363
Documenta Praehistorica XLIII (2016)
The exploitation of animal resources
in Şoimuş-La Avicola (Ferma 2) settlement (Romania)
Monica Mărgărit 1, Cristian Eduard Ştefan 2 and Valentin Dumitraşcu 2
1 Valahia University of Târgovişte, Târgovişte, RO
monicamargarit@yahoo.com
2 “Vasile Pârvan” Institute of Archaeology, Bucharest, RO
cristarh_1978@yahoo.com< validumitrascu@yahoo.com
Archaeological background
Turdas culture evolved along the middle and lower
stretches of the Mures River, and included approx.
60 settlements (Suciu 2009.Fig. 259). Among the
best researched are those at Turdas-Luncă, Orăstie-
Dealul Pemilor (punct x2), Deva-Tăualas, Mintia,
Zlasti-Gruiul lui Mos, Pestera Cauce, and Nandru Va-
le (Lazarovici, Lazarovici 2006). Several radiocar-
bon dates place this important manifestation of the
Transylvanian Neolithic in the first half of the 5th
millennium BC (Drasovean 2013a; 2013b).
Settlements have extensive surfaces, generally be-
tween 7 and 10ha, but there are also cases when
they reach 55ha (Nandru Vale) or even 75ha (Tur-
das-Luncă). Surface dwellings and numerous pits are
attested as inhabited structures, and enclosure ditch-
es or defensive structures, like trenches and palisa-
des are also mentioned (Turdas, Orăstie, Soimus).
Along with the settlements, several seasonally inha-
bited caves were also excavated, probably connected
with sheep herding, like at Cauce Cave (Lazarovici,
ABSTRACT – The aim of this paper is to present an interesting archaeological assemblage discovered
during archaeological research at the settlement of Soimus-La Avicola (Ferma 2) (Romania). So far,
this is the only example of a Turdas culture osseous assemblage published. It is numerically repre-
sentative, with 901 pieces, of which 796 are bone, 94 antler, 8 tooth and 3 valve. Among the bone
pieces, a high standardisation in the selection of blanks is noticeable, with Bos taurus ribs being
prevalent. At the same time, the techniques and procedures vary only a little within the groups, which
allows for the identification of typological series. The recovery of all the products and sub-products
resulting from the operational sequences of raw material transformation and the analysis of the
wear and technological traces led us to try to reconstruct a behavioural model of the ways raw mate-
rial was acquired, processing techniques and activities developed with them, or in other words to out-
line the economic and cultural features of the Soimus-La Avicola (Ferma 2) community.
IZVLE∞EK – Namen ≠lanka je predstaviti zanimiv arheolo∏ki zbir, ki smo ga odkrili pri arheolo∏kem
raziskovanju naselbine Soimus-La Avicola (Ferma 2) v Romuniji. To je edini primer objavljenega
kostnega zbira kulture Turdas. Zbir sestavlja 901 kosov, od tega 796 kosti, 94 ostankov rogovja, 8 zob
in 3 lupine ∏koljk. Pri izbiri kosti prepoznamo visoko stopnjo standardizacije, prevladujejo pa rebra
vrsta Bos taurus. Poleg tega je le malo variacij znotraj skupin pri izbiri tehnike in postopkih izdela-
ve orodij, kar omogo≠a prepoznavanje tipolo∏kih serij. S pomo≠jo analize vseh izdelkov in pod-izdel-
kov iz analize operacijske sekvence spremembe naravnih surovin in analize uporabe ter tehnolo∏-
kih sledov lahko posku∏amo rekonstruirati na≠ine, kako so v preteklosti pridobivali surovine, kak∏-
ne so bile tehnike izdelave in druge aktivnosti povezane z obdelavo kosti; z drugimi besedami, la∫je
zaobjamemo gospodarske in kulturne zna≠ilnosti skupnosti na najdi∏≠u Soimus-La Avicola (Ferma 2).
KEY WORDS – Turdas culture; raw materials; operational schemes; wear traces
DOI> 10.4312\dp.43.18 
Monica Mărgărit, Cristian Eduard Ştefan and Valentin Dumitraşcu
364
Lazarovici 2006; Luca 2012). As ceramic forms spe-
cific to Turdas culture, we may mention goblets with
high feet, rectangular vessels, cups, bitronconical
pots, amphorae, and bowls. The main types of orna-
ment are incised lines with arrays of dotted lines in
the interior, or incisions cut in the vessel wall before
firing, while parallel incised lines are rarely painted.
Numerous anthropomorphic and zoomorphic fig-
urines have also been found, as well as anthropo-
morphic representations on vessels, anthropomor-
phic vessels, and miniature altars (Roska 1941; Lu-
ca 1997; 2001). The connections of Turdas culture
with the great Vin≠a area are obvious through the
forms and decoration of pottery, figurines, architec-
tural or cult objects. Moreover, in most of the archa-
eological literature, Turdas culture is considered a
distinct group, with strong affinities in the Vin≠a
area, which appeared as a consequence of a migra-
tion at the Vin≠a C level in south-western Transylva-
nia (e.g., Berciu 1966; Lazarovici 1981; Chapman
1981.Fig. 13).
Because of the construction of the Deva-Orăstie seg-
ment of the A1 Motorway, the ‘Vasile Pârvan’ Insti-
tute of Archaeology, Bucharest, the Deva Museum
of Dacian and Roman Civilization, and the National
Museum of Romanian History undertook rescue ex-
cavations in the settlement of Soimus-La Avicola
(Ferma 2) (Hunedoara County). This is within the
area of Soimus village, between the eponymous set-
tlement and Bălata village, on the first terrace of
Mures (Fig. 1).
Given the size and archaeological complexity of the
work, the site was divided into two sections: area A,
the Neolithic nucleus, and area B, the Bronze Age
settlement. According to the preliminary field obser-
vations, a Neolithic settlement with two main habi-
tation phases was located here. From the stratigra-
phic perspective, the first phase corresponds to a
settlement comprised of houses, followed by a field
levelling, with brown-grey sediment discovered in
the filling’s upper side of many stratigraphic fea-
tures at the site. The second phase of habitation is
indicated by surface dwellings, where a consistent
level of destruction was identified in the form of
pieces of house daub scattered throughout the sur-
face, fireplaces, fragments of clay floors with a sub-
structure of river gravel, post holes and a very rich
archaeological assemblage (ceramics, bones, lithic
material). Most of the Neolithic complexes consist
of pits with different functions: for storage or for
clay extraction, later on transformed into domestic
waste pits.
A first conclusion we may draw after researching
area A of the site at Soimus is that the site on this
terrace of Mures was intensively occupied during
the Neolithic period by people of the Turdas culture,
a fact demonstrated by the impressive amount of
archaeological material, which includes coarse and
fine ceramics (166 complete pots and numerous
other ceramic fragments), anthropomorphic and
zoomorphic figurines (over 200 clay weights, com-
plete or fragmentary), lithic items (flint and obsidian
blades, grinders, 150 axes of polished stone), pro-
cessed and unprocessed bones, miniature altars etc.
(Petcu et al. 2012; Stefan et al. 2013; 2015; Stefan
2014; Nită et al. 2015; Stefan, Petcu 2015).
