167 DOI: 10.4312/as.2017.5.2.167-199
A Vietnamese Reading of the Master’s Classic: 
Pha
.
m Nguyê
˜
n Du’s Humble Comments on the Ana-
lects as an Example of Transformative Learning
1
Nam NGUYEN*
Abstract
Phạm Nguyễn Du’s influential text Humble Comments on the Analects (Luận Ngữ Ngu 
Án 論語愚按) is an outstanding example of a Vietnamese adaptation and reworking of 
an East Asian intellectual tradition. In organizing his work, Phạm departed from conven-
tion by rearranging the extant chapters of the Analects into four “books”: “Sage” (Thánh 
聖), “Learning” (Học 學), “Official” (Sĩ 仕), and “Politics” (Chính 政). Moreover, Phạm 
placed particular emphasis on the “Learning” book, and thus underscored his contention 
that the classic text was especially relevant and meaningful to eighteenth-century Viet-
nam. This paper attempts to read Phạm’s work in the contexts of both Confucian tradi-
tion and contemporary education. First, it examines Phạm’s composition of the Humble 
Comments based on Jack Mezirow’s theory of transformative learning. Phạm’s writing 
process in this work presents a fascinating case of transformative learning, in which the 
author questions received assumptions about the world and himself, puts forward new 
propositions, and elaborates these via an original reading of a classic. Through the anal-
ysis of Phạm Nguyễn Du’s life and his preface to the Humble Comments, one can also 
gain a better view of the Vietnamese reception of Zhu Xi’s Neo-Confucianism, and more 
particularly, of Zhu’s dictum of “learning for the sake of one’s self” (weiji zhi xue 為己
之學). Lastly, this dictum will be reappraised to show its validity in contemporary edu-
cational contexts.
Keywords: Sage, learning for the sake of one’s self, transformative learning, civil service 
examination, kunzhi (acquiring true knowledge from predicaments)
1 This research is funded by Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City (VNU-HCM) under 
grant number (C2015-18b-05)/HĐ-KHCN.
 The author's genuine thanks go to two anonymous reviewers whose comments and suggestions 
greatly helped to improve the paper's quality. The author also would like to extend his heartfelt 
gratitude to the journal's editor for carefully editing and proofreading the manuscript.
* Nam NGUYEN, Lecturer of the Department of Orietnal Studies, 
 Faculty of Social Science and Humanities, Vietnam National University, 
 Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.
 ngnam2[at]gmail.com
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   167 4.7.2017   10:06:15

168 Nam Nguyen: A Vietnamese Reading of the Master’s Classic
Vietnamsko branje klasike mojstra: Phạm Nguyễn Dujevi Skromni komen-
tarji k Pogovorom kot primer transformativnega učenja 
Izvleček
Skromni komentarji k Pogovorovom (Luận Ngữ Ngu Án 論語愚按) je odličen primer vi-
etnamskega prilagajanja oz. predelave vzhodnoazijske idejne tradicije. Pham je v svojem 
delu izhajal iz odloka, ki poglavja Pogovorov preureja v štiri »knjige«: Svetnik (Thánh 
聖), Učenje (Học 學), Državnik (Sĩ 仕) in Politika (Chính 政). Pham je posebno pozor-
nost posvetil knjigi Učenje in tako poudaril svojo tezo, da je bilo to klasično besedilo 
za Vietnam še posebej pomembno v osemnajstem stoletju. Obravnavani članek poskuša 
razumeti Phamovo delo tako v kontekstu konfucijanske tradicije kot tudi sodobnega izo-
braževanja. Najprej preuči Phamovo sestavo Skromnih komentarjev, ki temelji na teoriji 
transformativnega učenja Jacka Mezirowa. Phamov proces pisanja predstavlja v tem delu 
zanimiv primer transformativnega učenja, v katerem se avtor ukvarja s sprejetimi pred-
postavkami o svetu in sebi in navede nove predloge, ki jih izdela ob izvornem branju 
klasičnega dela. Skozi analizo Phạm Nguyễn Dujevega življenja in njegovega predgovo-
ra k Skromnim komentarjem lahko dobimo boljši vpogled v vietnamsko sprejemanje Zhu 
Xijevega neokonfucianizma, še posebej Zhujevega izreka »učenje zavoljo sebe« (weiji 
zhi xue 為己之學). V zadnjem poglavju članka je ta izrek ponovno ovrednoten, s čimer 
se pokaže njegova veljavnost v kontekstu sodobnega izobraževanja. 
Ključne besede: svetnik, učenje zavoljo sebe, transformativno učenje, preiskava javne 
službe, kunzhi (pridobivanje pravega znanja iz težavnega položaja)
Introduction
Although much ink has been spilled on the subject of Confucianism in early mod-
ern Vietnam, there are many aspects of this important topic that remain poorly 
understood. How did Vietnamese literati receive and adapt Neo-Confucianism? 
How were the Confucian classics read to meet the particular needs of Vietnamese 
intellectuals living in a society structured by civil service exams? What do the 
lives and careers of individual Vietnamese Confucians reveal about the broader 
picture of Confucian practices in Vietnam? 
In this paper, I consider these questions by examining the career of Phạm Nguyễn 
Du 范阮攸 (1739–1786) and his Humble Comments on the Analects (Luận Ngữ 
Ngu Án 論語愚按, hereafter Humble Comments), a commentary on Zhu Xi’s 
Neo-Confucian thought. I contend that Phạm’s life and his composition of the 
Humble Comments can be analysed as a form of transformative learning. As first 
defined by Jack Mezirow (1923–2014) in the middle of the 1970s and then devel-
oped by other scholars, the theory of transformative learning has become popular 
in North America, and is “gaining the interest of scholars in Europe, Asia, and 
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   168 4.7.2017   10:06:15

169 Asian Studies V (XXI), 2 (2017), pp. 167–199
Africa” (Jarvis 2012, 201). The application of transformative learning theory to 
the case of Phạm’s life and his Humble Comments allows a better understanding 
of his intellectual evolution and distinctive understanding of the Confucian dic-
tum of “learning for the sake of one’s self”. This paper begins with an overview 
of transformative learning theory, followed by a brief biography of Phạm Nguyễn 
Du. As we examine the Humble Comments, traces of Zhu Xi’s Collected Com-
ments on the Analects (Lunyu jizhu 論語集注, hereafter Collected Comments) 
become observable, providing us with an example of the Vietnamese reception 
of Neo-Confucianism. This paper will make the case for the Humble Comments 
as an instance of transformative learning, as reflected in Phạm’s struggles to es-
cape his intellectual and social predicaments and gain true knowledge. Finally, 
the Confucian dictum of “learning for the sake of one’s self”, as advocated in the 
Humble Comments, will be reappraised to indicate the its validity in the contexts 
of contemporary education. 
“Transformative Learning”––An Overview
The theory of “perspective transformation” was first put forward in 1975 by Jack 
Mezirow, an American sociologist and professor of adult and continuing educa-
tion (Jarvis 2012, xiii). Mezirow was inspired in part by the experiences of his 
wife, Edee, who returned to school as an adult (Lawrence 2015, 1). Mezirow’s 
framework would later be developed into what is now known as transformative 
learning, a theory of why and how human beings persistently struggle to better 
comprehend their world and cultivate a more critical outlook. 
“Frame of reference” is a foundational concept in the theory of transformative 
learning. This term has been defined as “the meaning structures of assumptions 
and expectations that frame an individual’s tacit points of view and influence 
their thinking, beliefs, and actions.” Each frame of reference has two dimen-
sions, known as “habits of mind” and “points of view”. Understood as habitu-
al means of thinking, feeling, and acting effected by cultural, political, social, 
educational, and economic assumptions about the world of the subject, habits 
of mind can turn into a person’s viewpoints, or in other words, they “get ex-
pressed in a specific point of view” (Jarvis 2012, 196). Transformative learning 
has been defined by Mezirow and others as a process “leading to a deep shift in 
perspective during which habits of mind become more open, more permeable, 
more discriminating, and better justified” (Cranton 2006 in Kroth 2014, 3). The 
deep shift in question is also known as a perspective transformation, or paradig-
matic shift, and this often proceeds 
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   169 4.7.2017   10:06:15

170 Nam Nguyen: A Vietnamese Reading of the Master’s Classic
…[T]hrough a series of cumulative transformed meaning schemes or as 
a result of an acute personal or social crisis, for example, a natural disas-
ter, the death of a significant other, divorce, a debilitating accident, war, 
job loss, or retirement (Taylor 2008, 6).
Going beyond the initial experiences that Mezirow observed through the spe-
cific case of women’s re-entry programs in community college, the perspective 
transformation is clearly “not limited to women and appears even in traditional 
cultures characterized by Gemeinschaft social relationships” (Mezirow 1978, 55). 
Scholars in the field have also pointed out that transformative learning can take 
place in any situation in which adults are learning, including “formal settings, 
informal settings, and in independent, autodidactic settings” (Kroth 2014, xv). 
Moreover, transformative learning is not exclusively a form of individual learn-
ing, as it can also include group learning processes and certain forms of social 
change (Jarvis 2012, 201). 
Mezirow’s well known “ten phases of transformative learning” are summarized 
in the chart below. 
Phase 1 A disorienting dilemma
Phase 2 A self-examination with feelings of guilt or shame
Phase 3 A critical assessment of epistemic, sociocultural, or psychic assumptions
Phase 4 Recognition that one’s discontent and the process of transformation are 
shared and that others have negotiated a similar change
Phase 5 Exploration of options for new roles, relationships, and actions
Phase 6 Planning of a course of action 
Phase 7 Acquisition of knowledge and skills for implementing one’s plans 
Phase 8 Provisional trying of new roles 
Phase 9 Building of competence and self-confidence in new roles and relationships
Phase 10 A reintegration into one’s life on the basis of conditions dictated by one’s 
perspective
Table 1: Mezirow’s Ten Phases of Transformative Learning (Adapted from Kitchenham 
2008, 105)
As these ten phases are well suited to Phạm Nguyễn Du’s life and his composition 
of the Humble Comments, they are employed as an interpretive tool to present the 
development of Phạm’s thoughts. In its turn, Phạm’s case can serve as an exem-
plary narrative to be added to the repertoire of stories of transformative learning. 
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   170 4.7.2017   10:06:15

