzone of Empires: Coexistence and Violence in the German, Habsburg, Russian and Ottoman Borderlands. Eds. Omer Bartov and Eric D. Weitz. Indiana University Press: Bloomington and Indianapolis, 2013. 103-121. Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Trans. Alan Sheridan. New York: Vintage, 1977. Friedman, Lawrence M. "Lexitainment: Legal Process as Theater." DePaul Law Review 50.2 (2000): 539-558. Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art. 1. Trans. T. M. Knox. Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1975. Judson, Pieter. The Habsburg Empire: A New History. Cambridge, MA; London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2016. Kafka, Franz. "Beim Bau der chinesischen Mauer." Beim Bau der chinesischen Mauer und andere Schriften aus dem Nachlass. Gesammelte Werke in zwölf Bänden. 6. Ed. Hans-Gerd Koch. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1994. 65-80. Kafka, Franz. Briefe 1902-1924. Ed. Max Brod. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer, 1966. Kafka, Franz. Der Proceß. In der Fassung der Handschrift. Gesammelte Werke in zwölf Bänden. 3. Ed. Hans-Gerd Koch. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer, 1994. Kafka, Franz. Diaries 1910-1923. Trans. J. Kresh and M. Greenberg. New York City: Schocken Books, 1988. Kafka, Franz. "The Great Wall of China." The Complete Stories. Trans. W. and E. Muir. New York: Schocken Books, 1988. 266-279. Kafka, Franz. "The Problem of Our Laws." The Complete Stories. Trans. W. and E. Muir. New York: Schocken Books, 1988. 482-483. Kafka, Franz. "The Refusal." The Complete Stories. Trans. W. and E. Muir. New York: Schocken Books, 1988. 295-300. Marais, Mike. The Secretary of the Invisible: The Idea of Hospitality in the Fiction of J. M. Coetzee. Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 2009. 124 Vladimir Biti: State of Exception: The Birthplace of Kafka's Narrative Authority Schmitt, Carl. Political Theology. Trans. George Schwab. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1985. Slaughter, Joseph R. Human Rights, Inc. New York: Fordham University Press, 2007. Stourzh, Gerald. "Ethnic Attribution in Late Imperial Austria: Good Intentions, Evil Consequences." The Habsburg Legacy: National Identity in Historical Perspective. Eds. Ritchie Robertson and Edward Timms. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1994. 67-83. Wetzell, Richard F. Inventing the Criminal. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000. Wittgenstein, Ludwig. Notebooks 1914-1916. Eds. G. H. von Wright and G. E. M. Anscombe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980. Ziolkowski, Theodore. The Mirror of Justice: Literary Reflections of Moral Crisis. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 1997. Izjemno stanje: rojstni kraj Kafkove pripovedne avtoritete Ključne besede: Avstro-Ogrska / srednjeevropska književnost / literarna periferija / Kafka, Franz / literarni liki / obstranci / subverzivnost V postimperialni vzhodni in srednji Evropi, v kateri se je geopolitični prostor preoblikoval po vzoru zahodnoevropskih nacionalnih držav, so se širili nepredelani človeški preostanki kot stranski učinki politično vodene nacionalne homogenizacije. Ti položajni obstranci, ki jim ni bilo dovoljeno, da bi postali berljivi v okviru na novo vzpostavljenih političnih prostorov, zavzamejo osrednje prizorišče Kafkovih pripovedi ne le kot literarni liki, temveč tudi kot