Methodology
The methodology used in this study relied on both
macroscopic and microscopic analysis of the tech-
nological and wear traces present on the finds,
aided by published technological data from other
archaeological assemblages from the same area and
neighbouring regions. In the first stage of analysis,
a chart was drawn for each artefact, with observa-
tions on raw material, the type of find (waste, blank,
preform, finished piece) or morphology; then fol-
lowed processing techniques (two main operations:
debitage and shaping) and, finally, hypothetical func-
tion resulting from identified use wear was pro-
posed. In the next stage, in order to correlate the
data offered by each artefact, the analysis was large-
ly dependent on specific raw materials (such as
bone, antler, valve, tooth), because, as we will ob-
serve in this study, the different mechanical charac-
teristics of raw materials required the use of diffe-
rent techniques adapted to their characteristics. With-
in the main large categories of raw materials, the
finds were subdivided in terms of how finished they
were, thus resulting in four categories; the presence
of all the constitutive elements of an operational se-
quence offered clues regarding the in situ process-
ing of the necessary toolkit for this community.
When the degree of preservation allowed, pieces
were examined with a Keyence VHX-600 digital mi-
croscope at 30x to 150x magnification; images were
focused with the aid of a camera incorporated into
the microscope. Analytical criteria for the technolo-
gical and functional interpretation of micro-stigma-
ta were established based on comparisons with other
publications on osseous industries in prehistory (e.g.,
Maigrot 2003; Sidéra, Legrand 2006; van Gijn 2007;
Legrand 2007; Legrand, Sidéra 2007; Gates St-Pier-
re 2010; Buc 2011).
The exploitation of animal resources in Şoimuş-La Avicola (Ferma 2) settlement (Romania)
365
Raw materials exploitation
The osseous industry at Soimus took raw materials
from both domestic and wild animal species, as well
as from trade networks (Tab. 1; Fig. 2). We identified
continuity in the selection of species and the skele-
ton elements, with few variations. Cattle (Bos tau-
rus) predominates (accounting for approx. 72% of
all processed bones) with a predisposition for ribs.
They provided a matrix for various types of object:
pointed tools, spatulas, spoon-spatulas and pendants.
Moreover, there is a noticeable standardised pro-
cessing of blanks and of preforms, processed fin-
ished objects which could be transformed, for in-
stance, into both pointed tools, and into spatulas on
a rib split lengthwise. The difference between them
lies only in the extremity at which wear is present.
Next in quantity, sheep/goat (Ovis aries/Capra hir-
cus) bones (13% of osseous blanks) were made into
pointed tools only. Other species were used spora-
dically, probably opportunistically, by recovering
blanks morphologically adapted to different uses
from culinary waste.
The deer (Cervidae) antler was not very intensively
exploited (11.43% of the archaeological assem-
blage). It is difficult to establish how many of the
items derive from shed antlers and how many from
hunted animals, given the preeminence of the tines
and the quasi-absence of the antler’s basal area.
Nevertheless, the basal area of a red deer (Cervus
elaphus) antler was identified, considered debitage
waste, and two finished items from roe deer (Capre-
olus capreolus) antlers, which demonstrate the ob-
vious exploitation of a shed ant-
ler. The presence of a shed antler
implies that expeditions with the
aim of gathering the antlers were
organised a short time after the
red deer lost its antlers. Antlers
grow from April until July (when
they reach maximum calcification)
and fall at the end of the winter
(in March for adult specimens)
(Provenzano 2001). They are at-
tacked by rodents, carnivores,
even red deer, then by invertebra-
tes, shortly afterward (Averbouh
2000; 2005; van Gijn 2007); how-
ever, prehistoric communities
needed them in good condition.
This is why we assume the organi-
sation of expeditions shortly after
the red deer lost its antlers.
A third type of raw material is the boar (Sus scrofa)
canine. Being a wild species, the acquisition of this
raw material was exclusively the result of hunting.
Finally, the items made from Spondylus and Glycy-
meris valves derive from exchanges with other com-
munities. A number of prehistoric communities are
known to have used fossil species, but a series of stu-
dies, like those of Shakelton and Elderfield (1990),
or, more recently, of Bernadett Bajnóczi et alii
(2013), seem to confirm the use of fresh valves, at
least of Spondylus. Exchanges could have entailed
the direct import of raw material or of finished pie-
ces via direct exchange or group to group (kula-like
exchanges, such as those in Polynesia; Malinowski
1989). The socio-economic importance of these shells,
probably along with difficulties in acquiring them,
compelled the community at Soimus to manage items
carefully, reflected by long usage (advanced wear)
and by repairing or recycling fractured items (see
the Spondylus valve bracelet).
Management of technology
The assemblage of hard animal material at the Soi-
mus settlement totals 901 objects, which can be as-
signed to four product and sub-product categories as
mentioned above (Fig. 3). Their distribution is un-
even, favouring finished products, which total 769
(85.4% of all products), whereas 20 objects were be-
ing processed (2.2%) and blanks and wastes amount
to 14 items (1.6%). We have also added the impor-
tant category of ‘undetermined’, which includes 98
artefacts (10.8%).
Fig. 1. Location of the Soimus-La Avicola (Farm 2) settlement.
Monica Mărgărit, Cristian Eduard Ştefan and Valentin Dumitraşcu
366
Bone
Pointed tools (458 items) comprise the most nu-
merous typological category within the assemblage
from Soimus. We observed a couple of typological
sub-groups, which are defined first by the manner
in which the blank was obtained. Most of the items
(246 samples) were made of cattle rib by splitting
the bone lengthwise. In samples in which the shap-
ing stage was not clear, it is evident that semi-ribs
were detached by direct diffuse percussion, with the
procedure being finished by indirect percussion. The
manner of treating the cancellous tissue is not quite
the same: in some items, it was not removed, while
in others it was removed completely. The inferior
side was afterwards smoothed by abrasion (Fig.
4.1,2). A convex or rectilinear form was impressed
at the proximal extremity by abrasion (Fig. 4.3). The
debitage edges were generally also shaped by ab-
rasion (Fig. 4.4), after which, at the distal end, bila-
teral scraping was applied (Fig. 4.5) in order to shape
the point. The active surface morphology of the
pieces with wear traces is generally rounded, with
fine longitudinal scratches (Fig. 4.6). Twenty-two
other items were included in this typological sub-
group, also obtained by a method of splitting by per-
cussion. Anatomically, the blanks
are various. The technological data
on the shaping operation are iden-
tical with those on the pointed tools
made of ribs.
A second type of processing (92
items) used sheep/goat bones (me-
tapodials, 55 items; metatarsus, 17
items; metacarpus, 12 items) and
secondarily roe deer (metatarsus, 4
items, metapode, 4 items). The two
points which seem to derive from
the same bone and which illustrate
perfectly the debitage method (Fig.
5.1) are very interesting. The me-
thod was to split the bone, gener-
ally preserving the epiphysis (Fig.
5.2). At the proximal end, both
sides were flattened by abrasion
(Fig. 5.3,7). On most pieces, abra-
sion does not seem to have been
used exclusively until the two
blanks were detached. It was ap-
plied until the medullary canal was
reached, over a small surface, with
the splitting of the two halves by
indirect percussion. Nevertheless,
in a couple of samples, it is obvious that bifacial
abrasion was the only method used (Fig. 5.6). The
blank was shaped by longitudinal scraping applied
around the entire circumference at the mesial-distal
end (Fig. 5.4). The points are rounded, with marked
wear polish (Fig. 5.5,8).
