Dynamic Relationships Management Journal CONTENTS Volume 11, Number 1, May 2022 Firm Characteristics, Debt Maturity Structure, and Innovation Performance of Small Firms Alenka Slavec Gomezel ........................................................................................................................ 3 The Impact of Motivation on Bank Citizenship Behavior: Mediating Effect of Job Satisfaction Muhammad Umar, Khadija Mushtaq, Syed Ahmad Ali, Maqbool Hussain Sial ................................... 17 Explaining Organizational Effectiveness—Leadership Styles vs. Motivation Profiles vs. Decision-Making Styles: Supporting or Competing Dimensions? Jon Aarum Andersen ........................................................................................................................... 37 A Positivist Approach to Work Engagement: Moderating Effects of Perceived Organizational Support Angus C.H. Kuok, Robert J. Taormina ................................................................................................... 49 Workplace Spirituality, Affective Commitment, and Mediating Role of Workplace Friendship Ahmed AbdelSalam ragab Elnafrawy ................................................................................................... 69 Author Guidelines................................................................................................................................ 83 Aims & Scope The Dynamic Relationships Management Journal is an international, double blind peer-reviewed bi-annual publication of academics’ and practitioners’ research analyses and perspectives on relationships management and organizational themes and topics. The focus of the journal is on management, organization, corporate governance and neighboring areas (including, but not limited to, organizational behavior, human resource management, sociology, organizational psychology, industrial economics etc.). Within these fields, the topical focus of the journal is above all on the establishment, development, maintenance and improvement of dynamic relationships, connections, interactions, patterns of behavior, structures and networks in social entities like firms, non-profit institutions and public administration units within and beyond individual entity boundaries. Thus, the main emphasis is on formal and informal relationships, structures and processes within and across individual, group and organizational levels. DRMJ articles test, extend, or build theory and contribute to management and organizational practice using a variety of empirical methods (e.g., quantitative, qualitative, field, laboratory, meta-analytic, and combination). Articles format should include, but are not restricted to, traditional academic research articles, case studies, literature reviews, methodological advances, approaches to teaching, learning and management development, and interviews with prominent executives and scholars. Material disclaimer Responsibility for (1) the accuracy of statements of fact, (2) the authenticity of scientific findings or observations, (3) expressions of scientific or other opinion and (4) any other material published in the journal rests solely with the author(s). The Journal, its owners, publishers, editors, reviewers and staff take no responsibility for these matters. Information for Readers Dynamic Relationships Management Journal (ISSN 2232-5867 - printed version & ISSN 2350-367X - on-line version, available in (full text) at the DRMJ website) is published in 2 issues per year. For ordering the printed version, please contact the editor at matej.cerne@ef.uni-lj.si. Call for papers The Dynamic Relationships Management Journal (DRMJ) is inviting contributions for upcoming issues. The manuscript can be submitted per e-mail to the editor (matej.cerne@ef.uni-lj.si). Before the submission, authors should consult Author Guidelines. There is no submission or publication fee. Open Access statement This is an open access journal which means that all content is freely available without charge to the user or his/her institution. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author. This is in accordance with the BOAI definition of open access. Please read »Copyright / licensing conditions« statement for addition info about legal use of published material. 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Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 1 Volume 11, Number 1 of the Dynamic Relationships Management Journal (DRMJ) is ahead of you, in times that are not easy on the humanity. Pandemic emergencies, humanitarian crises, crises of values and even challenges related to what large portions of the world considered to be a given – safety and peace. These are concepts that are too significant and impactful for our journal, this editorial, or even the field of management and organization to address or solve. Nevertheless, in such times, it is as crucial as ever to allude to the importance of the decision-makers to base their thoughts and actions on evidence, research, facts and proofs. This goes for all aspects of life shaping our everyday realities, at work and beyond. As the main purpose of research is to inform action, gather evidence for theories, and contribute to developing knowledge, it plays a crucial role in this regard. As does its dissemination to the wider public, practitioners or general population. The editorial team and the Slovenian Academy of Management (SAM) are part of at least a couple of such initiatives: platform for research dissemination related to the intersection of management and digitalization #HumanizingDigitalWork, a practitioner-oriented outlets Economic Scholar and Management Challenges, professional book on workplace creativity and innovation, as well as practice-oriented organizational research endeavors. These play an important role in sharing research findings with a broader audience in a language that is lighter and not laden with complex terms as is the case in academic journals. However, they cannot operate without rigorous research that provides the foundations of the content needed to be communicated to the world. Our authorship seemed to embrace the challenge of attempting to make the world a better place. Over 150 submissions were made to the DRMJ in 2021, which resulted in a much more rigorous review process, an even higher rejection rate, and hopefully the result are published papers with a higher level of quality, academic rigor, and practical relevance. A steady increase on a yearly basis is expected to continue in 2022 as well, where potential submissions might be boosted by potentially including best papers that will be presented at the international conference organized by SAM. Specifically, the 6th International Conference on Management and Organization: INTEGRATING ORGANIZATIONAL RESEARCH: INDIVIDUAL, TEAM, ORGANIZATIONAL, AND MULTILEVEL PERSPECTIVES will be organized by The Slovenian Academy of Management, Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Zagreb and School of Economics and Business, University of Ljubljana. The conference will be held at School of Economics and Business, Ljubljana, Slovenia, on June 23-24, 2022. The current issue consists of five articles. The first one is a study of Alenka Slavec Gomezel, who embarked on a mission of investigating the relationship between six different firm characteristics (firm legal status, firm age, assets tangibility, cash flow, long-term financing of long-term assets and inventories ratio, and the quick ratio) and debt maturity structure of small firms in terms of short-term debt and long-term debt. In addition, the author uncovered the relationship between debt maturity structure and innovation performance of small firms. The results of our study point to the importance of external financial sources for firm innovation performance and to the relevance of specific firm characteristics to explain debt maturity structure of small firms. FROM THE EDITORS: RESEARCH IN CHALLENGING TIMES Matej Cerne University of Ljubljana Tomislav Hernaus University of Zagreb The second article included in this issue is a paper by Muhammad Umar, Khadija Mushtaq, Syed Ahmad Ali and Maqbool Hussain Sial, studying the impact of bank personnel’s motivation on bank citizenship behavior with the mediating role of job satisfaction. Their findings revealed that job satisfaction significantly mediates between motivation and bank citizenship behavior. These outcomes will aid banking policymakers in improving extra-role behavior among staff. The coined term “bank citizenship behavior” can attract researchers to investigate bank employee’s citizenship behavior further to enrich the empirical evidence on the subject. The third article included in this issue, by Jon Aarum Andersen, assessed if and to what degree leadership styles, motivation profiles and decision- making styles explain organizational goal attainment (effectiveness). Leadership behaviors of 209 Swedish corporate managers were collected using established instruments, and effectiveness data were collected from the companies in which these managers were employed. It is concluded that managers’ leadership styles, motivation profiles, and decision- making styles support each other because they give a more comprehensive description of leadership behaviors. On the other hand, leadership styles, motivation profiles, and decision-making styles compete in presenting empirical support for and explanations of organizational effectiveness. The fourth article of this issue, written by Angus C. H. Kuok and Robert J. Taormina, uses a measure based on a positivist theory of work engagement, and tests the cognitive, emotional, and physical facets of work engagement in relation to (1) a set of work, social, and personality variables, i.e., person–organization fit, organizational socialization, work centrality, job insecurity, and conscientiousness; (2) two hypothesized effects, i.e., regarding subjective career success and self-actualization; and (3) perceived organizational support as a moderator. Structural equation modeling (SEM) tests demonstrated that emotional work engagement predicted both subjective career success and self-actualization, whereas physical work engagement predicted subjective career success. In addition, perceived organizational support moderated cognitive and physical work engagement to increase subjective career success, and moderated emotional work engagement to increase self-actualization. Finally, the fifth article included in this issue is prepared by Ahmed AbdelSalam ragab Elnafrawy, and investigates explores the relationship between three dimensions of workplace spirituality (meaning of work, sense of connection, and adjustment with values) and affective commitment with the mediating role of workplace friendship. The results indicated that a sense of connection and adjustment with values were positively related to affective commitment. Workplace friendship was found to be a significant mediator in such relationships. The findings suggest that by improving spirituality in charity organizations, managers can promote employees’ affective commitment and strengthen the positive friendship relations between the employees of these organizations. We hope that these findings will stimulate further ideas and endeavors worth exploring, and are looking forward to new high-quality submissions! Matej Cerne and Tomislav Hernaus 2 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 3 FIRM CHARACTERISTICS, DEBT MATURITY STRUCTURE, AND INNOVATION PERFORMANCE OF SMALL FIRMS Alenka Slavec Gomezel Ekonomska fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani alenka.slavec@ef.uni-lj.si Based on a large sample of 497 small Slovenian manufactory firms and applying structural equation modeling, we investigate the relationship between six different firm characteristics (firm legal status, firm age, assets tangibility, cash flow, long-term financing of long-term assets and inventories ratio, and the quick ratio) and debt maturity structure of small firms in terms of short-term debt and long-term debt. In addition, we uncover the relationship between debt maturity structure and innovation performance of small firms. The results of our study point to the importance of external financial sources for firm innovation performance and to the relevance of specific firm characteristics to explain debt maturity structure of small firms. Keywords: firm characteristics, debt maturity structure, small firms, innovation, short-term debt, long-term debt 1INTRODUCTION Small firms are widely recognized as drivers of innovation (Bardos, Planes, Avouyi-Dovi, & Sevestre, 2002) and a vital determinant of the economic growth (Beck & Demirguc-Kunt, 2006) and competitiveness of a nation. For small firms to grow, develop, and innovate, it is important that an economy provides a supportive environment. In particular, having a supportive and efficient financial sector is crucial, but small firms still face obstacles in obtaining external funds (Ayyagari, Beck, & Demirguc- Kunt, 2007; Berger & Udell, 2006; Czarnitzki & Hottenrott, 2011; Qorraj, 2017). This leads researchers to focus their investigations on firm and owner determinants that influence small-firm financing in general, or to focus particularly on different types of financing, e.g., bank loans (e.g. Berger & Udell, 1998; Liao, Chen, & Lu, 2009), trade credits (e.g. Aaronson, Bostic, Huck, & Townsend, 2004; Cunat, 2007; Huyghebaert, Van de Gucht, & Van Hulle, 2007), venture capital (e.g. Davila, Foster, & Gupta, 2003), etc. By contrast, less attention has been paid to the relationship between a vast range of firm characteristics, including financial ratios, and the debt maturity of small firms in terms of short- term debt and long-term debt. The motivation for this study comes from three sources. First, there is a shortage of research on the relationship between firm characteristics and the maturity structure of small-firm debt (González Méndez, 2013). Second, the predicative ability of firm indicators is an important source of information for the decisions a small firm to finance or not (Bottazzi, Secchi, & Tamagni, 2014). Third, such research has practical implications for firms that want to apply for external financial resources to fund their innovation activities. This study contributes to the entrepreneurial finance and innovation literature by better understanding the financial determinants of small-firm innovation performance. We highlight the need to make the financial market more accessible for small firms in order for firms to boost their innovation potential. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. First, we develop our 16 research hypotheses by reviewing the literature based on which we present Abstract Vol. 11, No. 1, 3-15 doi:10.17708/DRMJ.2022.v11n01a01 the proposed model of small-firm financing through short-term debt and long-term debt. We continue with a brief explanation of the methodology, sample, and research data. Then we present research findings. The paper concludes with the discussion of results and recommendations for firms to obtain external financial sources. 2THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Although small firms are recognized as an important part of the economy (Berger & Frame, 2007), they face constraints in raising external financing. One of the main reasons is banks’ preference to lend to a smaller number of large clients rather than to numerous smaller firms (Hyytinen & Vaananen, 2006) because of the higher failure risk faced by small firms. In order to compensate for the higher risk of failure and higher costs of information collection, lenders charge relatively high interest rates to smaller firms (Hyytinen & Pajarinen, 2007). Moreover, many studies revealed that the availability of external financial sources for small firms is constrained due to asymmetric information, opacity, moral hazard, adverse selection, non-obligatory auditing of financial statements, and insufficient availability of information for the public (Berger & Frame, 2007; Berger & Udell, 1998; Hyytinen & Vaananen, 2006; Vos, Yeh, Carter, & Tagg, 2007). To mitigate or even avoid these unfavorable small-firm determinants, lenders take into consideration some typical firm and owner characteristics that help them in the lending decision process. However, the relationship between some firm characteristics, especially financial ratios calculated from financial statement data, and the availability of external financial sources (debt) and specifically the maturity of debt remains underexplored. Moreover, some scholars argue that debt is mainly a function of firm characteristics rather than owner characteristics (e.g. Coleman & Cohn, 2000). Astebro and Bernhardt (2003) also suggested that financial institutions focus on financial evidence of creditability, as opposed to information about owner capabilities. Furthermore, many studies analyzed how different indicators or financial ratios predict the survivor or failure of a firm and capture a graduation of the severity of credit problems that a firm and lender may face (e.g. Bottazzi et al., 2014; Slavec Gomezel, 2017; Zimmer, 1980). Thus, financial institutions and other lenders should take these indicators or financial ratios into account when lending to small firms, because these ratios have a great predicative ability. For these reasons, this paper focuses on firm characteristics, adding to the research some underexplored financial ratios and their relations to external debt. In addition to the lack of investigation of the relationship between financial ratios and small-firm financing in general, there is also a gap in the literature regarding the relationship between financial ratios and other firm characteristics and the maturity structure of debt, that is, short-term debt and long-term debt. Specifically, there is a need to clarify the relationships of cash flow, long-term financing of long-term assets and inventories ratio, and the quick ratio on short-term debt and long term-debt. Our research addresses this gap. We also investigate the relationship between short-term debt and long term-debt and innovation performance of small firms. The proposed structural model is shown in Figure 1, whereas the proposed hypotheses are presented in the continuation of the paper. 2.1Legal status and debt maturity structure Small firms in Slovenia are usually formed as sole proprietorships or limited liability companies, and only a minor portion of small firms are formed as incorporated companies. There are several reasons for this structure: the minimum capital requirement to establish an incorporated company is higher, bureaucratic costs and operations are substantial, financial statements need to be audited, and disclosure of information is obligatory. When making a decision between a sole proprietorship and a limited liability company, several factors should be taken into account. Forming a sole proprietorship is easier because there is no need to pay in any start-up capital, whereas the capital requirement for a limited liability company amounts to EUR 7,500. Bureaucratic procedures for establishing a limited liability company are greater than those for a sole proprietorship, and Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 4 Alenka Slavec Gomezel: Firm Characteristics, Debt Maturity Structure, and Innovation Performance of Small Firms operating requirements and costs are higher for a limited liability company, as well. Managing a sole proprietorship is easier and less formal. On the other hand, a sole proprietorship does not have the status of an entity, and as such has less credibility from lenders’ and other partners’ points of view. Moreover, members of a limited liability company are not liable for the firm’s liabilities with all of their property but only with their stake of capital paid in. However, lenders often require owners’ personal guarantees for obtaining loans. Furthermore, the easy availability of limited liability provides an incentive for small-firm owners to undertake unduly risky ventures in the belief that they are protected and can shift the risk to others at no or little cost to themselves. Freedman (2000) argued that the costs of monitoring are lower for a limited liability company than for a sole proprietorship. All these factors lead us to the assumption that sole proprietorships have fewer external financial sources, as was shown by previous research (Coleman & Cohn, 2000; Petersen & Rajan, 1994; Storey, 1994). Moreover, we also assume that for the same reasons, sole proprietors will have fewer external financial sources in terms of short-term debt and long-term debt because sole proprietorship have less credibility and ability to settle debts. Based on this discussion, the first two hypotheses are postulated as follows: Hypothesis 1a: The legal status of the firm affects the debt maturity structure – sole proprietorships will get less short-term debt. Hypothesis 1b: The legal status of the firm affects the debt maturity structure – sole proprietorships will get less long-term debt. 2.2Firm age and debt maturity structure Petersen and Rajan (1994) found that leverage decreases with age, meaning that older firms borrow less because they finance their activities more with retained earnings. Similar findings were reported by Michaelas et al. (1999). Hall et al. (2000) proved that long-term debt is related positively to age, whereas short-term debt is negatively related to age. Hall et al. (2004) found significant evidence that older SMEs in Spain, the UK, and Italy rely more on internally generated funds, because the relationship between age and long-term debt was statistically significant and negative. Based on the findings of these studies, two more hypotheses are postulated: Hypothesis 2a: Age is negatively related to debt – older firms borrow less on a short-term basis. Hypothesis 2b: Age is negatively related to debt – older firms borrow less on a long-term basis. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 5 Figure 1: Conceptual model of small-firm financing through short-term debt and long-term debt total assets is negatively associated with short- term debt. Therefore we postulate the next two hypotheses: Hypothesis 3a: Tangibility of assets is negatively related to short-term debt. Hypothesis 3b: Tangibility of assets is positively related to long-term debt. 2.4Cash flow and debt maturity structure Cash flow, which is determined as profits plus depreciation, represents an internally generated source of financing (Rivaud-Danset, Dubocage, & Salais, 1998) that can eventually assure the solvency of a firm or can act as a safety reserve in case of crises. On the other hand, cash flow can convey valuable information about a firm’s investments decisions (Rodríguez, Muińo, & Lamas, 2012), and communicates to lenders the financial health and stability of the firm (Rivaud-Danset et al., 1998). The pecking order theory suggested by Myers (1984) supposes that firms finance their needs in a hierarchical order, first using internally available funds, followed by debt, and finally external equity. This preference reflects the relative costs of the various sources of financing, due to the existence of information asymmetries. The pecking order hypothesis is particularly relevant for small firms because the costs of external equity may be higher for small firms than for larger ones (Michaelas et al., 1999) and have the additional weakness of losing the total control of the firm because new stock owners come into the firm (Stiglitz & Weiss, 1981). The most favorable financial sources for small firms are those generated in the firm. This indicates that firms which generate enough 2.3Tangibility of assets and debt maturity structure Tangible assets, which a firm owns, are an important source of securing debt. These assets can be pledged as collateral (Salgador, Brito, & Donate, 2011). Collateral lowers monitoring costs, which are experienced as a consequence of moral hazard and adverse selection (Jimenez, Salas, & Saurina, 2006; Stiglitz & Weiss, 1981). Thus, a firm with a larger proportion of tangible assets (land, factories, engines, etc.) to total assets will more often apply for credit because it has more collateral to offer. Several authors (e.g., Leeth & Scott, 1989; Salgador et al., 2011) argued that the longer the maturity of debt, the higher is the probability of collateral requirements for a firm. Moreover, debt secured with tangible assets is positively linked with debt maturity (Leeth & Scott, 1989). Chittenden et al. (1996) pointed out that a high fixed-asset component and a high inventory level are associated with higher short-term and long-term debt, leading to the conclusion that small firms with a high proportion of fixed assets are able to raise higher levels of debt financing. Although more tangible assets as a proportion of total assets suggests a higher chance of approved long-term debt, Michaelas et al. (1999) found a positive relationship between the tangibility of assets and short-term debt. On the other hand, Chittenden et al. (1996) and Van der Wijst and Thurik (1993) argued that there is a negative relationship between tangible assets and short-term debt, and a positive relationship between tangible assets and long-term debt. The same results were confirmed by Hall et al. (2000, 2004), who found that long-term debt is positively related to asset structure (ratio of tangible assets to total assets) and short-term debt is negatively related to asset structure. Based on this discussion, we can assume that firms with a higher proportion of tangible assets to total assets will have a less-constrained access to debt financing because tangible assets can be pledged as collateral. A larger volume of collateral thus predicts a higher probability of approved long-term debt. On the other hand, some scholars found that a larger proportion of tangible assets to funds for further investment and growth internally will not need to borrow outside the firm (Degryse, de Goeij, & Kappert, 2012). This can lead to the assumption that larger cash flows are negatively related to external financial sources in terms of short-term debt and long-term debt. This assumption has been applied by different scholars. Hall et al. (2004), for example, suggested that with regard to profitability, it is assumed that internally generated funds are preferred to externally generated funds, and therefore profitability is negatively correlated with the amount bor Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 6 Alenka Slavec Gomezel: Firm Characteristics, Debt Maturity Structure, and Innovation Performance of Small Firms rowed by firms in both the long and the short terms. In other words, a firm which can generate more earnings will borrow less, all things being equal (Adedeji, 1998; Hall et al., 2004; Rodríguez et al., 2012). Hall et al. (2004) showed a negative association between profitability and short-term debt, whereas there was no significant association between profitability and long-term debt. Based on this discussion, our next hypotheses are postulated: Hypothesis 4a: Cash flow is negatively related to short-term debt. Hypothesis 4b: Cash flow is negatively related to long-term debt. 2.5Long-term financing of long-term assets and inventories ratio and debt maturity structure The obtained values of the ratio of long-term financing of long-term assets and inventories indicate the solvency of the firm in a given moment. With this ratio we show the long-term financing of long-term assets and of the least-liquid short-term assets – inventories. Indirectly, it shows us two things: (1) the adjustment of the structure of assets and the structure of liabilities and (2) the surplus of long-term liabilities over long-term assets. The recommended value of the long-term financing of long-term assets and inventories ratio is higher than or equal to 1. This suggests that firms finance long-term assets and the proportion of inventories that is necessary for unconstrained firm operations with long-term liabilities. Chittenden and Bragg (1997) argued that long- term debt represents only a minor percentage of a firm`s liabilities. According to the pecking order theory, SMEs prefer internal funds over external funds (Degryse et al., 2012). Consequently, long-term assets are predominantly financed by equity and short-term debt. Furthermore, if a firm finances its inventories and long-term assets with long-term financial sources, it will not need short-term financial sources for financing inventories and long-term assets. This leads us to the assumption that the long- term financing of long-term assets and inventories ratio will have a negative association with short- term debt. Higher values of the long-term financing of long-term assets and inventories ratio also suggest that in the extreme case a firm will finance all assets, including short-term assets other than inventories, with long-term liabilities. In this case a firm will not need additional debt and the long-term financing of long-term assets and inventories ratio will have a negative association with further indebtedness of a firm, which leads us to the postulation of these two hypotheses: Hypothesis 5a: Long-term financing of long-term assets and inventories ratio is negatively related to short-term debt. Hypothesis 5b: Long-term financing of long-term assets and inventories ratio is negatively related to short-term debt. 2.6Quick ratio and debt maturity structure The basis on which to calculate ratios for short- term financial equilibrium estimation is a sub-balance which presents short-term assets and short-term liabilities. However, adjustment of the structure of assets and liabilities does not ensure financial liquidity of the firm. Thus, the level of cash and highly liquid assets (marketable securities) compared to short- term liabilities is also of high importance. The quick ratio shows whether or not the most liquid assets are financed with short-term liabilities. If the value of the quick ratio exceeds 1, this means that in addition to inventories, more liquid assets are being financed with long-term liabilities. Higher quick ratios suggest higher solvency of firms, which from the lender’s point of view acts as an accelerator in the lending process. However, from the firm’s point of view, higher liquidity means less reliance on borrowers, because firms have enough financial sources. Thus, we presume that the latter effect will prevail, and therefore we expect a negative relationship between the quick ratio and short- term and long-term debt. Consequently, the next two hypotheses are postulated as follows: Hypothesis 6a: Quick ratio is negatively related to short-term debt. Hypothesis 6b: Quick ratio is negatively related to long-term debt. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 7 3METHODOLOGY In this part of the paper we discuss the methodology used in our study in terms of sampling and data analysis and in terms of operationalization and measure validation. 3.1Sample and data analysis The research sample consisted of entrepreneurs who answered a survey. The survey was developed using Dillman`s tailored design method (Dillman, 2000). A total of 2,200 surveys were mailed to randomly selected executives of small Slovenian firms in the manufacturing industry. All valid returned surveys were then complemented with the financial data of the firms whose owners answered the survey. The final research sample consisted of 497 entrepreneurs. Each entrepreneur was associated with a firm for which we had financial data from balance sheets and income statements. Exploratory factor analysis and reliability analysis were performed in SPPS statistical software, whereas confirmatory factor analysis and testing of the proposed structural models were conducted with structural equation modeling using EQS (Multivariate Software) version 6.1. The ERLS method was used because a small amount of non-normality was found in the data. As recommended by several scholars (Breckler, 1990; Shook, Ketchen, Hult, & Kacmar, 2004), the fit of the model was assessed with multiple indices. These indices were NFI, NNFI, CFI, GFI, SRMR, and RMSEA. Values of NFI, NNFI, CFI, and GFI higher than 0.90 indicate a good model fit (Byrne, 2006; Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2009), whereas values of SRMR lower than 0.08 indicate an acceptable fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Finally, RMSEA values lower than 0.05 indicate a good fit, and values as high as 0.08 represent reasonable errors of approximation in the population (Hair et al., 2009). 3.2Operationalization and measure validation Independent variables – the six investigated firm characteristics – were obtained from questionnaires and from firms’ financial statements. Legal status of the firm was measured with a dichoto2.7Debt maturity structure and innovation performance The direct relationship between the debt maturity structure of small firms and their innovation performance is still understudied. In this section, we review some relevant research results that will facilitate postulating our last four research hypotheses. Serveral scholars have found that financing is positively related to small-firm growth (Beck, Demirguc-Kunt, & Maksimovic, 2005; Campello, 2006; Petersen & Rajan, 1997) and that innovation performance is related to growth (Antoncic, Prodan, Hisrich, & Scarlat, 2007; Hult, Hurley, & Knight, 2004); thus it can be assumed that financing also is related to the innovation performance of small firms. Specifically, small firms that correctly align their financing mix to their R&D focus perform better than their counterparts which are misaligned (Robb & Seamans, 2014). Moreover, some scholars (e.g. Brown, Fazzari, & Petersen, 2009; Delmas, 2002; Galia & Legros, 2004; Mendonca, 2004) found that lack of external financial sources, either short-term or long-term, hinders the innovation performance of firms. The radicalness of innovation activities is also important when choosing whether or not to finance innovations (Nanda & Rhodes- Kropf, 2017). Based on these findings, the hypotheses regarding maturity structure and innovation performance are postulated as follows: Hypothesis 7a: Short-term debt is positively related to innovation performance of small firms in terms of product innovations. Hypothesis 7b: Short-term debt is positively related to innovation performance of small firms in terms of organizational modifications. Hypothesis 8a: Long-term debt is positively related to innovation performance of small firms in terms of product innovations. Hypothesis 8b: Long-term debt is positively related to innovation performance of small firms in terms of organizational modifications. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 8 Alenka Slavec Gomezel: Firm Characteristics, Debt Maturity Structure, and Innovation Performance of Small Firms an opportunity, we test a lot of different ideas. The extent to which respondents agreed or disagreed with the statements was measured on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). mous variable, where sole proprietorship received 4RESULTS Results indicated that the proposed model of small-firm financing through short-term debt and long-term debt provided a good fit to the data (NFI = 0.91; NNFI = 0.92; CFI = 0.94; GFI = 0.91; SRMR = 0.07; and RMSEA = 0.06). Structural equations with standardized coefficients are shown in Table 1. Examination of the hypotheses related to the model of small-firm financing through short-term debt and long-term debt is presented in the following paragraphs and summarized in Table 2. Hypothesis 1 looked at the relationships between the legal status of the firm and short-term debt (H1a) and between the legal status of the firm and long-term debt (H1b). Empirical results were found to support Hypothesis 1a (a negative and significant standardized coefficient of -0.27) and Hypothesis 1b (a negative and significant standardized coefficient of -0.26). These results indicate that sole proprietorships received less short-term debt and long-term debt than did limited liability companies and incorporated firms in the sample. Hypothesis 2 proposed that firm age would be negatively related to external financing in terms of short-term debt (H2a) and long-term debt (H2b), meaning that young firms borrow more on a short- term basis and on a long-term basis than do older ones. Empirical results were not found in support of Hypotheses 2a and 2b. Hypothesis 3 investigated the relationship between a higher proportion of tangible assets to total assets and short-term debt (H3a) and long-term debt (H3b). Hypothesis 3b was supported, because the results indicated a significant positive relationship between the percentage of tangible assets in total assets and long-term debt (positive and significant standardized coefficients of +0.46). Hypothesis 3a was not supported (non-significant standardized coefficient of +0.04). a value of 1, and other legal statuses, e.g., limited liability company received a value of 0. Firm age was measured with the number of years from the firm’s establishment. Tangibility of assets was measured by the percentage of tangible assets in total assets. Cash flow, the long-term financing of long-term assets and inventories ratio, and the quick ratio were calculated using formulas from the Slovenian Accounting Standards and the corresponding items from the firms’ balance sheets. The two dependent variables – short-term debt and long-term debt – were measured with corresponding items from firms’ balance sheets. Organizational modification and product innovations were presented in the model as latent variables, which were measured by multiple indicators. Organizational modifications were measured with three items. Respondents were asked to rate the extent to which they agreed with the following statements: (1) Our company abandoned non-profit business in the last three years; (2) Our company set up new businesses in the last three years; and (3) Our company invested seed funds in the initial entrepreneurial activities in the last three years. The extent to which respondents agreed or disagreed with the statements was measured on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Product innovations were measured with seven items. Respondents were asked to rate the extent to which they agreed with the following statements: (1) In the past three years our company has obtained a greater number of patents than our main competitors; (2) In the past three years our company has initiated on the market a large number of new products or services (more than the average in the industry); (3) In the past three years our company has invested in research and development a large amount of funds (more than the average in the industry); (4) In the past three years our company has invested more funds in the development of new products or services than our competitors; (5) Our company has found new niches in existing markets in the past three years; (6) In the past three years our company has led the development of key innovations in the industry; and (7) In order to recognize Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 9 Independent variables Dependent variables Short-term debt Long-term debt Product innovations Organizational modifications Legal status (sole proprietorship) -0.27* -0.26* Firm age +0.05 -0.04 Tangibility of assets -0.04 +0.46* Cash flow -0.08# -0.09* Long-term financing of long-term assets and inventories ratio -0.16* +0.06 Quick ratio -0.19* -0.10* Short-term debt 0.23* 0.30* Long-term debt 0.11# 0.11# Error 0.92 0.88 0.95 0.93 R-squared 0.16 0.23 0.09 0.13 Note: * denotes Sig. < 0.05; # denotes Sig. < 0.10. The results supported Hypothesis 4, which looked at the relationships between cash flow and short-term debt (H4a) and long-term debt (H4b). As indicated in Table 1, cash flow was negatively and significantly related to long-term debt (standardized coefficient of -0.09) and only partially related to short-term debt (standardized coefficient of -0.08 which was statistically significant only at the 10% level). The results showed statistically significant support for Hypothesis 5a, which looked at the relationship between the long-term financing of long-term assets and inventories ratio and short-term debt (a negative standardized coefficient of -0.16), but no support was found for Hypothesis 5b, which looked at the relationship between the long-term financing of long-term assets and inventories ratio and long- term debt. Hypothesis 6 looked at the relationships between the quick ratio and short-term debt (H6a) and between the quick ratio and long-term debt (H6b). Empirical results supported Hypothesis 6a (a negative and significant standardized coefficient of -0.19) and Hypothesis 6b (a negative and significant standardized coefficient of -0.10). The last four hypotheses examined the relationships between debt maturity (short-term debt and long-term debt) and innovation performance of small firms. As indicated in Table 1, short-term debt was strongly, positively, and significantly related to the innovation performance of small firms in terms of product innovations (H7a, standardized coefficient of +0.23) and organizational modifications (H7b, standardized coefficient of +0.30). Finally, the results of the study indicated that the association between long- term debt and innovation performance of small firms in terms of product innovations and organizational modifications is statistically significant and positive only at the 10% level (H8a, standardized coefficient of +0.11; and H8b, standardized coefficient of +0.11). 5DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Small firms face constraints in obtaining external financial sources. Thus, understanding which and how a firm’s characteristics are related to small- firm financing decisions and the availability of external financial sources for small firms has led us to an in-depth analysis of the relationship between six firm characteristics and the maturity structure of Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 Alenka Slavec Gomezel: Firm Characteristics, Debt Maturity Structure, and Innovation Performance of Small Firms 10 Table 1: Structural equations for the model of small-firm financing through short-term debt and long-term debt Hypothesis Independent variable Predicted relationship Dependent variable Result H1a Legal status (sole proprietorship) - Short-term debt .. H1b - Long-term debt .. H2a Firm age - Short-term debt .. H2b - Long-term debt .. H3a Tangibility of assets - Short-term debt .. H3b + Long-term debt .. H4a Cash flow - Short-term debt .. * H4b - Long-term debt .. H5a Long-term financing of long-term assets and inventories ratio - Short-term debt .. H5b - Long-term debt .. H6a Quick ratio - Short-term debt .. H6b - Long-term debt .. H7a Short-term debt + Product innovations .. H7b + Organizational modifications .. H8a Long-term debt + Product innovations .. * H8b + Organizational modifications .. * Legend: .. The hypothesis was confirmed at 5% significance. .. * The hypothesis was confirmed at 10% significance. .. The hypotheses was rejected. debt used by small firms. Specifically, we analyzed the relationship between the legal status of the firm, firm age, tangibility of assets, cash flow, long- term financing of long-term assets and inventories ratio, and the quick ratio and short-term debt and long-term debt. Moreover, we also analyzed the relationship between short-term debt and long-term debt and innovation performance in terms of product innovations and organizational modifications. Until now, some of these relationships had not been investigated. Therefore, there are several important observations regarding the results of our study. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 11 Table 2: Results of hypotheses testing for the model of small-firm financing through short-term debt and long-term debt The firm characteristic with the highest regression coefficient significantly related to maturity of debt was the tangibility of assets. Although it was positively related only to long-term debt, the result is not surprising because short-term debt is less often secured with collateral. This result implies that firms seeking long-term debt should have enough tangible assets in the form of land, factories, machines, and equipment. The results of the study also suggest that the legal status of the firm matters when applying for short-term and long-term debt. Lenders prefer financing firms with the legal status of an entity rather than sole proprietorships. This builds trust in the dynamic relationship between lenders and firms. Thus, we suggest that firms transform their legal status from sole proprietorships to limited liability companies if the benefits of being a limited liability company, other than an easier way to obtain external financing, prevail over the benefits of being a sole proprietorship. Advantages and disadvantages of sole proprietorships and limited liability companies were extensively discussed in the paper. Another suggestion for sole proprietorships is to also establish a limited liability company and gradually transfer business operations from the sole proprietorship to the limited liability company. This will eventually facilitate gaining external financial sources, new partners, and new business because the credibility and soundness of the business will increase. An additional contribution of this research is the investigation of the relationship between cash flow and short-term and long-term debt, because these relationships have not been the center of attention of previous research. The results suggest that small firms with substantial internally generated funds do not have to rely on external financial sources. Own financial funds are less expensive and are not binding for a company because credit approved by external lenders has to be repaid at given deadlines and amounts. These results are consistent with results of scholars who dealt with the relationship between profitability and external financial sources. Those scholars found a negative relationship between profitability and external financial sources because firms generate enough funds internally (Chittenden et al., 1996; Hall et al., 2004; Jordan, Lowe, & Taylor, 1998; Van der Wijst & Thurik, 1993). Another interesting result arose from the investigation of the relationship between two ratios – the long-term financing of long-term assets and inventories ratio and the quick ratio – and short-term debt and long-term debt. These two ratios cover all items in a balance sheet – the long-term financing of long-term assets and inventories ratio captures long-term assets and long-term liabilities, and short- term inventories, whereas the quick ratio captures all short-term assets without inventories and short- term liabilities. The long-term financing of long- term assets and inventories ratio was related only to short-term debt. This relationship was negative as predicted, which is rational because the ratio excludes short-term financial sources and is negatively related to them. Moreover, in an extreme case a firm may finance all assets, including short-term assets, with long-term liabilities. Interestingly, the quick ratio was negatively and significantly related to both short-term debt and long-term debt, which was also a predicted relationship. In an extreme and only theoretical case, a firm may finance all its assets, including long-term assets, with short-term liabilities. However, attention is needed when dealing with financial ratios because it is important to accurately understand and correctly interpret each ratio and appropriately make use of them (e.g., Abdel- Khalik, 1973; Zimmer, 1980). Finally, an important contribution to the entrepreneurial and financing literature is the investigation of the relationship between short-term and long-term debt and innovation performance of small firms. The results of the present study confirmed our assumption of the positive relationship between external financial sources and innovation performance of small firms in terms of product innovations and organizational modifications. 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THE IMPACT OF MOTIVATION ON BANK CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOR: MEDIATING EFFECT OF JOB SATISFACTION Muhammad Umar University of Management and Technology, Lahore, University of Gujrat, Pakistan. umar@uog.edu.pk Khadija Mushtaq Faculty of Management Sciences, University of Gujrat, Pakistan Syed Ahmad Ali School of Business & Economics, University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan Maqbool Hussain Sial School of Business & Economics, University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan In the last three decades, researchers from diverse backgrounds and cultures have examined organizational citizenship behavior with diverging This research studied the impact of bank personnel’s motivation on bank citizenship behavior with the mediating role of job satisfaction. The researchers used a quantitative approach and cross-sectional survey design to collect data via a Likert-scale questionnaire from a sample of 254 Pakistani bank employees chosen with probability sampling. Data analysis through partial least-squares structural equation modeling using Smart_PLS 3.3 revealed that job satisfaction significantly mediates between motivation and bank citizenship behavior. Interestingly, the control variables (gender and residential area) had an insignificant association with bank employee’s citizenship behavior. These outcomes will aid banking policymakers in improving extra-role behavior among staff. The coined term “bank citizenship behavior” will attract researchers to investigate bank employee’s citizenship behavior further to enrich the empirical evidence on the subject. Hence, the findings of this research determine its novelty owing to advancement of the literature. However, a larger sample size may lead to better generalization of the phenomenon. Future directions suggest the inclusion of bank justice, organizational happiness, life satisfaction, and meaningfulness as antecedents of bank citizenship behavior. Keywords: job satisfaction, bank citizenship behavior, motivation, OCB Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 17 Abstract Vol. 11, No. 1, 17-35 doi:10.17708/DRMJ.2022.v11n01a02 hyay, & Davis, 2005; Malek & Tie, 2015; Ocampo etal., 2018). lenses and findings (Gonzalez & Garazo, 2006; Dimitriades, 2007; Bukhari, 2008; Al-Zu’bi, 2011; Mushtaq, Ahmed, & Warraich, 2014; Khalili, 2017). They explored its useful role in computing organizational success and effectiveness (Kim, 2007). Despite a series of studies, the findings remain inconsistent, because organizational citizenship behavior varies based on geographical settings and demographic characteristics (Gautam, Van Dick, Wagner, Upad At present, organizational citizenship behavior has developed as a critical construct and has gained enormous attention from researchers (Khan, Irshad, Saufi, & Ahmed, 2021; Ocampo et al., 2018; Mushtaq et al., 2014). It has reached far into the business and management domains due to its relevance to organizational effectiveness and performance with the least financial impact (Rita, Payangan, Rante, Tuhumena, & Erari, 2018). Moreover, Harvey, Bolino, & Kelemen (2018) determined the 10 workplace trends that may shape the future of citizenship behavior at workplaces: labor shortages, globalization, immigration, knowledge-based workers, increase use of technology, gig work, diversity, changing work values, the skills gap, and employer brands. The aforementioned circumstances envision business organizations focusing on developing a culture of cooperation among employees and manifesting citizenship behavior in organizational strategy (Nuńez, Marquez, Zayas, & Lopes, 2020). The prevailing international financial scenario drives organizations to attain a competitive advantage and offer services efficiently. Therefore, managers around the globe are focusing on improving such employee behaviors at work (Dharma, 2017; Nuńez et al., 2020). The historical review transpired the emergence of extra-role behavior in the 1930s by Chester Bernard; it advanced slowly and was defined as organizational citizenship behavior (Organ, 1988). Consequently, organizational citizenship behavior, as one of the extra-role behaviors, has been studied widely for the last three decades (Ocampo et al., 2018; Mushtaq & Umar, 2015; Mushtaq et al., 2014). Researchers have used overlapping terms for identical concepts in citizenship behavior (Ocampo et al., 2018). Some termed it “student citizenship behavior” (Chou & Ramser, 2019), “project citizenship behavior,” or “customer citizenship behavior” (Zhang, Xu, & Zheng, 2019), whereas others referred to it as “brand citizenship behavior” (Aljarah & Baryam, 2021). This research examined citizenship behavior within banking organizations. To invite scholarly attention to the issue, this study framed organizational citizenship behavior as “bank citizenship behavior” (BCB). It is an extra-role, unrewarded, and discretionary behavior of the bank personnel (Zacher & Jimmieson, 2013). Similarly, the initiation and completion of tasks beyond normal workload, without expecting formal rewards, is referred to as bank citizenship behavior (Bateman & Organ, 1983; Smith, Organ, & Near, 1983; Organ, 1988). Banks are a vital pillar of a country’s economy. Competition is increasing in the banking sector due to changing business trends referred to previously (Umar, Sial, & Ali, 2021). Prior research found that banking organizations are focusing on shaping such unrewarded voluntary behaviors among employees to increase overall bank performance (Mushtaq et al., 2014). The level of bank citizenship behavior is oscillating; it rises or falls based on contextual, attitudinal, or dispositional constructs (Muhammad, Quoquab, Makhbul, & Ramaya, 2016). Accordingly, researchers are trying to ascertain and theorize the factors enhancing the demonstration of citizenship behavior at the bank place. Bank citizenship behavior shapes the social, psychological, and operational components of bank processes (Mousa, Massoud, & Ayoubi, 2020). It has a significant relationship with bank employees’ performance, human interaction with technology, enterprise resource planning, and other vital organizational performance and growth indicators (Narimani, Tabaeian, Khanjani, & Soltani, 2013). Studies have shown that citizenship behavior–responsive organizations are engaging workplaces that support talent attraction and retention. Bank citizenship behavior is a beneficial behavior that bank leaders want but cannot require from employees (Obedgiu, Nkurunziza, Simiyu, & Lubogoyi, 2020). Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 18 Muhammad Umar, Khadija Mushtaq, Syed Ahmad Ali, Maqbool Hussain Sial: The Impact of Motivation on Bank Citizenship Behavior: Mediating Effect of Job Satisfaction Furthermore, there is an enormous difference in the cultures, human resource policies, and appraisal systems of banks across the globe. Consequently, this research adds value to the literature of bank citizenship behavior within banking organizations by analyzing and describing the antecedents of bank citizenship behavior among Pakistani bank personnel (Mushtaq et al., 2014). Motivating and rewarding employees has become a challenging task for managers in the current business world. Motivation has a strong association with performance (Dharma, 2017; Rita et al., 2018) and employee’s citizenship behavior (Barbuto & Story, 2011). The two most prominent and widely accepted categories of motivation are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Stringer, Didham, & Theivananthampillai, 2011). The definition of motivation is broad and complex, because researchers have defined it from their perspectives. It is defined as the energy, willingness, and enthusiastic attitude of an individual to initiate a specific job (Selamat, 2010; Dahl & Smimou, 2011). The literature also reveals a possible association between the citizenship behavior and job attitudes considering respective cultures. Therefore, job satisfaction presumably is the basis of bank citizenship behavior among employees. Locke (1976) provided one of the most common and generally accepted definitions of job satisfaction: a positive and emotional state of mind. The level of job satisfaction varies in different sectors of banks (George & Zakkariya, 2015). Some researchers found a moderate to more-reliable link between job satisfaction and various factors of citizenship behavior (Murphy, Athanasou, & King, 2002; Kim, 2007; Foote & Tang, 2008; Shokrkon & Naami, 2009; Mushtaq et al., 2014; Mushtaq & Umar, 2015). Others found an insignificant association between two of these constructs (Chen, Xue, & Sego, 1998; Randall, Cropanzano, Bormann, & Birjulin, 1999). Evidence described here visibly denote the different states of previous shreds of evidence (Narzary & Palo, 2020). Previous work indicated the influence of several factors on citizenship behavior. However, the race for competitive advantage, severe working environment, deadlines, financial targets, and other stressors affect the motivation and job satisfaction levels of bank employees in Pakistan. This research investigated the little- studied effects of motivation on bank citizenship behavior with the mediating role of job satisfaction among Pakistani bank personnel. The study used gender and residential areas as control variables. This study adds distinctive contextual value to the literature concerning bank citizenship behavior and also provides a mode for managerial application inside banks for fostering bank citizenship behavior, especially in the Asian and Pakistani context. 2LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1Bank Citizenship Behavior This study interchangeably refers to “organizational citizenship behavior” as “bank citizenship behavior” due to its relevance to banking organizations. Many researchers defined it in different styles and contexts, i.e., Bateman and Organ (1983) termed it a helping behavior for solving other’s problems, accepting orders happily, performing unexpected tasks, etc. However, little consensus and uniformity exist in the literature except for the widely accepted definition by Organ (1988, p. 4): Individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization. By discretionary, we mean that the behavior is not an enforceable requirement of the role or the job description, that is, the clearly specifiable terms of the person’s employment contract with the organization; the behavior is rather a matter of personal choice, such that its omission generally not understood as punishable. Few studies illustrated Organ’s (1988) first five factors model of OCB, i.e., sportsmanship, civic virtue, altruism, courtesy, and conscientiousness (Dimitriades, 2007; Danaeefard, Balutbazeh, & Kashi, 2010). However, several researchers used diverse aspects to measure OCB. For example, Podsakoff, Ahearne, and MacKenzie (1997) established evidence for only three factors of OCB, whereas Al- Zu’bi (2011) mentioned only altruism, sportsmanship, and conscientiousness as its factors. Kim (2007) found support for altruism and generalized compliance. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 19 Markedly, this investigation also brings up Organ’s (1988) five facets model, which was studied by different researchers (Danaeefard, Balutbazeh, & Kashi, 2010; Mushtaq et al., 2014; Mushtaq & Umar, 2015; Ocampo et al., 2018; Sawalha, Kathawala, & Magableh, 2019). Firstly, altruism is defined as showing cooperation, sparing time for others as well as helping new colleagues. Secondly, conscientiousness is exceeding the minimum expectations of an organization efficiently. Thirdly, sportsmanship is bearing the inevitable inconveniences without complaining. Fourthly, courtesy is defined as helping coworkers to prevent expected problems by timely reminders and informal communication. Lastly, civic virtue is defined as showing responsibility in attending formal functions, meetings, and policy decisions. Thus, bank citizenship behavior is operationalized and defined in this study as the voluntary behaviors and actions of the bank employees that are not documented specifically in the formal reward system yet are executed willingly by bank personnel, and that are beneficial for the effective delivery of banking services to customers. Examples include keenly attending and contributing to official meetings, helping colleagues and customers to overcome expected problems, complaining less, cooperating more, and exceeding customer and organizational expectations. 