pripovedovalci in vrhovna avtoriteta. Strastno se navežejo na cone nerazločnosti, na katere jih je obsodila »egalitarna diskriminacija« modernih družb, s čimer skušajo svojo politično razlaščenost spremeniti v literarno prednost. Dokazoval bom, da Kafkove pripovedi dolgujejo svojo izmuzljivo vrhovno avtoriteto prav tej nenehni transformaciji političnega izjemnega stanja svojih akterjev v njihovo literarno samoizvzetje. Čeprav si akterji nenehno prizadevajo za preobrazbo vsiljenega izjemnega stanja skozi to nenavadno literarno prilastitev, ostaja Kafkova pripovedna avtoriteta za korak v prednosti. Kafkov postkolonialni naslednik J. M. Coetzee je najbolj občudoval prav to njegovo neskončno gradacijo subverzivne mimikrije. 1.01 Izvirni znanstveni članek / Original scientific article UDK 821.112.2.09(436)Kafka F. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/pkn.v43.i1.06 125 Spominska retorika v literarni esejistiki Josepha Rotha Matjaž Birk Filozofska fakulteta Univerze v Mariboru, Oddelek za germanistiko, Koroška cesta 16, 2000 Maribor, Slovenija https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8905-9823 matjaz.birk@um.si Razprava z izhodišč teorije spominske retorike (A. Erll) osvetljuje pripovedne strategije in korelacijo med narativizacijo kolektivnega spomina in literarno reprezentacijo identitet in kulturnih praks vzhodnoevropskega judovstva v Juden auf Wanderschaft (Judje na popotovanju), osrednjem literarnoesejističnem delu z judovsko tematiko avstrijsko-judovskegapisatelja Josepha Rotha (1894-1939). Avtor s povezovanjem izkustvenega in antagonističnega spominskoretoričnega načina, ki nastopata v funkcionalnem sozvočju z monumentalnim, legitimira kulturne prakse vzhodnoevropskega judovstva, umeščene med duhovnim in čutnim. S kritično dekonstrukcijo zahodnoevropskih ideoloških diskurzov istočasno razkriva judovskokulturne samoprevare in v prepletu antagonističnega z refleksivnim načinom senzibilizira bralca za dojemanje »drugega stanja« in konstrukcijskega značaja kulture. Premik spominskoretoričnega težišča s kontrastnega na korespondenčnega modelira človečnost v nadetnični razsežnosti in jo izpostavi kot idejni postulat za odnos do vzhodnega judovstva kot komplementarne tujosti (O. Schäffter). Kljub kulturnim binarnostim kot produktu antagonistične spominske retorike in historičnemu pesimizmu o usodi Judov, ponujajo hibridne identitetne konstrukcije bralcu prepričljive signale za razkrivanje transdiferenc in možnosti idejnega večglasja v medkulturni komunikaciji. Ključne besede: avstrijska književnost / Roth, Joseph: Juden auf Wanderschaft / literarna esejistika / Vzhodna Evropa / judovstvo / kolektivni spomin / kolektivna identiteta / idejna in kulturna polifonija Družbeni in kulturni konteksti in teksti Joseph Roth (1894-1939), avstrijski pisatelj judovskega rodu, se je rodil na skrajnem vzhodu Habsburške monarhije, v obmejnem mestu Brody, kjer so Judje predstavljali večinski delež prebivalstva.1 Brody je 1 Prispevek je nastal v okviru programske skupine P6-0265, ki jo financira Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije. 127 Primerjalna književnost (Ljubljana) 43.1 (2020) PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 bil pomembno središče judovskega verskega šolstva in prav tako razsvetljenstva oz. haskale (gl. Bos).2 Pisateljev odnos do judovskega porekla je bil skrajno ambivalenten (gl. Birk). V nekem pismu Stefanu Zweigu iz leta 1935 je Roth svoje judovstvo označil za »naključno lastnost [...] nekako tako kot moji svetli brki« (Roth, Briefe 417).3 Pripisoval mu je univerzalne razsežnosti - »Prej prihajamo iz 'emancipacije', iz človečnosti in 'človeškega' nasploh kot pa iz Egipta.