The third subgroup comprises 94 items made on
flat blanks obtained by dividing the bone into four
by percussion (Fig. 6.1,2). In most cases, the shap-
ing stage took the form of abrasion of the debitage
edges (Fig. 6.3), superposed at the distal end with
bilateral scraping (Fig. 6.4) in order to develop the
point (Fig. 6.5). In items that were preserved, the
proximal extremity was shaped by abrasion. Some
samples were shaped only by abrasion or scraping
applied to various areas.
Seven pieces were made on blanks in the assem-
blage. Atypical raw materials were used that do not
appear in other categories, e.g., boar ulna and fibula
or two horse metatarsus (Equus caballus). In one
sample, at the epiphysis end, bifacial abrasion was
applied to make the surfaces regular. In others (Fig.
7.1), the only technological intervention was the
procedure for finishing the point by scraping around
Valve 2 1
Antler 88 6
Incisor 1
Canine 7
Rib 549
Coxae 2
Humerus 1
Scapula 5
Radius 6
Ulna 1
Metacarpus 1 14 1
Femur 1
Tibia 1 3 1 1
Metatarsus 4 19 2 1 5
Metapodial 1 69 4 4 1
Long bone
1 2 96
diaphysis
TOTAL 572 107 2 7 1 94 16 2 97 2 1
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Tab. 1. Numerical distribution of the differents types of raw mate-
rial and their selection by species and skeletal elements.
The exploitation of animal resources in Şoimuş-La Avicola (Ferma 2) settlement (Romania)
367
the entire circumference (Fig. 7.2). When preserved,
points are very rounded, showing no signs of being
worked on (Fig. 7.3). A second method (Fig. 7.4) of
processing points on blanks consisted of eliminat-
ing the epiphysis by percussion, without regularis-
ing the debitage plan. In order to form the active
front (i.e., anatomically preserved surface), the ob-
ject was struck obliquely. The point was developed
by bilateral shaping (Fig. 7.5). Still, we are no longer
able to identify any technological traces, because
the piece is very worn, with a high surface macrosco-
pic polish. The point is blunt and rounded. More-
over, 7mm of the point developed a depression
around the entire circumference, which might have
resulted from the use of the piece to make perfora-
tions by rotation, the depression being the piece’s
penetration limit (Fig. 7.6).
Spatulas (118 items). A first variant of processing
consists of using the rib’s natural blank (16 pieces)
(Fig. 8.1,4). The development of the active front
started with a segmentation procedure using percus-
sion, according to all the data we have. Unifacial
abrasion was then applied (Fig. 8.2,5) to the active
front. The wear is characterised by a macroscopic
polish, with longitudinal scratches (Fig. 8.3,6), de-
monstrating use in a lengthwise movement in con-
tact with a soft material.
A second technological variant consists of applying
a method of splitting ribs (99 pieces), seemingly ac-
complished by diffuse percussion (Fig. 8.7,9). The
form was created by scraping the fracture sides
(Fig. 8.10). The inferior side was not cleaned thor-
oughly in all the samples, with the complete elimi-
nation of the cancellous tissue. The proximal part
was developed by abrasion. The active front was
also made by bifacial abrasion, applied only at the
extremity. The active surface presents macroscopic
polish and oblique scratches (Fig. 8.8,11). On the
superior side, a strong macroscopic polish developed
at the medial side, probably because of handling.
In the spatula category we also included pieces de-
riving from the diaphysis wall, entirely shaped and
having two spatula extremities, with macroscopic
polish (3 pieces) (Fig. 8.12,13). We do not know the
debitage procedures, due to the very smooth shap-
ing by abrasion applied on the entire surface. The
two extremities, also shaped by abrasion, developed
functional longitudinal scratches.
Spoons (96 items). In this category, we integrated
different pieces whose common element is the pre-
sence of a concavity which transforms them into re-
ceptor elements. Some pieces (72 pieces) were made
on longitudinally split cattle rib split lengthwise (Fig.
9.1). The debitage edges and the convex distal ex-
tremity were made by abrasion. The technological
data which led us to define the group as spoons ra-
ther than spatulas relate to both with the concavity
created by profound deep longitudinal scraping (Fig.
9.5), and the finishing of a narrower proximal area
by bilateral scraping (Fig. 9.4). In some samples, the
handle presents an example made by alternative
cutting (Fig. 9.3). The cutting was applied subse-
quently when the sides were shaped because specif-
ic traces are still visible (Figs. 9.6,7). Perforations
were also made in the proximal extremity (Fig. 9.2).
Spoons with a different morphology were obtained
from the diaphysis of some cattle and red deer long
bones (24 pieces) (Fig. 10.1). The pieces consist of
three distinct parts: receptor element, the rod and
the specific proximal extremity. Generally, we iden-
tified fractured proximal parts and meso-distal parts
that lack a specific proximal extremity. We believe
that the pieces fractured quite often at the proxi-
mal end and were fixed by the abrasion of the frac-
Fig. 2. Percentages of raw materials used for tools.
Fig. 3. Percentages of tools and semi-finished pro-
ducts of the operational sequence.
Monica Mărgărit, Cristian Eduard Ştefan and Valentin Dumitraşcu
368
ture plan. Unfortunately, we have not identified pie-
ces in intermediary processing stages, which raises
the problem of reconstructing the operational trans-
formation scheme, given the complexity of the pro-
cedures. The experimental study published by Isa-
belle Sidéra (2011) allowed us to reconstruct the suc-
cession of the technological process. Thus, in the
first stage, a method of splitting the bone was ap-
plied, thus obtaining two similar blanks. The deb-
itage edges were regularised by abrasion, including
the distal extremity, with a convex morphology (Fig.
10.4). In order to make the concavity specific to
spoons, the medullary canal was used, deepened
either directly by longitudinal scraping (Fig. 10.7) or
by a delineation procedure in the form of a perfora-
tion made by rotation (Fig. 10.3), starting from
which longitudinal scraping was applied (Fig. 10.2).
In most pieces, the handle is cylindrical (Fig. 10.6),
probably shaped by scraping (Fig. 10.10), over which
an abrasion meant to create a specific morphology
was superposed. At this end, the wear on the is great,
with macroscopic polish and the disappearance of
technological traces (Fig. 10.5,8). The proximal ex-
tremities (Fig. 10.9) are actually the extremities of
the epiphysis, illustrating a procedure of bifacial ab-
rasion applied until the two perfectly plain sides
appeared (Fig. 10.11).
Bevelled objects (9 items). A first processing vari-
ant started from dividing the bone into four pieces
by percussion (2 items) (Fig. 11.1). The active front
was achieved by bifacial abrasion applied only at
the distal end (Fig. 11.2). The wear consists of lon-
gitudinal scratches, with a very high polish, from
which we concluded that the pieces were used in a
linear movement (Fig. 11.3). The other six items
were made by splitting the bone longitudinally; with
one exception, percussion was used. The exception
(Fig. 11.4) consists of splitting by grooving (Fig. 11.5)
one of the edges, the detachment continuing by in-
direct percussion. The active front was developed by
bifacial abrasion applied at the distal end. In most
pieces, the active front exhibits important fractures
(Fig. 11.4), illustrating their use as intermediary tools
in indirect percussion actions. In one item (Fig. 11.6),
the surface presents wear in the form of fine scratch-
es that are slightly oblique, superposed by abrasion
incisions, which demonstrate several stages of re-
sharping the piece (Fig. 11.7,8). One last item is a
fragment detached by percussion from a cattle sca-
pula. Abrasion for regularisation on the debitage
edges and at both extremities was applied on irregul-
ar surfaces. The wear of the active front is not great.