171 Asian Studies V (XXI), 2 (2017), pp. 167–199
Using the ten phases listed in this chart, a careful analysis of Phạm’s life and his 
preface to the Humble Comments illuminates the process of reception and adap-
tation of Zhu Xi’s Neo-Confucianism in eighteenth-century Vietnam in general, 
and Phạm’s transformative learning process in particular. 
Phạm Nguyễn Du: A Widower Confucian in Eighteenth-Century 
Civil-war Torn Đại Việt 
Phạm Nguyễn Du 范阮攸 lived in a time of chaos and civil strife. He was born 
and grew up in the divided kingdom of Đại Việt, which had split into rival 
northern and southern realms during the seventeenth century. Over the course 
of his life, Đại Việt would be torn by rebellions and civil war, culminating 
eventually in the conflagration known as the Tây Sơn war (1771–1802). As an 
intellectual living amid war and political and social upheaval, Phạm Nguyễn 
Du 范阮攸 was a Confucian who longed for an imagined earlier golden age of 
peace and order.
Originally from Nghệ An (a province in todays’ central Vietnam, known for 
its intellectual traditions as well as the rebellious spirit of its residents), Phạm 
Nguyễn Du was first known as Phạm Huy Khiêm 范撝謙; he later used the 
names Hiếu Đức 好德 and Dưỡng Hiên 養軒, while often writing under the 
literary name of Thạch Động 石洞. Renowned for his cleverness as a youth, 
Phạm was recruited to serve in the Imperial Diary Office of the Lê-Trịnh 黎鄭 
Court, which ruled the northern realm of Đàng Ngoài (literally “outer region”). 
Phạm passed the Metropolitan Examination in the 40th year of the reign of 
Cảnh Hưng 景興 (1779), when he was 40 years old, and was promoted to the 
Hanlin Academy and Historiography Institute.
2
 A loyalist to the Restored Lê 
dynasty, Phạm considered all anti-Lê-dynasty powers (including the leaders of 
the Tây Sơn uprising) to be usurpers, and maintained this conviction despite 
considerable evidence that the Lê dynasty was corrupt and in decline. Accord-
ing to the Records on Nghệ An (Nghệ An ký 乂安記) and Comprehensive Study 
of the Metropolitan Graduates through the Dynasties (Lịch triều đăng khoa 
bị khảo 歷朝登科備考), Phạm was serving as the official in charge of Nghệ 
An province in 1786 when he learned that the Tây Sơn had seized Phú Xuân, 
the capital of Đàng Ngoài’s southern rival. Faced with this alarming news, he 
left for Thanh Chương-Nam Đàn, intending to recruit soldiers to fight against 
the Tây Sơn. But he fell ill and died before he could put his defence plans into 
2 In his preface to the Humble Comments on the Analects, Phạm also indicated that he was reinstated 
into the Hanlin Academy as commissioner in 1778.
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   171 4.7.2017   10:06:15

172 Nam Nguyen: A Vietnamese Reading of the Master’s Classic
action (this brief biography of Phạm Nguyễn Du is based on “Phạm Nguyễn Du 
and His Records of a Broken Heart” in Phạm 2001, 5–6). 
Beyond socio-political events, Phạm’s worldview was deeply affected by per-
sonal tragedy. In 1772, while serving in the Ministry of Personnel, Phạm re-
ceived the sad news that his wife of 13 years, Nguyễn Thị Đoan Hương 阮氏
端香, had passed away at the age of twenty-nine. Just sixteen years old at the 
time of her wedding, Đoan Hương joined Phạm in a marriage that was happy 
but often interrupted by his civil service duties. The death of Phạm’s wife was a 
devastating loss, and grief-stricken he mourned her with 14 eulogies, 49 paral-
lel couplets, and 34 sorrowful poems. These writings were later arranged chron-
ologically in a collection titled Records of a Broken Heart (Đoạn trường lục 
斷腸錄) (ibid. 2001, 38–39). This collection reveals much about Phạm’s emo-
tional inner life; yet it also reflects his thoughts about learning and the purposes 
of knowledge. On the heels of this personal tragedy, Phạm also underwent an 
intellectual crisis that would change him forever. Rereading the Analects and 
writing commentary on it apparently helped Phạm to reorganise his life around 
the goal of Confucian enlightenment, and to overcome the above-mentioned 
difficulties standing in his way. 
The Humble Comments on the Analects and Zhu Xi’s Collected 
Comments 
Phạm Nguyễn Du wrote the Humble Comments on the Analects
3
 between 1778 
and 1780, while serving as a court official. The connection between his work and 
Zhu Xi’s Collected Comments (Lunyu jizhu 論語集註) is shown in the title of 
Phạm’s text. Phạm was obviously familiar with Zhu’s Collected Comments, as 
he mentioned it in his description of the composition of his Humble Comments. 
“At first I read the main text until becoming intimately familiar with it,” he wrote, 
“then [I] elaborately examined the Collected Commentaries, and later carefully 
went through other Confucians’ explanations” (Phạm Nguyễn Du’s “Preface” to 
the Humble Comments). Phạm’s attitude toward Zhu Xi’s work is consistent with 
the Confucian notion of “Study of Principle” (Lixue 理學), as practiced by Lê dy-
nasty literati in eighteenth-century Vietnam (Zhang 2008, 22–26). In his Collect-
ed Comments, Zhu employed the phrase “humble comment” (yu’an 愚按) about 
twenty times in total throughout the work when introducing his commentaries 
3 For its analyses, the paper relies on the handwritten copy preserved in the Institute of Han-Nom 
Studies (Hanoi), call number VHV 349/1–2, reproduced as Phạm 2011; and as part of Phạm 
2013, 817–1001.
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   172 4.7.2017   10:06:15

173 Asian Studies V (XXI), 2 (2017), pp. 167–199
on specific chapters of the Analects (Chinese Text Project). By borrowing this 
phrase, Phạm was indicating his admiration and intellectual debt to Zhu Xi’s 
Neo-Confucian philosophy. At the same time, however, the Humble Comments’ 
distinctive attempt to re-interpret Zhu Xi’s ideas can be glimpsed in Phạm’s anno-
tations to the original text, and especially in the unusual organizational structure 
he adopted. 
After carefully studying every chapter of the Analects in its extant form, Phạm 
decided to take another step in his autodidactic process: writing comments on 
the classic. But instead of following the original work’s structure, Phạm radi-
cally changed the way the chapters were originally arranged. He explained this 
as follows: 
At the risk of being too bold, I have classified its chapters into cate-
gories for convenient review. [Based on my classification] the work 
generally has four books, twenty-three categories, and 493 chapters. 
In each chapter, my “humble comments” are added below the original 
main text. Thus, I have named this work Humble Comments on the 
Analects. 
By reorganizing the Analects into four books called “Sage” (Sheng 聖), “Learn-
ing” (Xue 學), “Official” (Shi 仕), and “Politics” (Zheng 政), the Humble Com-
ments signalled its author’s intent to seek new interpretive insights from the 
classical text. The relationship between these four books has been construed by 
modern Vietnamese scholars as an attempt to emphasize the dictum of “Sageliness 
within, kingliness without” (neisheng waiwang 內聖外王) (Đinh 2012, 459–60). 
The dictum stands as an expression of the Confucian principle of self-cultivation 
(Zhang 2008; Chu 2009, 47), and Confucian literati can only take office and as-
sume their social responsibilities based on this foundation. Phạm proceeded to 
break down each of the four topics into sub-topics to further explore a wide array 
of issues presented through the chapters that record both the Master’s and his dis-
ciples’ words. The chart below summarizes the resulting organizational structure 
of the Humble Comments. 
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   173 4.7.2017   10:06:15

174 Nam Nguyen: A Vietnamese Reading of the Master’s Classic
Book Category Number of 
Chapters
Sage / Thánh 聖
(105 chapters 
total)
Knowledge (Học vấn 學問) 7
Dignified Manner (Uy nghi 威儀) 7
Residing, Dressing and Eating  
(Cư xử, phục thực 居處服食) 
9
Coping with human affairs and being exemplary to 
people (Ứng sự phạm vật 應事範物)
30
Dealing with Changes/Disasters  
(Xử biến 處變)
7
Judging people (Thủ nhân 取人) 26
Talking about Sages (Thuyết thánh 說聖) 8
Commenting on Sages (Nghị thánh 議聖) 10
Appendix: Disciples’ Records of the Transmission 
of the Way through Sages (Mōn nhân ký quần thánh 
đạo thống 門人記群聖道統) 
1
Learning / Học 學 
(202 chapters 
total)
Extension of Knowledge 1 (Trí tri 致知) 28
Extension of Knowledge 2 27
Appendix: Disciples’ sayings  
(Mōn nhân ngōn 門人言)
3
Practicing with vigour 1  
(Lực hành 力行)
39
Practicing with vigour 2 39
Practicing with vigour 3 19
Appendixes: 
Disciples’ sayings 
Disciples’ records (Môn nhân ký 門人記)
19
1
Filial and fraternal (Hiếu đễ 孝弟) 10
Appendix: Disciples’ sayings 5
Social intercourse (Giao tế 交際) 6
Appendixes:
Disciples’ sayings
Disciples’ writings for their students
5
1
Ethically Respon-
sible Scholar or 
Official / Sĩ 仕
(45 chapters total)
Upper ethically responsible scholar/Official  
(Thượng sĩ 上仕)
11
Middle ethically responsible scholar/Official  
(Trung sĩ 中仕)
18
Appendix: Disciples’ sayings 6
Lower ethically responsible scholar/Official  
(Hạ sĩ 下仕)
8
Appendix: Disciples’ records 2
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   174 4.7.2017   10:06:15