« (257) - in ga v evrocentričnem diskurzu poskušal pomiriti s katolištvom - »Dejansko ne vidim nobene druge poti kot Kalvarijo, ki vodi h Kristusu in nobenega večjega Juda.« (423) -, da bi ga lahko afirmiral kot eno osrednjih evropskih referenčnih kultur, od katere se je vedno znova tudi samoironično ogradil: »Z užitkom sem odpadnik od Nemcev in Judov in sem na to ponosen.« (421) Protislovja v odnosu do judovstva kot konfesionalne in kulturne kategorije so značilna tudi za avtorjev literarni diskurz. Kot primer navedimo Rothov najpomembnejši roman z judovsko tematiko, leta 1930 objavljeni Hiob (Job), v katerem kot osrednji protagonist nastopa Mendel Singer. Njegovo življenje je posvečeno Bogu in razlagi Tore, vse dokler mu usoda v rutenski domovini in zatem v ameriški emigraciji ne nameni mesta sodobnega Joba. Iz usmiljenja vredne priče zastrašujoče božje moči in v nebo vpijočega protestnika zoper njo se življenjski brodolomec na koncu spremeni v posameznika, globoko zasidranega v božjem usmiljenju in božjega izbranca v svoji skupnosti. Avtor z njim deli izkušnjo zastrašujoče ambivalentnosti numinoznega, ki izziva jezo in prav tako nemir, strah in zlo. Tudi druge Rothove judovske like zaznamuje ambivalenten in travmatičen odnos do pripadnosti skupnosti, še posebej če gre za vzhodno judovstvo. Tega je Roth postavil v središče svojega osrednjega esejističnega dela iz leta 1927 z naslovom Juden auf Wanderschaft (Judje na popotovanju). Cilj pričujoče obravnave je s spominskoretorično naratološko analizo pripovednih strategij ugotoviti retorične načine kolektivnega spomina in osvetliti korelacijo med njegovo narativizacijo ter literarno reprezentacijo identitet in kulturnih praks vzhodnoevropskega judov- 2 Poleg Judov, ki so v letih pisateljevega otroštva predstavljali več kot 70 % prebivalstva, so v mestu Brody živeli tudi Poljaki, Ruteni, Nemci in nekateri drugi (gl. Kuz-many), ki so za poimenovanje mesta uporabljali skupen endonim (Krevs Birk 2019: 168), kar je ena od simptomatik za večjezikovno hibridnost prebivalstva, ki ji je s svojimi jeziki pripadal Roth. Ta se je v mitomanskih avtobiografskih konstrukcijah zaklinjal, da njegov rojstni kraj ni Brody, marveč bližnji Szwaby oz. Schwabendorf. S tem se je hotel otresti negativne vzhodnojudovske stigme, kar mu je, če gre soditi po osmrtnici, nenazadnje celo do neke mere tudi uspelo (prim. Birk). 3 Vse navedke iz Rothove korespondence in iz Juden auf Wanderschaft je prevedel avtor prispevka. 128 Matjaž Birk: Spominska retorika v literarni esejistiki Josepha Rotha stva, zasidranih v presečišču med kulturno identiteto in alteriteto. Že na podlagi namere, ki jo pripovedovalec izrazi v prvem eseju — »V nadaljevanju bom poskusil opisati, kako on [vzhodnojudovski bratranec; M. B.] in njemu podobni živijo v domovini in v tujini.