Fish hooks (5 items) (Fig. 12.1). The presence of
the constitutive elements of the technological
scheme (see preforms section) helped us to recon-
struct the stages of blank extraction for future
hooks. The surface was smoothed by longitudinal
scraping (Fig. 12.2) applied on variable surfaces ac-
cording to the piece. The specific point of the hook
was sharpened by scraping (Fig. 11.5). Abrasion was
the final processing stage for 3 items (Fig. 12. 3).
The pieces have one (1 piece) or two perforations (4
pieces) at the distal end, accomplished by bifacial ro-
tation (Fig. 12.4).
Adornments (14 items). A bracelet was made from
a rib (Fig. 13.1). The item was fractured; the two
fragments could not be fastened, but they seem to
belong to a single unique piece. The blank is flat,
obtained by longitudinal splitting; the procedure
could not be reconstructed, due to subsequent inter-
ventions. The lower side was thoroughly shaped
lengthwise (Fig. 13.3), eliminating the cancellous
tissue. The same technique was applied to the deb-
itage edges (Fig. 13.2). The extremities were made
regular. It is worth noting that the blank underwent
a treatment that allowed it to flex, so that it took
the form of a bracelet. This was clasped by means
of two perforations made by bifacial rotation (Fig.
13.5) at the extremities. They are noticeably worn;
the rotation scratches can no longer be seen. More-
over, one of the extremities bears the remains of a
fractured perforation (Fig. 13.4). The item was re-
paired with a new perforation. Another fragment
also seems to derive from a bracelet. In this case
also the bone was split, but we do not know the pro-
cedure, because the debitage edges were thorough-
ly abraded. Deep scraping, still visible, was applied
to the inferior side. One extremity still retains part
of a perforation made by unifacial rotation.
Twelve items, similar in raw material and technol-
ogy, have raised framing issues. They could have
been transformed either into points or into spatu-
las, but the extremities do not have traces of wear
(Fig. 13.6). On the contrary, a perforation was made
by bifacial rotation at the pointed extremity (Fig.
13.9). All the pieces are made on flat blanks obtained
by splitting the rib lengthwise, with the edges
achieved by lengthwise scraping (Fig. 13.8) in
order to achieve the desired form of the piece. The
cancellous tissue was removed from all the pieces.
The lower side and both extremities were made re-
gular by abrasion (Figs. 13.7,10) on variable sur-
faces, according to the item.
The exploitation of animal resources in Şoimuş-La Avicola (Ferma 2) settlement (Romania)
369
Needles (2 items). The first item (Fig. 14.1) is made
on a flat blank obtained by splitting the bone into
four pieces by percussion. The debitage edges were
entirely shaped by lengthwise scraping. The active
front was developed by scraping around the entire
circumference at the distal end (Fig. 14.2). Proximal-
ly, a perforation was made by unifacial rotation from
the lower side. The point is blunt, with marked pol-
ish and functional scratches in parallel with the
item’s axis (Fig. 14.3). The second needle is a meso-
proximal fragment on a flat blank obtained by
splitting the bone into four pieces. We do not know
the debitage procedure, because the entire surface
of the item was made regular by lengthwise scrap-
ing. Abrasion was used only at the proximal extre-
mity. Its function as a needle is suggested by a bifa-
cial rotation perforation.
Ring (1 item). The item was obtained through a
segmentation procedure by sawing. The segmenta-
tion plan was shaped by abrasion. At the same time,
the diaphysis’ medullary canal was enlarged by
scraping.
Knife (1 item). Although the item is fractured (Fig.
14.4), we may assert that the blank was obtained
through lengthwise percussion. Only the edge used
as the active front was processed. It was bilateral-
ly shaped with lengthwise scraping (Fig. 14.5). A
convex and very sharp bevel resulted. Presently, it
is highly polished on both sides (Fig. 14.6) and the
traces of scraping have begun to disappear. We do
not know if it was used for cutting or scraping. What-
ever the case, this type of active front is useful for
both types of action.
Belt element (1 item). One item (Fig. 14.7), inter-
esting because of its morphology and technological
scheme, was placed in this typological category ba-
sed on comparisons with similar items from the lit-
erature (Ramseyer 2001). It was made on a flat
blank derived from a long bone. Due to subsequent
work on the item, we were not able to identify the
debitage procedures. The form was created by saw-
ing, after which the debitage edges were shaped.
The perforation was accomplished by bifacial rota-
tion, with still visible grooves (Fig. 14.9). We also
identified areas of wear, with the disappearance of
technological traces. The lower side was regularised
by abrasion (Fig. 14.8). The entire surface of the
item presents a strong macroscopic polish, probably
caused by prolonged use. Unfortunately, it is frac-
tured and we do not know its intact morphology.
Handle (1 item). The item (Fig. 15.1) was made by
eliminating the epiphysis by sawing (Fig. 15.2), after
which the segmentation plan was thoroughly pol-
ished (Fig. 15.3). The natural medullar canal was
used for gloving.
Indeterminates (87 items). This category mainly
includes items made on ribs split lengthwise – most
probably pointed tools, spatulas or spoons-spatu-
las; their high degree of fragmentation prevents
identification of the exact morphology/function (70
items). Several items (17) made on other types of
blanks, alas also fractured, proved interesting due
to their technological traces. For the first item (Fig.
15.4), a flat blank was used, the debitage edges
being regularised by abrasion (Fig. 15.5). Three bi-
facial rotation perforations were made centrally (Fig.
15.6) and a fourth was initiated from the inferior
side, by rotation. Another item (Fig. 15.7) is a meso-
proximal fragment. First, the model was cut (Fig.
15.9), after which the item’s entire surface was reg-
ularised by lengthwise scraping (Fig. 15.8), which
covered all the traces appearing during the debitage
operation. The extremity was made regular by abra-
sion. One of four pieces is technologically worth not-
ing: they seem to have been made on flat bones,
preserving the matrix’s anatomic volume. We do not
know the procedure for obtaining the blank, because
the form was achieved by scraping the side length-
wise (Fig. 15.11) and by surface abrasion (Fig.
15.13), which destroyed some of the previous traces.
In one of the pieces (Fig. 15.10), the preserved extre-
mity seems to have been segmented by sawing; it
also exhibits two perforations made by alternative
bifacial rotation (Fig. 15.14). A third perforation was
initiated from the inferior side, which is very im-
portant because it demonstrates that the perfora-
tion was not performed with a perçoir-type lithic
tool, but with a circular item, hollow on the inside
(small central waste) (Fig. 15.12). Another piece pre-
sents a small perforation at its base accomplished
by bifacial rotation, above which a perforation with
a greater diameter was made. The fact that the lat-
ter has a morphological deformation, probably fol-
lowing the pressure of a thread, seems quite inter-
esting. The wear covers the entire surface of the
item.
Preforms (3 items). Two preforms identified in
the Soimus settlement were destined to be trans-
formed into fish hooks. These are flat blanks (Fig.
16.1) obtained by splitting the bone, seemingly by
percussion, after which the debitage edges were
completely abraded. The segmentation was done by
Monica Mărgărit, Cristian Eduard Ştefan and Valentin Dumitraşcu
370
sawing. One of the samples was shaped by length-
wise scraping, while the upper side was regularised
by abrasion in order to reduce the bone’s convexity.
The extremities were also regularised by abrasion.
In order to make the future hook, perforations were
made with bifacial (1 item) or unifacial (1 item) ro-
tation (Fig. 16.2). Afterwards, grooving traced the
form of the future hook (Fig. 16.3).