175 Asian Studies V (XXI), 2 (2017), pp. 167–199
Politics / Chính 政 
(141 chapters 
total)
Self-rectifying (Chính kỷ 正己) 25
Observing people 1 (Quan nhân 觀人) 28
Observing people 2 28
Ritual and music (Lễ nhạc 禮樂) 28
Appendixes:
Disciples’ sayings
Disciples’ records
1
1
Governing people (Lâm dân 臨民) 27
Appendixes:
Disciples’ sayings 
Disciples’ records
1
2
Table 2: The Structure of the Humble Comments on the Analects by Phạm Nguyễn Du.
At the end of each “book”, Phạm Nguyễn Du summarized his thoughts on the 
focal topic in a section called “General Statements” (Tổng thuyết 總說).
4
 Because 
of the central importance of these statements to the overall goals of the Humble 
Comments, some discussion of each of them is in order.
In his “General Statements on the Sage,” Phạm recapitulated the line of argu-
mentation in the Book of Sage in three main points. First, he emphasized that the 
image of the Sage reassembled and reconstructed from various chapters of the 
Analects was a model worthy of emulation. Second, although the Sage had lived 
thousands of years earlier, Phạm believed that he remained accessible to con-
temporary readers thanks to his recorded words. Last but not least, Phạm main-
tained that learning the Way of the Sage was indispensable, because it was both 
cosmologically immense and humanly pragmatic. For Phạm, this dual quality of 
the Way—its simultaneous relevance to the entire universe and to the everyday 
reality of human beings—was precisely what made it so appealing as a model:
This Book solemnly selects factual records of the auspiciously virtuous 
Sage from the Analects. There are one hundred and five chapters, clas-
sified into four volumes, by which [the commentator] wants his readers 
to submissively respect and admire the Sage as if he majestically comes 
out before [them]. Admiring [the Sage] from a distance, one will have an 
object worthy of honour; getting closer to him, one will have an object to 
model after. One’s heart-and-mind relies on and turns towards [the Sage] 
as if a traveller has his home, an archer has his target; as if artisans look 
around and respectfully listen to their grand master, or as if the myriad 
4 For the original texts of the four “General Statements,” see Appendix B at the end of the paper.
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   175 4.7.2017   10:06:15

176 Nam Nguyen: A Vietnamese Reading of the Master’s Classic
beings all together gaze at and simultaneously are supported by the sun 
and moon, heaven and earth. Neither distracting thoughts nor wishful 
thinking dare to germinate; nor does one dare to rush to wrong paths or 
heresies. Alas! Being born a few thousand years later, as for those who 
pursue the Sage’s remaining words, the superior direct their thought to 
the mysterious, seeking the help of Confucianism [as a medium] to en-
ter Chan (Zen) Buddhism
5
; the inferior feel content with their official 
salary, flowing into the degradation without knowing it. Who knows the 
refined of the Way of the Sage can match with the movements of the 
limitless and the supreme ultimate, and its unrefined does not go beyond 
the tangibility of the daily common sense, ritual and music, criminal law 
and government decrees. The far expansion of the Way spreads over the 
endless space of the past and present universe, but its near range dwells 
within the scope of [human activities, such as] coming-in or going-out, 
actions, eating and drinking. 
By positioning the Book of Learning after his discussion of the Sage, Phạm con-
tinued his discourse on the model of the Sage, drawing readers’ attention to what 
he saw as its defining feature. By modelling oneself on the Sage, Phạm argued, 
one was acting not simply to improve and complete one’s own learning, but also 
to improve and complete the learning undertaken by others. Phạm’s “General 
Statements on Learning” reads in part,
(…) [One should remember] three points on which Zengzi examined 
himself,
6
 and four things that Yan Yuan avoided when subduing his self;
7
 
[these points are:] preserve what you have attained, and pursue what you 
have not yet been able to achieve; polish and cleanse your heart-and-
mind; [and], socialize with humanity to approach what is called “Up-
rightness.” Alas! At present in responding to humans and other beings, 
there is nothing other than the constancy of daily moral human relations. 
What we have on the pages is the heritage of the Master, and all are the 
instructions to practice the knowledge one has earned. From admiring 
5 This reminds us of the relationship between Chan (Zen) Buddhism and Song Neo-Confucianism. 
6 Zengzi 曾子 said, “Every day I examine myself on three points: whether if I may have been unfaith-
ful when transacting business for others; whether if I may have been insincere when interacting with 
friends; and whether if I may have not practiced what I have learned” (Analects, “Xue er”). 
7 When Yan Yuan 顏淵 asked about benevolence, the Master said, “To subdue one’s self and return 
to propriety” (keji fuli 克己復禮). Yan ventured to ask about the steps of the process. The Master 
responded, “Do not look at what is inappropriate to propriety; do not listen to what is inappropriate 
to propriety; do not speak what is inappropriate to propriety; and do not take any action that is 
inappropriate to propriety” (Analects, “Yan Yuan”). 
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   176 4.7.2017   10:06:15

177 Asian Studies V (XXI), 2 (2017), pp. 167–199
the Worthy to admiring the Sage, from completing one’s self to complet-
ing other human beings––Confucians’ learning is completely compre-
hensive. (Emphasis mine.) 
For Phạm, the concept of learning flowed naturally into the idea of ethical and 
responsible service to society, since serving as an official allowed one to move 
from self-improvement to facilitating other people’s efforts at self-improvement. 
In The Book of the Official, Phạm analysed the ideographic content of the Chi-
nese character for “official”, noting that its two integral components, “scholar” 
and “human,” constitute the two poles that serve to define the essential meaning 
of official service. In Phạm’s words, “without being ‘scholar’ and ‘human’, it is 
truly impossible to be an ‘official.’”
8
 To be a good official, moreover, one must 
constantly strive for self-cultivation. Below is an excerpt from the “General State-
ments on the Official”:
If directing one’s aspiration to the upper rank, one may end up in the 
middle one; if directing one’s aspiration to the middle rank, one unavoid-
ably attains the lower; moreover, if setting one’s aspiration to the lower, 
how can one practice the obligations of the subject, acting according to 
the humane way, and moving within heaven and earth? 
Having linked self-cultivation to the ideal of ethical service, Phạm turned in his 
fourth and final book to the discussion of “politics”, or the actual practices of gov-
ernance. For Phạm, the ideal of the self-cultivated official was linked to two other 
Confucian concepts: the notion of rectification, and the idea of governing accord-
ing to “the Mean”. Here he offered his own gloss on the well-known claim put 
forward in the Analects that “to govern is to rectify” (“Yan Yuan” 顏淵, 12: 17).
9
 
For Phạm, the goal of “rectifying” the practices of a state or royal court to bring 
them into line with Confucian principles could only be realized if the officials in-
volved were truly committed to their own rectification through self-improvement. 
As Phạm put it in his “General Statement on Politics”:
The Book of Politics collects the great teachings of the Sage as well as 
his disciples’ sayings and records regarding politics, one hundred and 
forty-one (141) chapters in total. Based on the meaning of each chapter, 
this book classifies them into four categories, “Self-rectifying”, “Observ-
ing people”, “Ritual and Music”, and “Governing people”. On the basis 
of the idea “to govern is to rectify”, the immensity of politics is contained 
8 The original reads, 夫「仕」字從「士」從「人」，蓋非士非人，誠不足以言仕也。
9 The original reads, 政者，正也。
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   177 4.7.2017   10:06:15

178 Nam Nguyen: A Vietnamese Reading of the Master’s Classic
within these four categories, and is rooted in the rectification of the self. 
Hence, all sagely kings of the ancient past who were “discriminating, 
uniform in the pursuit of the rightness, and sincerely holding fast the 
Mean” took self-rectification as the foundation of justification. 
Regarding the present structure of the Analects simply as the result of randomly 
collected and diverse written records by and on the Sage into seemingly casually 
named books that, in general, did not mean much to readers, Phạm Nguyễn Du took 
it upon himself to rearrange and classify the chapters into specific topics that would 
have maximum benefit for the learning purposes of the readers. In this way, Phạm 
aimed to make his reorganization of the Analects serve and underscore his emphasis 
on the primacy of self-cultivation and “learning for the sake of one’s self”: 
Do contemporary readers of the Analects essentially want to search for the 
Sage’s instructions, being absorbed in contemplation [of them], experienc-
ing them for themselves, applying them in the universe in order to pursue 
the [ideal of] “learning for one’s self”? Or do they necessarily want to 
base themselves on the [current] order of books and chapters, trying to fig-
ure out some meanings from this meaningless order, while getting bogged 
down in its tiny details? If people wish to explore the sage’s instructions by 
contemplating and quietly appreciating them, by experiencing them within 
their own bodies, and by applying them in practice in order to pursue the 
“Learning for the sake of one’s self”, then they should understand this 
work as an effort at self-teaching, undertaken by me, Thạch Động.
Phạm’s rearrangement of the Analects’ chapters into specific topics proved influen-
tial. By the early twentieth century, the use of the Romanized alphabetic script as 
a method of writing Vietnamese had largely displaced the Chinese writing system 
in Vietnam. To preserve “traditional” values against Western influence, Confucian 
classics were progressively translated into Vietnamese by the means of the Roman-
ized script. In 1922, the Analects was translated for the first time into Vietnamese 
and printed in Romanized script by the translator Dương Bá Trạc (1884–1944). An 
anti-colonialist Confucian educator and one of the co-founders of the Free School of 
Tonkin (Đông Kinh Nghĩa Thục 東京義塾), Dương Bá Trạc followed in the foot-
steps of Phạm Nguyễn Du when classifying the chapters into categories. (Dương 
1922). Five years later (1927), Lương Văn Can (1854–1927), also a co-founder of 
the Free School of Tonkin, produced his own translation of the classic, and classi-
fied its chapters into sixteen categories (Ôn 1927). Thus, the creative and critical 
rearrangement/classification model set by Phạm Nguyễn Du for the Analects in the 
eighteenth century lived on through the practice of a later generation of scholars in 
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   178 4.7.2017   10:06:15