« (Roth, Juden 21) —, je namreč moč domnevati, da prav perspektiviranje pripovedo-vanega med lastnim in drugim oz. tujim kulturnim redom predstavlja eno osrednjih estetskih značilnosti obravnavane zbirke esejev. Eseji kot »hibridna zvrst, ki singularnost literarne proze križa s pojmovno govorico mišljenja« (Juvan 107), temeljijo na avtorjevem izčrpnem poznavanju preteklosti in sedanjosti vzhodnoevropskega judovstva in njegove diaspore ter na avtorjevem osebnem izkustvu. Prav osebno izkustvo je tisto, ki odločilno zaznamuje Rothovo eseji-stiko, na kar je avtor spomladi leta 1927 v pismu Bennu Reifenbergu, uredniku feljtona pri Frankfurter Zeitung, opozoril tudi sam: Počasen sem, temeljit, poln strahu, da bi kaj napak videl, moj »slog« vendarle ni nič drugega kot natančno poznavanje stanja — brez tega pišem slabo — kot Sieburg v Osterblattu. Ne pišem v prazno. Nobenih »misli« nimam — zgolj vedenje. Denar moram imeti in šele v juniju bom gotov z Balkanom. V štirih tednih ne vem ničesar. Štirje tedni zadoščajo za reportažo ali za uvodnik. [...] Ta založba izdaja sodobno zgodovino, ne časopisa [...]. (Roth, Briefe 102—103) Zaradi visoke stopnje heteroreferenčnosti esejev in poudarjene navezave na resnični svet, ki je produkt na znanju in izkustvu utemeljenega vedenja ter pride do izraza v reprezentiranju sodobnosti in zgodovine vzhodnoevropskega judovstva, je za pripovedno konstruiranje identitet pri Rothu ključnega pomena insceniranje procesa kolektivnega spominjanja in spomina. Literatura postane njun medij, kadar določene izrazne oblike bralca pripravijo do tega, da literarno besedilo bere skladno s kognitivnimi shemami, ki so značilne za procese kolektivnega spominjanja. Aktualiziranje literarnega besedila kot spominskega medija je v tem primeru odvisno od strategije, ki jo imenujemo retorika kolektivnega spomina. Retorika kolektivnega spomina je izrazito kontekstualistični (gl. Erll, tudi Koron) naratološki pristop. Gre za skupek besedilnih upodobitvenih postopkov, ki jih proizvajajo različna literarna izrazna sredstva. Retorika kolektivnega spomina se kaže v petih različnih načinih — v izkustvenem, monumentalnem, historizirajočem, antagonističnem in refleksivnem. V prvem, izkustvenem, je literarna reprezentacija predmet vsakdanjega komunikativnega spomina. V monumentalnem retoričnem načinu je pripoved del nadrejenega in zavezujočega kulturnega (etničnega, nacionalnega, verskega, spolnega itd.) obzorja človeškega razmišljanja in rav- PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 nanja. To sta dva spominska načina, ki vsebujeta literarni register preteklosti. V historizirajoči obliki spominske retorike je literarna fikcija del zaključene preteklosti in predmet zgodovinopisja. Antagonistična oblika služi konfrontaciji konkurenčnih spominov nacionalnih, spolnih, socialnih, generacijskih, verskih in drugih skupnosti, medtem ko t. i. refleksivni način inscenira načine funkcioniranja in problematiko spominjanja ter omogoča kritično distanco do lastne spominske kulture. Prvi štirje načini spominske retorike imajo vlogo oblikovanja spomina in spominjanja, zadnji služi razmisleku o spominu kot medialnem konstruktu in njegovi družbeni pogojenosti. Analiza načinov spominske retorike se bo v nadaljevanju osredinila na literarna izrazna sredstva, slog in žanr, selekcijsko strukturo, intertekstualne, intermedialne in interdis-kurzivne značilnosti ter na posebnosti pripovedovalčevega posredovanja in literarno konfiguracijo likov in prostorov. Juden auf Wanderschaft: nastanek, recepcija in načrti za poznejše izdaje dela Roth se je pisanja Juden auf Wanderschaft lotil spomladi leta 1926, ko je kot posebni dopisnik dnevnika Frankfurter Zeitung, svoje matične časopisne hiše, bival v Parizu.4 Zadnji esej je nastal zgodaj jeseni istega leta, ko je pisatelj kot poročevalec potoval po Sovjetski