Another type of item which was still being processed
(Fig. 16.4) consisted in obtaining a splinter by suc-
cessive partitions. A proximal peduncle-shaped glov-
ing system was set up by progressive cutting, fol-
lowed by shaping applied meso-proximally by abra-
sion to the upper side. The item remained at this
stage of processing.
Antler
Punches (17 items). The items were made on red
deer antler tines (Fig. 16.5), except for a single piece,
an antler branch of roe deer. Usually, the antler’s
natural form was used with minimal technological
interventions. Segmentation was probably made by
percussion applied to various surfaces, the procedure
being finished by bending or, in rare cases, again by
percussion (Fig. 16.6). The active front was fixed at
the point of the tine by small chiseling, thus creat-
ing a flattened surface. Another manner of achieving
a point consisted in thinning by scraping around the
entire circumference. The pressed aspect of the ac-
tive front, with fine irregular scratches (Fig. 16.7),
might be due to its use for crushing different mate-
rials. For instance, one of the items shows spots of
black pigment on the active front (Fig. 16.8).
Six of these pieces seem also to have been used as
pressure flakers (Fig. 16.9). One piece presents a
small area with oblique, sub-parallel scratches on
the point (Fig. 16.10), perpendicular to the item’s
axis (Fig. 16.11). The point’s anatomic form was mo-
dified by some degree of chiseling around the entire
circumference, like the other pieces in this typolo-
gical category.
The roe deer antler is a shed one, upon which the
tines were eliminated by percussion on half of the
diameter, followed by bending. A tine was preserv-
ed. Its surface is covered by macroscopic polish and
transversal scratches, probably due to contact with
a lithic tool.
Fish hooks (13 items). The blank was obtained
from the compact tissue of the antler, by length-
wise percussion. Segmentation was made transver-
sally by percussion. The form was achieved meso-
distally by bilateral lengthwise scraping (Fig. 12.7).
Abrasion was the final process for 11 items (Fig.
12.8). The distal extremity was shaped by abrasion,
acquiring a rectilinear morphology. At the distal end,
the items have one (4 pieces) or two perforations
(8 pieces), accomplished by bifacial rotation. One
item (Fig. 12.6) presents a different clasping system,
namely a perforation made by rotation (Fig. 12.10),
associated with a groove cut at 19mm from it, by
sawing applied around the entire circumference (Fig.
12.9).
Bevelled objects (12 items). The common element
of these pieces is that the blanks in the assemblage
were made only from red deer antler tines (Fig. 17.
1,4). Segmentation was by percussion around the
entire circumference (Fig. 17.5) in 4 items, while the
procedure was undetermined in the others (8 items).
The oblique distal end was finished by percussion
(Fig. 17.2) or scraping (Fig. 17.6); in 3 of the items,
the debitage plan of the active front was regularised
by abrasion (Fig. 17.7) or scraping. The manner in
which the fractures evolved both distally and prox-
imally alongside the macroscopic polish with longi-
tudinal scratches (Fig. 17.3,8) clearly illustrate these
items’ function as intermediary tools.
Composed tools (4 items). All the items were made
from the superior area of a branch. At the seg-
mentation level, the preserved volume was thinned
by abrasion, thus creating an area with biconvex
section and convex-concave sides (Fig. 18.6). The
rest of the surface was regularised by lengthwise
scraping (Fig. 18.2). Towards this end, a perforation
was made by rotation (Fig. 18.4,7). Moreover, one
item (Fig. 18.5) was fractured and repaired, as de-
monstrated by the presence of median technologi-
cal traces which attest the existence of previous per-
forations. Another item (Fig. 18.1) presents two per-
forations performed by bifacial rotation. Two gro-
oves developed towards the point, which seem to
have resulted from tying a thread (Fig. 18.3). Final-
ly, a third item (Fig. 18.8) has an ornament accom-
plished by rotation quite randomly distributed over
the entire surface.
Handles (2 items). The pieces attributed to this ca-
tegory differ, so they will be described separately.
The first (Fig. 19.1) is a segment on a tine detached
by percussion at both extremities (Fig. 19.2). Tech-
nological traces of this segmentation procedure can
hardly be identified because the pearling was elim-
The exploitation of animal resources in Şoimuş-La Avicola (Ferma 2) settlement (Romania)
371
inated by chiseling over the entire surface of the
piece, on which a procedure of shaping by scraping
was superimposed (Fig. 19.4). Both segmentation
plans were regularised by abrasion (Fig. 19.5). At
the narrower extremity, the cancellous tissue was
excavated, thus developing a hole (Fig. 19.3) with
a depth of 11 mm and a diameter of 9 mm. The item
is highly worn, with lengthwise cracks as a conse-
quence of the pressure exerted by the gloved piece,
and presents strong macro-wear.
The second item is a percussion segmented beam.
A procedure of surface modification by percussion
was employed, eliminating the pearling. A median
rectangular perforation by bifacial cutting was made,
as well as a small perforation by rotation, probably
for blocking the gloved piece.
Receptacle (1 item). An antler tine (Fig. 19.6) from
the basal area was processed by segmentation and
lengthwise splitting; the procedures could not be
identified because the debitage edges were regu-
larised by abrasion. The cancellous tissue was en-
tirely removed, deep lengthwise scraping being vis-
ible on the inside. Lengthwise scraping was also ap-
plied to the upper side to eliminate the pearling and
clean the surface. A concavity is visible on the lower
side, which led us to identify the item as a recepta-
cle.
Bracelet (1 item). The piece (Fig. 19.7) was made
on flat blank, which was probably processed in
order to be curved and achieve the bracelet form.
The lower side was thoroughly abraded. Small cuts
were applied by sawing (Fig. 19.8), at a distance of
approx. 3mm, while the depth of the grooves is
approx. 1.87mm. Three perforations were made by
unifacial rotation (Fig. 19.9) from the upper side,
and were intended to clasp the item.
Comb (1 item) (Fig. 20.1). In order to obtain the
blank, an extraction method by sawing was used
(specific technological traces may still be identified
on the item’s long side) (Fig. 20.2). Afterwards, the
debitage edges were thoroughly shaped (Fig. 20.3).
On the lower side, the blank was shaped by a length-
wise scraping. Two perforations were made at the
extremities by unifacial rotation from the lower side
(Fig. 20.4). The perforations were subsequent to the
scraping made on the superior side, because they
superpose it. They were probably intended for clasp-
ing. The ornament consists only of incisions (Fig.
20.7). Initially, there were 13 teeth, obtained by the
intersection of two grooves (Fig. 20.5). The proce-
dure was applied until the cutting of a small frag-
ment, with triangular morphology. The teeth present
macroscopic polish and are well rounded (Fig. 20.6).
Ring (1 item). The item (Fig. 20.8) was obtained
through a segmentation procedure, probably by
sawing. The traces are no longer visible, because the
segmentation plan was regularised by abrasion (Fig.
20.9). Grooves were made on its surface (Fig. 20.10),
traced around the entire circumference, probably to
suggest an ornament. The ring’s interior was en-
larged by means of lengthwise scraping.
Undetermined (11 items). In this category, we in-
cluded pieces whose function could not be determin-
ed, generally because of breakage. The first piece
(Fig. 21.1) is a beam fragment for which the segmen-
tation was made by percussion. The segmentation
plan was subsequently shaped. The pearling was
completely eliminated by percussion (Fig. 21.2). The
item shows one broken perforation. Nevertheless, a
new median perforation was made by bifacial cut-
ting (Fig. 21.3). We may be dealing with the recy-
cling of an item by transforming it into a handle.