179 Asian Studies V (XXI), 2 (2017), pp. 167–199
early twentieth-century Vietnam. To understand the enduring appeal of this model, 
a closer investigation of Phạm’s text is in order—especially those parts of it which 
suggest the author’s transformative learning approach.
The Humble Comments as an Example of Transformative Learning
In lieu of a thorough analysis of the entire Humble Comments, this paper will 
focus on Phạm’s preface. As we will see, this part of the text can be viewed as 
Phạm’s attempt to mix autobiography with Vietnamese Confucian discourses. 
Understood in this light, the preface can tell us a great deal about Phạm’s trans-
formative learning process. 
Phạm opened his preface by recalling the negative impacts of the pressure of pre-
paring for the civil service examination as a teenager. The examination system was 
often considered a means for people to climb the ladder of success, bringing honour 
and wealth not only to the successful candidate, but also to his relatives. For Phạm, 
this state of affairs placed enormous strain on exam candidates. In a later poem, he re-
called encountering an entourage of seven boats carrying the relatives of a high-rank-
ing official, and noted that “When a man is appointed as Minister Duke, a hundred 
of his people are honoured––All are begotten under our Confucian ink brush” (Phạm 
2001, 132–4). The pressure to succeed through the examination was thus put on 
men’s shoulders very early in their childhood, and Phạm was no exception. 
Although he read the Analects during his early adolescence, Phạm confessed that 
his initial reading of the classic was very superficial, as he concentrated mainly on 
“the sounds and meanings of its words” and thus failed to “apprehend its signifi-
cance”. Merging in with the secular trends of his time, Phạm directed his learning 
to the “syntactic and semantic analysis [of the ancient writings]” for about twen-
ty-five years. During this long period, he occasionally referred to the Analects, 
but only as a way to show off his erudition. As he explained, “Although I used 
the book from time to time, it was only to glean and collect bit by bit for the sake 
of memorization, so in the event that anyone asked, I would have the resources to 
expound as needed”. However, Phạm’s learning style would change dramatically 
after he passed the Metropolitan examination and took up responsibilities in the 
Hanlin Academy and Historiography Institute. Finding himself in the new and 
unfamiliar role of state official, Phạm became anxious about his “ignorance” of the 
substance and meaning of good governance. In this time of difficulty, which might 
be labelled as the first and second of Mezirow’s ten phases of transformative learn-
ing, Phạm returned to the Master’s work as a source of intellectual consolation. As 
he wrote, “One night, thinking of the Analects, I took it out and read it”. 
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   179 4.7.2017   10:06:15

180 Nam Nguyen: A Vietnamese Reading of the Master’s Classic
Like the Sixth Patriarch Hui Neng 慧能, who became enlightened upon hearing a 
line from the Diamond Sutra (Yampolsky 1967, 133, note 41),
 10
 Phạm found him-
self awakened when reaching the sentence “Being at the age of forty or fifty, but 
not yet making oneself heard of” from the Analects. Originally written in the book 
“Zi Han” 子罕 (9:23),
11
 the sentence is part of the Master’s saying which Zhu Xi, 
in his Collected Comments, takes as a way “to alert people, to urge them to exert 
themselves in learning in a timely fashion.”
12
 Taken out of its original context, the 
cited sentence seems to be concerned solely with a man’s career and reputation. 
However, when reread in context and in association with Zhu Xi’s comments, it 
conveys an encouragement for learning. For Phạm, this sentence offered a way to 
make new connections among one’s career, reputation, and learning.
To illustrate these connections in his preface, Phạm mentioned the case of the 
Song Confucian Xu Heng 許衡 (also known as Xu Luzhai 許魯齋, 1209–1281) 
as an example of self-reflection and determination to change after recognizing 
mistakes. He may well have read Xu’s biography (“Luzhai xue’an 魯齋學案”) 
in the Records of Song-Yuan Scholars (Song Yuan xue’an 宋元學案), since he 
cited forty-year-old Xu’s regretful words for having “taught and learned impetu-
ously” (shoushou menglang 授受孟浪).
13
 In the first part of Xu’s biography, the 
boy Xu asked his teacher, “For what purpose do we learn?” (Dushu hewei 讀書
何為) The answer he got was simply: “To take the imperial civil examination” 
(Qu kedi er 取科第耳). Of course, what the teacher said did not satisfy his pupil. 
Later in life, Xu also became a teacher with a number of students. His intellectu-
al outlook changed radically after his visit to the Neo-Confucian Yao Shu 姚樞 
(1201–1278), from whom he learned the Cheng brothers’ and Zhu Xi’s thoughts. 
Returning to his school, Xu told his students that what he had previously taught 
them was not right and should be abandoned, and that they should have a new 
beginning, starting with Zhu Xi’s Elementary Learning (Xiaoxue 小學), which, 
in the eyes and words of modern scholars, shows the need “to take responsibility 
for, to define, and to shape one’s self in the context of foregoing environmental 
factors and relationships” (de Bary 2008, 404). Xu Heng’s story, as narrated in 
Phạm’s preface is also a case of transformative learning which encouraged the 
author to thoroughly review his approach to, and understanding, of learning. 
10 The original reads, 應無所住而省其心。
11 The entire chapter reads, “The young generation is awesome. How can we know that the coming 
generation will not be equal to the present one? But if a person at the age of forty or fifty has still 
not been heard of, he should not be in awe of either.” (後生可畏，焉知來者之不如今也？四
十、五十而無聞焉，斯亦不足畏也已.) 
12 The original reads, 以警人，使及時勉學也。
13 In “Luzhai xue’an”, the phrase originally reads as 昔者授受,殊孟浪也.
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   180 4.7.2017   10:06:15

181 Asian Studies V (XXI), 2 (2017), pp. 167–199
The story of Xu in the preface neatly frames the third and fourth phases of Phạm’s 
own transformative learning process. His rereading of the Analects could be seen 
as the process of the third phase––defined as the “critical assessment of epistem-
ic, sociocultural, or psychic assumptions” undertaken by an individual who has 
achieved a long-cherished goal (in Phạm’s case, passing the imperial examination 
and taking office), only to discover that the achievement does not bring fulfilment. 
Having examined Xu Heng’s radical change in his orientation towards learning, 
Phạm considers his own circumstances:
Comparing my case with that of Luzhai pursuing the Way, I am still one 
year younger than him. From now until my old age there remains quite a 
significant amount of time. Shouldn’t I endeavour to move forward, and 
follow in the footsteps of those who acquire knowledge from predica-
ments in which they find themselves? 
With the comparison of his case to Xu Heng’s, Phạm clearly arrived at the fourth 
phase, in which he recognized that “[his] discontent and the process of trans-
formation [were] shared” with others who “[had] negotiated a similar change” 
with him. Noteworthy here is Phạm’s use of the concept of khốn tri/kunzhi 困知 
(acquiring true knowledge from predicaments) in describing his circumstances.
Out of Predicaments with True Knowledge 
To better understand how khốn tri/kunzhi is comprehended in the Humble Comments, 
we turn to Phạm’s comments on a particular chapter of the Analects. In Chapter 9 of 
the Book “Jishi 季氏”, the Master reviewed four types of people endowed with differ-
ent learning capabilities. The chapter in question has inspired various interpretations 
(and thus various translations) for this specific sentence, kun er xue zhi you qi ci ye 困
而學之又其次也. Below are some examples of how this has been rendered: 
J. Legge: “Those who are dull and stupid, and yet compass the learning, 
are another class next to these.”
14
D. C. Lau: “Next again come those turn to study after having been vexed 
by difficulties” (Confucius 1979, 140).
14 The original reads, 孔子曰：「生而知之者，上也；學而知之者，次也；困而學之，又其次
也；困而不學，民斯為下矣。」. James Legge translates this as follows, “Those who are born 
with the possession of knowledge are the highest class of men. Those who learn, and so, readily, 
get possession of knowledge, are the next. Those who are dull and stupid, and yet compass the 
learning, are another class next to these. As to those who are dull and stupid and yet do not learn––
they are the lowest of the people” (Chinese Text Project 2017),
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   181 4.7.2017   10:06:16

182 Nam Nguyen: A Vietnamese Reading of the Master’s Classic
S. Leys: “Next again come those who learn through the trials of life” 
(Confucius 1997, 83).
Ames and Rosemont: “Something learned in response to difficulties en-
countered is again the next highest” (Confucius 1998, 199).
D. K. Gardner: “Those who learn it but with difficulty are next” (Gardner 
2003, 41).
E. Slingerland: “Those who find it difficult to understand and yet persist 
in their studies come next” (Confucius 2003, 196).
R. Eno: “Next are those who study it only in circumstances of duress” 
(Eno 2015, 92).
15
Although different from one another, the above-cited translations can be sorted 
into three groups, depending how each of them interpret the keyword kun 困. 
The first group takes it as an innate characteristic of the learner, such as “dull 
and stupid” (Legge). Close to the first group, the second understands kun as the 
learner’s cognitive ability (Slingerland). But the most common rendering treats 
kun as difficult environments and/or conditions in which the learner acquires new 
knowledge. It is also worth mentioning that the same translator may have differ-
ent interpretations of kun depending on the context. Below is Legge’s translation 
of a passage from the Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong 中庸), in which he inter-
preted kun differently, 
Knowledge, magnanimity, and energy, these three, are the virtues univer-
sally binding. And the means by which they carry the duties into practice 
is singleness. Some are born with the knowledge of those duties; some 
know them by study; and some acquire the knowledge after a painful 
feeling of their ignorance. But the knowledge being possessed, it comes 
to the same thing.
16
 
Similarly, khốn/kun as a key concept in the Humble Comments might convey 
various meanings depending on the context. Unlike what we have seen in the 
preface, in which khốn/kun should represent difficult circumstances, Phạm’s com-
ments on Chapter 9 of “Jishi” provide us with a different interpretation:
Human beings possess four ranks of material nature, but they are all peo-
ple (dân/min 民) who hold fast to the law and love virtue. Thus, those 
15 All emphases mine.
16 The original reads, 知仁勇三者，天下之達德也，所以行之者一也。或生而知之，或學而知
之，或困而知之，及其知之，一也。Emphasis mine. (Chinese Text Project 2017) 
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   182 4.7.2017   10:06:16