zvezi. Posamezne eseje je Roth pred knjižno izdajo objavil v časopisih Frankfurter Zeitung in Wiener Morgen. V knjižni obliki so izšli spomladi leta 1927 v zbirki Berichte aus der Wirklichkeit (Poročila iz resničnosti) pri berlinski Die Schmiede, ki je veljala za butično založbo nemške literarne avantgarde.5 Juden auf Wanderschaft so v nemškem judovskem časopisju doživeli navdušen sprejem; vodilni sionistični tednik, Jüdische Rundschau, jih je ocenil kot avtorjevo priznanje pripadnosti vzhodnemu judovstvu, v katerem se zrcalita vzhodnojudovsko mišljenje in čutenje (gl. Gelber). 4 V Parizu je Roth bival na Place de l'Odéon v Latinski četrti. Eseji iz zbirke so nastajali v hotelu in v različnih kavarnah, po Rothovi korespondenci sodeč (gl. Roth/ Zweig) tudi v znameniti Café de la Régence v prvem pariškem okrožju. V pismih je Roth izražal navdušenje nad svobodo in iskrivostjo duha, kultiviranostjo in odprtostjo prebivalcev »metropole sveta«, kot je v zanosu poimenoval francosko prestolnico. V času njegovega prvega bivanja v Parizu leta 1925 sta nastali potopisni zbirki Im mittäglichen Frankreich (Vopoldanski Franciji) in Die weißen Städte (Bela mesta). V njih avtor opisuje preplet kultur v mestih v dolini Rone in v Provansi ter ga kodira v univerzalnosti humanizma in krščanstva (gl. Baric). 5 V berlinski Die Schmiede so poleg Rothovih zgodnjih romanov izšli tudi Kafkova Proces in Gladovalec ter zgodnja dela A. Döblina (gl.von Sternburg). 130 Matjaž Birk: Spominska retorika v literarni esejistiki Josepha Rotha Ne glede na ugodne kritike je bil avtor prepričan, da bi bil uspeh pri bralstvu še večji, če bi delo izšlo pri založbi z obsežnejšim programom in širšim krogom bralstva.6 Neposredno po zaključku redakcije Juden auf Wanderschaft je Roth načrtoval njihovo nadaljevanje, ki naj bi izšlo pod naslovom Die Juden und Antisemiten (Judje in antisemiti) sočasno pri založbi Gustav Kiepenheuer v Weimarju — ta je spomladi leta 1929 postala njegova matična založba — in pri amsterdamskem založniku Allert de Lange. Spomladi 1937 je Roth z dunajskim Richard Löwit Verlag sklenil pogodbo za posodobljeno izdajo dela. Načrti so se izjalovili, prva dva iz nepojasnjenih razlogov, zadnji spričo anšlusa. Ob svojem prvem izidu leta 1927 je zbirka vsebovala predgovor in pet esejev. V predgovoru Roth ciljno publiko opredeli kot bralce, »pred katerimi vzhodnih Judov ni potrebno braniti; bralce, ki spoštujejo bolečino, človeško veličino in umazanijo, ki povsod spremlja trpljenje« in kot zahodne Evropejce, »ki se ne ponašajo s svojimi snažnimi žimnicami« (Roth, Juden 9). Prvi esej z naslovom »Ostjuden im Westen« (»Vzhodni Judje na Zahodu«) je programske narave in vsebuje komparativna razmišljanja o identiteti in družbenem položaju vzhodnoevropskega judo-vstva v izvornih deželah evropskega Vzhoda in diaspori. Sledijo eseji o življenju Judov v vzhodnoevropskem »shtetlu«, v Sovjetski zvezi in v vzhodnojudovskih skupnostih na Dunaju, v Berlinu, Parizu ter severnoameriških mestih, predvsem New Yorku. Za neuresničeno izdajo zbirke leta 1937 je avtor napisal nov obsežen predgovor in zaključek, ki sta bila vključena v poznejše izdaje dela. V zaključku avtor opozori na diskre-panco med historičnim in sočasnim diskurziviranjem družbenega položaja Judov v Sovjetski zvezi. Predgovor pa vsebuje aktualizacijo družbenega položaja nemških Judov po prihodu nacizma na oblast v Nemčiji in v migracijskih deželah. V predgovoru avtor prevzame odgovornost za vsebino svojega literarnega dela,7 kar je, kot bomo videli v nadaljevanju, značilno za pripovedovalčevo identiteto in njegov način posredovanja. 