2.2Motivation and Job Satisfaction Motivation is an internal drive that inspires individuals to attaining goals (Osman, Ghani & Alis, 2019). Several researchers have studied the relationship between motivation and job satisfaction and found a significant association between the two variables (Teitjen & Myers, 1998; Kim, 2007; Mushtaq et al., 2014; Mushtaq & Umar, 2015; Apridar & Adamy, 2018). The association between employee motivation and job satisfaction relates to the theory of task performance and contextual performance (Motowildo, Borman, & Schmit, 1997) and self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985). At the same time, intrinsic motivation is positively related to job satisfaction, and extrinsic motivation is negatively associated with job satisfaction (Stringer et al., 2011). Thus, the inconsistent results in terms of strength of association between job satisfaction and motivation, as well as mixed outcomes between job satisfaction and types of motivation, together with contextual differences, encourage researchers to examine their relationship in a less frequently studied population. This study tested the mediating relationship of job satisfaction between motivation and bank citizenship behavior among bank personnel in Pakistan, considering variations in motivation, job satisfaction, and bank citizenship behavior based on geographical and demographic context. The following hypothesis was formulated: H1: There is a significant positive relationship between motivation and job satisfaction among Pakistani bank personnel. 2.3Job Satisfaction and Bank Citizenship Behavior The second construct of this study is job satisfaction, which is an essential concept in organizational behavior studies (Sri Indarti, Fernandes, and Hakim (2017). Researchers have defined job satisfaction in several contexts (Locke, 1978; Schnake & Dumler, 2003; Luthans, 1998) and categorized it into social satisfaction, intrinsic job satisfaction, and extrinsic job satisfaction, (Schnake & Dumler, 2003). Job satisfaction is characterized as the most significant job attitude in predicting and understanding numerous organizational outcomes, e.g., bank citizenship behavior (Krishnan et al., 2010). The widely recognized definition of job satisfaction presented by Locke (1978) refers to it as the positive and joyful behavior or mental approach that is a result of job experiences. In other words, job satisfaction is the individual’s attitude toward the job, based on evaluation and feedback, contentment and happiness, rewards and promotion, and appreciation for duties carried out efficiently (George & Zakkariya, 2015). The literature review showed the relationship between job satisfaction and bank citizenship behavior supported by social exchange theory (Alsheikh & Sobihah, 2019), which assumes that satisfied employees will demonstrate extra-role behaviors (Chen & Chiu, 2008). There is substantial evidence of a significant relationship among job Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 20 Muhammad Umar, Khadija Mushtaq, Syed Ahmad Ali, Maqbool Hussain Sial: The Impact of Motivation on Bank Citizenship Behavior: Mediating Effect of Job Satisfaction satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior, and a few of its factors in various cultures and work settings (Mushtaq et al., 2014; Mushtaq & Umar, 2015; Sri Indarti et al., 2017; Pio & Tampi, 2018). The preceding discussion showed that the literature about the relationship between job satisfaction and citizenship behavior is contradictory. Some researchers found a significant positive relationship between job satisfaction and citizenship behavior, but others did not confirm this association. However, there also could be a considerable difference in the level of relationship between job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior (Narzary & Palo, 2020). Moreover, the association between bank citizenship behavior and job satisfaction rarely has been examined. Therefore, the following hypothesis was formulated: H2: There is a significant positive association between job satisfaction and bank citizenship behavior among Pakistani bank employees. 2.4Motivation and Bank Citizenship Behavior The third core construct of this study is motivation. Research on motivation started in 1930; the word “motivation” is a derivative of the Latin word “movere,” meaning “to move” (Mushtaq & Umar, 2015). Motivation, along with job attitudes, is a crucial factor in determining an individual’s citizenship behaviors (Mushtaq et al., 2014). Researchers believe that motivated employees work efficiently and effectively, and thus produce extraordinary results. Thus, intrinsically motivated personnel demonstrate extra roles and work beyond regular duties (Furnham, Eracleous, & Chamorro-Premuzic, 2009). Nelson (1999, p. 26) defined motivation as the notion of “why we do what we do.” Luthans (1998) described motivation as “the process that starts with a physiological deficiency or needs that activates a behavior or a drive that aimed at a goal incentive” (Seebaluck & Seegum, 2013, p. 447). Moreover, the goal-oriented behaviors of employees activated, guided, and maintained internally also may be termed motivation. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are the two common types of motivation (Marquis & Huston, 2009). Rabey (2001, p. 26) stated that “The ingredients of motivation lie within us. Circumstances and situations will determine the stimulus, which will generate a response to drive forward and to withdraw or wait for a further signal.” There are numerous theories of motivation, some of the most prominent of which are Hertzberg’s theory of motivation (Herzberg, 1968; Herzberg, Mausner, & Synderman, 1959), Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory (1943), motivation-hygiene theory, theory X and Y, and self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Motivation has gained much importance in organizations because it has positive influences on employee behaviors that cause organizational success. Intrinsic motivation is explained as performing an activity for its own sake because one finds it enjoyable and exciting. In comparison, extrinsic motivation is termed as becoming involved in an action for instrumental reasons, such as acquiring a reward (Millette & Gagne, 2008). The literature review found that motivation has a positive influence on OCB regardless of the types of motivation studied (Osman, Ghani, & Alis, 2019). Motivation was selected as an independent variable in this study to determine its impact on bank citizenship behavior due to its significant relationship with job attitudes (Mushtaq et al., 2014). The relationship of motivation with bank citizenship behavior is little studied in the Pakistani context, although Kim (2007) found a significant relationship between OCB and public service motivation. Some researchers considered motivational job characteristics to determine the effect of motivation on bank citizenship behavior (Krishnan et al., 2010). Similarly, Apridar and Adamy (2017) explored the relationship between motivation and social behavior, i.e., bank citizenship behavior in Indonesia. Dharma (2017) studied the relationship of motivation with bank citizenship behavior in Syria. Mushtaq et al. (2014), Mushtaq and Umar (2015), and Lazauskaite-Zabielske, Urbanaviciute, and Bagdziuniene (2015) also found a significant relationship between motivation and different factors of bank citizenship behavior. Shrestha and Dangol (2020) found support for motivator factors and conscientiousness, which is an element of citizenship behavior. The present study examined the relationship Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 21 between motivation and bank citizenship behavior in a novel context. Hence, the following hypothesis was formulated: H3: There is a significant positive relationship between motivation and bank citizenship behavior among Pakistani bank workers. 2.5Mediating Role of Job Satisfaction An extensive literature review determined that in some studies, job satisfaction acted as a mediator of the connection between organizational citizenship behavior and motivational job characteristics (Krishnan et al., 2010; Teh & Sun, 2012). However, other studies depicted the mediating role of OCB in the relationship among job satisfaction and other organizational constructs (Sri Indarti et al., 2017; Singh & Singh, 2019). Likewise, job satisfaction also moderates the relationship between the two factors of OCB and job characteristics (Sawalha et al., 2019). However, the mediation role of job satisfaction is little studied, especially with intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in conjunction with bank citizenship behavior. Hence, this study adds value by examining the connection between bank citizenship behavior, motivation, and job satisfaction in a little-studied population and geographical context. Subsequently, the following hypothesis was proposed: H4: Job satisfaction mediates significantly in the relationship between motivation and bank citizenship behavior among Pakistani bank staff. 3THEORETICAL APPROACH Researchers have introduced numerous theories (e.g., social exchange theory, and Herzberg’s two-factor theory) in OCB studies to investigate OCB and its antecedents in diverse cultures and work settings (Alsheikh & Sobihah, 2019). However, social exchange theory undeniably is the most familiar theory in OCB studies because it drives an individual to perform extra-role behavior without anticipating any rewards (Yadav & Rangnekar, 2015). Therefore, the researchers opted for social exchange theory to explain bank citizenship behavior in the present context. 3.1Research Methods This research followed the positivist paradigm of research philosophy. Accordingly, this research is cross-sectional, quantitative, deductive, and explanatory (Forza, 2002; Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2007). 3.1.1Rationale for the Target Population Banks are the backbone of a nation’s economy. Banking in Pakistan is a demanding job due to an intricate work setting. The emergence of new banks has put pressure on well-established financial institutions to implement technology that is more efficient and provide better service to customers (Memon et al., 2020; Umar et al., 2021). Therefore, the development of citizenship behavior within banking organizations to gain competitive advantage is of vital importance (Sawalha, Kathawala, & Magableh, 2019). Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 22 Muhammad Umar, Khadija Mushtaq, Syed Ahmad Ali, Maqbool Hussain Sial: The Impact of Motivation on Bank Citizenship Behavior: Mediating Effect of Job Satisfaction Figure 1: Study model The instabilities in the policy rate by the State Bank of Pakistan, along with increased competition in the banking sector of Pakistan (Tahir, Shah, & Afridi, 2016), have influenced banks to use their employees as a competitive advantage for overall organizational success (Ocampo et al., 2018). However, the culture, nature of the job, competition, and strategies of the bank cause stress, anxiety, dissatisfaction, and less social exchange among banking personnel (Mushtaq, Ahmed, & Warraich, 2014: Memon, Qureshi, & Jokhio, 2020). Subsequently, motivating, satisfying, and retaining employees to demonstrate bank citizenship behavior and work efficiently to achieve organizational goals is challenging for 21st-century bank managers (Dharma, 2017). Therefore, the target population of this study consisted of bank personnel from both public and private banks of Pakistan. 3.1.2 Sampling Method and Sample Size The researchers applied mixed-method probability sampling, using a combination of stratified random sampling and multistage cluster sampling, to select a representative sample (Sekaran, 2003; Saunders et al., 2007; Mushtaq et al., 2014). Primarily, the target population was divided into public and private strata; each bank within the strata was identified as a cluster. Successive multistage cluster sampling was used to select representative clusters. At first, two public sector and four private sector bank brands, i.e., the clusters, were picked randomly. Among 133 recognized clusters (bank branches) operating in the Gujrat district of Punjab province in Pakistan, only 52 clusters (30 private branches and 22 public branches) were chosen randomly via proportionate allocation as the sampled population (Mushtaq et al., 2014). The researchers calculated the sample size using Yamani’s (1967) formula and selected the clusters as mentioned previously from each stratum based on the proportional allocation of the sample. Accordingly, data were collected from sampling units, i.e., bank officials and officers within the designated clusters. 3.1.3The Instrument The researchers used an adapted instrument for the self-administered survey, which is considered to be most effective method in business research, to collect primary data from 254 bank personnel (Mushtaq at al., 2014; Forza, 2002). The questionnaire contained two sections, i.e., demographic data and Likert scale items, to measure bank citizenship behavior as a dependent variable with 10 adapted items from the scale of 14 items ensuring that each of the five factors of OCB were measured with at least two items (Danaeefard et al., 2010; Mushtaq et al., 2014). Motivation and job satisfaction were measured as independent and mediating variables, with eight and nine adapted items, respectively (Macdonald & Maclyntyre, 1997; Mackenzie, Podsakoff, & Paine, 1999). The reliability statistics and validity of the questionnaire were verified by analyzing Cronbach’s alpha values (>0.70) and principal component analysis (>0.90), respectively, for every item (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998). 3.1.4Data Analysis Technique and Tools The researchers conducted data analysis using SPSS 21 and Smart_PLS 3.3 software. Firstly, frequency and descriptive statistics illustrated the demographic information. Secondly, Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 23 Figure 2: Sampling design (Umar et al., 2021) Demographic indicator Statistics Work experience with current bank (years) =3 = 44%, =7 = 29%, =8 = 27% Qualification/education (years) =14 = 36%, =16 = 46%, =18 = 18% Monthly income =30,000 = 51%, =50,000 = 26%, =51,000 = 23% Age (years) =30 = 53%, =50 = 29%, =60 =18% Bank type 42.1% public, 57.9% private Gender 21.9% female, 80.1% male Construct Adapted items Developed/validated by Sample items Job Satisfaction 9 Macdonald & MacIntyre (1997); Mushtaq & Umar (2015); Umaret al. (2021); “I am satisfied with the financial benefits I receive.”“I believe that my future is secure in this job.” Motivation 8 Mushtaq et al. (2014); Mushtaq & Umar (2015) “The work I do is important to me, personally.”“I enjoy taking on new responsibilities in my job.” Bank Citizenship Behavior 10 MacKenzie, Podsakoff, & Fetter (1993); Mackenzieet al. (1999); Danaeefard et al., (2010); Mushtaq et al., (2014) “I keep up with developments in the Bank.”“I return phone calls and respond to other messages and requests for information promptly.”“I help other colleagues/clients in the bank to keep them away from problems.” Note: Cronbach’s a = 0.70. variance-based structural equation modeling (SEM) was used for data analysis. Contemporary research in management advocates the use of variance based-SEM. The rationale to use this SEM is based on the predictive power it gives to the model, the usefulness in both reflective and formative measures, the smaller sample size, and freedom from normality assumptions of data before analysis. Smart_PLS supports variance- based-SEM. The analysis using this software provides comprehensive results that allow assessment of both measurement and structural models (Ali, Rasoolimanesh, Sarstedt, Ringle, & Ryu, 2018; Shiau, Sarstedt, and Hair, 2019; Hair, Risher, Sarstedt, & Ringle, 2019; Butt et al., 2019). 4DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 4.1Respondent Profiles Table 2: Demographic details of respondents Among the 238 filled and returned questionnaires, approximately 80% of respondents were male, due to a smaller number of female workers than of male workers in banks. More than half of the respondents were under 30 years of age due to expansion in banks in recent years and extensive fresh hiring. Similarly, almost all employees had a minimum of 14 years of education, except for a negligible number who had 12 years of education. The researchers used multiple regression analysis to confirm the hypotheses. The researchers tested the assumptions of regression analysis and found that all variables measured on a continuous scale followed a normal distribution. In addition, the relationships among the variables were linear, and no multicollinearity existed. 4.2Structural Equation Modeling Technique The partial least-squares structural equation modeling analysis using Smart_PLS3.3 was divided into measurement model analysis and structural analysis (Jamshed & Majeed, 2019; Hair et al., 2019; Butt et al., 2019). 4.3Measurement Model Analysis Measurement model analysis was conducted to analyze the relationship among items and latent variables for both exogenous and endogenous constructs of the proposed model. According to Ali et al. (2018), the assessment of reflective measurement models involves evaluating the measures’ re Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 24 Muhammad Umar, Khadija Mushtaq, Syed Ahmad Ali, Maqbool Hussain Sial: The Impact of Motivation on Bank Citizenship Behavior: Mediating Effect of Job Satisfaction Table 1: Scale adaption, reliability, and validity Variable Item Factor loading VIF CR AVE Cronbach’s alpha Motivation Mot1 0.811 1.693 0.843 0.576 0.794 Mot2 0.784 2.468 Mot7 0.622 2.394 Mot9 0.802 2.220 Job satisfaction JS3 0.742 1.607 0.880 0.594 0.830 JS4 0.770 1.605 JS5 0.796 2.034 JS6 0.775 2.177 JS7 0.770 1.764 Bank citizenship behavior Alt1. 0.778 1.542 0.881 0.597 0.847 CV1 0.748 1.705 CV2 0.628 1.650 Consc1. 0.817 1.170 Court1. 0.680 1.589 SP1. 0.798 1.705 VIF = variance inflation factor, CR = composite reliability, and AVE = average variance extracted. liability (i.e., indicator reliability and internal consistency reliability) and the validity (i.e., convergent and discriminant validity). Table 3 presents the values of outer loads, variance inflation factor, composite reliability, and average variance extracted. The values of outer loads for all items of the constructs ideally should be greater than or equal to 0.7 but less than 0.9 (Hair et al., 2019). However, the outer load values for some items of the present model were found to be greater than or equal to 0.6 (Truong & McColl, 2011; Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010; Chin, Gopal, & Salisbury, 1997), thus fulfilling conditions of convergent validity. Values of average variance extracted (AVE) were greater than or equal to 0.5, thus fulfilling conditions of convergent validity of the constructs (Hair, Sarstedt, Hopkins, & Kuppelwieser,, 2014; Hair et al., 2019). The values of composite reliability (CR) for all the constructs were greater than or equal to 0.80, indicating strong internal consistency and validity (Hair et al., 2014; Hair et al., 2019). Moreover, values of Cronbach’s alpha greater than or equal to 0.7 also were found to be acceptable for determining the reliability of each construct (Haier et al., 2019). Likewise, the values of variance inflation factor (VIF) were less than or equal to 0.5, thus signifying no multicollinearity among items of the constructs (Hair et al., 2019). Moreover, Fornell & Larcker’s (1981) method was used to confirm discriminant validity Table 4). Discriminant validity is referred to as the degree to which a construct differs from others, among all constructs verified by determining that the squared correlation between each pair of constructs is lower than the levels of average variance extracted. Furthermore, the values of Fornell & Larcker’s criterion were higher than the corresponding values that validate the discriminant validity (Table 4) (Anderson and Gerbin 1988; Fornell and Larcker 1981; García- Sánchez, García-Morales, & Bolívar-Ramos, 2017). In addition, the hetrotrait–monotrait ratio (HTMT) values are presented in Table 4. HTMT values access the discriminant validity of the constructs. The HTMT ratio of the constructs should be less than or equal to 0.85 thresholds, thus validating the discriminant validity of the constructs for the model (Henseler, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2015; Hair et al., 2019). Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 25 Table 3: Outer loads, variance inflation factor, composite reliability and average variance extracted Relationship Path coefficient t-statistics p-value Result R2 f2 Mot . JS 0.606 13.394 0.00 Supported 0.368 0.582 JS . BCB 0.459 8.057 0.00 Supported 0.459 Mot . BCB (direct effect) 0.481 8.176 0.00 Supported 0.710 0.503 Mot . JS . BCB (indirect effect) 0.279 6.485 0.00 Supported Mot . BCB (total effect) 0.759 26.038 0.00 Supported Gender . BCB -0.009 0.250 0.803 Unsupported Residential area . BCB 0.031 0.875 0.382 Unsupported Note: BCB = bank citizenship behavior, JS = job satisfaction, and Mot = motivation Hetrotrait–monotrait ratio (HTMT) Fornell–Larckers criterion Construct BCB JS Mot BCB JS Mot BCB — 0.745 JS 0.775 0.751 0.771 Mot 0.847 0.751 — 0.759 0.606 0.773 Note: BCB = bank citizenship behavior, JS = job satisfaction, and Mot = motivation. 4.4Structural Model Analysis The bootstrap resampling procedure was performed using Smart_PLS to test the structural model and associated hypotheses (Hair et al., 2014). The results of the structural model analysis presented in Table 5. show the relationships among constructs (direct, mediation, and control variables), path coefficients (direct, indirect, and total effect), and significance values. The relationship significance among the hypothesized effect is determined with p-values = 0.05. The results and effect decomposition (Table 5.0 and Figures 3, 4, and 5) reveal that all the proposed hypotheses are confirmed except the control variable effects. The R2 values and path model analysis indicate that motivation significantly affected job satisfaction, with a 36.8% change in job satisfaction (R2 = 0.368, p = 0.05) (Figure 2). Likewise, motivation had a significant positive direct impact on bank citizenship behavior. A 71% change in bank citizenship behavior (R2 = 0.710, p = 0.05) was caused by motivation and job satisfaction (Figure 3 and Table 5). Similarly, job satisfaction also had a significant direct impact on bank citizenship behavior (Table 5 and Figure 3). The results show that both direct and indirect effects are significant; therefore, job satisfaction partially but positively mediates between motivation and bank citizenship behavior (Nitzl, Rolden & Cepeda, 2016). Figure 3 shows the basic structural model analyzed in this study. It depicts the items for each construct that met the minimum criteria for inclusion in the analysis, along with the association between each construct and the path coefficients. Only four items for motivation met the criteria, whereas five items for job satisfaction and six items from bank citizenship behavior were included in the structural model analysis. The path coefficient value between motivation and job satisfaction were 0.606, that between job satisfaction and motivation was 0.459, and that between motivation and bank citizenship behavior was 0.481 at p = 0.05. The path coefficients show the strength of the path models. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 26 Muhammad Umar, Khadija Mushtaq, Syed Ahmad Ali, Maqbool Hussain Sial: The Impact of Motivation on Bank Citizenship Behavior: Mediating Effect of Job Satisfaction Table 4: Discriminant validity Table 5: Structural model analysis: direct, indirect, and total effects 4.5Control Variables This study included two control variables, i.e., gender and residential area. The results in Table 5 and Figure 4.0 show that residential area did not have a significant positive impact on bank citizenship behavior in this study. Figure 5 shows the inclusion of gender as a control variable in this study. Gender also did not affect bank citizenship behavior, and it had an insignificant relationship with bank citizenship behavior in this study. Hence, the introduction of the control variable did not significantly affect the relationship between motivation, job satisfaction, and bank citizenship behavior. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 27 Figure 3: PLS_SEM model Figure 4: PLS_SEM model with Control variable I Measure Estimated Value p-value SRMR 0.873 0.000 d_ULS 2.123 0.000 d_G 1.472 Chi-squared 1271.598 NFI 0.911 GOF = 0.56 Above average 4.6Model Fitness and Goodness of Fit The hypothesized model was tested via Smart_PLS software. The model fit was based on normed fit indices (NFIs) = 0.9, SRMR = 0.8, and d_ULS = 99%, and goodness of fit (GOF) was determined. Furthermore, the significance of the value was determined using a complete bootstrapping, which gave the significance of the aforementioned measures of model fit. Model fitness was GOF = 0.36, which represents the fairness of model fitness. The goodness of fit indices for models may vary from the standardized values based on the model, data, and constructs for each model tested. The GOF of this model was 56%, making it a globally acceptable fit (Wetzels, Odekerken-Schröder, & Van Oppen, 2009; Jamshed & Majeed, 2019). 5DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 5.1Discussion Banking organizations are focusing on creating a sustained competitive advantage through their workforce to meet the competition and other business challenges faced as a result of fluctuations in Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 Muhammad Umar, Khadija Mushtaq, Syed Ahmad Ali, Maqbool Hussain Sial: The Impact of Motivation on Bank Citizenship Behavior: Mediating Effect of Job Satisfaction 28 Figure 5: PLS_SEM model with Control variable II Table 6: PLS-SEM model summary Hypothesis (H) Description Outcome Reference H1 Mot . JS Accepted (Apridar & Adamy, 2018) H2 JS . BCB Accepted (Sri Indarti et al., 2017) H3 Mot . BCB Accepted (Dharma, 2017) H4 Mot . JS . BCB Accepted Novel context (Krishna et al., 2010) the policy rate (Tahir et al., 2016). Banking in Pakistan is a stressful job, with longer working hours caused by consistent late sittings to address branch operations, irrational targets, and other related workplace issues (Mushtaq et al., 2014). Extra-role behaviors have gained significant importance in organizational behavior (Ocampo et al., 2018). Banking organizations in Pakistan also need to promote extra-role behavior, e.g., citizenship behavior, to improve overall organizational performance due to the link of citizenship behavior with organizational performance (Rita et al., 2018). Hence, organizational strategy experts are focused on improving such employee behaviors in the workplace (Nuńez et al., 2020). Nevertheless, little literature is available about citizenship behavior within the banking sector (Mushtaq et al., 2014; Ocampo et al., 2018). This research investigated the citizenship behavior among banking personnel, referring to it as “bank citizenship behavior,” which otherwise commonly is recognized as organizational citizenship behavior. Crafting the term “bank citizenship behavior” will motivate researchers to investigate bank employee’s citizenship behavior further, thus adding value to the literature. It also will be advantageous for banking policymakers to improve workplace settings and performance. The primary objective of this study was to analyze and prove the mediating role of job satisfaction in the relationship between motivation and bank citizenship behavior among Pakistani bank professionals. The results of the study allowed the researchers to derive subsequent conclusions concerning the acceptance of the hypotheses. Firstly, Hypothesis H1 (there is a significant positive relationship between motivation and job satisfaction) was constructed and analyzed to achieve the objective of the study. The results indicated that motivation has a significant positive and directional relationship with job satisfaction (Table 5). Motivated employees are more satisfied with their jobs, and vice versa. The researchers concluded that the Hypothesis H1 is accepted. The researcher infer that job attitudes and motivation are strongly associated with each other. By enhancing motivation among individuals, attitudes improve at an equal ratio. These results strengthen the arguments in the previous sections and are in line with prior research (Apridar & Adamy, 2018). The results also negate the findings of Stringer et al. (2011) and clarify that motivation has a crucial role in improving job satisfaction in the workplace. Table 7: Hypotheses testing Hypothesis H2 (there is a significant positive association between job satisfaction and bank citizenship behavior among Pakistani bank employees) was tested using the regression model (Table 5). Hypothesis H2 was accepted based on inferential statistics test. These results strengthen the theoretical foundations laid by previous researchers regarding the connection between job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior (Alsheikh & Sobihah, 2019; Sri Indarti et al., 2017; Mushtaq & Umar, 2015). The present results add value to the literature in the context of banking organizations and show that job satisfaction is equally useful for fostering citizenship behavior in banks as in generic organizations. Hypothesis H3 (there is a significant positive relationship between motivation and bank citizenship behavior among Pakistani bank workers) was tested using regression analysis and was found to be significant (Table 5). Consequently, in light of findings derived from the inferential statistics, Hypothesis H3 is accepted for this study. These findings further confirm the results of previous studies and strengthen the theory concerning the relationship between motivation and organizational citizenship behavior (Shrestha & Dangol, 2020; Osman et al., 2019; Apridar & Adamy, 2017; Dharma, 2017; Mushtaq & Umar, 2015; Lazauskaite-Zabielske et al., Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 29 2015; Krishnan et al., 2010). This empirical evidence is a valuable addition to the literature in the specific context of banking organizations and bank citizenship behavior. The central hypothesis of this study was Hypothesis H4 (job satisfaction mediates significantly in the relationship between motivation and bank citizenship behavior among Pakistani bank staff). The interpretation of the results attained from the partial least-squares structure equation model (Table 5.0, and Figures 3, 4, and 5) illustrated and proved that job satisfaction is a significant mediator between motivation and bank citizenship behavior. Subsequently, Hypothesis H4 was validated in line with theory and the literature. The results of this hypothesis are a valuable contribution to the literature by proving job satisfaction to be a significant mediator between motivation and bank citizenship behavior, in continuation of the findings of Krishnan et al. (2010). They determined the mediating role of job satisfaction in the relation between motivational job characteristics and organizational citizenship behavior. However, the findings of the present study in the specific context of banking organizations are exclusive and infrequently examined. Lastly, the demographic constructs, i.e., gender and residential area, were introduced as control variables in the structural model. Both constructs had an insignificant relationship with bank citizenship behavior. Thus, the proposed structural model and the hypothesized relationship were validated statistically. 