183 Asian Studies V (XXI), 2 (2017), pp. 167–199
who have difficulties but still learn can reach the status of those whose 
knowledge is inborn. Without learning, the transformation of material 
nature appears impossible. Falling into difficulties but not learning, one 
will forever be trapped in difficulties. Thus, although named “the peo-
ple”, they are not part of “the people” in reality.
17
 
Readers familiar with Neo-Confucianism can easily recognize the terminology 
employed in Phạm’s comments, such as his reference to the concept of “ma-
terial nature” (qizhi 氣質). Imperfect and incomplete (and thus needing refine-
ment), “material nature” is also known as “human psyches and temperaments,” 
(Bell 2008, 80), and placed in opposition to the “original nature” (benxing 本性), 
the perfect and good nature preserved in human sub-consciousness (Lee 2010, 
129–53). As for the “original nature”, through Phạm’s comments, it can be iden-
tified as the nature of Heavenly pattern (tianli zhi xing 天理之性), another vital 
Neo-Confucian concept. Based on Confucius’ belief that “men are nearly alike 
by nature” and Mencius’ theory of “humans beings are good by nature,” Phạm 
believed the following: 
At the beginning, both the noble person and the petty person have the 
nature of heavenly pattern. Protecting the pattern, one will ascend and 
become the noble person; losing the pattern, one will descend and turn to 
be the petty person. When the least bit of difference has occurred, heaven 
and earth automatically become apart.
18
 
Furthermore, the “material nature” in Phạm’s comments is subsequently linked to 
the “people,” a move which has its origin in the Classics of Poetry (Shijing 詩經). 
The poem titled “Zhengmin 烝民” from this collection reads, 
Heaven, in giving birth to the multitudes of the people, 天生烝民、
To every faculty and relationship annexed its law. 有物有則。
The people possess this normal nature, 民之秉彝、
And they [consequently] love its normal virtue. 好是懿德。
17 The Humble Comments, Book of “Learning”, vol. 7; the original read, 人有四等氣質，然均之秉
彝好德之民。故困而學可以至於生知。變化氣質非學不能也。困而不學，乃終於困，名曰
民而實非民矣。
18 The original reads, 君子小人其初皆具天理之性。保其理則上而為君子。失其理則下而為小
人。毫釐一分，天壤自隔。
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   183 4.7.2017   10:06:16

184 Nam Nguyen: A Vietnamese Reading of the Master’s Classic
Based on this poem, Phạm talks about people under heaven who by their “original 
nature” should be able to “hold fast to the law and love virtue.” This also reminds 
us of Zhu Xi’s concept of “Heaven’s people” (tian min 天民) who are all the same 
in possessing the commiserating mind-and-heart (Hon 2012, 16). However, this 
potential equality turns out to be almost impossible in practice, due to differences 
among their “material natures.” In this case, Phạm obviously follows Zhu Xi’s 
line of thought on the uneven endowments of material nature that result in the 
unequal learning capabilities seen in human beings. Commenting on the same 
chapter of “Jishi,” Zhu Xi explains, 
Kun 困 means that there is something obstructed. The passage indicates 
that since people’s material natures are not the same, there exist these 
four ranks in general. Yang [Shi, 楊時] said, “From being born with 
the possession of knowledge, learning and getting possession of knowl-
edge to getting possession of knowledge with difficulties due to person-
al imperfection, although their material natures are not the same, their 
[acquired] knowledge is identical. Hence, the noble man only treasures 
learning as precious. Thus, being entrapped in difficulties by imperfect 
material nature but not learning accordingly is regarded as inferior.
19
 
(Chinese Text Project 2017)
Thus, Phạm’s willingness to put himself “after kunzhi people” can be construed 
as his self-identification with those who were born with limited “material nature” 
and acquired knowledge from the difficult circumstances in which they found 
themselves. This realization was undoubtedly a critical landmark in his life. Hav-
ing achieved this insight, Phạm decided to “abolish learning for the purpose of the 
civil service examination”, and instead began carrying the Analects with him day 
and night. This was the fifth phase of transformative learning (“Exploration of 
options for new roles, relationships, and actions”), and the beginning of Phạm’s 
new journey of “learning for the sake of one’s self.”
The Humble Comments and “Learning for the Sake of One’s Self”
During Phạm Nguyễn Du’s lifetime, a series of “abridged” (tiết yếu 節要) Con-
fucian texts, including the Four Books and Five Classics, emerged. The series’ 
compiler was Bùi Huy Bích 裴輝璧 (1744–1818), a high-ranking official and 
contemporary and acquaintance of Phạm Nguyễn Du. Bùi abridged not only the 
19 The original reads, 困，謂有所不通。言人之氣質不同，大約有此四等。楊氏曰：「生知學知
以至困學，雖其質不同，然及其知之一也。故君子惟學之為貴。困而不學，然後為下。」 
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   184 4.7.2017   10:06:16

185 Asian Studies V (XXI), 2 (2017), pp. 167–199
Four Books and Five Classics, but also Neo-Confucian works, such as the Great 
Compendia of Nature and Principle (Xingli daquan 性理大全). As the purpose 
of this series was to help Confucian students prepare for the civil service exami-
nation, it was widely reprinted several times by various printing houses through-
out the nineteenth century. A preface to the series found in the first book of the 
Abridged Four Books – The Great Learning (Tứ thư tiết yếu – Đại học 四書節
要—大學, reprinted in 1850) confirms that the series was designed to help candi-
dates in their preparation for the exam (tiện ư quyết khoa nhi dĩ 便於決科而已). 
The preface also distinguishes “learning for the sake of argumentation” (nghĩa lý 
chi học 義理之學) from “learning for the sake of the examination” (khoa cử chi 
học 科舉之學). According to the preface,
Learning for the sake of the examination and learning for the sake of 
argumentation are not the same. Learning for the sake of argumentation 
moves from erudition to simplicity, whereas learning for the sake of the 
examination focuses only on simplicity. Therefore, the latter takes the 
entirety of the classics and their commentaries and abridges them.
20
 
Another preface printed in the first book of the Abridged Five Classics – The 
Classic of Documents (Ngũ kinh tiết yếu – Thư kinh 五經節要—書經, reprinted 
in 1842) stated,
Learning for the sake of the examination concentrates on the comprehen-
sion of the script, often abridging and simplifying it to prioritize memo-
rization and preparation for the examination.
21
 
Solemnly printed in large-size characters at the beginning of every subset in this 
popular series, the perception communicated in the prefaces of the differences 
between the two learning styles must have reflected a common belief in elite 
Vietnamese circles at the time. Moreover, the popularity of the abridged series 
was evidence of the tendency of “learning for the sake of the examination” in 
society. Led partly by Bùi Huy Bích’s series, this tendency undoubtedly went 
against what Phạm Nguyễn Du was aiming at, namely “learning for the sake of 
one’s self.”
For Phạm Nguyễn Du, the two contrasting forms of learning reflect the mind-
sets of two differing personalities. Commenting on Chapter 6:13 of the Analects, 
20 The original reads, 科舉之學與義理之學不同。義理之學必自博而之約，科舉之學則主於
約。故取經傳之全而節之。
21 The original reads, 科舉之學專於理會文字，往往節而約之以優記誦、備決科。
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   185 4.7.2017   10:06:16

186 Nam Nguyen: A Vietnamese Reading of the Master’s Classic
“You should be a ru 儒 scholar after the style of the noble person, and not after 
that of the petty person,”
22
 Phạm Nguyễn Du states that, 
After Confucius and Mencius, people who learn to become Confucian 
are numerous; but since their mindsets are false and not genuine, con-
sequently their learning is only for the sake of reputation and fortune, 
and is not based on [the improvement of] the self to serve magnanimous 
affairs. In general, seeking knowledge turns people into the noble person, 
when being anxious [for reputation and fortune] changes people into the 
petty person. The tiny space existing in the contention between the prin-
ciple and the temperament entails the difference between the two types 
of the noble person and the petty person.
23
 
In a poem titled “Presented to Tồn Am” (Ký trình Tồn Am 寄呈存庵), Phạm 
addressed a statement on his purpose of learning directly to Bùi,
24
 
為己既能希孔孟
[Learning] for the sake of one’s self, one has modelled oneself on the 
examples of Confucius and Mencius;
逢辰應不愧皋夔
Finding oneself at a right time, one should not be ashamed with Gao Yao 
and Kui.
25
Even though the context of this admiring poem remains unknown, it was certainly 
no accident that Phạm chose to offer a critical commentary on the goal of learning 
when learning for the sake of the examination had already become a trend. For Zhu 
Xi, even though the sages and worthies had numerous discussions on the objective 
of learning, none of them were as essential as Confucius’ oft-cited dictum, “Learn-
ers of the ancient time learned for the sake of [cultivating] themselves; nowadays 
learners learn for the sake of [pleasing] others.”
26
 Based on the Master’s dictum, the 
22 “Yong ye 雍也” (6:13) of the Analects: 子謂子夏曰：「女為君子儒，無為小人儒。」
23 The original reads, 孔孟之後，世之學為如者多矣，惟其立心偽而不真，故其學只為名譽利
祿，不於自己分上事。蓋為學則同於君子而操心則入於小人，所爭理欲一毫之間，遂有君
子小人兩樣之別。
24 Tồn Am is the literary name of Bùi Huy Bích. The poem is in the collection called Anthology of 
Poetry from the Imperial Việt (Hoàng Việt thi tuyển 皇越詩選), also compiled by Bùi. 
25 Gao Yao was the legal officer of the legendary emperor Shun, who also appointed Kui as the music 
master.
26 The original reads, 子曰：「古之學者為己，今之學者為人。」 (“Xianwen 憲問”, Analects, 14:24). 
Zhu Xi’s original line reads, 其說多矣，然未有如此言之切而要者 (Collected Commentaries).
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   186 4.7.2017   10:06:16

187 Asian Studies V (XXI), 2 (2017), pp. 167–199
phrase “Learning for the sake of one’s self” became one of the most central themes 
for Neo-Confucians. Zhu Xi even employed it as an important criterion to identify 
who should be included in his circle of fellow scholars. An advocate of this spirit, 
Phạm would base his learning agenda on Zhu Xi’s tradition. 
Having established the new goal for his learning, Phạm Nguyễn Du undertook to 
devise a concrete agenda, which he tried to realize through a rereading of the An-
alects. As described in the preface, having resolutely abandoned “learning for the 
examination” (cử tử học 舉子學), Phạm read the Analects in three stages. First, he 
read the main text repeatedly until becoming intimately familiar with it (shoudu 
熟讀). The term shoudu employed in this specific context is actually also a key 
term in the Conversations with Master Zhu, Arranged Topically (Zhuzi yulei 朱
子語類), especially in the sections on reading. According to Zhu Xi, becoming 
intimately familiar with a text means the reader taking it into their heart-and-
mind, an embodiment process that requires both physical experiences of and deep 
reflections on the focal subject. As stated in Conversations with Master Zhu: 
Generally speaking, in reading, we must first become intimately familiar 
with the text so that its words seem to come from our own mouths. We 
should then continue to reflect on it so that its ideas seem to come from 
our minds. Only then can there be real understanding. (Chu 1990, 135)
27
Using this specific term, Phạm clearly shared the same thoughts with Zhu Xi, as 
the first stage of his reading method implied direct contact with and independent 
understanding of the text without assistance from any intermediary. 
In the second and third stages of his reading, Phạm reread the Analects with the 
help of the Collected Commentaries, and later, in consultation with the annota-
tions made by other Confucian scholars. This appears similar to the method de-
scribed in Conversations with Master Zhu, which recommends reading commen-
taries only after the attainment of intimate familiarity with the text. In Zhu Xi’s 
words, the order should go as follows: “At the moment I’m not even speaking 
about the recitation of commentaries; let’s simply recite the classical texts to the 
point of intimate familiarity (Chu 1990, 138).”
28
27 The original reads, 大抵觀書先須熟讀，使其言皆若出於吾之口；繼以精思，使其意皆若出
於吾之心，然後可以有得爾。 
28 The original reads, 而今未說讀得注，且只熟讀正經. As a breakthrough, the first and direct 
reading of a text requires great effort, and the consultation of commentaries should only come later. 
Zhu Xi reminds us that, “You must take the classical text and read it till you’ve become intimately 
familiar with it. Savor each and every word until you know its taste. If there are passages you don’t 
understand, ponder them deeply, and if you still don’t get them, then read the commentaries––only 
then will the commentaries have any significance” (ibid., 155). 
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   187 4.7.2017   10:06:16

188 Nam Nguyen: A Vietnamese Reading of the Master’s Classic
The way Phạm studied the Analects was thus very much in line with Zhu Xi’s 
reading method. According to Zhu Xi, if people do not read a classical text in 
this manner, their understanding of it will remain superficial: “the words will be 
hollow and learning will not be for their own sake, as is now the case with those 
preparing for the examinations” (Chu 1990, 156).
Besides the Humble Comments, Phạm Nguyễn Du’s thoughts on “learning for 
the sake of one’s self” are also well presented in a poem entitled “Bequeathed to 
Phạm Lập Trai, Who Passed the Imperial Examination in the Same Year as the 
Author”
29
 (Di đồng niên Phạm Lập Trai 遺同年范立齋). The poem reads: 
Memorizing well the remainder [of the teachings of the sages], 記誦得緒餘
Holding fast to them but losing their true subtleties, 攀持失真妙
People are remote in time and space from the thoughts of Confucius and 
Mencius,
悠悠孔孟意
And [the thoughts of the masters] increasingly become vague and un-
clear to them. 
日望益幽渺
[Following such a learning method], people will ruin their intention, 以此壞心術
Run into the apertures of fame and gain, 走入聲利竅
And even until their death, remain unaware of its danger. 到死不自覺
This is both regrettable and mournful. 可嘆復可悼
I am glad that at your young age, 我喜君年髫
Through learning, you already found the gist [of the teachings]. 學已見大要
Various schools of thinkers have discussed [the classics] in succession, 百家談紛紛
As a mixed assembly of disciples in chaos. 雜進徒擾擾
As gem-like stones, they can be thousands though, 雖累千碔砆
But can any small piece of preciousness be found among them? 何如一寸寶
Why don’t we go back to the essence [of the teachings], 曷不反精義
Probing [into the texts], gradually analysing and understanding them? 探討漸剖瞭
When the latent has been revealed and honoured, 蘊蓄既寵遂
It will expand, exposing its depth and vastness. 克擴自汪浩
Confucians of the Song and Yuan dynasties had gone ahead, 宋元諸儒先
Closing the door and carefully studying [the classics]. 閉門事講究
[Traveling on] the great road, one really looks up [to the high hill]. 景行實在仰
29 Lập Trai 立齋 is the literary name of Phạm Quý Thích 范貴適 (1760–1825), who passed the civil 
service examination and earned the title “presented scholar,” jinshi 進士, at the age of 19 in 1779. 
Like Phạm Nguyễn Du, he was uncooperative with the Tây Sơn. 
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   188 4.7.2017   10:06:16

189 Asian Studies V (XXI), 2 (2017), pp. 167–199
All of the profound teachings can be examined 微訓皆可考
And traced back up to their sources. 淵源遡以上
The effects [of this learning method] are not small, indeed. 功用良非少
If the cause of truth does not perish, 斯文苟不喪
With it, one can rise again from decline and failure. 相與起衰倒
The last two lines in the poem are unmistakably based on Chapter 9.5 of the An-
alects. In that chapter, the Master remained fearless when facing threats because 
he confidently considered himself the embodiment of this culture.
30
 Similarly, 
Phạm placed himself in a comparable position of a follower of the Way, who 
had learned and experienced the Sage’s teaching, holding fast to and finally prac-
ticing it in his life. The poem nicely summarizes the last five phases of Phạm’s 
transformative learning process, whose starting point is “Learning for the sake of 
one’s self”. 
“Learning for the Sake of One’s Self” in Modern Contexts
Determining the precise contexts of all Confucius’ sayings, made thousands of 
years ago, remains an impossible task. In his discussion of the difficulties of con-
textualizing Confucian classics, Tu Wei-Ming mentions the dictum of “learning 
for the sake of one’s self” as an example of this arduous task, 
The challenge all members of the scholarly community who are actively 
involved in comparative studies must face is whether or not, in principle, 
we can really understand such a deceptively simple Confucian statement 
as “learning is for the sake of the self” out of context. The answer, unfor-
tunately, must be in the negative. We cannot know what it means if we 
do not situate it in its proper context. (Tu 1985, 54)
However, besides their efforts in reconstructing the contexts of the sayings, peo-
ple often try to read the Master’s words into their contemporary contexts. It is not 
difficult to see that both Zhu Xi and Phạm Nguyễn Du advocated “learning for 
the sake of one’s self” on similar grounds, working against the socio-educational 
30 The chapter reads, “The Master was put in fear in Kuang. He said, ‘After the death of King Wen, 
was not the cause of truth lodged here in me? If Heaven had wished to let this cause of truth 
perish, then I, a future mortal, should not have got such a relation to that cause. While Heaven 
does not let the cause of truth perish, what can the people of Kuang do to me?’” (Chinese Text 
Project 2017) 
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   189 4.7.2017   10:06:16

190 Nam Nguyen: A Vietnamese Reading of the Master’s Classic
evils of their times, which were learning exclusively for the sake of the civil 
service examination, for personal career-advancement and interest, and nothing 
else.
31
 As pointed out by de Bary, Zhu Xi’s thoughts started and ended with the 
goal of “learning for the sake of one’s self” (de Bary 1991, 31), and the same is 
true of Phạm Nguyễn Du. They both read, understood, and carried Confucius’ 
dictum into their contemporary contexts.
Although still trying to reconstruct the socio-political and cultural contexts of the 
tradition of “learning for the sake of one’s self” (Kuang 2012, 27–37), modern 
scholars seem more interested in its potential impact on contemporary society (if 
it were to be widely taught and embraced). Bian Shiying believes that Confucian 
“learning for the sake of one’s self” has nothing to do with vulgar individualism 
that is now popularly understood as striving egoistically for the benefit of oneself. 
On the contrary, it is the need to morally cultivate and perfect the self which is the 
core of strong human relationships (Bian 2005, 124). 
Based on the same understanding, Li Can feels the urgency to recover and 
strengthen the tradition of “learning for the sake of one’s self” in order to fight 
against utilitarianism, as well as the need to revivify it to reinforce the interactive 
effects of the “college humanistic quality education model.” Li even goes further, 
and criticizes the abuse of multimedia in college teaching that can weaken the 
thinking abilities of the student, and suggests that the tradition of “learning for the 
sake of one’s self” could be a way to reduce the overdependence of college teach-
ing and learning on multimedia sources—one that can enhance the proactivity of 
the learners (Li 2015, 49; 2011, 17–20; 2010, 122–25). 
Huang Jianhua and Wang Derong examine the principle in connection with Zhu 
Xi’s Learning Regulations of Bailudong Academy (Bailudong shuyuan xuegui 
白鹿洞書院學規). As Zhu Xi’s Academy took the principle of “learning for 
the sake of one’s self” as an integral part of its spirit, it emphasized three key 
issues: the cultivation of morality, the pursuit of the self-improvement of vir-
tues, and the realization of an ideal personality. Like Xiao Qunzhong and other 
Chinese scholars (Xiao 2002, 5–9; Li 2008, 77–80), Huang and Wang see this 
traditional moral education trend as advantageous in modern society, because it 
can contribute to training a healthy personality, constructing a harmonious so-
cial environment, improving the self-consciousness and initiative of the moral 
subject, and removing utilitarian and instrumentalist tendencies from modern 
31 Here is Zhu Xi’s description of what was happening in his time, “But in today’s world what fathers 
encourage in their sons, what older brothers exhort in their younger brothers, what teachers impart 
to their students, and what students all study for is nothing more than to prepare for the civil service 
examinations” (de Bary 1991, 32). 
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   190 4.7.2017   10:06:16

191 Asian Studies V (XXI), 2 (2017), pp. 167–199
education (Huang 2012, 18–21).
32
 Other scholars, such as Zhou Zhixiang and 
Zhu Hanmin, also study Zhu Xi’s perception of the tradition of “learning for the 
sake of one’s self,” concluding that for Zhu, this tradition is both the goal and 
foundational principle of learning, and that the purpose of Zhu’s interpretation 
of the Great Learning (Daxue 大學) is to theorize and systematize the tradition, 
as well as to implement it in his annotated text (Zhou 2011, 34–39). The princi-
ple is also studied in relation with Kant’s concepts of moral self-discipline and 
freedom (Wen 2006, 63–70). 
Since the tradition/principle of “learning for the sake of one’s self” has trav-
elled far beyond national boundaries, it has been practiced and studied not only 
within China, but also in other countries in East Asia. In Korea, the eminent 
Neo-Confucian Yi Hwang 李滉 (1501–1570, more widely known as Yi T’oegye 
李退溪), had his understanding of the tradition linked directly to the study of 
the heart-and-mind (simhak 心學), which was systematized in the Study of 
Principle (lihak 理學) and centred on Substance-Function (cheyong 體用) (Lee 
2010, 165–90). Studying the influence of the Cheng brothers’ interpretation of 
the principle “learning for the sake of one’s self” on Korean educational phi-
losophy, Jang Jing Ho focuses on the case of Yi T’oegye, and concludes that 
the revivification of this tradition could be used to counter certain problems in 
contemporary education, such as egoism, commercialism, and the worship of 
money (Zhang 2002, 75–78). 
The case of Phạm Nguyễn Du suggests that the notion of “learning for the sake 
of one’s self” is both similar to and different from these latter-day attempts to re-
vive the term as a principle of learning. Among Phạm’s many elucidations of the 
dictum, his comments on Chapter 9:30 (“Zi Han子罕”) of the Analects are worth 
considering. Here he stated: 
When understanding that learning is for the sake of one’s self, one will 
be able to put forth one’s strength conscientiously; hereafter one can 
believe in right principles with firmer sincerity
33
; hereafter one can stand 
erect in the middle without inclining to either side
34
; hereafter one can 
32 There are a number of essays written in the same vein, such as Pang 2010, 8–9.
33 Chapter 19.2 (“Zizhang 子張”) from the Analects reads, “Zi Zhang said, “When a man holds fast to 
virtue, but without seeking to enlarge it, and believes in right principles, but without firm sincerity 
(信道不篤), what account can be made of his existence or non-existence?” (Chinese Text Project 
2017; emphasis mine).
34 The Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong) records a conversation between Confucius and Zilu 子路 on 
energy (qiang 強), in which the Master states, “The superior man cultivates a friendly harmony, without 
being weak. How firm is he in his energy! He stands erect in the middle, without inclining to either side 
(中立而不倚). How firm is he in his energy!” (Chinese Text Project 2017; emphasis mine). 
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   191 4.7.2017   10:06:16

192 Nam Nguyen: A Vietnamese Reading of the Master’s Classic
suit one’s actions to changing conditions. The attainment of this level is 
already the sage’s affair.
35
 
For Phạm, “learning for the sake of one’s self” is the foundation of the long pro-
cess of becoming a sage. With the right motivation, he believed, a person will 
invest all efforts into the perfection of the self and knowledge. Self-cultivation 
and knowledge learning are thus processes that require the learner to use critical 
observation and analysis to verify the truthfulness of what he has learned. Only in 
such conditions can the learner accept and live up to the verified “right principles 
with firmer sincerity”. This critical mind helps to prevent any biases, helping 
the follower of the Way to “stand erect in the middle without inclining to either 
side”. Standing unbiased subsequently allows the sage-to-be to act flexibly ac-
cording to any given circumstances when holding fast to his right principles. This 
depiction of this lifelong learning process can serve as advice that is universally 
applicable to anyone who sincerely wishes to become more morally cultivated, 
intellectually improved, and socially engaged. Thus, besides reading the dictum 
into contemporary contexts and employing it as a way to fight against egoism, 
commercialization, corruption, and other negative practices in modern education, 
Phạm’s thoughts on the motto “Learning for the sake of one’s self” presented in 
his Humble Comments can inspire us with suggestions of how to live this motto 
to the fullest. 
Conclusion
As a theory of adult learning, transformative learning theory allows us a deeper look 
into the intellectual life of Phạm Nguyễn Du and his Humble Comments, helping us 
to identify Phạm’s deep shift in perspective from “learning for the sake of others” 
to “learning for the sake of one’s self”. His transformative learning process was a 
long-running attempt to find true knowledge in the predicaments and circumstances 
in which he found himself. Although his chosen path to Confucian sagehood was 
long and difficult, Phạm was determined to take it. By intensively reading the Ana-
lects in the light of Neo-Confucian philosophy and in the context of civil-war-torn 
eighteenth-century Vietnam, Phạm completed what would later be formalised as 
Mezirow’s ten phases of the transformative learning procedure. Powerful and en-
couraging, Phạm’s story is an example of how a pre-modern Vietnamese member 
of the literati could read a Confucian classic and adapt Neo-Confucianism to the 
socio-cultural and historical conditions in which he lived. 
35 The original reads, 知學為為己，則能切實用力，然後能信道愈篤，然後能中立不倚，然後
能達權與變。至是已為聖人之事矣。
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   192 4.7.2017   10:06:16

193 Asian Studies V (XXI), 2 (2017), pp. 167–199
Viewed in this light, Phạm’s career and work offer a valuable perspective on the 
question of whether and how Confucian tradition(s) of learning can contribute to 
the acquisition of knowledge and self-cultivation in the information age. Phạm’s 
agenda of “learning for the sake of one’s self” does not mean egoism; instead, 
it reflects the quest for self-improvement as a means to promote positive social 
change. Phạm urged the learner not to blindly believe in and dogmatically re-
peat what she has learned, but to experiment and draw out meaningful lessons 
from her own experience. Moreover, the unconventional organization of Humble 
Comments reflects Phạm’s commitment to the ideal of independent and creative 
thinking. Phạm’s work thus offers us an opportunity to see Confucianism as a 
vibrant literary and philosophical tradition—a tradition that many in Vietnam and 
elsewhere have used to reflect critically on some of the most pressing issues of 
our contemporary era.
References
Bell, Daniel A., ed. 2008. Confucian Political Ethics. Princeton: Princeton Uni-
versity Press. 
Bian, Shiying 邊仕英. 2005. “Shilun Rujia ‘Weiji zhi xue’ de xianshi yiyi 試
論儒家‘為己之學’的現實意義 (On the Practical Significance of Confucian 
“Learning for the Sake of One’s Self”).” Xichang xueyuan xuebao – Shehui 
kexue ban 西昌學院學報——社會科學版 (Journal of the Academy of Sci-
ence and Technology) 17 (3), Sep.
Chinese Text Project “愚按”. 2017. Accessed April 9, 2017. http://ctext.org/
si-shu-zhang-ju-ji-zhu/lun-yu-ji-zhu?searchu=%E6%84%9A%E6%8C%89. 
Chu, Hsi. 1990. Learning to Be a Sage – Selections from the Conversations of 
Master Chu, Arranged Topically. Translated with a commentary by Daniel K. 
Gardner. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press.
Chu, Hồng Nguyên (Zhu Hongyuan 朱浤源). 2009. “Từ Luận Ngữ Ngu Án, xem 
xét Nho học Nam truyền và sự thay đổi diện mạo của nó (From the Humble 
Comments on the Analects, Examining Southward Transmitted Confucian-
ism and the Change of Its Aspects).” Translated by Ngō Xuân Di and edited 
by Chu Văn Tuấn. Triết học (Journal of Philosophy) 11 (222) Nov. 
Confucius. 1979. The Analects. Translated with an introduction by D. C. Lau. 
London and New York: Penguin Books.
–––. 1997. The Analects of Confucius. Translated and annotated by Simon Leys. 
New York, London: W.W. Norton and Company.
–––. 1998. The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation. Translated by 
Roger T. Ames, Henry Rosemont Jr., New York: Ballantine Books.
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   193 4.7.2017   10:06:16