6 V mislih je imel prestižno založbo S. Fischer-Verlag v Berlinu. Prizadevanja, da bi presedlal k njej, so dosegla vrhunec konec leta 1928, a željenih rezultatov vendarle niso prinesla. 7 Po Genettovi tipologiji sodi Rothov predgovor iz leta 1937, ki je bil predviden za načrtovan, a nerealiziran ponatis dela, prevladujoče v kategorijo prevzemalnega avtentično avktorialnega tipa predgovora. Ker avtor v njem izrecno prevzame odgovornost za literarno delo, je predgovor prevzemalni (»préface assomptive«), avtentičen je, ker ga potrjujejo tudi drugi paratekstualni indici (npr. besedila oz. kritike na platnicah), in avktorialen, ker je domnevni avtor predgovora tudi resnični avtor esejev. Na podlagi posameznih mest v besedilu, ki kažejo na istovetnost med avtorjem predgovora in prvoosebnim pripovedovalcem v esejistični naraciji, bi predgovor lahko uvrstili tudi v skupino fiktivno aktorialnih predgovorov (»préface actoriale fictive«) (gl. Genette). PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 Spominska retorika in reprezentacija družbenih praks ter kolektivnih identitet vzhodnoevropskega judovstva Obravnavani eseji so epizodično strukturirane avtodiegetske pripovedi in kot take sodijo v skupino nizko mimetičnih načinov oz. malih pripovedi, ki jih bralec zaznava kot izraz vsakdanjega življenja in s tem komunikativnega spomina. Vendarle pa je v besedilih tudi več pripovednih odlomkov, ki jasno inscenirajo kulturni spomin. Ta se v kom-primirani obliki najočitneje pojavi v fragmentih religiozne legende, ki eseje žanrsko umeščajo v območje monumentalne spominske retorike. To je razvidno iz pripovedi o religioznem razlogu, ki govori proti migracijam vzhodnoevropskih Judov čez Atlantik: »Stara legenda o prihodu mesije natančno opisuje vstajenje mrtvih. Vsi Judje, pokopani v tuji zemlji, se bodo morali vrteti pod zemljo, dokler ne bodo dospeli v Palestino. [...] Bodo obujeni od mrtvih tudi mrtveci, potopljeni v vodo? Ali obstaja dežela pod vodo? [...] Judovskega trupla se ne sme secirati, v celoti in povsem nedotaknjen mora človek znova postati prah.« (Roth, Juden 64) Oscilacije med empiričnim in monumental-nim načinom spominske retorike so opazne tudi na različnih ravneh pripovedi. Na ravni selekcijske strukture je očitno, da osebe in dogodki iz zunajbesedilne spominske kulture pripadajo tako komunikativnemu kot kulturnemu spominu — »Hohenzollerni (in z njimi nemški plemiški klub) so se priklonili hišnikom. Kaj lahko tu še pričakujejo Judje?« (82) Prehode med obema načinoma je nadalje moč zaslediti na ravni medbesedilnosti, meddiskurzivnosti in intermedialnosti. Kažejo se v številnih interferencah med različnimi diskurzi in jeziki ter njihovimi registri. Vsenavzoči jidiš kot osrednji vzhodnojudovski sociolekt,8 ki se pojavlja pri poimenovanju pripadnikov vzhodnoevropskega judov-stva, njihovih specifičnih poklicev — med njimi »batlen«, »humorist, norec, filozof, pripovedovalec zgodb« (35) — in v rimah — »Kim, kim, Jisruleki l aheim (domov) / v svojo drago domovino arain ...« (53) —, se prepleta s citati iz judovske Biblije in vedno znova tudi s pregovori: »Judje so ovrgli pregovor, ki tu [v primeru antisemitizma v multietnič-nih in plurikulturnih pokrajinah habsburške Avstrije; M. B.] pravi, da ima tretji dobiček, kjer se dva prepirata. Judje so bili tretji, ki so vselej izgubili.