Another piece (Fig. 21.4), also made from a beam, is
longitudinally fractured, so that we were not able to
entirely reconstruct its morphology. The segmenta-
tion plan was thoroughly abraded proximally. At the
opposed extremity, it seems that the segmentation
was made by percussion. The item’s entire surface
was shaped by lengthwise scraping (Fig. 21.6). A
perforation was made 75 mm from the proximal ex-
tremity by bifacial cutting. The item is decorated (Fig.
21.5): longitudinal proximal rows of 8–9 perfora-
tions and a long row of 13 meso-distal perforations
(the row was probably longer).
The basal area (Fig. 21.7), with the first tine of a
shed antler, was detached by percussion applied to
half of the diameter, followed by bending. A por-
tion of the outer burr was eliminated by percussion.
Circular incisions appeared in this area (Fig. 21.8),
surely resulting from the pressure of threads, either
wool or plant fiber. The preserved tine shows no
sign of wear.
Preforms (17 items). Seventeen items are in an in-
termediate processing stage. They were processed
on red deer (15 pieces) and roe deer (2 pieces) ant-
ler tine. Blanks prevail in the assemblage, but flat
ones are also present. Where identifiable, segmenta-
tion was made by percussion on variable surfaces,
followed by bending (6 pieces) or by percussion
around the entire circumference (6 pieces). Among
Monica Mărgărit, Cristian Eduard Ştefan and Valentin Dumitraşcu
372
these preforms, we identified items which were
about to be turned into punching tools by applying
lengthwise scraping (5 pieces) or small chiseling (2
pieces) around the circumference. Visible traces ap-
pear on a roe deer tine (Fig. 22.2) detached by per-
cussion applied on one third of the diameter and
bending. A chiseling procedure was distally applied
around the entire circumference to prepare a punch-
type item. Another type of fixing consists in the ini-
tiation of a bevelled-type active front (2 items – Fig.
22.1) by percussion.
The first flat blank is from a roe deer tine. It is pro-
ximally fractured, so we do not know the segmen-
tation procedure. The lengthwise splitting was done
by percussion. On the upper side, a chiseling pro-
cedure was applied in taille au canif. The second
flat blank derives from a red deer tine split by per-
cussion. Shaping by chiseling was initiated on the
debitage edges. Transversally, a bending technique
seems to have been used. The making of three fish
hooks was also initiated on flat blanks. They were
detached from the raw material, but had not reached
the final processing stage. After extraction, the shape
was created by scraping. All the items have a perfo-
ration accomplished by bifacial rotation at the distal
end.
Blanks (11 items). Nine tines and two beams were
attributed to the blanks category. They lack any spe-
cific trace of shaping operations and, because of their
size, they became finished items. All the blanks pre-
serve the antler’s anatomic volume. Segmentation
was achieved by percussion, applied either on ap-
prox. half of the matrix diameter (6 items), followed
by bending, or by percussion applied around the en-
tire circumference (5 items).
Wastes (3 items). In this category, we included ar-
tefacts unfit to be transformed into finished items.
We refer here to two roe deer antler tines, segment-
ed by percussion and detached by bending, and to
the basal area of a shed red deer antler, from which
the basal tines were detached by bending and the
beam by percussion around the entire circumference.
Teeth
Teeth objects form two typological categories: scra-
pers (6 items) and adornments (2 items). All the
scrapers (Fig. 22.3,7) were made on flat blanks ob-
tained by percussion (5 items) or grooving (Fig.
22.4), combined with indirect percussion (1 item).
The proximal extremity preserved in two samples
was regularised by abrasion (Fig. 22.8). The lower
side was shaped by abrasion (4 pieces) (Fig. 22.5)
or lengthwise scraping (1 piece). The active front
was achieved by scraping applied on the debitage
edges (Fig. 22.6,9). The items seem to have gone
through successive stages of reshaping the active
front by scraping applied only on the concave side.
All the samples are of boar canines.
The first adornment is a cattle incisor (Fig. 23.1),
simply perforated by bifacial rotation (Fig. 23.2).
The wear is not too advanced, the rotation scratch-
es still being visible. The second is more elaborately
processed, starting from a boar canine (Fig. 23.3).
The flat blank was obtained by percussion. The sharp
form was achieved by lengthwise scraping (Fig.
23.4). The perforation was made by unifacial rota-
tion (Fig. 23.5) from the lower side. Towards the
end point, it presents a slight deformation of the
wall, probably the clasping area.
Bivalve
Spondylus valves were turned into two types of
adornment. The first, extremely interesting because
of the traces of wear, is a perforated plaque (Fig.
23.6). An extraction method by sawing was used to
process the blank. All traces of the debitage opera-
tion were removed by the shaping operation, which
was accomplished by abrasion of the entire item
(Fig. 23.7). Laterally, two perforations were made by
bifacial rotation. The rotation scratches are quite
blurred. Small fractures of the wall appeared at the
extremity, superimposed by wear polish (Fig. 23.8).
Moreover, on one of the item’s superior side a small
depression developed, the result of friction with a
thread for a long period. We suppose that each per-
foration was intended for an individual clasp. The
second item is a fragment from a bracelet (Fig. 23.9)
which was previously fixed. A fragmented perfora-
tion has survived at one end, apparently made by bi-
facial rotation. The bracelet had probably fractured
and a perforation was made for a clasp. The general
wear on the item is very advanced.
A bracelet made from a Glycymeris valve (Fig. 23.10)
was discovered in fragmented form. The finished
item was obtained by bifacial abrasion (Fig. 23.11),
acquiring a rectangular section. Towards the end
point, a unifacial perforation was made (Fig. 23.12)
by rotation, with still visible technological traces.
The exploitation of animal resources in Şoimuş-La Avicola (Ferma 2) settlement (Romania)
373
Discussion
The exploitation of animal resources to produce
tools, weapons, or ornaments is subject to a suc-
cession of technological stages, beginning with the
acquisition of raw material and continuing with
transformation and consumption, which does not
always end the operational chain, because recycling
may sometimes also intervene. Through traces, these
artefacts recorded all the actions which led to their
production, so we may assert that they offer an
insight into the life and occupations of prehistoric
communtities. Moreover, anthropologists and ar-
chaeologists, following their observations on pre-
industrial populations, underlined that objects and,
implicitly, technology are subordinate to the social
realm (Malinowski 1939; Pétrequin, Pétrequin
2006; Choyke 2008 etc.) or, as splendidly sum-
marised by Pfaffenberger (1988.249): “To construct
a technology is not merely to deploy materials and
techniques; it is also to construct social and eco-
nomic alliances, to invent new legal principles for
social relations, and to provide powerful new ve-
hicles for culturally-provided myth.”
The study of the above-mentioned categories (see
Tab. 2) led to the identification of the following de-
tachment procedures: transversal debitage, to which
a transformation scheme by segmentation corre-
sponds, and longitudinal debitage, to which trans-
formation schemes by splitting in-
to two, successive splitting and ex-
traction are subordinate. As for the
techniques used during the debi-
tage stage, we produced some fig-
ures on raw material types, as we
could clearly highlight different
treatment for bones, antlers, and
teeth. For bone, the debitage result-
ed in two blank types: with the ori-
ginal volume or flat. Considering
the percentage, we may state that
flattened blanks were preferred.
Transversal debitage was performed
by direct percussion and sawing
(e.g., ring, handle). To split items
lengthwise, percussion and abrasion
were mainly applied; a groove and
splinter combination was used less
(1 item), while for successive split-
ting, only percussion was used. For
the extraction procedure, groove
and splinter (e.g., fish hooks) or
sawing techniques (e.g., comb) were
used. Among the surface modifica-
tion procedures, we identified a va-
riety of combinations of techniques.
Abrasion was used primarily for
points, superposed by scraping; also,
abrasion was used to create flat sur-
faces; to make spoons concave, ab-
rasion was used either in a combi-
nation of perforation by rotation
and scraping, or merely scraping.
Grooving was used to make surface
ornamentation (comb and ring). The
techniques used for volume modifi-
cation procedures were perforation,
having only one variant, namely ro-
Tab. 2. Types of tools and semi-finished products of the transform-
ing technique.
Raw
Species Typological category
No.
materials pieces
Bone Mammals Pointed tool 458
Spatulas 118
Spoon 96
Fishing hook 5
Bevelled object 9
Adornment 12
Bracelet 2
Needle 2
Ring 1
Belt 1
Handle 1
Knife 1
Indeterminate 87
Preform 3
Antler Cervus elaphus Fishing hook 13
Punching tool 11
Punching and retouching tool 6
Bevelled object 12
Composite tool 4
Handle 2
Receptacle 1
Bracelet 1
Comb 1
Ring 1
Indeterminate 9
Preform 15
Blank 11
Waste 1
Capreolus capreolus Punching tool 1
Indeterminate 1
Preform 2
Waste 2
Tooth Sus scrofa Adornment 1
Scraper 6
Bos taurus Adornment 1
Shell Spondylus Adornment 2
Glycymeris Adornment 1
Monica Mărgărit, Cristian Eduard Ştefan and Valentin Dumitraşcu
374
tation. Sawing, used for decorated handles and groov-
ing, was also used to detach the comb’s teeth.
For antlers, the situation is completely different,
given the predominance of volume blanks. For trans-
versal debitage, percussion combined with bending,
or only percussion, were used. The few flat blanks
were obtained by splitting the antler lengthwise by
percussion. Direct percussion, scraping, abrasion
and perforation by rotation were used for surface
modification. Anatomically preserved volume was
modified particularly by perforation or cutting. Saw-
ing was also used to modify, being used for the de-
coration of the bracelet.
Finally, in the case of teeth, we do not know how
the blank’s transversal segmentation was made.
Lengthwise splitting was achieved by debitage, which
involved percussion or, in one item, a groove and
splinter combination. The procedures for surface
modification were abrasion and scraping, while per-
foration by rotation was used for volume modifica-
tion.
The general picture shows that techniques and pro-
cedures varied. Still, they are quite standardised
within the groups, which allows the identification
of typological series; some are numerically signifi-
cant (see the case of the pointed tools). They are
well adapted to different raw material types, illus-
trating a good knowledge of the field. This asser-
tion is also sustained by the presence of a highly
complex transformational technological scheme. We
do not know if they were created by specialists, but
the repeated elements of the operational sequence
found within the assemblage are evidence of skill
or knowledge that is transmitted from one genera-
tion to the next.
Among these items, the biggest typological catego-
ry is that of pointed tools, including needles, prob-
ably having been related to domestic activities such
as hide perforation or knitting of textile fibres
(Campana 1989; LeMoine 1991). Projectile points,
which could certainly be included here, are not
present. We think that the varying hardness of the
processed materials is also reflected in the different
appearances of the active extremity wear. The fact
that soft materials were processed is proved by the
prevalence of rounded points (Figs. 4.6; 5.5,8; 7.3,6),
highly worn, with lengthwise traces of wear.
By their extended and fine use polish (Fig. 8.6,8),
spatulas seem to correspond to a functionality cha-
racterised by prolonged movement on soft materi-
als, such as hides (Averbouh, Buisson 2003; Rasko-
va Zelinkova 2010). However, other studies suggest
the use of these objects in clay pot making (Struck-
meyer 2011). Our own experiments on ceramics il-
lustrated, especially for spatulas with convex extre-
mities, that they are very useful for smoothing sur-
faces and removing excess clay (Mărgărit 2015).
The items categorised as spoons are very interest-
ing. As far as wear is concerned, the area with the
most significant polish is the handle. The receptor
element presents intense wear in a few of the items.
Selena Vitezovi≤ (2014) considers that they were
used for preparing and applying pigments. Even if
the hypothesis cannot be rejected, our microscopic
analysis did not identify pigments on these items.
The bevelled objects may have been intermediate
tools, according to the fracture type, such as wedges
for splitting wood or removing tree bark. In most
objects, made both of bone and antler, the active
front has an intense macroscopic polish, with fine
perpendicular marks on the extremity being increa-
singly more extended on one face. As a result, we
may consider that they belong to the transformation
tool category, used for processing soft materials
(Maigrot 2000).
The fish hooks exhibit different degrees of finish,
which suggests the importance of this activity to
the community’s economy. A stock was made, which
allowed the quick replacement of broken or lost
pieces. Moreover, whenever possible, fractured pie-
ces were repaired. The presence of fish hooks and
the total absence of classic harpoons suggest only
one type of fishing was practised. The dimensions
of the items (in the intact items, the length is gen-
erally standardised between 6–7cm) suggest that
they were used to catch large fish. Still, the com-
posed tools (Fig. 18) made of antler tine might also
have a connection with fishing, resembling some
toggle harpoons. The points are not sharpened to be
stuck into prey, which urges caution about the pro-
posed hypothesis.
The processed antler objects with a circular active
extremity and the development of functional scra-
tches seem to correspond to an action involving
breaking and friction for an abrasive material. The
wear area is quite well defined, being concave in
some cases. At the same time, we have seen that
some of these items were used for retouching lithic
tools.
The exploitation of animal resources in Şoimuş-La Avicola (Ferma 2) settlement (Romania)
375
The tools made of boar teeth seem to have been
used, according to the experimental data, in scrap-
ing, and for wood and bark processing (Maigrot
1999). Moreover, they were sharpened periodically,
indicating prolonged use.
The assemblage demonstrates that these tools were
used especially in activities of a domestic nature,
like processing leather, vegetal fibre, wood or stone,
along with fishing and, to a lesser extent, hunting.
All types of artefacts were randomly disposed in the
settlement’s ensemble, as shown in the previous dia-
gram (Fig. 24). There are no differences even be-
tween dwellings and the housekeeping area because,
very curiously, finished tools also appear in the pits
area, which, in our opinion, was still functional. This
might be proof of a multitude of activities developed
at domestic level, and the lack of specialisation in-
side the community in favour of tool management
and, implicitly, of activities involving the entire group.
The studies published by Selena Vitezovi≤ on a se-
ries of Vin≠a settlements are very useful in this con-
text. We may thus see how the Soimus assemblage
fits into the larger phenomena of Vin≠a culture. One
example is the site at Divostin; the raw materials
that were used indicate a major difference between
the two sites. At Divostin, antler (49%) was followed
by long bones (36%) and, finally, ribs (9%) (Vite-
zovi≤ 2013a.Graph 1). Also, blanks deriving from
bones of sheep/goats predominate at Divostin, while
at Soimus the bones of cattle dominate selection.