194 Nam Nguyen: A Vietnamese Reading of the Master’s Classic
–––. 2003. Confucius Analects with Selections from Traditional Commentaries. 
Translated by Edward Slingerland. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. Co.
Cranton, Patricia. 2006. Understanding and Promoting Transformative Learning 
(2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
de Bary, Wm. Theodore. 1991. “‘Getting It Oneself’ or ‘Finding the Way in One-
self’ (Tzu-Te) as a Concept of Self-realization in Neo-Confucian Thought.” 
In Learning for One’s Self: Essays on the Individual in Neo-Confucian 
Thought. New York: Columbia University Press.
de Bary, Wm. Theodore et al., eds. 2008. Sources of East Asian Tradition (2 
vols). New York: Columbia University Press, vol. 1.
Đinh, Thanh Hiếu. 2012. “Tìm hiểu cách thức bình giải của Phạm Nguyễn Du 
trong Luận Ngữ Ngu Án (Understanding Phạm Nguyễn Du’s Method of 
Commenting in the Humble Comments on the Analects).” In Kinh điển Nho 
gia tại Việt Nam – The Confucian Canon in Vietnam, edited by Nguyễn Kim 
Sơn. Hanoi: Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội.
Dương, Bá Trạc. 1922. Luận ngữ (Quyển trên), Dương Bá Trạc dịch ra quốc văn 
và xếp thành từng loại (The Analects (Vol. 1) Dương Bá Trạc translated into 
Vietnamese and classified into categories). Hanoi: Vĩnh Thành Cōng ty.
Eno, Robert. 2015. The Analects of Confucius – An Online Teaching Translation. 
(Version 2.2). Accessed April 8, 2016. http://www.indiana.edu/~p374/Ana-
lects_of_Confucius_%28Eno-2015%29.pdf. 
Gardner, Daniel K. 2003. Zhu Xi’s Reading of the Analects – Canon, Commen-
tary, and the Classical Tradition, New York: Columbia University Press.
Hon, Tze-Ki. 2012. “From Sheng Min 生民 to Si Min 四民: Social Changes in 
Late Imperial China.” Journal of Political Science and Sociology 16 (5).
Huang, Jianhua 黃建華, and Wang Derong 王德榮. 2012. “Shuyuan jingshen zuo-
wei ‘Weiji zhi xue’ de neihan ji qi xiandai jiazhi 書院精神作為‘為己之學’的
內涵及其現代價值 (“Learning for the Sake of One’s Self” as the Connotation 
of the Academic Spirit and Its Modern Value).” Shangrao shifan xueyuan xue-
bao 上饒師範學院學報 (Journal of Teachers College) 32 (5), Oct. 
Jarvis, Peter, and Mary Watts, eds. 2012. The Routledge International Handbook 
of Learning. New York: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group.
Kitchenham, Andrew. 2008. “The Evolution of John Mezirow’s Transformative 
Learning Theory.” Journal of Transformative Education 6 (2), April.
Kroth, Michael, and Patricia Cranton. 2014. Stories of Transformative Learning. 
Rotterdam and Boston and Taipei: Sense Publishers.
Kuang, Zhao 匡釗. 2012. “Kongzi dui Rujia ‘weiji zhi xue’ de dianji 孔子對儒
家‘為己之學’的奠基 (The Foundation of Confucius’s Opinion on Confu-
cian “Learning for the Sake of One’s Self).” Shenzhen daxue xuebao 深圳
大學學報 (Renwen shehui kexue ban 人文社會科學版) 29 (6), Nov: 27–37.
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   194 4.7.2017   10:06:16

195 Asian Studies V (XXI), 2 (2017), pp. 167–199
Lawrence, Randee Lipson, and Patricia Cranton. 2015. A Novel Idea – Research-
ing Transformative Learning in Fiction. Rotterdam and Boston and Taipei: 
Sense Publishers.
Lee, Kwang Ho. 2010. “A Study of T’oeye (退溪) Yi Hwang (李滉): Ultimate 
Concern and Ultimate Reality of Chosun Confucianism.” Journal of Confu-
cian Philosophy and Culture 儒教文化研究 13, Feb.
Lee, Seung Hwan 李承煥. 2010. “Zhuzi qizhi bianhuashuo de pinxing lunli yiyi 朱
子氣質變化說的品性倫理意義——Inquiry on Zhu Xi’s Theory of ‘Trans-
forming the Temperament’.” Taiwan Journal of East Asian Studies 7 (1).
Li, Can 李燦. 2015. “‘Weiji zhi xue’ yu gaoxiao renwen sushi jiaoyu moshi de 
jiaohu zuoyong ‘為己之學’與高校人文素質教育模式的交互作用” (The 
Interaction between “Learning for the Sake of One’s Self” and the Humanis-
tic Quality Education Model in Colleges and Universities).” Jiaoyu wenhua 
luntan 教育文化論壇 4.
Li, Can 李燦. 2010. “‘Weiji zhi xue’ yu duomeiti ‘jianshi siwei’ de jiaohu zuoy-
ong ‘為己之學’與多媒體‘減式思維’的交互作用’ (The Interaction Be-
tween ‘Learning for the Sake of One’s Self’ and Multimedia ‘Diminishing 
Thinking’).” Tongren xueyuan xuebao 銅仁學院學報 (Journal of Tong Uni-
versity) 12 (5): 9. 
–––. 2011. “Lunyu ‘weiji zhi xue’ de shenmei jiexi 論語‘為己之學’的審美解析 
(An Aesthetic Analysis of the Concept ‘Learning for the Sake of One’s Self’ 
in The Analects).” Qilu xuekan 1: 220. 
Li, Huadong 李華東. 2008. “Rujia ‘weiji zhi xue’ de neihan ji qi jiaoyuxue qishi
儒家‘為己之學’的內涵及其教育學啟示 (The Connotation of Confucian 
‘Learning for the Sake of One’s Self’ and Its Pedagogical Inspiration).” 
Xiandai daxue jiaoyu 現代大學教育 (Modern University Education) 5.
Mezirow, Jack. 1978. Education for Perspective Transformation: Women’s 
Re-entry Programs in Community Colleges. New York: Center for Adult 
Education.
Ôn Như Lương Văn Can 溫如梁文玕. 1927. Luận ngữ loại ngữ 論語類語 (The 
Analects Classified), 3 vols. Hanoi: Nghiêm Hàm ấn quán.
Pang, Zhenzhao 龐振超. 2010. “Mengzi weiji zhi xue de dangdai yiyi 孟子為己
之學的當代意義 (The Contemporary Meaning of Mencius’ ‘Learning for 
the Sake of One’s Self’).” Jiaoyu tansuo 教育探索 (Educational Explora-
tion) 1: 223.
Phạm, Nguyễn Du 范阮攸. 2001. Đoạn trường lục 斷腸錄 (Records of a Broken 
Heart). Translated with annotations and introduced by Phan Văn Các, Hà 
Nội: Khoa học Xã hội. 
–––. 2011 Luận ngữ ngu án 論語愚按 (Humble Comments on the Analects). Taibei 
shi 台北市: Guoli Taiwan daxue chuban zhongxin 國立台灣大學出版中心.
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   195 4.7.2017   10:06:16

196 Nam Nguyen: A Vietnamese Reading of the Master’s Classic
–––. 2013. “Luận ngữ ngu án 論語愚按. (Humble Comments on the Analects).” In 
Beijing daxue Ruzang bianzuan yu yanjiu zhongxin 北京大學《儒藏》編纂 
與研究中心, edited by Ruzang – Jinghua bian – Yuenan zhi bu yi 儒藏——精
華編——越南之部一(Confucian Canon – Essential Compilation – Vietnam-
ese Section Part 1). Beijing 北京: Beijing daxue chubanshe 北京大學出版社.
Phan, Văn Các. 2006. “Luận ngữ ngu án – Một tác phẩm kinh học đáng chú ý 
(The Humble Comments on the Analects: A Noteworthy Work of Classical 
Learning).” In Institute of Han-Nom Studies and Harvard-Yenching Institute. 
Nho giáo ở Việt Nam (Confucianism in Vietnam). Hanoi: Khoa học Xã hội.
Taylor, Edward W. 2008. “Transformative Learning Theory.” New Directions 
for Adult and Continuing Education – Special Issue: Third Update on Adult 
Learning Theory 119.
Tu, Wei-Ming. 1985. Confucian Thought – Selfhood as Creative Transformation. 
New York: State University of New York Press.
Wen, Bifang 文碧方. 2006. “Lun zuowei ‘Weiji zhi xue’ de Ruxue 論作為‘為己
之學’的儒學 (On Confucianism as “Learning for the Sake of One’s Self”).” 
Xiandai zhexue 現代哲學 3.
Xiao, Qunzhong 肖群忠. 2002. “Rujia ‘weiji zhi xue’ chuantong de xiandai yiyi 
儒家‘為己之學’傳統的現代意義 (The Modern Meaning of Confucian Tra-
dition of “Learning for the Sake of One’s Self”).” Qilu xuekan 齊魯學刊 
(Journal of Qilu) 170 (5). 
Yampolsky, Philip B. 1967. The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch. New York 
and London: Columbia University Press.
Zhang, Jinghu (Jang Jing Ho) 張靜互. 2002. “Lun er Cheng de ‘weiji zhi xue’ 
ji qi dui Chaoxian jiaoyu linian de yingxiang 論二程的‘為己之學’及其對
朝鮮教育理念的影響 (On the Cheng Brothers’, ‘Learning for the Sake of 
One’s Self’ and Its Impact on Korea’s Educational Philosophy).” Jiangnan 
daxue xuebao (Renwen shehui kexue ban) 江南大學學報（人文社會科學
版） (Journal of South China University) 1 (5), Oct.
Zhang, Liwen 張立文. 2008. “Jiegou yu quanshi – Fan Ruanyou Lunyu yu’an de 
lixue tezhi 結構與詮釋——范阮攸《論語愚按》的理學特質 (Structure 
and Interpretation – The Neo-Confucian Characteristics of Luận ngữ ngu án 
by Phạm Nguyễn Du).” Xueshu yuekan 學術月刊 (Monthly Journal) 40 (8): 8.
Zhou, Zhixiang 周之翔, and Zhu Hanmin 朱漢民. 2011. “Zhu Xi dui ‘weiji zhi 
xue’ de quanshi yu jiangou 朱熹對‘為己之學’的詮釋與建構 (Zhu Xi’s In-
terpretation and Construction of ‘Learning for the Sake of One’s Self’).” 
Hunan daxue xuebao (Shehui kexue ban) 湖南大學學報（社會科學版) 
(University Journal) 25 (1), Jan.
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   196 4.7.2017   10:06:16

197 Asian Studies V (XXI), 2 (2017), pp. 167–199
Appendix A
Phạm Nguyễn Du’s
“Preface” to the Humble Comments on the Analects 
(from Luận Ngữ Ngu Án 論語愚案, preserved in the library of the Institute of 
Han-Nom Studies, Hanoi, Vietnam, VHV.349/1-2)
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   197 4.7.2017   10:06:16

198 Nam Nguyen: A Vietnamese Reading of the Master’s Classic
Appendix B:
“General Statements on the Sage”
“General Statements on Learning”
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   198 4.7.2017   10:06:17

199 Asian Studies V (XXI), 2 (2017), pp. 167–199
“General Statements on Official”
“General Statements on Politics”
Azijske_studije_2017_2_FINAL.indd   199 4.7.2017   10:06:17