« (17) Prehodi med monumentalnim in empiričnim načinom se prav tako kažejo v prepletu nanašanj na diskurze in medije kul- 132 8 Imaginacijo jidiša lahko razumemo kot izraz avtorjeve fascinacije nad osrednjim judovskim idiomom, po drugi strani pa tudi kot dokaz Rothovega zanimanja za jidišizem. Matjaž Birk: Spominska retorika v literarni esejistiki Josepha Rotha turnega spomina z referencami na medije komunikativnega spomina, konkretno na nemške časopise. Pripovedovalec jih z ironično uporabo specifičnih stalnih besednih zvez, kakršne so »organi javnosti« (15), »naslovni članek« (21) in »lokalno poročilo« (9),9 polemično kritično perspektivira. S prepletom jezikov obeh spominskih medijev pripovedovalec evocira diskurzivno večglasje, ki je instrument preizpraševanja taistih idejnih in kulturnih antagonizmov, ki jih, kot bomo videli v nadaljevanju, z razmejevanjem lastnega in drugega kulturnega reda sam vztrajno generira. Osciliranje med izkustvenim in monumentalnim spominskoreto-ričnim načinom pride do izraza tudi na ravni pripovedovalčeve identitete in njegovega posredovanja. Bralec opazuje dogajanja z očmi prvoosebnega pripovedovalca, ki predstavlja osebni glas in komunikativni spomin. Prvoosebni pripovedovalec nastopa najprej v vlogi očividca, ki svoje doživljaje povezuje z opazovanji izkušnje drugega. Hkrati se pojavi avtodiegetski pripovedovalec, ki spregovori v imenu kolektiva in svojim izkušnjam pripisuje paradigmatični značaj, s čimer tudi on evo-cira izkustveni način. Na dogajalni ravni so nanizani pripovedovalčevi doživljaji. Ti se prvenstveno zrcalijo v njegovem notranjem svetu in se izražajo v številnih detajlih, ki pripadajo čutnim vtisom in čustvom ter se z doživljajsko pripovedjo vključujejo v komunikativni spomin. Pripovedno raven sestavljajo komentarji, analize, vrednotenja in osmiš-ljanja pripovedovanega, s čimer avtodiegetski pripovedovalec rekonstruira individualno-biografsko in kolektivno preteklost ter sočasnost in si ju na ta način prisvaja, kot je to razvidno iz pripovedi o obisku pri čudežnem rabiju (»Wunderrabbi«): Naučil se je izreke besedil in božje zakone razlagati tako, da ne nasprotujejo zakonom življenja in da nikjer ne ostane vrzel, skozi katero bi se lahko izmuznil lažnivec. [...] Kdor je doživel toliko kot rabbi, je dvom že presegel. Stadij znanja je pustil za sabo. [...] Vzvišena znanost kirurga bolniku prinese smrt in prazna modrost fizika učencu zmoto. Človek ne verjame več tistemu, ki zna. Človek verjame verujočemu. (17) Prvoosebna pripoved se prepleta s pripovedjo vsevednega pripovedovalca, ki pripovedovano umesti v oddaljeno obzorje preteklosti in prihodnosti vzhodnojudovske kulture in s tem v območje kulturnega spomina. S pozicije pripovedne avtoritete stopi v stik s fiktivnim bralcem, da bi ga omikal in poučil. Vsevedni pripovedovalec didaktično namero čustveno poudari, kar avtor pogosto grafično označi: »Zagotovo je bolje 9 »Organe der Öffentlichkeit«, »Leitartikel«, »Lokalbericht«. 133 PKn, letnik 43, št 1, Ljubljana, maj 2020 sam biti nacija kot biti trpinčen od nacije. A vendarle je to zgolj boleča nujnost. Kakšen ponos za Juda, ki se je davno tega razorožil, še enkrat dokazati, da zna tudi eksercirati!