5.2Research Implications This research has many implications for bank policymakers and organizational behavior researchers. Primarily, introducing the term “bank citizenship behavior” will invite scholarly attention to investigate bank employees’ citizenship behavior further to enrich the empirical evidence on the subject. This is particularly important given the increasing importance of citizenship behavior within banking organizations (Mushtaq et al., 2014; Ocampo et al., 2018; Sawalha et al., 2019) due to its relevance with organizational performance (Rita et al., 2018). Furthermore, this research is a valuable contribution to the literature on bank personnel in the current context and setting for policy decisions together with the managerial application. It is evident that by enhancing motivation among individuals, job attitudes improve at an equal ratio. Both motivation and job satisfaction are significant predictors of numerous positive behaviors and performance indicators. Markedly, managers may focus on the factors that increase the level of job satisfaction and motivation of bank staff to increase voluntary behaviors, i.e., bank citizenship behavior. It also will be advantageous for banking policymakers for improving workplace settings and performance. The preceding process will foster overall bank effectiveness and success. The findings of this study strengthen the existing theoretical foundations concerning the connection between job satisfaction, motivation, and bank employees’ citizenship behavior. Lastly, contrary to existing research, the insignificant relationship of both gender and residential area with the dependent variable bank citizenship behavior in this study opens an avenue for future research. 5.3Limitations and Future Research Directions Bank citizenship behavior varies based on geographic and demographic characteristics, as discussed in the literature review (Gautam et al., 2005; Mushtaq et al., 2014). Therefore, the generalization of the research should be limited to a specific population only—lengthy studies with a vast population are required for better generalization. Furthermore, the self-reported responses may have introduced bias, which can be eliminated in future studies by engaging peers to evaluate the extra-role behavior of colleagues. Furthermore, the research findings indicate the need to include more factors, in addition to motivation and job satisfaction, to measure their impact on bank citizenship behavior, e.g., bank justice, bank trust, organizational happiness, life satisfaction, and work meaningfulness. Lastly, the mediating role of types of job satisfaction on the relationship between bank citizenship behavior and other organizational factors may strengthen further the arguments and findings on the subject. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 Muhammad Umar, Khadija Mushtaq, Syed Ahmad Ali, Maqbool Hussain Sial: The Impact of Motivation on Bank Citizenship Behavior: Mediating Effect of Job Satisfaction 30 5.4Conclusion This research found that the motivation level of bank personnel fosters bank citizenship behavior of the employees. 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Online Information Review, 43(4), 584– 599. https://doi.org/10.1108/OIR-09-2017-0271 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 35 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 36 EXPLAINING ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS—LEADERSHIP STYLES VS. MOTIVATION PROFILES VS. DECISION-MAKING STYLES: SUPPORTING OR COMPETING DIMENSIONS? Jon Aarum Andersen School of Business and Economics, Linneaus University, Sweden jon.andersen@lnu.se This paper assessed if and to what degree leadership styles, motivation profiles and decision-making styles explain organizational goal attainment (effectiveness). Leadership behaviors of 209 Swedish corporate managers were collected using established instruments, and effectiveness data were collected from the companies in which these managers were employed. It is concluded that managers’ leadership styles, motivation profiles, and decision-making styles support each other because they give a more comprehensive description of leadership behaviors. On the other hand, leadership styles, motivation profiles, and decision-making styles compete in presenting empirical support for and explanations of organizational effectiveness. Managers who were power-motivated appeared to be more effective than other managers, regardless of their leadership styles and decision-making styles. Leadership scholarship needs to focus more on the consequences of managers’ behaviors and how they relate to organizational goal-attainment. Keywords: management, leadership, attitudes, motivation, decision-making, effectiveness 1INTRODUCTION Leadership scholarship includes a number of descriptions of managers’ behaviors, with different reasons for the behaviors as well as the organizational consequences of behavioral types. This paper assessed to what degree leadership styles, motivation styles, and decision-making styles support or are at odds with each other in explaining organizational effectiveness with reference to empirical studies. Several hundred definitions of leadership have been presented over the years (Bass, 1990; Yukl, 2010). What properties must be present for leadership to exist and to be what it is? What makes formal leadership possible? Organizational-effectiveness studies argue that a formal leader, subordinates, and tasks are the properties that must exist for managerial leadership to exist. Formal organizations (corporations or public agencies) employ both managers and subordinates, which have legal and contractual implications. A formal leader (manager) is a person who is responsible both for the subordinates and for the results. Leadership is a process, but management is a position (Hughes et al., 1999). Managers lead business enterprises or public agencies. Organizational psychology addresses the reasons for behaviors or behavioral patterns of individuals at work, such as personality traits, attitudes, needs (motivation), and intuition. Management studies address the behaviors of managers rather than the reasons for their behaviors. The aim is to assess the consequences of managerial actions related to organizational effectiveness. Again, managerial psychology seeks to explain the actions and behaviors of managers. Explaining the organizational consequences (goal-attainment) of managerial behaviors is the aim of management scholarship. Three types of managerial behaviors have dominated leadership scholarship: leadership styles (e.g., Blake and Mouton, 1964), motivation profiles (e.g., McClelland, 1990), and decision-making styles Abstract Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 37 Vol. 11, No. 1, 37-48 doi:10.17708/DRMJ.2022.v11n01a03 Cause Study object Consequence (presumed) Attitudes Leadership styles: Separated, dedicated, related, integrated. Organizational effectiveness Motivations Motivation profiles: Achievement, affiliation, power motivation. Organizational effectiveness Personality, intuition Decision-making styles:Sensing, intuition, thinking, feeling. Organizational effectiveness (e.g., Keegan, 1984). The universal theorists claim that there is one best way to lead, whereas the contingency theorists claim that leadership effectiveness is dependent on the situation (Blake and Mouton, 1978). McClelland and Burnham (1976, p. 105) wrote “After all, management is an influence game.” It is only by acting or refraining from taking action that subordinates, superiors, owners, financiers, customers, and other parties can be influenced. Leadership research addresses the reasons for actions as well as different kinds of actions. Again, what is central in managerial leadership research is not the reasons for leaders’ behavior, but rather the organizational consequences of the behaviors. Table 1 presents the causes, study objects, and the presumed consequences of attitudes, motivations, and decision-making styles on organizational effectiveness. Table 1: Causes, study objects (phenomena), and consequences 2ORGANIZATIONAL TYPES AND EFFECTIVENESS (GOAL-ATTAINMENT) Blau and Scott (1962) presented a typology based on the prime beneficiaries of organizations. Some organizations are established in which the owners are the prime beneficiaries, namely business enterprises. Goal-attainment is the key issue and the basic definition of effectiveness in managerial theory. The main goal of a specific business enterprise is a description of a desired permanent state in the future with respect to the degree of profitability (i.e., the dividend on shares) and the risk level expected by the owners based on their investment time horizon. The ultimate goal of a company is profitability (Shetty, 1979; Hambrick, 1983; Nash, 1983; Walton and Dawson, 2001). The prime beneficiaries in public organizations are the citizens. In private schools the goal is profitability, and the means is education. The goal of public schools is to increase the level of knowledge in society, and the means is education. Organizational effectiveness is an objective variable. It is measured by the degree of goal-attainment in which the owners, board of directors, and managers on different levels specify the goals that their subordinate departments need to achieve. The people, who constitute the majority of the working population, work in private or public organizations in order to achieve the goals of the prime beneficiaries. Leadership is a process, but management is a position (Hughes et al., 1999). 3EMPIRICAL STUDIES OF LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS AND EFFECTIVENESS Studies of the behaviors of managers traditionally have used masked instruments, in which managers have responded to a number of questionnaires without knowing what is being measured. The questionnaires are returned directly to the researchers, who score them, and the managers who responded are not informed of which leadership behaviors they have. Only the researchers know the identity of the respondents. Empirical data on the degree of effectiveness (what goals to achieve and what actually has been achieved by each manager) come from the senior managers of the individual managers who responded to the instruments that measure behaviors. This procedure enables researchers to link specific leadership behaviors and the degree of effectiveness of each manager who takes part in an investigation. It is imperative to stress this procedure because some studies have deviated from these requirements and these data-collection procedures when studying managerial leadership. Managerial effectiveness was a key concept in the study by Yukl et al. (2019). However, it was neither defined nor measured as the degree of goal-attainment. Yukl et al.’s Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 38 Jon Aarum Andersen: Explaining Organizational Effectiveness—Leadership Styles vs. Motivation Profiles vs. Decision-Making Styles: Supporting or Competing Dimensions? empirical study of leadership behaviors was not based on subordinates and managers, but on responses from students at two universities regarding their supervisors (university employees). The managerial effectiveness was measured according to the students’ subjective ratings of how their supervisors carried out their duties. In other words, the dependent and independent variables were subjective and originated from the same respondents. 4ATTITUDES AND LEADERSHIP STYLE THEORIES 4.1Style Theories The seminal works of Likert (1961), Halpin and Winer (1957), and Fleishman and Harris (1962) were concerned with the relationship between behavior and organizational performance. It was assumed that a particular leadership style was a consequence of the leader’s attitudes, values, and assumptions. Likert (1961), Halpin and Winer (1957), and Fleishman and Harris (1962) developed the notion of “one best way to lead,” or universal theories: employee-centeredness (i.e., more concern for the employees than tasks), “high-high” leadership style (i.e., high concern for employees and for tasks), and, with Blake and Mouton (1964), the team-leadership style (i.e., high concern for employees and for outcomes). However, the empirical support for the universal theories has not impressed other researchers. Blake and Mouton (1985, p. 198) defined leadership as follows: “Processes of leadership are involved in achieving results with and through others.” They stressed that goal-attainment can be achieved only with or through other people inside as well as outside the organization. Blake and Mouton pinpointed what may be seen as the dilemma of leadership. The formal leader (manager) is responsible for results in accordance with organizational goals, yet no leader or manager can achieve the goals of the organization by his or her own efforts alone. If that were possible, neither an organization nor a leader would be needed. Although the logical arguments for the “9.9-team leadership” that Blake and Mouton (1982) presented were strong, the empirical support was not. Leadership research experienced an upheaval when Fiedler (1967) argued for a theory of contingency, which was founded on 15 years of research. To Fiedler it was illogical to argue for one best way to lead. He claimed that effective leadership depended on the leader adjusting his or her behavior according to the degree of internal situational control. Strube and Garcia (1981) performed a meta- analytic review of 170 studies based on Fiedler’s theory. They reached a favorable conclusion about the validity of Fiedler’s model. However, Fiedler and Garcia (1987) argued that it was time to leave the contingency model behind and move on. Additionally, Yukl (1989) concluded that Fiedler’s theory could not explain leader effectiveness after all. However, the managerial style theory is one of the most influential leadership theories, and has influenced managers around the world (Andersen, 2013). 4.2Measurements of Leadership Styles Blake and Mouton (1985, p. 13) suggested five leadership styles which measured managers’ concern for production and concern for subordinates. Fiedler (1967) developed the LPC instrument with three leadership styles, adding a situational variable in addition to the concern for people and tasks. The concept of leadership style proposed by Reddin (1970) consists of task-orientation and relationship- orientation with two main styles: task-oriented style and relationship-oriented style. This leads to four leadership styles: separated style, related style, dedicated style, and integrated style. These styles were measured by a forced-choice instrument, the Management Style Diagnosis Test (MSDT), consisting of 56 statement (Reddin, 1987). 5MOTIVATION AND MANAGERS’ MOTIVATION PROFILES 5.1 Motivation Theories The works of McClelland (1961, 1990) on motivation were based on the proposition that needs are the reason for motivation. The focus was on the motivation and motivation-based behaviors of managers (motivation profiles) and the impact of their behavior on organizational outcomes. McClelland (1990) claimed that every individual has three Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 39 needs: achievement, which is the desire to do better than other people or be more effective, to solve problems, or to master difficult tasks; power, which is the desire to control other people, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for other people and their work; and affiliation, which is the desire to establish and maintain friendly and close relationships with other people. According to McClelland (1990) the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation are acquired, and are not based on personality. These needs are expressed in varying degrees and are results of individual life experiences. McClelland (1990) performed extensive research on managers’ motivation-related behavior. It is a theoretical assumption that most individuals have a distinct or predominant motivation profile. McClelland (1990) claimed that one specific motivation profile enhances organizational effectiveness: strong power motivation, stronger than the needs for affiliation and achievement. This claim does not imply that the higher the power motivation, the greater is the effectiveness. The main claim is only that managers’ power motivation must be stronger than the other needs. 5.2Measurements of Motivation Profiles McClelland had a strong conviction that the Thematic Apperception Test was a superior method for the study of motivations. McClelland and Steele (1972) described this instrument. To promote leadership research on managers’ motivation, an instrument was developed and applied which (1) measures achievement, affiliation, and power motivation; (2) measures the relative strengths of these factors; (3) rests explicitly on the definitions of McClelland (1990); and (4) measures managers’ work motivation. It was tested for reliability and validity with responses from 580 managers (Andersen, 1994, 2018). The application of this instrument in four studies with responses from 565 managers supported McClelland’s theoretical claims that (1) managers have motivation profiles; (2) there are differences in motivation profiles between managers across organizational types; (3) there are no significant differences in motivation profiles between female and male managers; and (4) managers who are motivated predominantly by power enhance organizational effectiveness (Andersen 2018). 6PERSONALITY, INTUITION, AND MANAGERS´ DECISION-MAKING STYLES 6.1Personality Types In psychology, intuition often is regarded as a personality trait. The most influential contribution to the subject of intuition is Jung’s work on psychological types (Jung, 1921/1971). Quinn and Hall (1983) turned to Jung’s typology as a social scientific meta-theoretical framework. Jung’s typology (a classification of personality traits) has proven to be useful in defining and predicting behavior (Keegan, 1984). Morgan (1986) showed how Jung’s theories have influenced organizational thinking. Jung’s typology has been reviewed in recent years, especially in the field of management (e.g., Akinci and Sadler-Smith, 2012). Jung (1971) pointed out that in real life the types are not found in pure form. The typology rests on two elements, namely attitudes and functions, and often is presented using three dimensions of the human psyche: (1) attitudes (extrovert and introvert); (2) perception functions (sensing and intuition); and (3) judgment functions (thinking and feeling). Jung (1933/1992, p. 103) used the term “decisions” in only one place (“important decisions”) when referring to the functions. Carlyn (1977, p. 461) argued that “thinking/feeling has to do with the decision-making style which is preferred by a person.” Myers and McCaulley (1985) also described the functions in terms of decisions. Jung applied the concept of function to designate specific forms of psychic activity and behavior in people generally, and these remain the same regardless of circumstances (Benfari, 1991). Everyone has a preference for one of the four functions. The preferred function is called the “dominant” or “superior” function. The opposite of the dominant function (i.e., that person’s strength) is called the “inferior” function (i.e., that person’s weakness). For example, if the dominant function is thinking, the weakest function will be feeling. If the dominant function is sensing, the inferior function will be intuition. The personality-type theory distinguishes between the types with respect to temporal orientations, in which the intuitive ones have the longest time horizons. According to Jaques (1990) the hierarchical levels in organizations are reflections of the Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 40 Jon Aarum Andersen: Explaining Organizational Effectiveness—Leadership Styles vs. Motivation Profiles vs. Decision-Making Styles: Supporting or Competing Dimensions? managers’ and supervisors’ planning time span. The level of responsibility in any organizational position— whether a manager’s or a foreman’s responsibility— can be measured objectively as the targeted time of completion of the longest task, project, or program assigned to that role (ibid.). The more distant the targeted date of completion of the longest task or program, the higher the position the individual ought to have. Bass (1990) also referred to research on the planning time span of managers that supports this argument. People solve problems and make decisions in a variety of ways because humans apply different functions. Problems can be solved and decisions made using intuition, sensing, thinking, and feeling. The functions that are dominant and preferred depend on the personality of the individual. Problems are solved effectively and effective decisions are made when the person in question applies the function most appropriate to the problem, situation, or task at hand. Isabel Myers must be credited with bringing Jung’s typology to life (Keirsey and Bates, 1978). Jung’s work on personality and intuition still stimulates researchers today (Liebowitz, 2020). However, the prevalence of inconsistencies in Jung’s works regarding descriptions and explanations of types has created problems for contemporary researchers. 6.2Leadership and Personality Several reviews of the research on leadership and personality have been performed. Stogdill (1948) performed a comparative review of 124 published studies and concluded that persons who are leaders in some situations may not necessarily be leaders in others. Although there were positive correlations between a number of traits and emergent leadership, these correlations were weak. Gibb (1969) stated that (1) it is not possible to find one specific personality trait that characterized leaders, and (2) it is not possible to isolate a number of traits that, when combined, explain leadership. Research failed to find a relationship—even a modest one—between personality and leadership. Gibb (1969, p. 227) concluded that “research showed no scientific basis for a relationship between traits and leading positions.” However, he pointed out that personality traits could not be excluded in leadership because they probably were not completely without consequences. Stogdill (1974) concluded that personality research had limited value when predicting an individual’s leadership potential. However, there were indications that traits work with other factors for those in formal leadership positions. When it comes to decision-making styles, including intuition, some theories are not based on personality theory (e.g., Rowe et al., 1986; Driver et al., 1990). The scholarship on the reasons for regarding intuition as a cognitive factor (e.g. Cristofaro, 2019) rather than as a personality trait was reviewed by Akinci and Sadler-Smith (2012). 6.3Intuition in Decision-Making In the Western world, great emphasis is placed on the analytical way of solving problems (Fordham, 1964). By and large, Western culture overestimates the thinkers and underestimates the intuitive, feeling, and sensing types. Too many managerial techniques overemphasize thinking, whereas individual values, commitments, and motivations often are ignored (Keegan, 1984). However, only one-fourth of what managers do requires logical capabilities. Other aspects of managerial work, such as the supervision of daily activities, motivating subordinates, and being creative, require considerably different ways of acting (ibid.). Thinking refers to only one of the steps of the managerial problem-solving process, namely the evaluation of alternatives and the selection of solutions. 6.4The Measurement of Intuition and Decision- Making: Myers–Briggs Type Indicator Jung (1971) discussed the problem of measurement in psychology and claimed that there are facts that can be measured quantitatively. Relatively complicated aspects could also be available by following the following measuring methods. The Myers– Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (Briggs Myers, 1962) is one of the most applied psychological instruments in the world, and its scientific qualities are well documented (Samuels, 1985). The chief obstacle to using the MBTI is that it is very extensive. The standard form of the MBTI in use is Form G, which has 126 items, of which 94 are scored for type. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 41 The Myers–Briggs instrument measures 16 types (eight combinations of function and two attitudes) (Briggs Myers and McCaulley, 1985). It is a questionnaire developed to make it possible to test Jung’s theory and put it to practical use (McCaulley, 1990). Jung’s typology and Myers’ contribution are not identical theories. As Stoknes (1992, p. 103) observed, “The MBTI has become so widespread that it has almost lost its roots in the Jungian theory.” However, it is hard to find empirical studies of managers’ decision-making based on the MBTI instrument (Liebowitz, 2020). 6.5Keegan’s Type Indicator (KTI) To measure the functions, the KTI instrument contains 32 items (compared with 94 items in the MBTI). The KTI collects only variables that are relevant for management studies. The instrument has acceptable face and content validity, and is based explicitly on Jung’s typology. This instrument links Jungian functions to managerial decision-making (Keegan, 1984). The BMTI is a general test of the Jungian typology, whereas the KTI is a test for managers and measures decision-making styles. The Keegan Type Indicator is less verified in terms of reliability and validity, and no documentation of test results exists. Keegan (1984) focused on decisions, implying that attitudes are less relevant. This is based on the four functions. Jung claimed that there is one dominant, one auxiliary, one underdeveloped, and one unconscious function for all humans. Keegan (1984, p. 34) presented eight decision-making styles: (1) intuition with thinking (as the auxiliary function), (2) intuition with feeling, (3) thinking with intuition, (4) thinking with sensing, (5) sensing with thinking, (6) sensing with feeling, (7) feeling with sensing, and (8) sensing with intuition. Sensing and intuition are denoted perception functions. Thinking and feeling are called judgment or decision-making functions (Keegan, 1984). The fact that all humans must judge and choose by thinking and feeling in addition to perceiving a problem (by sense and intuition) makes Jung’s typology a genuinely individual decision-making theory. Based on the concepts established here regarding problem-solving and decision-making, we return to the problem-solving process. The first four steps in the process now can be linked directly to these concepts. To find and define the problem, the perceiving functions of sensing and intuition are needed. To generate alternative solutions and to evaluate alternatives and select solution, the judging functions of thinking and feeling are used. Finally, to conduct an ethics double check, the feeling function is needed. Jung’s functions cover all the four steps of the problem- solving and decision-making process (Keegan, 1984). The Keegan Type Indicator Form B measures the variables extroversion and introversion as well as sensation, intuition, thinking, and feeling with 44 statements and questions (Keegan, 1982). Twelve items concern the attitudes, 16 items refer to the functions sensing and intuition, and 16 items refer to the functions thinking and feeling. The items concerning the attitudes are bipolar. Of the 32 items that measure the functions, 24 are bipolar statements, and eight items are ranked on a scale from 1 to 4. Keegan (1980) described the instrument and guidelines for scoring. The instrument is open, and its merits are not reduced if the respondents have knowledge of Jung’s theory. The reliability has not been tested separately. The face validity can be established easily because Jung’s typology describes the concepts and terms applied, thus enabling the formulation of valid statements and questions. The content validity has been tested, and the correlation between the scores and the assessment of the respondents was found to be high (Keegan, 1980). A review of the plethora of planning and decision- making models that currently are available indicates that although each has value, each is incomplete. Jung’ typology is almost complete because it touches on the two functions of perception (i.e., sensing and intuition) and the two functions of judgment (i.e., thinking and feeling), and their relationship to each other (Keegan, 1984). Keegan’s ambition was to make the theory applicable to more professionals, especially to managers. In the field of managerial development, the typology presented by Jung (1921/1971) gives genuine insight into the questions of why persons succeed or fail in decision-making and how they do so (Keegan, 1984). Keegan (ibid.) based his work on the works of Jung, and developed the theory further and adapted it to the field of management. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 42 Jon Aarum Andersen: Explaining Organizational Effectiveness—Leadership Styles vs. Motivation Profiles vs. Decision-Making Styles: Supporting or Competing Dimensions? The main contribution of Keegan (1980, 1982, 1984) is the description of decision-making behavior, that is, how managers perceive when becoming aware of a problem or possibility and how they solve the problem or utilize the possibility. A personality theory thus has become a basis for a behavioral theory of leadership. 6.6Are Managers Intuitive Types? The purpose of Jung’s typology is not to label people in terms of their personality type, but to understand their behavior. However, the theory does not predict any relationship between type-based behavior and specific consequences of the behavior. In managerial leadership, the focus is on the relationship between leadership behavior or behavioral patterns and organizational outcomes. A hypothesis states that managers with a decision- making behavior based on intuition and supported by the thinking function would be found more frequently than those with other combinations. Andersen (1994) collected data on the decision-making styles of 209 managers in eight Swedish corporations by using the Keegan Type Indicator, and found that the majority of the managers (32%) were intuitive types. 6.7Managers’ Intuition and Organizational Effectiveness The burning issue in leadership theory on decision- making is whether there is one best way for managers to make decisions. In this case, the problem is whether intuitive managers are more effective than other managers when the relationship between intuitive managers and the degree of organizational goal-attainment is tested empirically. The research on decision-making behavior basically is descriptive. In the field of managerial research, this descriptive research is less relevant, because the outcome factors are weakly developed. It is hard to find research that contains a hypothesis regarding a relationship between specific decision- making styles and effectiveness. These putative relationships have not been fully tested empirically. Many theories can be described by the terms “phenomenon,” “cause,” and “effect.” The phenomenon is behavior, that is, the decision-making behavior of managers. It is specific behavioral patterns that Jung described using the four functions. The cause of distinct type (i.e., the dominant function) is the personality of the individual. Jung’s theory describes types and type-related behavior, and holds that type is a personality trait. Effectiveness embraces two entities. In the field of management, it is defined as the degree of goal-attainment. There is only a weak basis for assuming a direct relationship between decision functions (decision-making styles) and effectiveness. Keegan (1984) argued that the four functions are effective in different situations, that is, in relation to different types of problems and tasks to be addressed. These arguments are not precise regarding the concepts of situation, problem, and task. McCaulley (1990) took another path in seeking an answer to this question. She claimed that the intuitive and thinking types are those who most likely are successful. Eccles and Nohria (1992) introduced the concept of robust action. Robust actions are characterized by moves that managers make that preserve their flexibility in circumstances of uncertainty. Eccles and Nohria (ibid.) suggested some principles of robust actions, including “judging the situation at hand.” Making decisions and acting at the right time depends on the ability to judge the situation. The ability to see opportunities and threats when one is in a managerial position is crucial. This may well be a characteristic of intuitive managers. Andersen (2000, 2006) suggested that intuition as a decision-making style might be related to organizational goal-attainment. The concept of intuition and the other decision functions was based on Jung’s typology. Andersen (1994) found that the majority of the managers were intuitive, but the majority had feeling as the auxiliary function, rather than thinking. Whether intuitive managers are more effective remains to be seen (ibid.). The primary issue in decision- making is not the decision per se, but the execution and implementation of the decision, which is the task of the subordinates. This leads to a number of important questions. Are they capable and competent, and will they execute the decision as intended and at the right time or within the time span? How will competitors and suppliers act or react when they observe the consequences of the decision? Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 43 Leadership styles Motivation profiles Decision- making styles Combinations Integrated style Achievement motivated Intuition 7% Integrated style Power motivated Intuition 7% Integrated style Affiliation motivated Intuition 5% Related style Power motivated Feeling 2% 7INTUITION IN DECISIONS-MAKING VS. LEADERSHIP STYLES VS. MOTIVATION PROFILES: SUPPORTING DIMENSIONS? Andersen (1994) presented data on leadership styles, motivation profiles, and decision-making styles of 209 Swedish managers. That study reported that of the 48 theoretical general profiles, four profiles with two or more managers in each group were isolated (Table 2). Two leadership style and all three motivation profiles were present, whereas intuition as decision-making style was found in three combinations (Andersen, 1994, p. 276). Thus, leadership styles, motivation, profiles, and intuition in decision-making are supporting dimensions in describing leadership behavior. Table 2. Combinations of leadership styles, motivation profiles, and decision-making styles in managers (N = 209) 8LEADERSHIP BEHAVIORS IN MANAGERS ACROSS ORGANIZATIONS AND GENDER 8.1The Public–Private Distinction The public–private distinction research tradition (Rainey et al., 1976) contains arguments for differences between public and private managers in many areas, including personality and behavior. Wittmer (1991) stated that previous research indicated that public managers are different from their private-sector counterparts in terms of work-related values, reward preferences, needs, and personality types. Hanbury et al. (2004) found that leadership style and decision-making style (personality) were correlated strongly with years of service for public managers in the United States. Andersen (2010) determined whether there were behavioral differences between public- and private-sector managers according to the public– private distinction argument. An analysis of data from 343 managers in two public organizations and one private company in Sweden revealed significant differences in behavior (namely leadership styles, motivation profiles, and decision-making styles) between public and private managers (ibid.). However, one similarity in behavior was reported: most public and private managers were intuitive types. However, the public managers scored higher on intuition than the private managers. 8.2Leadership and Gender Do female managers have different leadership styles than male managers? Andersen (2011) eliminated the effect of organizational differences (i.e., private versus public) by studying only public organizations. Of the 30 pairwise comparisons of means for samples consisting of 38 managers in three different organizations (Andersen, 2011), only five comparisons (17%) yielded significant differences in leadership behavior between women and men as managers (p < 0.05). In only one case was the significance at the level of 1%. Anderson concluded that there were no or only small and inconsistent differences in leadership behavior between women and men. Trinidad and Normore (2005, p. 574) claimed that “Women leadership styles are presented as alternative to traditional leadership models.” However, because there are no differences between women’s and men’s leadership behaviors, this alternative does not exist. Virtually no significant differences in behavior between female and male public managers were found. 9INTUITION IN DECISION-MAKING VS. LEADERSHIP STYLES VS. MOTIVATION PROFILES: COMPETING DIMENSIONS? 9.1Comparative Study of Leadership Behaviors and Effectiveness Regarding competing behavioral dimensions, only one empirical study has measured leadership styles, motivation profiles, and decision-making styles (including intuition), as well as the effective Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 44 Jon Aarum Andersen: Explaining Organizational Effectiveness—Leadership Styles vs. Motivation Profiles vs. Decision-Making Styles: Supporting or Competing Dimensions? ness of the same managers (Andersen 1994). Leadership styles were measured using a forced-choice instrument (the MSDT) developed by Reddin (1987), and the motivation profiles were measured using a different forced-choice instrument, the Andersen Motivation Profile Indicator (AMPI) by Andersen (1994). The decision-making styles were measured using a forced-choice instrument (the MSDT) developed by Keegan (1982). The effectiveness of 53 managers in two different companies was measured according to the degree of financial goal-attainment. Power-motivated managers appeared to be more effective than those motivated by any of the other behavioral dimensions investigated by Andersen (1994). However, the chi-squared test showed that the relationship between power motivation in managers and effectiveness was not significant at the 90% level. Those who managed departments in private companies and achieved or surpassed the profit-margin goal were regarded as effective, whereas those who did not were regarded as less effective or inefficient (Andersen, 1994). On the basis of data from these managers’ scores on decision-making style and the degree of effectiveness of their departments, the analysis assessed the degree, if any, of the relationship between intuition in managers and their effectiveness. Andersen (1994) reported that the covariance between effective and less-effective managers for intuitive managers was 1.5 (6:4). The covariance for the other managers was 0.5 (8:15). These results imply that the intuitive factor in managers is 3 times more strongly related to effectiveness than are other dominant functions of the managers. Intuitive management with thinking function was 6.7 times more strongly related to organizational effectiveness than was management with other decision-making styles. Because the expected value in one of the cells was less than 5, the chi-squared test result was not presented. Moreover, the Fisher exact two-tailed p-value was 0.26, indicating that the difference was not significant. Several managers were intuitive and had an innovative and creative decision-making style. Andersen (1994) found no statistical support for intuition in managers being the cause of organizational effectiveness (i.e., goal-attainment). However, managers who were predominantly power motivated according to a McClelland-based instrument (Andersen, 1999) were more effective than managers with the other two motivation profiles. In terms of the three leadership behaviors, the aforementioned studies suggest that decision-making styles, motivation profiles, and leadership styles compete to explain managers’ behavior related to organizational effectiveness. Andersen (1994) showed that power-motivated managers were more effective than managers with any other leadership behavioral pattern. There was no strong statistical basis for determining the winner. However, power motivation in managers is a strong contender. 10DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Scholarship on managerial leadership addresses the consequences of managers’ behaviors related to organizational goal-attainment (effectiveness). Managerial decision-making—stressing the making of decisions—is about actions. The main focus in managerial research on decision-making is the consequences of the decisions on goal-attainment. It is evident that both internal contingency variables (i.e., the execution of the decisions) and external contingency variables (i.e., the reactions of other organizations on these decisions) are needed in order to understand fully why some decisions lead to effectiveness and others do not. This paper assessed the relevance to managerial leadership of theories of intuition in decision- making versus leadership theories based on managers’ attitudes (leadership styles) versus motivation (motivation profiles) when the end variable is organizational effectiveness. The conclusion is that scholarship on leadership styles, motivation profiles, and decision-making style, including intuition, support each other by providing a broader perspective of managers’ behaviors. The three types of behavior in managers applied here may be competing in presenting one type which is related more strongly to organizational effectiveness than others. The main research question is this: What is the strength in explaining organizational effectiveness of the leadership-style theories versus the motivation- profile theories versus the scholarship on intuition and decision-making? Table 3 presents the relationships among the four leadership styles, the three motivation profiles, and the four decision-making styles. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 45 Leadership behaviors (cause) Organizational effectiveness (outcome) Separated leadership style Not empirically supported (Reddin 1983, p. 59). Insignificant (Andersen 1994, p. 278) (N = 53). Dedicated leadership style Related leadership style Integrated leadership style Achievement-motivated profile Not empirically supported (McClelland & Burnham 1976; McClelland 1990, p. 582). Insignificant (Andersen 1994, p. 280). (N = 53). Affiliated-motivated profile Power-motivated profile Significant, but not significant on the 90% level. (Andersen 1994, p. 281). (N = 53). Sensing as decision-making style No definition of effectiveness (Keegan 1984). Insignificant (Andersen 1994, p. 283). (N = 53). Intuition as decision-making style Thinking as decision-making style Feeling as decision-making style An empirical study (Andersen, 1994) with data from the same managers in different companies found that managers who were motivated by power appeared to be more effective than other managers, regardless of leadership style and decision- making style. It is evident that the personality approach to leadership has been contested, and has become more so over the years. What makes personality still a part of leadership research is the fact that the focus has changed from personality traits per se to decision-making and the behavioral consequences of specific decision-making-styles. Studies of how personality traits, including intuition, relate to leadership have produced inconsistent answers. Previous and current research has found no statistical support for the assumption that intuition in decision-making—whether as a personality trait or as a cognitive variable—explains organizational effectiveness. Managerial leadership is about acting and achieving organizational goals. Managerial research on leadership styles, motivation profiles, and decision- making styles linked to organizational effectiveness needs to continue, as both supporting and competing dimensions of leadership behaviors. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 46 Jon Aarum Andersen: Explaining Organizational Effectiveness—Leadership Styles vs. Motivation Profiles vs. Decision-Making Styles: Supporting or Competing Dimensions? Table 3: Effect of leadership behaviors on organizational effectiveness EXTENDED SUMMARY/IZVLECEK Ta clanek je razpravljal ali in v kolikšni meri stili vodenja, motivacijski profili ter slogi odlocanja pojasnjujejo doseganje (ucinkovitost) organizacijskih ciljev. Vodstveno vedenje 209 švedskih managerjev je bilo zbranih s pomocjo uveljavljenih instrumentov, podatki o uspešnosti pa so bili zbrani od samih podjetij, v katerih so bili ti managerji zaposleni. Ugotavljamo, da se stili vodenja, motivacijski profili in stili odlocanja managerjev medsebojno podpirajo, ker rezultira v celovitejšem opisu vodstvenega vedenja. 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(1989). Managerial leadership: A review of theory and research. Journal of Management, 15(2), 251-289. Yukl, G.A. (2010). Leadership in organizations. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Yukl, G.A., Mahsud, R., Prussia, G. & Hassan, S. (2019). Effectiveness of broad and specific leadership behaviors. Personnel Review, 48(3), 774-83. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 Jon Aarum Andersen: Explaining Organizational Effectiveness—Leadership Styles vs. Motivation Profiles vs. Decision-Making Styles: Supporting or Competing Dimensions? 48 A POSITIVIST APPROACH TO WORK ENGAGEMENT: MODERATING EFFECTS OF PERCEIVED ORGANIZATIONAL SUPPORT Angus C.H. Kuok University of Saint Joseph anguskuok@gmail.com Robert J. Taormina University of Macau taormina@emeritus.um.edu.mo There is now considerable doubt about the validity of work engagement measures that are based on burnout (Knight, Patterson, & Dawson, 2017), because Kahn (1990) viewed work engagement as positive personal factors that employees bring to the workplace; not as the reverse of burnout, which is a negative result of being overworked. Authors who used work engagement as the opposite of burnout (Maslach & Leiter, 1997; Schaufeli, Salanova, González-Romá, & Bakker, 2002) created a dichotomous measure, i.e., a person either can be work-engaged or can experience burnout, but not both. However, that idea contradicts the reality of what employees’ actually experience (Kim, Shin, & Swanger, 2009; Kuok & Taormina, 2017). 1INTRODUCTION The idea of “work engagement,” originally introduced by Kahn (1990), has been a topic of a major debate in organizational behavior for nearly three decades. Kahn (1990) defined work engagement as “the harnessing of organizational members’ selves to their work roles; in engagement, people employ and express themselves physically, cognitively, and emotionally during role performances” (p. 694). The debate began when some attempts (e.g., by Maslach & Leiter, 1997) tried to redefine work engagement as the reverse of burnout, which resulted in disagreements about what the term really means (Macey & Schneider, 2008). Using a measure based on a positivist theory of work engagement, the cognitive, emotional, and physical facets of work engagement were tested in relation to (1) a set of work, social, and personality variables, i.e., person–organization fit, organizational socialization, work centrality, job insecurity, and conscientiousness; (2) two hypothesized effects, i.e., regarding subjective career success and self-actualization; and (3) perceived organizational support as a moderator. Regressions of questionnaire data revealed that cognitive work engagement is the main predictor of work centrality, organizational understanding is the main predictor of emotional work engagement, and person–organization fit is the main predictor of physical work engagement. Structural equation modeling (SEM) tests demonstrated that emotional work engagement predicted both subjective career success and self-actualization, whereas physical work engagement predicted subjective career success. In addition, perceived organizational support moderated cognitive and physical work engagement to increase subjective career success, and moderated emotional work engagement to increase self-actualization. Implications for management are discussed. Keywords: work engagement, perceived organizational support, organizational socialization, subjective career success, self-actualization Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 49 Abstract Vol. 11, No. 1, 49-67 doi:10.17708/DRMJ.2021.v11n01a04 The problem with using different definitions of a concept such as work engagement is that empirical findings rarely coalesce, which requires having a more-focused, theory-based approach. That is why Kahn’s (1990) original theory of work engagement (which preceded all other attempts to explain the concept) is the most appropriate, i.e., because it reflects what many people experience at work. In particular, Kahn stressed that work engagement reflects the positive input that comes from the employees, who bring with them positive views about their work that they express cognitively, emotionally, and physically. However, those critical components have been missing from other models of work engagement. Kahn described work engagement as people’s internal desire to work, based on the idea that people enjoy their work. And that idea was confirmed by Wellins, Bernthal, and Phelps (2011), who explained that people engage in their work because they enjoy their work. Thus, it would not be appropriate to dismiss Kahn’s positive theory in favor of an alternate view that begins with the negative idea of burnout and then tries to define work engagement by taking the components of the negative burnout concept and creating “antipodes” (or opposites) of the burnout factors. Although that is what other theories propose, they do not address Kahn’s original descriptions of employees’ positive feelings toward their work. To solve the problem with regard to the contradictory approaches to work engagement, and the absence of a measure that captures Kahn’s (1990) concepts, a recent study that used Kahn’s original theory and also created a new measure from Kahn’s factors of work engagement found significant empirical support for the theory-based measure (Kuok & Taormina, 2017). In that study, work engagement was found, to coexist with burnout because, theoretically, they are independent constructs (Kim et al., 2009). Such findings require research to assess more clearly how work engagement relates to organizational behavior, social, and personality variables. Therefore, this study used the new measure to investigate (1) how work engagement relates to organizational socialization, work centrality, person- organization fit, conscientiousness, job insecurity, organizational support, career success, and self-actualization; and (2) whether organizational support moderates work engagement’s relationships with career success and self-actualization. 2VARIABLES PROPOSED FOR ASSESSMENT OF WORK ENGAGEMENT A few variables used in previous studies of work engagement were assessed in the present study because similar results would confirm the validity of the Kahn-based measure and support its usefulness in future research. Work centrality, person–organization fit, and conscientiousness had positive relationships with work engagement (e.g., Biswas & Bhatnagar, 2013), whereas job insecurity had a negative relationship (De Cuyper & De Witte, 2005). Organizational socialization (Taormina, 1997), on the other hand, has not been used in studies of work engagement. Thus, its four facets were included to discover their relationships with work engagement. This was deemed important because many studies have confirmed that organizational socialization is a critical human resource concern for employee well-being. Therefore, its absence in previous work engagement studies represents a research gap. 2.1Work Centrality Work centrality is defined as “individual beliefs regarding the degree of importance that work plays in [employees’] lives’’ (Walsh & Gordon, 2008, p. 46), i.e., the degree of importance of work in general. The concept of work centrality is based on the idea that people include work in their “life spheres” and attribute importance to it (Uçanok, 2009). Employees with high work centrality see work as an important aspect of life (Diefendor, Brown, Kamin, & Lord, 2002) and tend to be more engaged at work (Ng, Sorensen, & Feldman, 2007). H1: The greater the employees’ work centrality, the more (a) cognitive, (b) emotional, and (c) physical work engagement they will have. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 50 Angus C.H. Kuok, Robert J. Taormina: A Positivist Approach to Work Engagement: Moderating Effects of Perceived Organizational Support 2.2Person–Organization Fit This is the degree to which a person feels that his or her character and values fit the job and organization (Resick, Baltes, & Shantz, 2007). A good fit stimulates employees’ “cognitive processing,” which helps to generate engagement and positive organizational outcomes (Judge & Cable, 1997). Thus, fit has been suggested to provide opportunities for employees to be involved in individually meaningful work (Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005). In theory, employees who feel congruence between their personal characteristics and their jobs derive meaningfulness from their work, which gives them the emotional and physical resources to perform their work with enthusiasm and energy. Thus, according to Kahn (1992), they would see their roles as meaningful and their lives as worthwhile, leading them to be fully engaged at work. Furthermore, Biswas and Bhatnagar (2013) found a positive correlation between person-organization fit and work engagement. H2: The higher the person–organization fit between the employees’ and the organization’s values, the higher the (a) cognitive, (b) emotional, and (c) physical work engagement they will have. 2.3Job Insecurity Job insecurity is “perception of a potential threat to the continuity of the current job” (Heaney, Israel, & House, 1994, p. 1431), i.e., employees fear they may lose their jobs. Kahn (1990) suggested that organizational norms correspond to psychological safety. In other words, predictable, shared expectations about the behaviors among employees in an organization are more likely to lead them to feel safer about working in an organization. Uncertainty about losing one’s job is a stressful aspect of the work situation, and is related to decreased trust, lower levels of job involvement, and diminished engagement (De Cuyper & De Witte, 2005). H3: The more job insecurity that employees have, the lower the (a) cognitive, (b) emotional, and (c) physical work engagement they will have. 2.4Conscientiousness Conscientiousness is characterized by persistence and being careful, thorough, and responsible, and is associated with self-discipline, achievement striving, and a sense of competence (McCrae & Costa, 1986). Conscientious people are considered to be organized and dependable, both personally and in their work. Kim et al. (2009), using a previous work-engagement measure, found that conscientious employees displayed high levels of engagement. Thus, conscientiousness was tested with Kahn’s (1990) three facets of work engagement. H4: The more conscientiousness employees have, the higher (a) cognitive, (b) emotional, and (c) physical work engagement they will have. 2.5Organizational Socialization Regarding organizational socialization, this study used Taormina’s (1997) four domains, namely (1) the training that employees receive, (2) their understanding of their roles and the company, (3) coworker support, and (4) their future prospects in the employing organization. 2.5.1Training Training for one’s job is considered to be critical for adequately performing one’s role and tasks and can enhance competence, capability, and work effectiveness. Nordhaug (1989) found that positive perceptions of training enhanced employee self- confidence. According to Kahn (1992), this may fortify employee competence, give them a positive view of their work, and make them more engaged. H5a: The better training employees have, the more (1) cognitive, (2) emotional, and (3) physical work engagement they will have. 2.5.2Understanding Understanding refers to “the extent to which employees believe they can comprehend their job roles, know the goals and values of the company, and apply knowledge about the job” (Taormina, 1997, p. 34). Workers’ good understanding of their Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 51 job roles and how to perform tasks should provide higher levels of self-assurance and confidence (Taormina & Law, 2000). It also should help employees reduce mistakes, making the employees more effective. Thus, by working more willingly, the employees are more likely to be engaged at work. H5b: The more understanding employees have, the more (1) cognitive, (2) emotional, and (3) physical work engagement they will have. 2.5.3Coworker Support This refers to “the emotional or instrumental sustenance that is provided by other employees with the objective of alleviating worry or doubt” (Taormina, 1997, p. 37). That is, when one’s coworkers are accepting, the employee integrates into the work place more successfully. Thus, favorable social interaction with workmates is critical for employees in organizations, and this needs to be favorable in order for employees to function effectively (Katz, 1988). Research has shown that positive coworker interactions are highly and positively related to employees’ organizational citizenship behavior (e.g., Taormina & Kuok, 2009). This can generate positive feelings at work, which may lead to greater work engagement. H5c: The more coworker support employees receive, the more (1) cognitive, (2) emotional, and (3) physical work engagement they will have. 2.5.4Future Prospects Future prospects refers to “the extent to which an employee anticipates having a rewarding future with a company in terms of the acceptability of one’s recognition, advancement, benefits, and salary increments” (Taormina, 1997, p. 40). Future prospects are within-company opportunities that provide a rewarding future for employees. Therefore, logically, if employees believe that they have good opportunities for promotion and rewards in their organization, they should be more likely to anticipate their success and advancement, which, in turn, should lead them to be more work-engaged. H5d: The better future prospects employees have, the more (1) cognitive, (2) emotional, and (3) physical work engagement they will have. 2.6Related Criterion Variables Subjective career success and self-actualization, were used as criterion variables (i.e., in regressions) with work engagement. They were chosen to address practical and realistic concerns. For example, workers who think they are successful in their careers are more likely to remain in their professions (Liu, Yang, Yang, & Liu, 2015). That is a practical benefit for employees. because they keep their job, and is also good for management, e.g., it eliminates the cost of replacing employees who quit because they were unsatisfied with their jobs. Maslow (1943) explained that self-actualization is one of the human needs that motivate people in their lives, but regarded it as difficult to satisfy. However, Maslow also suggested that one’s work could be a means for satisfying this need. Maslow’s suggestion was supported by an empirical study by Berta et al. (2018), who found that self-actualization is a significant component in the quality of work life (QWL): “We find support for a three-factor model of the QWL with factors relating to needs for self-actualization, work-life balance, and feelings of value and self-esteem” (p. 20). These two variables were chosen to be tested using the three work engagement factors as possible predictors to assess the extent to which viewing work as important in one’s life might help work-engaged employees satisfy their need for self-actualization. 2.6.1Subjective Career Success Gattiker and Larwood (1986) regarded subjective career success as the employees’ evaluations of their careers with reference to self-defined standards, age/career stage, aspirations, and the opinions of significant others. Nabi (2001) suggested that it reflects people being satisfied with themselves in terms their careers. In addition to extrinsic factors of career success (e.g., salary), Kahn (1990) suggested that intrinsic factors (e.g., work satisfaction) give people a sense of success when they complete a task. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 52 Angus C.H. Kuok, Robert J. Taormina: A Positivist Approach to Work Engagement: Moderating Effects of Perceived Organizational Support Likewise, Karsan (2011) suggested that work engagement is critical because people work not only for money, but also for feelings of personal achievement. Some empirical research has supported this idea. For example, Smith, Caputi, and Crittenden (2012) found a significant positive correlation between work engagement and career satisfaction. The present research tested whether Kahn’s (1990) three original facets of work engagement have positive relationships with subjective career success. H6: The more (a) cognitive, (b) emotional, and (c) physical work engagement employees have, the higher their subjective career success will be. 2.6.2Self-Actualization Maslow’s (1954) concept of self-actualization is “people’s desire for self-fulfillment, namely, the tendency for them to become actualized in what they are potentially” (p. 22). That is, people want to realize their capabilities and fulfill their potential, and are more confident when they do so. Karsan’s (2011) idea that work is a critical aspect of life that includes achievement suggests that reaching one’s potential at work can be seen as actualizing one’s abilities in life. Therefore, employees who feel highly work-engaged could become self-actualized through their work. H7: The more (a) cognitive, (b) emotional, and (c) physical work engagement employees have, the more self-actualization they will have. 2.7Perceived Organizational Support as a Moderator Variable Perceived organizational support was selected as a moderator because (1) it may represent a way to satisfy a need from Maslow’s (1943) theory of human needs, i.e., social support could satisfy the human need for belongingness; (2) it has been found to have a positive relationship with work engagement (Biswas & Bhatnagar, 2013); (3) it is a strong predictor of several organizational behaviors, such as organizational commitment (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002); and (4) although perceived organizational support has been tested for its interactions with other variables on influencing work engagement (Zacher & Gabriele, 2011), it has never been used as a moderator between Kahn’s (1990) three dimensions of work engagement and the two targeted criterion variables of subjective career success and self-actualization. Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchinson, and Sowa (1986) saw perceived organizational support as employees’ beliefs about how much management values their contributions and cares about their well-being. Furthermore, Kahn (1990) suggested its relation to work engagement. That is, in supportive organizations, employees can feel free to try new ways of doing things without fear of criticism, and, thus they can be work engaged. In addition, positive correlations have been found between organizational support and work engagement, although with different engagement scales (Saks, 2006). Thus, perceived organizational support may act as a moderator between work engagement and the variables of subjective career success and self-actualization. 2.8Moderation for Subjective Career Success For subjective career success, organizational support may give employees a sense of success in their careers (Latif & Sher, 2012). Employees’ perceptions of self-development and achievement, along with support from the organization, such as praise, are important components of subjective career success (Baruch, 2004), which can result in long-term career satisfaction (Judge, Cable, Boudreau, & Bretz, 1995). Organizational support may motivate employees to manage their own work, which work-engaged employees prefer. In addition, employees who believe their managers value their efforts are more likely to perceive themselves to have successful careers. Hence, it may strengthen the relation between work engagement and career success. H8: Work engagement (cognitive, emotional, and physical) and perceived organizational support will interact to influence subjective career success, such that the positive relationship between work engagement and subjective career success will be stronger when perceived organizational support is high than when it is low. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 53 2.9Moderation for Self-Actualization According to Maslow (1954), self-actualization refers to the need to be self-fulfilled by living up to one’s potential and in ways that allow one to have what one “idiosyncratically” wishes to achieve. For many people, work is a form of self-expression. For example, carpenters see the houses they build as a manifestation of their architectural plans and creative skills, and are work-engaged by the effort they put into their work. Thus, because work can be a way for people to express themselves through much of their lives, work can be a means of self-actualization. Furthermore, because work-engaged people put significant effort into their work, and organizational support can increase satisfaction at work (Ghasemizad & Mohammadkhani, 2013) and foster employee enthusiasm for the work, organizational support should help work-engaged employees fulfill their need for self-fulfillment through their work. Therefore, perceived organizational support may play a role as a catalyst to strengthen the relationship between work engagement and employees’ self-actualization. H9: Work engagement (cognitive, emotional, and physical) and perceived organizational support will interact to influence self-actualization, such that the positive relationship between work engagement and self-actualization will be stronger when perceived organizational support is high than when it is low. The entire research model is shown in Figure 1. 3METHODOLOGY 3.1Participants Participants were 442 (37.33% male, and 62.67% female) full-time Chinese workers, aged 19– 65 years [M = 33.36, standard deviation (SD) = 8.81]; 61.09% were single, and 38.91% were married. Regarding education, 3.17% had a primary school education, 20.14% had a secondary school education, 66.74% had a bachelor’s degree, and 9.95% a master’s degree or above. Regarding job level, 69.23% were junior employees, and 30.77% were supervisorial. Regarding monthly salary (in local currency), 2.48% earned CNY 8,000 or less, 11.76% earned CNY 8,001–11,000, 16.75% earned CNY 11,001–14,000, Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 54 Angus C.H. Kuok, Robert J. Taormina: A Positivist Approach to Work Engagement: Moderating Effects of Perceived Organizational Support Figure 1: Research model 15.61% earned CNY 14,001–17,000, 15.16% earned CNY 17,001–20,000, 12.22% earned CNY 20,001– 23,000, 12.90% earned CNY 23,001–27,000, and 13.12% earned CNY 27,001 or more. 3.2Measures All items for the work engagement subscales are presented in the Appendix. Because the measures were in English and the respondents Chinese, a back-translation method was used. Unless otherwise noted, all responses were on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) regarding the extent to which the statements described the respondents, their attitudes, or their work. Cronbach’s alpha reliabilities are given along with the descriptions. For work engagement, based on Kahn’s (1992) descriptions, the three six-item facets which were created by Kuok and Taormina (2017) were used as measures: For cognitive work engagement, a sample item was “My mind is often full of ideas about my work” (reliability = 0.89); for emotional work engagement, a sample item was “I feel strong enthusiasm for my work” (reliability = 0.89); and for physical work engagement, a sample item was “I am frequently energized by my work” (reliability = 0.81). Work Centrality. This variable was assessed using Uçanok’s (2009) six-item Work Centrality Scale. A sample item was “The most important things that happen in life involve work.” The reliability was 0.88. Person–Organization Fit. This was assessed using five items from Resick et al.’s (2007) Person- Organization-Fit scale. A sample item was “The values of this organization are similar to my own values.” The reliability was 0.88. Job Insecurity. This variable was assessed using eight items about job insecurity adopted from three sources. One item, “Layoffs in the organization are likely to occur in the near future,” was from Brockner, Grover, Reed, and Dewitt’s (1992) Job Insecurity Scale. Five items were from Ashford, Lee, and Bobko’s (1989) Job Insecurity Scale; a sample item was “I might lose my job by being fired.” Two items were from Ashford et al.’s (1989) Job Insecurity Scale, e.g., “This company might go out of business.” Items from different scales were used to provide a variety of reasons for feeling insecure about one’s job. The reliability was 0.92. Conscientiousness. Conscientiousness has several facets, but using them all would have lengthened the questionnaire excessively. Thus, only the perfectionism facet was used, because it was thought to be the most representative and precise measure of the concept. Furthermore, the label conscientiousness is used in this article to enable comparisons of the research results in future meta- analytic studies. It was assessed with 10 items that focused on the perfectionism facet. Four items were from the HEXACO Personality Inventory (Lee & Ashton, 2004), e.g., “I pay attention to details.” Two items were from the Abridged Big-Five Circumplex Model (AB5C) (Hofstee, deRaad, & Goldberg, 1992), e.g., “I continue until everything is perfect.” One item was from the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) (Costa & McCrae, 1992), i.e., “I am exacting in my work.” Three items were newly created, i.e., “I dislike mistakes,” “I like things to be in order,” and “I am not bothered by mistakes” (reverse scored). Not all items were from existing scales because each had multiple facets; new items were created to represent the central concept. The reliability was 0.78. Organizational Socialization. This was assessed using Taormina’s (2004) 20-item Organizational Socialization Inventory (OSI). The OSI has four subscales. For training, a sample item was “The type of job training given by this organization is highly effective” (scale reliability = 0.92). For understanding, a sample item was “I know very well how to get things done in this organization” (scale reliability = 0.79). For coworker support, a sample item was “Other workers have helped me on the job in various ways” (scale reliability = 0.86). For future prospects, a sample item was “There are many chances for a good career with this organization” (scale reliability = 0.82). Subjective Career Success. This was assessed using five items from the Career Satisfaction Scale created by Greenhaus, Parasuraman, and Wormley (1990). A sample item was “I am satisfied with the job status achieved through my career.” The scale reliability was 0.89. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 55 Self-Actualization. This was assessed using the 12-item Self-Actualization Scale (Taormina & Gao, 2013), which was based on Maslow’s (1943) theory of needs. The items reflect aspects of a self-actualized person using statements about being true to oneself, living life according to one’s wishes, being self-fulfilled, and enjoying one’s life. A sample item was “I am actually living up to all my capabilities.” Responses were scored on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (completely unsatisfied) to 5 (completely satisfied). The reliability was 0.89. Perceived Organizational Support. This variable was assessed using 10 items from Eisenberger et al.’s (1986) 36-item Perceived Organizational Support scale (only 10 items were used to keep the questionnaire to a reasonable length). A sample item was “This organization is willing to help me when I need a special favor.” The reliability was 0.91. 3.3 Procedure A random sampling data gathering procedure was conducted in local business districts because obtaining significant effects from many organizations tends to strengthen the validity of the findings. Sampling used the sidewalk intervention method, i.e., among people walking on sidewalks, every nth adult was approached (n was generated randomly). Bush and Burns (2005) called this systematic random sampling, and stated that there would be no systematic order of attitude, characteristic, or type of people in different parts of a city and by selecting people who were not in groups, each individual would have an equal chance of being selected. Potential respondents were approached in the late afternoons, when most employees leave their workplace. To ensure that the persons were working people, they were asked if they were employed. For those who answered in the affirmative, the researcher explained that the study was about attitudes toward work, and asked if they were willing to participate. Anyone who agreed was given a questionnaire, which took about 15 minutes to complete (while left unobserved), and which was collected on site. Of the 561 respondents approached, 442 returned usable, completed questionnaires, yielding an overall response rate (442/561) of 75.22%. 3.4Ethical Considerations Ethical approval was obtained from a university research ethics committee before the study was conducted, and ethical guidelines of the American Psychological Association were followed. Informed consent of the participants was requested both verbally and on the questionnaire, which stated the purpose of the survey and provided the researcher’s contact information. Potential respondents were informed that their participation was voluntary, and they could stop responding at any time. They also were told that no personal information was being requested, and their responses would remain confidential. They also were informed that the data were for academic purposes and would be used only in aggregated statistical form. 4RESULTS 4.1Means Comparisons for the Demographics For comparative purposes, relevant t-tests or ANOVAs were run on all demographic measures. The only significant difference was for job level, i.e., the mean score of emotional work engagement for working at supervisorial level (M = 3.69, SD = 0.72) was significantly higher than for working at the line level (M = 3.54, SD = 0.59), t(440) = 2.17, p < 0.05. 4.2Test for Common Method Bias Because the data were from a survey, common method bias was tested by factor analyzing all variables using the maximum-likelihood approach with a forced one-factor solution. A ratio [chi-squared divided by degrees of freedom (df)] of less than 2.00:1 would indicate common method bias (Harman, 1960). The ratio was 6.87:1; thus, common method bias was not a concern. 4.3Intercorrelations Means, SDs, and intercorrelations (df = 440 for all correlations) were computed to test the expected relationships. Cognitive, emotional, and physical work engagement each were assessed for their correlations with work centrality, person-organization- fit, job insecurity, conscientiousness, the socialization Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 56 Angus C.H. Kuok, Robert J. Taormina: A Positivist Approach to Work Engagement: Moderating Effects of Perceived Organizational Support domains (training, understanding, coworker support, and future prospects), and the variables of subjective career success and self-actualization. For work centrality, predicted correlations were supported, i.e., Hypothesis H1a with cognitive work engagement (r = 0.39, p < 0.001), Hypothesis H1b emotional work engagement (r = 0.28, p < 0.001), and Hypothesis H1c physical work engagement (r = 0.36, p < 0.001). For person-organization-fit, all the predicted positive correlations were supported, i.e., Hypothesis H2a with cognitive work engagement (r = 0.26, p < 0.001), Hypothesis H2b with emotional work engagement (r = 0.45, p < 0.001) and Hypothesis H2c with physical work engagement (r = 0.43, p < 0.001). For job insecurity, although the predicted negative correlation Hypothesis H3a with cognitive work engagement was not supported, the other two predicted negative correlations were supported, i.e., Hypothesis H3b with emotional work engagement (r = -0.22, p < 0.001), and Hypothesis H3c physical work engagement (r = -0.11, p < 0.05). For conscientiousness, all the predicted positive correlations with the work engagement facets were supported, namely Hypothesis H4a with cognitive work engagement (r = 0.37, p < 0.001), Hypothesis H4b with emotional work engagement (r = 0.28, p < 0.001), and Hypothesis H4c with physical work engagement (r = 0.18, p < 0.001). The four hypotheses that predicted positive correlations between the three work engagement facets and the four socialization domains were all supported (p < 0.001). Training, Hypothesis H5a(1), was positively correlated with cognitive work engagement (r = 0.26); Hypothesis H5a(2), with emotional work engagement (r = 0.42); and Hypothesis H5a(3), with physical work engagement (r = 0.35). Understanding, Hypothesis H5b(1), was positively correlated with cognitive work engagement (r = 0.30); Hypothesis H5b(2), with emotional work engagement (r = 0.47); and Hypothesis H5b(3), with physical work engagement (r = 0.37). Coworker support, Hypothesis H5c(1), was positively correlated with cognitive work engagement (r = 0.21); Hypothesis H5c(2), with emotional work engagement (r = 0.39); and Hypothesis H5c(3), with physical work engagement (r = 0.29). Future prospects, Hypothesis H5d(1), also had positive correlations with cognitive work engagement (r = 0.34); Hypothesis H5d(2), with emotional work engagement (r = 0.46); and Hypothesis H5d(3), with physical work engagement (r = 0.40). For the variable of subjective career success, all the predicted positive correlations were supported (all at p < 0.001)0. Hypothesis H6a predicted a positive correlation with cognitive work engagement (r = 0.36), Hypothesis H6b with emotional work engagement (r = 0.53), and Hypothesis H6c with physical work engagement (r = 0.44). For self-actualization, all predicted positive correlations were supported (all at the p < 0.001 level), i0.e0., Hypothesis H7a with cognitive work engagement (r = 0.22), Hypothesis H7b with emotional work engagement (r = 0.30), and Hypothesis H7c with physical work engagement (r = 0.28). The results for all the correlations are presented in Table 1. 4.4Regressions To assess further the strengths of the relationships among the variables, five hierarchical regressions were run. Three were used to identify significant predictors of the work engagement facets, and two were used to determine whether work engagement could predict the two variables of subjective career success and self-actualization. The last two regressions included three interactions to test perceived organizational support as a moderator between work engagement and the criterion variables of subjective career success and self-actualization. For cognitive work engagement, four variables entered the regression (all positively) to explain 28% of the variance, F(4,437) = 43.29, p < 0.001. Work centrality accounted for 15% of the variance; conscientiousness accounted for 9%; Future prospect accounted for 3%; and understanding accounted for 1%. This was an overall large effect size of f2 = 0.39 (Cohen, 1992) for cognitive work engagement. For emotional work engagement, six variables entered the regression (all positively) to explain 35% of the variance, F(6,435) = 38.07, p < 0.001. Under Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 57 Work Engagement Test Variables Mean SD Cognitive Emotional Physical Cognitive Work Engagement 3.35 0.63 — — — Emotional Work Engagement 3.59 0.63 0.59**** — — Physical Work Engagement 3.31 0.66 0.52**** 0.65**** — Work Centrality 2.70 0.76 0.39**** 0.28**** 0.36**** Person Organization Fit 3.16 0.64 0.26**** 0.45**** 0.43**** Job Insecurity 2.05 0.72 -0.05 -0.22**** -0.11* Conscientiousness 3.42 0.48 0.37**** 0.28**** 0.18**** Training 3.16 0.82 0.26**** 0.42**** 0.35**** Understanding 3.54 0.57 0.30**** 0.47**** 0.37**** Coworker Support 3.63 0.62 0.21**** 0.39**** 0.29**** Future Prospects 3.18 0.72 0.34**** 0.46**** 0.40**** Subjective Career Success 3.26 0.73 0.36**** 0.53**** 0.44**** Self-Actualization 3.10 0.61 0.22**** 0.30**** 0.28**** Perceived Organizational Support 3.23 0.63 0.29**** 0.52**** 0.51**** Gender — — 0.02 0.04 0.10* Age — — 0.09 0.11* 0.14** Marital Status — — -0.02 0.06 0.08 Education — — 0.13** 0.11* 0.08 Job Level — — 0.12** 0.09 0.10* Monthly Income — — 0.05 0.01 0.02 Note. Values for all variables ranged from 1 (low) to 5 (high). Demographics were increasing functions except for gender (female = 0, male = 1). *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.005, ****p < 0.001. standing accounted for 22% of the variance; person– organization fit accounted for 6%; future prospects accounted for 3%; conscientiousness for 2%; work centrality accounted for 1%; and coworker support accounted for 1%. Together, the predictors produced an overall large effect size of f2 = 0.54 for emotional work engagement. For physical work engagement, four variables entered the regression (all positively) to explain 28% of the variance, F(4,437) = 42.66, p < 0.001. person– organization fit accounted for 18% of the variance; work centrality accounted for 6%; understanding accounted for 3%; and future prospects accounted for 1%. Together, the predictors produced an overall large effect size of f2 = 0.39 for physical work engagement. These three regression results are presented in Table 2. For the criterion of subjective career success, four variables entered this regression equation (with all four predicting variables entering positively) to explain a total of 36% of the variance, yielding a large effect size of f2 = 0.56, F(5,436) = 51.19, p < 0.001. emotional work engagement accounted for 28% of the variance; physical work engagement for 2%; and perceived organizational support for 4%. Also, the interaction between cognitive work engagement and perceived organizational support (CWE × POS) accounted for another Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 58 Angus C.H. Kuok, Robert J. Taormina: A Positivist Approach to Work Engagement: Moderating Effects of Perceived Organizational Support Table 1: Means, SDs, and correlations of the tested variables with work engagement (N = 442) Criteria/Predictors ß t-value .R2 R2 Subjective Career Success 0.36 Step 1 Cognitive Work Engagement (CWE) 0.09 1.81 Emotional Work Engagement (EWE) 0.35 6.74 **** 0.28 Physical Work Engagement (PWE) 0.09 1.82 * 0.02 Step 2 Perceived Organizational Support (POS) 0.26 5.60 **** 0.04 Step 3 CWE × POS 0.15 3.94 **** 0.01 EWE × POS 0.01 0.09 PWE × POS 0.09 2.30 * 0.01 F = 51.19**** df = 5,436 *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.005, ****p < 0.001 Work Engagement Predictors Cognitive Emotional Physical ß .R2 ß .R2 ß .R2 Work Centrality 0.23 ** 0.15 0.09 * 0.01 0.19 *** 0.06 Person–Organization Fit 0.02 0.17 *** 0.06 0.23 *** 0.18 Job Insecurity -0.07 -0.05 -0.00 Conscientiousness 0.34 ** 0.09 0.17 *** 0.02 0.04 Training 0.00 0.07 0.04 Understanding 0.11 * 0.01 0.22 *** 0.22 0.16 ** 0.03 Coworker Support 0.01 11 * 0.01 0.03 Future Prospects 0.13 ** 0.03 0.13 *** 0.03 0.13 * 0.01 Total R2 0.28 0.35 0.28 Final F 43.29**** 38.07**** 42.66**** df 4,437 6,435 4,437 *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.005, ****p < 0.001 1%, and the interaction between physical work engagement and perceived organizational support (PWE × POS) accounted for an additional 1%. The results of this regression supported Hypothesis H8a and Hypothesis H8c, but not Hypothesis H8b. The results are presented in Table 3. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 59 Table 2: Regressions for cognitive, emotional, and physical work engagement (N = 442) Table 3: Hierarchical stepwise regression for subjective career success on the three facets of work engagement with perceived organizational support as the moderator (N = 442) Criteria/Predictors ß t-value .R2 R2 Self-Actualization 0.15 Step 1 Cognitive Work Engagement (CWE) 0.03 0.48 Emotional Work Engagement (EWE) 0.53 3.53 **** 0.09 Physical Work Engagement (PWE) 0.10 1.74 Step 2 Perceived Organizational Support (POS) 0.77 4.47 **** 0.04 Step 3 CWE × POS 0.07 0.71 EWE × POS 0.24 5.16 *** 0.02 PWE × POS 0.10 0.21 F = 20.23**** df = 3,348 *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.005, ****p < 0.001 For self-actualization, three variables (entering positively) explained 15% of variance (for a medium effect size of f2 = 0.18), F(3,438) = 20.23, p < 0.001. Emotional work engagement explained 9%, perceived organizational support 4%, and the interaction between emotional work engagement and perceived organizational support (EWE × POS) 2%. This supported Hypothesis H9b, but not Hypothesis H9a or Hypothesis H9c. The results are presented in Table 4. 4.5Structural Equation Model To gain a clearer picture of the way in which perceived organizational support moderated work engagement for subjective career success and self- actualization, their significant interactions were calculated to show the moderating effect between (1) cognitive work engagement and subjective career success, (2) physical work engagement and subjective career success, and (3) emotional work engagement and self-actualization. The interactions offer further support for H5a, H5c, and H6b; respectively, these are shown in Figures 2(a), 2(b), and 2(c). 5DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 5.1Demographic Differences in Work Engagement Job level was the only demographic that revealed a significant difference. Supervisors had higher scores for emotional work engagement. Because work engagement refers to attachment to the tasks that one is doing, this result could reflect feelings of accomplishing something that the person feels is important. A possible explanation is that supervisors, who have decision-making authority and greater responsibilities than line-level employees, may feel that the decisions they made were meaningful or substantial. Therefore, they likely would feel good about their work because they have opportunities to execute and complete tasks that they feel are meaningful. 5.2Relating the Three Types of Work Engagement to the Tested Variables For organizational socialization, all four domains had strong positive correlations with all three facets of work engagement, suggesting that Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 60 Angus C.H. Kuok, Robert J. Taormina: A Positivist Approach to Work Engagement: Moderating Effects of Perceived Organizational Support Table 4: Hierarchical stepwise regression for self-actualization on the three facets of work engagement with perceived organizational support as the moderator (N = 442) when organizations provide good socialization, their employees will be more work engaged. For example, future prospects and understanding were predictors for all three facets of engagement, indicating that they could promote work engagement. A high level of coworker support was a predictor of emotional work engagement, indicating the importance of camaraderie at work. Understanding was the most powerful predictor of emotional work engagement, suggesting its importance in helping employees to feel that they are part of and belong to the organization. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 61 Figure 2(a): Interaction of cognitive work engagement (CWE) and perceived organizational support on subjective career success Figure 2(b): Interaction of physical work engagement (PWE) and perceived organizational support on subjective career success For the personality variables, conscientiousness had strong positive correlations with all three work engagement facets, and was a significant predictor of cognitive and emotional work engagement. These results confirmed the role of employee conscientiousness according to Kahn’s (1990) original three-facet theory of work engagement. That is, the results suggest that high levels of conscientiousness may incline people to achieve higher levels of cognitive, emotional, and physical work engagement. In addition, work centrality was a significant predictor of all three facets of work engagement, indicating that employees who value work as a core concept in their lives like to perform well and strive for success. That is, they are more likely to be cognitively, emotionally, and physically work-engaged. Furthermore, person–organization fit was found to be a strong predictor of emotional and physical work engagement, suggesting that employees who feel that there is a match between their personal goals and those of their organization may be less worried about being scrutinized regarding their work. In other words, the employees’ perception of their fit with their employing organization creates a sense of trust that stimulates employees to be work engaged. Impact of the Types of Work Engagement on the Criterion Variables For subjective career success and self-actualization, all three work engagement facets were strongly and positively correlated with these variables, and two of the three facets were significant predictors. These results suggest that cognitively, emotionally, and physically work engaged employees think about improving their effectiveness, have positive emotions about and willingly spend effort at their jobs; and are also more likely to be satisfied with their careers (subjective career success) and to reach their personal potentials (self-actualization). This is the first time that subjective career success was tested with Kahn’s (1990) three facets of work engagement, and the significant results extend work engagement theory to the field of employee career success. That is, engaged employees are more satisfied with their careers, especially when they have positive feelings about work (emotional work engagement) and voluntarily spend more effort at work (physical work engagement). Self-actualization, which had never been tested in research on work engagement, adds knowledge to the literature because of its significant positive rela Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 62 Angus C.H. Kuok, Robert J. Taormina: A Positivist Approach to Work Engagement: Moderating Effects of Perceived Organizational Support Figure 2(c): Interaction of emotional work engagement (EWE) and perceived organizational support on self-actualization tionships with the three facets of work engagement. It is a promising result, because previous work engagement studies rarely examined personal factors. The results indicate that when employees are work- engaged, it can enhance their personal growth and help them reach their potential through their work. To the extent that work is an important part of human life, self-fulfillment through one’s work could contribute to feelings of being self-actualized. 5.3Moderating Effects of Perceived Organizational Support Because perceived organizational support has had highly significant correlations with many variables in past research (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002), it was thought to play a major role in work engagement. Thus, it was tested as a moderator between the three facets of work engagement and the variables of subjective career success and self-actualization. Three of those six possible interactions were found to be significant. The first significant interaction was between cognitive work engagement and perceived organizational support (CWE × POS) for subjective career success. These results revealed that when organizations reward the contributions of employees who perform tasks with a conscious intent of improving their effectiveness, those employees perceive that they have significantly more success in their careers. The second significant interaction was between physical work engagement and perceived organizational support (PWE × POS), also for subjective career success. This result suggests that when organizations value the contributions of employees who voluntarily expend considerable effort and energy at work, those employees perceive that they have significantly more success in their careers. The third significant interaction was between emotional work engagement and perceived organizational support (EWE × POS) for self-actualization. This suggests that employees who receive more organizational support feel that they achieve something important at work, and thus feel better about themselves. This strengthens the idea that success at work is part of a person’s self-fulfillment in life. Thus, the results of this study offer both theoretical and empirical contributions. Empirically, all proposed independent variables, namely work centrality, person organizational fit, job insecurity, conscientiousness, and organizational socialization, were found to play an important role in encouraging all three of types of work engagement in Kahn’s (1990) original explanation of the concepts. This is a contribution to the literature because the results validated the original conceptualization of work engagement. Kahn’s (1990) theory of work engagement was strongly supported, and was found to be strongly related to the theories of organizational behavior and personal development. All three of Kahn’s theorized facets of work engagement were strongly and positively related to work centrality, person–organization fit, and all four organizational socialization domains. Regarding theories of personal development, all three work engagement facets had significant positive correlations with subjective career success and self-actualization. Moreover, interactions of perceived organizational support with work engagement facilitated employee feelings of career success and self-actualization. 5.4Possible Limitations A questionnaire measured employees in a given setting at a given time, and although it did not trace changes over time, this method has notable advantages. In particular, it assesses the extent to which a large number of people are similarly influenced by certain variables. It is especially valuable in revealing the strengths of certain factors that demonstrate significant effects across many different employees in many different organizations. When significant effects are found, they strengthen both the validity and the generalizability of the findings. 5.5Implications for Management Organizational support often is found to be helpful for employees, and the results confirmed that idea. Organizations also could benefit from this finding by making it apparent that they not only appreciate hard work, but also care about their workers. That is, management could reward employees who offer Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 63 ideas for improving work effectiveness (cognitive work engagement), who express positive feelings about work (emotional work engagement), and who set an example by their effort and energy in completing their tasks (physical work engagement). The results also imply that managers could help employees integrate better into the workplace and increase subjective career success by means of organizational socialization policies. For example, training and future prospects were positive predictors of subjective career success, which correlated well with work engagement, i.e., management could benefit by providing training and advancement opportunities. These results indicate that employees would perform well under such arrangements and would be more satisfied with their careers. Interestingly, perceived organizational support was a significant predictor of both subjective career success and self-actualization, which revealed that support from other people at work is critical for human well-being. In other words, workers should receive support not only from coworkers, but also from supervisors. When management appreciates its workers’ contributions and cares about their well- being, such support increases employees’ feelings of success. In addition, organizational support helps workers to be self-actualized through their work. In addition, the moderating effect of perceived organizational support also contributed to employee welfare. This is important for management to realize because, according to organizational socialization theory (Taormina, 1997), interpersonal support at work helps employees to integrate into the work place more successfully. They also are likely to be involved in organizational citizenship behaviors, and to have more affective commitment (Kuok & Taormina, 2015) and increased subjective career success. Finally, the moderating effect of perceived organizational support can be a type of “intervention,” i.e., management support for employees could facilitate worker engagement (Knight et al., 2017). It also extends work engagement theory to personal factors. That is, support from management significantly helps workers self-actualize because work is a critical aspect of people’s lives. Thus, having one’s contributions at work appreciated can positively influence self-fulfillment. In other words, employees are more likely to become self-actualized when their supervisors care about them and appreciate their contributions at work. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 64 Angus C.H. Kuok, Robert J. Taormina: A Positivist Approach to Work Engagement: Moderating Effects of Perceived Organizational Support EXTENDED SUMMARY/IZVLECEK Z merskim instrumentom, ki temelji na pozitivisticni teoriji delovne zavzetosti, so bili testirani spoznavni, custveni in fizicni vidiki delovne zavzetosti v povezavi z (1) nizom delovnih, socialnih in osebnostnih spremenljivk, tj. socializacija, osrednjost dela, negotovost zaposlitve in vestnost; (2) dvema hipotetiziranima ucinkoma, in sicer subjektivnega kariernega uspeha in samoaktualizacije; in (3) zaznavanjem organizacijske podpore kot moderatorja. Regresija podatkov iz vprašalnika je pokazala, da je kognitivna delovna zavzetost glavni napovedovalec osrednjosti dela, organizacijsko razumevanje je glavni napovedovalec custvene delovne zavzetosti, prileganje osebe in organizacije pa je glavni napovedovalec fizicne delovne azavzetosti. Testi modeliranja strukturnih enacb (angl. Structural equation modeling; SEM) so pokazali, da custvena delovna zavzetost napoveduje tako subjektivni karierni uspeh kot samoaktualizacijo, medtem ko fizicna delovna zavzetost napoveduje subjektivni karierni uspeh. Poleg tega je zaznana organizacijska podpora moderirala vpliv spoznavne in fizicne delovne zavzetosti, in sicer za povecanje subjektivnega kariernega uspeha, ter moderirala vpliv custvene delovne zavzetosti za povecanje samoaktualizacije. V clanku se diskutira tudi o implikacijah za managerje. REFERENCES Ashford, S. J., Lee, C., & Bobko, P. (1989). Content, cause, and consequences of job insecurity: A theory-based measure and substantive test. 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Taormina: A Positivist Approach to Work Engagement: Moderating Effects of Perceived Organizational Support 66 APPENDIX: The Three Facets of Work Engagement Cognitive Work Engagement (six-item subscale): 1.My mind is often full of ideas about my work 2.Wherever I am, things happen that often remind me of my work 3.My mind is fully engaged with my work 4.I rarely think about time when I am working 5.My thoughts are fully focused when thinking about my work 6.I give a lot of mental attention to my work Emotional Work Engagement (six-item subscale): 1.I feel very delighted about what I am doing whenever I am working 2.I am very eager to do my work 3.I feel very happy when I am carrying out my responsibilities at work 4.I feel very good about the work that I do 5.I feel strong enthusiasm for my work 6.I feel a sense of gratification with my work performance Physical Work Engagement (six-item subscale): 1.No matter how much I work, I have a high level of energy 2.I have a great deal of stamina for my work 3.I always have a lot of energy for my work 4.I am often physically driven by my work 5. I am frequently energized by my work 6. I find my work to be physically invigorating Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 67 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 68 organization to acquire advantages by creating a social environment in which employees can succeed. Many organizations enhance the creation of this 1INTRODUCTION WORKPLACE SPIRITUALITY, AFFECTIVE COMMITMENT, AND MEDIATING ROLE OF WORKPLACE FRIENDSHIP Ahmed AbdelSalam ragab Elnafrawy Faculty of Community College, Majmaah University a.elnafrawy@mu.edu.sa Spirituality theory refers to enhancing desire and increased activity at work, employee participation, and commitment to their organizations. Incorporating the state of spirituality with the social support theory represented by strong positive friendships at work generally enhances enthusiasm and positive results for organizations. This study explores the relationship between three dimensions of workplace spirituality (meaning of work, sense of connection, and adjustment with values) and affective commitment with the mediating of workplace friendship. Data were collected from 461 employees of 150 Egyptian charity organizations using a questionnaire. Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) was implemented to analyze the results. The results indicated that a sense of connection and adjustment with values were positively related to affective commitment. Workplace friendship was found to be a significant mediator in such relationships. The findings suggest that by improving spirituality in charity organizations, managers can promote employees’ affective commitment and strengthen the positive friendship relations between the employees of these organizations. This study adds to the existing literature on workplace spirituality by showing how spirituality is linked to workplace friendship and affective commitment. Keywords: charity organizations, affective commitment, workplace spirituality, workplace friendship Many individuals feel frustrated by the lack of meaning in their public or professional lives, despite much entertainment, comfort, and technological progress. In this context, organizations should not consider work as a source of obtaining money only; the psychological and spiritual aspects of employees also should be taken into account. In recent years, spirituality has gained great interest among academics and managers, especially with the emergence of many positive results from previous studies—for example, Tischler et al. (2002), Milliman et al. (2003), Duchon & Plowman (2005), Rego & Cunha (2008), and Saadatyar et al. (2019) emphasized the importance of this aspect for the employee and the organization alike, which is seen as a fundamental change within the organizational sciences. Furthermore, workplace spirituality has a significant impact on an organization, allowing the growing phenomenon because they view a humane work environment as valuable to employees, coworkers, and the corporation as a whole (Burack, 1999). Employees who work in an environment of depression and less spirituality will have low morale, increased absenteeism, high turnover, burnout, and illness related to repetitive stress, and will adopt a non-committal attitude toward the organization. On the other hand, committed employees actively participate in the organization’s proposals, plans, and activities. Employees who are committed to the organization display a strong desire to stay. They also are proud to be part of the organization. An organization will gain a competitive advantage, successfully implement business plans, and achieve its goals if it has many loyal employees who are less likely to quit or be absent from work (Jeon & Choi, 2020; Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 69 Abstract Vol. 11, No. 1, 69-82 doi:10.17708/DRMJ.2021.v10n02a05 2017). Several studies tested the relationship between workplace spirituality and organizational commitment in various dimensions; some of this work focused on affective commitment only, e.g., Milliman et al. (2003, 2017) and Saadatyar et al. (2019) found that when employees find meaning in their work and feel a part of a spiritual organizational climate, they are more committed to their organization, become more involved, and work totheir greatest capacity. Jaramillo et al., 2005). Furthermore, friendships are very much needed to bring feelings of happiness and well-being. Although friendships can mean different things to people from various cultures and communities, some friendships exist only in the workplace. Workplace friendships enhance employee engagement, and affective climate boosts productivity, confidence, mutual respect, open communication, emotional engagement, and caring. These are some of the characteristics that make a relationship successful and pleasant (Cao & Zhang, 2020). The literature focused on the relationships between workplace spirituality and attitudes of work such as increased employee engagement (Roof, 2015), job satisfaction (Palframan & Lancaster, 2019), performance (Rego & Cunha, 2008), work unit performance (Duchon & Plowman, 2005), decreased intention to quit (Gatling et al., 2016), and organization commitment (Milliman et al., Despite past studies’ scientific contributions, there still is a clear gap regarding this area, which limits the concept’s development, extension, and applicability, especially in different areas of application and environments (Desa & Koh, 2011). Several main points were extracted from previous studies to determine the positioning of the present study. First, despite studies indicating that spirituality conceptualization tends to be stronger than empirical evidence in the literature, this constraint persists. Similarly, Gatling et al. (2016) stated that additional evidence-based empirical studies of the role of spirituality in organizational life are needed. Second, the diversity of expressions and dimensions of spirituality are micro, macro, private, or public. There are three main perspectives for considering spirituality: personal, in the workplace, and organizational. Authors indicate workplace spirituality to be a type of organizational wisdom because of the similarities in discourse and practice of both. Rocha & Pinheiro (2020) stated that it should be studied across religions. Third, in contrast to studies that found a positive influence of workplace spirituality on organizational outcomes, significant scientific opinion indicates a potentially harmful impact of workplace spirituality on organizations and its relationship to organizational performance (Houghton et al., 2016). Finally, the relationship between workplace spirituality and organizational commitment has received scholarly attention (Campbell & Hwa, 2014; Gupta et al., 2014; Roof, 2015; Milliman et al., 2017; Saadatyar et al., 2019), but the role of friendship in the workplace is incomprehensible in this relationship. In other words, the mechanism of workplace spirituality and workplace friendship that can encourage affective commitment is unclear. The literature has focused on the effects of workplace spirituality on organizational commitment and other mediating variables (Rego & Cunha, 2008; Campbell & Hwa, 2014). However, workplace friendship was not one of those variables, either directly or as a mediator. Therefore, this study assessed whether workplace spirituality can relate directly to affective commitment or through a mediating workplace friendship. To fill these gaps, the following study questions were investigated: Q1: What are the relationships between the dimensions of workplace spirituality at multiple levels (meaning of work at an individual level, sense of connection at a group level, and alignment with organizational values at organizational level) and affective commitment and workplace friendship? Q2: Do the proposed elements of workplace spirituality found in the literature constitute the concept of workplace spirituality in the study sample? Q3: How does workplace friendship mediate the relationship between the three dimensions of workplace spirituality and affective commitment? Following the objectives presented previously, this study makes several potential contributions. First, it contributes to the spirituality literature by confirming workplace spirituality as a fundamental antecedent to creating an affective commitment (e.g., Joelle & Coelho, 2019; Saadatyar et al., 2019). Scholars called for more research to emphasize this Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 70 Ahmed AbdelSalam ragab Elnafrawy: Workplace Spirituality, Affective Commitment, and Mediating Role of Workplace Friendship relationship, especially in more applied fields (Desa & Koh, 2011). To the researcher’s knowledge, no studies addressed the relationship between study variables in charity fields. Second, there have been continued calls for the development of studies focused on workplace spirituality (Dal Corso et al., 2020). Few previous studies addressed the impact of spirituality at the organizational level, and many of those studies focused only on employee attitudes. Three levels (individual level, group level, and organizational level) were examined in this study. Third, Muzaki & Anggraeni (2020) combined workplace spirituality and friendship as independent factors but did not test the relationship between them. To the researcher’s knowledge, no study has illustrated how spirituality enhances building friendships in organizations. This research contributes to understanding this relationship. Finally, most of the studies and contributions on workplace spirituality have been in developed countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States, and few studies have been conducted in other countries. Developing countries need many studies in this field to expand knowledge and enhance positive organizational results. The main contribution of this study is its investigation of the relationship between three dimensions of workplace spirituality (meaning of work, sense of connection, and adjustment with values) and affective commitment with the mediating role of workplace friendship. This study developed a model that can be applied within the volunteer work environment, adds to the spirituality literature, and sets several practical guidelines for managers in the service sectors in general and charity organizations in particular. 2THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESES 2.1Workplace Spirituality Workplace spirituality is a broad research area that has earned a great of attention in the last decade by exploring how employees search for purpose, meaning, and goals (Milliman et al., 2017). According to Mitroff et al. (2009), workplace spirituality is a spiritual activity that involves an effort to achieve a goal in life that creates strong relationships with colleagues related to the work itself and has consistency and harmony between the central concepts the values contained in the organization. Ashmos & Duchon (2000) defined it as “the confirmation that employees have an interior life that nourishes and is nourished by the meaning of work that happens in the context of connection.” Kinjerski & Skrypnek (2004) defined workplace spirituality as “the experience of employees who are passionate, enthusiastic, and refreshed about their work, those who find some meaning and purpose in their work, and those who feel that they are at work themselves.” Tischler et al. (2002) stated that spirituality is associated with emotions or certain behaviors and attitudes of an individual. It is a state that harmonizes with the fundamental values of all noble teachings and speaks of the existence of an identity and God (Margaretha et al., 2020). Workplace spirituality is a multidimensional variable distinguished at the individual, group, and organizational levels. The individual level involves the meaning of work, the work group-level involves the sense of connection, and the organizational level involves adjustment with values (Milliman et al., 2003). According to Ashmos & Duchon (2000), the meaning of work refers to a structure of compatibility to feel the powerful essence and purpose of doing work. It represents how employees interact with their regular activities. It means viewing spirituality as something enjoyable, compelling, and deep in meaning, and contributing to others to meet the needs of the individual (Palframan & Lancaster, 2019). A sense of team connection represents the group level and refers to the behavior of employees and their interactions with colleagues. In this area, spirituality is based on the mental, emotional, and spiritual relationships of the corporate team members. The essence of this connection is the existence of broad human relationships, including support, freedom of expression, and protection. Team spirit, cooperative objectives, a sense of belonging, and a common goal are only a few of them (Rocha & Pinheiro, 2020(. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 71 Lastly, adjustment with values represents the levels of personal experience that had a good alignment between individuals ideals and their organization’s mission and goals. It relates representing the harmony between organizational values and an individual’s inner life. These include broader connections and leader engagement (Milliman et al., 2003). 2.2Affective Commitment Organizational commitment is considered to be a critical factor that influences the success levels of employees in various organizations (Yavuz, 2010). According to Allen and Meyer (1990), commitment to organizations is defined as a “psychological condition which characterizes employees’ relationship with the organization and reduces employees’ likelihood of leaving it” (Rego & Cunha, 2008). Allen and Meyer (1990) proposed three dimensions of commitment in organizations: (1) affective commitment, described as an engagement with the values and objectives of the organization, leads to better performance; (2) continuance commitment, the employee’s view of the cost of quitting the organization; and (3) normative commitment, in which employees recognize their responsibility to stay in the organization. This study focuses on affective commitment because it has the most significant impact on essential work outcomes. Affective commitment also is considered to be an essential component of organizational commitment (Demirtas & Akdogan, 2015). 2.3Workplace Spirituality and Affective Commitment Rego & Cunha (2008) mentioned that experimental and theoretical values suggest that employees’ impressions of workplace spirituality help them to increase their degree of organizational commitment. Commitment has become a significant factor in management, implying that more committed individuals are more likely to devote more time to supporting the business in achieving its goals. In addition, many previous studies focused on the connection between workplace spirituality and organizational commitment (e.g., Krishnakumar & Neck, 2002; Roof, 2015; Milliman et al., 2003, 2017; Saadatyar et al., 2019). Workplace spirituality has a good influence on commitment. The results of Campbell & Hwa (2014) showed that there is an essential positive association between all three spirituality components and affective engagement. In short, the literature indicates that workplace spirituality contributes to employees’ growth and affective commitment. Regarding the analysis of the relationship between the three dimensions of workplace spirituality and affective commitment. Geldenhuys et al. (2014) defined the meaning of work as “the level at which the employee considers their work to be generally meaningful, significant, and worthwhile.” They indicated that meaningful work is essential and related to work engagement and organizational commitment at work. Meaning and commitment are crucial for optimal workplace functioning. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H1a: Meaning of work has a positive relationship with affective commitment. Personnel with a strong sense of connection perceive that their workplace fits their requirements, improves their quality of life, and expects them to be responsible citizens and members of their organization. Furthermore, employees with a strong sense of connection understand the purpose and value of the organization’s well-being for the collective good, and are less prone to feeling lonely and alienated, and have a commitment to the organization. This means a positive relationship between sense of connection and affective commitment (Zani & Cicognani, 2012). Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H1b: Sense of connection has a positive relationship with affective commitment. According to Klapper et al. (2020), previous research has revealed that managers who have congruence and clarity between their personal and organizational values have the highest commitment and organizational performance compared with those who do not. Values and person–organiza Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 72 Ahmed AbdelSalam ragab Elnafrawy: Workplace Spirituality, Affective Commitment, and Mediating Role of Workplace Friendship tional fit have a significant impact on many elements of organizational behavior. When an organization’s individual and organizational values are aligned, it fosters more-favorable employee attitudes such as organizational commitment, lower turnover, and job satisfaction. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H1c: Adjustment with values has a positive relationship with affective commitment. 2.4Workplace Friendship Workplace friendship can be defined as “the informal, voluntary, and person-related interactions among individuals in an organization” (Nielsen et al., 2000). Workplace friendship is a component of human social needs. As we spend more time at work, workplace friendship is inevitable and leads to less time connecting with other parties. Because of its positive effect on many favorable organizational and employee attitudes, such as organizational engagement, organizational success, job satisfaction, and others, workplace friendship can increase workplace sustainability. This occurs when people are experiencing difficulties; colleagues at work will provide help and assistance. Therefore, when there is a positive work environment, the integration of employees occurs, and they will be more motivated to work (Chen et al., 2013; Cao & Zhang, 2020). However, several studies of the harmful effects of workplace friendship, such as sexual harassment, nepotism, and favoritism, have been conducted (e.g., Duffy et al., 2002; Dunbar, 2004; Pillemer & Rothbard, 2018). Those studies showed that workplace friendship has an undesirable outcome at work. 2.5Workplace Spirituality and Workplace Friendship Work should be regarded as a means of optimizing utility and as a source of significance for individual identities: people do not only want to create relationships in which they can build a legitimate account for themselves with their peers, friends, and family. These reflect people’s sense of self-identity, and they are influenced strongly by workplace values and spirituality (Gotsis & Kortezi, 2008(. One of the components of workplace spirituality is a “sense of connection.” It has been defined as an interconnection between employees, sharing common values, vision, empowerment, responsibility, and friendship (Garg, 2017). Petchsawanga and Duchon (2012) reviewed research evidence that shows a connection between workplace spirituality and work outcomes, such as attitudes toward work, commitment, job satisfaction, and work effectiveness as evaluated by the organization such as cooperation and teamwork. Janik and Rothmann (2015) stated that well-established and pleasant coworker relationships lead to a stronger sense of meaning in one’s work. Employees who feel cared for by their coworkers and supervisors will be appreciated, respected, valuable, and worthy. The study results showed a positive correlation between psychological meaningfulness, coworker relationships, and supervisor relationships. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H2a: Meaning of work has a positive relationship with workplace friendship. Xiao et al. (2020) showed how an interpersonal trait might increase or stifle the effects of professional friendship. They discovered that when social contacts influence employees’ self-concept, they are more likely to obtainget relational energy from their coworkers, enhancing their interpersonal conduct. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H2b: Sense of connection has a positive relationship with workplace friendship. According to Rezapouraghdam et al. (2019), the workplace is regarded as an inextricable component of human lives and a source of value where people spend copious amounts of time interacting with others, generating value and contributing to society. Workplace spirituality refers to organizational ideals that go beyond individual experiences and provide a sense of connection to employees. Spirituality in the workplace increases employees’ self-transcen Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 73 dence values. It motivates them to participate in activities that benefit others, fostering consideration for others, a desire to serve others, and a sense of togetherness among coworkers. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H2c: Adjustment with values has a positive relationship with workplace friendship. 2.6Workplace Friendship and Affective Commitment Xiao et al. (2020) stated that individuals who have a work friend are not only healthier and happier, but they are also seven times more likely to be involved in and committed to their work than are those who do not. Improving great relationships between colleagues will promote a better climate; enhance members’ interpersonal connections; reinforce cooperation and respect; and share value, work experience, and pleasure. Staff members who have close emotional links with their coworkers are more likely to connect with their work team and be more likely to express empathy and encourage a colleague who is having problems (Berman et al., 2002). Previous studies have shown the positive impact of workplace friendship on affective commitment. For example, Lu (1999) stated that in the workplace, when there are supportive coworkers who help one another in a team, the team not only will have a successful and fit work environment, but the individuals’ affective involvement will be increased. Moreover, Hsu et al. (2020) reached the same conclusion: workplace friendship has a substantial relationship with affective commitment. Therefore, the following hypothesis was developed: H3: Workplace friendship has a positive relationship with affective commitment. 2.7Workplace Friendship as a Mediator Potgieter et al. (2018) found that career concerns were significant boundary conditions for emotional (mediation) friendship in work and job embeddedness–retention practices satisfaction. According to numerous studies, employees with strong relationships with friends have low absences and become less likely to leave work. Furthermore, because they have a connection to their friends in a workplace that embraced, understood, and supported them at work, they also increase their commitment to the work (Morrison, 2004; Yan et al., 2021). Therefore, this study builds upon the theory of social encouragement and assumes that spirituality contributes to emotive attaches and good friendships between employees help improve the emotional involvement of employees in their team. Thus, the following hypotheses have been developed: H4a: Workplace friendship acts as a mediator between the meaning of work and affective commitment. H4b: Workplace friendship acts as a mediator between a sense of connection and affective commitment. H4c: Workplace friendship acts as a mediator between adjustment with values and affective commitment. The previous hypotheses are summarized in Figure1. 3METHODOLOGY 3.1Participants and Setting of Research This study was conducted in 150 Egyptian charity organizations at the Al-Gharbia governorate. The researcher used a convenient sampling method to collect primary data from employees working at organizations, and the questionnaire was designed using Google forms and distributed online from 30/12/2020 to 28/1/2021. A total of 550 questionnaires were distributed, and 461 valid responses were collected, a response rate of 83.8%. The demographic characteristics of the participants are listed in Table 1. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 74 Ahmed AbdelSalam ragab Elnafrawy: Workplace Spirituality, Affective Commitment, and Mediating Role of Workplace Friendship Characteristic Number % Gender Male 237 51.4 Female 224 48.6 Age <30 years 40 8.7 30 to <40 years 171 37.1 40 years and older 250 54.2 Work experience <5 years 40 8.7 5 to <10 years 108 23.4 10 years and more 313 67.9 Education level Postgraduate studies 4 0.9 University graduate 151 32.8 Intermediate education 263 57 Less than intermediate education 43 9.3 Table 1: Participants’ demographic characteristics 3.2Measures All the parameters in this research were translated from English to Arabic and then back to English. This reverse translation process, which was carried out with a bilingual Arabic to English translator, aimed to guarantee context equivalence. All variables were measured from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) using a five-point scale. The researcher used 18 elements adapted from Milliman et al.’s (2003) scale to measure workplace spirituality. Workplace spirituality was a multidimensional item containing meaning of work (six items), sense of connection (six items), and adjustment with values (six items). Example items included “I understand the things that give me meaning at work” for meaning of work, “In this work, I am free to express my opinions” for sense of connection, and “I feel positive about my organization’s values” for adjustment with values. A 10-item scale was adapted from Nielsen et al. (2000) to measure workplace friendship (e.g., “In this charity organization, all coworkers are motivated to communicate with Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 75 Figure 1: Research model Factors M SD a CR (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Meaning of work 3.93 0.75 0.932 0.947 (0.865) Sense of connection 3.97 0.69 0.934 0.948 0.880** (0.868) Adjustment with values 3.83 0.74 0.931 0.946 0.811** 0.840** (0.863) Workplace friendship 3.87 0.69 0.960 0.965 0.811** 0.851** 0.855** (0.858) Affective commitment 4.01 0.71 0.929 0.946 0.757** 0.808** 0.818** 0.858** (0.882) Meyer’s (1990) scale; an example item was “I really believe that the problems of this organization are my problems.” each other”). Affective commitment was examined using five elements adapted from Allen and 3.3Analyses WarpPLS 7.0 software was used in this analysis. WarpPLS automatically generates images of data. Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) uses specific steps; the measurement model is evaluated in the first stage by verifying the validity and reliability of the structures chosen for the analysis. It has the added benefit of resolving nonlinear relationships often found in behavioral data (Kock, 2015). 3.4Validity and Reliability Table 2 presents the correlation, mean, standard deviation, reliability, and the square root of average variance extracted (AVE). This confirms that all the items had a high level of internal accuracy. Both composite reliability (CR) and Cronbach’s a values were greater than or equal to 0.70. The correlations between each item and other latent items were greater than the correlations between that item and other items, reflecting discriminant validity (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). 3.5Model Fits The measurement models had acceptable fit with the data: Tenenhaus goodness of fit (GoF) = 0.785 (medium = 0.25, large = 0.36); average path coefficient (APC) = 0.224 (p < 0.001); average R- squared (ARS) = 0.729 (p < 0.001); average adjusted R-squared (AARS) = 0.726 (p < 0.001); Simpson’s paradox ratio (SPR) = 0.70 (appropriate value = 0.7); R-squared contribution ratio (RSCR) = 0.906 (appropriate value = 0.9); statistical suppression ratio (SSR) = 1.00 (appropriate value = 0.7); and nonlinear bivariate causality direction ratio (NLBCDR) = 0.70 (appropriate value = 0.7(. 4RESULTS The hypotheses were evaluated using path analysis between constructs, and the path coefficients are stated along with p-values. The direct path coefficients are presented in Table 3. These results support H1b and H1c, because they show that two dimensions of workplace spirituality— sense of connection (ß = 0.150, p < 0.001) and adjustment with values (ß = 0.269, p < 0.001)— have a positive and significant relationship with affective commitment. In contrast, meaning of work (ß = 0.046, p = 0.161) has no significant relationship and no support for H1a. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 76 Ahmed AbdelSalam ragab Elnafrawy: Workplace Spirituality, Affective Commitment, and Mediating Role of Workplace Friendship Table 2: Correlation, mean, standard deviation, and AVE square root Notes: The square of AVE is shown on the diagonal. M = mean, SD = standard deviation, a = Cronbach’s a. **p < 0.01. Factors Mediator Dependent Direct Indirect Total Meaning of work Workplace friendship Affective commitment 0.05 0.063* 0.119* sense of connection 0.15* 0.199** 0.349** Adjustment with values 0.269** 0.231** 0.500** Hypothesis ß p Support H4a: Workplace friendship acts as a mediator between meaning of work and affective commitment. 0.084 0.035 Yes H4b: Workplace friendship acts as a mediator between sense of connection and affective commitment. 0.086 0.031 Yes H4c: Workplace friendship acts as a mediator between adjustment with values and affective commitment. 0.143 <0.001 Yes Hypothesis ß p Support H1a: Meaning of work has a positive relationship with affective commitment. 0.046 0.161 No H1b: Sense of connection has a positive relationship with affective commitment. 0.150 <0.001 Yes H1c: Adjustment with values has a positive relationship with affective commitment. 0.269 <0.001 Yes H2a: Meaning of work has a positive relationship with workplace friendship. 0.119 0.005 Yes H2b: Sense of connection has a positive relationship with workplace friendship. 0.378 <0.001 Yes H2c: Adjustment with values has a positive relationship with workplace friendship. 0.440 <0.001 Yes H3: Workplace friendship has a positive relationship with affective commitment. 0.526 <0.001 Yes Moreover, the results support H2a, H2b and H2c, because they show that all dimensions of workplace spirituality—meaning of work (ß = 0.046, p < 0.001), sense of connection (ß = 0.150, p < 0.001), and adjustment with values (ß = 0.269, p < 0.001)— have positive and significant relationships with workplace friendship. Lastly, the results show that the link between workplace friendship and affective commitment is highly positive and significant (ß = 0.526, p < 0.001); consequently, H3 is supported. Table 4 presents the indirect path coefficients, which show that workplace friendship significantly mediates the relationship between meaning of work (ß = 0.084, p = 0.035), sense of connection (ß = 0.086, p = 0.031), and adjustment with values (ß = 0.143, p < 0.001) and affective commitment (H4a, H4b, and H4). Table 5 illustrates the direct, indirect, and total relationships of meaning of work, sense of connection, and adjustment with values on affective commitment. The indirect association often is positive and significant. Thus, although there is no direct link between meaning work and affective commitment, the relationship becomes significant when mediating workplace friendship. To assess the explanatory power of the model, the findings showed that the R2 of workplace friendship (0.796), which indicates that meaning of work, sense of connection, and alignment with values collectively explain about 80% of the difference in workplace friendship; and the R2 of affective commitment (0.662), which indicates that meaning of work, sense of connection, adjustment with values, Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 77 Table 3: Path coefficients and p-values Table 4: Indirect path coefficients and p-values Table 5: Indirect, direct, and total influence **p < 0.01, * p < 0.05. and workplace friendship, collectively explain about 66% of the difference in affective commitment, In addition, Q2 values higher than zero were determined to predict the significance of the model; Q2 of workplace friendship (0.797) and Q2 of affective commitment (0.781) were higher than zero. In general, the results provide supportive evidence for the proposed model. 5DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 5.1Theoretical Contributions This study is unique in that it discusses the relationship between workplace spirituality and affective commitment through the mediating role of workplace friendship. The findings advance the knowledge of workplace spirituality and workplace friendship, and provides empirical evidence to show the value of workplace spirituality in organizational life. The findings revealed a significant relationship between affective commitment, sense of connection, and adjustment with values. This means that a sense of connection between personal work and work environment leads to a state of participation, exchange, and commitment between individuals and belonging to the group emotionally. This finding coincides with those of many studies (e.g., Rego & Cunha, 2008; Desa & Koh, 2011; Saadatyar et al., 2019). The present study found no direct relationship between the meaning of work and affective commitment, unlike many previous studies. This may be due to the employees’ low level of work engagement in charity organizations, their various motives, and the low financial returns in their organizations. A validated link exists between workplace friendship and affective commitment. Groups in the workplace interact socially, adapt from others across activities, explain others’ issues, feel empathy, and respect one another, quickly leading to affective commitment. The findings follow those of research that has shown that workplace friendship has a positive effect on employee performance (Chao, 2018). Furthermore, the findings support the significant role of meaning of work, sense of connection, and adjustment with values in influencing workplace friendship. These results can be interpreted in light of Schneider’s (1987) statement that the theory of attachment to people similar to oneself is well accepted by cognitive psychology. According to the well-accepted affection structure, persons are drawn to groups that are considered to be compatible in characteristics such as appearance, beliefs, and community. Therefore, members considered to be an excellent fit for the group’s community, beliefs, and so on are chosen. Those people who are a good match with the existing objectives and principles and its members stay in the organization longer (Duffy et al., 2002). As a significant result of this study, the mediation of workplace friendship is positioned uniquely between workplace spirituality elements and affective commitment. This study did not prove a direct relationship between meaning of work and affective commitment. Still, with the mediation of workplace friendship, the relationship became significant (full mediation). This outcome is consistent with the argument of workplace spirituality, which is described as a belief or feeling about truth and transcendence or a personal quality (Rocha & Pinheiro, 2020). Workplace spirituality can be divided into three levels: individual, group, and organizational. Individuals act as the unit and core of the organization. Individual spirituality refers to a person’s characteristics relating to his quest for meaning, purpose, and transcendence. Therefore, individual spirituality benefits such as inner harmony, commitment, a feeling of connection, and bonding with colleagues are reflected in the beliefs and attitudes of the person pursuing internal change. Overall, this study contributes to the literature on spirituality. For researchers, the framework provides a detailed understanding of the significant role of workplace spirituality in affective commitment and the characteristics that make spirituality a more vital competitive differentiator in social service organizations (charity organizations). This study demonstrated how a sense of connection and harmony with the organization’s principles contributes to a sense of emotional connection and workplace friendship as a mediator, with spiritual values suiting employees’ own spiritual needs. This proof opens the opportunity for more theoretical and empirical studies around spirituality. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 78 Ahmed AbdelSalam ragab Elnafrawy: Workplace Spirituality, Affective Commitment, and Mediating Role of Workplace Friendship 5.2Practical Implications From a practical viewpoint, the findings of this study demonstrated the importance of enhancing workplace spirituality as a source of effective engagement at sectors and organizations in which spirituality plays a significant function in the work, especially in the charity field. In this context, an organization should concentrate more on spiritual strength and positive peer relationships to achieve affective commitment while developing a better strategy. Spiritually driven organizations should put greater emphasis on the affective component of commitment than on others. Organizational training activities should include a spiritual plan. Leaders should understand the spiritual needs of their employees and create a friendly work environment, and should establish an organizational culture that prioritizes the collective over self-interest. Such principles enhance the link between a person’s self- concept and work, the meaning of work, and the sense of belonging to a community. The findings also explain why individuals seek the dimensions of workplace spirituality (meaning of work, sense of connection, and adjustment with values) which lead to a greater affective commitment to the organization and stronger friendships. This outcome suggests that leaders should encourage spiritual foundations and values, and should insert the work purpose into recruitment, development, and performance assessment programs. The human resource sector should be preparing employees to create major, meaningful differences in work and then providing appreciation or bonuses for their activities. These improvements in practices have an extremely high impact on charity organizations. Performance assessments need to widen criteria to include the possibility to choose personnel who adopt spiritual principles that focus on the necessity of supplying others with spiritually laced ideals. 5.3Limitations and Future Research Directions Although the contributions of this study are in line with previous studies, this study has some limitations. The first involves the use of convenient sampling (Peterson & Merunka, 2014). Although data were gathered from 150 Egyptian charity organizations, the findings of this survey cannot be generalized to all Egyptian employees. As a result, future studies should implement a more complex sampling technique. Second, due to the probability of common bias, the sample covered employees from various departments of charity organizations, different shifts, multiple cities and villages, and multiple contractual types. An appropriate sample size (461 individuals) and a diverse sample comprising a wide range of participants were used. However, data should be gathered from different sources or in different periods in the future. Third, due to the cross-sectional nature of the data, this analysis was unable to determine causality. Although structural equation modeling allowed for a simultaneous test of the entire system of variables in the hypothetical model, the results still should be used with caution. Finally, incorporating additional variables that more comprehensively can illustrate the relationship between workplace spirituality, workplace friendship, and employees’ affective commitment will enhance the explanatory power of the proposed model. Future studies also may investigate the influence of spirituality elements in all dimensions of commitment and the mediation of other variables in relationships. 5.4Conclusion This study emphasized the role of workplace spirituality dimensions and workplace friendship in increasing and growing employees’ affective commitment. The results show that employees who have a spirit of teamwork and a state of sharing among themselves and between the characteristics and values of personal work and the organization’s values, lead to higher employees’ affective commitment in charity organizations. Hence, leaders in these organizations must develop plans to link all previous dimensions and employee growth. Acknowledgments The author extends appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at Majmaah University. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 79 REFERENCES Allen, N. J., & Meyer, J. P. (1990). 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Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 80 Ahmed AbdelSalam ragab Elnafrawy: Workplace Spirituality, Affective Commitment, and Mediating Role of Workplace Friendship EXTENDED SUMMARY/IZVLECEK Podrocje duhovnosti se nanaša na krepitev želje in vecjo aktivnost pri delu, sodelovalnost zaposlenih in predanost njihovim organizacijam. Vkljucevanje stanja duhovnosti s teorijo družbene podpore, ki jo predstavljajo mocna pozitivna prijateljstva na delovnem mestu, na splošno krepi navdušenje in pozitivne rezultate za organizacije. Ta študija raziskuje razmerje med tremi dimenzijami duhovnosti na delovnem mestu (smiselnost dela, obcutek povezanosti in skladnost z vrednotami) ter custveno predanostjo, mediirano s prijateljstvom na delovnem mestu. Podatki so bili zbrani s pomocjo anketnih vprašalnikov, ki jih je izpolnilo 461 zaposlenih iz 150 egiptovskih dobrodelnih organizacij. 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If we receive files that do not conform to the above requirements, we will inform the author(s) and we will not begin the review process until we receive the corrected files. The author(s) submitting the manuscript for review should clearly indicate to the editor the relation of the manuscript under review to any other manuscripts currently under review, in press or recently published by the authors. The editor may ask the authors to submit copies of such related papers to the Editorial Board. 2.GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 1.First page: Name of author(s) and title; author(s) footnote, including present positions, complete ad- dress, telephone number, fax number, email address, and any acknowledgment of financial or technical assistance. 2.Second page: Title of paper (without author's name) and an abstract of no more than 250 words substantively summarizing the article. Also include up to six keywords that describe your paper for indexing and for web searches in your manuscript. 3.Next: Text alignment justified with major headings and subheadings flush with the left margin. The introduction should state clearly the objective of the paper as well as the motivation and the context of the research. The literature review should be limited to the articles, books and other items that have a direct bearing on the topic being addressed. In empirical papers, details of the empirical section tests should not be included in the paper itself. The conclusion should summarize key findings and state their importance to the field. Footnotes should be kept to an absolute minimum and must be placed at the foot of the page to which they refer. They should not be used for citing references. 4.Then: Tables, numbered consecutively, each on a separate page. If tables appear in an appendix, they should be numbered separately and consecutively, as in Table A-1, A-2, and so on. 5.Next: Figures, numbered consecutively, each placed on a separate page. If tables appear in an appendix, they should be numbered separately, as in Figure A-1, A-2, etc. 6.After conclusion: Longer summary (1-2 pp, depending on length of article) in Slovenian language (for foreign authors, translation will be provided by editors). 7.Last: References, typed in alphabetical order by author's last name and in APA style. 3. TABLES 1.The table number and title should be centered and placed above the table. 2.Source(s) should also be provided and centered below the table: i.e. Mabey & Gooderham, The impact of management development on perceptions of organizational performance in European firms, 2005: 136. 3.Designate units (e.g., %, $) in column headings. 4.Align all decimals. 5.Refer to tables in the text by number only. Do not refer to tables by "above," "below," and "preceding." 6.If possible, combine closely related tables. 7.Clearly indicate positions of tables within the text on the page where they are introduced: e.g. Table 1 about here. 8.Measures of statistical significance should be reported within the table. 4.FIGURES, PHOTOGRAPHS AND CAMERA-READY ARTWORK 1.For graphs, label both vertical and horizontal axes. The ordinate label should be centered above the ordinate axis; the abscissa label should be placed beneath the abscissa. 2.Place all calibration tics inside the axis lines, with the values outside the axis lines. 3.The figure number and title should be typed on separate lines, centered and placed above the figure. 4.When appropriate, source(s) should also be provided and centered below the figure (see example under the Tables section). 5.Clearly indicate positions of figures within the text on the page where they are introduced. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 84 Author Guidelines 6.Once a manuscript has been accepted for publication, complex tables and all figures must be submitted both electronically and as camera-ready (hard) copy. Do not embed figures in the Word file; instead, submit them separately in the program in which they were created (i.e., PDF, PowerPoint, Excel). 7.Lettering should be large enough to be read easily with 50% reduction. 8.Any art not done on a computer graphics program should be professionally drafted in India ink. 9.Do not submit photographs or camera-ready art until your manuscript has been accepted. If the photograph or artwork is completed, submit copies. 5.MATHEMATICAL NOTATION 1.Mathematical notation must be clear and understandable. Since not all journal readers are mathematically proficient, the authors should ensure that the text (i.e., words) also conveys the meaning expressed by the mathematical notation. We recommend that extensive mathematical notation (e.g., proofs) should be provided in a separate technical appendix. 2.Equations should be centered on the page. Equations should be numbered; type the number in parentheses flush with the left margin. If equations are too wide to fit in a single column, indicate appropriate breaks. Unusual symbols and Greek letters should be identified by a note. 6.REFERENCE CITATIONS WITHIN THE TEXT Cite all references at the appropriate point in the text by the surname of the author(s), year of publication, and pagination where necessary. Pagination (without 'p.' or 'pp.') to give the source of a quotation or to indicate a passage of special relevance, follows the year of publication and is preceded by a colon, i.e. Parsons (1974: 238). Page numbers should be given full out, i.e. 212-230 not 212-30. When providing quotes, these should be in italics. In general, references to published works must be cited in text according to the guidelines for APA style (for more information see the DRMJ website). 7.REFERENCE LIST STYLE 1.Single Author: Last name first, followed by author initials. Berndt, T. J. (2002). Friendship quality and social development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 7-10. 2.Two Authors: List by their last names and initials. Use the ampersand instead of “and.” Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E. (1994). Mood management across affective states: The hedonic contingency hypothesis. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 66, 1034-1048. 3.Three to Six Authors: List by last names and initials; commas separate author names, while the last author name is preceded again by ampersand. Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., Sun, C. R., Berry, A., & Harlow, T. (1993). There’s more to self-esteem than whether it is high or low: The importance of stability of self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1190-1204. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 85 4.Organization as Author American Psychological Association. (2003). 5.Unknown Author Merriam-Webster’s collegiate dictionary (10th ed.).(1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster. 6.Two or More Works by the Same Author: Use the author’s name for all entries and list the entries by the year (earliest comes first). Berndt, T. J. (1981). Berndt, T. J. (1999). References that have the same first author and different second and/or third authors are arranged alphabetically by the last name of the second author, or the last name of the third if the first and second authors are the same. For other examples, see the DRMJ website. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, May 2022 86 Author Guidelines