Typologically, the archaeological assemblages have
common features: the most numerous are the point-
ed tools, followed by chisel-type forms, spatulas,
and punching tools. Composite tools such as the tog-
gle harpoon type are attested at Divostin, but also at
Drenovac (Vitezovi≤ 2011). At other three Vin≠a sites
– Vitkovo (Vitezovi≤, Bulatovi≤ 2013), Drenovac
(Vitezovi≤ 2011) and Grivac (Vitezovi≤ 2013b) – the
selection of raw materials illustrates the prevalence
of long bones and ribs of medium-sized ungulates,
mainly sheep/goat, while large mammal bones were
used to a lesser extent. Typologically, these are
roughly the same types of item: pointed tools pre-
dominate, followed by chisels and spatulas, and
scrapers made of wild boar tooth. At Opovo, fish-
ing tools like those from Soimus are mentioned (Vi-
tezovi≤ 2012). Bracelets made of Spondylus and
Glycymeris valves also appear at other Vin≠a sites,
at Vitkovo, Divostin, Drenovac (Vitezovi≤ 2013c) or
Belo Brdo (Dimitrijevi≤, Tripkovi≤ 2006).
In conclusion, we observe that at the Soimus-La Avi-
cola settlement the selection of raw materials is not
identical to that of other Vin≠a sites, for, as Selena
Vitezovi≤ and Jelena Bulatovi≤ (2013) stressed, irres-
pective of the faunal assemblage, sheep/goat bones
predominate among tools made of hard animal ma-
terials, which demonstrates a deliberate choice. At
Soimus, we have seen that cattle ribs predominate.
Different ratios of antler exploitation have been re-
gistered at Vin≠a settlements. Typologically, at all
the sites, pointed tools are the most numerous, but
for the remaining typological categories, the propor-
tions are different. The types identified at Soimus
are also to be found at other Vin≠a sites, but the pic-
ture is never the same. This is why, at least at this
stage of the research, the site seems to be excep-
tional compared to the Vin≠a sites. Another interest-
ing fact is the preservation of some typological ele-
ments which are specific to the previous period –
the Star≠evo-Cris culture (pointed tools processed by
splitting and abrasion, spoons, rings, belt elements)
– and more or less absent from Vin≠a culture sites.
Our paper, even if it is a case study, brings useful
Fig. 24. Archaeological context for the artefacts at the Soimus settlement.
Monica Mărgărit, Cristian Eduard Ştefan and Valentin Dumitraşcu
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Fig. 4. 1, 2 pointed tools made on cattle (Bos taurus) rib; 3 proximal end developed by abrasion; 4 shap-
ing of debitage edges by abrasion; 5 point developing by scraping; 6 point with extended wear.
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Fig. 5. 1, 2, 6 pointed tools obtained by a bipartition debitage method; 3, 7 debitage by bifacial abrasion;
4 point developed by scraping; 5, 8 points with functional wear.
Fig. 6. 1, 2 pointed tools obtained through splitting the bone into four; 3 abrasion of debitage edges; 4
point developing by scraping; 5 fractured point.
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Fig. 7. 1, 4 pointed tools made on blanks on preserved volume; 2 point achieved by scraping; 5 wear on
surface; 3, 6 active front highly worn.
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Fig. 8. 1, 4, 7, 9, 12, 13 different types of spatula; 2, 5 active front made by abrasion; 10 debitage edges
shaped by scraping; 3, 6, 8, 11 active surface with wear traces.
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Fig. 9. 1, 2, 3 spoons made on rib split lengthwise; 4 debitage edges shaped by scraping; 5 concavity
achieved by lengthwise scraping; 6, 7 proximal extremity cut by sawing.
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Fig. 10. 1 spoon made on long bone diaphysis; 2, 7 concavity developed by scraping; 3 procedure of de-
lineation by perforation; 4 distal extremity shaped by abrasion; 5, 8 wearing present on the handle; 6, 9
meso-proximal fragments deriving from spoons; 10 handler developed by scraping; 11 detail of proximal
extremity.
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Fig. 11. 1, 4, 6 bevelled objects; 2 active surface processing by abrasion; 3 active surface wearing; 5 split-
ting method involving grooving; 7, 8 re-sharpening active surface.
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Fig. 12. Fish hooks made of bone 1 and antler 6; 2, 7 preform processing by scraping; 5, 8 point sharp-
ened by scraping; 3 distal extremity achieved by abrasion; 4, 10 perforation made by rotation; 9 clasp-
ing system made by sawing.
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Fig. 13. 1 bracelet made on rib; 2, 3, 8 scraping of debitage edges and inferior side; 4 fracture at the perfo-
ration; 5, 9 perforation made by bifacial rotation; 6 pendant made on rib; 7, 10 inferior side and extremi-
ties abrasion.
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Fig. 14. 1 bone needle; 2 point developing by scraping; 3 point with functional wear; 4 knife; 5 active sur-
face achieved by scraping; 6 active surface wear; 7 belt element; 8 surface shaping; 9 detail perforation.
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Fig. 15. 1 bone handle; 2 traces of segmentation; 3 abrasion of the segmentation plan; 4, 7, 10 items of
undetermined function; 5 abrasion of the debitage plan; 6, 12, 14 perforations details; 8 surface scrap-
ing; 9 traces of sawing; 11 scraping of debitage edge; 13 abrasion area.
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Fig. 16. 1 preform for a fish hook; 2 perforation detail; 3 traces of grooving; 4 preform; 5, 9 punches; 6
segmentation by percussion; 7, 8 active surface detail; 10 procedure of surface modification; 11 area with
functional traces.
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Fig. 17. 1, 4 bevelled objects; 2 active surface developed by percussion; 3, 8 active surface detail; 5 segmen-
tation by percussion; 6 active surface processed by scraping; 7 shaping of active surface.
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Fig. 18. 1, 5, 8 composite tools made of red deer (Cervus elaphus) antler; 2 scraping; 4, 7 perforation
detail; 3 groove detail; 6 shaped proximal extremity.
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Fig. 19. 1 antler handle; 2 segmentation by percussion; 3 hole for gloving; 4 scraping; 5 abrasion of seg-
mentation plan; 6 receptacle; 7 bracelet; 8 detail of ornament; 9 perforation detail.
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Fig. 20. 1 comb; 2 method of extraction by sawing; 3 abrasion of the debitage edges; 4 perforation detail;
5 teeth detached by grooving; 6 tooth with wearing; 7 ornament detail; 8 ring; 9 abrasion of segmenta-
tion plan; 10 ornament made by grooving.
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Fig. 21. 1, 4, 7 items of indeterminate function made of antler; 2 pearling elimination by percussion; 3
perforation made by cutting; 5 decoration made by rotation; 6 surface shaping by scraping; 8 incisions
on the item’s surface.
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Fig. 22. Preforms made of red deer (Cervus elaphus) 1 and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) 2 antler; 3, 7
scrapers made of boar (Sus scrofa) tooth; 4 splitting by grooving; 5 abrasion of the inferior side; 6, 9
active surface achieved by scraping; 8 abrasion of proximal extremity.
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Fig. 23. 1 perforated cattle (Bos taurus) tooth; 2 perforation detail; 3 pendant made of boar (Sus scrofa)
canine; 4 scraping of debitage edges; 5, 8, 12 perforation detail; 6 perforated plaque of Spondylus valve;
7 surface abrasion; 8 deformation of the perforation; 9 bracelet of Spondylus valve; 10 bracelet of Glycy-
meris valve, 11 surface modification by abrasion.
.