« (19) Še posebej očitni so prehodi med empiričnim in monumentalnim načinom v imaginiranih kronotopih, kar denimo velja za inscenacijo primarnega urbanega prostora, ki ga naseljujejo Judje: ta prostor — »shtetl« v izvornih deželah in »ghetto« v deželah migracije — nastopa kot zgodovinski prostor razlikovanja in razmejevanja ter hkrati institucionalizirane religioznosti. Slednja vključuje atribute mitičnega spominskega prostora in nastopa kot sprožilec nihanja med obema spominsko-retoričnima načinoma. Podobno velja za Palestino, ki je kot prostor s številnimi sodobnozgodovinskimi kronotopičnimi obeležji z vidika sio-nistov umeščena v imaginarij komunikativnega spomina, medtem ko ji pri pravovernih Judih kot referenčnemu prostoru končnega zatočišča pripade osrednje mesto v oddaljenem obzorju kulturnega spomina: »Boji se [vzhodnoevropski Jud; M. B.] dezorientacije. Navajen je, da se trikrat na dan obrne proti 'mizrahu', proti vzhodu. To je več kot verski predpis. To je globoko občutena nujnost vedenja, kje se nahaja. [...] Bolj ali manj ve, kje leži Palestina.« (64) Prehodi med izkustvenim in monumentalnim načinom predstavljajo empirično obogatitev kulturnega spomina oz. njegovo umestitev v sedanjost, kar pride do izraza na številnih mestih, kjer pripovedovalec z doživeto sedanjostjo aktualizira kulturni spomin. Ta sicer tako izgubi nekaj svojega obvezujočega značaja, po drugi strani pa postane izkustvo, kodirano predvsem v vzhodnojudovskem polifoničnem spominu, integralni del kulturnega spomina, kot je npr. razvidno v pripovedi o nenavadnem artefaktu iz berlinskega geta: Od časa do časa v Berlin prispe »Tempel Salomonis«. To svetišče je naredil neki gospod Frohmann iz Drohobiča v popolnem skladju s podrobnimi navedbami v bibliji, iz balzovca in papirmašeja in zlate barve. Nikakor ne iz cedrovine in pravega zlata kot veliki kralj Salomon. Frohmann trdi, da naj bi ta miniaturni tempelj gradil sedem let. Verjamem mu. [...] V tej okolici je vse improvizirano: tempelj [...], trgovina [...]. Še vedno je beg iz Egipta, ki se drži že stoletja. (50 sl.) Empirični in monumentalni spominskoretorični način redno prehajata v antagonističnega, ki v esejih prevladuje. Prehodi v antagonistični način so najprej opazni na jezikovni oz. slogovni ravni, kar se kaže v posnemanju antisemitske idiomatike — »Judje ne znajo piti [...]« (31), »oni uničujejo red« (37) itd. — in na ravni opisanega pripovedovalče-vega posredovanja tam, kjer ta spregovori v prvi osebi množine in z gla- Matjaž Birk: Spominska retorika v literarni esejistiki Josepha Rotha som skupnosti. Antagonistični način spominske retorike je vseprisoten v razmerjih med prostori in liki. Ta razmerja so zaradi številčnosti in raznolikosti za osvetlitev korelacije med spominsko retoriko in iden-titetnimi konstrukcijami še posebej zanimiva. Med semantiziranimi prostori izstopajo urbana okolja in prevladujejo kontrastna razmerja. Berlin in še posebno Dunaj nastopata kot identitetno ogrožujoča socio-kulturna prostora v diaspori: Dunaj zaradi politično vsiljenega stigmativnega razlikovanja in Berlin zaradi zapovedi preseganja takega razlikovanja, utemeljenega v kulturnem kozmopolitizmu, ki vodi v nepovratno asimilacijo: »Berlin izenači različne in ubije posebnosti. Zato v Berlinu ni velikega geta. [...] Najbolj judovska od vseh berlinskih ulic je žalostna Hirtenstraße.« (49) Po drugi strani opažamo med insceniranimi urbanimi prostori razmerja, ki nasprotja presegajo. Pripovedovalec npr. kodira Pariz kot prostor organične asimilacije. Ta se prične na ravni jezika s prepletanjem kodov — »Ta [g. Weingrod, judovski gostilničar v Parizu; M. B.] reče svoji ženi: